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THE  LIBRARY 

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THE  UNIVERSITY 

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LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 

JOHN  F.   COTLE 


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CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


CnAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A    DICTIOXAIIY 


OF    UNIVERSAL   KNOWLEDGE    FOR    THE   TEOPLE 


ILLtJSTKATED 


WJTH  MAPS  AND  NUMEROUS  WOOD  ENGRAVINGS 


VOL.  IV 


LONDON 

W.  AKD   \].  CHAMBERS  47  rATERNOSTER  ROW 

AND   HIGH   STEEET  EDINBURGH 
1808 

nun  SUBSEQUENT  C0BRECTI0X3 


All  rjr/hl3  arc  racrrcd 


LIST  OF  MATS  FOR    VOL    IV. 


ECTEOPE, .        IGG 

FRANCE  i.\  Departments,  ....  4G9 

GERIIAX  EMPIEE,  .  .  .  .  .717 


UNlYEPiSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


ELEPHANT. 


E'LEPHANT  (Or.  Elcphns),  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peils,  of  the  order  PacJii/dermata  (q.  v.),  and  of.tlie 
section  ProhoKcidea.  Elephants  are  the  largest 
existing  land  animals.  The  oi-dinary  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  about  eight  feet,  but  sometimes  exceeds 
ten  feet.  The  weight  of  a  large  E.  is  about  five 
tons,  the  body  l)eing  very  bulky  in  proportion  to 
its  height.  To  sustain  this  weight,  it  is  furnished 
with  limbs  of  colossal  thickness  and  strength,  which 
are  also  remarkably  straight,  each  bone  resting 
vertically  on  that  beneath  it.  From  the  appear- 
ance of  intiexiljility  presented  by  the  limbs,  arose 
the  notion  prevalent  among  the  ancients,  and 
throughout  the  middle  ages,  that  the  limbs  are 
<lestitiito  of  joints,  and  that  consequently  an  E. 
cannot  lie  do%vn  to  rest  like  another  quadruped, 
and  if  it  were  to  lie  down,  could  not  rise  again, 
but  always  sleeps  standing,  or  leaning  against  a 
tree.  It  is  indeed  true  that  the  E.  often  sleeps 
standing,  and  M'hen  fatigued,  falls  asleep  leaning 
against  a  rock  or  tree,  against  which  it  may  have 
been  rubbing  itself.  The  flexibility  of  the  limbs  is, 
liowever,  sufficient  to  ]>ermit  elephants  to  run  with 
speed  nearly  equal  to  that  of  a  horse,  to  indulge  in 
playful  gambols,  and  to  ascend  and  descend  steep 
mountains.  Elephants  are  more  sure-footed  and 
seniceable  than  either  horses  or  mules,  in  difficult 
mountain  roads.  On  the  very  steepest  declivities,  an 
E.  works  his  way  down  j>retty  rajiidly,  even  with  a 
hof'flah  and  its  occupants  upon  his  back,  his  chest 
ancl  belly  on  the  ground,  and  each  fore-foot  employed 
in  making  a  hole  for  itself,  into  wliich  the  hind  foot 
afterwards  follows  it,  and  to  which  the  weight  may 
be  trusted,  that  another  step  may  be  ventured  with 
safety.  In  lying  down,  the  E.  does  not  bring  his 
hind-legs  under  him,  like  the  horse  and  other  quad- 
rupeds, bnt  extends  them  backwards  (as  man  does 
when  he  assumes  the  kneeling  position),  an  arrange- 
ment which,  '  by  enabling  him  to  draw  the  hind-feet 
gradually  under  him,  assists  him  to  rise  almost 
without  a  perceptible  effort.'  The  E.'s  pace,  when 
exceeding  a  walk,  is  neither  a  trot  nor  a  gallop, 
1J7 


which  would  be  too  violent  a  motion  for  its  con- 
formation and  huge  body,  but  a  sort  of  shuffle,  the 
speed  of  which  is  increased  or  diminished  without 
other  alteration.  The  E.  is  incapable  of  springing 
like  the  deer,  horse,  and  other  animals  which  have 
the  bones  of  their  shoulders  and  hocks  set  at  an 
angle. 

The  head  in  elephants  is  large  ;  the  neck  is  short 
and  thick,  the  long  flexible  proboscis  compensating 
both  for  the  shortness  of  the  neck,  and  for  the  inflexi- 
bility caused  by  the  largely  developed  processes 
of  its  vertebra?,  and  enabling  the  animal  readily 
to  reach  objects  on  the  ground,  or  to  a  height  of 
several  feet  above  its  head,  or  on  either  side.  A 
great  extent  of  bony  surface  in  the  head  affords 
attachment  for  muscles  destined  to  move  and  give 
power  to  the  proboscis  or  tnmk.  This  extent  of 
bony  surface  is  proWded  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
which  at  the  same  time  makes  the  head,  heavy 
as  it  is,  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  than  is 
usual  in  quadrupeds  ;  a  great  space  separating  the 
internal  and  external  tables  of  all  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  except  the  occipital  bones,  so  that  the  space 
occupied  by  the  brain  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
whole  head.  The  sjiacc  between  the  tables  of  the 
bones  is  occupied  by  cells,  some  of  which  are  four  or 
five  inches  in  length ;  others  are  small,  irregular, 
and  honeycomb-like  ;  '  these  all  commimicate  -with 
each  other,  and  through  the  frontal  sinuses  with  the 
cavity  of  the  nose,  and  also  with  the  tympanum  or 
drum  of  each  ear  ;  consequently,  as  in  some  birds, 
these  cells  arc  fiUed  with  air.'  The  huge  and 
extraordinary  bones  of  the  skull,  besides  affording 
attachment  for  muscles,  afford  mechanical  support 
to  the  tusks. 

The  nasal  bones  of  the  E.  are  scarcely  more  than 
rudimentary' ;  Itut  the  tapering  proboscis,  to  the 
very  extremity  of  which  the  nostrils  are  prolonged, 
is  nearly  eight  feet  in  length.  Besides  the  great 
muscles  connected  with  it  at  its  base,  it  is  composed 
of  a  vast  multitude  of  small  muscles  variously  inter- 
laced, but  chiefly  either  longitudinal,  and  divided 

1 


691066 


ELEPHANT. 


into  successive  arcs,  of  which  the  conrcxity  is  out- 
wai-tls,  or  transverse,  auil  radiating  from  the  internal 
to  the  external  membrane.  Cuvier  states  the 
uiunber  of  muscles  having  the  pnwer  of  distinct 
action  as  not  far  short  of  4CI,00I>.  The  trunk  can  be 
coiled  around  a  ti-ee,  and  employed  to  tear  it  from 
its  roots;   it  is  a  formidable  weapon  of  offence  or 


Various  positions  of  the  Elephant's  Trunk  : 
1,  female  elephant  suckling  bcr  youii?  one  ;  2,  the  young  one; 
3,   elephant   reposing;    4,   elephant   swimming;    5,  young 
elephant  browsing. 

defence,  and  is  far  more  employed  in  this  way  than 
the  tusks,  even  by  those  elephants  which  have  tiisks 
of  great  size  :  its  extremity  can  be  wound  around  a 
small  handftU  of  <;ras3  or  a  slender  branch ;  it  is 
even  capable  of  plucking  the  smallest  leaf,  or  of 
lifting  a  pin  from  the  groimd.  To  lit  it  for  such 
actions  as  those  last  mentioned,  and  for  many  such 
as  might  be  performed  by  a  baud,  it  is  furnished 
at  the  extremity  with  what  may  be  likened  to  a 
finger  and  thumb  ;  on  the  upper  side,  an  elongated 
jirocess— strong,  soft,  and  flexible,  like  the  rest  of  the 
trimt,  and  endowed  with  the  most  delicate  sense  of 
touch — on  the  under  side,  a  kind  of  tubercle  against 
irhich  this  process  may  be  pressed.  All  the  food  of 
the  E.  is  gathered  and  conveyed  to  the  mouth  by 
the  trunk  :  by  means  of  the  trunk,  also,  it  drinks, 


1,  elephant  drinkini! ;  ■-■,  elephant  Kotherini;  loni:  herbage  • 
3,  elephant  spouting  water  over  Its  back. 

Slicking  up  into  it  a  quantity  of  water  sufficient  to 
hll  It  and_  then  discharging  the  contents  into  the 
mouth.  \  alves  at  the  base  of  the  tnink  prevent  the 
water  from  going  too  far  up  the  nostrik.  The  trunk 
18  constantly  employed  by  elephants  in  providin"  in 


many  ways  for  their  comfort  or  eujoymeut,  as  in 
throwing  dust  over  their  backs,  or  in  fanning  them- 
selves and  switching  away  flies  with  a  leafy  branch, 
two  practices  to  w'hich  they  arc  greatly  addicted. 
Their  mutual  caresses  are  also  managed  by  means 
of  the  trunk,  and  through  it  they  make  a  loud 
shrill  sound,  indicative  of  rage,  which  is  described 
by  Ai'istotle  as  resemljling  the  hoarse  sound  of  a 
trumpet,  and  from  which  this  organ  received  its 
French  name  twiiipe,  corrupted  in  English  into 
trunk.  With  the  trunk  also,  they  sometimes,  when 
angry,  beat  violently  on  the  ground. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute  in  the  E.,  as  is 
also  that  of  hearing.  The  ears  are  laige  and  pendu- 
lous, the  eyes  are  small. 

Elephants  have  no  canine  teeth,  nor  have  they 
any  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper  jaw  is 
furnislied  with  two  incisors,  which  assume  the 
peculiar  character  of  tusks,  and  attain  an  enormous 
.size,  a  single  tusk  sometimes  weighing  150  or  even 
yUO  lbs.  The  tusks  are,  however,  often  imperfectly 
developed,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length,  and 
one  or  two  in  diameter.  Tliese  stimted  tusks  are 
often  used  for  such  purposes  as  snapping  off  small 
branches  and  tearing  climbing  plants  from  trees. 
Those  elephants  which  possess  great  tusks  employ 
them  also  for  such  othei'  uses  as  loosening  the 
roots  of  trees  which  they  cannot  otherwise  tear 
from  the  ground  ;  or  in  a  state  of  domestication, 
for  sucli  labours  as  moving  great  stones,  and  piling 
or  can-ying  timber.  A  powerful  E.  will  raise  and 
c:irry  on  his  tusks  a  log  of  half  a  ton  weight  or 
more.  The  tusks  of  the  E.  siu-j>ass  in  size  all  other 
teeth  of  existing  animals,  and  are  the  largest  of  all 
teeth  in  projiortion  to  the  size  of  the  body.  They 
consist  chietly  of  that  variety  of  daitine  called 
Ivory  (q.  v.),  and  continue  to  gi-ow — like  the 
incisors  of  the  rodents,  to  wliich  they  are  in  some 
respects    analogous — even    when    the    animal    has 


A,  skull  o(  Ijt.ii.ii  iliitli.int :  R,  skull  of  Afric;in  tliphant; 
C,  D,  upper  and  lower  molar  teeth  of  Indian  elephant ;  E,  F, 
upper  untl  lower  molar  teeth  of  African  elephant  ;  O,  the 
original  state  of  the  grinders  when  the  laminie  of  which 
they  consist  are  as  yet  unconnected  together ;  H,  the  laniinic 
AS  they  are  attached  in  parallels  one  to  the  other  by  cortical 
substance. 

attained  a  great  age,  if  not  to  the  very  end  of  ita 
life.  The  young  E.  is  at  first  furnished  with 
deciduous  incisors,  which  are  shed  between  the 
first  and  second  year,  and  are  succeeded  by  the 
permanent  tusks. — The  niol.or  teeth  of  the  E.  are 
developed  in  succession  ;  and  at  least  in  the  Indian 
E.,  never  more  than  two  are  to  be  seen  in  the  same 
side  of  a  jaw  at  one  time.  The  first  molars  cut  the 
gum  in  about  two  weeks  after  birth,  and  are  shed 
about  the  end  of  its  second  ye.ar.     The  sixth  molars, 


ELEPHANT. 


which  are  also  believed  to  he  the  last,  are  supposetl 
to  appear  about  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  E.'s  life. 
The  molar  teeth  of  the  E.  are  remarkable  for 
their  great  size,  and  for  the  extreme  complexity  of 
their  structure,  to  which  the  nearest  resembl.ijice 
is  foimJ  in  some  of  the  small  rodents.  They  are 
composed  of  vertical  plates  of  bouy  substance, 
separately  enveloped  with  enamel,  and  cemented 
together  "by  a  thii-d  substance,  called  criisfa  pclrosa, 
cortical,  or  cement,  more  resembling  bone  than 
enamel.  Each  succeeding  tooth  is  not  only  more 
complex,  but  occupies  a  greater  space  in  the  jaw 
than  its  predecessor.  Although  formed  from  a 
single  pulp,  the  molar  tooth  of  an  E.  resembles  an 
aggregation  of  teeth  ;  and  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
its  growth,  when  the  cement  is  not  yet  deposited, 
it  seems  as  if  many  separate  teeth  were  soldered 
together.  As  the  surface  of  the  tooth  is  worn  down 
by  mastication,  the  harder  enamel  is  exjiosed  in 
elevated  ridges.  The  whole  of  a  tooth  is  not  in 
employment  at  once.  From  the  peculiar  manner  of 
its  growth,  the  anterior  jjart  begins  to  be  employed, 
and  to  be  worn  away,  whilst  the  latter  part  is  still 
in  process  of  formation. 

The  digestive  ajiparatus  of  the  E.  b  similar  to 
th.it  of  the  other  pachyderm.ata  ;  but  the  stomach, 
which  is  of  a  very  lengthened  and  narrofr  form, 
exhibits  a  peculiarity  which  assimil.ites  it  to  that  of 
the  camel ;  the  internal  membrane,  at  the  extremity 
beyond  the  cardiac  orifice,  forming  thick  wrinkles 
and  folds,  the  broadest  of  which,  and  nearest  to  the 
gullet,  seems  to  act  as  a  valve,  making  that  end  of 
the  stomach  a  reservoir  for  water,  capable  of  con- 
taining about  ten  gallons  ;  whilst  a  peculi.ar  muscle, 
connecting  the  windpipe  and  gullet,  enables  the 
animal  to  open  this  reseiToir  at  pleasure,  for  the 
regurgitation  of  the  fluid,  which  is  then  sometimes 
received  into  the  tnmk,  and  squirted  over  the  body, 
to  free  it  from  the  nuisance  of  fl.ies,  or  the  heat  of 
a  tropical  sun. 

The  female  E.  has  only  two  teats,  situated  between 
the  fore-legs.  The  young  suck  with  the  mouth, 
and  not  with  the  trunk.  They  are  suckled  for  about 
two  years.  The  period  of  gestation  is  also  nearly 
two  years,  and  a  single  young  one  is  produced  at  a 
bu-th. 

The  skin  of  the  E.  is  very  thick,  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  and  in  the  existing  species,  has  scarcely  any 
covering  of  h.air.  The  tail  does  not  reach  to  the 
ground,  and  has  a  tuft  of  coarse  bristles  at  the 
end.  The  feet  have  m  the  skeleton  five  distinct 
toes,  but  these  are  so  surrounded  with  a  firm 
homy  skin,  that  only  the  nails  are  visible  exter- 
nally, as  ou  the  m.argin  of  a  kind  of  hoof.  The 
foot  of  the  E.  is  admirably  adapted  for  steep  and 
rough  ground,  the  protective  skin  which  covers 
the  toes  allomng  them  considerable  freedom  of 
motion. 

Only  two  existing  species  of  E.  are  certainly 
known,  the  Indian  (A'.  Indlcus)  and  the  African  [E. 
A/ricaniis),  although  differences  have  recently  been 
observed  in  the  E.  of  Simiatra,  wliich  may  perhaps 
entitle  it  to  be  ranked  as  a  distinct  species.  Ele- 
phants arc  foimd  in  all  parts  of  Africa,  from  the 
Sahara  southwards,  where  wood  and  water  are 
sufficiently  abundant ;  also  throughout  India  and 
the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the 
tro[iical  Asiatic  islands.  They  extend  northwards 
to  the  Himalaya ;  and  Chittagong  and  Tiperah 
vie  with  Ceylon  in  the  superior  excellence  of  the 
elephants  which  they  produce.  The  Indian  E.  is 
distinguished  by  a  comparatively  high  oblong  head, 
with  a  concave  forehead ;,  whilst  the  African  has 
a  round  head  and  convex  foreheacL  The  ears  of 
the  African  E.  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the 
Indian,  covering  the  whole  shoulder,  and  descending 


on  the  legs.  A  marked  distinction  of  the  two 
species  is  also  found  in  the  mohai*  teeth  ;  those  of 
the  Indian  E.  exhibiting  wary  parulld  transverse 
ridges;  whilst  those  of  the  African  species  have  the 


1 ,  head  of  A  Mean  depfeact ;  9,  head  of  Asiatic  elephant. 

divisions  of  the  crown  of  the  tooth  fewer,  broader, 
and  lozenr/e-sliaped. 

Elephants  five  in  herds,  not  generally  numerous, 
but  several  herds  often  congreg.ate  together  in  the 
same  forest  or  at  the  same  place  of  diinking.  Each 
herd  has  a  leader,  generally  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  animal.  The  leader  seems  to  exercise 
much  control  over  the  movements  of  the  herd,  gives 
the  alarm  in  case  of  danger,  and  seems  to  examine 
and  decide  for  the  whole  herd  as  to  the  safety  o£ 
proceeding  in  any  particular  direction.  On  account 
of  his  tusks,  the  leader  is  very  often  the  animal 
against  which  the  efforts  of  the  himter  are  directed ; 
but  the  rest  of  the  herd  do  their  utmost  to  protect 
him,  and  when  driven  to  extremity,  they  place  him 
in  the  centre,  and  crowd  so  eagerly  to  the  front  o£ 
him  that  some  of  them  must  often  be  shot  ere  he 
can  be  reached.  A  family  resemblance  is  usually 
very  visible  among  the  elephants  of  the  same  herd  ; 
some  herds  are  distinguished  by  greater  stature,  and 
others  by  more  bulky  form  and  stronger  limbs  ; 
some  by  particularly  large  tusks,  some  by  slight 
peoiliarities  of  the  trunli,  &c.  In  the  East  Indies, 
distinctions  of  this  kind  have  long  been  carefully 
noticed,  and  particidar  names  are  given  to  elephants 
according  to  them,  some  being  considered  as  hirjh- 
caste,  and  others  as  low-caste  elephants.  An  E.  which 
by  any  cause  has  been  separated  from  its  herd, 
seems  never  to  be  admitted  into  another,  and  these 
solitary  elei>hants  are  particularly  troublesome,  in 
their  depredations  exhibiting  an  audacity  wliich 
the  hertls  never  exhibit ;  they  are  also  savage  and 
much  dreaded,  whilst  from  a  herd  of  elephants 
danger  is  scarcely  apprehended.  The  E.  is  generally 
one  of  the  most  inoffensive  of  animals,  although  in  a 
state  of  domestication,  it  shews,  as  is  well  known, 
a  power  both  of  remembering  and  resenting  an 
injury. 

The  favourite  haimts  of  wild  elephants  are  in 
the  depths  of  forests — particidarly  in  mountainous 
regions — where  they  browse  on  branches,  and  from 
which  they  issue  chiefiy  in  the  cool  of  the  night 
to  pasture  in  the  more  open  grounds.  They  are 
ready  to  plunder  rice  or  other  grain-fields,  if  not 
deterred  by  fences,  of  which,  fortun.ately,  they  have, 
in  general,  an  unaccoimtable  dread,  even  although 
rather  imaginary  than  real.  A  fence  of  mere  reeds 
will  keep  them  out  of  fields,  where,  as  soon  as  the 
grain  is  removed,  they  enter  by  the  gaps  of  the 
fence,  and  may  be  seen  gleaning  among  the  stubble. 

3 


liLEPHANT. 


\Micn  the  K.  cats  grass,  'nothing  can  be  more 
irraceful  than  the  ease  with  which,  before  coiivcy- 
ine  it  to  his  mouth,  he  beats  the  earth  from  its 
r«St3  bv  striking  it  on  his  fore-leg.'  A  cocoa-nut  is 
first  rolletl  under  foot,  to  detach  the  outer  bark, 
then  stripped  of  the  fibrous  husk  and  hually 
crushed  between  the  grinders,  when  the  fresh  nulk 
is  swallowed  with  evident  relish.  The  fruit  of  the 
l>alm\Ta  palm  is  another  favourite  food  of  elephants 
and  tliey  seem  to  have  an  instinctive  knowledp  of 
the  time  of  its  ripening.  Sugar-canes  are  also  a 
favourite  food ;  indeed,  elephants  are  very  fond  of 
sweet  things.  Those  which  are  brought  to  Britain 
arc  generally  fed  on  hay  and  cairots.  The  amount 
of  daily  food  necessary  for  the  E.  in  a  state  of 
domestication  may  Iw  stated,  on  an  average,  at  aoout 
two  hundred  pounds  in  weight. 

Elephants  delit'ht  in  abundance  of  water,  and 
enter  it  very  freely,  often  remaining  in  it  for  a 
considerable  time  and  with  great  evident  cnjo>-meut. 
They  sometimes  swim  with  not  only  the  body  but 
the  "head  imder  water,  the  only  part  elevated  above 
it  l>eing  the  e.xtreinitv  of  the  tnmk. 

The  habits  of  the  African  E.  appear  in  no  import- 
ant respect  to  dififer  from  those  of  the  Indian 
elephant.  It  is  the  latter  only  that  is  at  the 
present  day  domesticated  ;  but  it  is  certam  that 
the  African  species  was  anciently  domesticated,  and 
the  figures  on  many  Roman  medals  attest  it. 

Elephants  rarely  breed  in  a  state  of  domestication, 
although,  a  few  years  ago,  the  birth  of  an  elephant 
took  place  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  Loudon,  an 
occasion  of  much  interest  not  only  to  the  scientific 
but  to  the  general  public.  They  are  generally  tamed 
within  a  few  mouths  after  they  are  captured ;  some 
degree  of  severity  being  employed  at  first,  which, 
however,  as  soon  "as  the  animal  has  begim  to  respect 
the  power  of  man,  is  exchanged  for  kindness  and 
gentleness  of    treatment.     Elephants   intended   for 
domestication    are   captured   in   various   ways.     It 
was  formerly  common  to  take  them  in  pitfalls,  but 
in  this  way  they  were  often  much  injured.   Another 
method  frequently  practised  is  by  the  aid  of  tame 
elephants.     Male  elephants  chiefly  are  captured  in 
this  way,  the  decoy  elephants  employed  being  females, 
trained  for  the  purpose.     With  these  the  huntei-s 
Tery  cautiously  approach  the  animal  they  mean  to 
capture,  and  he  generally  permits  them  to  come  up 
to  him,  and  is  so  pleased  to  make  the  acquaintance  of 
the  females,  that  he  takes  no  notice  of  their  riders 
and  other  human  attendants.     Two  of  the  females 
take   their   places,   one  on    each  side  of  him,   and 
whilst  he  is  occujiiedwith  them,  men,  the  profession 
of  whose  lives  it  is,  and  who  display  a  wonderful 
expertne.ss   in   the   work,   contrive   to  get  beneath 
their  bodies,  and  to  pass  ropes  round  the  legs  of  the 
intended  captive.     His  two  hind-legs  are  fastened 
together  by  six  or  eight  ropes  in  the  form  of  the 
figure  8,  another   rope  keeping  them  tight  at  the 
intersections,  and  a   strong  cable  with  a  running- 
noose  is  attached  to  each  hind-leg.     About  twenty 
minutes  are  usually  spent  in  fixing  the  necessary 
ropes,   profound   silence   being   maintained   if   the 
jirocess  goes  on  unobserved,  or  some  of  the  other 
hunters  distracting  the   attention  of  the   E.    from 
those   who   are   engaged   in  this  work  ;  and  when 
at  last,  becoming  sensible  of  his  danger,  he  tries 
to  retreat,   an   op])Oi-tnnity  is   soon  found  of  tying 
him,   by   means    of    the    long    cables    which    trail 
behind   him,   to   some  tree  strong  enough  for   the 
purpose.     His  fm-y  then  becomes  ungovernable,  and 
Jie  makes  violent  and  prodigious  ell'orts  to  get  free, 
throwing  liimself  on  the  ground,  ami  twisting  him- 
self into  the  most  extraordinary  positions.     It  is  not 
until   he   has    thoroughly   exhausted  himself,   and 
begins  to   suffer  severely  from  fatigue,  thirst,  and 


hunger,   that   the    next    steiH    are   taken   towards 
taming  him  and  making  him  a  willing  servant  of 

man.  ,  ,  ,         ., ,  t 

Still  more  wonderful  is  the  capture  of  a  wild  t., 
sometimes  by  not  more  than  two  hunters,  who  for 
this  purpose  wiU  go  into  the  woods,  without  aid  or 
attendants,  their  only  weapon  a  flexible  rope  of 
hide.  With  this  they  secure  one  of  the  E.  s  hmd- 
le"s  following  his  footsteps  when  in  motion,  or 
stealiu"  close  up  to  him  when  at  rest,  or  sometimes 
spreadmg  the  noose  on  the  ground,  partially  con- 
cealed by  roots  and  leaves,  beneath  a  tree  on  which 
one  of  the  party  is  stationed,  whose  busmess  it  is  to 
lift  it  suddenly  by  means  of  a  cord.  When  arrested 
by  the  rope  being  coiled  around  a  tree,  the  E. 
n"aturallv  turns  upon  the  man  who  is  engaged  in 
making  "it  fast,  but  his  comiianion  interferes  on  his 
behalf,"  by  provoking  the  animal ;  and  thus  not 
only  is  the  first  rope  made  fast,  but  noose  after 
noose  is  passed  over  the  legs,  until  all  are  at  last 
tied  to  trees,  and  the  capture  is  complete;  upon 
which  the  huntei-s  build  a  booth  for  themselves  m 
front  of  their  prisoner,  kindle  their  fires  for  cookmg, 
and  remain  day  and  night  till  the  E.  is  sufficiently 
tamed  to  be  led  away. 

But  these  huge  anim.als  are  not  always  captured 
singly ;  whole  herds  are  often  taken  at  once.  This 
is  accompUshed  by  means  of  an  enclosure,  towards 
which  the  elephants  are  driven  by  great  numbers 
of  men  encircling  a  considerable  space,  and  con- 
tracting the  circle  by  slow  degrees.  Weeks,  or 
even  months,  are  spent  in  this  operation,  and  .at 
last  the  elephants,  hemmed  in  on  every  side  except 
the  mouth  of  the  enclosure,  enter  it,  and  the  gate 
is  immediately  closed.  The  modes  of  constructing 
the  enclosure  are  difi'erent  in  different  parts  of  the 
East.  Tame  elephants  are  sometimes  sent  mto  it, 
and  the  captives  are  in  succession  made  fast  to  trees 
there,  in  a  way  somewhat  similar  to  that  practised 
in  capturing  single  elephants. 

The  E.  first  became  known  in  Europe  from  its 
employment  in  the  wai-s  of  the  East :  '  in  India,  from 
the  remotest  antiquitv,  it  formed  one  of  the  most 
picturesque,  if  not  of  the  most  effective,  features  in 
the  armies  of  the  native  princes."  Elephants  have 
been  taught  to  cut  and  thrust  wnth  a  kind  of 
scimitar  carried  in  the  trunk,  and  it  was  formerly 
usual  for  tliein  to  be  sent  into  battle,  covered  with 
armour,  and  bearing  towers  on  their  backs,  which 
contained  warriors.  But  the  principal  use  of  the  E. 
in  war  is  for  carrying  baggage,  and  for  dragging 
uuns.     An  E.  will  apply  his  forehead  to  a  cannon. 


he 


guns,      .iiu  1^.  « lii   "I'l'^j    "*"  *      ,     ■  11 

and  urge  it  tlirough  a  bog,  through  which  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  for  men  and  cattle  to  drag  it ; 
or  he  ^\ill  wind  his  trunk  round  it,  and  lift  it  up, 
whilst  horses  or  cattle  drag  it  forwards.  Elephants 
are  used  in  the  East  for  carrj-ing  persons  on  their 
backs,  a  number  being  seated  together  m  a  howdah, 
whilst  the  driver  {mahout)  sits  on  the  E.'s  neck, 
directing  it  by  his  voice  and  by  a  small  goad. 
Elephants  have  always  a  consiiicuous  place  m  the 
great  processions  and  state  displ.ays  of  eastern 
princes,  and  whiteelephants— albinos— are  peculiarly 
valued.  Elephants  are  also  employed  in  many  kimls 
of  Labour,  and  dispKay  great  sag.acity  in  comprehend- 
ing the  nature  of  their  t:isk  and  adapting  them- 
selves to  it.  In  piling  timber,  the  E.  'manifests 
an  intelligence  and  dexterity  which  is  suriinsing 
to  a  stranger,  because  the  sameness  of  the  operation 
enables  the  animal  to  go  on  for  hours  disposing  of 
log  after  log,  almost  without  a  hint  or  direction 
from  his  attendant.' 

Of  the  sagacity  of  the  E.,  many  interesting 
anecdotes  are  on  record,  as  every  reader  of  books 
of  travels  aud  of  natural  history  knows.  But  Cuvier 
refuses,    aud    apparently   with   justice,   to    ascribe 


ELEPHANT. 


to  it  a  degree  of  sagacity  liigher  than  that  of 
the  dog.  Ill  a  state  of  domestioatiou,  the  E.  is  a 
delicate  anim;il,  requiring  much  watchfuhiess  and 
care,  although  naturally  it  has  a  vei-y  long  life, 
and  instances  are  on  record  of  extreme  longevity 
in  domestication,  extending  not  only  to  more  than 
one  hundred,  but  almost  to  two  hundred  years. 

The  nuniljers  of  wild  elephants  in  some  parts  Loth 
of  the  East  Inches  and  of  Africa,  are  being  gradually 
reduced  as  cultivation  extends,  and  many  are  shot 
for  no  other  reason  than  a  desire  to  reduce  their 
numbers,  and  put  an  end  to  their  ravages  on  culti- 
vated grounds.  A  reward  of  a  few  shillings  per 
head  was  claimed  for  3500  ilestroycd  in  part  of  the 
northern  province  alone  of  Ceylon,  in  less  than  three 
years  prim'  to  1848.  It  is  for  the  sake  of  ivory  that 
the  greatest  slaughter  of  elephants  takes  place. 
A  ball  of  hard  metal,  skilfully  planted  in  the  eye, 
base  of  the  trunk,  or  behind  the  ear,  generally  ends 
an  E.'s  life  in  an  instant ;  and  exjiert  sportumi'/i  have 
been  known  to  kill  right  and  left  one  with  each 
barrel. 

Fossil  Elephants. — The  E.  makes  its  appearance  in 
the  Pleistocene  strata.  Its  near  ally,  the  mastodon, 
whose  remains  are  found  associated  with  it,  began 
life  earlier ;  it  has  left  its  traces  in  Miocene  deposits. 
Ten  species  of  fossil  elephants  have  been  ilescribed, 
the  remains  of  three  of  which  are  found  in  Europe. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  the  Iile/>ha.s  primiijenius, 
or  Mammoth,  the  tusks  of  which  are  so  little  altered 
as  to  supjjy  an  ivory  wliich,  though  inferior  to 
that  of  tlie  living  species,  is  still  used  in  the 
arts,  especially  in  Russia.  Its  tusks  are,  on  this 
account,  regularly  searched  for  by  '  ivory  hmiters '  in 
Siberia,  where,  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  loam,  the  remains  occur  in  enormous 
alnindauce.  They  are  also  found  in  similar  strata 
all  over  Europe.  In  Britain,  the  localities  that  have 
supplied  these  remains  are  very  numerous.  They 
are  especially  abundant  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of 
the  e.ast  and  south-east  of  England.  AVoodward,  in 
his  Gcijlo'jij  of  Sorjolk,  calculates  that  upwards  of 
2000  grinders  of  this  animal  have  been  dredged  up 
by  the  fishermen  off  Happisbm-gh  in  thii-teen  years. 
The  bone-caves  also  yield  remains  of  this  gigantic 
animal. 

The  mammoth  truly  belongs  to  the  geological 
history  of  the  world  ;  it  died  out  at  the  close  of  the 
period  represented  l)y  the  Pleistocene  beds.  It  is  the 
only  fossil  animal  that  has  been  preserved  Lu  a 
perfect  condition  for  the  examination  of  man.  In  all 
other  remains  we  have  to  deal  w^ith  the  hard  portions 
only — the  bones,  teeth,  scales,  &e.,  and  frequently 
only  with  fragmentary  portions,  requiring  the  skill 
of  a  Cuvicr  or  an  Owen  to  make  from  them  an 
apprt/ximation  to  the  perfect  animal.  But  the  mam- 
moth has  been  preserved  so  that  its  flesh  has  been 
eaten  by  dogs,  bears,  and  wolves.  In  1799,  a  Tungvi- 
sian,  named  SchimiaohoU',  while  searching  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Oncoid  for  mammoth  tusks,  observed 
among  the  blocks  of  ice  a  shapeless  mass,  but  did 
not  at  the  time  discover  what  it  was.  The  heat  of 
succeeding  summers  gradually  melted  the  ice  around 
it,  and,  in  1803,  the  mammoth  fell  on  a  bank  of  sand. 
In  March  of  tlie  following  year,  the  hunter  visited 
it,  cut  off,  and  carried  aw.ay  the  tusks,  which  he 
sold  for  tiity  rubles.  In  1806,  Mr  Adams  visited 
the  locality,  and  examined  the  animal,  which  still 
i-emained  on  the  sand-l>ank  where  it  had  fallen, 
but  in  a  gicatly  mutilated  condition.  The  Jakutski 
of  the  neighb'HU-hood  hail  cut  off  the  flesh  to  feed 
their  dogs,  and  the  wild  beasts  had  almost  entu-ely 
cleared  the  bones.  The  skeleton  was,  however, 
entire,  excepting  one  of  the  fore-legs,  and  some  of 
the  bones  of  the  tail.  Many  of  the'bones  were  still 
held  together  by  the  ligaments  and  by  parts  of  the 


skin.  The  head  was  covered  with  dry  skin  ;  one  of 
the  ears  was  well  preserved  ;  it  was  furnished  with  a 
tuft  of  hairs.  Three-fourths  of  the  whole  skin  were 
])rocured,  which  was  so  hea\'y  that  ten  persona 
found   great    difficiUty    in   transporting  it   to    the 


Skeleton  of  Slammotli. 


shore,  a  distance  of  150  feet ;  it  was  of  a  dark-gray 
colour,  and  was  covered  with  a  reddish  woo!,  and 
long  black  hairs  or  bristles.  The  wool  w.as  short, 
and  curled  in  locks  ;  the  bristles  were  of  different 
lengths,  varying  from  1  to  18  inches.  Some  of  this 
covering  still  remained  attached  to  the  skin,  but  the 
great  mass  was  entirely  separated  from  it.  Mr 
Adams  collected  3G  pounds,  although  much  of  it 
had  been  destroyed  from  the  dampness  of  the  place 
where  it  had  lain  so  long.  The  auimal  was  a  male, 
and  had  a  long  mane  on  the  neck.  The  entire 
carcass  was  removed  to  St  Petersburg,  where  it  is 
now  preserved.  The  tusks  were  repurchased,  and 
ad<le(l  to  the  animal.  It  measures  from  the  fore- 
part of  the  skull  to  the  end  of  the  mutilated  tail  16 
feet  4  inches ;  the  height  to  the  top  of  the  dorsal 
spines  is  9  feet  4  inches ;  the  length  of  the  tusks 
along  the  curve  is  9  feet  6  inches.  Portions  of  the 
hairy  covering  have  been  brought  to  this  country, 
and  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

Taking  the  teeth  as  exliibiting  clearly  a  marked 
difference  in  the  recent  species,  the  mammoth  is 
easily  separated  from  both  by  its  broader  grinders, 
wliich  have  n.arrower,  and  more  numerous,  and 
close-set  plates  and  ridges.  The  existence  of  the  E. 
and  other  genera,  whose  representatives  are  now 
found  only  in  the  warmer  re^ons  of  the  earth,  in 
the  north  of  Eui-ope  and  Asia,  led  to  the  behef,  that 
at  the  recent  period  in  the  world's  history  when 
they  were  its  living  inhabitants,  a  tropical  tempera- 
ture existed  in  the  temperate  zone,  and  stretched 
further  north  towards  the  pole  ;  but  the  discovery 
of  this  perfect  animal  shewed  that  these  huge 
elephants  were  adapted  by  their  clothing  to  endure 
a  cold  climate,  and  by  the  structure  of  their  teeth 
were  able  to  employ  as  food  the  branches  and  foliage 
of  the  northern  pines,  birches,  willows,  &e.  Tliere 
are  few  generalisations  more  yilausible  at  first  sight 
than  to  predicate  of  an  imknown  species  of  a  genus 
what  is  ascertained  regarding  tlie  known  members 
of  the  same  genus.  It  required  a  striking  case,  such 
as  that  supplied  by  the  discovery  of  the  mammoth, 
to  shew  clearly  the  fallacy  of  deductions  which  were 
almost  universally  received  by  scientific  men  not 
many  years  ago,  which  still  occasionally  mislead, 
and  which  may  even  now  be  met  with  in  some 
Ijopular  hand-books  of  science. 

ELEPHANT.  An  order  of  the  elephant  was 
instituted  in  Denmark,  by  King  Frederick  II.  The 
bad^e  was  a  collar  of  elephants  towered,  supporting 
the  king's  amis,  and  having  at  the  end  the  picture  of 
the  Virgin  Mary. 

i 


ELEPHANTA— ELEUSmiAN  MYSTERIES. 


ELEPHA'NTA,  an  island  of  six  miles  in  circuit, 
stands  in  the  liarbonr  of  Bomliay  (q.  v.),  about 
seven  miles  to  tbe  east  of  tbat  eity,  and  about  (ivo 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  mainland.  It  takes  this  its 
Euro|wan  name  from  a  huge  figure  of  an  elephant 
near  its  iirinci|i.al  landing-place,  which,  however, 
appears  to  have  gradu.-illy  crumbled  away.  This 
colossiU  auim.al  has  been  cut  ont  of  a  det.icUed  rock, 
which  is  apjiareiitly  of  b.asaltic  origin.  Further 
towards  the  interior,  three  temjiles,  dug  out  of  the 
living  mountain,  present  themselves— the  roofs 
being  supported  by  curiouBly  Avrought  i<i!lars  of 
various  forms  and  ina-uitudee,  and  the  walls  bein^' 
thickly  sculptured  into  all  the  varieties  of  Hindu 
mj-thologj-.  The  largest  of  the  three  excavations 
is  nearly  square,  me.ism-ing  133  feet  by  1304  '''ct ; 
and  immediately  fronting  its  main  entrance  stands 
a  bust  or  third-length  of  a  three-headed  deity,  with 
a  height  of  18  feet,  and  a  bre.adth  of  23.  These 
monuments  of  superstition,  like  the  quadruped 
which  guards,  as  it  were,  the  approaches  to  them, 
are  said  to  be  rapidly  decajing — a  state  of  things 
which,  besides  in  some  measure  accounting  for  the 
execution  of  such  works,  seems  to  be  inconsistent 
with  any  very  high  antiquity.  The  island  is  in  lat. 
18°  57'  X.,  and  long.  73°  E. 

ELEPHANTI'NE,  a  small  jsland  of  the  Nile, 
lying  ojiposite  to  Assouan  (q.  v.),  the  ancient  Syene, 
on  the  confines  of  Egj^it  and  Nubia,  in  24°  5'  N. 
lat.,  and  32°  34'  E.  long.  From  this  island,  the 
Greek  mercenaries  wei-e  sent  by  Psanmiitichus  I.  to 
recall  the  Egyptian  deserters,  and  it  w.-is  garrisoned 
in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  Persians,  and  Romans. 
The  island  was  anciently  called  ^4  A«,  or  the  '  ivory 
island,'  from  its  having  been  the  entrepot  of  the 
trade  in  that  precious  material.  The  most  import- 
ant ruins  are  a  gateway  of  the  time  of  Alexander, 
and  a  small  temple  dedicated  to  Khnum,  the 
god  of  the  waters,  and  his  contemplar  deities, 
Anucis  and  Sate.  This  temple  was  founded  by 
Ameuophis  III.,  and  embellished  by  R.ameses  III. 
Another  remarkable  edifice  is  the  ancient  NUometer, 
formerly  mentioned  by  Str.abo,  and  which  appears 
to  have  been  built  in  the  time  of  the  Ciesars ;  and 
several  remaining  inscriptions  record  the  heights  of 
inundation  from  the  time  of  Augustus  to  Severus. 
This  island  had  the  honour  of  gixTxig  a  djTiasty 
(the  5th)  to  Egj-pt,  and  was  eWdently  an  important 
place,  the  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  attesting  the 
adoration  paid  by  Sethos  I.,  Psaminitichus  11.,  and 
other  monarchs,  to  the  local  deities.  Other  interest- 
ing monuments  have  been  found  on  this  island; 
amongst  which  may  be  cited  part  of  a  calendar 
recording  the  rise  of  the  Dog-star  in  the  reign  of 
Thothmes  111.  (1445  B.C.),  and  mmierous  fragments 
of  pottery — principally  recciiits  iu  the  Greek  lan- 
guage— given  by  the  farmers  of  the  taxes  in  the 
reign  of  the  Antonines.  The  island  is  at  present 
inhabited  by  Nubians. — Wilkinson,  Topotp-ajiliy  of 
Thebes,  p.  400 ;  ChampoUiou,  Notice  Desa-iptive, 
p.  215;  Chami>ollion,  Lettres  Ecriiee,  pp.  Ill,  157, 
171,  382. 

ELEPHANT'S    FOOT,     or     HOTTENTOT'S 

BREAD  (Teehidhmria  clep/iaiilipci),  a  jilant  of  the 
natural  onler  Dioscoreacea,  of  which  the  root-stock 
fonns  a  large  fleshy  mass,  curiously  truncate,  or 
abruptly  cut  olf  at  the  end,  so  as  somewhat  to 
resemble  an  elephant's  foot,  and  covered  with  a 
soft,  corky,  rough,  and  cracked  bark.  From  this 
springs  a  climbing  stem,  which  bears  the  leaves 
and  flowers.  The  root-stock  is  used  as  food  Ijy 
the  Hottentots.  The  jilant  is  not  unfrequently  to 
be  seen  in  hothouses  in  Britain. 

The  name  Elephant's  Foot  {Elepliantoput)  is 
also   given,  on   account   of  the   form   of  the  root- 
6 


leaves,  to  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Compogita,  sub-order  Cori/mb!fer<e,  one  species  of 
which  {E.  aealitr)  is  common  in  elevated  diry  situa- 
tions in  all  jiarts  of  India,  and  is  used  in  Indian 
medicine  in  affections  of  the  urinary  organs. 
ELETTA'RIA.  See  Cardamosl 
ELETZ.    See  Ieletz. 

ELEUSINE,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  chiefly  natives 
of  India  and  other  warm  climates,  several  of  which 
are  cultivated  as  grains.  This  is  especially  the  c;iso 
with  E.  corocana,  an  Indian  sjKcies,  called  Natchneo 
and  Nagla  Ragee,  also  Mand  and  Murwa,  which 
has  aggregated  digitate  spikes  finally  incurved. 
The  Tibetans  make  a  weak  sort  of  beer,  much  in 
use  amongst  them,  from  this  grain.  E.  slricla  is 
cultivated  as  a  grain-crop  in  the  same  jiarts  of  the 
world,  and  is,  like  tlie  former,  extremely  productive. 
The  gi-aiu  called  Tocusso  in  Abyssinia  is  also  a 
sjiecies  of  tliis  genus,  E.  Tocusso. — A  decoction  of 
E.  Jiijyptiaca  is  used  iu  Egypt  for  cleansing  ulcers ; 
and  a  drink  made  from  the  seeds  is  regarded  as 
usef\U  in  diseases  of  the  kidneys  and  bUidder.  A 
decoction  of  E.  Indica  is  also  administered  to  infants 
in  Demerara,  to  prevent  or  cure  convulsions. 

ELEUSI'NIAN  MY'STERIES,  the  sacred  rites 
with  which  the  annual  festival  of  Ceres  was  cele- 
brated at  Eleusis.  Many  traditions  were  afloat  in 
ancient  times  as  to  the  origin  of  this  festival.  Of 
these,  the  most  generally  accepted  was  to  the  effect 
that  Ceres,  wandering  over  the  earth  in  quest  of  her 
dau'^bter  Proserpine,  arrived  at  Eleusis,  where  she 
took  rest  on  the  sorrovful  stone  beside  tbe  well 
Callichorus.  In  return  for  some  small  acts  of  kind- 
ness, and  to  commemorate  her  visit,  she  taught 
Triptolemus  the  use  of  corn  on  the  Rharian  plain 
near  the  city,  and  instituted  the  mystic  rites  pecu- 
liarly known  as  hers.  The  outw.ard  method  of  the 
celebration  of  these  niy.steries  is  known  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  of  detail.  Their  esoteric  signi- 
ficance is  veiy  variously  interpreted.  The  ancients 
themselves  gener.ally  believed  that  the  doctrines 
revealed  to  the  initi.ated  gave  them  better  ho])es 
than  other  men  enjoyed,  both  as  to  the  present  life 
and  as  to  a  future  state  of  existence.  Modern  specu- 
l.ation  has  run  -n-ild  in  the  attemiit  s.atisfactorily  to 
explain  these  mysteries.  As  reasoii.able  a  solution  .as 
any  other  seems  to  be  that  of  Bishoj)  Thirlwall,  who 
finds  in  them  '  the  remains  of  a  worship  which  pre- 
ceded the  rise  of  the  Hellenic  inythologj'  and  its 
attendant  rites,  grounded  on  a  view  of  nature,  less 
fancifiU,  more  earnest,  and  better  fitted  to  awaken 
both  philoso])hical  thought  and  religions  feeling.' 
The  festiv.al  itself  cimsisted  of  two  jiarts,  the  greater 
and  the  lesser  mysteries.  The  less  important  feast, 
serving  as  a  sort  of  prep.ar.ation  for  the  greater,  was 
held  at  Agne,  on  the  Ilissus.  The  celebration  of 
the  great  mysteries  began  .at  Eleusis  on  the  1.5th 
day  of  Boedromion,  the  tliird  month  of  the  Attic 
year,  and  lasted  over  nine  d.ays.  On  the  first  day 
(called  agurmos,  the  assembling),  the  neoph>-te3, 
alre.aily  initiated  .at  the  preparatory  festival,  met, 
and  were  instructed  in  their  s.acred  duties.  On  the 
second  day  (called  H.alad6,  mystic.  To  the  sea,  ye 
initialed!),  they  jiurified  themselves  by  washing  in 
the  sea.  On  the  third  day,  sacrifices,  comprising, 
.among  otlier  things,  the  mullet-fish,  and  cakes  maoo 
of  barley  from  the  Rharian  iilain,  were  offered  with 
special  rites.  The  fourth  day  was  devoted  to  the 
procession  of  tlie  sacred  basket  of  Ceres  (the  Kala- 
thion).  This  basket,  containing  pomegranates,  salt, 
popjiy-seeds,  &c.,  and  followed  by  bands  of  women 
carrj-ing  smaller  baskets  .-^iinilariy  tilled,  w.as  dra^^^l 
in  a  consecrated  cart  through  the  streets,  amid 
shouts  of  '  H.ail,  Ceres ! '  from  the  onlookers.  The 
fifth  day  was  known  as  the  '  day  of  the  torches,'  and 


ELEUSIS— ELF- ARROW-HEADS. 


was  thought  to  symbolise  the  wanderings  of  Ceres 
in  quest  of  her  daughter.  On  it  the  mystse,  led  by 
the  '  daduchus,'  the  torch-hearer,  walked  two  by  two 
to  the  temple  of  the  goddess,  and  seem  to  have  spent 
the  night  there.  The  sixth  day,  called  lacchus, 
in  honour  of  the  son  of  Ceres,  was  the  great  day  of 
the  feast.  On  that  day  the  statue  of  lacchus  was 
borne  in  pomp  along  the  sacred  way  from  the 
C'eramicus  at  Athens  to  Eleusis,  where  the  votaries 
spent  the  night,  and  were  initiated  in  the  last  mys- 
teries. Till  this  stage  of  the  proceedings,  they  had 
l>cen  only  mystae ;  but  on  the  night  of  the  sixth  day 
tliey  were  admitted  into  the  innermo.st  sanctuary  of 
the  temple,  and,  from  being  allowed  to  behold  the 
sacred  things,  became  entitled  to  be  called  '  epopfce,' 
or  '  ephori ;  i.  e.,  sjKctators,  or  contemplalora.  They 
were  once  more  purified,  and  repeated  their  original 
oath  of  secrecy  with  an  imposing  and  a^vful  cere- 
monial, somewhat  resembhng,  it  is  believed,  the 
forms  of  modern  free-masonry.  On  the  seventh 
day,  the  votaries  returned  to  Athens  -ivith  mirth 
and  music,  haltinii  for  a  while  on  the  bridge  over 
the  Cephisus,  ana  exercising  their  wit  and  satire 
against  the  spectators.  The  eighth  day  was  called 
Epidauria,  and  was  believed  to  have  been  added  to 
the  original  number  of  the  days  for  the  convenience 
of  those  who  had  been  imable  to  attend  the  grand 
ceremonial  of  the  sixth  da)'.  It  was  named  in 
lionour  of  ^-E3cula])ius,  who  arrived  on  one  occasion 
from  his  native  city  of  Epidaunis  to<i  late  for  the 
solemn  rites,  and  the  Athenians,  unwilling  to  dis- 
appoint so  distinguished  a  benefactor  of  mankind, 
added  a  supplementary  day.  On  the  ninth  day 
took  place  the  ceremony  of  the  '  Plemocho:e,'  in 
which  two  earthen  vessels  filled  with  wine  were 
turned  one  towards  the  east,  and  the  other  towards 
the  west.  The  attendant  piriests,  uttering  some 
mystic  words,  then  upset  both  vessels,  and  the  wine 
so  spilt  .was  offered  as  a  libation. 

Initiation  into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  was 
compulsory  on  every  freebom  Athenian  ;  but  slaves, 
prostitutes,  and  persons  who  had  forfeited  their 
citizenship  were  excluded  from  the  rites.  During 
the  period  of  the  festival,  none  of  those  taking  part 
in  it  could  be  seized  or  arrested  for  any  offence. 
Lycurgus,  with  a  view  to  destroying  distinctions  of 
class,  forbade  any  woman  to  ride  to  the  Eleusinia 
in  a  chariot,  under  a  penalty  of  6000  drachmae.  The 
mysteries  were  celebrated  with  the  most  scrupu- 
lo\is  secrecy.  No  initiated  person  might  reveal 
what  he  had  seen  under  pain  of  death,  and  no 
uninitiated  person  could  take  pai-t  in  the  ceremonies 
under  the  same  penalty.  The  priests  were  chosen 
from  the  sacred  family  of  the  Eumolpidae,  whose 
ancestor,  Eumolpus,  had  been  the  special  favourite 
of  Ceres.  The  chief  priest  was  called  the  'Hiero- 
phant,'  or  '  ilystagogtie  ; '  next  in  rank  to  him  was 
the  Daduchus,  or  Torch-bearer ;  after  whom  came 
the  '  Hiero-Cervx,'  or  Sacred  Herald,  and  the  priest 
at  the  altar.  Besides  these  leading  ministers,  there 
was  a  multitude  or  inferior  jiriests  and  servants. 

ELEU'SIS,  a  celebrated  town  in  ancient  Attica, 
stood  near  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gidf  of  Salamis, 
and  not  far  from  the  confines  of  ilegaris.  It  was 
famous  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of -Ceres, 
whose  mystic  rites  were  here  performed  with  great 
pomp  and  solemnity  from  the  earhest  authentic 
times  till  the  era  of  Alaric.  See  Eleusixiax  Mvs- 
TF.KIES.  The  temple  of  the  goddess,  designed  by 
Ictinus,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon,  was  the 
largest  sacred  edifice  in  Greece.  The  site  of  the 
old  Eleusis  is  now  occupied  by  the  little  \-illagc 
of  Lefsma  or  Lepsina. 

ELEU'THERA,  one  of  the  Bahamas  (q.  v.),  is, 
nt'xt  to  Xew  Providence,  the  most  popidous  island 


in  the  whole  chain.  Including  its  dependent  cayoa 
or  keijs,  E.,  in  1851,  contained  4610  inhabitants.  It 
is  more  fertile  than  most  of  its  neighbours,  more 
especially  surpassing  all  of  them  in  the  growth  of 
fruit,  such  as  the  pine-apple,  the  orange,  and  the 
lemon. 

ELEUTHE'RIA  BARK,  a  name  not  imfre- 
quently  given  to  the  bark  of  the  Croton  El.euth<>ria, 
also  known  as  Cascardla  Bark.  See  Casc.4-KILLA. 
It  is  called  Eleutheria  (or  Eleuthera)  Bark,  because 
it  is  chiefly  gathered  on  the  island  of  Eleuthera. 

E'LEVATED.  Wings  turned  ujjwards  are 
described  in  heraldiy  as  elevated. 

ELEVA'TION,  in  Architectural  Drawing,  is  a 
representation  of  the  flat  side  of  a  building,  drawn 
with  mathematical  accuracy,  but  ^vithout  the 
slightest  attention  to  effect.  In  Art,  again,  eleva- 
tion is  a  raising  of  the  subject  beyond  its  ordinary 
character  in  real  life.  A  very  good  instance  of 
elevation  in  this  sense  is  given  by  Fairholt  in 
his  Dktionarij  of  Terms  in  Art,  in  Rembrandt's 
'Adoration  of  the  Shepherds.'  The  whole  of  the 
objects  and  surroimdings  of  the  infant  Saviour  are 
of  the  most  homely  description  ;  and  stUl  the  light 
which  is  represented  as  issuing  from  his  person 
gives  an  elevation  to  the  scene  which  takes  off  from 
it  entirely  the  character  of  being  commonplace  or 
\Tilgar. 

ELEVATION,  in  Astronomy  and  Geography, 
means  generally  the  height  above  the  horizon  of  an 
object  on  the  sjihere,  measured  by  the  arc  of  a 
vertical  circle  through  it  and  the  zenith.  Thus,  the 
elevation  of  the  equator  is  the  arc  of  a  meridian 
intercepted  between  the  equator  and  the  horizon  of 
the  place.  The  elevation  of  the  pole  is  the  com- 
plement of  that  of  the  equator,  and  is  always  equal 
to  the  latitude  of  the  place.  The  elevation  of  a 
star,  or  any  other  point,  is  similarly  its  height 
above  the  horizon,  and  is  a  maximum  when  the 
star  is  on  the  meridian. 

ELE'VENTH,  in  Music,  is  the  interval  of  the 
octave  above  the  fourth. 

ELF,  a  fairy,  pi.  EL"\T3S.     See  Faieiib. 

ELF- ARROW- HEADS,  ELFIN- ARROWS, 
ELF-BOLTS,  ELF-DARTS,  ELF-SHOT,  and 
ELF-STONES,  names  popularly  given  in  the 
British  Islands  to  the  arrow-heads  of  flint  which 
were  in  use  at  an  early  period  among  the  barbarous 
tril>es  of  this  country  and  of  Europe  generally,  as 
they  are  still  in  use  among  the  American  Intlians, 
the  Esquimaux  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  inha- 
bitants of  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  was  believed  that  elves  or  fairies,  hovering  in 
the  air,  shot  these  barbs  of  flint  at  cattle,  and 
occasionally  even  at  men.  Thus,  Robert  Gordon 
of  Straloch,  an  accomplished  coimtry  gentleman  of 
the  north  of  Scotland,  writing  in 
1654,  tells  how  one  of  his  friends, 
travelling  on  horseback,  found  an 
elf-arrow-head  in  the  top  of  his 
boot,  and  how  a  gentlewoman  of 
his  acquaintance,  when  out  riding, 
discovered  one  in  the  breast  of  her 
h.abit.  He  remarks  that,  although 
they  are  got  by  chance  in  the 
fiekls  and  on  the  highways,  one 
who  goes  to  look  for  them  on 
puri)ose  will  search  in  vain.  He 
adtls  that  they  are  most  com- 
monly met  with  after  showers — -a 
circumstance  which  probably  helped  them  in 
Germany  to  their  names  of  '  thunder-bolts '  and 
'thunder-stones,'  and  is  easily  enough  ex])l,ained. 
The  rain,  by  washing  away  the  earth  in  which  the)' 


Elf-Arrow-Head. 


ELGIN— ELGIN  AND  KINCARDINE. 


have  been   imtxxlded,   makes    tliem    more    readily 
perceptible   to  the   eye,   especially  if  the    simshiiie 
happens  to  fall  upon  them.     Cattle  dying  suddenly 
ia  the  lields   wure    believed   to   have   been   struck 
by  elf-arrows — a  belief  which  yet  lingers  in  Ireland, 
and  perhaps  in   some   secluded  jiarts    of  Scotlaml. 
'  Thus,  when    cattle   arc   sick,'   writes    Mr  W.    K. 
Wilde,  in   his  Colalogite  vf  t/ie   AnIiijiiUies    iit   the 
Museum  of  tin  Itoijul  Irish   Acadtmij  (Dub.   ISoT), 
'  and  the  cattle  doctor,  or  fairy  doctor,  is  sent  for, 
he  says  the  beast  has  been  "  elfsUot,"  or  stricken 
by  fairy  or  eltin  darts  ;  and  he  forthwith  procee<l3  to 
feel  the  animal  .ill  over  ;  and,  by  some  legerdemain, 
contrives  to  find  in  its  skin  one  or  more  jioisonous 
weajions,  which,  with  some  coins,  are  then  placed  in 
the  water  which  is  given  it  to  drink  ;  and  so  a  cure 
is  said  to  be  effected.'    The  elf-arrow-head  w\as  occa- 
sionally set  in  silver,  so  as  to  be  worn  on  the  person 
as  a  talisman,  or  had  a  hole  drilled  through  it,  so 
that  it  might  be  dipped  in  water,  which,  being  thus 
endowed  with  healing  virtue,  was  used  sometimes  as 
a  wash,  more  commonly  as  a  draught.  As  a  talisman, 
the  elf-arrow-head  "was  Vieheved  to  be  most  efficacious 
as  a  preservative  from  poison  and  witchcraft.     The 
ascription  of  the  dint  .arrow-head  to  the  elves  or 
fairies,  is  but  one  of  several  instances  of  the  disposi- 
tion of  a  peo])le  to  elevate  or  degrade  the  earlier 
races  whom  they  vanquished  or  dispossessed  into 
mj-thical  beings,   better  or  worse   than   mankind. 
Thus,  in  Greece  and  Italy,  the  remains  of  the  rude 
strongholds  built  by  the  Pelasgi  came  to  be  regarded 
as  works  of  the  fabled  Cyclops,  or  one-eyed  giants. 
So  also,  in  Scotland,  the  sepulchral  mounds  of  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  were  called  '  elf-hillocks ; '  and 
the  vestiges  of  ancient  ploughshares  which  may  be 
traced   on  heaths   and  hiU-tops  were  called  'elfin- 
furrows.'     Examples   of  '  elf-arrow-heads '  may  be 
seen  in  most  museums  of  antiquities.     They  fall  to 
be  more  j)articnlarly  described  in  a  following  i)<age, 
under  the  head  of  Flixt  Imtlemexts  and  \Ve.-vpo.\.s. 
E'LGIN,  a  royal  burgh,  the  county  town  of  Elgin 
or   ilorayshire,   and   a   station    on    the    Inverness 
and  Aberdeen  Junction  Kailw.aj',  situated  on   the 
right  bank  of   the  river  Lossie,    about    five   miles 
from  the   se.o.     Pop.  (1S61)   7543.     E.   joins    with 
Banff,   Peterhead,  Inverury,    Cullen,   and  Kintore, 
in  returning  a  member  to  parliament.     It  was  prob- 
ably a  royal  biu-gh  so   early  as   the  reign  of  King 
David  I.  (1124 — US.'i),  and  h.ad  its  privileges  con- 
firmed by  several  of   his  successors.     Its  trade  is 
now  almost  wholly  retail.     E.  has  12  yearly  fau-s, 
and  a  weekly  grain  market.    It  has  a  parish  church, 
which  is  coUegiiite,  2  Free  Churches,  2  United  Pres- 
byterian   Churches,   1  Bajitist   Church,   1   Origin.al 
Secession,  1  Independent,  1  Episcopal,  and  1  Roman 
Catholic  ;  with  lU  schools.     Cray's  Hospital  for  the 
sick   poor,  built  and  endowed  "from  a   bequest  of 
£20,000  by  the  late  Dr  Alexander  Gr.ay  of  Bengal, 
and  opened  in   1819,  with  a  small  pauper  lunatic 
asylum  since  attached  by  public  subscription;  and 
the  Elgin  or  Anderson's  Institution  for  the  support 
of  old  age  and  the  education  of  youth,   built  and 
opened  IS.Sl— 18;i3,  on  the  foundation  of   £70,000 
bequeathed  by  tlie   late    Major-general   Anderson, 
H.E.I.C.S. — are  the  principal  of  niany  public  and 
private  charities.     E.  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  of  its  situ-ation,  lying  jjlacidly  in  a  gentle 
curve  of  the  Lossie,  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
and   for   its  history  as   the  see  of  the    Bishop    of 
Moray.     Its  ajipcarance,  about  tifty  years  .ago,  was 
that   of    a  little    cathedral   city    with   an   antique 
fashion   of   building,  and  with    '  a   certain   solemn 
drowsy  air   about   the   town  and    its   inhabitants.' 
Th.at  a]>pearanco  is  f;ist  giving  w.ay  to  that  of  a  g.ay 
moilem  county  town,  surrciuniled  by  elegant  villas. 
The  old  town  was  partially  burned  in  1390  by  the 


notorious  Wolf  of  Badenoch  (Alexander  Stewart, 
Earl  of  Buchan) ;  in  1402,  by  Alexander,  the  son  of 
the  Lord  of  the  Isles  ;  and  in  1452,  by  the  E.arl  of 
Huntly — this  last  calamity  originating  the  proverb, 
'  Hiilf  done,  as  Elgin  was  b>u-ned.'  Its  once  magni- 
ficent cathedral  church,  partly  of  Early  English  and 
pai-tly  of  Middle-pointed  architecture,  dedicated  to 
the  Holy  Trinity,  was  begun  by  Bishop  Andrew 
Moray  in  1224,  on  the  transference  of  the  see  from 
Spynie  ;  was  injured  by  tire  in  1270  ;  was  nearly 
burned  down  by  the  Wolf  of  Badenoch  in  1390 ; 
was  restored  Tinder  Bishops  Bur,  Sjiyny,  Innes,  and 
Leigh  ton  (l.'!90  — 1424) ;  and  from  subsequent  acci- 
dent and  dilajiidatiuu  is  now  a  mere  ruin.  The 
other  religious  liuildings  of  the  olden  time  were  the 
church  of  St  Giles,  a  picturesque  exam|)le  of  our  old 
parish  churches,  replaced  1826 — 1S2S  by  the  modern 
less  interesting  structiu'e ;  the  monastery  of  the 
Black  Friars,  long  since  demolished ;  the  convent  of 
the  Gray  Friars,  the  walls  of  whose  church  remain  ; 
the  hospital  of  the  Maison  Dieu,  on  the  site  of  which 
is  Anderson's  Institution ;  the  Leper  House,  still 
commemorated  by  the  gi-ounds  called  the  Leper 
Lauds ;  and  the  chajiel  of  St  Mary  of  the  Castle, 
which  gave  n.ame  to  the  Lady  Hill  and  Laily  Well 
on  the  west  of  the  towni.  The  castle  itself,  styled 
of  olil  the  Manor  of  Elgin,  whose  ruins,  surmoimted 
by  an  obelisk — erected  to  the  memory  of  George, 
fifth  and  last  Duke  of  Gordon — crown  the  Lady 
Hill,  was  a  residence  of  the  Earls  of  Moray,  for 
some  time  superiors  of  the  burgh  under  our 
.Scottish  kings.     (1871 — pop.  7339.) 

ELGIN  AND  KINCARDINE,  E.\kl  op, 
Governor-gencr.al  of  India,  James  Bruce,  eighth 
Earl  of  E.,  was  born  in  Park  Lane,  London,  in  1811. 
He  was  educated  at  his  father's  seat  in  Fifeshire, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  was  first-class  in  classics,  1832  ;  became 
Fellow  of  Merton,  and  ,gi-aduated  M.A.  IS.35.  He 
entered  public  life  iu  1S41,  when,  as  Lord' Bruce, 
he  was  returned  at  the  general  election  on  the 
Conservative  interest  for  South.ampton.  A  peti- 
tion was  presented  against  the  return,  and  the 
election  was  declared  void.  Before,  however,  a 
new  writ  could  issue.  Lord  Bruce  h,ad  succeeded 
his  father  (who  enriched  the  British  Museum  by 
the  invalualde  collection  of  sculjiture  known  as 
the 'Elgin  iLarbles,' q.v.)  as  E.arl  of  Elgin.  Those 
who  remember  his  early  parliamentary  and  pre- 
colonial  career,  st.ate  that  he  gave  early  promise 
of  oratorical  thstinction,  and  .assert  that  if  he 
had  thrown  himself  into  the  politics  of  the  day, 
he  woidd  have  taken  a  high  i>osition  as  a  parha- 
mentary  debater.  By  succeeding  to  a  .Scotch  peer- 
.age,  however,  he  w.as,  iu  his  own  words,  '  expelled 
from  the  House  of  Commons  without  being  .admitted 
into  the  House  of  Peers.'  Being  offered  the  gover- 
norship of  Jamaica,  in  March  1842,  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby — then  Lord  St.anley — he  went  to  Jamaica, 
where  he  administered  the  affaire  of  the  island  with 
so  much  ability  and  success,  that  iu  August  1840, 
the  Governor-gener.alship  of  Canada  was  tendered 
to  him  by  Earl  Grey,  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonics  in  the  administr.atiou  of  Lonl  J.  IJussell. 
Lord  E.,  still  finding  himself  in  the  same  position  as 
a  Scottish  peer,  accepted  the  oilice,  and  went  to 
Canad.a.  His  administration  of  the  government  of 
Canada  will  ever  be  a  bright  spot  in  our  colonial 
history,  and  a  moilel  to  future  governoi-s  of  Enghsh 
dependencies.  He  found  Canada  governed  by 
cliques,  and  torn  by  intestine  feuds.  With  admir- 
able tact  and  entire  success,  he  inaugurated  a 
system  of  self-government,  which  has  rendered 
the  jirovinces  of  Briti-'^h  .\meriea  a  supjiort  tn  tho 
Britisli  throne,  in  place  of  being  a  source  of  weak- 
ness.     Under   his  government,   Canada  made  such 


ELGIN  AND  KINCAKDINE-ELGIX  MARBLES. 


strides  iu  importance  and  prosperity,  that  between 
1S47  (iu  the  beginning  of  which  year  he  entered 
upon  his  government)  and  1855,  when  he  returned 
to  England,  tlie  revenue  of  that  great  British 
possession  quaclrujiled  itself.  During  liis  adminis- 
tration, he  successfully  negotiated  a  treaty  fur  reci- 
procity of  trade  between  British  America  and  the 
United  States,  which  admitted  the  whole  produce  of 
British  North  America  to  be  brought  into  cnmiieti- 
tion  with  the  proilucts  of  the  United  States  iu  their 
own  markets.  This  treaty  likewise  put  an  end  to 
the  risk  of  collision  on  the  sidjject  of  the  fisheries 
between  this  country  and  America,  wliich  Lord  E. 
ha-s  described  as  the  most  serious  hak  which  had 
presented  itself  during  the  whole  time  he  had 
been  a  public  servant.  His  jiopiUarity  was  great, 
not  only  in  Canada  but  the  adjacent  states,  the 
citizens  of  which  offered  him  ovations.  He  was 
now  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  (ha\'ing  been 
summoucd  to  the  House  of  Lords  in  1849),  aud  was 
appointed  lord-lieutenant  of  Fifeshire.  In  1857, 
the  affair  of  the  lorcha  Arrow,  and  the  bombard- 
ment of  Canton  by  Sir  John  Bowi-iug,  led  Lord 
Palmci-ston  to  invite  Lord  E.  to  go  to  China 
as  Plenipotentiary  Extraordinary.  An  army  was 
equipped  to  carry  out  the  policy  prescribed  by  the 
British  government,  and  he  started  on  his  mission. 
But  before  ho  could  apjiroach  his  destination,  and 
when  he  had  barely  left  England  a  month,  the 
Indian  mutiny  broke  out.  Lord  E.  did  not  hesitate 
a  moment  in  preferring  the  safety  of  India  to  the 
success  of  his  Chinese  negotiations.  He  despatched 
the  Chinese  expedition  to  Lord  Canning's  assistance, 
and  the  English  in  India  were  thus  enabled  to  hold 
their  ground  until  further  reinforcements  arrived. 
After  thus  consigning  himself  to  an  inaction  of 
several  months.  Lord  E.  proceeded  to  China,  and  in 
1858,  iu  conjunction  with  Baron  Gros,  the  French 
plenipotentiary,  ho  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Tien- 
tsin, which  promised  to  give  Great  Britain  a  freer 
access  to  China  than  she  had  ever  enjoyed  before. 
He  found  time,  before  his  return,  to  negotiate  a 
trijaty  with  Japan,  imder  which  Englisli  manufac- 
tures are  admitted  at  low  rates  of  duty,  and  a  British 
minister  is  permitted  to  reside  at  Jeddo.  On  his 
return  home,  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-general. 
He  had  scarcely  time  to  become  a&inainted  with 
his  duties,  before  the  treacherj'  of  the  Chinese,  in 
firing  upon  the  British  squadron  from  the  Taku 
forts,  led  to  the  organisation  of  another  Chinese 
expedition,  and  to  Lord  E.'3  second  mission  to 
China.  A  combined  English  and  French  force 
penetrated  to  the  capital,  and  enabled  Lord  E.  and 
Baron  Gros  to  dictate  a  peace  under  the  walls  of 
Pekin.  On  the  expiration  of  Viscount  Canning's 
term  of  service,  the  governor-generalship  of  India 
was  offered  by  Lord  Palmerston  to  Lord  E.  (1861), 
and  accepted  by  liim.  He  died  in  India,  November 
1863.  Lord  E.  (who  was  the  representative  in  the 
male  line  of  the  great  .Scottish  Hi'Use  of  Bruce)  was 
twice  m.anied :  in  1841,  t"  the  d.iughter  of  Mr 
C'unimiug  Bruce,  JI.P.  (she  died  1843) ;  and  in  1846, 
to  the  daughter  of  the  first  Earl  of  Durham,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son,  Victor  Alexander  Lord  Bruce, 
born  1849,  and  other  issue.  Lord  E.  was  K.T.  ( 1847), 
privy  councillor  (1857),  G.C.B.  (civU,  e.xtra)  1858. 

ELGIN  MARBLES,  a  celebrated  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures,  brought  from  Greece  by  Thomas, 
seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  acquired  from  him  by 
the  nation  for  the  British  Museum  in  1816,  at  the 
siun  of  £35,000. 

These  sculptures  adorned  cert.ain  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  ;  the  chief  portions,  which  are 
from  the  Parthenon  or  Temple  of  Minerv.a,  were 
designed  by  Phidias,  and  executed  by  him,  or  under 
his  superintendence.    They  consist  of — 1.  Portions 


of  several  of  the  statues  that  were  jjlaced  in  the 
east  and  west  tympana  or  pediments,  the  most 
important  of  which   are   the   Theseus  or  Hercules, 


Theseus. 

Hissus  or  river-god,  upper  portions  of  the  torsos  of 
Neptune  and  Minerva,  Iris,  torso  of  Cecrops,  Ceres, 
and  Proserpine,  the  Fates,  heads  of  the  horses  of 
Hj-perion,  and  one  of  the  horses  of  Night.  Of  all 
these,  the  Theseus,  and  the  head  of  the  horse  of 
Night,  are  the  most  perfect,  the  former  wanting  only 
the  hands  and  feet  and  part  of  the  nose,  while  even 
the  surface  of  the  latter  is  very  little  injured.  But 
however  mutilated,  the  greatness  in  style  of  these 
magnificent  works  is  clearly  manifest,  and  from  the 
merest  fragment  valuable  instruction  in  art  m.ay 
be  obtained,  i;.  Fifteen  metopes,  executed  iu  hi"h 
relief,  reprcscutiug  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  aud 
Lapitha>.  A  metope  is  the  inter\-al  between  the 
triglj^ihs  on  a  Doric  frieze — in  the  Parthenon,  there 
were  ninety-tivo,  fourteen  on  each  front,  and  thirtj-- 
two  on  each  Hank  of  the  temple — and   on   every 


Metope : 
From  the  Parthenon, 

metope,  a  Centaur  engaged  in  conflict  -with  one  o£ 
the  Lapith.TS  is  represented  in  a  style  of  the 
highest  excellence  in  point  of  spirit  and  tnithfulness. 
3.  A  large  portion  of  the  frieze  of  the  outer  walls 
of  the  cella.  This  remarkable  work  represents  the 
solemn  procession  to  the  Temple  of  Minerva  during 
the  Panathenaio  festival,  and  has  never  been 
equalled  for  elegance  of  composition  and  the  variety 
and  gracefulness  of  the  figures.  It  is  executed  in 
low  relief,  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  light,  for 
placed  within  the  colonnade,  it  received  its  light 
between  the  columns,  and  by  reflection,  from  the 
pavement   below.      This   exquisite  frieze  occupied, 

9 


ELG  ENSHIRE— ELIJAH. 


Blab  after  slab,  a  space  of  524  feet  in  length.     The 
remains  of  it  in  the  British  Museum  on  slabs  and 


Portion  of  Panathenaic  Frieze. 

fragments  of  marble  are  to  the  extent  of  iipwards 
of  249  feet,  besides  70  feet  in  jjlaster  casts. 

Although  the  Elgin  Marbles  are  now  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  most  precious  collection  existing  of 
specimens  of  Greek  art  iu  its  piu-est  state,  yet  it 
was  only  after  very  considerable  hesitation  that 
government  consented  to  purchase  them,  and  then 
the  sum  awarded  was  not  only  far  short  of  anj'thing 
like  a  fair  value,  if  indeed  a  value  could  be  put  on 
such  treasures,  but  Lord  Elgin  was  left  largely  out 
of  pocket  after  all  his  exertions.  Again,  from  petty 
jealousy,  some  of  the  connoisseurs  of  the  day,  who 
had  earned  a  sort  of  reputation  from  their  collec- 
tions— of  whom  Mr  Paj-ne  Knight  may  stand  for  the 
type — made  strong  efforts  to  underrate  these  great 
works;  while  others,  like  Lord  B}Ton,from  feelings 
apparently  generous,  but  quite  mistaken,  because 
not  based  on  fact,  heaped  obloquy  on  Lord  Elgin, 
and  opposed  their  acquisition.  But  it  has  been 
clearly  proved  that  Lord  Elgin,  so  far  from  destroy- 
ing, has  saved  these  master-pieces  from  destruction. 
It  was  not  to  be  expected  but  that  foreigners  would 
grudge  this  coiuitry  such  an  acquisition,  but  cer- 
tainly it  is  remarkable  that  such  opinions  should 
have  been  expressed  in  this  country.  The  view 
adopted  by  a  foreigner,  who  has  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  subject,  M.  Viardot,  author  of 
Lcs  Miisles  (FEurope,  may  be  accejited  as  that 
generally  taken  abroad  ;  and  it  is  very  ilifforent 
from  that  at  one  time  so  pertinaciously  maintained 
by  many  in  this  country.  M.  Viardot  remarks : 
'It  is  said  that,  to  justify  the  appropriation  of  the 
Lahore  diamond,  the  English  allege  that  if  they 
have  taken  it,  it  was  merely  to  prevent  its  appro- 
priation by  others.  They  may  give  the  same  excuse 
for  their  a])propriation  of  the  m.arbles  of  the  Par- 
thenon. Is  o  doubt,  Lord  Elgin  has  carried  them  off ; 
and  the  Greeks  of  the  jjresent  daj',  seeing  the  old 
temple  of  their  Acropolis  despoiled  of  all  its  orna- 
ments, have  a  good  right  to  curse  the  spoiler.  But 
when  we  think  of  the  devastation  these  works  have 
so  often  experienced,  to  the  total  destruction  of  the 
principal  stitues,  and  the  shameful  mutilation  of 
the  others,  and  the  risk  these  last  ran  of  being 
entirely  destroyed  in  their  turn — when  we  consider 
that  these  precious  relics  of  art  are  conserved  in  a 
place  of  surety,  and  placed  in  the  centre  of  artistic 
Euro])e,  one  loses  the  desire,  and  .almost  the  right  to 
charge  the  English  with  piracy  an<l  robbery.  For 
my  i)art,  if,  in  the  ccmrse  of  my  long  devotion  to 
the  marldes  of  Phidias,  a  regret  h.as  come  to  trouble 
the  ardent  pleasure  of  my  admiiation,  it  was,  that 
10 


the  robber  of  these  marbles  was  not  a  Frenchman, 
and  their  resting-place  the  Museum  of  Paris.' — 
y^isconti  on  the  aculpturi's  in  the  Collection  of  the 
Earl  of  Elgin  (John  Murray,  London,  \S\.0),  Library 
of  Entertainitui  Knoiclalr/e — Brithsli  Museum  (Lon- 
don, Charles  Knight). 

ELGINSHIRE,  MO'R  AY  SHIRE,  or 
MURRAYSHIRE,  a  maritime  county  iu  the  north- 
east of  Scotland,  on  the  Moray  Firth.  It  contains 
.531  square  miles,  and  is  30  miles  long  and  20  miles 
broad,  whUe  above  a  third  part  is  cut  off  on  the 
south  by  a  detached  ]iart  of  Inverness-shire.  In  the 
south  are  the  high  and  rugged  Jlonadhliadh  Moun- 
tains of  Inverness-shire,  dividing  the  basins  of  the 
Spey  and  Findhorn,  and  forking  iu  the  north  to 
include  the  basin  of  the  Lossie.  The  Lossie,  25 
miles  long,  is  the  only  stream  entirely  included  in 
the  county,  but  the  rajiid  Spey  and  Findhorn,  the 
latter  noted  for  its  fine  scenery,  skirt  its  east  and 
west  sides  respectively.  Iu  the  south,  gneiss  pre- 
domin.ates  with  a  little  granite;  and  in  the  north, 
sandstone  with  fish  and  reptilian  remains,  and  small 
patches  of  oolitic  and  wealden  strat,a.  West  of 
the  Findhorn  mouth  are  the  sand-dunes  of  Culbin, 
three  square  miles  in  extent,  some  of  them  rising 
118  feet.  Great  masses  of  peat  aud  trunks  of 
trees  are  often  cast  ashore  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Findhorn.  The  climate  is  mild  and  dry,  and  the 
county  h.as  been  called  the  Devonshire  of  Soot- 
land,  the  mountains  of  Aberdeenshire  and  Banflf- 
shire  protecting  it  from  the  cold  moist  ■winds  of 
the  German  Ocean.  The  soil  is  open,  sandy,  and 
gravelly,  and  veiy  fertile  in  the  north,  with  some 
deep  loams  and  clays.  In  1857,  a  fom-th  of  the 
county  was  in  crop,  the  chief  crops  being  oats, 
wheat,  and  turnips.  E.  was  anciently  reckoned  the 
granary  of  Scotland.  Pop.  (1861)  42,092,  (1851) 
38,959,  chiefly  agriciUturists.  The  chief  exports  are 
grain,  cattle,  sahuon,  and  timber.  There  are  some 
manufactures  of  woollens  aud  malt  liquors.  E. 
unites  with  Nairnshire  in  sending  one  member  to 
parU.-iment.  It  contains  20  parishes,  and  portions 
of  others.  In  1851,  there  were  04  places  of  worship 
(25  of  Established,  and  20  of  Free  Church) ;  96 
day-schools,  with  5720  scholars.  The  parish  schools 
enjoy  the  Dick  Bequest.  The  chief  towns  are  Elgin 
and  Forres.  The  .ancient  province  of  Moray  included 
the  coimties  of  Elgin  and  Nairn,  and  parts  of  those 
of  Inverness  and  Banff.  Scandinavians  early  settled 
in  it.  About  1160,  Malcolm  IV.  subdued  it.  The 
cliief  antiqxuties  are  Elgin  Cathedral,  Spynie  Castle, 
Duffus  Castle,  Pluscarden  Abbey,  Kinloss  Abbey, 
and  the  Norman  parish  church  of  Bimie.  Burg- 
head,  on  the  coast,  is  sujiposed  by  many  to  have 
been  a  Roman  station,  but  its  ramparts  aud  ditches, 
now  almost  destroyed,  were  probably  of  more  recent 
origin.  It  was  the  host  stronghold  of  the  Norsemen 
in  this  part  of  Scotland.  E.  was  overrun  in  the  civil 
wars  of  Montrose,  1645,  &c.     (1S71— pop.  43,598.) 

ELI'AS,  St,  a  lofty  mountain  which  occupies  a 
conspicuous  position  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America,  in  lat.  00°  IS'  N.,  and  iu  long.  140°  30'  W. 
It  rises  about  17,860  feet,  or  almost  3^  miles  above 
the  sea,  being  visible  to  mariners  .at  a  distance  of 
50  leagues.  Physically,  it  marks  pretty  nearly  the 
point  where  the  shore,  after  trending  in  a  north- 
west direction,  turns  due  west,  and  politically  it 
divides  itself  between  the  temtories  of  Russia  and 
Great  Britain. 

ELI'.IAH  (in  the  Greek  form,  occurring  in  the 
New  Testament,  Elias),  the  greatest  of  the  jirophets 
of  Israel,  was  born  at  Tishbe,  in  Gilead,  on  the 
borders  of  the  desert.  He  comes  upon  the  scene  in 
the  time  of  Ahab,  .about  920  B.  c.  When  that 
monarch,  to  please  his  Phoenician  wife  Jezebel,  had 


ELIMINATION— ELISHA. 


introiUicefl,  on  an  extensive  scale,  the  worship 
of  Baal,  E.  pronounced  a  curse  on  the  lavd.  The 
prophi-t  had  to  flee.  He  took  refuge  by  the  brook 
C'lieritU,  probably  one  of  the  torrents  that  cleave 
the  high  talile-Iaud  of  his  native  region.  Here  he 
M'as  miraculously  fed  by  ravens.  He  then  went  to 
ZarepUatli,  a  to^\ii  lying  between  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
Here  he  lodged  with  a  -widow  woman,  prolonged 
her  oil  and  meal,  and  brought  back  her  son  to 
hualth  from  the  brink  of  the  grave.  Subsequently, 
he  made  a  temjiorary  reconciliation  with  Ahab, 
and  on  Moimt  Carmel  e-xecuted  drcadfid  venge- 
ance on  the  pro)ihets  of  Baal,  slaj-ing  400  with 
his  own  hand.  Such  a  deeil  enraged  Jezebel  to 
the  utmost.  She  swore  to  destroy  the  prophet, 
wlio  once  more  took  refuge  in  flight.  He  rested 
not  till  he  reached  Beershcba  iu  the  far  south, 
on  the  edge  of  the  desert  that  leads  down  to 
Sinai.  The  brief  allusion  in  Scrijitui-e  to  liis 
weary  wanderings  is  very  touching.  At  last  he 
comes  to  Horeb,  where  he  has  an  interview  with 
Jehovah.  The  passage  in  which  this  is  recorded 
is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  significant  in  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  then  receives 
certain  instructions  from  Jehovah,  among  others 
that  he  shoxUd  select  Elisha  to  be  f)rophet  in  his 
room.  E.'s  next  appearance  is  when  Ahab  rides 
forth  to  take  possession  of  Naboth's  vineyard  :  he 
denounces  the  murderous  monarch,  and  utters  an 
awful  prophetic  curse  on  him  and  his  wife.  After 
the  death  of  Ahab,  he  rebukes  the  idolatries  of 
his  son  Ahaziah  in  a  solemn  and  bloody  fashion; 
and  after  the  death  of  Ahaziah,  we  find  him  inter- 
fering in  the  affairs  of  the  king  of  Judah,  who 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Ahab,  and  had  begitn 
to  '  walk  in  the  ways  of  the  kings  of  Israel.'  He 
denounced  his  evU  doings,  and  predicted  his  death. 
The  closing  scene  of  his  life  on  earth  is  exquisitely 
narrated.  A  chariot  of  fire  and  horses  of  fire  appeared 
after  Elisha  and  he  had  crossed  the  Jordan,  and 
'  Elijah  went  up  by  a  whirlwind  into  heaven.'  His 
poUtical  and  religious  aims  were  earned  out  by  his 
disciple  and  successor,  Elisha. 

ELIMINA'TION  is  a  process  by  which,  where 
we  have  a  number  of  statements  concerning  several 
quantities,  we  can  obtain  a  separate  statement  con- 
cerning each.  Thus,  in  Algebra,  elimination  is  the 
operation  which  consists  in  getting  rid  of  a  quan- 
tity or  letter  which  is  common,  say,  to  two  equa- 
tions, by  fonning  out  of  the  two  a  new  equation,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  quantity  in  question  dis- 
appear. If  three  unknown  quantities,  for  instance, 
are  to  be  found  from  three  independent  equations, 
the  first  step  is  to  fomi  out  of  the  three  given  equa- 
tions two  new  equations,  so  as  to  eliminate  one  of 
the  unknown  quantities  ;  from  these  two  equations 
another  of  the  quantities  is  eliminated  in  the  same 
way,gi\'ing  one  equation  with  one  unknown  quantity, 
the  value  of  whicli  is  then  found.  In  complicated 
equations,  ehmination  becomes  difficult,  and  often 
impossible.  Ehmination  is  an  important  process  in 
other  sorts  of  reasoning  besides  the  mathematical ; 
in  this  larger  accei)tation,  it  means  the  setting  aside 
of  all  extraneous  considerations — of  everything  not 
cssenti;vl  to  the  resiUt.  In  astronomical  observa- 
tions, the  elimination  of  errors  of  observation  is 
often  eftected  by  repeating  the  observations  several 
times  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  errors  to  be  of 
opposite  kinds,  then  adding  the  observed  values,  and 
taking  their  average. — The  word  to  'eliminate,'  is 
often  eiToneously  used  in  the  sense  of  to  '  elicit,'  or 
bring  to  light. 

E'LIS,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, bounded  N.  and  N.-E.  by  Achaia,  E.  and  S. 
by  jVrcatlia,  and  W.  by  the  Ionian  Sea.      It  was 


originally  di^^ded  into  three  districts — Ccele  or 
HoUow  Elis,  Pisatis,  and  Triphyha.  Of  these,  the 
first-named  was  by  far  the  largest  and  most  valuable, 
comprising  as  it  did  the  broad  and  fertile  jilains 
watered  by  the  Peneus  and  the  Ladon,  and  produc- 
ing excellent  crojts  of  cui-n,  cotton,  and  ila.x ;  while 
the  pastures  by  the  river-baidis  reared  cattle  and 
horses  of  proverliial  excellence.  This  district,  fe-om 
its  fertility,  was  called  '  the  milk-cow  of  the  Morea.' 
Pisatis  is  drained  !>}■  the  Alpheus,  and  is  separated 
from  Ca^le  Elis  by  Jloimt  Pholoe,  a  sjiur  of  Eryman- 
thus.  The  low  grounds  of  this  division  possess  great 
natural  fertility.  Most  of  the  surface  of  Trii)hylia 
is  hilly,  being  occupied  with  offshoots  from  the  great 
Arcadian  ranges.  It  is  separated  from  Pisatis  by 
the  Alpheus,  on  whose  banks  were  the  grove  and 
temple  of  Olympic  Jove,  and  the  plain  in  which  the 
great  Olympic  games  were  celebrated.  Though  E. 
bad  few  faciUties  for  preventing  invasion,  it  yet 
sufl'ered  less  from  war  than  any  other  of  the  Greek 
states — an  advantage  chiefly  due  to  the  sacred 
character  of  the  country,  as  the  seat  of  the  greatest 
of  the  national  festivals.  Their  prerogative  of  hold- 
ing the  Olympic  games  gave  the  Eleans  a  prestige 
which  they  continued  to  enjoy  in  greater  or  less 
degree  till  the  games  themselves  were  suppressed 
by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  in  394  A.  D. — Elis,  now 
Kaloscopi,  the  capital  of  the  foregoing  country, 
stood  on  the  Peneus,  and  was  long  famous  as  one 
of  the  most  splendid  and  popidous  cities  of  Greece. 
It  was  at  one  time  strongly  fortified,  and  contained 
many  magnificent  buildings,  conspicuous  among 
which  was  the  Gymnasium,  in  which  it  was  necessary 
that  all  athletes  intending  to  take  part  in  the  Olj'm- 
pic  games  shoidd  go  through  a  month's  training 
before  they  were  allowed  to  compete.  See  Leake's 
Morea,  and  Cui'tius's  Peloponnesus. 

ELI'SHA,  a  projihet  of  Israel,  the  successor  of 
Elijah,  who  found  him  at  the  plough,  and  consecrated 
liim  to  the  sacred  office  by  throwing  his  mantle  over 
his  shoulders.  He  exercised  his  fimctions  for  a 
period  of  55  years.  When  Elijah  was  carried  up 
into  heaven,  E.  returned  to  Jericho,  where  he  dwelt 
for  some  time.  He  then  proceeded  to  Bethel,  where 
the  perjilcxing  mu-aclc  occurred  of  the  destruction 
of  the  42  children  by  the  two  shc-beai-s.  After 
this  period,  he  seems,  besides  performing  an  extra- 
ordinary number  of  miracles,  to  have  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  religious  politics  of  his  country, 
but  he  exhibited  nothing  of  the  fierj'  and  san- 
guinary zeal  of  his  master.  Jlild,  tolerant,  con- 
ciliatoi-y,  we  hardly  ever,  if  at  all,  find  him  rebuking 
the  Baal-worshiji  that  was  still  prevalent  in  IsraeL 
Many  of  the  incidents  in  his  history  recall  the 
creations  of  eastern  fancy,  such,  for  example,  aa 
those  of  the  horses  and  chariots  of  fii-e  roimd  about 
E.  on  the  hUlside,  of  the  smiting  of  the  SjTian 
host  with  blindness,  so  that  the  prophet  led  "them 
all  unconsciously  into  Samaria,  captive,  &c.  With 
Elijah,  it  has  been  s.aid  (see  Smith's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible:  Art.  'Elisha'),  the  miracles  are  'intro- 
duced as  means  towards  great  ends,  and  are  kept 
in  the  most  complete  subordination  thereto.  But 
with  E.,  as  he  is  pictured  in  the  Hebrew  narra- 
tive, the  case  is  completely  reversed ;  with  him, 
the  miracles  are  cverjiihing,  the  prophet's  work 
nothing.  The  man  who  was  for  j'ears  the  intimate 
companion  of  Elijah,  on  whom  Elijah's  mantle 
descended,  and  who  was  gifted  with  a  double  por- 
tion of  his  spirit,  appears  in  the  Old  Testament 
chiefly  as  a  worker  of  prodigies,  a  predicter  of 
future  events,  a  revcaler  of  secrets,  and  things 
happening  out  of  sight  or  at  a  distance.'  The 
difficulties  that  thus  beset  the  literal  acceptance  of 
the  narrative  of  E.'s  miracles  have  been  felt  by 
most   modern   commentatoi-s,   and  to   evade    these 

U 


ELIXIR— ELIZABETH. 


difficulties  various  methods,  more  or  less  satisfac- 
tory, have  been  employed.  For  several  years,  E. 
was  the  chief  theoeratical  counsellor  of  Jehorani. 
Under  the  rei5;n  of  Jehu  and  his  successors,  he 
gradually  withdrew  from  public  allaii's,  and  died  in 
Samaria  in  the  reign  of  Jeho;»sh,  grandson  of  ,Iehu 
(alwut  8W  11.  c).  It  has  been  customary  to  draw 
a  parallel  between  E.  and  Christ;  and  his  mild- 
ness and  gentleness — .al\v.ays  exce)>ting  the  story  of 
the  destruction  of  the  eliildren  at  Bethel,  wliich 
has  perplexed  all  humane  readers  of  Scripture — 
seem  to  justify  this.  E.  is  canonised  in  tlie  Greek 
Church ;  his  day  is  the  14th  of  June. 

ELI'XIR  (Lat.  elixnre,  to  extract  by  boiling),  a 
term  in  pharmacy,  which  has  come  down  from  the 
days  of  alchemy,  and  is  ajiplied  to  various  prepara- 
tions, consisting  mostly  of  solutions  of  aromatic 
>ind  bitter  vegetable  substances  in  spirits  of  wine. 
The  term  tincture  is  now  more  common.  Elixir 
OF  Vitriol,  or  .Aromatic  Sulphuric  Acid,  is  pre- 
pared from  li  fluid  ounces  of  suljihuric  acid  (oil 
of  vitriol),  10  flniil  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  h  oz. 
cinnamon  in  powder,  1  oz.  ginger  in  powder. 
The  acid  is  gi'adnaUy  added  to  the  spirit,  and  the 
mixture  being  placed  in  a  closed  vessel,  is  allowed 
to  digest  at  a  geutle  heat  for  three  days  ;  the 
cinnamon  and  ginger  are  then  added,  and  after 
being  allowed  to  stand  about  six  daj's,  the  whole 
io  strained  through  cloth.  The  elixir  of  viti'iol  is 
usefid  for  quenching  thirst,  sharpening  the  appetite, 
checking  profuse  perspiration,  and  often  reducing 
the  action  of  the  pulse.  The  dose  may  range 
from  10  to  40  minims,  and  is  administered  in  a 
wine-glassful  of  water,  or  some  mild  liquid,  as 
infusion  or  conserve  of  roses. — Eli.xir  Vit.e  of 
Matiiiolus  is  composed  of  alcohol,  and  upwards  of 
twenty  aromatic  and  stimulating  substance.?,  and 
was  at  one  time  administered  to  patients  sufTei-ing 
from  epilepsy. 

ELI'ZABETGRAD,  a  town  of  South  Faissia,  is 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  delightful  plain,  on  the 
banks  of  the  IngiU,  in  lat.  48°  2f  N.,  long.  32°  15'  E., 
about  130  miles  north  from  Kherson.  It  consists  of 
a  town  ]iroper  and  four  submbs,  is  well  built,  its 
streets  .^straiglit,  wide,  and  adorned  with  .avenues  of 
trees.  E.  has  a  large  arsenal  within  the  w.aUs,  and 
is  protected  by  six  b.astions.  A  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  here  in  the  produce  of  the  surround- 
ing districts;  and  an  annual  fair  is  held,  which  is 
attended  by  many  thousands  of  dealers ;  commerce 
is  also  carried  on  with  Poland  and  JIolda\na.  In 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  town  there  are 
upwards  of  30  wind-mills.  Great  numbers  of  cavalry 
are  always  present  in  E.,  as  it  is  the  head-quarters 
of  the  military  colonies  east  of  the  river  Bug.  Poi). 
in  1855,  13,494. 

ELI'ZABETH.  Queen  of  England,  was  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the  unfortunate  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  was  born  7th  Sejitember  1533.  Wliile 
she  w.os  yet  in  her  third  year,  lier  mother  was 
beheaded.  After  her  mother's  execution,  she  was 
sent  to  the  country,  where,  in  coinparative  poverty 
and  seclusion,  under  the  care  of  ladies  who  leaned  to 
the  '  new  learning,'  and  sometimes,  though  seldom, 
with  the  companionship  of  her  brother  Edward,  or 
her  sister  Mary,  the  greater  part  of  her  early  youth 
was  sjient.  When  Catharine  Parr  became  queen, 
E.,  who  was  a  favourite  with  her,  w.as  more  seen  at 
court;  but  from  some  unknown  cause,  she  incurred 
her  father's  displeasure,  and  was  again  sent  to  the 
country.  Her  f,athor  died  when  she  w.as  twelve 
years  old.  During  the  reign  of  her  brother  Edward, 
her  life  p.assed  quietly  and  peacefully.  She  w,a3 
then  remarkable  for  a  great  demureness  and  sobriety 
of  manner,  discoursing  with  her  elders  with  all 
13 


the  gravity  of  advanced  years.  Edward  used  to 
speak  of  her  as  his  'sweet  sister  Temperance.' 
During  her  sister's  reign,  this  demureness  was 
ex<agger.ated  into  prudery,  and  the  vanity  which,  in 
after-years,  with  ami)ler  means  at  its  command, 
displ.ayed  itself  in  the  utmost  jirofusiou  of  personal 
decoration,  then  sought  for  distinction  by  excess 
of  plainness.  Her  Protestantism,  and  the  way  in 
which  court  w.as  paid  to  her  by  the  Protestant 
nobility,  caused  uneasiness  to  Mary  and  her  council. 
On  her  sister's  command,  she  conformed  to  papacy, 
but  the  insincerity  of  the  eouformity  imposed  upon 
no  one.  Upon  the  prete.xt  of  having  been  con- 
cerned in  Wyatt's  rebellion,  she  was  sent  in  1554 
to  the  Tower.  She  entered  it  with  all  the  gloomy 
forebodings  which  the  fate  of  so  many  royal  ladies 
who  had  been  recently  within  its  walls,  could 
suggest.  In  daily  fear  for  her  life,  many  months 
passed.  Intleed,  the  warrant  for  her  execution  w.as 
at  one  time  prep.ai-ed ;  and  it  is  unquestionable  th.at 
the  stern  bigotry  of  Marj'  and  her  councillors, 
Gardiner  and  Bonuer,  woiUd  have  sacrificed  E., 
but  for  the  fear  of  popidar  commotion.  The  people, 
however,  regarded  E.  with  great  favour,  and  many 
alrcotly  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  the 
death  of  JIary  should  free  the  court  from  foreign 
inliueuce,  and  give  room  for  a  milder  government. 
Thus  the  life  of  E.  was  saved,  but  for  some  time 
longer  she  w.as  kept  a  prisoner  at  Woodstoclc 
During  the  rem.ainder  of  Mary's  reign,  E.,  though 
occasion.ally  at  court,  resided  chiefly  .at  her  resi- 
dence of  H.atlield  House,  in  Hertfordshire,  where 
she  occuj)ieil  hei'self  with  feminine  amusements, 
and  the  study  of  cLassical  literature,  under  the 
learned  P>oger  Ascham. 

^Vllen  M.ary  died  (17th  November  1558),  E.  was 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  Her  accession  was 
welcomed  alike  by  Catholic  and  Protestant.  The 
former  were,  outwardly  at  least,  the  majority  in 
Mary's  reign  ;  but  among  tliein  there  were  few 
who  really  cared  for  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  there  were  many  who  were 
weary  of  priestly  interference,  foreign  dictation, 
and  cruel  pei'secution.  Like  E.  herself,  there  were 
many  who  had  conformed  merely  to  save  themselves 
from  trouble.  They  had  obeyed  the  Six  Articles 
in  Henry's  time ;  h.ad  aCTeeil  to  the  Protestant 
settlement  of  Edward  ;  h.ad  turned  with  Queen 
Mary,  and  were  now  ready  to  turn  .again  with 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  Protestants,  of  course,  who 
had  never  believed  the  sincerity  of  E.'s  conformity, 
welcomed  her  to  the  throne.  E.  then  began,  amidst 
dangers  and  difficulties,  a  reign  which,  contrary  to 
the  expectation  of  all,  w.as  of  unex.anipled  length 
and  prosjierity.  It  would  be  •oTong  not  to  attribute  [ 
to  her  influence  some  ell'ect  in  producing  the  great 
changes  which,  during  the  next  forty-four  years, 
took  place  in  England  ;  but  so  far  .as  these  ch.ange3 
were  not  jvroduced  in  the  natural  course  of  the 
development  of  the  nation's  powers,  and  so  far  as 
they  bear  the  mark  of  an  iiidividu.al  mind,  they 
bear  much  more  the  imjiress  of  the  bold  yet  cautious 
judgment  and  clear  intellect  of  the  great  minister, 
Cecil,  than  of  the  sovereign's  will.  It  is  to  the 
highest  pi'aise  of  10.  that  her  first  act  on  succeeding 
w.as  to  consult  with  such  a  man,  ami  that  to  the 
very  last  she  could  bend  her  capricious  temper  to 
his  control. 

How  the  government  influence  was  to  be  directed, 
w.as  not  long  in  being  shemi.  Till  parliament  should 
meet,  E.  issued  a  proclamation  that  the  English 
language  should  be  used  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
church  service,  antl  that  the  Host  should  not  bo 
elevated  by  the  priest  during  mass.  This  suffi- 
ciently indicated  into  what  hands  power  hail  passed, 
and  \v.as  enough  to  throw  the  mass  of  the  indiU'erent 


ELIZABETH. 


to  the  side  of  the  Protestants,  aiul  to  cause  a  Pro- 
testaut  majority  to  be  returned  to  E.'s  first  parlia- 
ment. The  acts  of  this  parhament  must  be  ever 
memorable  in  our  history.  It  was  then  that  Eng- 
land took  its  positiou  as  a  Protestant  power.  The 
Book  of  Coruiuon  I'raycr,  retaining,  douljtless,  some 
mixture  of  medieval  thought,  but  still  vivid  with 
new  energy,  was  ajipointed  to  be  used  iu  all 
churehes ;  the  Thirty-uine  Articles  were  settled  as 
the  national  faith  ;  the  queen  was  declared  to  be 
head  of  the  church.  Thus  all  allegiance  to  Piome 
was  tlirown  off.  This  revolutiou  was  soon  accom- 
plished, and  with  little  turmoil.  The  liishops,  mth 
one  exception,  refused  to  conform  ;  but  as  a  sign  of 
the  times,  niiirking  how  thoroiigldy  the  priesthood 
must  have  become  demoralised  before  their  power 
was  lost,  it  is  noteworthy  that  of  the  9000  clergy- 
men who  held  livings  iu  England,  there  were  fewer 
than  200  who  resigned,  rather  than  obey  the  new 
order  of  things. 

The  policy  of  E.'s  ministers  was  one  of  peace  and 
economy.  They  found  the  nation  at  war  with 
France  and  Scotland,  and  one  of  their  first  acts 
was  to  secure  peace  upon  favoiurablo  terms.     Ever 


afterwards,  they  followed  the  same  path.  No  war 
was  undertaken  in  her  reign  for  the  sake  of  teiri. 
torial  conquest.  To  strengthen  her  owii  throne,  ]•]. 
secretly  succoured  the  Protestants  in  Scotland,  in 
France,  and  in  the  Low  Countries ;  but  she  had  few 
open  wars.  To  be  at  peace  with  a  government,  nay, 
apjiarently  to  be  upon  the  most  amicable  of  terms 
with  it  (as  E.  was  with  the  French  court,  while  she 
sent  assistance  to  the  Huguenots  at  Rochelle),  and 
at  the  same  time  to  aid  its  rebellious  sul)jects,  was 
in  those  days  thought  only  jiart  of  the  politic 
dissimulation  without  which,  it  was  believed,  no 
nation  could  be  safely  ruled.  To  maintain  the 
security  of  her  own  throne,  and  to  prevent  foreign 
interference  in  English  matters,  was  the  main- 
spring of  E.'s  foreign  policy  ;  and  she  lost  no  opjior- 
tuuity  of  weakening  and  finding  occupation  abroad 
for  auy  foreign  power  that  unclidy  threatened  her 
authority. 

The  one  great  blunder  of  England's  policy  was 
the  treatment  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Had  E. 
pm'sued  a  straightforward  course,  when  her  rival 
was  throwni  into  her  hands,  much  evil  might  have 
been  spared.     Some  of  the  English  ministers  were 


Fac-simile  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Signature. 


prepared  to  take  effectual  measures  to  remove  a  life 
which  might  be  turned  into  so  dangerous  a  tool  in 
the  hands  of  Catholics.  E.  shrank  from  that  course, 
but  had  not  the  courage  and  generosity  to  set 
Queen  Mary  at  liberty.  Had  this  course  been  taken. 
Mar}'  would  have  gone  to  France  or  Spain,  would 
have  made  a  foreign  marriage,  and  as  a  foreigner 
would  have  lost  the  only  sources  of  her  real 
power — the  sympathies  of  the  Scotch  and  English 
Catholics.  As  it  was,  E.  retained  her  a  prisoner, 
and  thus  for  years  gave  cause  to  conspiracy  after 
conspiracy  among  the  English  CathoUcs.  For  a 
rebellion  incited  to  set  Mary  free,  the  richest  and 
most  popidar  of  the  English  nobility,  Norfolk,  was 
executed.  The  discovery  of  every  new  plot  led  to 
demands,  on  the  part  of  jiarUament,  for  the  execu- 
tion of  Mar}'.  The  plots  then  took  a  graver  aspect. 
The  assassination  of  E.,  and  the  placing  of  JIary 
on  her  throne,  became  the  object.  On  the  dis- 
covery of  Babington's  conspiracy  for  this  purjiose, 
the  popular  cry  was  irresistible,  and  was  joined 
in  by  Cecil  and  Walsingham,  and  others  of  E.'s 
ministei-s,  who  had  siuned  too  deeply  against  Mary 
to  run  the  risk  of  her  succession  to  the  throne. 
With  reluctance  and  hesitation,  the  sincerity  of 
which  need  not  be  questioned,  E.  consented ;  and 
Mary,  after  long  yeai-s  of  confinement,  was  con- 
demned and  executed. 


This  led  to  new  ei-ils.  The  pai-ticipation  of  the 
Catholic  party  in  the  plots  was  retaliated  by  peree- 
cution.  Many  suffered  under  an  act  passed  iu 
15S5,  making  it  treason  for  a  Catholic  priest  to  be 
in  England,  and  felony  to  harbour  one.  These  cruel 
measures  were  the  ultimate  means  of  bringing  upon 
England  the  most  menacing  foreign  attack  which  she 
had  suffered.  Philip  of  Spain  had  long  meditated 
vengeance  against  England.  The  greatest  state  in 
Europe,  enriched  by  siilendid  acquisitions  in  the  New 
World,  coidd  iU  brook  that  a  power  of  the  second 
rank  should  mcite  relicUion  among  her  subjects  in 
j  the  Netherlands,  should  aid  the  Protestants  in  their 
,  des]ierate  struggle  against  Alva,  and  allow  its  ships 
j  (little  better  than  pirates,  it  must  be  confessed)  to 
j  enter  the  Spanish  harboui-s,  and  cut  out  the  rich 
laden  galloons.  These  were  the  real  reasons  :  to 
restore  the  Catholic  faith,  and  to  revenge  the  death 
of  a  Catholic  queen,  furnished  ostensible  reasons. 
Years  had  been  sjient  in  preparation.  In  15SS,  the 
'  In\'incible  Armada'  sailed  from  the  Tagus,  manned 
by  SOOO  sailors,  and  carrjnng  20,000  soldiers.  To 
aid  these,  a  laud-army  of  1(M>,000  men  was  to  be 
transported  from  the  Netherlands  under  the  Duke 
of  Parma.  The  news  roused  all  England,  and  every 
man  who  could  carry  arms— Protestant  and  Catholic 
from  IS  years  of  age  to  60 — was  enrolled  in  the 
forces.       The   old  queen   herself  rode   at   Tilbury, 

13 


ELIZABETH. 


energetically  encouraging  the  amiy.  A  fleet  of 
200  vessels  and  15,000  seamen  gathered  itself  on 
the  southern  coasts,  and  waite<l  the  attack.  Sujie- 
rior  skill  and  courage  gained  the  victory  for  the 
English ;  and  what  these  had  begun,  the  force  of 
the  elements  com]>lcted.  The  splendid  Armatla  was 
broken  and  destroyed  before  it  coidd  join  the  land- 
army,  not  a  soldier  of  which  ever  left  foreign 
ground  ;  while  not  a  se.aman  of  the  fleet,  save  those 
whom  shipwTecks  sent,  ever  set  foot  on  English 
ground. 

E.  died  on  24th  March  1603,  having  lived  nearly 
70,  and  reigned  nearly  45  years.  If  the  life  of 
her  riv;J,  Mary  of  Scotland,  read  somewhat  like  a 
tragedy,  the  private  life  of  E.  might  aflford  abundant 
materials  for  comedy.  Always  p.ara<Ung  her  wish  to 
live  an  unmarried  life,  E.  coipietted  with  suitor 
iifter  suitor  till  long  .after  that  jwriod  of  life  when 
such  proposals  verge  upon  the  ridiculous.  Of  her 
father's  schemes  to  marry  her  to  the  Scotch  Earl  of 
.\rran  or  to  Philip  the  son  of  Charles  V. — afterwards 
husband  of  Mary — it  is  imnecessary  to  speak,  for  E. 
had  personally  little  to  say  in  regard  to  them.  But 
she  was  scarcely  more  than  a  chUd  when  her  flirta- 
tions with  the  h.indsome  Lord  Admiral  SejTuour — 
the  brother  of  the  Protector  Somerset — had  jiassed 
the  bounds  of  deconmi.  In  M.ary's  reign,  E.  was 
flattered  with  the  attentions  of  her  kinsm.au,  the  Earl 
of  Courtenay,  and  she  declined  the  hand  of  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy,  pressed  on  her  by  her  sister's  coimcU. 
When  queen,  with  some  hesitation  she  refused  the 
offer  of  Philip  II.,  who  was  desirous  of  j)erpetuating 
his  influence  over  England,  and  she  began  that 
connection  with  Leicester,  which  so  seriousty  com- 
promised her  character.  It  is  certain  that  she 
loaded  him  with  honours  as  soon  as  she  had  them 
to  bestow ;  allowed  him  to  become  a  suitor  for  her 
hand  Avithia  a  few  days  after  the  sudden  death  of 
his  wife.  Amy  Robsart,  .attributed  by  all  England 
to  his  agency ;  and  allowed  him  to  rem.ain  a  suitor 
long  after  his  open  profligacy  had  disgusted  the 
nation,  and  had  even  oi>ened  her  own  eyes  to  his 
worthlessncss.  If  we  credit  the  scand.al  of  the 
times,  the  intimacy  was  of  the  most  discreditable 
kind.  If  we  credit  those  sources  of  inform.ation, 
recently  turned  to  more  profit  by  Mt  Froude  than 
by  any  of  his  jiredcccssors,  which  are  foimd  in  the 
dispatches  of  the  Bishop  of  AquUa,  ambassador  of 
Phili])  II.  in  London,  preserved  in  the  .archives  of 
Sim.aucas,  not  only  w.i3  the  moral  char.acter  of  E. 
sulhed  with  the  darkest  crimes,  but  even  the  quality 
for  which  she  htis  ever  been  most  honoured,  her 
English  patriotism,  was  mere  affectation.  These 
dispatches  represent  her  as  accessory — at  least,  after 
the  fact — to  the  muider  of  Amy  Robsart,  and  .as 
offering  to  Spain  to  become  a  CathoUc,  and  to  restore 
the  Spanish  ascendency  in  England,  if  Philip  would 
support  her  on  the  throne  as  tlie  wife  of  Leicester ; 
and  they  represent  her  as  being  restrained  from 
giving  way  to  the  fat.al  consequences  of  her  wild 
passion  oijy  by  Cecil's  control.  That  there  is  some 
basis  of  truth  in  this  revelation,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  deny  ;  but  the  hatred  with  which 
Philip  regarded  E.,  after  her  refusal  to  marry  him, 
has  undoubtedly  led  tlic  courtly  bishop  to  gross 
exaggerations.  It  is  undeniable,  however,  that  had 
E.  followed  her  own  inclinations,  she  would  have 
married  Leicester.  Her  ministers,  wisely  for  the 
nation,  prevented  this,  but  E.  never  seriously  enter- 
tained another  proposal  Cecil  could  prevent  her 
marrying  whom  he  would  not,  but  he  could  not 
force  her  to  marry  whom  he  would.  Among  less 
distinguished  suitors,  the  Archduke  Charles  of 
Vienna,  and  Prince  Eric  of  Sweden,  pressed  their 
suit  in  vain,  i'ctitions  from  parliament  to  the 
Bueen  to  marrj',  only  excited  her  maidenly  >\Tath, 
14 


.and  produced  dignifie<l  replies  that  she  would 
attend  to  the  matter  when  the  time  come.  Years 
p.assed  on,  .and  she  remained  a  spinster.  Catharine 
of  Medici,  queen-mother  of  France,  intrigued  to 
marry  her  to  one  of  her  sons,  Henry  of  Anjou 
(afterwards  Henry  III.),  or  the  DiUie  of  Aleuvoi;, 
afterwarils  Duke  of  Anjou.  When  the  foreign 
envoys  pressed  the  suit  of  the  Latter,  E.  was 
38  years  of  age,  and  her  suitor  19  ;  but  they 
ingeniously  fl.attered  her  that  she   and   he  looked 

'  of  the  same  age,  for  she,  by  her  good  preservation, 
looked  nine   years   younger   than   she  was ;    while 

i  the  duke,  by  liis  wisdom,  gravity,  and  m-atm* 
intellect,  looked  nine  ycare  older.  This  flattery, 
with  more  plausible  attractions,  w.as  wthout  effect. 

1      E.'s  position  gave  too  much  scope  for  the  develop- 

I  ment  of  the  uuamiable  and  ritliculous  fcatvires  of 
her  character.  The  pei-soual  vanity  displayed  in 
her  extrav.ag.ant  dress,  her  conversation,  her  '  high 
and  disjiosed  '  dancing,  e.xcites  a  smile,  not  lesseneil 
when  we  read  of  the  irritable  mistress  boxing  the 
ears  of  her  councilloi-s,  cuffing  her  attendants, 
indulging  in  expressive  m.ascidiue  oaths,  and  .amusing 

j  herself  with  rough  mascidine  spoi-ts.  The  assertion 
that  she  was  of  a  cruel  disposition  is  false.  That 
she  could  do  cruel  things  when  her  vanity  was 
concerned  is  sufliciently  attested  by  her  ordering 
the  right  hand  of  a  barrister,  n.amed  Stubbes,  to 
be  struck  off  for  uniting  a  remonstrance  against 
her  marri.age  with  the  Duke  of  Alenjon,  which 
she  thought  undidy  reflected  on  herself;  biit  iu 
her  reign,  the  reckless  waste  of  hmnan  life  which 
marked  the  reigns  of  her  predecessors  was  unknown. 
She  was  not,  however,  of  tine  feelings.  Her  brother 
coidd  comjilimeut  her  on  the  ciilm  mind  and  elegant 
sentences  with  which  she  replied  to  the  communi- 
cation of  the  death  of  her  father.  Ou  the  news  of 
her  sister's  death,  she  bm-st  out  with  rhapsodical 
quotations  from  the  Ps.alms ;  .and  when  she  heard  of 
the  execution  of  her  lover  SejTiiour,  she  tm-ned 
away  the  subject  with  something  like  a  jest  By 
her  attendants,  she  was  more  feared  than  loveii. 
The  one  quality  which  never  failed  her,  was  per- 
sonal courage  ;  and  when  she  chose,  her  demeanour 
was  st.ately  and  royal.  Religion  was  with  her, 
.as  with  a  great  proportion  of  the  nation  .at  that 
time,  a  matter  more  of  policy  and  convenience 
than  of  feeling  or  priuci]>le.  She  ]irefen'ed  Pro- 
testantism, from  early  associations,  because  it  gave 
her  the  headship  of  the  church,  freed  her  From 
foreign  interference,  and  was  more  acceptable  to 
her  ministers  and  to  the  nation.  But  she  had 
conformed  in  Mary's  time  to  Catholicism  with  little 
dilKcidt)' ;  and,  had  there  been  necessity  for  it,  she 
would  rather  have  reigned  a  Catholic  than  not  have 
reigned  at  .all.  To  the  last,  she  retained  in  her 
private  chapel  much  of  the  ritualism  of  the  Roman 
Church ;  and  while  refusing  her  Catholic  subjects 
the  exercise  of  their  religion,  she  entertained  the 
adilresses  of  Catholic  suitors.  How  thoroughly 
iucapable  she  w.as  of  appreciating  a  matter  of 
rehgious  principle  m.ay  be  gathered  from  the  fact, 
that  she  looked  upon  the  great  Puritan  movement, 
destined  soon  afterwards  to  play  so  important  a 
part  in  the  nation's  development,  as  some  frivolous 
controversy  about  the  shape  of  clerical  vestments. 
Of  toleration,  then  well  enough  imderstood  by 
Bacon  and  the  more  advanced  spirits  of  the  age, 
she  h.ad  no  conception. 

Wh.at  makes  the  name  of  E.  so  f.amous,  was 
the  splendour  of  her  times.  In  her  long  reign, 
the  true  greatness  of  England  began.  Freed  from 
the  possession  of  those  French  provinces  which 
rather  harassed  than  enriched — with  little  domestic 
commotion — with  no  great  foreign  wars — with  an 
almost  complete  immimity  from  religious  peraecution. 


ELIZABETH. 


the  nation  turneJ  to  the  arts  of  peace.  An 
xmequaOeJ  literature  arose.  The  age  that  produced 
S|>enser,  Shakspeare,  and  Bacon,  could  not  be 
other  than  famous.  Under  Frobisher  and  Drake, 
maritime  adventure  began,  and  the  foiindations  of 
oiu"  naval  force  were  laid.  Commerce,  from  being 
a  small  m.atter  in  the  hands  of  a  few  foreign 
luercliants,  developed  itself  largely.  The  E.\change 
of  London  was  opened  in  E.'s  time;  and  in  the 
cliarter  which  she  granted  to  that  Company  of 
Jlerchant  Adventurers,  which  afterwards  took  the 
Uiame  of   the   East   Iiulia    Company,   may  be  seen 


one  of  the  small  lieginuings  of  our  vast  colonial 
empire.  The  social  condition  of  the  people  also 
greatly  improved  in  her  reign.  The  crowds  o£ 
vagabonds  which  the  monastic  institutions  had 
fostered,  and  who  ha<l  iiillaged  the  coimtry  iu  aU 
ways  on  the  secvUarisation  of  the  monastic  property, 
died  out,  or  were  absorbed  in  industrious  employ- 
ments. The  last  traces  of  bondage  disappearei.1. 
Simultaneously  with  the  growth  of  greater  comfort 
and  intelligence  in  the  people,  parliament  began  to 
assert,  with  greater  vigour,  its  constitutional  rights. 
The  right  of  the  Conunons  to  free  speech,  and  to 


'/  , 


•:^5fl'ir»^.v 


Quocn  Elizabeth's  Tomb : 
In  the  North  Aisle  of  Henry  VII.'s  Ch.->pel,  Westminster  Abbey. 


initiate  all  money-bills,  was  steadily  asserted  ;  and 
the  right  of  the  Crown  to  grant  monopolies,  or  to 
issue  proclamations  having  the  force  of  law,  vigor- 
ously assailed.  In  the  later  years  of  her  reign,  the 
attempts  of  E.  to  gain  arbitrary  power,  and  her 
caprices,  had  forfeited  the  popularity  which  she 
so  anxiously  cidtivateil.  But  after  her  death,  her 
fame  revived ;  an<l  ihu'ing  the  time  of  the  Stuarts, 
amid  the  jealousy  of  the  Scotch,  the  trouljles  of 
the  civil  wars,  and  the  hatred  of  a  Catholic  sove- 
reign, the  nation  looked  back  with  fond  regard  to 
the  long  reign  of  the  '  Good  Queen  Bess,  when 
'  peace  had  prevailed,  and  the  government  had  been 
thoroughly  English. 

ELIZABETH,  St,  daughter  of  Andreas  IL,  king 
of  Hungary,  was  born  at  Presburg  in  120".  At  the 
age  of  four,  she  w:i3  affianced  to  tlie  Laudgraf  of 
Thuringia,  Louis  IV.,  called  the  Pious,  and  brought 
to  his  covirt  to  be  educated  under  the  eyes  of  the 


parents  of  her  future  husband.  She  early  displayed 
what  may  be  called  a  passion  for  the  severities  of 
the  Christian  life,  as  it  was  conceived  in  those  d.ays. 
She  despised  pomp,  avarice,  ambition;  cultivated 
humility,  and  exhibited  the  most  self.denying  bene- 
volence. Her  conduct,  even  as  a  girl,  astonished 
the  Tliuringian  court ;  but  such  was  the  grace  and 
sweetness  of  her  disposition,  aud  the  exceUeuce  of 
her  beauty,  that  Louis— though  her  aflTections  seemed 
to  be  given  wholly  to  God — still  wished  to  marry 
her.  They  were  united  when  E.  was  only  14.  Louis 
himself,  far  from  blaming  the  devout  girl  whom  ho 
h.ad  made  liis  wife  for  her  long  pr.ayers  and  cease- 
less almsgiWng,  was  himself  partially  attracted  to  a 
similar  nu>de  of  life.  A  boy  and  two  girls  were  the 
fruit  of  their  union ;  but  the  happiness  of  E.,  in  so  far 
as  it  depended  on  anj'thing  earthly,  was  shattered 
by  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1227,  when  absent 
on  the  crusade  headed  by  Earbarossa.  Her  confessor, 

15 


ELIZABETH  PETKO\"NA— ELIZABETH  STUART. 


Conrad  of  Marburg,  a  narrow  fanatical  monk  (to 
wliose  miserable  tt-achin"  E.  mainly  owed  her 
pervertc^l  idea  of  life  and  duty),  had  trained  her  to 
stille  the  emotions  of  her  nature  as  sinful,  and 
the  poor  widow  hardly  dared  to  Wwail  her  loss. 
Great  misfortunes  soon  befell  her.  She  was  deprived 
of  her  regency  by  the  brother  of  her  deceased 
husband,  and  driven  out  of   licr  dominions  on  the 

Elea  that  she  wasted  the  treasures  of  the  state  by 
cr  charities.  The  inhabitants  of  Marburg,  whose 
miseries  she  had  freijuintly  relieved,  refused  her 
an  .-uiylum,  for  fear  of  the  new  regent.  At  last  she 
found'  refuse  in  a  chiu-ch,  where  her  (irst  duty  w,as 
to  thank  God  that  he  had  judged  her  worthy  to 
suffer.  Subsequently,  after  other  severe  privations, 
such  as  being  forced  to  take  up  her  abode  in  the 
stable  of  a  hustrlry,  slie  was  received  into  the 
monastery-  of  Kitziugen  by  the  abbess,  who  was  her 
aunt,  ^\■hen  the  warriors  who  had  .attended  her 
husband  in  the  crusade  returned  from  the  East,  she 
gathered  them  round  her,  and  recounted  her  suffer- 
ings. Steps  were  taken  to  restore  to  the  unfor- 
tunate princess  her  sovereign  rights.  She  declined 
the  regency,  liowevcr,  and  would  only  accept  the 
revenues  which  accrued  to  her  as  landgra^-ine.  The 
remainder  of  her  days  were  devoted  to  incessant 
devotions,  almsgi\nngs,  mortifications,  &c.  There 
is  sometliing  mournfully  sublime  in  her  luinatural 
self-sacrifice.  We  shudder  even  in  our  sj-mjiathy 
when  we  read  of  this  beautiful  tender-hearted  crea- 
tiu-e  w,-ishing  the  head  and  the  feet  of  the  scrofulous 
and  the  le[irous.  Murillo  has  a  painting  (now  in 
the  Museum  at  Madi'id)  of  this  act  of  evangelical 
devotion.  The  solemn  tragedy  of  her  brief  life 
assimied  towards  its  close  a  ghastly  intensity 
through  the  conduct  of  her  confessor,  Conrad,  who, 
under  pretence  of  spiritual  chastisement,  used  to 
strike  and  maltreat  her  with  brutal  severity.  The 
alleged  c.iuse  of  this  was  Conrad's  aversion  to  her 
'  squandering '  her  money  among  the  poor.  Perhaps 
he  thought  it  should  have  gone  to  Jiim.  At  last  her 
health  gave  way;  and  on  the  10th  November  12.S1, 
at  the  age  of  24,  E.  died,  the  victim  partlj-  of  ill- 
usage  and  p.artly  of  a  mistaken  theory  of  religious 
life,  but  as  gentle  and  saintly  a  soiU  as  figiu-es  in  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages.  She  was  canonised 
four  years  after  her  de.ath.  See  Montalembert's 
Jlistoire  (le  Sainte  Elisabeth  de  Ilonijrie  (Paris,  ISiSG). 
The  Kev.  Charles  Kingsley's  dramatic  poem,  entitled 
T/ie  Saiiit'.i  Tmgpdij  (London,  18-tS),  is  foiuided  on 
the  story  of  E.'s  life. 

ELIZABETH  PETRO'VXA,  Emi>ress  of  Paissia, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  I.,  was 
born  in  the  year  1709.  On  the  death  of  Peter  II. 
in  1730,  she  allowed  Anna,  Duchess  of  Courland, 
to  ascend  the  throne,  she  herself  being  apparently 
indifTerent  to  anj-thing  but  the  indulgence  of  her 
passions.  Anna  died  in  1740,  and  Ivan,  the  son  of 
her  niece  (also  called  Anna),  an  infant  of  two 
months,  was  declared  emperor,  and  his  mother 
regent  during  his  minority.  Shortly  after  this,  a 
plot  w.as  formed  to  place  E.  upon  the  throne ;  the 
two  principal  agt-nts  in  it  were  Lestocq,  a  surgeon, 
and  the  Marquis  de  la  Chetardie,  the  French 
ambassador.  The  oflicers  of  the  army  were  soon 
won  over ;  and  on  the  night  of  the  5th  December 
1741,  the  recent  and  her  husband  were  t.aken  into 
custody,  and  the  child  Ivan  conveyed  to  SchlUssel- 
burg.  The  leading  adherents  of  Anna  Mere  con- 
demned to  death,  but  i)ardoned  on  the  scafTold,  and 
exiled  to  Siberia.  By  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
the  revolution  was  comjiletcd,  and  in  the  afternoon 
all  the  troojis  did  homage  to  the  new  empress. 
La  Chetardie  was  liandsomely  rewarded ;  and 
Lestocq  was  created  first  physician  to  the  empress. 
President  of  the  College  of  Medicine,  and  privy 
16 


'  councillor.   E.,  however,  did  not  possess  the  qualities 
requisite  in  a  rider.    She  wanted  energj%  knowledge, 
and   love   of   biusiness,  and   allowed   herself  to    De 
guided  by  favourites.     In  order  to  strengthen  her 
'  position,  E.  took   pains   to  win  over  her  nephew, 
the  young  prince  Peter,  the  son  of  her  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Holstein-Gottorp.     She  summoned  him 
to  Petersburg  in  the  ye.ar  1742,  an<l  proclaimed  him 
her  successor.     E.  took  jiart  in  the  Austrian  War 
of  Succession,  and    in   sjiitc  of   the   opposition   of 
France,  despatched  an  army  of  37.000  men  to  the 
assistance  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  thereby  hastened 
the  conclusion  of  the  jieace  of  Aix-la-t'hapoUe  in 
1748.       E.   shewed   herself    less    placable   towards 
I  Frederick  II.,  .ag.ainst  whom  she  cherished  a  personal 
enmity,  excited  by  some  severe  expressions  he  h.ad 
employed  respecting  her.      At  the  commencement 
j  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  she  allied  herself  with 
j  Austria  and  France,  and  marched  her  troops  into 
the  Prussian  states.     Her  troops  gained  the  victory 
'  in  the  battles  of  Grossjagerndorf  and  Kunersdorf, 
and   took   possession    of   Berlin,   but   without   any 
decisive  result.      E.  died  before   the  exjiiration  of 
the   war,   5th    January    17C2.      She    founded    the 
university  of  Moscow  .and  the  Academy  of  Art  at 
St  Petersburg.     Though  no  person  was  put  to  death 
during  her  reign,  the  most  shocking  punishments 
were  inflicted,  and  thousands  were  exiled  to  Siberia 
and    Kamtchatka.      E.    had    several     iUegitini.ate 
^  children.      Profligacy,    espionage,   and    persecution 
'  reigned  in  her  court,  the  administration  of  justice 
w.as  restrained,  and  the  finances  neglected ;  but  E. 
was  nevertheless  extremely  strict  in  the  observance 
'  of  the  public  ordinances  of  religion. 
j      ELIZABETH    STUART,   Queen    of    Bohemia, 
'  remarkable  not  only  as  a  heroine,  but  as  forming 
!  the    connecting    link    between    the    ancient   royal 
families  of  England  and  Scotland  and  the  present 
I  reigning  dyn.asty,  w.as  liorn  in  the  palace  of  Falk- 
'  land  (q.  v.)  on  the  19th  of  Aucust  1596.     On  the 
I  accession  of  her  father,  James   v  I.  of  Scotland,  to 
i  the  crown  which  fell  to  him  by  the  demise  of  Queen 
i  Elizabeth,  in  1G03,  she  accompanied  the  family  to 
England,  where  she  was  educated.     On  the  14th  of 
February  1013,  E.  was  married  to  Frederick,  Elector- 
1  Palatine,  whom  she  soon  after  accompanied  to  his 
residence,  the  castle  of  Heidelberg  (q.  v.) ;  sec  also 
Pal.\ti>'ate.      When    the    Protestant    princes     of 
Germany   sought    for   a   fitting   person   to   fill   the 
throne  of  Bohemia,  they  made  choice  of  Frederick, 
I  who  accepted  the  jierilous  honour,  p.irtl}-,  perhaps, 
from  the  ambition  of  his  wife,  who  is  .alleged  to  have 
longed  for  the  title  of  queen.    The  Palatine  removed 
with  E.  and  three  children  to  Pr,ague,  which  they 
[  entered,  Octol>er  21.   1619.     Frederick  and  E.  occu- 
pied the  thri>ne  of  Bohemia  only  about  a  j-ear.     By 
the   forces   of   the   Catholic    League,   the   army   of 
Frederick   was    routed    at    the   battle   of    Prague, 
November  8.  1G20,  and  the  roj'al  family  fled  into 
exile,  for   already  the  Palatin.ate   was   laid   w.aste. 
With  her  husb.ind  and  chiMren,  ami  a  few  f.iithful 
I  attend.ants,  E.  took  up  her  residence  at  the  Hague, 
!  and  ever  afterwards  the  family  lived  in  a  state  of 
<lependc'nce.     E.  w.as  the  mother  of  thirteen  chil- 
dren, the  eldest  of  whom  was  accidentally  drowned 
i  in  Holland,  and  three  others  died  young.     The  next 
'  were  Charles-Louis  and  Paipert,  and,  following  in 
order,   were    Elizabeth,    Maurice,    Edward,   Philiji, 
!  Louisa,  Henrietta-Maria,  aiul  Soi)hi,a.     From   this 
niunerous  ofTspring,  E.  derived  little  comfort  in  her 
misfortunes.     Charles-Louis  w.as  a  selfish,  calciJat- 
ing  person,  with  low,  disreputable  habits.     Rupert 
(q.  v.),  the  'mad  cavalier,'  and  his  brother,  Maurice, 
fought  in  England  during  the  civil  war,  and,  after 
the   loss    of   the    royalist    cause    at   the   battle   of 
\  Naseby,  they  betook  themselves  to  the  sea,  and  for 


ELIZABETHAN  AKCHITECTUKE— ELK. 


some  time  were  little  better  than  pirates.  Edward, 
in  1G45,  alijurcd  Protestantism,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Roman  Cathohc  Church.  Philip  committed 
an  assassination  at  the  Hague,  fled  from  justice, 
became  a  soldier  of  fortune  in  France,  and  was 
slain'iu  the  civil  wars.  Ehzaljeth  accepted  the  office 
of  superior  of  the  Lutheran  abbey  of  Hervorden, 
Henrietta-Maria  was  espoused  by  Kagotzi,  Prince 
of  Transylvania,  but  died  shortly  after  her  mar- 
riage. Louisa  Hed  to  France,  and  died  as  abbess  of 
Maubisson.  Previous  to  these  events,  E.  became  a 
widow  by  the  death  of  Frederick,  Febniary  17,  1629, 
when  his  right  to  the  Palatinate  devoh'ed  on 
Charles-Louis,  who,  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
was  restored  to  the  faniUy  inheritance,  October  24, 
1048.  This  favourable  turn  of  affairs  did  not  mend 
the  fortunes  of  E.,  who  was  scandalously  neglrctcil 
by  her  son,  the  young  Elector- Palatine  ;  and  all  he 
woiUd  do  for  the  family  was  to  give  a  shelter  to  his 
youngest  sister  Sophia,  until  she  was  mamed  to 
"Ernest- Augustus,  a  scion  of  the  House  of  Brunswick, 
who  idtiiuately  succeeded  to  the  electorate  of 
Hanover. 

Deprived,  in  one  way  or  other,  of  all  her  children, 
the  Queen  of  Bohemia — by  which  title  she  continued 
to  be  known — resolved  to  quit  Holland.  KeUeved 
of  her  debts  liy  the  sale  of  jewels,  and  by  aid  of  a 
pecuniary  subsidy  from  the  British  pai'liament,  she 
embraced  an  invitation  from  her  nephew,  Charles  II., 
to  come  to  England.  She  arrived  May  17,  16GL 
From  this  time  she  was  in  a  great  measure  indebted 
to  the  hospitality  of  Lord  Craven,  in  a  mansion  which 
he  hail  purchased  from  Sir  Robert  Drury,  in  Drury 
Lane,  London.  Charles  II.  paid  her  little  attention ; 
but  at  her  death,  which  occurred  February  1.3,  1602, 
he  caused  her  remains  to  be  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  Charles-Louis,  her  son,  died  in  1680,  leaving 
A  son,  who  died  \\*ithout  issue,  and  the  Palatinate 
then  went  to  a  distant  branch  of  the  family  ;  he  left 
also  a  daughter,  Charlotte- Eliz,abeth,  who,  in  1671, 
had  married  Philip,  Didie  of  Orleans,  only  brother 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1674,  she  gave  birth  to  a  prince, 
who  became  the  noted  Regent  of  France  dtu-ing  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV.  She  died  at  St  Cloud  in 
1722.  The  late  Louis-Phdippe.  king  of  the  French, 
was  her  lineal  descendant.  When,  in  1708,  the 
question  of  succession  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain 
was  debated,  it  was  found  that  all  the  descendants 
of  James  I.  were  either  dead  or  were  Roman 
(Jatholics,  except  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  and 
her  family.  By  act  of  parliament,  that  year,  the 
crown  was  accordingly  secured  to  her  and  her 
descendants,  '  being  Protestants  ; '  and  in  virtue  of 
this  act  of  settlement,  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
Sophia  would  h.ive  ascended  the  throne,  b>it  she 
predeceased  the  queen  three  months,  and  her  son 
became  sovereign  of  these  realms  as  George  I., 
August  12,  1714.  In  this  extraordinarj-  and  unfore- 
seen manner  did  a  grandson  of  the  imfortimate 
queen  of  Bohemia  beccmie  king  of  England,  and 
originate  the  dynasty  of  the  reigning  monarch.  The 
Memoirs  of  Ulizabeih  Stuart,  Quern  of  Boltemia,  by 
Jliss  Bcnger,  2  vols.,  may  be  ])erused  as  an  accurate 
and  pleasing  piece  of  biograjihy. 

ELIZ.\BE'THAN  ARCHITECTURE,  a  term 
appUed  to  the  mi.xed  style  which  sprang  up  on 
the  decline  of  (tothic  architecture.  By  some  it 
is  called  the  Tudor  style,  but  that  name  belongs 
more  correctly  to  the  Perpendicular,  or  latest  kind 
of  Gothic.  The  Ehzabethan  is  chiefly  exemplified 
by  mansions  erected  for  the  nobility  in  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  and  originated  in  the  first 
attempt  to  revive  classic  architecture,  influenced,  no 
doubt,  by  Holliein,  who  was  patronised  by  Henry 
VIII.,  and  furnished  several  designs  in  this  manner. 
John  of  Padua  succeeded  him,  and  built  in  the 
15S 


mixed  style  a  palace  for  the  Protector  Somerset  (for 
which  purpose  the  cloisters  of  St  Paul's  were  taken 
down),  and  the  mansion  of  Longleat  for  his  secre- 
tary. Sir  John  ThjTine.  The  vast  dimensions  of  the 
apartments,  the  extreme  length  of  the  galleries,  and 


Holland  House. 


enomious  square  windows,  are  the  leading  charac- 
teristics of  this  manner  of  building.  The  ornaments 
both  within  and  withoiit  were  cumbrous ;  nothing 
could  exceed  the  heaviness  of  the  cornices  and  ceil- 
ings wTOUght  into  compartments ;  in  shoi-t,  the 
architectm-e  w.as  just  in  keeping  with  the  dress  of 
the  period,  rich  and  gorgeous,  rather  than  elegant, 
gracefid,  and  comfortable.  The  following  examples 
of  mansions  of  the  17th  c.  may  be  still  seen  near 
London :  Holland  House,  Campden  House ;  and 
the  foUowing  in  Kent :  Sir  T.  Willow's  at  Charlton, 
the  Marquis  of  Salisbury's  at  Hatfield,  and  Knowle, 
the  property  of  the  Diie  of  Dorset.  The  most 
eminent  architects  of  those  times  were  John  Thorpe, 
Gerard  Christmas,  Rodoljih  Symonds,  and  Thomas 
Holt. 

ELIZABETO'POL,  a  town  of  Russian  Trans- 
caucasia, is  situated  in  lat.  40°  42' N.,  long.  46°  20'  E. 
Tlie  town  consists  of  three  pai-ts,  one  of  which  is 
fortified  with  a  bastioned  wall.  Its  principal  build- 
ings are  its  chm-ches  and  mosques,  of  which  there 
are  man}-.  A  peculiarity  of  this  town  is  its  numer- 
ous fruit-gardens  or  vineyards.  Horticidture,  the 
rearing  of  silk-worms,  bees,  and  cattle,  with  agricul- 
ture a^id  mining,  are  the  chief  occiqiations  of  the 
inhabitants.  Pop.  (1855)  12,966,  principally  Tartars 
and  Armenians. 

ELK,  MOOSE,  or  MOOSE  DEER  {Alces 
Makhis,  or  Cervus  akes),  the  largest  existing  species 
of  the  Cervklcv,  or  deer  famdy,  is  a  native  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  AMicn 
fuU  grown,  it  is  about  six  feet  in  height  at  the 
shouidei'S,  and  sometimes  weighs  1200  pounds.  The 
body  is  round,  compact,  and  short ;  the  neck  is 
short  and  thick,  unlike  that  of  deer  in  general,  but 
thus  adapted  for  sustaining  the  great  weight  of  the 
head  and  horns.  The  head  is  very  large,  nan-ow, 
about  two  feet  long.  The  horns  in  males  of  the 
second  year  are  unbranched,  not  flattened,  and  about 
a  foot  long ;  as  the  animal  becomes  older,  they 
begin  to  display  a  blade,  with  more  numerous  snags, 
and  in  mature  elks  the  blade  becomes  very  broad, 
the  snags  sometimes  fourteen  on  each  horn  ;  a  single 
antler  has  been  known  to  weigh  aboiit  sixty  pounds. 
The  horns  have  no  basal  snag  projecting  forwards. 
The  cars  are  long,  and  have  been  compared  to  those 
of  the  ass.  The  eyes  are  small.  The  limbs  are  long, 
and  very  gracefid.  The  tail  is  only  about  four  inches 


ELK-  ELLENEOROUGH. 


long.  The  body  is  covered  with  coaree  angular 
hair,  which  breaks  when  it  is  bent.  On  the  neck 
and  withers  there  is  a  heavy  mane,  and  the  throat 
is  covered  with  long  hair.  A  large  goitre-like 
swelling  under  the  throat  of  the  younger  elks  has  a 
very  curious  ajipcarance.  The  hoofs  of  the  E.,  like 
those  of  the  rcmdeer  and  of  the  buffalo,  arc  so  con- 
Btnicted  as  to  part  widely,  and  to  afford  a  better 


Elk  [Cennia  alcet). 

footing  on  soft  marshy  ground  or  ou  suow :  they 
make  a  clattering  when  it  runs.  In  nmning,  it 
carries  its  muzzle  forward,  with  the  horns  thrown 
back  upon  the  neck,  so  that  they  may  not  be  caught 
by  branches.  Its  shoidders  being  higher  than  the 
croup,  its  common  gait  is  a  shambling  trot ;  but  it 
can  also  gallop  \vith  great  rajiiility.  The  colour  of 
the  elk  is  browni.sh  black,  darker  in  winter  than  iu 
summer ;  the  limbs,  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  the 
mane  are  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  body.  Elks 
are  sometimes  seen  in  small  herds,  but  often  singly ; 
they  are  now  very  rare  in  Europe,  and  are  no  longer 
foimd  in  jjarts  of  North  America  in  which  they  were 
once  common.  They  formerly  extended  as  fai-  south 
as  the  Ohio.  They  are  sometimes  seen  even  on  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  They  delight  in  marshy 
districts  and  in  forests.  When  compelled  to  eat 
grass,  they  must  get  down  ou  their  knees  to  reach 
it :  their  proper  food  consists  of  the  branches  and 
foliage  of  shndjs  and  trees.  They  are  very  timid 
and  moflensive,  except  during  the  rutting  season. 
A  single  stroke  of  an  elk's  fore-foot  is  sufficient  to 
kill  the  strongest  dog.  It  is  also  au  extremely  wary 
animal,  and  is  with  the  greatest  difficidty  approached 
by  the  lumter.  Its  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  and 
the  slightest  soiind  excites  its  alanii.  It  is,  how- 
ever, much  sought  after  in  North  America.  In 
Sweden,  its  destruction  is  prohibited ;  and  in  Nor- 
way is  placed  under  legal  restrictions.  The  flesh  of 
the  elk  is  esteemed  a  good  kind  of  venison  ;  the  fat 
is  remarkably  soft ;  the  nose  and  the  tongue  are 
reckoned  delicacies.  The  skin  is  used  for  a  v.ariety 
of  purposes. 

Tlie  elk  is  easily  domesticated,  and  was  at  one 
time  employed  in  Sweden  for  conveying  couriers, 
being  cap.able  of  travelling  more  th.an  200  miles  in  a 
day  when  attached  to  a  sledge. 

The  elk  of  Ceylon  is  a  deer  of  the  group  to  which 
the  name  Iiiifta  has  been  given. 

ELK,  Iiuaii  (Mcyaceros  lUhfrnicitu],  a  large  deer 
found  in  the  Pleistocene  strata.  There  is  a  double 
error  in  its  ])opiUar  name,  for  it  is  a  true  deer, 
between  the  fallow  and  rein  deer,  and  though  alnmd- 
ant  in  Ireland,  it  is  not  peciUiar  to  tliat  country, 
being  fonnd  also  in  I'^ngland,  Scotland,  and  on  the 
contment  of  Europe.  In  Ireland,  it  occurs  in  the 
18 


shell  marl  underlying  the  extensive  turbaries.  In 
England,  lacustrine  de]iosits  and  brick-clay  contain 
its  remains,  and,  associated  with  the  mammoth  and 
rhinoceros,  they  are  found  also  in  ossiferous  caves. 


Fossil  Elk. 

The  most  striking  feature  in  this  animal  was  its 
enormous  antlers.  A  straight  line  tb'awn  between 
their  extreme  tips  in  one  specimen  measured  ten 
feet  ten  inches.  The  form  of  the  antler  differs  from 
that  of  any  living  species  of  deer.  The  beam  enlarges 
and  flattens  into  a  jialm ;  a  brow  snag  exists  as  in 
the  fallow-deer,  but  iu  adult  sjiecimens,  this  bifur- 
cates and  expands  somewhat  as  in  the  reindeer 
— a  peculiarity  never  obser\'ed  iu  the  fallow-deer 
group.  The  antler  is  also  furnished  with  a  back 
snag.  Some  idea  of  the  enormous  size  and  weight 
of  the  antlers  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that,  in 
a  specimen  where  the  head  weighed  !)\  pounds,  their 
weight  was  SI  jioiuids.  To  sustain  this,  the  vertebrae 
of  the  neck  and  the  limbs  are  very  much  larger  and 
stronger  than  in  any  other  deer.  A  fine  and  almost 
perfect  siiecimen  of  this  animal,  from  the  Isle  of 
Man,  exists  iu  the  Edinburgh  Museum. 

EL-KHA'RGEH,  capital  of  the  Great  Oasis, 
Ui)pcr  Egypt,  is  situated  in  lat.  25°  28'  N.,  long.  30° 
40'  E.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  are  numerous 
ruins,  among  which  are  those  of  a  terajjle ;  there  is 
also  a  remarkable  necropolis.     To]).  0000. 

ELL  (allied  to  e/bow,  Ger.  ellenhogen,  Lat.  xilna, 
the  fore-arm  or  arm  in  general)  is  a  measure  of 
length  now  little  used.  It  was  originally  taken  in 
some  vague  way  from  the  arm,  and  hence  has  been 
used  to  denote  very  (bfferent  lengths.  The  Latin 
ulna  ap])ears  to  have  denoted  sometimes  the  mea- 
sure from  the  elbow  to  the  tips  of  the  lingers, 
sometimes  that  between  the  outstretched  hands. 
The  English  ell,  as  a  measure  of  cloth,  is  equal  to 
five  quarters  of  a  Yard  (q.  v.). 

E'LLENBOROUGH,  Earl  of.  Edward  Law, 
first  Earl  of  E.,  son  of  the  first  baron  (ni.any  years 
Chief-justice  of  the  lung's  Bench),  was  liorn  1790; 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  St  John's  College, Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  M.A.,  1800 ;  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  barony  in  1818  ;  was  Lord  Privy  Seal 
in  the  Duke  of  WeUington's  .administration,  1828 — 
1829  ;  President  of  the  Board  of  Control  d\iring  the 
short-lived  Peel  .administration  of  18,'!-t — 1S.S5;  and 
a[)pointe<l,  on  the  return  of  Sir  I{ol)crt  Peel  iu 
September  1841,  to  the  same  odice,  which  he 
relincpiished  a  inontli  afterwards  for  tlie  ]iost  of 
GoveniDrgeneral  of  Indi.a.  Ho  received  tlie  tluanks 
of  parliament  in  184.'{  for  his  '.ability  and  judgment' 
in  supporting  the  military  operations  in  Afghanistan. 
In  many  other  respects,  his  Indian  administration 


ELLENRIEDER— ELLIPSE. 


was  open  to  cenaure.  He  was  charged  with  reserving 
his  favour  for  the  military,  and  iiiflicting  undesers-cd 
slights  upon  the  ciril  servants  of  the  Company.  He 
made  showy  progresses ;  addressed  proclamations  to 
the  rulers  and  natives  of  India  which  appeared  to 
sanction  idolatry ;  and,  finally,  in  his  proclamation 
concerning  the  sandal-wood  gates  of  the  temple  of 
Juggernaut,  when  brought  back  from  Ghuznee,  he 
reached  the  climax  of  a  series  of  c.xtravag.ances, 
which  induced  the  directors  of  the  East  India 
Company  to  exercise  a  power  only  used  in  extreme 
cases,  and  to  recall  hiio.  The  ministry,  however, 
stood  by  him,  and  he  vraa  created  by  the  crown  an 
earl  and  a  viscount ;  he  also  received  the  distinction 
of  G.C.B.  In  1846,  Sir  R.  Peel  made  him  first  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  an  office  which  he  resigned  in 
Jidy  of  the  same  year,  when  the  disruption  of  the 
Peel  administration  took  place.  In  the  Derby 
administration  of  1853  he  was  again  Minister  for 
India,  and  the  author  of  an  India  Bill,  which  failed 
to  obtain  the  sanction  of  parhament.  Having 
permitted  a  dispatch  to  see  the  hght,  in  which  he 
had  administered  a  severe  and  caustic  rebuke  to 
Viscount  Canning,  Governor-general  of  India,  an 
outcry  was  raLsed  against  him,  which  threatened 
the  existence  of  the  Derby  government.  To  avert 
this  result.  Lord  E.  resigned.  He  has  since  taken 
a  frequent  and  influential  part  in  the  debates  of  the 
Upper  House.  He  is  styled,  by  no  less  a  judge  than 
M.  Guizot,  '  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Tory  orators.' 
He  has  been  twice  married — first  to  a  daughter  of 
the  Marquis  of  LondondeiTj',  and  second  to  the 
daughter  of  Admiral  Digby.  His  divorce  from 
the  latter  made  some  noise  at  the  time.  Should  he 
die  without  issue,  the  earldom  and  viscounty  will 
become  extinct.    (Died  22d  December  lS'i'2,) 

ELLENRIEDER,  Makie,  a  female  painter  of 
very  high  excellence,  was  bom  .at  Constance  in  1791, 
studied  in  Munich,  and  in  1S20  went  to  Rome, 
to  perfect  her  knowledge  of  art.  Her  admiration 
of  the  old  German  masters  gave'  a  reUgious  bent  to 
her  genius.  On  her  return  to  Germany,  she  resided 
for  some  time  at  Carlsruhe,  where  she  painted  a 
'Martyrdom  of  St  Stephen'  as  an  altar-piece  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  She  was  afterwards 
appointed  court-painter  at  Munich,  but  has  since 
fixed  her  residence  at  Constance,  and  devoted  her- 
self exclusively  to  her  profession.  Among  her 
princip,T.l  pieces  are  ,the  '  Transfi^iration  of  St 
Barthelemy,'  'Christ  Blessin"  Little  Children,' 
'  Mary  and  the  Infant  Jesus,  '  Joseph  and  the 
Infant  Jesus,'  'St  Cecilia,'  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity, 
and  a  M.odonna,  Marie  E.  is  reckoned  in  Germany 
the  greatest  female  artist  of  the  present  age.  So 
fiUl  of  ideal  grace  and  beauty  are  the  heads  of 
her  women  and  children,  in  particid,ar,  that  it  has 
been  said  that  '  she  seems  to  paint  in  the  presence 
of  angels;'  her  colouring,  however,  is  gray,  dull, 
and  sombre,  like  that  which  prevails  among  the  old 
masters  of  the  German  school. 

E'LLESJIERE,  first  Earl  of,  politician,  patron 
of  the  arts,  and  author.  Francis  Egerton,  second 
son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland,  was  bom 
1800 ;  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where 
he  was  second-class  in  classics,  1820;  entered  the 
House  of  Commons,  1820,  and  rei)resented  succes- 
sively Bletchingly,  Sutherland  coimty,  and  South 
Lancashire  ;  filled  the  office  of  Chief-secretary  for 
Ireland  from  January  1828  to  July  18.'!0,  and  Secre- 
tary at  War  from  July  to  November  IS.TO  ;  in  iS33 
assumed  the  name  of  Lord  Francis  Egerton,  in  lieu 
of  his  patronymic  Lcveson-Gower.  He  achieved 
considerable  literarj'  distinction  as  a  writer  of 
graceful  poems,  translations  from  the  German,  &c. 
He  also  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  defenceless 


state  of  the  coasts  and  of  the  metropolis,  which 
called  forth  some  adverse  criticism.  He  was  a 
munificent  patron  of  the  arts,  and  made  many 
valuable  additions  to  the  collection  of  pictures 
which  he  inherited  -nnth  the  large  estates  of  the 
last  Duke  of  Bridgewater.  He  also  built  a  noble 
gaUery  for  their  reception,  which  he  liberally  threw 
open  to  the  public.  After  faithfully  voting  vrith 
the  Conservative  party  in  parhament  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  he,  on  the  retirement  of  the  Peel 
administration  in  1846,  obtained  a  revival  in  hia 
favour  of  the  peerages  of  Ellesmere  and  Brackley. 
His  last  public  appearance  was  in  May  1856,  when 
he  moved,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  an  adch'ess  to  the 
crown,  approring  of  the  treaty  of  peace  after  the 
war  with  Russia.  He  died  in  1857  at  his  new 
mansion,  Bridgewater  House,  London,  and  was 
succeeded  in  the  earldom  by  his  eldest  son,  Viscount 
Brackley. 

ELLESMERE,  a  town  in  the  north-west  of 
Shropshire,  near  a  beautiful  lake  or  mere,  19 
miles  north-north-west  of  Shrewsbury.  Pop.  1S61, 
2114.  It  has  considerable  malting  est.ablishmeuts. 
On  the  present  site  of  a  bowling-green  once  stood 
an  ancient  castle,  alternately  held  by  the  English 
and  Welsh. 

E'LLIOT,  Ebenezeb,  the  Cors-law  RHTsreR, 

was  born  at  Masborough,  in  Yorkshire,  March  7, 1781. 
His  father  was  a  man  of  strong  character  and  narrow 
opinions,  and,  as  appeai-s  from  Ebenezer's  Auto- 
biography (pubUshed  in  the  Athenmum  in  1850), 
exercised  no  little  influence  on  his  son's  modes  of 
thinking  and  sympathies.  When  a  boy  at  school, 
E.  was  not  a  quick  pupU ;  and  even  after  his  f.ather 
had  sent  him  to  work  in  the  iron-foimdry  where 
he  himself  held  the  situation  of  a  clerk,  the  youth 
exhibited  no  fondness  for  reading.  Before  long, 
however,  he  entirely  changed,  and  commenced  to 
study  Milton,  Shakspeare,  Ossian,  Junius,  and  other 
authors.  Hia  first  published  poem  was  composed 
in  his  17th  year:  it  is  entitled  T/ie  Vernal  Walk. 
This  was  succeeded  by  Nxjht,  Whariicliffe,  &c.  In 
1821,  E.  began  business  .as  an  iron-founder  on  his  own 
account  at  Sheffield.  He  was  very  successful ;  and 
in  1841  retired  to  an  estate  which  he  h.ad  purchased 
at  Great  Houghton,  near  Barnesley,  where  he  died 
1st  December  1849.  E.'s  principal  productions  are 
Love,  accompanied  with  a  letter  to  Lord  BjTon,  his 
famous  Corn-law  Rhymes,  TheBanler,  and  7'he  Village 
Patriarch,  a  work  full  of  noble  and  earnest  poetry, 
all  of  which  appeared  between  1823— 18.'i0.  In  1834, 
he  issued  a  collected  edition  of  his  works,  in  3  vols. ; 
and  in  1840,  an  edition  in  one  volume.  E.  followed 
Crabbe,  but  with  more  depth  and  fire  of  feeling  in 
depicting  the  condition  of  the  poor  as  miserable  and 
oppressed,  tracing  most  of  the  evils  he  deplores  to 
the  social  and  political  institutions  of  the  country. 
The  laws  relating  to  the  importation  of  com  were 
denounced  by  E.  as  specially  oppressive,  and  he 
inveighed  against  them  with  a  feri'our  of  manner 
and  a  harshness  of  phraseology  which  ordinary 
minds  feel  .as  repulsive,  even  while  acknowledged  as 
flowing  from  the  offended  benevolence  of  the  poet. 
But  the  glow  of  earnestness  kindles  his  verse,  and 
hides  a  nuUtitude  of  faults.  More  enduring,  how- 
ever, than  his  rhyming  philippics  are  his  descrip- 
tions of  English,  and  especially  of  Yorkshire  scenery, 
and  his  delineations  of  humble  virtue  and  afi'ection. 
These  are  instinct  with  the  purest  spirit  of  poetry. 

ELLI'P.SE  is  the  name  of  a  figure  in  Geometrj-, 
important  from  its  being  the  approximate  shape  of 
the  planetary  orbits.  It  is  a  curve  of  the  second 
order,  and  is  a  conic  section,  formed  by  cutting 
a  right  cone  by  a  plane  passing  obhquely  through 
its  opposite  sides.      It  may  be  defined  as  a  curve, 

13 


ELLIPSIS— ELLORA. 


the  sum  of  the  distances  of  every  poiut  in  which 
from  two  fixed  points  within  the  curve  is  always 
the  same.  These  two  Jixcd  points  are  calleil  the 
foci ;  and  the  diameter  drawn  through  them  is  the 
major  axis ;  the  minor  axis  bisects  the  major  at 
right  angles.  The  distance  of  cither  focus  from 
the  middle  of  the  major  axis  is  the  eccenlricilij. 
The  less  the  eccentricity  is  compared  with  the  axis, 
the  nearer  the  ligure  approaches  to  a  circle  ;  and  a 
circle  may  be  considered  as  au  elhpse  whose  foci 
coincide. 

There  are  various  contrivances  for  describing  an 
ellipse,  called  ellipsagraphs  or  elliptic  comptisses. 
The  simplest  method  of  description  is  to  fix  on  a 
plane  the  two  ends  of  a  thread  with  pins  in  the 
loci,  and  make  a  pencil  move  on  the  ])lane,  keep- 
ing the  thread  constantly  stretched.  The  end  of  the 
jiencil  will  trace  au  cUipse,  whose  major  axis  is 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  thread. 

The  equation  to  an  ellipse  (see  Co-OKDrsATES), 
referred  to  its  centre  as   origin,  and  to  its  major 

and  minor  axes  as  rectangular  axes,  is  • 

where  a  and  b  are  the  semi-major  and  semi-minor 
axes  respectively.  From  this  equation,  it  may  be 
shewn,  by  the  integral  calculus,  that  the  area  of  an 
ellipse  is  equal  to  Tab ;  or  is  got  by  multipljTng 
the  ])roduct  of  the  semi-major  and  semi-minor  axis 
by  31416.     It  may  also  be  shewn  that  the  length  of 


'  b' 


the  circumference  of  an  ellipse  is  got  by  multiplying 
the  major  axis  by  the  quantity  rll  - 
y.5d-        ,     \      ,         .      1-4/-' 


2*. 4' 


ia' 


ELLX'PSIS  (Gr.  omission)  is  a  term  used  in 
Grammar  and  Rhetoric,  to  signify  the  omission  of 
a  word  necessary  to  complete  the  expression  or 
sentence  in  its  usual  form.  The  object  of  elUpsis  is 
shortness  and  impressivcness ;  accordin<:;ly,  it  \itq- 
vaihi  in  proverbs.  Ellipses  are  used  in  all  languages, 
but  the  same  forms  of  ellipses  are  not  common  to 
alL  Thus,  '  the  house  we  saw,'  instead  of  '  the 
house  tliat  we  saw,'  is  a  kind  of  ellipsis  peculiar,  so 
far  as  we  know,  to  English. 

ELLIPSOID  is  a  surface  of  the  second  order,  of 
which  the  Spheroid  (q.  v.)  is  a  species,  and  the  most 
interesting,  from  the  fact  of  the  form  of  the  earth 
being  spheroidal.  The  equation  to  an  ellipsoid 
referred  to  its  centre  and  rectangular  co-ordinates  is 
x"  y'  z-  , 
a''^  b"      c" 

ELLIPTICITY  (of  the  Earth).    See  Eaktk. 

ELLO'RA,  a  decayed  town  in  the  dominions  of 
the  Kizam,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Dowlatabad,  in 
lat.  20"  -2  X.,  aud  long.  75°  13' "E.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  wonderfid  rock-cut  temples.     Their  nunilier 


Temple  called  Kail,->.sa,  at  EUora. — From  Fergusson's  ffandbook-  o/  Architecture. 


h,vi  not  Iwen  precisely  ascertained,  bnt  Erskiue 
reckoned  19  large  ones,  partly  of  Hindu  and  ]>artly 
of  Buddhist  origin.  Some  are  cave-temples  proper 
— i.e.,  chambers  cut  out  in  the  interior  of  the  rock 
— but  others  are  vast  buildings  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  granite  of  the  hills,  ha\nng  an  exterior  as  well 
ns  an  interior  architecture,  and  being,  in  fact,  mag- 
uilicent  monoliths.  In  exec\iting  the  latter,  the 
20 


process  was,  fii-st  to  sink  a  great  quadrangular  trench 
or  pit,  leaving  the  central  mass  standing ;  and 
then  to  hew  and  excavate  this  m.iss  into  a  temjile. 
The  most  beautiful  of  tliese  objects  is  the  Hindu 
temple,  Kailasa.  At  its  entrance,  the  traveller 
passes  into  an  antech.amber  l.SS  feet  wide  by  88 
deep,  adorned  by  numerous  rows  of  jiillars.  Thence 
he  proceeds  along  a   colonnade   over  a  bridge  into 


ELLORE— ELM. 


a  great  rectangular  court,  which  is  247  feet  in 
lengtli  and  150  broad,  in  tlie  centre  of  which 
stands  the  temple  itself,  a  vast  mass  of  rock 
richly  hewn  and  carved.  It  is  supported  by  four 
rows  of  jiilastera,  with  colossal  elephants  beneath, 
and  seems  suspended  in  the  air.  The  interior  is 
about  10,'i  feet  lonj;,  50  bro.ad,  and  17  high,  but  the 
entire  exterior  forms  a  pyramid  100  feet  high,  and 
is  overlaid  with  sculpture.  In  the  great  court  are 
nimierous  jionds,  obelisks,  colonnades,  sphinxes,  and 
on  the  walls  thousands  of  mythological  figures  of  all 
kinds,  from  10  to  12  feet  in  height.  "Of  the  other 
temples,  those  of  Indra  and  Dumarhejma  are  little 
inferior  to  that  of  Kailasa.  liegardiug  their  anti- 
quity anil  religious  significance,  authorities  are  not 
agreed ;  but  at  all  events  they  must  be  subsequent  to 
the  epic  poems  Ramayana  or  Ma/iabharaia,  because 
they  contain  representations  taken  from  these 
poems,  and  also  to  the  cave-temples  at  Elephanta, 
because  they  exliibit  a  richer  and  more  advanced 
style  of  architecture. 

ELLO'RE,  a  town  of  the  district  of  M.isidiiiatam, 
in  the  jjresidency  of  Madras,  stands  in  lat.  1G°  4- 
N.,  and  long.  81'  10'  E.  In  an  official  report,  the 
place  has  been  indefinitely  styled  '  jiopidous.'  In- 
dependently of  its  population,  properly  so  called, 
E.,  as  a  military  station,  has  a  considerable  g.irri- 
son.  It  occupies  both  lianks  of  the  Jummulair,  a 
torrent  of  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  which,  instead  of 
reaching  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  loses  itself  three  miles 
further  down,  in  the  land-locked  Colair  Lake.  lu 
fact,  for  about  50  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  sea, 
the  neighbouring  country  is  dejn'essed  below  the 
level  of  the  maritime  belt,  the  stagnant  pool  above 
mentioned  not  only  having  independent  feeders  of 
its  own,  but  also  receiving  supplies,  in  the  season  of 
high-water,  from  the  Kistnali  or  Krishna,  and  the 
Godaveiy.  Uniler  such  circumstances,  the  climate  of 
E.  is  at  once  unpleasant  an<l  unhealthy.  During  the 
south-west  monsoon,  liringing  with  it,  of  course,  the 
accmnulated  heats  of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  penin- 
sula, the  tem]>erature  is  more  particularly  oppressive, 
haring  been  known  to  rise,  in  the  night,  to  120"  F. 

E'LLSWORTH,  a  small  but  flourishing  town  of 
Iforth  America,  in  the  st.atc  of  JLaine,  on  both  sides 
of  the  navigable  river  Union,  30  miles  south-cast  of 
Bangor,  and  .ibout  4  miles  west  of  Frenclmian's 
Bay.  It  exports  50,000,000  feet  of  timber  annually, 
carries  on  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries,  and  had,  ui 
1854,  5000  inhabitants. 

ELM  {Uliniis),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  I'Imacni;  natives  of  temper.ate  climates,  with 
seiTated  leaves  unequal  in  their  two  sides,  and 
small  liowers  growing  in  clusters  appearing  before 
the  leaves,  and  contaming  4 — 12  stamens  and  one 
germen.  The  fruit  is  a  samara,  or  compressed  one- 
seeded  little  nut,  winded  all  around.  One  of  the 
most  important  species  is  the  Commox  Sjiall- 
LEAVED  or  English  Elm  (6''.  campcstris),  a,  tree  of 
60 — 80  feet  in  height,  with  ovato-elhptic,  doubly 
serrated  leaves,  and  liowers  almost  destitute  of 
stalks.  The  wood  is  compact,  and  very  durable 
in  water.  The  tree  is  diffused  all  over  Europe ;  is 
found  also  in  the  west  of  Asia  and  north  of  A  frica, 
and  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes  by  wheel- 
wrights, machine-m.okers,  sliip  and  boat  buildei^, 
&c. ;  it  is  also  prized  by  juiners  for  its  fine  grain, 
and  the  mahogany  colour  which  it  readily  assumes 
on  the  application  of  an  acid.  It  is  reckoned  sujie- 
rior  to  the  wood  of  any  other  species  of  elm.  The 
bark  is  used  in  dyeing  and  in  sugar-refining,  and, 
in  times  of  scarcity,  has  been  used  in  Norway  for 
grimling  into  meal  and  mixing  in  l)read,  which  has 
a  less  disagreealjlc  taste  than  that  made  from  me.al 
mi.xed  with  fir-baric     The  inner  bark  is  used  meili- 


cinally  in  cutaneous  diseases  ;  it  is  mucilaginous, 
and  has  a  bitter  astringent  taste.  The  Elm  Balsam 
[Bmiime  d'orme),  which  was  formerly  m  great  rc]jute, 
is  a  brownish  substance,  which  is  found  in  dried 
galls  of  the  leaves  in  the  south  of  Europe,  Persia, 
&c.  From  these  galls,  in  an  earlier  stage,  flows  a 
clear,  viscid,  sweetish  liquid,  called  Elm  Water  {Eau 
iCorme),  which  is  used  for  washing  wounds,  contu- 
sions, and  sore  eyes. — The  seeds  of  the  elm  are 
eagerly  eaten  by  pigeons  and  conmion  poiUtry.  The 
elm  is  one  of  the  principal  timber  trees  of  Britain, 
most  extensively  planted,  and  a  chief  ornament 
of  English  scenery. — The  Cokk-bakked  Elm  (U. 
sitberosa),  by  many  regarded  as  a  variety  of  U. 
campestris,  is  distinguished  by  the  corky  wings  of 
the  bark  of  the  branches.  It  is  a  taller  and  more 
spreading  tree,  with  much  larger  leaves.  It  is  a 
Europe.in  tree,  common  in  plant.ations  in  Britain, 
but  a  doubtfid  native. — The  Dl'tcii  Ooi;k-eap.1v£d 
Elm  ( U.  major)  is  also  looked  upon  by  many  as  a 


-Ma 


Common  English  Elm  (Ulmus  campestris). 

variety  of  U.  campestris.  It  is  still  more  corky  in 
its  bark,  and  has  still  larger  leaves.  It  is  of  very 
quick  growth,  but  the  wood  is  very  inferior. — The 
Buo.VD-LEAVED  or  Wych  Elm  ( U.  montana)  is  the 
only  species  that  can  with  certainty  be  regarded  as 
indigenous  to  .Scotland.  It  has  rough  and  liroad 
leaves,  a  stem  less  upright  than  the  English  elm, 
and  large  spreading  branches.  The  wood  is  used 
for  all  the  purposes  of  the  English  elm.  The  tree 
is  of  very  quick  growth.  Protuberances  of  gnarled 
wood  are  not  unfrequently  produced,  which  are 
finely  knotted  and  richly  veined ;  they  are  much 
esteemed  for  veneering,  and  are  sometimes  very 
valuable.  Varieties  of  this  species  are  known 
as  the  Glvnt  Elm  and  Ciiiciiesteb  Elm. — The 
•S.MOOTn-LEAVED  Elm  ( U.  r/lahra)  is  by  some 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  U.  montana,  but  is  distin- 
guished, besides  other  characters,  by  smooth  leaves, 
wliich  are  much  sni.aller.  It  is  a  native  of  Eng- 
land. A  variety  calleil  the  lIi'.N"TiN'C.DO>f  ELiu  is 
nmch  esteemed. — The  CoK.N'isii  Elm  (U.  stricia), 
found  in  the  south-west  of  England,  is  remarkable 
for  its  ngid,  erect,  and  compact  branches. — Very 
tliffei'ent  is  the  habit  of  {'.  ej'iisa,  a  continental 
species  with  a  large  spreading  head  and  smooth 
bark,  distinguished  also  liy  the  long  stalks  of  its 
Uowers  and  its  ciliated  fruit. — The  Ameuic.a.n  or 
White  Elm  [U.  Americana),  \ihich  abounds  in  the 

21 


ELMmA— EL  PASO  DEL  NORTlS. 


baain  of  the  Mississippi,  and  attains  its  loftiest 
stature  between  Lit.  42°  and  lat.  46°,  is  a  magnifi- 
cent tree,  sometimes  100  feet  in  height,  tlie  trunk 
reaching  GO  or  70  feet  before  it  separates  into 
branches,  and  the  \ridely  diffused  pendulous  branches 
floating  gracefully  in  the  air ;  but  the  tinilwr  is  not 
much  esteemed. — The  Ked  or  Suppery  Elm  {(/. 
fulva)  is  also  common  in  the  basin  of  the  llissis- 
sipjii  as  far  south  as  lat.  31°,  and  in  the  -western 
parts  of  Canada.  It  attains  a  height  of  50  or  60  feet. 
The  wood  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  last 
species,  but  much  inferior  to  the  English  elm.  The 
leaves  and  bark  jHeld  an  abimdant  mucOage,  which 
is  bland  and  demulcent,  and  esteemed  a  valuable 
remedy  in  catarrh,  dysentery,  and  other  complaints. 
— The  W.Ajioo  or  Winged  Elm  ( U.  alata)  is  a  small 
tree,  fovmd  from  lat.  37°  to  Florida,  Louisiana,  and 
Arkansas,  remarkable  for  the  branches  being  fur- 
nished on  two  opposite  sides  with  \ving3  of  cork. 
The  wood  is  fine-grained,  compact,  and  heav^'. —  U. 
Chiimi.'siii  is  a  Chinese  species  of  elm,  the  leaves 
of  which  often  bear  galk  used  by  the  Chinese  in 
tanning  and  dyeing. 

The  name  Spanish  Elm  is  given  in  the  West 
Indies  to  a  tree  also  called  Bois  DE  Chtpre,  Cordia 
GerascanOms,  of  the  natiiral  order  Cordiacea,  the 
timber  of  which  is  valuable ;  also  to  llamdia  ven- 
tricosa,  of  the  natural  order  Jiubiacecv,  the  timber  of 
wliich  is  known  to  cabinet-makers  as  Prince- wood. 

ELMIXA,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  West 
Africa,  capital  of  the  Dutch  settlements  on  the 
Gold  Coast,  is  situated  in  an  undulating  and 
thickly  wooded  district,  in  lat.  5°  10'  N.,  and  long, 
about  1°  40'  W.  It  is  a  large,  irregularly  built,  and 
extremely  unclean  native  town,  and  seems  to  be 
entirely  destitute  of  any  noteworthy  architectiu"al 
features.  The  inhabitants  consist  chiefly  of  traders, 
fishermen,  and  artisans.  A  few  miles  to  the  east  is 
Cape  Coast  Castle.  R  was  first  estabUshed  by  the 
Portuguese  in  14S1,  and  was  the  first  European 
settlement  planted  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1637,  and,  four  years  after, 
was  finally  ceded  to  them  by  the  crown  of  Portugal. 
Pop.  estimated  at  from  SOOO  to  10,000. 

ELMI'EA,  a  town  of  Xew  York  state,  contains, 
according  to  the  census  of  1860,  8682  inhabitants. 
In  point  of  situation,  it  possesses  both  natural  and 
artificial  advantages.  It  stands  on  the  Chemung,  a 
n.avigable  feeder  of  the  Susquehanna ;  it  is  connected 
by  a  canal  with  Seneca  Lake  and  the  interior  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  it  is  intersected  by  the  railway 
which,  with  a  length  of  400  miles,  connects  Jersey 
City,  ^^rtuaUy  a  siibm-b  of  Xew  York,  and  Dunkirk 
on  Lake  Erie.  E.  is  273  miles  distant  from  the 
capital  of  the  state. 

E'LMO'.S  FIRE,  St,  is  the  popular  name  of  an 
appearance  sometimes  seen,  especially  in  southern 
climates  during  thunder-storms,  of  a  brush  or  star 
of  light  at  the  tops  of  masts,  spires,  or  other  jiointed 
objects.  It  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  hissing 
noise,  and  is  evidently  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
light  caused  by  electricity  streaming  off  from  points 
connected  with  an  electrical  machine.  See  Elec- 
TRICITV.  The  phenomenon,  as  seen  at  sea,  was 
woven  by  the  Greeks  into  the  myth  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  ;  and  even  yet  such  lights  at  the  mast-head 
are  considered  by  sailors  a  sign  that  they  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  the  storm. 

ELMSHORN,  a  town  of  Denmark,  in  the 
duchy  of  Holstein,  20  miles  north-west  of  Ham- 
burg, is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Kriickau,  a 
na\-igable  stream,  and  feeder  of  the  Elbe.  It  is 
well  built,  h-is  considerable  manuf.ietures,  and  an 
active  trade  in  grain;  it  has  also  a  boat-building 
yard,  and  some  tanneries.  Vast  numbers  of  boots 
ii 


and  shoes  are  made  at  E.,  and  are  sold  at  all  the 
fairs  in  the  duchies  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein.  Many 
Jews  reside  here,  as  this  is  one  of  the  few  pKiccs  in 
the  duchies  in  which  they  are  allowed  to  settle 
Avithout  ha\-ing  preWously  obtained  |)ermission.  li 
has  an  important  annual  cattle-maiket.  Pop.  4461. 
EL  OBEID.    See  II  Obeid,  or  Lobeid. 

ELOCU'TION  (Lat.  for  speaking  out),  the  art  of 
effective  speaking,  more  especially  of  public  speak- 
ing. It  regards  solely  the  utterance  or  delivery ; 
while  the  wider  art  of  oratory,  of  which  elocution  is 
a  branch,  takes  accoimt  also  of  the  matter  spoken. 
The  art  of  elocution  held  a  prominent  ]>lace  in 
ancient  education,  but  has  been  greatly  neglected 
in  modem  times.    See  Heading  and  Speaking. 

ELOGE.  Wlien  a  member  of  the  French 
Acadvmie  dies,  it  is  customary  for  his  successor  to 
deliver  an  oration,  setting  forth  his  merits  and 
services.  This  is  called  an  (loije  (Lat.  eloijium,  Gr. 
eulorjia,  praise),  and  a  considerable  branch  of 
French  literature  goes  by  the  name.  Many  of  the 
French  61oges  are  mere  florid  pancgj'rics ;  but  others, 
particularly  those  written  by  Thomas,  D'Alembcrt, 
Bailly,  Condorcet,  Cu\-ier,  and  other  eminent  savants, 
are  interesting  and  valuable  biogr.iphies.  The  proper 
epoch  of  the  gloge  began  with  Fontenclle  (2  vols., 
Par.  1731),  who  was  distinguished  for  clearness,  ease, 
and  elegance.  His  successors  have  tried  to  outshine 
him  in  pomp  of  language. 

ELOHIM,  Hebr..  plural  of  Eloah,  Arab.  Ildlt, 
Chald.  El/jJi,  Syr.  Al6h,  might,  power;  in  plur., 
intensified,  collective,  highest  power — great  beings, 
kings,  angels,  gods,  Deitij.  As  a  pluraUs  excellentia 
or  majestatia,  and  joined  to  the  singular  verb,  it 
denotes,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  the  One,  true 
God.  Joined  to  the  pliu^l  verb,  however,  it  usually 
means  gods  in  general,  whether  including  the  One 
or  not.  It  is  mostly  used  (in  the  singular  sense) 
for  or  together  with  Jehovah  (the  Everlasting 
One) ;  but  some  portions  of  the  Scriptures  employ 
exclusively  either  the  one  term  or  the  other. 
This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  endless  discus- 
sions, and  has  also  suggested  amongst  others  the 
notion  of  diflerent  authors  of  Genesis.  On  this,  and 
on  the  relation  of  those  two  words  to  each  other, 
see  the  article  jEnoVAH.  We  shall  only  mention 
here  the  hitherto  unnoticed  opinion  of  the  Tal- 
mudists,  that  Elohim  denotes  the  Almighty  under 
the  aspect  of  a  God  of  strict  justice ;  Jehovah,  of 
clemency  and  mercy.  As  important  for  the  history 
of  the  word  Eloliini,  we  may  aiid,  in  conclusion,  that 
it  was  very  probably  Petrus  Lombardus  who  first 
tried  to  prove  the  Trinity  out  of  this  plm'al  form — 
an  attempt  which,  although  unanimously  and  scom- 
fidly  rejected  by  all  scholars,  from  Cal\'in,  Merccrus, 
Calixtus,  the  yoiuiger  Buxtorf,  &c.,  to  our  times, 
has  lately  been  re\'ived  by  Rudolf  Stier,  who  has 
gone  so  far  as  to  invent  a  new  grammatical  term, 
'  Pluralia  Trinilalis,'  for  this  purjiose.  See  also 
the  articles  Shemitic  Phteal  and  Pentatepch. 

ELONGA'TION,  Angle  op,  is  the  angle  measur- 
ing the  distance  between  two  stars,  as  seen  from  the 
earth.  Usually,  it  is  employed  only  in  spe.iking  of 
the  distance  of  planets  from  the  sun  ;  the  word 
'  distance '  being  used  instead  of  the  word  elonga- 
tion, in  regard  to  fixed  stars  and  planets,  as  related 
to  one  another. 

ELO'PEJIEXT.    See  AorLTERY. 

EL  PASO  DEL  NORTE  (in  English,  tJie  Pass 
of  tlie  North)  is  a  narrow  valley  of  nine  or  ten  miles 
in  length,  near  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the 
repubUc  of  Mexico.  It  is  situated  within  the 
state  of  Chihuahua  (q.  v.),  in  lat.  SV  42°  N.,  and 
long.  106°  40'  W.,  being  on  the  right  bank  of  the 


ELPHIN— ELSINORE. 


Rio  Grande,  or  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  about  14'20 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  remarkably  fertile, 
yielding,  in  jiarticular,  considerable  quantities  of 
wine  and  brandy.  It  contains  about  5000  inhabit- 
ants, nearly  all  of  them  of  mixed  blood.  In  fact,  the 
people  arc;  little  better  than  the  aborif.'inal  savages, 
being  almost  destitute  of  the  most  ordinary  appli- 
ances of  civilised  Ufe.  The  place  is  worthy  of 
notice  chiefly  as  the  main  thoroughfare  between 
New  Mexico  and  Mexico  Proper. 

E'LPHIN,  a  bishop's  see  in  Ireland,  luiited  to 
Kilmore  in  18.33. 

EXPHIN.STONE,  W'ii.i.iam,  a  celebrated  Scot- 
tish prelate,  and  founder  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
was  bom  in  the  year  1430  or  1431.  He  was  the  son 
of  William  Eliihinstone,  Rector  of  Ivirkmichael,  and 
Archdeacon  of  Teriotdale,  and,  as  the  marriage  of 
ecclesiastics  was  then  prohibited,  his  birth  was  ille- 
gitimate. E.  studied  at  the  university  of  Glasgow, 
where  ho  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  at  the  age  of 
twenty-four,  at  the  same  time  that  he  took  priest's 
orders.  He  seems  to  have  acted  as  his  father's  curate 
at  Kirkmichael,  for  four  years,  but  being  strongly 
attached  to  the  study  of  law  (he  had  practised  as 
an  advocate  in  the  church  com'ts  before  this),  he 
went  to  France  iu  his  twenty-ninth  year,  at  the 
instigation  of  his  uncle,  Laurence  Elphinstone,  who 
supplied  him  with  the  means  of  studying  at  the 
most  celebrated  schools  of  the  continent.  E.  so 
highly  distinguished  himself,  that  after  three  years 
he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  university  of 
Paris,  and  afterwards  at  Orleans,  which  had  then 
the  highest  reputation  as  a  legal  school.  .So  greatly 
were  his  learning  and  talents  appreciated,  that  the 
parliament  of  Paris  used  to  ask  his  opinion  on  great 
(luestions.  After  a  residence  of  nine  years  abroad, 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  successively 
official-general  of  the  diocese  of  Glasgow  (1471 — 
1472),  rector  of  the  university  (1474),  and  official  of 
Lothian  in  1478,  '  then  probablj','  says  Mr  Cosmo 
Innes  {Slcetdies  of  Kadji  Scoftuh  UUkirij,  Edin.  1861), 
'  the  second  judicial  office  in  the  kingdom,  which  he 
filled  for  two  years,  sitting  in  parliament,  and  serv- 
ing on  the  judicial  committees,  which  fonned  the 
supreme  civil  jmisdiction  iu  Scotland.'  His  dignit}', 
learning,  and  prudence,  now  began  to  procure  him 
universal  respect.  He  was  the  principal  member  of 
a  great  embassy  sent  from  Scotland  to  France,  to 
settle  certain  disputes  that  had  sjirung  up  between 
the  two  countries,  and  threatened  the  stability  of 
their  ancient  alliance.  In  this  important  afl'air,  he 
was  eminently  successful.  On  his  return,  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Ross  in  1481.  In  1483,  he  was 
removed  to  the  see  of  Aberdeen  ;  and  between  this 
jieriod  and  the  death  of  James  III.  he  was  several 
times  engaged  in  embassies  to  France,  England, 
Burgimdy,  and  Austria.  For  a  few  months  before 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  he  held  the  office  of 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  lost  this  great  office 
on  the  accession  of  James  IV.,  but,  says  the  autho- 
rity already  quoted,  '  he  was  speedily  'restored  to 
favour,  and  to  the  royal  coimcils,  and  seems  to 
have  been  keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal  from  1500 
till  his  death.'  He  did  not  sull'er  his  office  to  with- 
draw him  from  the  care  of  his  diocese,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  the  faithful  discharge  of  his 
episcopal  functions,  endeavouring  to  reform  tlio 
clergy,  the  ser\-ice,  and  the  ritual  of  his  church.  He 
next  concluded  (while  on  a  mission  to  the  conti- 
nent for  another  imrpose)  a  treaty  with  Holland, 
which  was  beneficial  to  Scotland.  E.  seems  to  have 
iiad  a  genuine  desire  for  the  enlichtemnent  and 
improvement  of  his  countrymen.  Whenever  leisure 
permitted,  we  find  him  engaged  in  devising  means 
to  this  end.    It  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  through 


his  influence  that  the  first  printing-press — that  of 
Chepman  and  Millar — was  established  in  Scotland. 
He  superintended  the  preparation  and  printing  of 
the  Breviary  of  Ahei'deen,  and  collected  the  materials 
for  the  lives  of  the  Scottish  saints  contained  in  that 
work.  He  procured  from  the  pojie  (Alexander  VI.) 
a  bidl  for  erecting  a  university  in  Aberdeen.  The 
bull  was  sent  in  1494,  but  the  college  was  not  founded 
tUl  1500,  when  it  was  dedicated  to  St  Mary — a 
name  afterwards  changed  to  King's  College.  E. 
built  also  the  great  central  tower  and  wooden  spire 
of  his  cathedral  chiu-ch  at  Aberdeen,  provided  its 
great  bells,  covered  the  roofs  of  its  nave,  aisles,  and 
transept  with  lead ;  and,  at  his  own  expense,  built 
a  stone  bridge  over  the  Dee  for  the  benefit  of  his 
townsmen.  'The  fatal  battle  of  Flodden,  9th  Sep- 
tember 1513,  broke  the  spirit  of  E.,  who  was  never 
seen  to  smde  after.  He  died  2.')th  October  1514, 
and  was  liuried  before  the  high  altar  of  the  chapel 
of  the  college  which  he  founded.  E.  was  a  man  of 
great  vigour  of  mind  and  nobleness  of  nature — '  one 
of  those  prelates,'  saj's  a  waiter  in  the  Quarterly 
Jlevieio  (No.  clxix.  p.  141),  'who  in  their  muni- 
ticent  acts,  and  their  laborious  and  saintly  lives, 
shewed  to  the  Scottish  church,  in  her  corruption 
and  decay,  the  glorious  image  of  her  youth.'  '  We 
know  him,'  says  Mr  Innes,  *  in  the  history  of  the 
time  as  the  zealous  churchman,  the  learned  lawyer, 
the  wise  statesman  ;  one  who  never  sacrificed  his 
diocesan  duties  to  mere  secular  cares,  but  knew 
how  to  make  his  political  eminence  serve  the 
interests  of  his  church  ;  who,  with  manners  and 
temperance  in  his  own  person,  befitting  the  primitive 
ages  of  Christianity,  thi'ew  around  his  cathedral  and 
])alace  the  taste  and  splendour  that  may  adorn 
religion,  who  found  time,  amidst  the  cares  of  state, 
and  the  pressure  of  daily  duties,  to  preserve  the 
Christian  antiquities  of  his  diocese,  and  collect 
the  memories  of  those  old  servants  of  truth  who 
had  run  a  course  similar  to  his  own  ;  to  renovate 
his  cathedral  service,  and  to  support  and  foster  all 
good  letters,  while  his  economy  of  a  slender  revenue 
rendered  it  sufficient  for  the  erection  and  support  of 
siunptuous  buildings  and  the  endowment  of  a  famous 
university.'  Some  volumes  of  notes  made  by  E. 
when  studjang  in  the  law  schools,  are  preserved  in 
the  library  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  A  tran- 
script of  Fordim's  Scotichronicon,  with  some  addi- 
tions, in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  O.xford,  was  long 
erroneously  ascribed  to  him.  His  Breviarium  Aber- 
donense,  printed  in  1509 — 1510,  was  reprinted  in  two 
volumes  quarto  at  London  in  1853. 

EL  ROSA'KIO,  a  small  to^vn  of  the  Mexican 
Confederation  in  the  state  of  Cinaloa,  is  situated 
55  miles  east-north-east  of  Mazatlan.  It  is  import- 
ant chiefly  as  being  a  commercial  entrepot  between 
JIazatlau  and  the  interior.     Pop.  5000. 

ELSINO'KE,  a  town  and  seaport  of  Denmark,  on 
the  island  of  Seeland,  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Sound,  and  at  its  narrowest  part,  3h 
mUes  west-south-west  of  the  town  of  Helsingborg  iii 
Sweden,  and  24  miles  north  of  Copenhat^eu.  Lat. 
56°  2'  N.,  long.  12"  36'  E.  The  town,  which  has 
been  in  recent  times  considerably  improved,  is 
spacious,  and  consists  of  one  long  principal  street, 
with  several  lateral  branches.  The  cathedi'al,  con- 
t.aining  some  tine  tombs,  many  of  them  very  old, 
may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  interesting 
edifices.  At  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  E.  are  the 
castle  and  the  fortress  of  Kronborg,  the  former  a wliito 
stone  building  in  the  (Jothic  style,  and  the  latter,  a 
stronghold  mounted  "Kiih  guns  that  command  the 
Soimd  in  all  directions.  To  the  north-west  of  E., 
and  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  is  the  royal  chdteau  of 
Marienlist,  the  pleasure-grounds  of  which,  occupying 

23 


ELSSLER— ELY. 


the  crest  of  a  hiU,  are  open  to  the  piiMic.  From  the 
grounda  of  M;irienlist,  tQagiiificeut  views  may  be 
had  of  the  Sound,  of  Heisingborp,  and  of  the  ])lains 
of  Sweden.  The  harbour  of  E.,  formed  by  a  wooden 
pier,  is  accessible  to  ships  of  light  draught.  E.  has 
a  brisk  foreign  trade,  and  has,  besides,  manufactures 
of  straw-hats,  arms,  su^ar,  brandy,  &c.,  also  cotton- 
printing  and  fisheries.  The  Sound  Dues  (q.  v.)  were 
collected  here.     Pop.  9097. 

Saxo  Grammaticus,  a  famous  writer  of  the  )2th 
c,  was  bom  here.  Here  Shakspeare  laid  the  scene 
of  his  Hamlet,  a  perversion  of  history  on  the  part  of 
the  great  dramatist,  as  Jutland,  not  Seeland,  was 
Hamlet's  countrj-.  The  vaults  under  the  c.astle  of 
Kronborg  were  supposed  to  be  the  residence  of 
Holger  D.mskc,  the  mythic  hero  of  Denmark,  who 
never  appeared  above  ground  save  when  the  country 
was  in  danger,  and  was  then  sujiposed  to  march 
at  the  head  of  the  Danish  armies.  In  severe 
winters  the  Sound  is  frozen  over  at  E.,  so  that  one 
can  walk  over  the  ice  from  Denmark  to  Sweden. 

E'LSSLER,  Fanny,  a  celebrated  dancer,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  the  year  1811,  and  educated  at  Naples 
for  the  ballet,  along  with  her  elder  sister  Theresa. 
Tlie  first  triumph  of  the  sisters  took  place  at  Bei-lin, 
where  they  appeai-ed  in  1830.  The  reputation 
acquired  by  Fanny  in  Berlin  preceded  her  to  Italy, 
America,  England,  and  St  Petersburg,  where  her 
beauty,  amiabihty,  and  mastery  in  her  art,  charmed 
all  ckasses  of  society.  In  1841,  the  two  sisters  went  to 
America,  where  they  excited  unwonted  enthusiasm. 
After  Fanny  had  earned  laurels  in  St  Petersburg, 
she  returned,  in  1851,  to  Vienna,  to  take  a  final 
leave  of  the  stage.  She  then  retired  to  Hamburg, 
where  she  still  resides  on  a  small  estate  purch.ased  by 
her  bej'ond  the  Dammthore.  Theresa  was  less  grace- 
ful in  her  motions  than  her  sister,  but  exhibited 
great  strength,  boldness,  and  agility.  On  the  25th 
April  1851,  she  became  the  wife  of  Prince  Adal- 
bert of  Prussia,  and  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

E'LSTEll,  the  name  of  two  rivers  of  Germany, 
the  White  and  the  Black  Elster.  The  White  E. 
rises  at  the  foot  of  the  Elster  moimtains,  on  the 
north-western  boundary  of  Bohemia,  flows  in  a 
northerly  direction,  and  falls  into  the  Saale  three 
miles  south  of  the  town  of  Halle,  in  I'russia.  Its 
chief  aflluent  is  the  Pleisse  from  the  right.  Total 
length,  110  mUes.  The  Black  E.  rises  in  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony,  within  two  miles  of  Elstra,  flows  north- 
west, enters  Prussia,  and  joins  the  Elbe  eight  miles 
south-east  of  Wittenberg.     Length,  105  miles. 

ELSTRACKE,  Keoinjild  or  Renolp,  an 
English  engraver,  who  flourished  about  1620.  He 
worked  chiefly  for  the  booksellers,  and  his  pl.ates, 
which  ai-e  executed  with  the  graver,  without 
etching,  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  jiortraits. 
Prints  from  his  plates  ai'e  much  sought  after,  not 
only  from  their  scarcity,  and  as  illustrating  Enghsh 
history,  but  as  works  of  art,  in  which  much  char- 
acter is  exjiressed  in  a  firm  and  forcible  manner. 
Wlien  he  did  not  sign  his  plates  with  his  name, 
he  marked  them  with  liis  initials,  R.  E. 

ELTO'N,  a  famo\is  salt  hake  of  Russia,  is  situated 
in  the  government  of  Saratov,  170  miles  south-south- 
east from  the  town  of  that  name,  the  lat.  of  its 
centre  being  48'  56'  N.,  and  the  long.  46'  40'  E.  Its 
longest  diameter  is  eleven  mflcs,  and  its  shortest 
about  nine  miles.  It  h.is  a  superficial  extent  of 
45,500  English  acres,  but  at  no  jilace  is  it  more  than 
about  15  inches  in  depth.  It  is  of  an  oval  form, 
and  can  be  easily  reached  from  the  south,  but  the 
northern  banks  rise  so  rapidly  that  access  to  it  from 
that  ([uarter  is  dilficult.  lu  the  hottest  season,  so 
wonderful  is  the  illusion  produced  by  the  cryst;iliised 
a* 


salt,  that  the  lake  seems  covered  with  snow  and 
ice.  E.  yields  about  100,000  tons  of  s.alt  annually, 
in  the  collection  of  which  about  10,000  persons  are 
employed. 

ELUTRIA'TION  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
process  of  separ.ating,  by  means  of  w.ater,  the  finer 
j)articles  of  earths  and  pigments  from  the  heavier 
portions.  The  ajip.aratus  generally  used  is  a  larM 
vat,  in  which  grinding  wheels  revolve,  and  the  sub- 
stance to  be  reduced  to  )iowder  being  placed  in  the 
vat  along  with  water,  the  wheels  in  revolving  not 
only  pulverise  the  material,  but  from  their  motion 
bein"  comnmnicated  to  the  water,  the  latter  is 
enabled  to  retain  in  mechanical  .suspension  the  finer 
particles  of  the  clay,  &c.  By  allowing  a  stream  of 
w,ater  to  flow  in  and  out  of  the  vat,  the  finer  par- 
ticles can  be  constantly  floated  aw.ay,  and  the  liquid 
being  run  into  settling  vats,  the  fine  powder  settles 
to  the  bottom,  when  the  water  can  be  run  off  from 
the  surface.  This  process  is  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  materials  used  in  pottery,  and 
in  the  preparation  of  pigments. 

E'LVANS  are  vems  of  a  granular  crystalline 
mixture  of  felspar  and  qu.artz,  probfibly  proceeding 
from  a  granite  mass,  which  are  found  in  granite 
rocks  and  fossiliferous  slates  in  Cornwall,  Devon, 
and  the  south  of  Ireland. 

E'LVAS,  an  episcopal  city  and  fortress  of  Portugal, 
stands  in  a  very  fruitful  district  on  the  eastern 
frontier  of  the  pro\-ince  of  Alemtejo,  10  miles  west 
of  Bad.ajoz,  and  40  miles  north-east  of  Evora.  It 
is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portug.al,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  in  Em'ojie.  It  is  built  upon  a  precipitous 
hill ;  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  by  a  ghacis  and 
covered-way.  Besides  these,  E.  has  other  defences 
in  two  formidable  forts,  Fort  St.a.  Lucia,  and  Fort 
Lippe,  the  former  to  the  south,  and  the  latter — 
almost  entirely  shell-proof — to  the  north  of  the  city. 
E.  is  an  old  town ;  m.any  of  its  houses  are  badly 
built.  Its  most  striking  architectural  feature  is  an 
enormous  aqueduct,  which  conveys  water  to  it  from 
a  distance  of  three  miles.  Tliis  aqueduct  consists  of 
four  tiers  of  arches  built  upon  one  another,  and 
rising  to  the  heidit  of  about  250  feet.  The  chief 
manufactures  of  li.  are  arms  and  jewellery.  There 
are  here  extensive  store-houses  filled  with  British 
m.anufactm'cs,  and  the  inh.abitants,  by  illegally 
soiling  these  goods  within  the  Spanish  frontier, 
realise  considerable  wealth.     Pop.  12,400. 

E.  has  imdergone  many  sieges,  but  has  never  been 
taken.  The  Sjianiards  besieged  it  in  13S5,  and  again 
in  1059,  when  a  famoas  battle  took  place  called  the 
Lines  of  Mv;is,  in  which  the  Portuguese,  though 
greatly  inferior  in  numbers,  drove  the  Spaniards 
from  their  Unes  in  front  of  the  town.  E.  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  city  by  D.  Manoel,  king  of  Portugal, 
in  1513. 

ELVES.     See  F.uries. 

E'LY,  so  called  from  a  Saxon  word,  <'/;;,  an  eel, 
or  heliij,  a  willow,  m.ay  l)e  called  a  eatheilriil  town 
rather  than  a  city,  and  is  situ.ated  on  an  eminence 
in  that  part  of  the  fen-country  of  Cambridge- 
shire called  tho  Jsle  of  Ell/.  Poji.  .about  601)0.  The 
Eastern  Counties  and  the  Great  Jvorthern  Kail- 
ways  have  each  stations,  the  former  outside,  the 
latter  in  the  town. 

Ebj  C'atliedml. — About  the  year  073,  Etheldreda, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  E.ast  Anglia,  and  wife  of 
Oswy,  king  of  Northumberland,  founded  a  monas- 
tery here,  and  took  on  herself  the  government  of  it. 
Two  hundred  years  afterwarils  (S70),  the  Danes 
rav.aged  the  Isle,  and  destroyed  the  monastery, 
which  was  rebuilt  in  970  by  >St  Ethelwold,  Bishop 
of  Winchester ;  and  tliis  continued  till  1081,  when 
a   new   church   was   begun,   which   was   converted 


ELY-ELZEVIEE. 


into  a  cathedral,  and  the  abbey  erected  into  a 
see  iu  1109.  The  possessions  of  the  abbey  were 
divided  between  the  bishop  and  the  community. 
The  cathedral  contains  some  beautiful  specimens 
of  architecture,  especially  of  Early  Norman.  Its 
exterior  dimensions  are  535  feet  from  west  to  east. 
The  great  cross  or  main  transept  is  190  feet.  The 
turrets  of  the  west  tower  are  215  feet  high,  and  the 
lantern  over  tiie  central  tower  170  feet.  The  west 
front  was  built  by  Geotiry  Kidel,  the  third  bishop, 
who  died  in  1189,  and  is  of  Norman  work.  About 
200  years  after  his  time,  an  addition  of  G4  feet  was 
made  to  the  tower,  and  over  that  a  sjiire.  This 
great  superincumbent  weight  crushed  the  north-west 
transept,  and  the  south-west  one,  which  stUl  remains, 
was  considerably  weakened.  In  front  there  is  a 
west  portico  or  galilee  (q.  v.),  of  Early  Gothic, 
said  to  be  the  work  of  Bishop  Eustachius.  The 
nave  is  of  Norman  work,  and  was  completed  about 
1174.  The  columns  are  alternately  round  and  octa- 
gonal. The  roof  was,  in  ISGl,  beautifully  painted. 
The  transepts,  wliich  are  the  most  ancient  jjarts 
of  the  church,  were  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
They  had  originally  a  middle  and  two  side  aisles, 
but  the  latter  are,  in  the  south  transept,  walled 
up,  and  the  space  used  as  a  vestry  and  library. 
Originally  there  stood  a  square  tower  in  the  centre 
of  the  buikliug,  opening  into  the  nave  and  transepts ; 
but  this  gave  way  in  l.'{22,  and  fell  eastwards, 
crashing  three  arches  of  the  choir.  The  repair  of 
this  dilapidation  was  undertaken  by  the  sacrist 
of  that  time,  Alan  de  Walsingham.  The  design  ^vas 
original,  an  octagon  tower  with  four  longer  and  four 
shorter  sides,  surmounted  by  a  lantern.  The  ui)j>er 
part  of  this,  which  is  of  timber,  is  about  to  be 
rebuilt  as  a  memorial  to  the  late  Dean  Peacock. 

The  choir  contains  some  rich  varieties  of  decorated 
Gothic,  and  the  fine  shafts  of  Purbeck  marble  com- 
bine beautifully  with  the  white  stone  work.  The 
whole  has  lately  been  restored  and  beautified. 
Originally,  it  was  much  shorter  eastwards,  and  pro- 
tnided  into  the  nave,  but  in  1235  the  semicircular 
end  of  the  old  church  was  taken  down,  and  six 
arches  added  by  Hugh  de  Northwold.  At  the  dedi- 
cation and  removal  of  the  relics,  Henry  III.  and  his 
court  were  present.  The  east  end  is  eminently 
beautifid :  it  consists  of  two  tiers  of  high  lancet- 
shaped  windows.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting 
and  yet  beautiful  part  of  the  building  is  the  Lady 
Chapel — an  incomparable  work,  irreparably  spoiled 
by  the  barbarism  of  Puritan  times.  It  was  begun  in 
1321,  and  finished  in  l;j49,  simultaneously  with  the 
rebuilding  of  the  central  tower  and  ruined  choir, 
a  circumstance  higlily  illustrative  of  the  taste  and 
munificence  of  the  times.  It  has  a  stone  roof,  like 
King's  College  Chapel  in  Cambridge,  which  it  is 
snp|)osed  to  have  suggested,  and  the  walls  were  once 
decorated  from  top  to  bottom  with  countless  niches 
and  im.iges  of  saints  and  martjTS,  not  one  of  which 
remains  undefaced.  Its  length  is  100  feet ;  width, 
40 ;  height,  GO.  Bishop  Alcock's  Cliapel,  in  whieh 
he  lies  buried,  is  at  the  east  end  of  the  north  aisle — 
an  overloaded  specimen  of  the  richest  florid  Gothic. 
Bishop  West's  ChajKl,  at  the  east  end  of  the  south 
aisle,  is  a  more  pleasing  example  of  the  same  style. 

Amongst  the  celebrated  names  connected  with 
E.  are  Abbot  Thurstan,  wlio  defended  the  Isle 
against  William  the  Conqueror  for  seven  years; 
Longcharap,  chancellor  and  regent  under  Eichard 
1. ;  Chancellor  Morton,  Simon  Patrick,  and  Bishop 
Andrews.  The  bishops  of  E.,  like  the  bishops  of 
Diu-hara,  formerly  enjoyed  a  palatine  jurisdiction, 
and  appointed  their  own  chief-justice,  &c.  ;  but  this 
privilege  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Gth  and  7th 
Will.  iV.  The  Bishoj)  of  E.  is  ^-isitor  to  St  Peter's, 
St  John's,  and  Jesus  Colleges,  Cambridge,  of  which 


last  he  also  appoints  the  master.  There  is  a  grammar- 
school  attached  to  the  Cathedi'al,  founded  by 
Henry  VIII.  There  are  some  interesting  remains  of 
the  old  conventiuil  buildings  iu  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Cathedi'al. 

ELY,  Isle  of,  the  south  part  of  the  Bedford 
Level,  or  the  part  of  Cambridgeshire  north  of  the 
Ouse.  It  includes  above  a  half  of  this  county,  is  24 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  14  mUes,  and  contains  four  hundreds.  It 
consists  of  a  monotonous,  marshy,  or  fenny  plain, 
formerly  covered  with  water,  and  ahoimding  in 
aquatic  birds  and  plants.  It  chiefly  consissts  of  black 
earth  and  turf,  and,  where  well  drained  by  innu- 
merable artificial  canals  and  ditches,  it  produces 
fine  crops  of  hemp,  flax,  wheat,  oats,  and  cole  seed. 
Over  it  are  interspersed  small  eminences,  generally 
crowned  with  vilLages  and  towns,  as  Ely  City, 
March,  Thorney,  \\'liittlesea,  and  Wisbeach.  Pop. 
about  G0,000. 

E'LYMUS.     See  Lyme  Gk.vs.s. 

ELY'SIUjVI  (Gr.  eJi/sion),  a  place  in  the  infernal 
regions  of  the  ancient  classical  mj-thologj^  where 
the  souls  of  the  good  dwell  after  dca^hT  In  the 
Odiisseii,  Homer  describes  it  as  a  place  where  the 
souls  of  the  departed  lived  in  ease  and  abundance 
among  innocent  pleasures,  and  enjoying  a  mild  and 
wholesome  air.  In  the  Iliad,  however,  he  gives  a^ 
sombre  ^•iew  of  the  state  of  the  departed  soiJs. 
AchiUes,  though  in  Elysium,  is  made  to  envy  the 
life  of  the  meanest  hind  on  earth.  By  succeeding 
poets,  the  bliss  of  Elysium  is  drawn  in  much  more 
lively  coloiu's.  Besides  the  amenity  and  various 
deUghts  of  the  place,  diverse  employments  are  found 
for  the  inhabitants,  according  to  the  ruling  passion 
of  each  while  on  earth.  Elysium  was  supfiosed  by 
some  WTiters  to  be  in  mid-air,  by  others  in  the 
sun,  by  others  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  next 
Tartarus,  by  others,  in  the  Islands  of  the  Blest. 

ELZEVIER,  or  ELZE\T:R,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  family  of  printers  at  Amsterdam, 
Leyden,  and  other  places  in  HoUand,  whose 
beautiful  editions  were  chiefly  published  between 
the  years  1583  and  1680.  Louis,  the  first  of  them, 
is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Louvain  about  the 
year  l;>iO.  He  was  induced  by  religious  disturb- 
ances to  leave  his  native  city,  and  in  15S0,  he 
settled  as  a  bookbinder  and  bookseller  in  Leyden, 
where  he  died  about  1G17.  The  lii-st  work  etlited 
by  him  bears  the  title  Druuli  Ebrnicorum  Quces- 
tionum  lie Sespomionum  Libri  Duo,  videlicet  Secundua 
ac  Tertiu.1,  in  Academia  Lugduiietui  MDLXXXIII. 
Veiiewit  Lvgduni  Batai-orum  ujmd  Elseuirium  e 
Ilegione  S'c/ioke  y^ofce.  The  second,  a  Eutropius  by 
P.  Merula,  bears  the  date  151)2,  .and  was  long 
erroneously  believed  to  be  the  first  that  issued  from 
E.'s  press.  Five  out  of  Louis's  seven  sons  continued 
to  carry  on  their  father's  business.  Their  names 
were  Matthew,  Louis,  Aogidius,  Jodocus  (.loost), 
and  Bonaventiu-a.  The  last,  in  conjunction  with  his 
nephew  Abraham  K  (a  son  of  Matthew),  prepared 
the  smaller  editions  of  the  classics,  in  12mo  and 
IGmo,  which  are  still  valued  for  their  beauty  and 
correctness.  It  is  mainly  on  these  that  their  reputa- 
tion is  based.  The  house  of  E.,  in  Amsterdam,  was 
established  by  Louis,  the  son  of  Jodocus  E.,  in  1038. 
Peter  E.,  grandson  of  the  last  mentioned,  carried  on 
the  bookselling  business  in  Utrecht,  and  died  in  109G. 
For  more  than  a  century,  however,  this  family  lias 
ceased  to  have  any  connection  with  book-printing. 
It  is  represented  at  present  by  Rammelmann 
Elzevier,  whose  father  was  governor  of  the  isle  of 
Curasao,  and  tiled  in  1841.  The  Elzevier  editions  of 
Virgil,  Terence,  and  other  Eoman  classical  authors, 
as  well  as  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Psalter,  &c.. 


EMACIATION— EMBALMING. 


are  unrivalled  both  for  beauty  and  correctness. 
It  is  s.iid  th.it  tlic  Elzcviers  generally  employed 
women  to  correct  the  press,  under  the  conWction 
that  they  would  be  less  likely  than  men,  on  their 
ovru  responsibility,  to  introduce  alterations  into  the 
text.  Compare  Adry,  Notice  siir  Ics  Imprimetirs  tie 
la  Famille  ties  Klzeviers  (Paris,  I80G),  and  Pieter's 
Amiales  de  VJmprimerie  £lsiviricnnc  (Ghent,  1S5I — 
lS5i). 

EMACIA'TION  (Lat.  viacies),  leanness.  See 
Phtiii.sis,  Tabes,  CoNsmipriox. 

EMANA'TION  means,  in  general,  efflux  or  issue. 
In  theology  and  philosophy,  it  indicates  an  ancient 
doctrine,  which  considered  all  things  as  emanating 
or  flowing  from  a  Supreme  Princii>le.  According 
to  this  doctrine,  the  origin  of  things  is  only  an  over- 
flowing of  the  divine  fulness — an  outstreaming  of 
the  lifjht  from  the  necessity  of  its  u.-iturc,  and  not 
any  free  action  on  the  jiart  of  God.  What  is 
thus  given  ofl'  as  a  copy  from  original  perfection, 
departs  more  and  more  from  its  source,  and  gra- 
dually degenerates,  which  was  thought  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  evil.  This  doctrine  came  from  the 
East,  and  pervades  the  Indi.-m  mj-thologj-,  the  sys- 
tem of  Zoro.ister,  and  the  Keo-Platonie  philosophy 
of  Alexandria.  In  Clii'istian  theologj',  the  idea  of 
emanation  has  been  apjiUed  to  explain  the  relation 
among  the  persons  of  the  Trinity. 

EMAXCHE.     See  Maxche. 

EMANCIPATION.     See  Suvverv. 

EMANCIPATION,  in  the  Roman  law,  was  the 
act  by  which  the  Patria  Potestas  (q.  v.),  or  paternal 
authority,  was  dissolved  in  the  lifetime  of  the  father. 
It  took  place  in  the  form  of  a  sale  (mancipalio)  by 
the  father  of  the  son  to  a  third  party,  who  manu- 
mitted him.  llie  Twelve  Tables  required  that  this 
ceremony  should  be  gone  through  three  times,  and 
it  was  only  after  the  third  sale  that  the  son  became 
sui  juris  under  his  own  law.  In  general,  the  son 
was  at  last  resold  to  the  father,  who  manumitted 
him,  and  thus  acquired  the  rights  of  a  Patron  (q.  v.), 
wliich  would  otherwise  have  belonged  to  the  alien 
purchaser  who  finally  manumitted  him.  In  the  case 
of  daughters  and  gi-andcliildren,  one  s.ile  was  suffi- 
cient. If  the  child  died  intestate,  or  if  he  required 
a  tutor  or  curator,  tlie  f.ather's  rights  as  patron 
came  into  ])lay ;  but  if  the  father  died  intestate, 
the  son  took  nothing,  because  he  wai.  out  of  his 
family.  But  this  rigour  of  the  old  law  was  modified 
by  the  jinetor's  edict,  which  ])laced  all  the  children 
on  the  same  footing.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  eman- 
cipation is  called  Foresfamiliation  (q.  v.).  The  only 
c;ise  in  which  the  term  is  employed  in  England  is 
with  reference  to  poor-law  settlements.  Sec  Settle- 
MK.sr,  Poor. 

EMANCIPATION,  Catholic.  See  Koman 
C.^TUOLic  Emancipation'. 

EMA'NUEIj  I.,  king  of  Portugal,  styled  the 
GnEAT,  and  sometimes,  like«-ise,  THE  Foktunate, 
was  bom  on  the  3d  May  1469,  and  succeeded  .lohn 
II.  in  1495.  Before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he 
bore  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bcja.  On  his  accession,  he 
prepared  the  code  of  laws  which  bears  his  name, 
and  rendered  Iiimself  reniarkaWe  by  Ids  zeal  and 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  education,  by  his  active 
piety,  and  by  his  predilection  for  the  society  of 
artists  and  scholars.  Through  his  exertions,  Por- 
tugal became  the  first  naval  power  of  Europe,  ami 
the  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  He 
despatched  Vasco  dc  (iama  to  sail  round  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  discover  the  p.'wsage  to  India. 
Cabral  was  commissioned  by  him  to  prosecute  the 
discoveries  of  Vasco  de  Gania  still  further,  and 
Cortc  Ileal  to  sail  along  the  coasts  of  North 
it 


America.  The  expeditions  under  Albnquerque  put 
E.  in  possession  of  the  south  coast  of  Africa  and  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  Not  satisfied  with  this, 
he  opened  a  communication  with  Persia,  Ethio]>ia, 
and,  in  1517,  with  China.  At  his  death,  l.Sth 
December  1521,  Portugal  was  in  possession  of  a 
large  fleet,  strong  fortresses,  well-furnished  arsenals, 
a  warlike  army,  a  flourishing  trade  and  commerce, 
and  extensive  colonies.  His  reign  has  been  termed 
the  golden  age  of  Portugal.  E.  was  thrice  married  : 
first  to  Isabella,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand ;  after- 
wards to  Marj'  of  Castile,  her  sister  (by  whom  ho 
had  two  children,  John  and  Isabella,  the  former  of 
whom  succeeded  him  on  tlie  tliroue) ;  and  thirdly, 
to  Eleanore  of  Austria,  sister  of  Charles  V. 

EMA'RGINATE.    See  Leaves. 

E'MBA,  a  river  of  Tmkist.an,  in  the  Kirghiz 
territory,  rises  at  the  western  base  of  the  11  uehajar 
or  Mongojar  Mountains,  and  flowing  in  a  south-west 
direction,  enters  the  Caspian  Sea  after  a  course  of 
about  300  miles. 

EMBAXBIING,  the  art  of  preserving  the  body 
after  death,  invented  bj'  the  Egyjiti.ins,  whose  pre- 
pared bodies  are  known  by  the  name  of  mummies, 
and  are  called  in  the  hierogly]ihs  sahi,  and  by  St 
Augustine  r/abbaroe.  This  art  seems  to  have  derived 
its  origin  from  the  idea,  that  the  preservation  of  the 
body  was  necessary  for  the  return  of  the  soul  to 
the  human  form  after  it  had  completed  its  cycle  of 
existence  of  three  or  ten  thousand  years.  Physical 
and  sanitary  reasons  may  also  have  induced  the 
ancient  Egyirtians  ;  and  the  legend  of  Osiris,  whose 
bodj',  destroyed  by  Typhon,  was  foimd  by  Isis, 
and  embalmed  by  his  son  Anubis,  gave  a  religious 
sanction  to  the  rite,  all  deceased  persons  being 
supposed  to  be  emb.almed  after  tlic  model  of  Osiris 
in  the  abiiton  of  Philaj.  The  art  appears  as  old  as 
2000  B.  c,  at  least  tlie  bodies  of  Cheops,  Mycerinus, 
and  others  of  the  age  of  the  4th  dynasty  having 
been    emb.-ilmed.      One    of    the    earliest    recorded 


Egyptian  Mummy. 

embalmments  on  record  is  that  of  the  p.atriarch 
Jacob  ;  and  the  body  of  Joseph  was  thus  prepared, 
and  transported  out  of  Egypt.  The  process  has 
been  described  by  Hei'odotus  and  Diodorus ;  but 
their  accoimts  can  oidy  refer  to  their  own  age,  and 
are  only  partially  confirmed  by  an  examination  of 
the  mummies.  The  following  seems  to  have  been 
the  usual  ride  observed  after  death.  The  relations  of 
the  deceased  went  through  the  city  chanting  a  wail 
for  the  de;«l.  The  corpse  of  a  male  was  at  once 
committed  into  the  charge  of  the  undertakers  ;  if  a 
female,  it  was  retained  at  home  till  decomposition 
h.od  begun.  The  jjuraschisles,  or  flauk-inciser  of  the 
district,  a  person  of  low  class,  whose  establishment 
was  situated  in  the  cemeteries  or  sidiurbs,  conveyed 
the  corj)se  home.  A  scribe  marked  with  a  reed-pen 
a  line  on  the  left  side  beneath  the  ribs,  down  which 
line  the  paraschistcs  made  a  deep  incision  with  a 
rude  knife  or  Ethiopian  stone,  jirobalily  flint.  He 
was  then  ])elted  by  those  around  with  stones,  and 
jmrsued  with  curses.  Another  kind  of  embalmer, 
the  taricUeiUes,  or  preparer,  then  proceedeil  to  remove 
the  entrails  and  lungs,  with  tlie  excejition  of  the 
heart  and  kidneys.  The  brain  wa.s  cxtr.acted  by 
another  taricheutes,  by  a  crooked  instrument, 
through  the  nose.  All  this  having  been  eflected, 
the   body    was    ready    for   the   salts    and   spices 


EMBALMING— EMBANKMENT. 


necessary  for  its  preservation,  and  the  future  opera- 
tions depended  upon  the  sum  to  be  expended  on 
tlie  task.  When  Herodotus  visited  Efrypt,  three 
methods  prevailed :  the  first,  accessible  only  to 
the  wealthy,  consisted  in  passing  peculiar  drugs 
through  the  nostrils  into  the  cavities  of  the  skull, 
rinsing  the  belly  in  palra-wine,  and  filling  it  with 
resins,  cassia,  and  other  substances,  and  stitching 
up  the  incision  in  the  left  flank.  The  mummy 
was  then  steeped  in  natron  for  seventy  days,  and 
wrapped  uj)  in  linen,  cemented  by  ginns,  and  set 
upright  in  a  wooden  coffin  against  the  walls  of  the 
house  or  tomlt.  This  process  cost  a  silver  talent, 
which,  consideruig  the  relative  value  of  ancient 
money  at  one-thiixl  of  that  at  present,  would  amount 
to  about  £725.  The  second  process  consisted  in 
removing  the  brain,  as  liefore,  but  only  injecting 
the  viscera  with  /:alrio>i,  or  cedar  oil,  and  soaking 
the  cor]ise  in  a  solution  of  natron  for  seventy  days, 
which  brought  away  or  destroyed  the  viscera  and 
soft  portions,  leaving  only  the  skin  and  bones. 
The  expense  was  a  viina,  relatively  worth  about 
£243.  The  third  process,  in  use  for  the  poorer 
classes,  waslied  the  corpse  in  mjTrh,  and  salted  it 
for  seventy  days.  The  expense  w.is  a  trifle,  not 
mentioned.  When  thus  prepared,  the  bodies  were 
ready  for  sopidture,  but  were  often  kept  some  time 
before  being  biu-icd — often  at  home — and  even 
produced  at  festive  entertainments,  to  recall  to  the 
guests  the  transient  lot  of  humanity.  When  buried, 
they  were  sent  to  the  cholchytix,  a  higher  class  than 
the  taric/iculir,  who  had  charge  of  the  tombs,  the 
mummies,  and  the  masses  for  the  dead.  All  classes 
were  embahned,  even  malefactors  ;  and  those  who 
were  drowned  in  the  Nile  or  killed  by  crocodiles 
received  an  embalmment  fi-om  the  city  nearest  to 
which  the  accident  occurred.  As  the  art,  however, 
existed  fur  many  centuries,  it  may  be  easdy  con- 
ceived that  mummies  were  preserved  by  veiy  dif- 
ferent means,  and  quite  distinct  from  those  described 
by  classical  authors,  some  having  been  found  merely 
dried  in  the  sand  ;  others  salted  by  natron,  or  boiled 
in  resins  and  bitumen,  with  or  without  the  flank 
incision,  having  the  brains  removed  through  the 
eyes  or  base  of  the  cranium,  with  the  viscera  returned 
into  the  body,  placed  upon  it,  or  deposited  in  jars 
in  shapes  of  the  genii  of  the  dead,  the  sldn  partially 
gilded,  the  flank  incision  covered  with  a  tin  plate, 
the  tingei's  cased  in  silver,  the  eyes  removed,  and 
replaced.  The  mummies  are  generally  WTapped  in 
linen  bandages,  and  placed  in  costly  coffins.  .See 
S.VRCOPnAOUs.  The  sacred  animals  were  also 
mummied,  l)ut  by  simpler  processes  than  men. 
Mummies,  it  may  be  observed  in  passing,  were  used 
in  the  15th  .and  IGth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 
for  drugs  and  other  medical  purjioses,  and  nostnims 
against  diseases,  and  a  peculiar  brown  colour,  used 
as  the  background  of  pictures,  was  obtained  from 
the  bitumen.  The  Ethiopians  used  similar  means 
to  preserve  the  dead,  and  the  successfid  nature 
(if  embalming  may  be  judged  from  the  numerous 
nuimmies  in  the  different  museiuus  of  Europe. 
Other  less  successful  means  were  used  by  nations 
of  antiquity  to  embalm.  The  Persians  employed 
wax  ;  the  Assj-rians,  honey  ;  the  Jews  embalmed 
their  monarehs  with  spices,  with  which  the  body 
of  our  Lord  was  also  anointed  ;  Alexander  the 
fireat  was  preserveil  in  wax  and  honey,  and  some 
Itoman  bodies  have  been  foimd  thus  embalmed. 
The  Guanches,  or  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Canary 
Isles,  used  an  elaborate  proce.'^s  like  the  Egyptian  ; 
and  desiccated  bodies,  preserved  by  atmosi)heric  or 
other  circumstances  for  centuries,  have  been  found 
in  France,  Sicily,  England,  ami  America,  especially  in 
Central  -Vmerica  and  Peru.  The  art  of  embalming 
was  probably  never  lost  in  Eiu'ope ;  and  De  Bds, 


Ruysch,  Swammerdam,  and  Clauderus  boast  of 
great  success  in  the  art.  There  was  a  celebrated 
cabinet  of  M.  De  Hasii^re  in  1727,  containing  \iTe- 
pared  bodies ;  and  the  mode  of  embalming  princes 
and  others,  by  pre])ared  bahns  and  other  substances, 
is  detaded  by  Penicher,  consisting  in  the  removal 
and  separate  embalmment  of  the  heart  and  viscera, 
and  removing  the  brain,  and  introducing  the  prepar- 
ations by  incisions  all  over  the  body.  Dr  Hunter 
injected  essential  oils  through  the  principal  arteries 
into  the  body.  Boudet,  during  the  French  Em])ire, 
embalmed  the  bodies  of  the  senators  with  camphor, 
balsam  of  Peru,  Jews'  pitch,  tan  and  salt ;  but  the 
discovery  of  Oiaussier  of  the  preservative  power 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  which  animal  matter 
becomes  rigid,  hard,  and  grayish,  introduced  a 
new  means  of  embalming  by  Beclard  and  Larrey ; 
but  owing  to  the  desiccation,  the  features  do  not 
retain  their  shajie.  The  discovery  of  the  pre- 
servative ])Ower  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
acetate  and  chloride  of  alumina,  or  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  by  Gannal  in  lSo4,  and  of  that  of  arsenic 
by  Trancliini,  and  of  pyroxilio  spirits  by  Babington 
and  Rees  in  1S39,  and  of  the  antiseptic  nature  of 
cldoride  of  zinc,  have  led  to  the  application  of 
these  salts  to  the  embalming  or  preparation  of 
bodies  required  to  be  preserved  for  a  hmited  time  ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  beUcve  that  bodies  so 
preserved  ■will  last  as  long  as  Egyjitian  mummies. 
See  Pettigrew,  History  of  Mummies  (4to,  Lond. 
1S34) ;  Gannal,  Traite  iT Embaumemrnt  (Svo,  Paris, 
I83S),  translated  by  Harlan  {Svo,  PhUadelph. 
1840) ;  Magnus,  Das  Einhalslmiren  dcr  Leiclien 
(Svo,  Braunsch.  1S39). 

EMBA'NKMENT,  EA'RTHWORK.  Embank- 
ments, in  Engineering,  are  masses  of  earth,  rock,  or 
other  materials  artificially  formed,  and  rising  above 
the  natiu'al  sm'face  of  the  ground.  They  are  chiefly 
formed  either  (1)  to  carry  railways,  common  roads, 
canals,  &c.,  over  depressions  of  the  country ;  or  (2) 
for  hytb-aidio  purposes,  such  as  the  formation  of 
resei-voirs  for  storing  water  ;  or  as  defences  against 
the  ovei-flomng  of  rivers,  the  encroachments  of  the 
sea,  of  lakes,  &c. 

In  the  fomiation  of  canals,  railways,  and  other 
roads,  embankment  and  excavation  go  hand  in  hand, 
and,  under  tlie  name  of  E.4Ktuwork,  form — esjie- 
cially  in  modern  times,  and  since  the  development  of 
the  railway  system — a  vast  branch  of  industry, 
giving  emplojTnent  to  many  thousands  of  labourers, 
known  in  England  as  '  na\'vies.'  The  earthworks 
executed  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  in 
Great  Britain  alone  have  cost  many  naiUions  of 
pounds. 

In  planning  works  of  the  kind  alluded  to,  engineers 
follow,  as  much  as  possible,  the  principle  of  making 
the  cuttings  or  excavations  and  the  embankments 
balance ;  i.  e.,  of  making  the  earth,  &c.,  taken  from 
the  cuttmgs  be  sufljcient  for  the  formation  of  the 
embankments.  See  Railway.s  (Engi.vekrikg).  In 
proceeding  to  the  actual  construction  of  a  railway 
embankment,  e.g.,  a  beginning  is  made  at  the  points 
where  the  level  of  the  formation  meets  the  surface 
of  the  groimd ;  and  on  each  side  of  these  points  the 
cutting  is  taken  o>it,  and  the  embankment  formed 
by  men  using  pick,  shovel,  and  ban-ow,  so  that  a 
roadway  is  formed  for  a  ilistance  of  from  50  to  100 
yards.  When  the  '  lead,'  or  the  distance  between  the 
face  of  the  cutting  and  the  '  tip-head,'  or  end  of  the 
embankment,  is  greater  than  this,  it  is  no  longer 
economical  to  use  the  barrow.  To  continue  the 
cutting  and  embankment,  several  methods  may  be 
em])lf)yed ;  the  most  common  are,  dobbin  carts ; 
small  wagons  nm  upon  light  rails  at  a  narrow  gauge, 
and  ilrawn  by  men  or  horses ;  ordinary  earth-wagons 
drawn  by  horses,  and  occasionally  by  a  locomotive ; 


EMBAEGO— EMBATTLEMENT. 


anil  lastly,  ballastwaj^ons  or  trucks  drawn  by 
a  locomotive.  The  cost  of  earthwork  naturally 
varies  greaty  with  the  natino  of  the  strata  in 
wliich  the  cutting  has  to  be  made,  the  length  of  the 
'  lead,'  and  other  circumstances.  When  rocks  have 
to  be  cut  through,  Blasting  (q.  v.)  is  had  recourse  to. 
One  of  the  points  on  which  considerable  doubt 
existed,  was  as  to  tha  inclination  of  the  side-slopes 
of  embankments  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  nearly 
all  kinds  of  earthwork  will  stand  at  an  inclination 
of  IJ  horizontal  to  1  vertical.  When,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  very  wet  substiinces,  such  as  peat- 
moss or  wet  clays,  or  when  the  embankment  is  of 
great  height,  a  flatter  slope  may  be  necessary.  In 
many  cases,  it  is  advisalile  to  substitute  a  Viaduct 
(q.  V.)  for  an  embankment.  AU  embankments  put 
in  as  above  mentioned  subside  more  or  less,  the 
subsidence  being  much  more  distinctly  iicrceptiljle 
in  clay  than  in  gr.aveL  When  clay  is  thrown  by  the 
wagon  over  a  considerable  tip,  the  lower  half  of  the 
emliankmeut  will  be  seen  to  consist  of  round  bidlets 
of  clay  of  sufficient  hardness  to  resist  being  squeezed 
into  one  m;iss  by  the  weight  of  the  emb.ankment, 
until,  in  the  course  of  time,  from  the  effects  of  mois- 
ture, they  become  gradually  disintegrated,  and  a 
settlement  or  sinking  of  the  embankment  takes  place, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  a  twelfth,  or  even  a  tenth 
of  the  height  The  greatest  sinkin"  usually  occurs 
during  the  lirst  wot  weather  after  the  formation  of 
the  embankment ;  but  it  sometimes  goes  on,  though 
more  and  more  slowly,  for  years.  In  the  case  of 
railway  embankments,  this  subsidence  is  seldom  of 
very  material  importance.  If  the  jiermanent  rails 
are  laid,  the  labour  and  expense  of  restoring  them  to 
the  level  is  not  great,  and  the  embankment  shoidd 
always  be  formed  sufficiently  wide  at  the  top  to 
allow  of  fdling  it  up  to  its  jiroper  level  -vrithout 
adding  to  the  slopes.  It  is,  however,  practicable, 
thougn  rather  hazardous,  to  vnden  it  at  the  toji 
afterwards  by  cutting  trenches  in  the  slopes. 

When  the  side-slojie  of  the  gi'ound  on  which  an 
embankment  is  to  be  formed  is  very  steep,  the  whole 
work  has  a  tendency  to  slip  laterally ;  and  to  prevent 
this,  trenches  or  steps  are  cut  in  the  gi-ouud  before 
jmtting  in  the  embankment.  AVheu  the  material  is 
very  wet,  it  sometimes  is  impossible  to  prevent  the 
slopes  from  bulging  out,  in  which  case  it  is  gener- 
ally suflicient  to  put  in  adilitional  stuff  until  the 
work  stands.  Peat-moss  is  seldom  used  to  fonn  an 
embankment,  but  frequently  .an  embankment  has  to 
be  formed  where  the  ground  below  is  moss  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  In  this  case,  many  plans  have  been 
adopted  to  form  a  substantial  unyielcUng  work,  which, 
where  the  moss  is  deep,  and  eimtains  much  water, 
is  often  very  troublesome  and  expensive.  Ajnong 
these,  perhaps,  in  most  cases,  the  best  is  to  continue 
throwing  in  e.irth  until  no  fui-ther  subsidence  takes 
})lace.  in  some  eases,  piling  has  been  adopted,  and 
in  others,  a  layer  of  tree-tops  and  l)rushwood  has 
been  placed  on  the  moss  under  the  embankment. 
When  this  is  done,  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
ground  on  e.ach  side  of  the  embankment  opens  in 
great  rents,  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  and  moves 
laterally  from  the  embankment.  A  good  examjjle  of 
this  may  be  seen  on  the  Scottish  Central  llailwa)', 
a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  the  Bridge  of  Allan 
station. 

Embankments,  when  finished,  have  their  side- 
Bloi)es  usually  covered  with  soil  and  sown  with  grass- 
seed  ;  this  not  only  improves  their  appearance,  but 
adds  considerably  to  their  stability,  ])reventing 
rain  and  wind  from  doing  the  damage  that  might 
otlierwisc  take  place. 

In  regard  to  embankments  to  restrain  or  prevent 
the  encroachment  of  water,  it  is  necessary,  m  addi- 
tion to  forming  them  of  suflicient  height  and 
2S 


strength,  t'>  cover  the  surface  of  the  slopes  in  such  a 
way  that  the  action  of  the  water  will  not  affect  it. 
Of  course  the  method  adopted  must  depend  entirely 
on  the  n.ature  of  the  case  ;  where,  for  exam))le,  the 
water  only  occasionally  touches  the  embankment, 
as  in  the  case  of  river-floods,  and  does  not  run  with 
great  violence  along  it,  good  tiu'f  pinned  to  the  slopes 
h.as  been  found  effectual.  Where,  however,  the  slopes 
are  subject  to  the  action  of  waves  or  rajiid  water, 
more  etFectual  and  expensive  measures  must  be 
adopted,  such  ;is  stoue-]>itching,  piling,  &c.  Embank- 
ments of  this  nature  are  used  on  a  great  scale  in 
Holland.    .See  DyKis. 

Embankments  for  damming  up  water  so  as  to 
form  ponds  or  reservoirs,  require,  in  addition  to 
the  other  conditions,  to  be  perfectly  water-tight  ; 
and  for  this  purpose  a  '  piulcUe-wall '  of  clay  is 
carried  from  top  to  bottom  in  the  heart  of  the 
structure.  The  great  difficulty  lies  in  ))reventing 
the  water  from  iinding  its  way  between  the  bottom 
of  the  jiuddle-wall  and  the  foundation  on  which 
it  rests,  or  even  through  the  substances  of  which 
that  foundation  consists ;  and  the  wall  must  (titan 
be  carried  to  a  great  depth  below  the  surface  ot 
the  ground  imtil  an  impermeable  stratum  be  found. 
A  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the  place  is  here 
essential  to  the  engineer. 

EMBARGO  (from  the  Sp.anish  emhargar,  to 
in-bar,  to  arrest),  is  a  temporary  order  from  the 
Admiralty  to  prevent  the  arrival  or  departure  of 
ships.  It  may  ajiply  to  vessels  and  goods,  or  to 
specified  goods  only  ;  it  may  bo  general  or  speei.al ; 
it  may  apjily  to  the  entering  only,  to  the  departure 
only,  or  to  both  entering  and  departure  of  ships  from 
jiarticular  ports  ;  and  lastly,  although  issued  by  the 
Admu-alty  in  this  country,  it  would  be  equally  an 
emb.argo  it  issued  by  any  other  competent  authoiity. 
Such  embargoes  are  generally  eoimected  in  some 
way  or  other  with  a  state  of  war  between  two 
countries. 

E'MBASSY.  In  a  popiUar  sense,  all  diplomatic 
missions  are  spoken  of  as  emb.assies ;  but  such 
is  not  the  techliical  meaning  of  the  term.  In  its 
more  limited  acceptation,  embassy  is  a  mission  ])re- 
sided  over  by  an  ambassador,  as  distinguished  from 
a  mission  or  legation  intrusted  to  an  envoy,  or 
other  inferior  dijilomatic  minister.  In  this  stricter 
sense.  Great  Britain  has  now  only  four  einliassies — 
those  at  Paris,  Vienna,  St  Petersburg,  an^l  Constan- 
tinojjle.  The  only  difference  between  the  powers 
and  privileges  of  the  ambassador  and  the  envoy 
is,  that  the  former  represents  the  person  of  his 
sovereign,  and  in  this  capacity  he  can  demand  a 
private  a>ulienee  of  the  sovereign  to  whom  he  is 
accredited  ;  whilst  the  latter  nnist  address  him- 
self to  the  minister  for  foreign  ali'airs.  -V  residence 
is  pro^nded  for  the  ambassador,  and  an  allowance 
for  house-rent  is  made  to  inferior  ministers,  in 
.addition  to  then-  salaries.  See  Ambassadok,  Esvov, 
Consul. 

EMEATE'KIOX,  a  war-song  of  the  .Spartans, 
accompanied    by   flutes,   which   they   sung  march- 
ing  in   time,   and    rushing    on    the   enemy.      The 
origin  of   the  cmbaterion  is   lost  in 
antiquity. 

EMBATTLED,  or  IMB.\TTLED, 

called  also  Crenelle,  one  of  the  p.ar- 
tition  lines  ill  heraldry,  tr.aced  in 
the  form  of  the  b.attlemeuts  of  a 
castle  or  tower.  A  bordure  enib,attled 
is  often  given  .as  a  diHerence  to  any 
member  ot  a  family  who  is,  or  Ikis 
been,  a  soldier. 

EMBA'TTLEMEKT.     See  B.vttlement. 


Bil 


Embattled. 


EMBER  DAYS— EMBLEMENTS. 


E'JIBER  or  EJIBERING  DAYS.  Accordint; 
to  the  Book  of  Common  Praijfr  of  the  Church  of 
England,  three  d.aj's  are  appointed  four  times  in 
the  year  to  be  observed  as  days  of  fasting;  and 
abstinence ;  these  days  are  the  Wednesday,  Friday, 
and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  after 
the  feast  of  Pentecost,  after  the  14th  September, 
and  after  the  13th  December.  The  term  'embering' 
has  been  variously  derived  from  the  Greek  Kfupai, 
and  from  the  embers  or  ashes  which  in  the  earliest 
times  were  strewed  over  the  head  at  times  of 
fasting,  in  token  of  humility  and  self-condemna- 
tion. But  the  more  correct  derivation  would 
appear  to  be  from  the  Saxon  Ymbrine  ilar/ai,  from 
the  Saxon  ;iinb,  about,  and  ri/ne,  a  com-se  or  run- 
ning, the  tenn  applied  to  these  fasts  because  they 
came  round  at  certain  set  seasons  in  the  year. — 
Somner,  Dictionarium  Saxonici.  This  phrase  is 
used  in  the  laws  of  iVlfred  the  Great,  and  also  of 
Canute,  and  corresponds  with  the  term  used  by 
the  canonists,  jejunia  qualuor  temporum,  the  fasts 
of  the  four  seasons,  Mr  Somner  says  that  the 
embering  days  were  'times  of  old  chosen  and  set 
apart  for  fasting  and  prayer  for  obtejTiing  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  and  to  give  thanks  for  the  same, 
whereas  at  those  times  they  are  either  sowen, 
sprung  up,  coming  in  theu'  ripenesse,  or  gathered 
into  the  barne,  as  also  to  obtaine  the  grace  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  when  holy  orders  are  given  and 
ministers  made.'  It  is  to  this  latter  purpose  that 
the  Church  of  England  in  the  present  day  particu- 
larly devotes  the  ember  days,  and  a  special  prayer  is 
appointed  for  use  at  those  seasons. 

EMBERI'ZA  and  EMBERIZIDvE.  SeeBr.vnxo. 

EMBE'ZZLEJIEXT,  the  felonious  appropriation 
by  clerks,  servants,  or  others  in  a  position  of  tinist, 
of  goods,  money,  or  other  chattels  intrusted  to  their 
care,  or  received  in  the  coui-se  of  their  duty,  on 
account  of  their  employers.  It  is  essential  to  the 
crime  of  embezzlement  that  the  article  taken  should 
not  have  Ijeen  in  the  actual  or  constructive  posses- 
sion of  the  employer ;  for  if  it  were,  the  offence 
would  amount  to  Larceny  (q.  v.).  Embezzlement 
is  not  an  offence  at  common  law ;  hence,  persons 
guilty  of  this  crime  were  formerly  suffered  to  escape 
pimishment.  In  consequence  of  a  flagrant  instance 
of  this  imnninity  (Bazeley's  Case,  ii.  Leach,  835), 
the  Act  30  Geo.  III.  c.  85,  was  passed,  whereby 
embezzlement  was  made  a  felon}'.  This  act  has 
been  repealed,  but  the  law  has  since  been  fixed 
by  subsequent  enactments.  The  leading  statute 
on  this  subject  is  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29. 

Kmbezdement  htj  clerks  or  servants  is  ptmisbable 
by  transijortation  or  imprisomnent.  .Sec  PlNisii- 
MKNT.  ll  the  offender  be  a  male,  he  is  liable  to 
be  once,  t«nce,  or  thrice  publicly  or  privately 
whipped,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge.  Questions 
of  much  nicety  often  arose  as  to  whether  the  facts 
jiroved  constituted  the  crime  of  embezzlement  or 
th.at  of  larceny  ;  but  this  distinction  has  ceased 
to  be  of  any  importance  since  the  p.assing  of  the 
Criminal  Justice  Act  (14  and  15  Vict.  e.  100), 
whereby  it  is  made  competent,  on  an  indictment 
for  embezzlement,  to  convict  a  man  of  larceny, 
and  t!ic«  versd.  But  it  has  been  decided  in  a  recent  j 
case,  R.  i:  Gorbutt,  2G  Lnio  Journ.,  M.  C.  47,  that 
on  an  indictment  for  larceny,  it  is  not  competent 
to  convict  of  larceny  where  the  facts  amount  only 
to  embezzlement. 

Embezzlement  hy  Iianhers,  brokers,  factors,  and  other 
agents,  is  regulated  by  the  .above  statute,  sect.  49, 
and  also  by  the  Fraudulent  Trustees  Act  (20  and 
21  Vict.  e.  54).  These  most  important  statutes 
have  rendered  almost  every  conceivable  species  of 
fraudulent  misappropriation  by  bankers  and  others 


a  punishable  offence.  In  particular,  by  the  latter 
statute,  embezzlement  liy  a  Bailee  (see  Bailment) 
is  now  indictable.  Under  this  provision,  a  shop- 
keeper appropriating  goods  intrusted  for  repair,  may 
be  tried  and  convictecL 

Embezzlement  by  bankrupts  of  any  part  of  their 
estate,  or  of  any  books,  &c.,  relating  to  the  same, 
with  intent  to  defraud  their  creditors,  is,  by  12  and 
13  Vict.  c.  lOG,  made  punishable  by  transportation 
for  life.     See  Baxkkcpt. 

Embezzlement  of  letters  and  netospapers  by  servants 
of  the  Post-office,  is  also  made  higldy  penal  by 
7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  36.  The  embezzlement  of 
newspapers  is  pimishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment ; 
but  to  embezzle  a  letter,  subjects  the  offender  in  all 
cases  to  transportation  for  seven  years  ;  and  if  the 
letter  contain  money  or  valuables,  to  transportation 
for  life. 

Embezzlement  of  the  Queen's  stores  is  punishable  by 
transportation  for  life  (4  Geo.  IV.  c.  53).  In  regard 
to  this  species  of  embezzlement,  summary  authority 
is  granted  to  comptrollers  and  other  officers  named, 
on  proof  of  embezzlement  of  government  stores 
below  the  value  of  twenty  shillings,  to  fine  the 
offenders  to  the  amoimt  of  double  the  value  of  the 
article  taken. 

In  Scotland,  the  crime  of  embezzlement,  or  breach 
of  trust,  is  punishable  at  common  law.  The  dis- 
tinction between  this  crime  and  that  of  theft  is 
substantially  the  same  as  between  embezzlement 
and  larceny  iu  England.  In  both  countries,  the 
criterion  relied  upon  to  distinguish  these  crimes 
is  the  question  of  possession  by  the  owner ;  biit 
in  Scotland  the  tendency  of  the  decisions  of  late 
years  has  been  to  regard  the  appropriation  of 
ai'ticles  intrusted  for  a  temporary  purpose  as 
amounting  to  theft.  In  this  respect,  the  law  of 
Scotland  differs  from  that  of  England  in  regard 
to  embezzlement  by  a  bailee.  In  Scotland,  the 
appropriation  of  things  found  without  an  owner 
would  apjiear,  according  to  Mr  Hume,  not  to  be 
an  indictable  offence.  Such  a  case  woidd  unques- 
tionably be  treated  in  England  as  Larceny  (q.  v.). 

E'MBLEM,  a  representation  of  an  object  intended 
to  signify  or  indicate  to  the  imderstanding  some- 
thing else  than  that  wliich  it  directly  represents  to 
the  eye.  The  meaning  of  the  emblem  rests  upon  its 
secondary,  not  its  primary  signification.  Emblem 
is  often  used  in  a  sense  synonymous  with  Symbol, 
under  which,  as  the  wider  word,  it  will  be  more 
convenient  to  treat  it. 

EMBLE'JIATA  (Gr.),  the  works  of  .art  with 
which  gold  and  silver  vessels  were  decorated  by  the 
ancients.  These  sculptured  figures  were  generally 
executed  either  in  the  precious  metals  or  in  amber. 
They  were  called  cmst.'u  by  the  Romans,  though  the 
Greek  word  was  also  used. 

E'MBLEMENTS  (Fr.  emblaver,  to  sow  with  hie 
or  wheat),  growing  crops  of  cereal  and  vegetable 
]>roductions  raised  by  the  labour  of  the  ciJtivator. 
Fruits  of  trees  growing  on  the  land,  .and  grass,  arc 
not  emblements.  The  l.aw  has  ever  been  mindful 
of  the  interests  of  the  tenant  who  has  expended 
his  toil  and  capital  in  tilling  the  CTOund.  By  the 
feudal  law,  when  a  tenant  for  lite  died  between 
Slarch  and  August,  his  heirs  were  entitled  to  the 
profits  for  the  whole  year.  By  the  existing  law  o£ 
England,  a  tenant  for  life,  or  other  tenant,  whose 
term  may  be  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  brought 
to  a  close,  is  entitled  to  reap  the  crop  which  he  has 
sown,  and  to  enter  the  lands  after  expiry  of  the 
term  to  remove  the  emblements.  By  14  and  15 
Viet.  e.  25,  a  tenant  at  Rack-rent  (q.  v.)  imder 
tenant  for  life  is  entitled,  where  the  tenancy  deter- 
mines by  death  of  tenant  for  life,  to  hold  the  land 

■23 


EMBLICA— EMBRASXTEES. 


till  the  expiry  of  the  current  year.  But  if  a  term  be 
brouglit  to  an  end  by  the  act  of  the  tenant,  he  is  not 
eutitled  to  emblements.  Thus,  a  tenant  for  life  who 
commits  forfeiture,  or  a  widow  entitled  to  dower 
• — who,  as  regards  dower-lands,  is  considered  tenant 
for  life — marrying  again,  are  not  entitled  to  eml>le- 
ments.  On  tlie  death  of  a  tenant,  the  executor,  and 
not  the  heir,  is  entitled  to  the  emblements.  By 
11  Geo.  II.  c.  19,  emblements  may  be  distrained  for 
rent,  and  by  common  law  they  may  be  taken  in 
execution.  The  right  of  life-renters  in  Scotland  to 
rcaj)  the  growing  crop  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
English  right  to  emblements.    See  Life-renter. 

E'MBLICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  |he  natural 
order  Euphorbiacea;  having  a  fleshy  fmit.  E. 
officinalis  is  a  tree  found  in  most  p.irts  of  India, 
with  a  crooked  stem,  tliinly  scattered  spreading 
branches,  long  narrow  leaves,  minute  greenish 
flowers,  and  a  globular  fruit  about  the  size  of  a 
gall-nut.  The  fmit  is  very  acid,  and  somewhat 
astringent,  which  quaUtics  it  retains  when  dry 
and  shrivellecL  It  is  used  in  India  as  a  deobstment 
and  febrifuge,  also  for  tanning  leather,  and  making 
ink,  and  is  generally  called  Emblic  Myrobalans. 

EMBO'SSING,  the  art  of  producing  raised 
figures  upon  various  substances,  such  as  paper, 
leather,  wood,  metals,  &c.  This  is  usually  effected 
by  pressing  the  substance  into  a  die,  the  kind  of  die 
and  mode  of  applying  the  pressure  being  modified 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  design  and  the  pro- 
perties of  the  substance  to  be  embossed.  Sheet- 
metal  is  embossed  by  stamping  it  between  a  pair 
of  steel  dies,  one  in  relief,  the  other  in  intaglio.  See 
DrE-si>"KiNO.  WTieu  the  pattern  is  a  deep  one, 
several  pair  of  dies  are  used,  and  several  blows  given 
with  each,  the  metal  being  occasionally  annealed. 
The  first  stamping  produces  a  crude  resemblance 
to  the  final  design,  of  moderate  depth;  successive 
stampings  bringing  up  more  of  the  details,  and 
giving  increased  depth.  The  upper  die  is  usually 
raised  by  a  rope  attached  over  a  puUey  to  a 
stirrup,  iu  which  the  workman  places  his  foot ; 
he  draws  his  foot  down  to  raise  the  hea\'y  die  to 
the  required  height,  and  then  suddenly  releases  the 

Sressure  of  his  foot  from  the  stin-up,  when  the  die 
escends  by  its  own  weight.  While  thus  raising  the 
die  with  his  foot,  he  adjusts  the  work  in  its  place 
with  his  hands.  Smaller  work  is  embossed  with  a 
screw-press,  the  lever  of  which  is  tui-ned  ^^•ith  one 
hand,  while  the  work  is  placed  under  the  dies  and 
removed  by  the  other.  Paper  and  card  are  embossed 
in  a  similar  manner,  but  the  dies  are  frequently  of 
brass,  sometimes  of  copper  electro-deposits,  suitably 
backed.  The  coimter-iUe  is  commonly  made  of  soft 
metal,  card  or  mill  board,  pressed  into  the  metal 
intaglio  die  until  a  sharp  impression  is  produced. 
The  paper  or  card  is  well  damped,  and  a  fly-press 
is  generally  used.  The  leather  or  cloth  for  book- 
binding is  embossed  in  this  manner,  the  counter-die 
being  usually  made  by  gluing  several  pieces  of 
millboard  together,  and  gluing  them  to  the  upper 
bed  of  the  press,  then  stamping  these  into  the  lower 
die  imtil  a  perfect  impression  is  obtained.  The 
embossing  press  designed  and  constnicted  by  Mr 
Edwin  ilill,  for  imi)ress'mg  the  medallion  upon 
postage  envelopes,  is  a  verj'  elabor.ate  and  beautif\il 
machine,  whicn  inks  the  die  itself,  and  with  the 
aid  of  two  boys,  to  place  and  remove  the  envelopes, 
embosses  sixty  envelopes  in  a  minute.  When  large 
surfaces  of  textile  fabrics,  such  as  table-covers,  Ac, 
have  to  be  embossed,  the  fabric  is  compressed 
between  rollers,  one  being  of  metal,  upon  which  the 
dexnce  is  sunk  like  a  die  ;  the  counter-roller  or  bed- 
cylinder  is  of  paper  covered  \vith  felt ;  this  jnelds 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  fabric  to  be  pressed  into 
so 


the  die-cylinder.  A  third  smooth  metal  noller  is 
commonly  used  to  press  out  again  the  impression 
made  uj>on  the  bed-cylinder;  this  acts  upon  the 
bed-cylinder  on  the  side  from  which  the  fabric 
emerges.  Paper  is  sometimes  embossed  in  this 
manner ;  and  the  flatting  roller  may  be  dispensed 
with  if  the  cyhnders  are  sufficiently  ,accurate  in 
their  diameters  for  the  pattern  always  to  fall  on 
the  same  place  at  each  successive  revolution. 
Leather  embossed  in  high  relief  has  been  used 
for  ornamental  purposes  in  place  of  wood-car^-ing 
on  picture-frames,  cabinet-work,  &c.  The  dies  are 
of  type-metal  or  electro-deposits,  and  the  leather  is 
softened  or  fiUled,  i.  e.,  worked  with  water  till  it 
contracts  and  thickens,  then  it  is  pressed  into  the 
dies  by  suitable  round  pointed  tools,  like  modelling 
tools,  made  of  wood,  bone,  or  copper.  When  dry, 
the  leather  is  removed  from  the  moulds,  and  by 
its  elasticity  and  shrinking  it  will  relieve  from 
very  deep  and  undercut  designs. — Mr  Straker's 
mode  of  embossing  wood  diflei-s  from  all  the 
above,  and  is  very  curious  and  ingenious.  When 
wood  is  pressed  and  rubbed  with  a  blunt  instru- 
ment, the  surface  jHelds,  and  a  depression  of 
some  depth  may  be  made  in  it ;  if  the  wood  be 
now  soaked  in  water,  the  depressed  )X)rtion  will 
rise  again  to  its  original  level.  Mr  Straker  takes 
advantage  of  this  property  thus.  He  rubs  down 
the  surface  in  those  jiarts  that  are  to  be  finally 
in  relief,  he  then  planes  or  shaves  away  the  uncom- 
pressed portions  until  the  bottom  of  the  depressions 
are  reached  and  made  level  with  the  new  surface ; 
the  wood  is  then  soaked ;  the  compressed  parts  rise 
to  their  original  level,  and,  of  course,  in  doing  so, 
rise  abcve  the  portions  that  have  been  planed  away, 
and  present  the  requii'cd  device  in  relief. 

EMBOUCHURE  (Fr.),  that  part  of  a  wind 
instrument  to  which  the  lips  are  applied  to  produce 
the  soimd. — The  terra  Embouchcke  is  also  apphed 
to  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

EMBOWED,  the  heraldic  term  for  anything 
which  is  bent  like  a  bow.  The  illustration  repre- 
sents   a    sinister    arm    couped    at    the    shoulder, 


'/ 


^ 


Counter-embowcd. 


Embowcd. 


cmbowed.  Wlien  the  arm  is  turned  the  reverao 
way,  it  is  said  to  be  countcr-cmbowed. 

EMBRA'CERY,  in  the  law  of  England,  the 
offence  of  influencing  jurors  by  corrupt  means  to 
deliver  a  partial  verdict.  This  offence  is  a  si)ecies 
of  Maintenance  (q.  v.).  The  giving  of  money  to 
be  distributed  amongst  jurors  is  embracerj-,  though 
the  money  be  not  actually  distributed.  Not  only 
persons  attempting  to  influence  the  jur)',  but 
jurors  themselves  attempting  vuiduly  to  bias  the 
minds  of  tlieir  fellows,  are  guilty  of  embracery. 
The  using  indirect  means  in  onlcr  to  be  sworn  on 
a  jury,  is  also  embracery.  This  offence  is  punishable 
by  v.arious  old  statutes.  At  present,  the  crime  is 
])unishable  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  5U,  which  enacts,  that 
every  person  guilty  of  embr.acery,  and  the  jury 
consenting  thereto,  shall  be  punished  by  fine  and 
imprisonment. 

EMBllA'SURES,  in  Fortification,  are  openings 
in  the  parapets,  flanks  of  bastions,  and  other  parts 
of  f!ho  defence-works,  through  which  cannon  are 


EMBKOCATION— EMBROIDERY. 


pointed.  The  sief;e-batterie3  of  the  enemy  have 
also  embrasures.  Theii'  nse  is,  to  shield  as  much  as 
possible  the  guns,  gun-carriages,  gunners,  and  interior 
of  the  place,  and  yet  leave  spaces  for  the  free  iii'iug 
of  tlio  giins.  Each  opening  slopes  outwards,  so  as 
to  give  a  greater  sweep  to  the  gim's  action. 

EMBROCA'TIOX  {Gr.  em,  into,  and  hrecho,  I 
wet),  the  same  as  Liniment  (q.  v.). 

EMBROI'DERY,  the  art  of  producing  orna- 
mental ueeiUeM'ork-patterns  upon  fabrics  of  any 
Idud.  This  art  is  coeval  -n-ith  the  earliest  and 
rudest  manufacture  of  hair  and  wooUen  fabrics. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  early 
arts  in  Oriental  countries,  where  it  is  still  practised 
■\rith  great  skill  and  diligence.  .  It  is  common 
among  most  savage  tribes  that  wear  any  kind  of 
clothing.  The  bIauket--HTa.pptr  of  the  Red  Indian 
is  commonly  ornamented  with  embroidery ;  the 
Laplander  embroiders  upon  the  reindeer  skin  th.at 
fonns  his  clothes  patterns  worked  with  needles  of 
reindeer  bone,  and  thread  of  reindeer  sinews  and 
strips  of  hide.  It  is  practised  as  a  domestic  art  iu 
our  own  country  by  all  classes,  from  the  princess 
dowTi  to  the  pauper  school-gii'l,  and  is  carried  on  in 
large  manufactories  by  very  elaborate  machinery. 

The  Chinese  are  perhaps  the  most  laborious  and 
elaborate  hand-embroiderers  of  modern  times ;  their 
best  work  is  upon  sUk.  The  figures  are  either  in 
coloured  silk  alone,  or  in  silk  combined  with  gold 
and  silver  thread ;  the  figures  of  men,  horses,  dragons, 
&c.,  being  outlined  with  gold  cord,  and  filled  up 
coloured  and  shaded  with  silk.  The  Persians,  Turks, 
and  Hindus  also  still  excel  iu  embroidery ;  they 
use,  besides  silk  and  gold  and  silver  thread,  beads, 
epangles,  pearls,  and  precious  stones.  The  dress- 
slippera  of  Turkish  women  of  all  ranks  are  elabor- 
ately embroidered,  usually  with  a  precious  stone  or 
a  glass  bead  in  the  middle  of  the  toe-part  of  the 
shpper,  and  a  radiating  pattern  in  gold,  sdver,  or 
brass  wire  and  silk  surroiuiding  it.  The  Tm'key 
carpet  is  a  sort  of  embroidered  fabric.  See  Caj!Pet 
M.INUFACTUKK. 

Some  of  the  Oriental  and  Indian  embroiderers 
include  iu  their  work  a  great  variety  of  materials 
besides  those  above  mentioned ;  feathei-s  are  largely 
and  very  tastefully  used;  the  skins  of  insects;  the 
nails,  claws,  and  teeth  of  various  animals ;  nuts, 
pieces  of  fir,  skins  of  serpents,  &c.,  are  among  these. 
Coins,  which  are  so  commonly  used  as  ornaments 
for  the  liair  of  unmarried  women  in  the  East, 
are  sometimes  also  worked  into  their  dresses  with 
the  embroidery.  This  ia  especially  the  ease  with 
the  Turks  and  Georgians.  The  Indian  women 
embroider  with  their  own  hair  and  that  of  animals. 

Tajiestry  is  a  kind  of  embroidcrj-,  formerly  done 
with  the  needle,  but  now  chielly  with  the  shuttle. 
This  kind  of  work  is,  in  fact,  intermediate  between 
cmbroidei-j'  and  weaving,  and  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  determine  under  which  it  shoidd  be 
classed,  but  in  accordance  with  the  definition 
given  above,  we  shall  only  include  needlework 
under  embroiderj',  and  tapestry  will  be  separately 
treated. 

For  hand-embroidery,  the  fabric  is  usually 
stretched  upon  a  frame,  and  the  design  to  bo 
workeil  is  drawn  upon  it,  or  some  other  contrivance 
is  used  to  guide  the  worker.  If  the  fabric  is 
sufficiently  thin  and  open,  a  coloured  drawing  or 
engraving  may  be  placed  behind  the  work,  and 
followed  with  the  needle.  A  sheet  of  thin  trans- 
parent pajter,  M'ith  lines  upon  it  corresponding 
to  the  threads  of  the  canvas  to  be  worked  upon, 
is  sometimes  used ;  this  is  secnred  by  gimi  or  wax 
to  the  drawing ;  and  the  design  is  copied  by 
observing   the   number  of   small   squares   occupied 


by  each  colour,  and  filling  in  the  corresponding 
meslies  of  the  canvas.  Berlin-work,  which  is  a 
kind  of  embroidery,  is  done  in  a  similar  manner, 
the  pattern  being  an  engraving  on  which  the  lines 
corresponding  to  the  thread  are  printed,  and  the 
meshes  fiUcd  up  with  the  required  colours,  painted 
in  by  hand  by  women  and  children,  who  copy  it 
from  the  original  design  of  the  artist.  The  name 
has  been  given  from  the  fact,  that  the  best  jiatterns 
have,  since  1810,  been  published  by  Wittich,  a 
printseller  of  Berlin. 

In  France,  pricked  patterns  are  sometimes  used, 
one  for  eacTi  colour,  and  coloured  powders  are 
dusted  through  the  holes  upon  the  fabric  to  be 
worked. 

AU  these  devices  render  the  art  of  embroidery 
a  mere  mechanical  operation,  requiring  no  further 
artistic  skill  or  taste  than  is  exercised  in  luiitting 
stockings ;  but  when  the  embroidress  draws  the 
design  in  outline  upon  the  fabric,  and  works  in  the 
colours  with  her  needle  under  the  guidance  of  her 
own  taste,  embroidery  becomes  an  art  that  might 
rank  Avith  water-colour  drawing  or  oil-painting;  and 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  much  time  should 
be  devoted  by  ladies  to  the  mechanical,  and  so 
little  effort  made  iu  the  direction  of  ti'uly  artistic 
embroidery. 

Mnslin-embroidery  has  been  very  fashionable  of 
late.  This  is  purely  mechanical  work.  The  muslin 
is  printed  with  a  pattern  made  up  of  holes  of  differ- 
ent dimensions ;  these  are  cut  or  punched  out.  and 
their  edges  sewn  up  irith  a  '  button-hole  stitch.' 
This  kind  of  work  is  much  used  as  trimming  for 
ladies'  clothing,  for  collars,  and  children's  clothes. 

Machine-embroidery  has  been  practised  with  con- 
siderable success  during  the  last  (luartor  century. 
A  machine  was  exhibited  iu  the  French  Industrial 
Exhibition  of  1S54,  by  JM.  Heilmann  of  Mulhausen, 
by  which  one  person  could  guide  from  SO  to  140 
needles,  all  working  at  the  same  time,  and  producing 
so  many  repetitions  of  the  same  design.  Although 
the  details  of  the  construction  of  this  machine  are 
rather  complex,  the  principle  of  its  action  may  be 
easily  understood.  The  needles  have  their  eyes  in 
the  middle,  and  are  pointed  at  each  end,  so  that 
they  may  pass  through  from  one  side  of  the  work  to 
the  other  without  being  turned.  Each  needle  is 
worked  by  two  pair  of  artificial  fingers  or  pincers, 
one  on  e.ach  side  (.»f  the  work  ;  they  grasp  and  push 
the  needle  through  from  one  side  to  the  other.  A 
carriage  or  frame  connected  with  each  series  of 
fingers  does  the  work  of  the  arm,  by  carrj-ing  the 
fingers  to  a  distance  corresponding  to  the  whole 
length  of  the  thread,  as  soon  as  the  needle  has 
passed  completely  through  the  work.  The  frame 
then  retiu-ns  to  exactly  its  original  place,  and  the 
needles  are  again  jiassed  through  to  the  o]i)iosite  set 
of  fingers,  which  act  ill  like  niamier.  If  the  work 
were  to  remain  stationary,  the  needles  would  thus 
pass  merely  backwards  and  forwards  througli  the 
same  hole,  and  make  no  stitch  ;  but  by  moving  the 
work  as  this  action  proceeds,  stitches  will  be  made, 
their  length  and  direction  varj-ing  with  the  velocity 
and  the  direction  iu  which  the  work  moves.  If  140 
needles  were  working,  and  the  fabric  were  moved 
in  a  straight  line,  140  rows  of  stitching  would  be 
mad(! ;  if  the  work  made  a  circular  movement,  140 
circles  would  be  embroidered ;  and  so  on.  In  order, 
then,  to  produce  repetitions  of  any  given  design,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  move  the  fabric  in  directions 
con-esponding  to  the  lines  of  the  design.  This  is 
done  by  connecting  the  frame  on  which  the  work  is 
fixed  to  an  ajiparatus  similar  to  a  common  pauta- 
graph,  or  instrument  so  constructed  that  one  end 
repeats  on  a  smaller  scale  exactly  the  movements 
which  are  given  to  the  other.     See  Pantacrapq. 

81 


EMBRUN-EMEUALD. 


The  free  cud  of  this  is  moved  over  an  enlarged  copy 
of  the  design,  the  movement  being  ri  succession  o 
sters,  made  after  each  set  of  needles  has  passed 
through  ;  an.l   thus   the   work  is  moved   into   the  1 
position  n-fjuired  to  receive  the  next  stitch  of  the 

''Vl'ii"   machine     was    subsequently    patented    in  ; 
England,  and  many  improvemente  have  been  made 
upon  its  details,  but  the  principle  of  its  construction 
i-emaiiis  the  same.  .      ! 

\lthou<'h  it  is  ]»iisible  to  embroider  any  design 
^•ith  such  machines,  there  are  only  certain  desigiis  , 
that  can  be  worked  economically  ;  for  to  do  this,  the  1 
patterns  must  be  so  designed  --^  ^^""^'""''^r'if 
lieecUefulof  silk  without  waste.  The  lo"fr^1»  «] 
Bilk  required  for  each  colour  can  be  calciUated 
^^•ith  extreme  accuracy,  and  the  designer  is  usually 
limited  by  this  requirement.  A  gi-cater  range  is 
however,  obtainable  by  dyinK  the  same  thread  of 
silk  in  different  colours,  the  length  of  each  colour 
corresponding  to  what  is  required  for  producing  the 
pattern;  but  a  large  demand  for  each  pattern  is 
required  to  render  tliis  profit.able. 

EMBRUN,  a  town  of  rr.-ince,  in  the  dep.artmcnt 
of  Hautes  Alpes,  is  situated  on  a  platform  of  rock 
in  the  midst  ot  a  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Durance,  20  miles  east  of  Gap.  been  from  a 
distance,  the  to^™  has  an  imposmg  appearance. 
The  streets  of  E.  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  irregular. 
It  is  siuTOunded  by  loopholed  ramparts  .and  ditches, 
and  strengthened  by  bastions.  The  prmcipal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  a  Gotliic  edifice,  surmounted 
by  a  lofty  Romanesque  tower,  and  the  baiTack, 
formerly  the  archbishop's  palace.  E.  manufactures 
broadcloth,  counterpanes,  hats,  cotton-yarn,  and 
leather.     Pop.  4730.  .     ,   -o,      i 

E.  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ebroduniim, 
capital  of  the  Caturiges.  and  an  important  Rom.an 
station.  The  line  of  its  archbishops  can,  it  is  said, 
be  traced  to  the  time  of  Constantine.  In  modem 
times  E.  has  been  tlmce  destroyed  by  fire  :  by  the 
Jloors  in  96G,  during  the  religious  wars  m  15,3, 
and  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  1692. 

E'MBRYO  (Gr.),  an  organi.<!ed  being  in  a  nidi- 
mentary  condition,   or  the   rudiment   from  which, 
under  favounable  circumstances,  an  organised  body 
is  to  be  developed.     In  botany,  the  term  embryo  is 
applied  to  the  germ   formed  within  the  ovule  on 
fertihs.ation,   and   which    increases   to   become   the 
principal  part  of  the  seed.     The  albumen  or  pen- 
sperm  of  the  seed,  being  regarded  as  a  mere  store  of 
nourishment  for  the  embryo,  is  not  accounted  part 
of  the  embryo  ;  the  cotyledons,  however— although 
a  large  store  of  nourishment  is  often  laid  up  in  them 
—are  considered  as  essentially  belonging  to  it,  along 
with  the  ijhimtdc,  the  radicle,  and  the  connecting 
parts.     As  to  animals,  the  term  embryo  is  used  as 
e(iuivalent  with/'/'<H.9,  and  as  dcsign.ating  the  rudi- 
mentary animal  from  the  moment  of  impregn.ation 
until  tiic  egg  is  hatched;  but  although  this  takes 
place  at  very  different  stages  of  development  in  differ- 
ent kinds  of  animals,  and  conse(iuent  metamorphoses 
are   undergone   by  some    before  they   reach   their 
perfect  state,  the  term  embiyo  is  not  applied  to  the 
Iftnyr  and  jiiipa;  of  insects,  or  to  the  analogous  states 
of  other   classes  of   auimals.     Eggs  contain,  along 
with  the  enibrj'O,  a  store  of  nourishment  for  it  in 
the  earher  stages  of  its  development.     See  Kkpko- 
nurnoN,  Development,  Ego,  Fn-nus,  Ovule,  Seed, 
and  Spop.e. 

EMBRYO'LOGY.     See  Deveixipsient  of  the 
Embryo. 

EMBRYO'TOMY,  a  division  of  the  f(rtu.s  into 
fragments,  to  extract  it  by  piecciucal,   wlicn   the 


narrowness  ot  the  pel™  or  other  faulty  conforma- 
tion ojiposes  delivery. 

E'MDEN,  a   fortified  town  of  Hanover,  in  the 
province    of    East    Friesland,   is   situated    a    little 


below   the   embouchure   of  the   ICms   into    Dollart 
Bav,  in  lat.  53°  22'  N.,  long.  7°  13'  E.     It  hes  low 
but  is  protected  by  strong  dykes  from  any  mroad  of 
the   waters   of   tlie   bay.     Nevertheless,   occasional 
inundations  take  ].lace;  as  in  1S2G,  when  the  water 
stood  up  to  the  first  floor  of  tlie  houses  for  three 
months.     E.,  which  is  the  chief  commercial  town  of 
Hanover,  is  surrounded  by  w.alls  and  towers,  is  wcU 
built,   has   spacious   and   well    paved   streets,   and 
houses  remarkable  for  their  appearance  of  comfort, 
and  for  their  extreme  cleanliness.     It  is  intersected 
by  numerous  canals,  which  are  crossed  by  about 
tiiirtv  bridges.    The  Delf  Canal  runs  south  from  the 
town"  to  Dollart  Bay,  a  distance  of  about  two  miles, 
'  but  it  can  be  enteral  at  high  w.ater  only,  and  even 
then  is  not  u.avigable  for  vessels  of  more  than  1.J 
or  14  feet  draught ;  aU  vessels  ot  greater  draught 
being  obliged  to  unload  in  the  roadstead  of  Delf,  at 
the  inouth  of  the  canal.    The  principal  budding,  and 
one  of  the  finest  public  ediliees  in  East  Frie.sl.and, 
is  the  town-hall,  containing  a  library  and  a  curious 
collection  of  ancient  arms  and  .armour.     E.  stands 
in  a  district  of  great  fertihty.     It  has  a  good  deal 
of  ship-building,  besides  various  other  manufactures. 
From  this  town,  from  50  to  00  ships  are  sent  out 
to  the  herring-fishing  off  Scotland.     E.  was  made  a 
free  port  in  1751,  came  into  the  possession  of  Hol- 
land in  180S,  .and,  with  the  whole  of  East  Friesland, 
was  incorponated  -n-ith  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  m 
1815.     Pop.  about  12,500. 

E'MERALD  (Sp.  e-'mcrahhi,  Fr.  r-mcraitdc,  Ger. 
miarar/il,   Gr.   smani<jdo.i;    the   n.ame  is  origin.aUy 
Semitic,  or  at  least  eastern,  but  the   signilication 
unknown),  a  mineral  generally  regarded  by  imneral- 
ogists  as  nierelv  .another  variety  of  the  same  species 
with   the   Beryl   (q.  v.),  with   which   it  essentially 
agi-ees  in  composition,  crystallisation,  &c.,  differing 
in    almost   nothing   but   colour.      The    E.,   which, 
as   a   gem,   is  very  highly  v.alued,  owes  its  valuo 
chiefly  to    its    extremely   beautifid   velvety  green 
colour.     It  is  composed  of  about  07— 6S  per  cent, 
of  silica,  15—18  of  alumina,  12—14  of  ghicin.a,  and 
a  very  little  peroxide  of  iron,  lime,   .and  oxide  of 
chromium.     Its   colour   is   ascribed   chiefly   to   the 
oxide  of  chromiiun  which  it  contains.     Its  specific 
gravity  is   2-577- 2-72.5.     In  hardness  it  is  rather 
inferior  to   topaz.     The  locaUties   in   which  E.   is 
found   are   very  few.     The   finest   have  long  been 
Ill-ought    from    South    America,    where    they    are 
obt.ained    from    veins    traversing    chay-slate,   horn- 
blende skate,  and  granite,  in  a  valley  not  far  from 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.     Emer.alds  of  inferior  quality 
.are  found  in  Europe,  imbedded  in  mica-slate  in  the 
Henbach  Valley  in  Salzburg.     They  are  also  found 
in  the  Ur.al ;  and  some  old  mines  in  Upper  Eg.\Tt 
have  also  been  cUscovered  to  j-ield  them,  from  winch, 
prob.ably,  the  ancients  obtained  thcni.     'i'liis  gem, 
known  "from  very  early  times,  was  highly  prized 
by  the  ancients.     Pliny  states  that  when  LucuUus 
landed  at  Alexandria,  Ptolemy  offered  him  an  E. 
set   in    gold,   with    his    portrait    engraven    on    it. 
Many  wrought   emer.alds   have  been  found   in   the 
ruins   of   Thebes.      Nero,   who    was    near-siglited, 
looked   at  the    combats   of   gladiators  through  an 
eye-glass  of  E,  and  concave  eye-gl.asses  of  E.  seem 
to    have    been   particularly    esteemed    among    the 
ancients.      As   a  precious  stone,  the   E.    is   rari.-ly 
without   flaw.      Its   value    also   depends   much   on 
its   colour.      A  very  perfect   E.  of   six   car.ats  has 
been  sold  for  .flOOO. 

It  .appears  not  improbable   that  emer.alds   have 


EMERSION— EMERY. 


been  found  in  the  East,  in  localities  not  at  present 
known,  but  the  name  E.  or  Orient^vl  E.  is  often 
given  to  a  very  rare,  beautiful,  and  precious  green 
variety  of  SAPruiRE  (q.  v.). 

E.  CoprEK  is  a  beautiful  and  very  rare  E.  green 
crystallised  mineral,  also  called  Dioptase,  found 
only  in  the  Kirghis  Steppe,  and  composed  of  aljout 
39  jjarts  silica,  5U  protoxide  of  copper,  and  1 1  water. 

EME'RSION,  the  reappearance  of  one  heavenly 
body  from  behind  ,-inother,  after  an  eclipse  or  occul- 
tation.  The  immersions  and  emersions  of  .Tupitor's 
first  satellite  are  particularly  useful  for  finding  tlie 
longitude  of  places.  Minutes  or  scruples  of  emer- 
sion are  the  arc  of  the  moon's  orbit  passed  over  by 
her  centre,  from  the  time  she  begins  to  emerge  from 
the  earth's  sliadow  to  the  end  of  the  eclipse. 

E'MERSON,  Ralph  Waldo,  the  most  celebrated 
of  American  jihilosophers,  was  born  at  Boston, 
I'uited  States.  May  23,  1S03,  entered  Harvard 
University  in  1S17,  graduated  in  1821,  and  liecame 
pastor  of  a  Unitarian  congregation  in  Boston  in 
1829.  This  office,  however,  he  resigned  in  18.32, 
on  accoiuit  of  the  gradually  increasing  differences 
between  his  owni  modes  of  thought  and  those  of 
his  hearers.  The  ne.x't  year  he  spent  in  England. 
Since  then,  he  has  led  a  quiet,  retired,  meditative 
life,  chielly  at  Conccu-d.  Among  the  earliest  notice- 
aide  productions  of  his  pen  were  two  lectures, 
or  orations,  entitled  Nature  and  Man  Tliintinij, 
delivered  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  .at 
Cambridge,  United  States,  in  1837.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a])peared  his  Literary  Ethics,  an  Oi^atton  ; 
and  in  1841,  The  Method  of  Nature,  Man  the 
Iteforiiier,  the  first  series  of  his  Esmyn,  aud  several 
lectures,  &c.  Three  years  later,  he  issued  a  second 
series  of  Essays.  In  1840,  he  published  a  volume 
of  poems.  In  1849,  he  revisited  England,  to 
deliver  a  series  of  lectures  on  Representative  Men. 
When  published,  they  were  generally  reckoned  the 
most  vigorous  .and  intelligible  of  all  the  author 
iiad  then  written.  In  18.52,  in  conjunction  witli 
W.  H.  Clianning  and  J.  F.  Clarke,  he  published 
the  Memoirs  of  Marg.aret  Fuller  (q.  v.),  JIarchesa 
d'Ossoli.  Enijlish  Traits  appeared  in  1856,  and  the 
Conduct  of  Life  in  ISGO.  There  is  jrerhaps  no  li^nng 
writer  of  note  regarding  whom  opinions  are  so 
divided  .as  Emerson.  Some  critics  h.ave  not  hesi- 
tated to  ])l.aee  him  among  the  profoundest  thinkers 
belonging  to  the  present  .ago,  while  others,  equally 
confident,  have  pronoimced  him  to  be  in  the  main 
a  sciolist  and  charlatan.  Both  of  these  opinions, 
but  especially  the  hatter,  may  be  dismissed  as 
.absurd.  No  man  who  is  himself  sincere,  wHll  doubt 
the  sincerity  of  the  American  philosopher.  His 
entire  '  conduct  of  life '  would  be  otherwise  inex- 
plicable. It  is  true,  however,  th.at  the  subtlety  of 
his  intellect,  which  is  far  more  wonderfid  than  either 
its  breadtli  or  dejith,  often  deceives  him  by  the 
facihty  with  •wliieh  it  discovers  divine  meanings 
in  n.ature  and  the  human  sold.  E.  never  pauses 
to  harmonise  his  thoughts  and  convictions;  and,  it 
must  be  admitted,  h.as  rather  a  theatrical  penchant 
for  paradox.  He  knows  that  an  idea  is  more 
forcible  and  .attr.active,  and  can  be  clothed  in  more 
brilliant  anil  picturesque  phraseology  when  it  is 
not  qualified,  and,  as  it  were,  dragged  down  from 
its  elevation  by  the  iuUuence  of  other  ide.as.  He 
loves  to  watch  the  ]ilay  of  thought,  aud  to  ilre.am 
and  muse  about  it,  borne  up  on  the  wing  of  a 
pure  .and  delicate  im.agin.ation,  rather  than  to  weigh 
its  significance,  or  to  build  it  up  into  an  '  intel- 
lectual system '  or  a  creed.  E.  thus  belongs  to 
the  chass  of  minds  wliich  are  intuitional  rather  tlian 
rcHeetive,  and  subtle  rather  than  sagacious.  His 
thinking  charms,  animates,  and  vivitUy  excites  the 
LV.)" 


mental  facidty  of  his  reader,  but  it  does  not  satisfy 
or  settle  any  question  conclusively.  Hence  his 
speculations  on  religion,  philosophy,  literature,  and 
life,  though  stimulating  to  the  young,  are  coldly 
regarded  by  men  of  mature  aud  sage  understaniUug. 
E.  has  nowhere  formally  defined  the  fundamental 
basis  of  his  specidatiou.  He  appears  to  be  what 
is  called  a  Pantheist,  at  least  he  rejects  entirely 
th.at  kind  of  Theism  which  separates  God  from 
natm-e,  aud  which  looks  upon  him  as  simply  a  living 
Sj>iritual  Personahty.  He  will  not  recognise  a  God 
who  is  not  '  one  with  the  blowing  clover  and  the 
falling  rain.'  In  regard  to  man  and  his  destinies,  he 
entertains  exalted  hopes  ;  but  religion  is  not  in  his 
eyes  a  divinely  revealed  (in  the  ordinary  sense)  or 
infallible  tiling ;  all  creeds  are  merely  '  the  necessary 
and  structural  action  of  the  hiunan  mind'  in  the 
course  of  its  historical  progress.  Man  m.ade  them 
all  (L'hristianity  included),  aud  he  believes,  th.at 
from  the  inexhaustible  depths  of  our  nature  there 
will  come  forth  in  due  time  new  aud  ever  higher 
faiths,  which  will  supersede  those  that  have  gone 
before.  E.  is  often  said  to  have  derived  a  good 
deal  of  his  thinking  from  Thomas  Carlyle.  This 
is  true,  but  not  in  any  sense  that  can  justify  the 
viUg.ar  criticism  which  makes  him  out  to  be  a 
'  Yankee  pocket-edition  of  Carlyle.'  He  is  essen- 
tially an  original  and  independent  genius.  Some 
of  his  writings  have  been  translated  into  French, 
and  have  excited  considerable  .admu-ation  among  the 
P.arisian  transcendentaUsts.  See  Montcgut's  Essais 
de  Philosophie  Americaine  (1851). 

E'MERY  (Fr.  emeril,  Ger.  schmergel,  Gr.  emirls; 
allied  to  smear),  a  v.ariety  of  Corundum  (q.  v.),  or  of 
the  same  mineral  species  of  which  corundum  and 
sapphire  (with  oriental  ruby,  &e.)  are  also  varieties. 
It  agrees  with  them  very  perfectly  in  composition, 
hardness,  and  specific  gra'vity  ;  but  is  dull,  opaque, 
and  not  crystallised,  sometimes  of  a  grayish  black, 
and  sometimes  of  a  blue  colour.  It  oeciu's  both 
massive  and  disseminated.  Its  masses,  although  very 
compact,  have  a  somewhat  granular  structure.  It 
is  found  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  in  Asia  Minor, 
Greenland,  &e.,  generally  in  masses  scattered  through 
aqueous  deposits,  but  in  one  locality  in  Saxony  in 
beds  of  steatite  in  a  schistose  rock.  The  E.  of 
commerce  is  chiefly  obtained  from  the  island  of 
Naxos.  Being  very  hard,  it  is  much  iised  for  grind- 
ing glass  ami  polishing  metals  and  other  hard 
substances.  It  is  found  in  lumps,  having  a  granular 
structure.  It  is  composed  of  ahunina,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  silica,  with  a  httle  lime,  in  proportions 
varying  considerably  with  different  specimens.  The 
following  may  be  taken  as  an  average :  ahunina,  82  ; 
oxide  of  iron,  10;  silica,  6;  lime,  l^. 

It  is  prepared  for  use  by  first  breaking  it  into 
hunps  about  the  size  of  a  heu's  egg,  then  crushhig 
these  to  powder  by  stampers.  It  is  then  sifted  to 
various  degrees  of  fineness,  which  are  numbered 
according  to  the  meshes  of  the  sieve.  Plate-glass 
manufacturers  and  others  separate  E.  powder  into 
different  degrees  of  fineness  by  the  method  of 
elutriatiun  (q.  v.).  A  number  of  copper  cylinders 
of  graduated  cap.acities  are  placed  in  a  row,  and 
filled  with  water  ;  the  E.,  churned  up  with  au 
.abundance  of  water,  is  admitted  by  a  pijie  into 
the  smallest,  it  then  passes  to  the  next  in  size, 
and  finally  flows  from  the  largest ;  aud  thus,  as 
a  giveu  quantity  of  w.ater  with  E.  suspeudetl 
in  it,  passes  in  equal  times  through  vessels  of 
varyuig  capacities,  the  amount  of  agitation  will 
obviously  be  greatest  in  the  smallest  vessel,  least 
in  the  Largest,  and  in  like  proportion  with  the 
intermediate  ;  the  largest  particles,  therefore,  sink 
in  the  smaller  vessel,  and  so  on  till  only  the  very 
finest    will    reach    the    largest    vessel.       In     this 

33 


EMESA— EMIGRATION. 


manner,  any  mimber  of  gradations  of  fineness  may 
be  obtained,  according  to  the  number  and  sizes 
of  the  vessels.  Elutriation  in  oil  or  g«m-\v:iter  is 
sometimes  used  on  a  smaller  sc.'Ue,  the  E.  bein;: 
stirred  up  in  the  liquid,  and  portions  poured  off  at 
dili'erent  intcr\-als  of  time,  the  Knest  bein?,  of 
course,  the  last  to  settle.  The  use  of  the  oJ  or 
glim  is  to  make  the  subsidence  take  pl.-ice  more 
slowly. 

K.  thus  prepared  is  used  for  a  great  many  impor- 
tant piu^ioses  in  the  arts.  Being  next  in  hardness 
to  diamond-dust  and  crystalline  conmdimi,  the 
lapidary  uses  it  for  cutting  and  polishing  many 
kinds  of  stone.  Glass-stoppers  of  all  kinds  are 
groimd  into  their  fittings  with  it.  Plate-glass  is 
ground  fl.at  by  its  means ;  it  is  also  used  in  glass- 
cutting,  and  in  grinding  some  kinds  of  metallic 
fittings.  WTien  emi)loyed  for  the  polishing  of 
metals,  it  has  to  be  spread  on  some  kind  of  surface 
to  form  a  sort  of  fine  file.  E.  paper,  £.  cloth,  E. 
sticks,  E.  cake,  and  E.  stone,  are  various  contrivances 
for  such  purposes. 

E.  paper  is  made  by  sifting  E.  over  paper 
which  has  been  covered  with  a  coating  of  glue.  It 
is  used  either  by  wrapping  it  round  a  fine  file,  or 
a  stick,  or  in  the  hand,  according  to  the  form  of  the 
work.    See  Poli.shi.ng  of  Met.\ls. 

E.  cloth  is  made  Uke  E.  paper,  with  coarse  calico 
substituted  for  the  p.aper.  The  E.  does  not  adhere 
so  well  .as  to  p.iper,  and  it  is  therefore  not  used  by 
metal-workers,  who  work  E.  paper  till  smooth  with 
wear,  but  is  chiefly  used  for  piu-poses  where  the 
hand  alone  is  used,  and  paper  would  tear. 

E.  st'fks  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  K  paper 
wrapped  round  files  ;  they  are  made  of  deal  sticks 
shaped  like  files,  then  glued  over,  and  dipped  once 
or  twice  in  a  heap  of  emerj'. 

E.  cake  is  a  compound  of  bees-wax,  suet,  and  E., 
melted  and  well  worked  together.  It  is  applied  to 
bufiing  wheels,  &c. 

E.  stone  is  a  kind  of  earthen-ware  muted  with 
E.,  formed  by  pressing  a  mixture  of  clay  and  E. 
mto  suitable  moiUds,  and  then  firin".  like  common 
earthen-ware.  It  is  moidded  into  w'heels,  Laps,  &c. 
Its  hardness  and  cutting  power  are  verj'  considerable. 

EMESA.    See  Hems,  or  Homs. 

EMETICS,  medicines  given  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  Vomiting  (q.  v.).  They  are  given  when 
it  is  desinable  to  relieve  the  stomach  of  some  noxious 
or  indigestible  substance,  as  a  narcotic  poison,  or 
excess  of  food,  or  some  speci.al  article  of  diet  which 
has  dis.agreed.  Emetics  are  also  administered  in 
cases  of  fever,  where  the  copious  secretion  they 
produce  from  the  glands  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines is  supposed  to  have  a  directly  curative  effect, 
aide<l,  perhaps,  by  the  sedative  action  of  emetics 
upon  the  circulation  and  neri-ous  system.  There 
is  a  considerable  amoimt  of  evidence  to  shew,  that 
emetics  have  the  power  of  cutting  short  tJ^)hus  and 
other  fevers  in  the  earliest  stage,  and  afterwards  of 
making  the  attack  of  the  disease  less  severe.  In 
diseases  of  the  respirator^'  organs,  emetics  are  given 
as  the  quickest  and  safest  method  of  removing  accu- 
m<Uated  mucus  from  tlie  airjiasstages  ;  and  in  Croup 
(q.  v.),  their  action  is  especially  favourable,  being 
often  followed  by  expectoration  and  a  rapid  improve- 
ment in  the  suffocative  s\-mptoms.  Emetics  are  to 
be  given  with  great  caution,  however,  in  all  very 
depressed  states  of  the  system,  as  their  primary 
action  is  to  produce  Nausea  (q.  v.),  which  is  attended 
always  \rith  mure  or  less  diminution  of  the  vital 
power,  and  often  with  great  dcjiression  of  the 
heart's  action,  amounting  to  sjTicope  or  fainting. 
The  principal  emetics  are  the  pre]>arations  of  anti- 
mony, zinc,  and  copper;  ipecacuanha  in  jwwder  or 
31 


in  wine ;  squill,  lobelia,  and,  generally  speaking, 
the  whole  class  of  expectorants  .and  irritants ;  the 
latter  of  which,  however,  with  the  excejition  of 
sulph.ate  of  zinc,  and  perh.aps  mustard  and  w.ater, 
form  a  dangerous  kind  of  emetics,  which  should 
never  be  administered  when  the  milder  kinds  can 
be  procured. 

EMETINE.    See  Ipecacuanha. 

EMIGRA'TION  is  the  p.assing  from  one  part  of 
the  world  to  another  for  the  purpose  of  permanently 
settling  in  it.  People  going  thus  from  one  district 
of  the  Siime  state  to  another — especially  if  it  be  a 
distant  part,  with  difl'erent  h.abits  and  physical 
peculiarities — are  sometimes  siiid  to  cmigi-ate,  .and 
in  this  way  the  term  has  been  often  apphed  to  the 
EngUsh  and  Scotch  settlei-s  in  Ireland.  In  its 
established  signification,  however,  the  word  now 
refers  to  those  who  leave  the  state  or  dominions 
in  which  they  have  heretofore  lived,  and  in 
this  sense  the  term  appUes  to  those  going  to  the 
colonies,  though  these  are  like  the  United  King- 
dom, imder  the  authority  of  the  British  crown. 
In  the  coimtry  which  people  leave,  they  are  called 
emigrants  or  wanderers  out — in  that  in  which  they 
settle,  they  are  usually  called  immigrants.  Jacob 
and  his  f.amily  were  immigrants  to  Egj-pt,  and  their 
descendants  became  emigrants  from  that  coimtry 
when  they  went  to  inherit  the  promised  land. 

The  Greeks  were  addicted  to  emigration,  owing, 
it  has  been  said,  to  the  many  political  contests 
which  drove  the  weaker  p.arty  from  home.  Greek 
emigr.ants  planted  colonies  on  the  borders  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea,  carrjnng  them  as 
far  northward  as  France,  where  they  established 
the  city  of  Marseille.  The  Romans  were  great 
colonisers,  but  by  conquest  rather  than  emigr.ation. 
They  disliked  leaving  Italy ;  and  the  military  and 
ci\-il  officers  necessary  to  nde  a  colony  were  generally 
the  only  Romans  who  abode  in  it.  These  even  did 
not,  in  gener.al,  settle  in  the  colonies  with  their 
famihes,  but  were  recalled  after  a  certain  period 
of  ser\nce,  the  whole  arrangement  much  resembling 
that  for  the  government  of  British  India. 

The  migrations  of  the  northern  tribes  who  overran 
the  Roman  empire,  are  well  known  in  history  ; 
their  wanderings  m.ay  be  said,  indeed,  to  have 
continued  down  to  the  1.3th  century.  Those  who 
wandered  from  the  north  into  France,  where  they 
acquired  great  territories,  became  known  as  Normans, 
and  were  remark.able  for  entirely  thromng  off  the 
lansruage  and  mamiers,  and  even  all  the  tr.aiUtions 
of  their  original  homes,  and  becoming  the  most 
civilised  and  coui-tly  portion  of  the  French  people. 
But  though  thus  changed,  they  still  continued  to 
wander,  spreading  over  Britain,  Sicily,  and  the 
intervening  portions  of  Europe. 

The  discovery  of  America  opened  a  vast  new  field 
for  emigration,  which  was  taken  immediate  advan- 
t.age  of  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  and  later, 
by  the  British,  the  French,  the  Gennans,  and  the 
Dutch.  In  the  17th  c,  many  of  the  English  Puri- 
tans, persecuted  in,  or  discontented  with,  their  own 
country,  foimd  it  more  congenial  to  their  tastes  to 
live  together  in  a  new  coimtry,  where  they  would  be 
free  from  the  presence  of  those  who  did  not  sjTnpa- 
thise  with  them,  anil  they  thus  founded  the  New 
England  colonies.  It  is  singidar  th.at,  in  the  lOtli  c, 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  revive  the  plan  of 
emigrating  for  the  jmrjiose  of  maintaining  an  exclu- 
sive church,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  English  High 
(.'luirch  colony  of  Canterbury,  and  the  Scotch  Free 
Church  colony  of  Otago. 

The  emigration  fields  at  the  present  day  are  the 
territory  still  called  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  British  colonies  in  America,  and  the  colonies  in 


EMIGRATION. 


South  Africa,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  There 
is  a  great  distinction  to  lie  taken  between  colonies 
fit  for  emigration  and  those  deitendencies  of  the 
British  crown  held  for  other  purposes.  India,  for 
instance,  the  greatest  dejiendency  of  the  crown,  is 
totally  unsuited  for  emigration.  The  British  jicople 
who  go  there,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  merchants, 
go  to  form  the  civil  and  military  staff  which  rules 
the  country.  They  stay  there  no  longer  than  they 
can  helj),  and  instead  of  living  on  from  generation  to 
generation,  send  home  their  children  in  early  youth, 
families  of  British  origin  having  a  tendency  to 
degenerate,  both  physically  and  mentally,  )jy  long 
residence  there.  It  is  useless  for  working-peoi>le  to 
go  there,  as  every  kind  of  work  is  done  in  some  way 
or  other  by  the  u.atives  much  cheaper  tlian  it  could 
be  by  Europeans,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  every 
colony  in  the  hot  latitudes. 

As  a  question  in  political  economy,  opinions  about 
emigration  have  oscillated  violently.  At  one  time 
it  has  been  prohibited,  at  another  encouraged  by 
all  kinds  of  tempting  offers  held  out  to  emigrants, 
while  teachers  of  political  economy  have  proclaimed 
that  there  can  never  be  too  much  emigration.  The 
conclusion  to  which  we  are  coming  in  this,  as  in  so 
many  other  questions  in  political  economy  is,  that 
what  is  good  for  the  individual  members  of  a  com- 
munity is  good  for  the  community  collectively — if 
people  can  imjirovc  their  condition  by  emigrating,  it 
is  as  well  that  they  should  emigrate ;  but  if  other- 
wise, they  had  better  stay  at  home.  It  might  seem 
imnccessary  to  promulgate  a  doctrine  which  every 
man's  self-interest  shoiUd  teach  him,  but  unfortu- 
nately emigr.ation  is  one  of  the  matters  on  which  the 
populace  have  been  liable  to  delusions  which  have 
produced  great  mischief.  Sometimes  poor  worknieu 
have  crowded  in  where  labour  was  superabimdant 
and  capital  deficient ;  at  others,  men  have  taken 
their  capital  to  districts  where  there  was  no  employ- 
ment for  it,  and  the  unnatm'ally  high  price  of  the 
necessaries  of  life  has  immediately  absorbed  it  all. 
Young  gentlemen,  with  nothing  but  .showy  accom- 
plisliments,  have  gone  to  the  backwoods  of  America, 
where  they  could  only  jirospcr  by  ceaseless  toil  iu 
felling  and  clearing.  Ambitious,  discontented  artisans 
have  wandered  to  the  wide  pastures  of  Australia, 
where  they  coiUd  only  get  a  scanty  subsistence  as 
hut-keepers  or  assistant  shejiherds,  not  having  skill 
enough  to  be  intrusted  mtli  the  charge  of  stock. 
Such  mistakes  have  origin.ated  from  people's  ignor- 
ance of  the  fate  of  those  who  have  gone  before,  it 
being  generally  taken  for  granted  that  the  emi- 
gi'ant  has  gone  aw.ay  for  his  lienefit,  whereas  it  has 
often  been  for  his  ruin,  and  to  meet  an  untimely 
death. 

The  standard  difSculty  is  the  want  of  adjustment 
of  cajutal  to  labour.  This  is  eidianced  by  the  circum- 
stance, that  those  who  wish  to  emigi-ate  are  gener- 
ally jjersons  feeling  the  pressure  of  jjoverty  at  home. 
The  man,  however,  who  goes  to  a  place  where  there 
is  no  capital  to  emplny  him  with — either  his  own 
or  some  other  j)erson's — is  just  in  the  position  of 
a  shipwrecked  mariner  cast  on  the  shore.  It  has 
been  justly  remarke<l,  that  perfect  emigration  should 
consist  of  a  transjilantatiou  of  home-society  "with 
all  its  several  classes  and  institutions,  including 
capitalists  employing  labour,  artisans  of  various 
kinds,  members  of  the  learned  professions,  teachers, 
anil  clcrgjTncn.  An  ingenious  plan  for  bringing  about 
such  a  distribution  was  called  the  Wakefield  system 
of  emigration,  after  the  name  rif  its  inventor.  The 
foundation  of  the  plan  was  a  high  charge  for  land — 
£1  per  acre,  the  money  so  advanced  by  capittdists 
being  employed  iu  exporting  labour.  The  plan 
faileil.  however,  because  jieople  could  get  land  in  the 
United  States  for  a  quarter  of  the  price ;  and  even 


in  Australia,  where  it  jirevailed,  capitalists,  instead 
of  buying  land,  '  squatted,'  as  it  was  termed,  and 
the  government  had  to  countenance  the  system,  by 
charging  them  a  small  rent  or  squatting  hcence. 

There  was  one  shajie,  however,  in  which  it  was 
found  necessary  for  the  government  to  interfere — 
the  protection  of  emigrants,  so  far  as  possible,  from 
cruelty  and  imposition.  Conducting  emigration  is  a 
trade  iu  which  a  large  body  of  men  are  engaged. 
Before  he  leaves  his  own  coimtry,  the  intending 
emigrant,  through  means  of  agents  who  take  up  that 
line  of  business,  can  not  only  be  shipj)ed  for  a  distant 
jiort,  but  can  contract  for  his  removal  inland  to  his 
final  place  of  settlement,  and  can  even  contract  for 
the  purchase  of  a  plot  of  groimd,  or  for  the  sale  of 
his  Labour.  The  temptations  and  the  opportunities 
for  imposition  in  contracts  to  be  fidfilled  so  far  away 
from  the  place  where  they  are  undertaken,  is  obvious, 
and  the  instauces  of  cruelty  and  rapacity  exhibited 
in  the  emigi-ation  trade  are  among  the  most  atrocious 
that  have  ever  ihsgraced  human  nature.  These  led 
to  the  appointment  of  a  department  of  government 
called  the  Emigration  Commission,  and  to  the  passing 
of  the  Passengers'  Act  of  1S49,  which  regidates  the 
build  and  character  of  the  vessels  which  may  carry 
enugrants  to  cert.ain  points,  limits  the  number  that 
m.ay  be  conveyed,  reqtiires  the  sufficiency  of  the 
I>rovisions  and  other  stores  to  be  certified,  and  pro- 
vides for  proper  medical  attendance.  The  British 
government  cannot,  of  course,  enforce  obedience  to 
their  regulations  in  vessels  belonging  to  citizens  o£ 
the  United  States,  after  these  have  gone  to  sea ;  but 
before  allowing  such  vessels  to  receive  emigrants, 
the  owniera  must  find  security  in  this  country  for 
the  performance  of  their  undertakings,  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  the  American  government  has 
co-operated  with  ours  for  the  protection  of  emi- 
grants. 

The  greatest  amount  of  emigration  from  any  one 
coimtry  is  from  the  United  Kingdom.  There  is  also 
a  continual  stream  of  emigration  from  Germany^ 
which  has  formed  several  separate  German  com* 
nnmities  in  the  States  of  America,  and  also  in  the 
British  coljuies  there,  and  in  Austraha.  A  new 
kind  of  emigi'ation,  which  has  come  imder  the  charge 
of  the  British  authorities,  is  that  of  hill  coolies 
from  India,  and  of  Chinese,  both  for  the  pm-jiose 
of  supplying  free  labom'  iu  the  sugar-growing  and 
other  tropical  colonies  where  Euroiieans  cannot 
work  with  safety.  A  difficulty  which  more  or  less 
attends  all  kinds  of  emigration  is  peculiarly  felt  in 
this  kind — viz.,  that  of  keeping  the  two  sexes  at 
anything  near  to  an  eqnahty. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  Emigration  Commis- 
sioners afford  a  continued  series  of  statistics  on  emi- 
gration, especially  from  the  United  Kingdom.  From 
the  21st  of  these,  coming  down  to  the  end  of  the 
year  ISGO,  it  appears  that  the  total  number  who  had 
emigrated  from  the  United  Kingdom  for  46  years — 
viz.,  from  1S15  inclusive — was  .5,046,06".  Emigration 
received  a  great  impidse  from  the  commercial  crisis 
of  1847,  and  the  potato  disease  at  the  same  periofh 
In  1845,  the  total  number  was  93,501  ;  in  1S46,  it 
was  129,851  ;  and  in  1S47,  it  reached  258,27(1.  The 
largest  niunber  who  emigrated  in  any  one  year  was 
;^6S,764  in  1851.  The  smallest  nimiber  in  any  year 
during  the  last  20  was  in  1843— viz.,  57,210.  The 
former  (viz.,  the  largest  number)  were  distributed 
thus  :  to  the  North  American  colonies,  32,873 ;  to 
the  United  States,  244,261  ;  to  the  Australian  colo- 
nies and  New  Zealand,  87,881,  and  to  other  jJaces, 
3749.  The  other  number  (the  smallest)  were  thus 
distributed  :  viz.,  to  the  North  American  colonies, 
23.518;  to  the  United  States,  28,335 ;  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  .3476;  and  to  other  places,  1881. 
The  number  who  emigrated  in  1S60  was  127,969; 

36 


EMIGRATION  OF  PAUPKES— EMIXEXCK 


bcin" — to  tlie  North  American  colonics,  9780 ;  to 
the  X'uited  States,  87,000 ;  to  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  24,302  ;  and  to  other  places,  t>881.  Ajrain, 
taking  the  jiarts  of  the  empire  whince  they  came, 
we  lind  that  there  were — from  England,  103,001  ; 
from  Scotland,  3872  ;  and  from  Ireland,  21,596  :  the 
returns,  however,  only  apply  to  the  port  of  embarka- 
tion, not  the  place  where  the  emigrant  may  have 
been  born  or  lived.  Of  the  tot.il,  71,507  were 
entered  as  male,  and  55,929  as  female,  while  of 
1033,  the  sex  was  not  distinguished. 

EMIGRATION  OF  PAUPERS.  The  manifest 
advantages  derivable  both  to  themselves  and  the 
conmiuuity  which  supports  them  from  the  emigra- 
tion of  paupere,  and  more  particularly  of  pauper 
chiliUen,  to  the  colonies,  have  led  to  several  legis- 
lative provisions  on  the  subject.  The  object  of  these 
en-actmenta  is,  on  the  one  hand,  to  facihtate  pauper 
emigration,  and,  on  the  other,  to  prevent  it  from 
being  pressed  on  paupers  liy  the  guardians  to  the 
extent  of  interfering  ^^ith  their  ])ersonal  freedom  of  | 
choice.  By  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  s.  02,  parishes 
in  England  and  Wales  are  empowered  to  raise  fimds 
by  a  yearly  rate  for  defrajTng  the  expenses  of  poor 
persons  willing  to  emigrate.  The  siuus  advanced 
may  be  recovered  from  any  person  above  the  age  of 
21,  who  (or  whose  family  or  any  part  thereof),  ha\-ing 
consented  to  emigrate,  shall  refuse  to  do  so,  or  who 
ha\'ing  emigrated,  shall  return.  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  , 
110,  empowers  the  guardians  of  a  parish  to  jjromote 
the  voluntary  emigration  of  the  poor  ha\ing  settle- 
ments therein,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
the  statute  above  cited,  aud  to  charge  the  expenses 
upon  the  ordinary  funds  for  the  relief  of  the  poor. 
By  12  aud  13  Vict.  c.  103,  s.  20,  guardians  are  em- 
powered to  expend  a  sum  not  exceeding  £10  for  each 
pei-son,  on  the  emigration  of  paupers  uaving  settle-  ; 
meuts  iu  their  union  or  parish,  without  a  previous 
vestry  meeting.  13  aud  14  Vict.  c.  101,  s.  4,  enacts 
that  it  shall  be  lawf  id  for  the  guardians  of  auy  pai'ish 
or  union  to  expend  money  in  the  emigration  of  any 
poor  orphan  or  deserted  child  under  the  age  of  10 
years,  ha%-ing  no  settlement,  or  the  place  of  whose 
settlement  is  unknown,  and  to  charge  the  expense 
so  incurred  to  the  same  parish  to  which  such  orphan 
or  deserted  child  was  chargeable  at  the  time  of  the 
emigration.  The  section  concludes  with  the  pro- 
vision, that  no  emigi'ation  of  auy  such  orphan  or 
deserted  child,  under  auy  of  the  above-mentioned 
powers,  shall  take  place  imtil  such  orphan  or  deserted 
child  shall  have  consented  thereto  before  the  justices 
assembled  in  petty  sessions,  and  a  certificate  of  such 
consent,  >mder  the  hands  of  two  of  the  justices 
present  thereat,  shall  have  been  transmitted  to  the  | 
Poor-law  Board. 

These    statutory    provisions    do    not    apply    to 
Scotland,  and  there  are   no   corresponding  cl.iuses 
in  the  Scottish  acts.     The  emigration  of  paupers  iu 
Scotland,  if  effected  at  all,  must  be  the  result  of  a 
private  arrangement   between   the   parish  and  the 
emigration   commissioner,  or   other  person   willing 
to  contract  for  their  passage — the  consent  of  the  : 
pauper  being,  of   course,  requisite.      The  directors  ' 
of   ragged  schools   have   frequently   directed   their  i 
attention  to  the  subject,  but  they  have  invariably  i 
been    withheld    from    trying    the    experiment    of ! 
sending  the  children  to  the  colonies,  partly  by  the 
want  of  funds,  and  partly  by  the  want  of  arrange- 
ments for  their  reception  when  they  arrived.  i 

EMIGRES,  the  name  given  more  C3j>ecially  to, 
those  persons  who  quitted  France  during  the  Kevo-  ! 
lution.  After  the  insurrection  at  Paris,  and  the  i 
taking  of  the  Bastile,  14th  July  1789,  tlic  princes  of  1 
the  royal  family  departed  from  France.  They  were  i 
followed,  after  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  i 


1791,  by  all  who  considered  themselves  aggrieved 
by  the  destruction  of  their  privileges,  or  who 
were  exposed  to  i)ersecution.  Nobles  quitted  their 
chiltcaus  ;  oificers,  with  whole  companies,  passed 
the  fiontiers.  Crowds  of  priests  and  monks  fled 
to  escape  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  constitution. 
Belgium,  Pieilmont,  Holland,  Switzerlaml,  and, 
above  all,  Germany,  were  overrun  with  fugitives 
of  every  age.  Only  a  few  had  been  able  to  save 
their  property ;  the  greater  portion  were  in  a  state 
of  destitution,  and  sank  into  utter  demoralisation. 
A  court  had  formed  itself  rotmd  the  princes  at  Cob- 
lenz ;  a  government,  with  ministers  and  a  court  of 
justice,  had  been  cstabhshed,  aud  communication 
was  kept  up  with  all  the  foreign  coiu-ts  unfavour- 
able to  the  Revolution.  This  conduct  imbittered 
France,  aggravated  the  position  of  the  king,  and 
di'ove  the  revolutiouary  party  forward  in  their  san- 
guinary career.  Under  the  command  of  the  Prince 
of  C'onde,  a  body  of  Emigres  was  formed,  which 
followed  the  Prussian  army  into  Champagne.  The 
result  was  that  the  severest  laws  were  now  put  in 
force  against  the  Cmigres.  Their  lands  were  con- 
fiscated. The  penalty  of  death  was  proclaimed 
against  any  one  who  shoidd  support  or  enter  into 
commimication  with  them.  Thirty  thousand  per- 
sons were '  placed  upon  the  list  of  emigres,  and 
exiled  for  ever  from  the  soil  of  France,  although 
many  of  them  had  refused  to  bear  arms  against 
their  country.  Not  until  after  the  failm-e  of  their 
attemjit  to  land  at  Qiuberou  in  179.'),  did  the 
fimigres  abandon  all  thoughts  of  penetrating  into 
France  bj'  force  of  arms.  Condi's  cor]>s,  after  the 
peace  of  Luneville,  was  obliged  form.oOy  to  dissolve, 
aud  sought  an  asylum  in  Russia.  Even  under  the 
Directory,  however,  many  had  endeavoiued  to 
obtain  peimission  to  return  to  France.  TTie  general 
amnesty  proclaimed  by  the  Fii'st  Consul  was  there- 
fore joyfuUy  hailed  by  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Emigres.  JIany,  however,  did  not  return  home 
till  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  Dignities,  pen- 
sions, and  offices  were  now  showered  upon  these 
faithful  adherents ;  but,  accortling  to  the  charter 
of  1814,  they  were  unable  to  recover  either  their 
est.ates  or  their  )>ri\Tleges.  Finally,  on  the  motion 
of  the  minister  ViUtle,  the  Emigres  who  h.ad  lost 
their  landed  estates,  by  the  law  of  the  27th  AprU 
182"),  received  a  compensation  of  30  million  francs 
yeai'ly  on  the  capital  of  1000  million  francs.  After 
the  July  revolution,  however,  the  grant  was  with- 
drawn. Compare  Antoiue  de  Saint-<Jcrvais,  //w- 
toire  lies  Emigres  Fraiifalit  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1823),  and 
Montrol,  Histoire  ile  rijiiiiijration  (2d  cilit.,  Paris, 
1825). 

EMIXIAN  (or  ^MILIAN)  PROVINCES,  a 
name  now  employed  to  designate  a  portion  of  the 
recently  formed  kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising  the 
northern  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church  (the 
Komagna),  aud  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Modena. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Via  .Emilia 
(a  continuation  of  the  I'lVi  El<n>iinia,  or  great 
northern  road),  which  passed  through  these  terri- 
tories. The  E.  P.  were  formally  armcxed  to 
Sardinia  in  April  1800.     Sec  Italv. 

E'MINENCE,  a  title  given  to  cartlin.als  by  Urban 
VUI.  Up  to  the  period  of  his  pontiKcate,  they 
had  been  called  Most  Illustrious  .ami  Most  Reverend. 
Tile  assumption  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of 
this  and  other  ecclesiastical  titles,  not  having 
reference  to  any  '  pretended  province,  or  to  any 
pretended  see  or  diocese,'  .are  not  struck  at  by  the 
Act  14  .and  15  Vict.  c.  49,  to  [irevcnt  tlie  assumption 
of  certain  ecelesi.astical  titles  in  respect  of  places  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  See  Ecclesiastical  Tttlbs 
Assumption  Act. 


EMIR— EMOTION. 


E'MIR,  an  Arabic  word,  equivalent  to  'ruler,' 
is  a  title  given  in  the  East,  and  in  the  North  of 
Africa,  to  all  independent  chieftains,  and  also  to  all 
the  actual  or  supposed  descendants  of  Mohammed 
through  his  daughter  Fatima.  The  latter  are  very 
numerous  throughout  the  Turkish  dominions,  hut 
although  entitled  by  birth  to  be  classed  among  the 
hrst  four  orders  of  society,  they  enjoy  no  particidar 
pi'ivileges  or  consideration  ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  found  eng.aged  in  all  sorts  of  occupations,  and 
are  to  be  met  with  among  beggars,  and  the  lowest 
of  the  popidace,  as  frequently  as  among  the  moUahs. 
Their  pri\'ilegc3  are  confined  to  a  few  unimjiortant 
matters,  chieliy  to  the  exclusive  right  to  wear 
turbans  of  a  green  colour,  that  having  been  the 
favourite  colour  of  the  Prophet.  They  are  placed 
under  the  superrision  of  the  Emir-Beshir.  In 
former  times,  the  title  of  Emir  was  bonie  by  the 
leaders  in  the  religious  wars  of  the  Moham- 
medans, as  well  as  by  several  ruling  families,  such 
as  the  Thaherides  and  Samanides  in  I'ersia,  the 
Tuluuides  in  Egypt,  tlie  first  seven  Ommaiadcs 
in  Spain.  The  title  Emir,  in  connection  with 
other  words,  likewise  designates  tUtfercnt  offices. 
L'mir-al-Mumenin,  '  Prince  of  the  Faithfid,'  is  the 
title  assumed  by  the  califs  themselves  ;  Emir- 
ai-Mvdemiv,  signifying  the  same  thing,  was  the 
title  of  the  Almoravides.  £mir-(il-Omrah,  '  Prince 
of  Princes,'  was  the  title  of  the  first  minister,  under 
the  califs  and  the  East  Indian  Moguls,  who  united 
in  his  own  person  tlie  highest  ciWl  and  military 
dignities.  It  is  now  the  title  of  the  governors  of 
different  jirovinces.  The  Turkish  master  of  the 
horse  is  styled  Einir-Adior ;  the  standard-bearer, 
Emir-Ahm  ;  the  surveyor  of  markets  in  Turkey, 
Emir-Bazaar ;  and  the  leader  of  the  caravans  of 
pilgrims  to  Mecca,  Emir-Hadji. 

E'MLY,  an  ancient  Irish  see,  united  to  Cashel  in 
loGS. 

EMME'NAGOGUES,  medicines  intended  to 
restore,  or  to  bring  on  for  the  first  time,  the  men- 
strual excretion  in  women.  The  emmenagogues 
chiefly  in  use  are  the  preparations  of  aloes,  iron, 
mjTrh,  and  other  stimulants  in  connection  with 
purgatives ;  and  also  the  local  use  of  the  warm 
bath,  leeches,  fomentation,  &c.  Some  recommend 
still  more  powerful  and  direct  applications  to  the 
uterine  mucous  membrane  ;  as  galvanic  pessaries, 
limar  caustic,  scaritications,  &c. ;  but  these  are  not 
in  general  use.     See  Menstruation'. 

E'MJIERICH,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  on  the 
borders  of  Holland.  It  is  .a  very  old  town,  and  has 
a  Dutch  character  of  cleanliness.  It  has  a  custom- 
house, an  orphan-house,  a  gymnasium,  and  several 
ecclesiastical  edifices.  E.  has  manufactures  of  cloth, 
linens,  and  leather,  and  some  shipping.     Pop.  7110. 

E'MMET.     See  Ant. 

EMO'LLIENTS  (from  Lat.  mollis,  soft),  sub- 
stances used  to  soften  the  textures  to  which  they 
are  aj)plied,  as  jtoidticcs,  fomentations,  &c.,  exter- 
nally, and  Demulcents  (q.  v.)  internally. 

EMOTION.  Tills  is  the  name  for  one  of  the 
comi>rehensive  departments  of  the  human  mind.  It 
is  now  usual  to  make  a  threcfoM  division  of  the 
mind — Emotion,  or  Feeling  ;  Volition,  m-  Action 
prompted  by  Feehngs ;  and  Intellect,  or  Thought. 
It  is  not  meant  that  these  can  be  manifested  in 
absolute  separation  ;  or  that  we  can  be  at  one  time 
all  emotion,  another  time  all  volition,  and  again  all 
thought,  without  either  of  the  other  two.  But 
although  our  living  mind  is  usuallj'  a  concurrence,  in 
I'reater  or  less  degree,  of  all  of  them,  still  they  can 
be  distinguished  as  presenting  very  ditJ'erent  .appear- 


ances, according  as  one  or  other  predominates. 
Wonder,  Anger,  Fear,  Affection,  are  emotions ;  the 
Acts  that  we  perform  to  procure  pleasurable  feel- 
ings, and  avoid  painfid,  are  voUtions,  or  exercises 
of  Will ;  Memory  and  Reasoning  are  processes  of 
Thought,  or  Intellect. 

Emotion  is  essentially  a  condition  of  the  waking, 
conscious  mind.  When  asleep,  or  in  a  faint,  or  in 
any  of  those  states  called  'being  unconscious,'  we 
have  no  emotion  ;  to  say  that  we  have  woiUd  be  a 
contradiction,  which  shews  that  '  emotion '  is  a  very 
wide  and  comprehensive  word.  In  fact,  whenever 
we  are  mentally  excited  '  anyhow,'  we  may  be  said 
to  lie  under  emotion.  Our  active  movements  and 
intellectual  processes  can  sometimes  go  on  with 
very  little  consciousness  ;  we  may  walk  and  scarcely 
be  aware  of  it ;  trains  of  thought  may  be  proved 
to  have  passed  thi'ough  the  mind  while  we  are 
unconscious  of  them.  Now,  it  is  these  unconscious 
modes  of  Volition  and  Intellect  that  present  the 
greatest  contrast  to  emotion ;  shewing  how  nearly 
co-extensive  this  word  is  with  mental  wakefulness, 
or  consciousness,  in  its  ividest  signification. 

Emotion,  then,  is  of  the  very  essence  of  mind, 
although  not  expressing  the  whole  of  mind.  There  are 
three  distinct  kinds  or  divisions  of  it :  Pleasiu-es, 
Pains,  and  Excitement  that  is  neither  pleasurable 
nor  painful. 

Every  kind  of  Pleasure  is  included  under  emotion 
in  its  widest  acceptation.  The  pleasures  of  the 
Senses  are  as  much  of  an  emotional  character  aa 
those  pleasures  that  are  not  of  the  senses — as,  for 
example,  those  of  Power,  Pride,  Affection,  Malevol- 
ence, Knowledge,  Fine  Art,  &c.  Every  one  of  our 
senses  may  be  made  to  yield  pleasurable  emotion  ; 
and  all  those  other  susceptibilities,  sometimes  called 
the  special  emotions,  of  which  a  classification  is 
given  below,  are  connected  with  oiu"  pleasures  or  our 
pains.  What  pleasure  is  in  its  inmost  nature,  each 
one  must  find  from  his  own  experience ;  it  is  an 
idtimate  fact  of  the  human  consciousness  which 
cannot  be  resolved  into  anything  more  fimdament.al, 
although,  as  \n\X  be  seen,  we  can  Lay  down  the  laws 
that  connect  it  with  the  other  manifestations  of 
mind — namely,  action  and  thought,  and  with  the 
facts  of  our  corporeal  life. 

In  the  next  place.  Pain  is  a  species  of  emotion. 
We  know  this  condition  as  being  the  opposite  of 
Pleasure,  as  the  source  of  activity  directeil  to  its 
removal  or  abatement,  and  as  the  cause  of  a  peculiar 
outw.ard  apjiearance,  known  as  the  Expression  or 
Physiognomy  of  Pain.  All  the  inlets  of  pleasure 
are  also  inlets  of  jiain.  The  various  sensibilities 
of  the  mind,  whether  the  outward  senses,  or  the 
more  inward  emotions,  give  rise  at  one  time  to 
pleasure,  at  other  times  to  pain,  the  conditions  of 
each  being  generally  well  understood  by  us  ;  we  can 
detine  the  agencies  that  cause  pleasure  or  suflering 
through  the  skin,  the  ear,  or  the  eye. 

But  it  is  requisite,  further,  to  recognise  certain 
modes  of  Neutral  Excitement,  in  order  to  exhaust 
the  compass  of  emotion.  We  are  very  often  roused, 
shocked,  excited,  or  made  mentally  alive,  when  wo 
can  hardly  s.ay  that  we  are  either  jileased  or  put  to 
pain.  The  mind  is  .awakened  and  engrossed  with 
some  one  thing,  other  things  are  excluded  ;  and  the 
p.articular  cause  of  the  excitement  is  impressed  upon 
us  so  as  to  be  afterwards  remembered,  while  all  the 
time  we  are  removed  alike  from  enjojTnent  and 
from  suflering.  This  is  a  kind  of  emotion  that  has 
its  prmcipal  value  in  the  sphere  of  intellect.  The 
emotion  of  Wonder  or  Astonishment  is  not  seldom 
of  this  nature  ;  for  altliough  we  sometimes  derive 
pleasure,  and  sometimes  the  o]iposite,  from  a  shock 
of  surprise,  we  are  verj'  frequently  affected  in 
neither  way,  being  simply  impressed.     The  strange 

37 


EMOTION. 


appearance  of  a  comet  gives  far  more  of  this 
iieuti;d  ed'ect  than  of  the  others.  It  is  a  thing 
that  possesses  oiir  miud  at  the  time,  and  is  after- 
warils  viWiUy  remembered  by  us,  .and  these  are  the 
chief  consequences  of  its  h.aviiig  roused  our  wonder. 

The  Physical  Accompaniments  of  emotion  are  a 
part  of  its  nature.  It  h.as  been  remarked  in  all 
ages,  that  every  strong  passion  has  a  certain  outward 
expression  or  embcxliment,  which  is  the  token  of  its 
presence  to  the  beholder.  The  child  soon  learns  to 
interpret  the  signs  of  feeling.  Joy,  Grief,  Affection, 
Fear,  Rage,  Wonder,  have  each  a  characteristic 
expression  ;  and  painters,  sculptoi-s,  and  poets,  have 
adopted  the  demeanour  ni  p;vssion  as  a  subject 
for  their  art.  There  uuist  be  some  deep  connec- 
tion in  the  human  frame  between  the  inw.ard  states 
of  consciousness  aiul  the  physical  or  corporeal 
activities,  to  produce  results  so  uniform  throughout 
the  human  race.  When  we  study  the  f.acts  closely, 
we  obtain  decisive  proof  of  the  concurrence  of  the 
following  members  and  organs  in  the  manifestation 
of  feeling. 

In  the  first  place,  the  musclex  or  vtoriiir/  organs 
are  afl'ected.  Under  strong  excitement,  the  whole 
body  is  animated  to  gesticmation  ;  in  less  powerful 
feelings,  the  exi>ression  confines  itself  more  to  the 
features  or  the  movements  of  the  face.  These  last 
have  been  analj'sed  Ijy  Sir  Chai'les  Bell.  The  face 
has  three  centres  of  movement — the  Mouth,  Eyes, 
.and  Nose;  the  mouth  being  most  susceptible,  and 
therefore  the  most  exiiressive  feature.  In  the  Eyes, 
expression  is  constituted  by  the  two  opposite  move- 
ments of  the  eyelirows  ;  the  one  raising  and  arching 
them  (prompted  by  a  muscle  of  the  scalp,  occipito- 
frontalis),  the  other  corrugating  and  \vrinkling 
them.  The  one  movement  is  associated  with  pleas- 
ing states,  the  other  with  painfiU.  The  Nose  is 
acted  on  by  several  muscles,  the  most  considerable 
of  which  is  one  that  raises  the  wing  together  with 
the  upper  lip,  and  is  brought  into  play  imder  the 
<lisgust  of  a  bad  smell  and  in  expressing  dislike 
generally.  The  Mouth  is  principally  made  up  of 
one  ring-like  muscle  {orhicularif<),  from  which  nine 
pairs  ratliate  to  the  cheeks  and  face.  In  pleasing 
emotions,  the  mouth  is  drawn  out  by  the  action  of 
two  pairs  of  muscles,  named  the  buccinator  and 
:<ygomatic,  situati'd  in  the  cheek.  The  expression 
of  pain  is  dcteriiiined  by  the  contraction  of  the 
aperture  of  the  niuuth,  through  the  relaxation  of 
those  muscles,  and  the  contraction  of  the  ring-like 
muscle  that  constitutes  the  flesh  of  the  lips  ;  and 
by  two  muscles  in  the  chin,  one  depressing  the  angle 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  other  raising  the  middle  of 
the  lower  lip,  as  in  pouting.  Besiilcs  the  featiu'es, 
the  Voice  is  instiuctively  affected  under  strong  feel- 
ings ;  the  shouts  of  hilarious  excitement,  the  cry  of 
sharp  pain,  and  the  moan  of  protracted  agony,  are 
tmiversally  known.  Another  important  muscle  of 
expression  is  the  Diaphragm,  or  midriff,  a  large 
muscle  dividing  the  chest  from  the  abdomen,  and 
regularly  operating  in  exi)iration.  In  laughter,  this 
muscle  is  allected  to  con\^l!sion. 

In  the  second  place,  the  organic  functionn  of  the 
system  are  decicledly  inlluenced  for  good  or  evil 
under  emotion.  The  glandid,ar  and  other  organs 
acted  on  in  this  way  conijireheud  the  most  import- 
ant viscera  of  the  l)ody.  'J'he  Lachrymal  Secretion 
is  specihcaliy  affected  under  jiassion  ;  the  flow  of 
tears  being  accelerated  to  a  rush,  instead  of  pursu- 
ing the  tranquil  coiu-se  of  keeping  the  eyeball  moist 
and  clean.  The  states  of  the  Sexual  Organs  are  con- 
nected with  the  strongest  feelings  of  the  miud,  beini; 
both  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  mental  excitement. 
The  Digestion  is  greatly  subject  to  the  feelings, 
being  promoted  by  joy  and  hilarity,  not  in  too  great 
excess,  and  arrested  and  disturbed  under  pain,  gi-ief, 
38 


terror,  anger,  and  intense  bodily  or  mental  occupa- 
tion. The  Skin  is  known  to  respond  to  the  condition 
of  the  mind  ;  the  cold  sweat  in  fear  is  a  derange- 
ment of  its  healthy  functions.  The  Kespiration  n^y 
be  quickened  or  depressed  according  to  the  feelings. 
The  action  of  the  Heart  and  the  Circulation  of  the 
Blood  are  subject  to  the  same  causes.  The  nature 
of  this  inlhieuce  was  exjilained  under  Bldsiii.s'o. 
Lastly,  in  women,  the  Lactetd  Secretion  participates 
in  the  states  of  emotion,  being  abundant,  healthy, 
and  a  source  of  pleasure  in  a  tranquil  condition  of 
mind,  while  grief  and  strong  passions  change  it  to  a 
deleterious  quahty. 

The  connection  between  mental  emotion  and 
bodily  states  being  thus  a  fact  confirmed  by  the 
universal  exiierieuce  of  mankind,  can  we  explain 
this  connection  upon  any  general  law  or  j)rinciple  of 
the  human  constitution  ?  Have  we  any  clue  to  the 
mysterious  selection  of  some  actions  as  expressing 
pleasure,  and  others  .as  ex])ressiug  ]iain  ?  The  ro]ily 
is,  that  there  is  one  jirincijile  or  clue  that  unravels 
much  of  the  complexity  of  this  subject — namely, 
that  states  of  pleasure  are  usually  accompanied  with 
an  increase  in  sotne  or  all  oftlie  vital  functions,  and 
states  of  pain  with  a  depression  or  weaLenint/  of  vital 
functions.  This  position  may  be  maintained  on  a 
very  wide  induction  of  facts,  many  of  them  very 
generally  recognised,  and  others  oi)en  to  any  careful 
observer  ;  there  being,  however,  some  appearances 
of  an  ojiposite  kind,  which  have  to  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for,  before  we  can  consider  it  as  fully 
established. 

If  we  consider  first  the  respective  agents  or  causes 
of  pleasure  .and  pain,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
they  are  very  generally  of  a  nature  to  accord  with 
the  view  now  stated.  How  many  of  the  sources  of 
pleasure  are  ob\iously  sources  of  increased  energy  of 
some  vital  organs.  The  case  of  Food  is  too  obvious 
to  need  .any  comment.  Warmth  within  limits  both 
confers  pleasure  and  stimulates  the  skin,  tlie  diges- 
tion, and  other  functions.  Fresh  air  exhilarates  the 
mind,  while  quickening  the  respiratory  function. 
Light  is  lielieved  to  stimulate  the  vital  actions  no 
less  than  the  ment.al  tone.  And  if  there  be  some 
pleasures  of  sense,  such  as  mere  sweetness  of  taste, 
fr.agi'ant  odours,  m\isic,  &c.,  th.at  do  not  obviously 
involve  greater  energy  of  Wtal  function,  they  might 
be  seen  to  do  so,  if  we  knew  more  than  we  do  respect- 
ing the  operation  of  the  various  organs,  and  we  are 
certain  that  they  do  not  have  the  opposite  effect. 
Medical  authorities  are  so  much  impressed  ■with  the 
general  tendency  of  pleasures,  that  they  include 
them  in  the  list  of  stimulants  in  cases  of  low  vitality. 
If  we  pass  from  the  senses  to  the  special  emotions, 
such  as  Wonder,  Power,  Tender  Affection,  Taste,  we 
find  that  when  those  are  j)leasing,  they  also  increase 
the  animal  forces  .at  some  point  or  other.  A  stroke 
of  Wctory  sends  a  thrill  through  the  whole  system ; 
.and  if  the  pulse  were  ex.amined  at  that  moment,  we 
should  find  tliat  it  beats  stronger.  The  illustration 
for  Pains  is  exactly  parallel,  but  still  more  striking. 
It  is  notorious  th.at  hurts,  wounds,  fatigue,  ill-health, 
hanger,  chilluess,  nauseous  tastes  and  odonrs,  the 
silence  of  a  prison,  the  gloom  of  utter  darkness, 
failure,  humiliation,  contimiely,  deprivation  of  one's 
usu.al  comforts  an<l  pleasures — while  causing  pain, 
cause  in  a  corresponding  degree  a  depression  of  tho 
powers  of  the  system.  There  are  some  apparent 
exceptions,  .as  in  the  stimidus  of  the  wliij),  tho 
bracing  agency  of  cold,  and  the  effect  of  misery 
generally  in  rousing  men  from  lethargy  to  action, 
but  these  could  all  be  shewn  to  be  quite  compatible 
with  the  main  principle. 

If  we  turn  from  the  agents  to  tho  expression,  or 
modes  of  manifestation,  of  the  opposing  mental  con- 
ditions, we  shall  lind  that  the  facts  are  of  the  same 


EMOTION— EMPANNEL. 


general  tenor,  although  with  some  seeming  excep- 
tions. Joy  makes  a  man  spontaneously  active, 
erect,  animated,  and  energetic.  It  is  as  if  a  flush  of 
power  were  diffused  through  liis  members  ;  anrl  the 
efforts  he  is  then  prompted  to,  lead  to  no  painful 
exliaustion.  The  opening  up  of  the  features,  by  the 
elevation  of  the  eyebrows  and  the  retraction  of  the 
mouth,  indicates  that  the  stream  of  energy  has 
coursed  over  the  face.  In  a  still  greater  shock, 
the  conviilsiveness  of  laughter,  by  which  rcsjiiration 
is  quickened,  attests  the  superabundance  of  the 
animal  spirits.  The  body  stands  more  erect,  and 
every  act  done  is  done  with  more  emphasis.  Grief 
and  depression  are  the  opposite  in  every  particidar. 
The  frame  is  languid  and  stooping,  the  featiircs  life- 
less, the  voice  is  a  feeble  wail ;  and  although  there 
is  a  species  of  conviUsiou  attending  on  this  condi- 
tion of  mind,  it  is  a  marked  contrast  to  the  other. 
The  sob  is  caused  by  the  partial  parahjsU  of  the 
diaphragm,  which  necessitates  great  voluntaiy  efforts 
in  order  that  breathing  may  proceed.  The  choking 
sensation  at  the  throat  is  aJso  a  species  of  jiaralysis 
from  loss  of  «tal  power.  The  convulsions  arising 
under  such  circumstances  are  productive  of  an 
exhausting  reaction,  which  is  the  case  with  all  the 
energetic  movements  stinnUated  by  extreme  pain. 

Such  is  imdoubtedly  the  general  fact.  But  why 
should  pain  stimulate,  or  give  strength  to,  some 
special  muscles,  such  as  the  comigator  of  the  eye- 
brow, and  the  depressor  of  the  angle  of  the  mouth? 
This  has  appeared  a  great  difficidty  to  the  ablest 
physiologists.  It  would  look  as  if  pleasure  coin- 
cided with  an  energetic  wave  sent  to  some  muscles, 
and  pain  with  an  energetic  wave  sent  to  others  ;  so 
that  the  opposite  contUtions  of  mind  are  equally 
accompanied  by  an  accession  of  power  to  some 
bodily  member.  But  if  we  examine  the  matter 
more  narrowly,  it  will  probably  tiu-n  out  that  the 
muscles  that  seem  to  be  stimidated  imder  pain,  are 
not  so  in  realitj',  but  obtain  the  upper  hand  thi'ough 
the  general  relaxation  of  the  system.  Thus,  take 
the  mouth.  We  know  the  state  of  the  mouth  in 
languor,  inaction,  and  sleep.  We  know  that  when 
we  are  roused  in  any  way,  the  muscles  of  the  face 
operate  and  draw  the  mouth  asunder  in  a  variety 
ot  forms.  Pleasure  corresponds  with  our  energetic 
moods,  pain  causes  a  collapse  towards  the  sleepy 
and  exiiausted  condition  which  represents  a  state  of 
departed  energy.  So  the  collapse  of  the  body 
might  seem  an  exertion  of  the  jlexor  muscles,  or 
those  that  bend  the  frame  forward ;  but  we  are 
well  aware  that  such  coUapse  takes  place  when  the 
system  is  totally  lifeless.  A  renewed  energj-,  as  a 
matter  of  coiirse,  makes  us  stand  erect. 

This  is  a  part  of  the  case  in  reply  to  the  objections 
arising  from  a  sitecifio  exjiression  of  pain,  but  not 
the  whole ;  and  the  answer  to  the  difficulties  stiU 
remaining  is  furnished  by  a  fact  th.at,  if  well  authen- 
ticated, wiU  ]irobably  dispose  of  nearly  all  the 
excei<tions  to  the  general  principle  now  contended 
for.  It  is  the  organic  functions,  more  than  ilie 
■muscular  system,  whose  increased  vitality  coincides 
with  pleasurable  feeling,  and  their  diminished  action 
with  pain.  Muscular  exercise  is  often  highly  agree- 
.able,  but  the  pleasure  of  restinij  after  exercise  is 
still  more  so.  Now,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
what  happens  in  the  state  of  healthy  repose  is  this  : 
tlie  .amoimt  of  A-ital  force  stimulated  by  exercise — 
the  increased  energj-  derived  from  plying  the  lungs 
and  heart — is  now  allowed  to  leave  the  active 
members,  and  to  pass  to  the  other  organs — the 
digestion,  skin,  and  various  secreting  glands — and  it 
is  their  aggrandisement  that  is  associated  with  the 
comfortable  sensations  of  repose  and  sinking  into 
sleep.  Thus,  tlie  abating  of  muscxilar  energy  may 
be  a  cause  of  pleasure,  proWded  the  organic  func- 


tions are  raised  in  consequence ;  but  it  may  be 
maintained  as  a  highly  probable  supposition,  that  a 
certain  liealth  and  energy  of  some  or  all  of  these 
fuuctions  (it  is  ilifficult  to  draw  a  specilic  line)  is 
essential  to  pleasurable  feeling.  We  may  doubt 
whether  even  mental  causes  can  materially  raise 
the  tone  of  enjoyment,  if  they  do  not  also  raise  the 
activity  of  some  of  these  organs.  Not  only  may  a 
person  be  very  happy  and  comfortable  in  the  pros- 
tration of  the  muscular  energy,  even  in  a  sick-bed, 
but  one  way  of  procuring  comfort  is  to  induce  a 
total  inaction  of  the  moving  members,  to  allow 
all  the  available  nervous  power  to  pass  to  the 
■viscera  and  secretions.  Hence  a  forced  relaxation 
of  the  muscles  generally,  by  the  employment  of 
same  of  them,  is  a  means  of  soothing  the  mind 
under  pain.  Thus,  the  active  intervention  of  cer- 
tain small  muscles — such  as  the  corrugator  of  the 
eyebrows,  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  dejiressor  of  the  angle  of  the  mouth — by  relax- 
ing a  much  greater  body  of  muscle,  is  the  means  of 
setting  free  vital  energy  for  behoof  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  system.  This  would  ex|)lain  the  mental 
relief  furnished  by  an  assumed  satluess  of  feature, 
and  a  voluntary  coUapse  of  the  body  generally. 

It  would  appear,  then,  that  the  stimulus  of  muscle  is 
not  necessarily  or  immediatelj'  a  cause  of  pleasure ; 
while  the  stimidus  of  the  organic  functions  is  so. 
Thus,  a  bracing  cold  quickens  the  aetirities,  but  is 
apt  to  cause  a  shock  of  pain,  by  temporarUy  check- 
ing the  action  of  the  skin ;  when  the  reaction 
arrives,  this  check  is  converted  into  stimulation, 
and  the  mental  state  is  altered  in  like  manner.  A 
bitter  tonic  must  be  supposed  to  act  on  the  same 
principle. 

The  emotions  of  the  human  mind  may  be  classi- 
fied under  two  heads  : 

First — The  pleasures,  and  pains,  and  modes  of 
excitement  gro'n'ing  out  of  the  exercise  of  the  Senses, 
the  Movements,  and  the  Appetites.  See  Senses. 
The  five  senses,  commonly  recognised,  are  partly 
sources  of  pleasiu-e  and  pain,  ia  which  case  they 
yield  Emotion,  and  partly  sources  of  Knowledge,  by 
which  they  are  related  to  the  Intellect.  There  are 
other  sensibdities  not  included  in  the  five  senses, 
but  ranking  vrith  them  in  those  particulars — as  the 
feelings  of  Muscidar  Exercise  and  Eepose,  and  the 
sensations  of  Digestion,  Respiration,  &c. 

The  second  head  comprises  the  Special  Emotions 
not  arising  immediately  out  of  Sensation,  although 
connected  therewith.  These  have  been  variously 
classified  The  following  is  one  mode  of  laying 
them  out :  1.  Feelings  of  Liberty  and  Restraint 
2.  Wonder ;  3.  Terror ;  4.  Tender  Affections ;  5, 
Emotions  of  Self-complacency,  Love  of  Approba^ 
tion,  &c. ;  6.  Sentiment  of  Power ;  7.  Irascibility ; 
8.  Emotions  of  Action,  including  the  interest  of 
Pursuit  or  Plot ;  9.  Emotions  of  Intellect,  Love  of 
Knowledge,  Consistency,  and  Inconsistency ;  10. 
Fine  Art  Emotions,  or  Taste  ;   1 1.  The  Moral  Sense. 

On  this  subject,  see  Miiller's  Physiology,  Movements 
due  to  the  Passions  of  the  Mind;  Bell's  Anatomy 
of  Expression  ;  Stewart  on  the  Active  Powers;  Bain 
on  the  Emotions  and  tlie  Will,  &c. 

EMPA'NNEL — Empandlare  vel  ponere  in  assists 
etjuralis — to  write  in  a  schedule  or  roll  the  names 
of  such  jurors  as  the  sheriff  petums  to  pass  upon 
any  trial.  The  judges  of  assi2e  in  England,  before 
commencing  their  circuits,  issue  precepts  to  the 
sheriffs  of  the  several  coimties,  calling  upon  them 
to  sirmmon  a  sufficient  number  of  jurors  to  servo 
upon  the  grand  and  petty  jm-ies.  In  compliance 
with  this  order,  the  sheriff  prepares  lists,  called  the 
Panels  (q.  v.)  of  the  jury,  and  the  pei-sons  named 
in  the  lists  are  thereupon  summoned  to  attend  at 
tlic  assi;-:e::. 


EMPECINADO-EMPEROR  MOTH. 


EJIPECINA'DO,  Dojf  Juan  Maktis  Diaz,  el.  I 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Sjjanish  revolution  of 
1820,  was  born  in  1775.  He  was  the  son  of  poor 
parents,  and  entered  the  Spanish  army  in  17'.f2.  At 
the  head  of  5000  or  6000  men,  he  carried  on  a 
cuerilla  warfare  against  the  Frencli  during  the 
Peninsular  struggle,  and  .acquired  great  distinction. 
In  ISU,  he  w.as  .ippointed  colond  in  the  regiJar 
.irniy.  and  the  king  himself  created  him  tield- 
m.arshal ;  but  in  consequence  of  petitioniug  Ferdi- 
nand, in  1815,  to  reiustitute  the  Cortes,  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  afterwanls  banished  to  VaU.adolid. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  in  1S'20,  he 
took  a  prominent  jiart  on  the  side  of  the  constitu-  | 
tionaUsts,  and  on  several  occasions  exhibited  great 
courace,  daring,  and  circumspection.  After  the 
triumph  of  the 'absolutists  in  1825,  he  w.as  arrested, 
exi)0sed  in  an  iron  cage  to  the  contumely  of  the  I 
passers-by,  and  (in.ally  executed  on  a  common 
gibbet,  aniidst  the  ferocious  yelhngs  of  a  debased  i 
and  liberty-hating  populace.  ^   I 

EMPe"dOCLES.  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Agri- 
gentum,   in  Sicily,  lived  about  450  E.c.      So  gre.at 
was  the  estim.ation  in  which  he  w.as  held  by  his 
feUow-eitizens  as  a  physician,  a  friend  of  the  gods,  a 
predictor  of  futurity,  and  a   sorcerer,  or   conjuror 
of  nature,  that  they  are  s.aid  to  have  offered  him  the  ] 
sovereignty.     But  being  an  enemy  of  tyr.anny,  he 
declineti  it,  and  w-as  the  means  of  dehvering  the 
community  from  the  dominion  of  the  aristocracy,  I 
and  bringing  in  a  democracy.    There  was  a  tradition  ; 
that  he  Ihrew  himself  into  the  crater  of  Etna,  in  ' 
order  th.at  bis  sudden  disappearance  might  beget  a  | 
belief  in  his  divine  origin  ;  this,  however,  can  only 
be  regarded  as  a  mere  fable,  like  the  story  told  by 
LuciiTn.  that  Etna  threw  out  the  sandals  of  the  vain  1 
phdosopher,  and  thus  destroyed  the  popidar  belief 
in  his  diA-inity.     The  statement  of  Aristotle  is,  that 
he  died  iit  the  age  of  60 ;  later  writers  extend  the 
period  of  his   life   considerably  further,  but   then: 
testimony  is  not  equal  in  weight  to  that  of  Aristotle. 
In    E.,  philosophic    thought  is    bound    up    with 
poetry  and  myth  even  in  a.  higher  degree  than  in 
Parmenides  (q.  v.).     His  general  point  of  view  is 
determined  by  the  influence  of  the  Eleatic  school 
upon  the   physical   theories   of   the   Ionic   philoso- 
phers.     He    assumed    four    primitive    independent 
substances— air,  w.ater,   fire,  .and   earth,   which   he 
designates  often  bv  the  mythical  n.ames  Zeus,  Here, 
&c.     These  four  elements,  as  they  were  called,  kept 
their  place  till  modem   chemistry  dislodged  them. 
Along  with  material  elements,  he  .affirmed  the  exist- 
ence of  two  moving  and  oper.itmg  powers,  love  and 
hate,  or  friendship  and  sti-ife,  the  first  as  the  unit- 
ing principle,  the  second  as  the  separating.      The 
contnast  between  matter  and  power,  or  force,  is  thus 
brought  out  more  strongly  by  E.  than  by  previous 
philosophers.     The  origin  of  the  world,  or  cosmos, 
he  conceived  in  this  w.ay  :    In  the  beginning,  the 
elements  were  held  in  a  sort  of  blended  unity,  or 
sphere,  by  the  attractive  force  of  love  ;  when  hate, 
previously  exterior,  peuctrateil  as  a  repelling  and 
separating  principle.     In  this  process  of  separation, 
which  gives  rise  to  the  individu.al  objects  of  nature, 
he  seems   to   have   assumed   a   series  of   stages,   a 
gradual   development    of  the   perfect    out   of    the 
imperfect,  and  a  periodical  retiu-n  of  things  to  the 
elemental  state,  in  order  to  be  again  scjianated,  and 
a    new  world    of  phenomena  formed.      From    the 
fragments  that  we  possess  of  his  didactic  poem,  it  is 
not  quite  clear  in  how  far  he  considered  fire  as  the 
substr.atuni  of  strife,  and  water  .as  the  substratum  of 
love,  and  .ascribed  various  creations  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  one  or  the  other  of  these  principles.      Of 
his  opinions  on  special   iihonomcna,  may  be  men- 
tioned his  doctrine  of  eiiiaiiatious,  which  proceeiUug 
40 


from  one  thing  enter  into  con-esponding  oiienings  in 
other  things.  By  this  .assumption  in  connection 
with  the  maxim,  that  like  is  known  only  by  like, 
he  thought  to  explain  the  nature  of  perce|)tion  by 
the  sens'Is.  He  attempted  to  give  a  mond  apphca- 
tion  to  the  old  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls,  his  views  of  which  resembled  those  of  Pythag- 
oras. The  fragments  of  E.  have  been  edited  by 
Sturz  (2  vols.,  "Leip.  ISOu),  Karsten  (.\nist.  183S), 
and  Stein  (Bonn,  1852). 

E'MPEROR  (Lat.  imperator).   The  original  simii- 
fication   of   this,   which   in   the  modern  world  nas 
become   the   highest    title   of   sovereignty,   can   be 
understood  only  when   it  is  taken  in  conjunction 
^^•ith^m/)0•;Hm,  which  in  the  Roman  political  system 
had   a  peculiar  and  somewhat  technical  meaning. 
The  impurium  of  a  ra.agistrate,  be  he  king  or  consul, 
\v,as  the  power  which  he  possessed  of  bringing  physi- 
cal force  into  operation  for  the   fulfilment   of   his 
behests.     This  power  was  conferred  by  a  lex  curiata, 
and  it  required  this  .authorisation  to  entitle  a  consul 
to  .act  .as  the  commander  of  an  army.    In  the  case  of 
the  kings  also,  the  impcrium  was  not  impUed  in 
their  election,  but  was  conferred  sep.aratcly,  by  a 
separate  act  of  the  national  -will.     '  On  the  death  of 
King  Pompilius,'  s.ays  Cicero,  '  the  popiilus  in  tho 
I  comitia  curiata  elected  Tullus  Ilostilius  king,  upon 
the  rogation  of  an  iiitcrrex  ;  and  the  king,  following 
the  example  of   Pompilius,  took  the  votes  of  the^ 
populus,  according  to  their  curia,  on  tlie  question  of 
his  imperiunu'—JiepubUc,  ii.   17.      Now,  it  was   in 
\Trtue  of  this  imperium  that  the  title  imper.ator  was 
given  to  its  possessor.     Far  from  being  an  emperor 
in  the  modern  sense,  he  might  be  a  consul  or  a  pro- 
consid  ;   and  there  were,  in  f.act,  many  impcr.atorcs, 
even  after  the   title  had  been   assumed  as   a  pre- 
nomeu  liy  Julius  C.ojsar.      It  was  this  .assuniption 
which  gradually  gave  to  the  title  its  modern  signifi- 
cation.'   In  republican  times,  it  had  followed  the 
name,  and  indicated  simply  th.at  its  possessor  was  an 
imperator,  or  one  possessed  of  the  imperimn ;   now 
it  preceded  it,  .and  signified  th.at  he  who  .arrogated 
it  to   himself  w.as   the  emperor.      In  this   form   it 
appears  on  the  coins  of   the  successors  of  Julius. 
After  the  times  of  the  Antonines,  the  title  grew  into 
use  as  expressing  the  possessor  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Roman  world,  in  which  sense  Princeps  also  was 
frequently  cmjiloyed.     In  the  introduction  to  the 
Jnsiiluli's,  Justinian  uses  both,  in  sjieaking  of  him- 
self, in  the  same  paragi'.aph.     From  the  emperoi-s  of 
I  the   West,   the   title   p:vssed   to   Charlemagne,   tho 
founder  of  the  German  empii-e.     When  the  Carlo- 
vingian  family  expired  in  tlie  German  br.anch,  the 
imjierial  crown  became  elective,  and  continued  to 
be  so  till  it  ceased— Francis  II.,  who  in  1804  h.ad 
declared   himself   hereditary   Emperor   of    Austria, 
having  laid  it  down  in  1806.     In  .addition  to  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  there  .arc  now  in  Europe  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  Emperor  of  the  French— 
the  latter  of  whom,  being  an  elected  monarch,  holds 
a  position,  in  one  respect  at  least,  resembling  that  of 
the  old  empcroi-s  of  the  second  AVestern  Empire, 
with  whom  it  is  sometimes  thought  that  he  is  not 
unwilling  to  be  identified. 

EMPEROR  MOTH  [Saturnia  pamnia  minor), 
a  moth  of  the  s.ame  family  (Bornbycida-)  with  the 
silk-wonn  motll,  and  of  a  genus  to  which  ^  the 
largest  of  lepidopterous  insects  belong.  The  E.  M. 
is  the  Largest  British  lci<idopteroiis  insect.  Its 
expanse  of  wings  is  about  three  and  a  half  inches. 
Each  wing  is  ornamented  with  a  large  eye-like 
glassy  .ami  transparent  spot,  and  such  spots  are 
exhibited  by  many  of  the  genus.  The  Peacock 
Moth  (.S'.  pavonia  major)  is  the  Largest  European 
species,   and    attains    an    expanse    of    five    inches 


EMPETRACK.E— EMPORIUM. 


across  the  wings.  The  cocoons  of  the  E.  M.  are 
remarkable  for  being  furmed  internally  of  stiff 
convergent  clastic  threads,  which  readily  permit  the 


Eiiiperor  Sloth,  with  Caterpillar,  Pupa,  and  Cocoon. 

escape  of  the  insect,  but  prevent  the  entrance  of 
intruders.  The  cocoons  of  this  genus  of  moths  are 
invested  with  sUk,  which  in  China  and  India  is 
collected  for  use.     See  Sii.k-worm. 

EMPETRA'CE^.     See  Ckowbekry. 

E'MPHASIS.     See  Accent. 

EMPHYSE'MA,  an  imnatural  distension  of  a 
-part  with  air.  Emphysema  of  the  celluLir  texture 
often  takes  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  woimtls 
of  the  air-passages  in  the  lungs,  and  is  the 
consequence  of  an  escape  of  air  from  these  parts. 
Emphysema  of  the  lungs  is  the  consequence  cither 
of  tlistcnsion  or  of  rupture  of  the  air-vesicles, 
especially  on  the  siirface.  It  is  rarely  that  emphy- 
sema is  jiroduced  otherwise  than  mechanically  ; 
but  coUections  of  fluid  in  a  state  of  decompo- 
sition sometimes  give  out  gases,  which  penetrate 
and  distend  the  textures  with  which  they  are  iu 
contact. 

EMPHYTEU'SIS  (Gr.,  an  implanting),  iu  the 
Pvoman  law,  a  peqietual  right  in  a  piece  of  land, 
for  which  a  ycarlj'  sum  was  paid  to  the  superior 
or  original  proprietor.  The  emphj-teusis  much 
resembled  our  feudal  holdings,  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  Craig  and  other  .Scotch  «Titers  apply  the  term 
to  them.  The  sum  paid  to  the  superior  was  called 
the  canon  emphytaiticus.  The  teuaut  handed  down 
the  right  to  his  heirs,  and  wa-s  entitled  to  sell,  but 
only  on  condition  of  giving  the  lirst  offer  to  the 
dominns.  The  consent  of  the  lord,  however,  was 
not  necessary  to  entitle  him  to  impignorate  the 
cmphyteuta  for  his  debt.  Justinian  put  the  emiihy- 
teusis  and  the  ager  vecli//(ilw  on  the  same  footing. 
The  Latter  is  the  term  ajiplied  to  lands  leased  by  the 
Roman  state,  by  towns,  ecclesiastical  corporations, 
and  by  the  vestal  virgins.  There  were  several  ways 
in  which  the  right  of  emphyteusis  might  cease.  If 
the  tenant  died  without  heirs,  it  reverted  to  the 
dominus.  He  might  also  lose  his  right  by  injuring 
the  property,  by  non-pajnuent  of  his  rent  or  public 
burdens,  or  by  aUenation  mthout  notice  to  the 
dominus.  It  was,  of  course,  also  iu  his  power  to 
renounce  it. 

ElIPI'RIC  (Gr.  empeirikos,  an  experimentalist  or 
searcher  after  facts  iu  nature,  from  peirau,  I  try).  It 
is  difficiUt  to  say  at  what  period,  or  in  what  nuinncr. 


this  word  began  to  degenerate  from  its  original 
meaning.  Probably  the  idea  was,  that  empiricism, 
or  experimental  science,  excluded,  because  it  did  not 
require,  the  reasoning  faculties  for  its  cultivation ; 
and,  therefore,  the  profession  of  empiricism  came  to 
be  synonymous  with  vulgar  ignorance.  The  empirics 
were  a  regular  sect  of  ancient  physicians  in  the  time 
of  Celsus  and  Galen,  who  gives  us  some  insight  into 
their  modes  of  thought  and  practice.  They  laid  great 
stress  on  the  unprejudiced  observation  of  nature ; 
and  thought  that,  by  a  careful  collection  of  observed 
facts  foniiing  a  history,  the  coincidence  of  many 
observations  would  lead  to  luialterable  ])rescriptions 
for  certain  cases.  The  later  adherents  uf  the  school 
excluded  all  theoretical  study,  even  that  of  anatomy, 
and  were  guided  solely  by  tradition  and  their 
indiridual  experience.  By  an  empiric  in  medicine  is 
now  understood  a  man  who,  from  want  of  theoretic 
knowledge,  prescribes  remedies  Ijy  guess  according 
to  the  name  of  the  disease  or  to  individual  symptoms, 
without  thinking  of  the  constitution  of  the  patient 
or  other  modifying  cu-cumstances.  What  are  called 
specijics  are  administered  on  this  principle,  or  want 
of  principle. 

EMPI'RICAL  FORMULA,  in  Chemistry,  is  the 
mo(Je  of  expressing  the  constituents  of  a  compound 
in  symbols,  where  the  total  quantity  of  each  element 
is  WTitten  down  without  reference  to  any  parti- 
cular order  or  state  of  combination.  Thus,  alcohol 
consists  of  4  equivalents  of  carbon,  6  of  hydrogen, 
and  2  of  oxygen  ;  and  its  empirical  formula  is 
C,H„Oo.  When  regarded,  however,  as  a  member 
of  a  family  group,  the  constituents  are  arranged 
in  a  more  systematic  manner,  as  in  C^HjO,!!©, 
representing  the  theoretical  constitution  of  alcohol, 
which,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  hydrated  oxide  of 
ethyl.  Again,  the  rational  formida  of  Epsom  salts, 
which  is  MgOSOj-fVHO,  represents  it  theoretically 
as  a  hydrated  suli]hate  of  magnesia;  while  the 
empu-ical  fonuida  JIgH-SO,i  merely  tells  us  that 
it  consists  of  1  equivalent  of  magnesium  (Mg),  1 
of  sulphiu:  (S),  7  ecjuivalents  of  hydrogen,  and  II  of 
oxygen. 

EIMPIRICAL  LAWS  are  such  as  express 
relationships,  which  may  he  merely  accidental, 
observed  to  subsist  among  phenomena,  but  which 
do  not  suggest  or  imply  the  explanation  or  cause  of 
the  production  of  the  phenomena.  They  are  usually 
tentative,  and  form  stages  in  the  jirogress  of  dis- 
coverj'  of  causal  laws.  Bode's  law  of  the  distances 
of  the  planets  from  the  sun  may  be  accepted  as 
an  example  of  an  empirical  law. 

E'MPOLI,  a  town  of  Tuscany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  is  situated  in  a  remarkably  beautiful  and 
fertile  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amo,  IG 
mUes  west-south-west  of  Florence.  It  is  a  thriving 
town,  is  surrounded  by  walls  flanked  witJi  towers, 
and  although  its  streets  are  narrow,  it  is  on  the 
whole  well  built,  and  has  some  good  squares.  The 
most  interesting  building  is  the  Collegiate  Church, 
built  iu  109.'),  the  tine  original  fagade  of  which 
has  suffered  but  little  from  modern  improvements, 
although  the  other  portions  of  the  building  were 
considerably  altered  in  I73S.  This  church  contains 
several  good  paintings,  and  ha-s  also  some  cxceUent 
s])ecimens  of  scidpture,  among  which  is  one  by 
Donatello.  E.  has  several  manufactories  of  cotton, 
leather,  straw- h.ats,  and  glass,  a  considcr.able  trade 
in  agricidtural  i^roduce,  and  a  weekly  market  of 
some  importance.     Pop.  0500. 

EMPO'RIUM  (Gr.  e)H;wnoH,tradmg-place).  The 
word  is  derived  from  emporos,  which  signified  in 
Homer's  time  a  person  who  sailed  in  a  ship  belong- 
ing to  another,  but  latterly  meant  a  wholesale 
merchant,  .is  opposed  to  a  retailer,  who  was  called 

41 


EMPTION— EMYS. 


lapelos.  An  emporium  thus  came  to  be  applied  to 
the  receptacles  in  which  wholesale  merchants  stowed 
their  goods  in  seaports  and  elsewhere,  and  thus 
corresponded  to  our  warehouse,  as  opjiosed  to  a 
shop. 

E'MPTION.     Sec  Sale. 

ElirYE'MA  (Gr.),  an  internal  suppuration,  a 
word  now  applied  exclusively  to  a  collection  of  pus 
in  the  pleura,  causing  pressure  of  the  luug,  and  often 
attended  by  hectic  fever.     See  Pleueisy. 

EMPYREU'MA  (Gr.  empyreuo,  I  kindle),  the 
burned  smell  and  acrid  taste  which  result  when 
vegetable  or  anini.al  substances  are  decomposed  by 
a  stron"  heat.  The  cause  of  the  smell  and  taste 
resides  Tn  an  oil  called  empijreumatic,  which  does 
not  exist  naturally  in  the  substance,  but  is  formed 
by  its  decomposition. 

EJIS,  usually  called  the  BaUis  of  Ems,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name,  a 
"bathing-place  known  to  the  Komans,  and  celebrated 
in  Germany  as  early  as  the  14th  centurj'.  It  is 
situated  about  four"mUcs  from  Coblenz,  near  the 
most  picturesque  p.arts  of  the  Rhine,  in  a  beautiful 
valley  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  traversed  by  the  n.yn- 
calile  river  Lahn,  and  surrounded  by  woodcil  hills. 
fop.  3600.  Its  warm  mineral  springs  belong  to  the 
class  containing  soda.  The  only  essential  lUfference 
between  the  numerous  springs  is  in  the  temperature 
varjnng  from  2-4°  to  46°  Keaumtu',  and  in  the  greater 
or  lesser  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  contained  in 
them.  The  bathing  establishments  are  comfortably, 
and  even  luxuriously  fitted  up,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  hotels  and  private  lodging-houses. 

E]\IS,  a  river  in  the  north-west  of  Germany,  rises 
in  Westphalia,  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Teuto- 
biiTger  Wald,  and  flowing  first  in  a  north-western, 
and  then  through  the  Hanoverian  territories  in  a 
northern  direction,  empties  itself  into  DoUart  Bay, 
an  estuary  of  the  German  Ocean,  after  a  course  of 
210  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Aa,  the 
Haase,  and  the  Leda.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of 
100  tons  as  high  as  Pappeulnirg,  which  is  25  miles 
up  the  river  from  Dollart  Bay.  The  E.  drains  a 
basin  of  about  5000  square  miles  in  extent.  In 
1818,  it  was  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Lippe, 
and  thus  with  the  Ilhine,  which  greatly  increased 
its  importance  with  respect  to  commerce  aud 
navigation. 

E'JIU  {Di-omaius — or  Dromecius — Nov(f.  Uol- 
landi(v),  a  very  large  bird,  one  of  the  Strutkionklw 
or  Brevipenncs,  a  native  of  Australia,  and  widely 
diffused  over  the  southern  parts  of  that  continent 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is  by  some  ornitholo- 
gists referred  to  the  same  genus  with  the  cassowary, 
but  the  differences  are  very  considerable ;  the  bill 
being  horizontally  depressed,  whilst  that  of  the 
cassowarj'  i.s  laterally  compressed,  the  head  feathered, 
and  destitute  of  bony  crest ;  the  tliroat  is  nearly 
naked,  and  has  no  pendent  wattles ;  the  feet  are 
three-toed  as  in  the  cassowarj',  but  the  claws  arc 
nearly  of  equal  length.  The  name  emu  or  emeu 
was  given  by  the  older  voyagers  and  naturalists  to 
the  cassow'ary,  but  is  now  the  invariable  designation 
of  the  Australian  bird.  The  emu  is  even  taller  than 
tlie  cassowarj',  whieli  it  resembles  in  the  general 
character  of  its  plimiagc.  Its  wings  are  mere 
rudiments  hidden  beneath  the  feathers  of  the  body. 
Its  colour  is  a  dull  brown,  mottled  ivith  dingy  gray ; 
the  young  are  striped  with  black.  Wlien  ass.ailed, 
it  strikes  backwards  and  obliquely  with  its  feet,  like 
the  cassowary,  aud  it  is  so  powerfid  that  a  stroke 
of  its  foot  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to  break  a  man's 
leg.  Dogs  employed  in  hunting  it  are  often  injured 
by  its  kicks,  but  well-trained  dogs  run  in  before  it. 


and  spring  at  its  neck.     It  cannot  fly,  but  runs  very 
fleetly.      It  is  timid  and  peaceful,  and  trusts  alto- 

f ether  to  its  speed  for  safety,  unless  hard  pressed, 
u    a   wild    state,    it   sometimes    occurs    in    small 
flocks ;  but  it  has  now  become  rare  in  and  around 


,^u»CS3JiJ.. 


J-S^S?^ 


Emu,  and  Young. 


all  the  settled  parts  of  Australia.  The  ex-tmction 
of  the  species  may,  however,  perhaps  be  prevented 
by  its  being  preserved  in  a  state  of  domestication ; 
as  its  fleSi  is  excellent,  and  it  is  very  easily 
domesticated,  and  breeds  readily  in  that  state.  It 
has  frequently  bred  in  Britain.  The  eggs  are  six 
or  seven  in  nimiber,  dark  gi-een ;  the  male  performs 
the  iirincijial  part  of  the  'Incubation.  The  eggs  are 
highly  esteemed  as  food.  The  skin  of  the  emu 
contains  much  oil — six  or  seven  quarts  are  obtained 
from  a  single  bird,  and  on  this  accoimt  it  has  been 
much  hunted  in  AustraUa.  The  food  of  the  emu 
consists  chiefly  of  roots,  fruits,  and  herbage.  Its 
only  note  is  a  drumming  sound,  which  it  frequently 
emits. 

EMU'LSIN,  or  SYNAPTASE,  ia  a  peculiar 
ferment  present  in  the  bitter  and  sweet  almond,  and 
w^liich  forms  a  constituent  of  all  almond  emulsions. 
When  bitter  almonds  are  bruised,  and  water  added, 
the  emulsin  acts  as  a  ferment  on  the  amygdalin, 
and  decomposes  the  latter  into  volatile  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  pnissic  .acid,  grape-sugar,  formic  acid,  and 
water  (see  Aljionds,  Volatile  Oil,  or  Es.sential 
Oil  ok).  The  vegetable  albmnen  of  almonds  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  emulsin  ;  which,  when 
separated,  is  a  white  substance,  soluble  in  water, 
and  is  distinguished  by  its  remarkable  power  of 
causing  the  fermentation  of  amy^daliiu  It  consists 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen. 

EMU'LSION  is  the  term  applied  to  those 
preparations  in  pharmacy  obtained  by  tritiu-atmg 
certain  substances  with  water,  and  where  the  jiro- 
duct  is  a  milky  white  oji.aque  mixture  of  a  gummy 
consistence,  and  composed  more  or  less  of  oily 
particles  lloating  in  mechanical  suspension  in  the 
mucil.aginous  liquid.  The  (rwe  and  oily  emulsions 
are  those  containing  true  oU,  as  the  emulsion  of 
bitter  ahnonds,  obtained  by  bruising  the  latter  in 
a  mortar  with  water ;  and  the  fdhe,  or  not  oily, 
where  no  true  oU  is  suspended,  as  where  camphor, 
balsams,  or  resins  arc  rubbed  up  with  yolk  of  egg, 
mucil.age,  or  dilute  spiiit  of  wine. 

E'MYS,  a  genus  of  Marsh  Tortoises,  from  which 
the  whole  family  of  Marsh  Tortoises  is  sometimes 
called  Emydce.  The  chelouians  of  this  family  are 
numerous,    and    widely    diffused    throughout    tho 


EMYS— ENAMEL. 


warmer  parts  of  the  world.  They  differ  more  in 
their  habits  than  in  their  appearance  and  structural 
characters  from  Land  Tortoises.  Their  carapace, 
however,  is  more  flattened,  and  their  feet  are  more 
expanded  and  webbed,  so  that  they  swim  with  gieat 
facility.  They  feed  chiefly  on  animal  food,  as 
insects  and  molluscs,  aquatic  reptiles,  and  fishes, 
some  of  them  even  preying  upon  birds  and  mam- 
malia, which  come  within  their  reach.  Two  or 
three  species  of  Jiiii'jiUe  are  natives  of  the  south  of 


Alligator  Tortoise,  in  the  act  of  »i-i^iii-i  ..  ■■  ..i- 1' 
SpanieL 

Europe  ;  but  two  species  are  particularly  abundant 
in  North  America,  the  Painted  Tortoise  (Emya  pida), 
and  the  Alligator  Tortoise  (Emysaura  serpentina). 
The  flesh  of  some,  as  Cistudo  Europaia,  is  esteemed 
for  food.  This  smaU  species,  about  ten  inches  long, 
an  inhabitant  of  lakes,  marshes,  and  muddy  places 
in  the  south  and  east  of  Europe,  is  sometimes  kept 
in  ponds,  and  fattened  for  the  table  on  lettuce- 
leaves,  bread,  &c. 

ENA'MEL  (Fr.  email,  originally  esmail,  from  the 
same  root  as  smdt),  the  name  given  to  vitrified 
substances  of  various  composition  applied  to  the 
surface  of  metals.  Enamelling  is  practised  (I)  for 
purposes  of  utility,  as  in  making  the  dial-plates  of 
watches  and  clocks,  coating  the  insides  of  culinary 
vessels,  &c.,  when  it  may  be  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  the  usefiU  arts  ;  and  also  (2)  for  producing 
objects  of  ornament  and  beauty — artistic  designs, 
figures,  portraits,  &c.,  when  it  belongs  to  the  tine 
arts.  Both  the  composition  of  enamels  and  the 
processes  of  applying  them  are  intricate  subjects, 
besides  being  in  many  cases  kept  secret  by  the 
inventors  ;  and  we  can  only  afford  space  for  the 
most  general  indications  of  their  nature.  Tlie  basis 
of  all  euamels  is  an  easily  f\isiblc  colourless  silicate 
or  glass,  to  which  the  desired  colour  and  the  desired 
degree  of  opaqueness  are  imparted  by  mixtures  of 
metallic  oxides.  The  molten  mass,  after  cooling, 
is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  and  washed,  and  the 
moist  paste  is  then  usually  spread  with  a  spatula 
upon  the  surface  of  the  metal ;  the  whole  is  then 
exposed  in  a  furnace  [jired,  as  it  is  called)  till  the 
enamel  is  melted,  when  it  adheres  firmly  to  the 
metal.  The  metal  most  commonly  used  as  a  ground 
lor  enamel  is  copper ;  but  for  the  finest  kinds  of 
enamel-work  gold  and  silver  are  also  used. 

Artistic  or  Ornamental  Enamelling. — This  art  is  of 
great  antiquity :  it  is  iiroved  by  the  remains  found 
in  Egjqit  to  have  been  practised  there ;  from  the 
Eg}i>tians  it  passed  to  the  Greeks,  and  it  was 
extensively  employed  in  decoration  by  the  Romans ; 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  Roman  architects 
began  to  make  use  of  coloured  glass  in  their  mosaic 
decorations ;  various  Koman  antiquities,  ornamented 
with  enamel,  have  been  dug  up  in  Britain,  and  it 


was  adopted  there  by  the  Saxons  and  Nonnans. 
A  jewel  found  at  Athelney,  in  Somersetshire,  and 
now  preser\'ed  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at 
Oxford,  is  proved  by  the  inscription  on  it  to  have 
been  made  by  order  of  Alfred ;  and  there  are  vari- 
ous figures  ■with  draperies  partly  composed  of 
coloured  enamel  on  the  sides  of  the  gold  cup 
given  by  King  John  to  the  corporation  of  LjTin, 
in  Norfolk. 

Enamelling  has  been  practised  from  a  remote 
period  in  the  East,  Persia,  India,  and  China,  vmder 
a  separate  and  distinct  development ;  but  there 
is  nothing  from  which  it  can  be  infeixed  that 
the  various  methods  were  in  use  earlier  than  in 
Europe.  As  a  decoration,  enamelling  was  more 
popular,  and  attained  to  greater  perfection  in  the 
midcUe  ages,  than  in  classic  times.  It  was  exten- 
sively practised  at  Byzantiimi  from  the  4th  until 
the  nth  c,  and  afterwards  in  Italy  in  the  l\henis)i 
provinces,  and  at  Limoges  in  the  south  of  France, 
where  it  was  successfully  followed  out  till  a  com- 
paratively late  period,  in  several  different  styles. 
The  Byzantine  and  other  early  styles  of  enamel- 
work  down  to  the  17th  c.  were  generally  employed 
in  ornamenting  objects  connected  with  the  serricc 
of  the  church,  such  as  reliquaries,  pyxes,  church- 
candlesticks,  crosiers,  portable  altars,  the  frontals  of 
altars,  &c. ;  the  art  was  also  greatly  used  in  orna- 
menting jewellery,  and  vessels  made  for  use  or 
display  in  the  mansions  of  the  rich,  such  as  salt- 
cellars, coffers,  ewers,  plateaux,  candlesticks,  &c. 
After  this  period,  the  art  declined,  until  a  new  phase 
of  it  was  invented  in  France,  in  which  enamel  is 
used  as  a  groimd,  and  the  figures  are  painted  with 
vitrified  colours  on  the  surface  of  it.  This  is  enamel- 
painting  properly  so  called,  the  earlier  styles  being 
more  of  the  nature  of  mosaics. 

Distinguished  with  reference  to  the  manner  of 
execution,  enamel-work  may  be  divided  into  four 
kinds :  1.  Cloisonee,  or  enclosed,  the  method  of  the 
Byzantine  school,  in  which  the  design  is  formed, 
in  a  kind  of  metal  case,  generally  gold  or  copper, 
and  the  several  colours  are  separated  by  very 
delicate  filigree  gold  bands,  to  prevent  them  nm- 
ning  into  each  other.  2.  Champ  Leve,  practised  by 
the  early  Limoges  school.  In  this  process,  the 
ornamental  design,  or  the  figures  that  were  to 
be  filled  in  with  colour,  were  cut  in  the  metal 
(generally  copper)  to  some  depth ;  and  wherever 
two  colours  met,  a  thin  partition  of  the  metal  was 
left,  to  prevent  the  colours  nmning  into  each 
other  by  fusion  when  fired.  3.  Translucent  enamel, 
which  had  its  origin,  and  was  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  Italy,  was  composed  of  transparent 
enamel  of  every  variety  of  colour,  laid  in  thin 
coatings  over  the  design,  which  w;u>  incised  on  the 
metal,  generally  silver,  the  figure  or  figures  being 
slightly  raised  in  low  relief,  and  marked  with  the 
graver,  so  as  to  allow  the  drawing  of  the  contours 
to  be  seen  through  the  ground,  mstead  of  being 
formed  by  the  coarse  lines  of  the  copper,  as  in  the 
early  Limoges  enamels.  4.  Surface-painted  enamels, 
which  may  be  divided  into  two  stages.  The  first 
stage,  which  is  known  as  the  late  Limoge  style, 
sprang  uji  under  Francis  I.  of  France  (1515 — 1547). 
In  this  the  practice  was  to  cover  the  metal  plate 
1  Avith  a  coating  of  dark  enamel  for  shadows,  and  to 
paint  on  this  with  white,  sometimes  set  off  ^vith 
gold  hatchings,  sometimes  having  the  hands  and 
other  parts  ot  the  figures  completely  colom-ed.  The 
1  designs  were  generally  taken  from  well-known 
paintings  or  engravings  of  the  period ;  and  the  style 
of  the  designs  was  strongly  influenced  by  that  of 
the  ItaUan  artists  employed  by  Francis  I.  This 
style  soon  degenerated,  and  gave  place  to  the  latest 
or  miniature  style,  which  was   invented  before  the 

43 


EXAMEL  OF  TEETH— E^X"AMPME^■T. 


middle  of  the  ICtli  c.  by  Jean  Toutin.  a  goldsmith 
at  ChatcaiuUm,  and  carried  to  the  hightst  perfection 
by  Jean  IVtitot,  a  miniature-painter,  who  was  born 
at  Geneva,  1G07,  and  afterwards  resided  long  in  Eng- 
land, and  then  in  Paris.  In  this  the  plate  is  covered 
with  a  white  opafiiie  enamel,  and  the  colom-s  are 
laid  (in  this  with  a  hair-pencil,  and  fixed  by  tiring. 
Tlie  p.aints  are  prepared  by  grinding  up  coloured 
enamels  w  ith  some  kind  of  liquid,  aud  when  fused 
by  the  heat,  they  become  incorjiorated  with  the 
enamel  of  the  ground.  The  earlier  euamellers  of 
this  school  occujiied  themselves  with  miniatures, 
snuff-boxes,  and  other  trinkets,  till  the  period  of  the 
French  Revolution,  when  the  art  fell  into  disuse. 
It  was,  however,  revived  in  England  early  ill  this 
century;  and  copies  of  portraits  and  pictures  on  a 
much  larger  scale  than  the  French  miniatures 
were  executed  with  much  success  by  the  late  H. 
Bone,  E.A.,  and  the  late  Charles  Muss.  "Works  of 
this  description  possess  the  obvious  advantage  of 
durability ;  but  those  various  qualities  of  texture, 
and  the  delicacy  of  colour  for  which  good  works  in 
oil  or  water-colour  are  prized,  cannot  be  attained 
iu  enamel  copies ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
greater  effoi-ts  are  not  made  to  turn  enameUing 
to  account  iu  the  way  of  ornamentation,  for  which 
it  is  so  admirably  fitted,  rather  than  in  attempts 
at  imitating  works  classed  strictly  as  within  the 
bounds  of  line  art,  and  to  put  in  practice  the  older 
styles  of  enamelling,  particularly  those  denominated 
champ  levc  and  transparent  enamelling. 

Enamelhd-ware. — The  liability  of  iron  to  oxida- 
tion by  heat  or  moisture,  and  to  corrosion  even  by 
the  weakest  acids,  has  led  to  many  attempts  to  coat 
it  with  a  protecting  surface.  Ordinary  tin  jJate  is 
the  oldest  aud  most  familiar  example  of  a  partially 
successful  method.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  centurj',  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  cover  iron  with  a  vitreous  sm-facc,  and  several 
patents  have  been  taken  for  such  methods  of 
enamelling.  The  chief  diiiicidty  in  applying  enamels 
to  iron  arises  from  the  tendency  of  the  metal  to 
oxidise  before  it  reaches  the  temperature  at  which 
the  enamel  fuses,  and  to  become  brittle  from  the 
oxide  combining  with  the  silica  of  the  enamel.  This 
action  being  superficial,  the  mischief  is  the  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  thinness  of  the  iron.  Therefore 
it  is  mucb  easier  to  enamel  thick  cast-iron  vessels 
than  tliin  vessels  made  of  sheet-iron.  A  glass  may 
be  made  by  combining  either  silicic  acid  or  boracic 
acid  with  a  base ;  the  latter  fuses  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  the  foi-mer,  but  the  glass  is  much  dearer 
and  not  so  durable  as  the  silica  glass.  The  enamels 
used  for  coating  ii'on  consist  of  a  mixtm-e  of  silica 
and  borax,  with  various  basic  substances,  such  as 
soda,  oxide  of  tin,  alumina,  oxide  of  lead,  &c. 

The  best  enamel  for  such  iiurjjoses  with  which  we 
arc  acciuuinted,  is  that  patented  by  C.  H.  Paris,  and 
applied  by  Messrs  Griffiths  and  Browett  of  Birming- 
ham. It  consists  of  130  parts  of  flint-glass  powdered, 
204  parts  of  cai-ljonate  of  soda,  12  of  boracic  acicL 
These  are  fused  together  to  form  a  glass,  then 
reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder ;  the  article  to  which 
they  are  to  be  applied  is  carefully  cleaned  with 
acid,  then  brushed  over  with  gum  water,  and  the 
powder  dusted  upon  it.  The  gum  water  is  merely 
to  cause  adhesion.  This  coating  is  then  carefully 
dried,  and  heated  just  to  the  point  at  which  the 
powdered  glass  will  fuse,  and  by  running  together, 
coat  the  surface.  Messrs  Griffiths  and  Browett  have 
succeeded  completely  in  enameUing  their  'hollow 
ware,'  which  is  made  of  sheet-iron,  stamped  and 
hammered  into  the  shape  of  saucepans,  dishes, 
basins,  &c.,  .all  in  one  piece,  without  any  soldering. 

Clarke's,  and  other  patent  enamels,  have  been 
successfully  ainilied  to  saucp]'ans,  pipes,  and  other 


ai-ticles  of  cast  iron.  The  writer  has  made  many 
experiments  upon  enamelled- ware  for  laboratory  aud 
other  puri>o3e3,  and  the  conclusions  arrived  at  an', 
that  no  enamellcd-ware  h.is  yet  been  produced  that 
will  stand  aciils,  or  salts  of  metals  that  are  electro- 
negative to  iron ;  or  will  bear  smldenly  heatmg 
to  a  high  temperature,  such  as  frying-pans,  for 
example,  are  conimoidy  subjected  to ;  but  that  with 
moderate  care  it  may  be  used  as  saucepans  and 
for  boiling  water,  as  dishes  for  baking,  and  may 
last  for  years.  For  vessels  of  any  kind  requii-ed  to 
hold  cold  water,  it  is  unobjectionable. 

The  action  of  sudden  heat  is  to  expand  the 
metal  more  than  the  enamel,  and  cause  the  latter 
to  peel  off.  Acids  find  their  way  through  minute 
invisible  pores,  which  exist  in  the  best  enamel ;  and 
when  once  they  reach  the  iron,  they  rapidly  spread 
between  it  and  the  enamel,  and  imdermine  and 
strip  it  off.  This  kind  of  action  is  curiously  shewn 
by  filling  an  enamelled  vessel  with  a  solution 
of  suljjhate  of  copjier.  The  acid  attacks  the  iron 
wherever  pores  exist,  and  little  beads  of  metallic 
copper  are  deposited  at  all  such  spots ;  these 
beads  go  on  growing  imtil  they  are  large  enough 
to  be  very  plainly  seem  This  is  the  severest  test 
for  trying  the  continuity  of  enamelled  surfaces, 
to  which  they  can  be  subjected,  as  sulphate  of 
copjier  will  penetrate  the  glaze  and  body  of  ordinary 
earthen-ware. 

ENAMEL  OF  TEETH.     See  Teeth. 

ENA'EA,  or  ENA'EE,  a  lake  of  Kussia  in  the 
extreme  north  of  Finland,  is  situated  in  lat.  68°  30' 
—69°  10'  X.,  and  long.  27°  30'— 28°  45'  E.  It  has 
an  area  of  1200  sqiuare  miles,  and  has  numerous 
islands.  Its  sujierlluous  waters  are  discharged  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

ENA'REA,  a  country  of  Africa  south  of  Abyssinia, 
is  situated  within  lat.  7° — 9°  N.,  and  long.  36° — 38* 
E.,  but  its  limits  have  not  yet  been  definitely  ascer- 
tained. It  is  inhabited  by  a  portion  of  the  GaUas 
tribes,  who,  owing  to  the  continued  communication 
which  they  keep  up  with  Abyssinia,  and  also  to 
the  residence  of  many  Mohammedan  merchants 
among  them,  are  much  more  ci\-ilised  than  the 
GaUas  usual!}'  are.  Their  government  is  a  heredi- 
tarj'  and  absolute  monarchy.  The  principal  rivers 
of  E.  are  the  Gibbe  and  the  Dodesa.  Its  coffee- 
plantations  are  so  extensive  as  to  deseiTc  the  name 
of  woods ;  they  occur  chiefly  along  the  banks  of 
the  Gibbe.  E.  is  rcmark.able  for  its  manufactures 
of  ornamented  arms,  and  of  cloths  with  embroidered 
borders.  Besides  these,  it  exports  slaves,  gold,  ivory, 
civet,  and  skins,  into  Abyssinia.  The  king  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  population  are  Mohammedans, 
and  it  is  said  that  native  Christians  have  been  found 
here.  The  capital  is  Saka,  a  place  of  considerable 
importance,  near  the  river  Gibbe. 

EKARTHRO'SIS  is  the  term  used  by  anatomical 
writers  to  express  the  kind  of  Joint  (q.  v.)  which 
admits  of  the  most  extensive  range  of  motion.  From 
the  mode  of  connection  and  the  form  of  the  bones 
in  tins  artioilation,  it  is  commoidy  called  the  b.all- 
and-socket  joint.  It  occurs  in  the  hip  and  shoulder 
joints. 

EXCA'MPMENT  (Lat.  campiig,  a  plain)  is  a 
lodgment  or  home  for  soldiers  in  the  field.  There 
are  intrenched  camps,  where  an  army  is  intended 
to  be  kept  some  time,  protected  against  the  enemy;. 
flijinri  camps,  for  brief  occupation ;  camps  of  position, 
bearing  relation  to  the  strategy  of  the  commander; 
and  camps  of  instruction,  to  habituate  the  troops  to 
the  duties  and  fatigues  of  war. 

Under  Camp  has  been  given  an  account  of  the 
manner  in  which  Itomau  cami)s  wen'  constructed.  It 
is  probable  that  the  same  geucr.al  plan  was  adhered 


ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING— ENCAUSTIC  TILES. 


to  until  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  When  cannon 
came  to  be  used,  however,  a  new  arrangement  of 
camp  became  uooe.ssary,  to  sliicld  the  army  from 
long-range  projectiles.  Everytliinj;,  indeed,  relating 
to  attack  and  defence,  especially  to  the  latter,  is 
taken  into  account  in  choosing  the  locality  of  a  camp. 
A  healthy  site,  good  water,  security  from  Hoods, 
and  plenty  of  fuel  and  forage,  are  the  chief  requisites 
ill  a  good  encam|iment. 

The  British  army,  when  in  the  field,  usually  en- 
camps by  brigades  or  ilivisions,  roads  and  paths  being 
arranged  before  the  troojjs  arrive.  The  infantry, 
cavaliy,  and  artillery  are  so  placed  as  to  defend  each 
other  in  the  event  of  a  sudden  attack.  There  is  a 
chain  of  guards  all  round  the  sjiot ;  and  the  park 
of  artillery  is  placed  behiud  the  troojia.  The  suttlers 
and  servants  are  in  the  rear  of  the  camp,  but  not 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  rear-guard.  The  tents 
of  the  infantry  are  ranged  in  rows  peqiendicidar 
to  the  front,  each  row  containing  the  tents  (q.  v.) 
for  one  company.  The  circidar  tents,  now  much 
used,  accommodate  fifteen  men  each.  The  cavalry 
are  in  like  manner  encamped  in  rows ;  but  each 
circidar  tent  accommodates  only  twelve  men.  There 
are  streets  or  roads  between  the  rows  of  tents, 
of  regidated  width  ;  and  the  officers'  tents  are  at 
a  given  distance  behind  those  of  the  men :  the 
subalterns'  tents  being  nearest  to  those  of  the  com- 
panies to  which  they  resjiectively  belong.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  line  of  the  whole  encanqiment  is 
made  to  con-espond  as  nearly  as  practicable  'with 
that  in  which  the  troops  are  inteiuled  to  engage 
the  enemy  when  fighting  is  renewed ;  to  which  end 
the  tents  of  each  battalion  are  not  allowed  to  occupy 
a  greater  space  in  front  than  the  battalion  itself 
would  cover  when  in  order  of  Ijattle. 

Under  most  circumstances,  in  modern  ■ivarfare,  an 
encampment  is  not  defended  by  artificial  construc- 
tions ;  the  commander  seeks  security  for  his  troops 
in  streams,  marshes,  difficult  surface  of  country, 
and  numerous  advanced  posts.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, more  extensive  defence- works  are  necessary ; 
and  then  we  have  an  example  of  an  intrenched 
cam]),  which  becomes  a  fortified  enclosure.  The 
chief  uses  of  such  a  camp  are— to  secure  an 
army  while  covering  a  siege,  or  in  winter-quarters, 
to  accommodate  a  corps  of  oliservation  while  the 
active  army  is  engaged  elsewhere ;  or  to  defend 
a  position  near  a  fortified  place.  Care  is  taken 
that  the  site  is  not  commanded  by  neighbouring 
hills.  All  villages  are  occu])ied,  and  all  obstacles 
rcmovetl,  within  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  or  a  mde. 
The  area  of  gi-ound  selected  is  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  necessary  store  of  anns,  ammunition,  food, 
fuel,  forage,  and  w.iter,  and  to  enable  the  troop.3  to 
mana-uvrc.  The  junction  of  two  rivers  is  often 
selected  as  a  favour.able  spot.  Various  defence-works 
are  constructed  around  or  near  the  spot,  such  as 
continuous  earth-works,  redoubts,  fliiches,  &c.  The 
position  held  by  the  allies  outside  Sebastopol,  during 
the  long  intervals  when  the  cannonading  was 
suspended,  had  many  of  the  characteristics  of  an 
intrenched  camp. 

Camps  of  iiislruclion  may  be  either  temporary  or 
permanent.  Of  the  former  kind  was  the  canqi  formed 
at  C'hobham  in  Surrey  in  185.'!,  merely  for  the  summer 
mouths,  to  exercise  certain  regiments  in  evolutions. 
Another  was  formed  at  ShornclitVe  in  Kent  in  1855, 
at  first  to  receive  troops  of  the  Foreign  Legion ;  but 
it  has  since  been  improved  to  the  condition  of  a 
jiermanent  camp.  The  great  estaldishment  at  Alder- 
shott  is  described  in  a  se]iarate  article,  Aldersiiott 
Camp.  Since  that  article  was  written,  the  total 
expenditure  has  risen  to  nearly  a  million  sterling, 
the  camp  has  bceu  ini})roved  in  all  jiarticulars,  and 
the   small    agricultural   village    of    Aldershott   has 


grown  into  an  important  commercial  town,  with 
railway  stations,  hotels,  market-house,  handsome 
sho])s,  &c.  A  large  permanent  camp  has  also  been 
established  in  Ireland,  on  a  plain  called  the  Curragh 
of  Kildare,  and  there  are  smaller  ones  at  Pembroke 
and  Colchester. 

ENCAU'STIC  PAINTING  (Gr.  encaustihe,  in- 
fired,  or  lixed  by  fire),  a  manner  of  i>ainting  ]>ractised 
by  the  ancients.  As  the  name  implied  that  fire 
w.as  used  in  the  execution,  some  have  Ijeeu  led  to 
suppose  that  encaustic  painting  was  the  same  as 
enamel  painting ;  Init  notices  by  Pliny  and  other 
writers  shew  clearly  that  it  was  a  species  of  paint- 
ing in  which  the  chief  ingredient  used  for  uniting 
and  fixing  the  colours  was  wax  dissolved  liy  heat. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  in  modern  times 
to  revive  it.  About  the  middle  of  last  ccntiirj', 
Count  Caylus  and  M.  BacheUer,  and  in  1792,  Miss 
Greenland,  made  various  experiments  with  this 
view.  The  coimt  laid  the  result  of  his  exjieriments 
before  the  Academies  of  Painting  and  of  Sciences 
in  Paris  ;  and  the  ingenious  lady  was  rewarded  with 
a  gold  pallet  by  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement 
of  Arts  in  London ;  but  the  success  of  these  efforts 
seems  to  have  been  but  temporary.  Encaustic 
painting  was,  however,  some  years  ago  again  taken 
np  in  Germany  under  the  patronage  of  the  late  king 
of  Bavaria,  who  had  a  number  of  important  works 
executed  in  this  way.  The  colours  are  ground,  and 
laid  on  with  a  vehicle  composed  principally  of  wax. 
Miss  Greenland  dissolved  giun-arabic  in  water, 
afterwards  adding  gum-mastic,  which  was  dissolved 
by  stirring  and  boiling,  and  when  the  mixture  had 
reached  the  boding  point,  she  put  in  the  wax. 
After  painting  the  picture,  she  passed  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  melted  wax  over  it  with  a  hard  brush,  and 
then  drew  over  the  sm-face  an  iron — for  ironing 
linen — moderately  heated.  After  the  picture  cooled, 
it  was  rubbed  with  a  fine  linen  cloth.  The  Ger- 
man method  is  somewhat  similar,  but  some  other 
ingredients  are  used ;  among  these,  potash  with 
the  wax ;  and  in  place  of  an  iron  being  passed 
over  the  surface,  the  wax  is  brought  to  the  siu'face 
by  a  vessel  containing  lire  being  held  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  picture.  Encaustic  painting  is 
not  likely  to  come  into  general  use,  for  neither 
in  imparting  brUliancy  to  the  colours,  facility  for 
execution,  nor  durability,  is  it  to  be  compared  with 
oil-painting. 

ENCAUSTIC  TILES,  ornamental  tiles  made 
of  an  earthen-ware  intermediate  in  quality  between 
common  tiles  and  porcelain,  and  now  extensively 
used  for  paving  churches,  halls,  conservatories,  &c. 
They  are  of  two  kinds — plain  or  'dry  tiles,'  and 
ligured  tiles.  The  former  are  square  or  triangidar, 
and  of  dift'erent  colours,  so  that  when  laid  they  may 
form  a  mosaic.  The  triangular  are  most  effective ; 
and  by  means  of  a  few  coloiu's,  a  great  variety  of 
chromatic  geometrical  patterns  may  be  produced. 
These  '  dry  tdes '  are  made  by  placing  the  coloiu'ed 
clay  in  a  powdered  state  in  strong  steel  moulds,  and 
subjecting  it  to  a  jiressure  of  several  hundred  tons, 
by  means  of  a  plunger  fitting  accurately  into  the 
mould.  A  depth  of  three  inches  of  powder  is  com- 
pressed into  a  tile  of  one  inch  in  thickness.  The 
bottom  of  the  mould  is  usually  ribbed,  to  give  the 
tile  a  corresponding  surface,  in  order  to  afford  a 
better  hold  for  the  mortar.  The  compressed  clay  is 
then  removed,  heated  in  a  hot  ehamlter,  tired,  and 
glazed  if  required.  Slabs  ;ind  panels  of  various 
kinds,  shirt  studs  and  buttons,  and  a  variety  of 
ornamental  articles,  are  made  in  this  manner.  Ses 
Pottery  and  Porcf.l.\ix. 

The  ligured  tiles  are  made  in  a  different  manner. 
The   clay  is  worked  in  a  moist   state,  but  very 

a 


ENCEINTE— ENCRINITES. 


stiff,  first  into  square  blocks.  These  are  cut  into 
square  slices  or  slabs  by  passing  a  wire  througli 
them ;  upon  this  is  put  a  facing  of  line  clay  of 
the  colour  of  the  ground  of  the  pattern — another 
layer,  of  a  difl'erent  quality  of  clay,  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  bottom,  to  prevent  warping.  It  is  then 
placed  in  a  mould,  with  a  plaster  of  Paris  slab 
forming  the  top,  on  the  under  surface  of  which  is 
the  ])atteru  in  relief.  This  slab  is  jiressed  down, 
and  thus  forms  a  deep  impression  of  the  pattern 
which  is  to  be  produced  in  another  colour.  The 
cl.ay  of  the  requisite  colour  to  form  the  pattern  is 
now  poured,  in  a  semi-Huid  state,  into  this  depres- 
sion, and  allowed  to  flow  over  the  whole  face  of 
the  tile;  then  it  is  set  aside  until  dry  enough  to  have 
its  surface  scraped  aud  smootlied  on  a  wliirling 
table.  By  this  means,  the  superfluous  clay  is 
removed,  and  the  pattern  is  brought  out  quite  sharp, 
the  two  colours  of  clay  forming  one  smooth  flat 
surface.     The  tile  is  then  dried  and  fired. 

Tiles  of  this  kind  were  used  for  paving  churches 
in  England,  Flanders,  and  France,  in  the  IGth  c, 
and  earlier,  but  have  since  fallen  into  disuse.  The 
modem  manufactm-e  is  therefore  a  revival,  with 
some  improvements,  of  an  ancient  art.  This  is  one 
among  many  other  branches  of  manufacturing  art 
which  the  Great  Exlubition  of  1S51  had  much 
influence  in  advancing,  fu-st,  by  stimulating  manu- 
facturers to  make  an  eftbrt  to  shew  what  coiUd  be 
done,  and  secondly,  by  directing  public  attention  to 
the  novelty  and  its  applications. 

ENCEINTE     (Fr.),     in     Fortification,    denotes 

feneraUy  the  whole  area  of  a  fortified  place, 
'roperly,  however,  it  means  a  cincture  or  girdle, 
and  in  this  sense  the  enceinte  signifies  the  principal 
waU  or  rampart  encircling  the  jilace,  comprising 
the  curtain  and  bastions,  and  ha\'ing  the  main 
ditch  immediately  outside  it. 

ENCHO'RIAL   CHAllACTERS.     See  Hieko- 

GLYPHICS. 

E'NCKE,  JoH.  Franz,  the  well-known  astron- 
omer, was  born  September  23,  1791,  at  Hamburg, 
where  his  father  was  a  clergj-man.  After  studying 
at  Gottingen,  he  sei-ved,  diu-ing  the  campaign  of 
1813—1814,  in  the  artillery  of  the  Hanseatic  legion, 
and  in  1815,  in  the  Prussian  army,  as  lieutenant  of 
artillerj'.  On  the  establishment  of  peace,  he  left  the 
serWce,"  and  became  assistaflt,  and  afterw.ards  prin- 
cipal astronomer  in  the  ol>servatory  of  Seeljerg,  near 
Gotha.  In  18'2.'>,  chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  Bessel, 
he  was  called  to  Bcrliu  as  successor  to  TraUes,  in 
the  secretaryship  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
as  director  of  the  observatory.  While  at  Gotha,  the 
astronomical  prize  offered  by  Cotta  was  awarded  to 
E.  by  the  judges  Gauss  aud  Olljcrs,  for  his  deter- 
mination of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1680.  This  led 
him  to  solve  another  problem,  which  had  been  pro- 
posed along  witli  the  other — viz.,  the  dist.ance  of 
the  sun.  The  solution,  by  means  of  the  two  transits 
of  Venus  in  17f)l  and  17G9,  is  published  in  two 
se])arate  tracts  (Die  Enlfi-rnum]  tier  Sonne,  Gotha, 
1822—1824).  In  ISIO,  he  jiroved  that  the  comet 
discovered  by  Pons,  November  26,  1818,  revolved  in 
the  hitherto  incredibly  short  period  of  about  1200 
days,  and  had  been  already  observed  in  1786,  1795, 
anil  1805.  It  has  since  gone  by  the  n.ame  of  E.'3 
comet,  and  has  appeared  regularly ;  the  period  of 
its  recm-rence  being  329  years,  or  about  3^^  yeare. 
See  Com  Era.  E.'s  researches  on  this  subject  are  con- 
tained in  tho  Tranmetions  of  the  Berlin  Academij. 
In  18.30,  he  undertook  the  "editing  of  the  Berlin 
Astronomical  Almanac,  in  which  he  has  published 
a  number  of  astronomical  treatises.  Three  volumes 
have  appeared  of  Astronomiral  Ohtervations  at  (lie 
lieriiii  UOncrvatonj.  (Uied  2d  September  1865.) 
46 


ENCORE  ('Again'),  a  French  expression,  gener- 
ally used  in  Enghand  by  the  audience  of  a  tlieatro 
or  concert-room,  when  requesting  the  rei)etition 
of  the  performance  of  a  piece  of  music.  It  is 
not  used  by  the  French  themselves,  who,  in  simOar 
circumstances,  exclaim  bis  (twice). 

ENCRI'NAL  or  ENCRINI'TAL  LIMESTONE, 
a  name  given  to  some  carboniferous  limestones, 
from  the  great  abundance  in  them  of  the  calcare- 
ous skeletons  of  Eucrinites  (q.  v.),  whole  masses 
of  the  rock  being  almost  entirely  composed  of 
them. 

E'NCRINITES,  a  name  applied  generally  to  the 
fossil  Crinpidea,  a  family  of  Echinodermata  (q.  v.). 
The  popular  name.  Stone  Lilies,  is  given  to  the 
numerous  fossil  species,  from  the  resemblance  which 
many  of  them  jjresent  when  the  rays  are  closed  to 
the  lily.  Hence  also  the  name  Crinoidea.  Crinoids 
are  characterised  by  having  their  bodies  supported, 
during  the  whole  or  part  of  their  existence,  on  a 
longer  or  shorter  jointed  calcareous  stem.  The  stem  is 
attached  either  by  the  expanded  base,  or  by  jointed 
processes,  to  the  rock}'  bed  of  the  sea,  or  perhaps,  in 
some  cases,  to  floatmg  bodies,  like  barnacles.  Occa- 
sionally, numerous  root-like  side-arms  are  sent  out 
from  the  base  of  the  stem  to  strengthen  and  sujiport 
it ;  and  in  some  species,  as  in  the  recent  Penla- 
cr/n  «j>',  the  colimin  throughout  its  length  is  furnished 


^ 


L 


Encruiite  Stems  (Mountain  Limestone). 

\rith  axiUai-y  side-arms.  The  stem  is  round  or  five- 
sided  ;  in  one  genus  only  is  it  elliptical.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  joints,  perforated  in  the  centre, 
for  the  passage  of  a  soft  portion  of  the  animal,  and 
beautifully  sculpt>u-ed  on  the  articulating  surfaces. 
The  body  is  cup-shaped,  and  composed  of  many- 
sided  plates  on  the  under  sm-face,  to  the  centre  of 
which  the  stalk  is  attached,  while  the  upper  surface 
is  covered  with  a  cori.aceous  slcin,  protected  l>y  many 
small  plates.  On  this  was  situated  the  mouth,  which 
was  frequently  jiroboscidiform,  aud  near  it  was  the 
an,al  orifice — tie  alimentary  canal  being  turned  upon 
itself,  as  in  the  Bryozoa.  The  arms  spring  from  the 
edges  of  the  cup.  They  are  five  in  number  at  their 
origin,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  speedily  divide  aud 
subdi\n<le  (Uehotomously.  The  arms  are  composed  of 
articulated  calcareous  joints,  similar  to  those  of  the 
stems.  Each  joint  is  furnished  with  two  slender- 
jointed  ap])endages  or  cirri,  of  use  to  the  animal  iu 
capturing  its  prey,  which  consisted  of  moUusca  and 
other  small  animals.  The  number  of  joints  in  some 
species  is  tndy  amazing.  Dr  Buckland  calculated 
th.at  Pentucrinus  Ilriareus  consists  of  at  least  150,000 ; 
and  'as  each  joint,'  according  to  Carjienter,  'was 
furnished  with  at  least  two  bundles  of  muscular 
filire — one  for  its  extension,  the  other  for  its  con- 
tr:iction — we  have  300,000  such  in  the  body  of  a 
single  Pentacrinus,  an  .amoimt  of  muscular  apparatus 
far  exceeding  anything  that  has  elsewhere  been 
observed  in  the  animal  kingdom.' 

E.  are  represented  in  tlie  British  seas  by  one 
species,  Comatula  rosacea,  which  in  its  perfect  state 
is  free,  and  moves  about  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  star-fishes,  Ijut  is  in  its  structure  a  true  crinoid, 
and,  in  fact,  when  young,  has  the  flexible  stalk 
characteristic  of  the  order.  It  is  doubtful  wlicther 
more  than  one  species  (Penlacrinm  Caput  Medusa) 


ENCKIKITES— ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


of  permanently  stalked  E.  lives  in  modem  seas, 
is  a  native  of  the  West  Indian  seas. 


It 


Pen'tacrinus  Caput  Mcduss. 

Tlie  famUy  commenced  its  existence  with  the 
earliest  sedimentary  deposits.  Seventy- three  genera 
have  been  described,  containing  upwards  of  300 
species,  two-thirds  of  which  are  found  only  in 
Paleozoic  rocks.  The  most  ancient  E.  have  nearlj' 
all  round  stems,  the  few  that  are  five-sided  baring 
the  articiilated  surface  of  the  joints  simply  radiated, 
and  not  complexly  scidptured  .as  in  Pcntacrinus, 
the  tj^pe  of  a  division  of  the  order  which  appears 


,.'fe 


t        f     # 


Apio  Crinites  Katundus  (from  Buckland's  Bridgcaater 

Trtatise). 

a,  expanded;  b,  closed;  c,  shewinp  where  the  stem  has  been 

injured,  and  repaired  by  calcareous  secretion. 

first  in  the  Lias.  The  earlier  seas  literally  swarmed 
with  these  animals.  'We  may  judge,'  says  Dr 
Buckland,  'of  the  degree  to  which  the  individual 
crinoids  multiplied  among  the  first  inhabitants 
of  the  sea,  from  the  countless  m3*ria<ls  of  their 
petrified  remains  which  fdl  so  manj'  limestone  beds 
of  the  older  formations,  and  compose  v.ost  strata 
of  entrochal  marble,  extending  over  large  tracts 
of  country  in  Northern  Eurojie  and  North  America. 
The  substance  of  this  mar\)Ie  is  often  almost  as 
entirely  made  up  of  the  petrified  bones  of  Encri- 
nites,  as  a  com-rick  is  composed  of  straws.'  See 
Crlnoldej;  and  Pestacriktjs. 


ENCYCLOP^'DIA  means  properly  a  book  or 
work  professing  to  give  information,  more  or  less 
fidl,  on  the  whole  circle  of  human  knowledge.  The 
name  is  compoimded  of  two  Greek  words,  enkijkiios, 
circular  or  general ;  and  paideia,  discipline  or 
instruction.  These  words  were  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Piomans  to  signify  the  circle  of  instruction 
through  which  everj'  free-born  youth  hatl  to  pass 
before  entering  on  public  Ufe.  That  circle  embraced 
more  particularly  grammar,  music,  geometry,  astro- 
nomj',  and  pjTnnastics,  and  afterwards  became  the 
'  seven  hberal  arts '  of  the  middle  ages.  The  com- 
pound name  Encyclopsedia  appe.ars  to  have  been 
unknown  to  the  Greeks,  and  also  to  the  Latin 
Avriters  of  the  classic  period ;  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  either  Greeks  or  Romans  ever  applied 
the  words,  single  or  compounded,  to  designate  a 
book.  The  short  form  Cijclop(xdia  has  siill  less 
classical  authority  than  Encyclopaedia. 

Encyclopedias,  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  word, 
are  most  commonly  Alphabetical ;  but  sometimes 
the  arrangement  is  '  rational,'  i.  e.,  according  to  the 
natural  relations  of  the  subjects.  An  alphabetical 
Encyclopaedia  is  a  Dictionary  of  Universal  Know- 
ledge. Besides  this,  its  proper  meaning,  of  a  rejier- 
tory  of  universal  knowledge,  the  name  Encyclopaedia 
is  often  applied — less  properly  perhaps — to  alpha- 
betical works  whose  scope  is  limited  to  a  particular 
Ijranch — works  differing  in  no  respect  from  others 
which  are  styled  Dictionaries,  Gazetteers,  &c.  See 
DirTioxARV.  As  all  works  of  this  kind,  which  now 
form  a  large  and  increasing  section  of  literature  in 
every  language,  have  in  so  far  a  common  character 
with  Encyclopaedias  proper,  we  may  give  some 
accoimt  of  the  whole  cLass  mider  the  present  head. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  they  may  be  arranged 
in  three  divisions  :  1.  The  earlier  works  of  this 
kind,  h.aring,  for  the  most  part,  merely  an  ency- 
clop;edic  character,  i.  e.,  emljracing  a  large  range 
of  subjects,  without  distinctly  aiming  at  univer- 
sality ;  2.  Encyclopaedias  proper,  which  treat  of  the 
whole  circle  of  himian  knowledge  ;  3.  Books  pro- 
fessedly confined  to  a  definite  department  of  know- 
ledge, whether  under  the  name  of  encyclopjedia, 
dictionary,  gazetteer,  or  other  title.  As  books  of 
this  class  profess  to  touch  on  every  important  \mm.t 
that  comes  witliin  their  scope,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  enc3'clopaedic  in  a  limited  sense.  In  the 
following  sketch,  the  distinction  between  the  fii'st 
and  second  of  those  classes,  which  is  of  a  somewhat 
indeterminate  kind,  is  not  strictly  adhered  to  when 
it  woidd  interfere  with  the  chi'onologieal  sequence. 

1.  The  e.arhest  work  of  an  encyclopaedic  char- 
acter is  generally  ascribed  to  SpeusipjHiR,  a  disciple 
of  Plato.  The  great  collections  of  Varro  (Rerum 
Hiimanarum  H  Dlvinarum  Antifivitaiea  and  D't^- 
ciplhiarvm  lihri  ix.),  of  the  elder  Phny  (Ili^toria 
^aturalis),  of  Stobreus,  of  Suidas,  of  Isidoms  (the 
Origines),  and  of  CapeUa,  belong  to  the  same  class, 
but  they  exhibit  no  plan,  antl  are  only  confused 
accumulations  of  the  then  known  arts  and  sciences. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais  (1264)  surpassed  them  all. 
He  gathered  together  with  wonderful  diligence  the 
entire  knowledge  of  the  middle  ages  in  three  com- 
prehensive works.  Speculum  Historiale,  Sjieculuni 
Naturule,  and  Speculum  Doclrinale,  to  which  soon 
after  an  unknown  hand  added  a  S//eculum  Morale. 
But  these,  as  well  as  the  other  similar  compdations 
which  appeared  in  the  later  medieval  ]ieriod  under 
the  title  of  Summu,  or  S/>eciilum  (Mirror), are  marked 
throughout  by  a  lack  of  philosophic  spirit.  Perhaps 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  modern  encyclop;edia 
by  an  ancient  writer,  dates  two  centuries  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Beauvais.  In  the  tenth  century, 
flourished  Alfarabius,  the  ornament  of  the  school 
of  Bagdad,  who  wrote  an  encyclopaedic  collection  of 

47 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


knowlcilgo,  remarkalile  for  its  grasp  and  complete- 
ness, aud  wliieh  still  lies  in  MS.  in  the  Esooriul  of 
Spain.  Anionj;  the  earliest  aud  most  noted  of  the 
modern  encyclojiaedias  was  that  of  Johann  Heinrich 
Alsted,  or  Alsteilins,  which  aiij)eared  in  tlennany 
in  two  volumes  in  1G.')0.  It  consisted  of  35  books 
in  all,  of  which  the  lirst  four  contained  an  explana- 
tion of  the  nature  of  the  rest.  Then  followed 
six  on  philolofiy,  ten  on  speculative,  and  four  on 
practical  philoso|ihy;  three  on  tbeoloj,'y,  jurl.t- 
prudence,  and  medicine  ;  thi'ce  on  the  mechanical 
arts  ;  and  live  on  history,  chronology,  and  miscel- 
laneous topics.  Two  important  Fi'cnch  works 
belong  to  this  century — the  one  is  Louis  Moreri's 
Grand  Dictionnaire  jtutorii/iie  tl  Criliijii';  of  which 
the  first  edition  appeared  at  Paris  in  lOT.'J,  and  the 
last  in  1759 ;  the  other,  Peter  Bayle's  famous 
Dictionnaire  Ili^torique  H  Critirjue,  published  at 
Kotterdam,  in  4  vols.,  169".  The  lirst  encyclopa.'dic 
dictionarij,  so  far  as  known,  appeared  in  Germany  as 
the  Lexicon  Universale  of  Hoffmann  (2  vols.,  Basel) 
in  1077.  Some  time  after  there  appeared  in  France 
Thomas  Corneillo's  Dictionnaire  drs  Arts  et  des 
Sciences,  2  vols.  (Paris,  1694).  Dictionaries  limited 
to  the  explanation  of  technical  terms  had  long 
been  common  throughout  Europe ;  but  pre\-ious  to 
Hoffmann's  work,  no  attempt  had  been  made  to 
bring  the  whole  body  of  science  and  art  under  the 
lexicographic  form.  A  highly  successful  attempt 
identical  in  kind,  and  attrilnitable  in  idea,  it  m.ay 
be,  to  the  German  work  just  alluded  to,  was  the 
Lexicon  Technimm  of  Dr  HaiTis,  2  vols,  folio  (Lon- 
don, 1710),  which  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the 
jiarent  of  all  the  dictionaries  of  arts  and  sciences 
that  have  since  appeared  in  England.  The  C'l/clo- 
pmlia  of  Ephraim  Chambers,  published  in  172S,  in 
two  very  large  folio  volumes,  presents  the  next 
marked  advance  in  the  construction  of  encyclo- 
p.iedical  dictionaries.  This  one  was  brought  out 
with  considerable  claims  to  originality  of  aiTange- 
ment.  The  author  endeavoured  to  communicate  to 
his  alphabetical  materials  something  of  the  interest 
of  a  '  continuous  discourse,'  by  an  elaborate  system 
of  cross  references.  Another  peculiarity  of  this 
cyclopedia  was,  that  its  author,  in  the  details  of 
mathematical  and  physical  science,  gave  only  con- 
clusions and  not  processes  of  demonstration.  It  was 
long  a  very  jiojiular  work.  The  largest  and  most 
comj>rehcnsive  of  the  successors  to  Hoffmann's  book 
in  Germany,  was  Zedler's  Unirerml  Lexicon,  64 
vols.  (Lei]).  17.'J2 — 1750).  In  point  of  comprehen- 
siveness, this  work  should  be  classed  with  the 
encyclopa>dias  proper,  there  being  almost  nothing 
then  known  that  m.ay  not  be  found  in  it.  Perhajjs 
the  strongest  imjiidse,  if  not  in  all  resjiects  the 
best,  comnumicateil  by  this  successful  attempt  (jf 
Ephraim  t'hambers,  was  given  to  the  Erench  mind 
tlu'ough  D'Alembert  and  Diderot.  Their  Enojclo- 
pedie  was  really,  though  not  ]irofessedly,  founded 
upon  E.  Chambers's  book,  which  an  Englishman 
named  Mills  had  translated  be'tween  1741!  and  1745, 
though  the  French  version  of  it  never  was  ]iublished. 
The  great  French  J'Jnn/rlo/H-die  was  written  by 
various  auth'irs  of  high  literary  and  philosophical 
attainments,  but  of  whom  nearly  all  were  tainted 
too  much  with  the  most  im)iractical)le  revolutionary 
ideas,  besides  holding  for  the  most  part  extremely 
sceptical  o])inions  concerning  religion.  They  excluded 
both  biography  and  history  from  its  se(tpe,  yet 
infused  into  it  more  originality,  dejith,  and  ability 
than  ever  had  ajipcarecl  before  within  the  boards 
of  an  encyel()p;edical  dictionary.  It  a])i)eared  at 
Paris  in  28  vols.  betwei'U  the  years  1751  — 1772, 
anil  was  followed  by  a  Supplement  in  live  vols. 
(Amst.  1776 — 1777).  and  an  analytical  index  in 
two  vols.  (Paris,  1780).  The  work  was  every- 
48 


where  received  with  the   greatest  enthusiasm,  and 
I  it   secured    a    ]dace    in    the   literary  history  of  the 
I  nation  for  the  editoi-s  and  principal  WTiters,   who 
'  are  ordinarily  known  as  the  Encifclopfdi^soi  France. 
I  They  were    D'Alembert   and   Diderot   the   editors, 
Rousseau,     Grimm,     Dumarsais,     Voltaire,     Baron 
d'Holbach,  and  Jaucoiirt.     [See  La  Porte's  Esprit  de 
V Encuclojihiie  (Paris,   1768)  ;   and  Voltaire's   Qurs- 
I  tinns    sur   VEneyclopfdie  (I'aris,    1770).]      D'Akni- 
I  bert's  celebrated  jireliminary  discourse  was  garbled 
in    various    ])retentious    works    of  this  class   pul)- 
lished   for   the   most  part   in  England ;  such  were 
Barrow's    New   and    Unirersd  Dictionary  of  Arts 
and    Sciences,    1   vol.    folio,    1751  ;    and   the    Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  by  Croker, 
Williams,  and  Clerk,  .'i  vols,  folio,  1766.     A  some- 
what  better,   though   r.athcr   illogical   performance 
was  published  by  a  '.Society  of  Gentlemen  '  in  1754 
in   four  8vo   volumes,  generally  known  as   Oxoen^a 
Dietionnrtj,  from  the  name  of   the  jinblisher  of  it. 
The  first  rude   outline  of  the  ])ondcrous  and  solid 
Enciiclopa'dia  Brilanniea  was  laid  down  in  the  year 
1771,  in  three  volumes,  but   it  was  nothing  more 
than  a  dictionary  of  arts  and  sciences  ;  it  had  not 
yet  attained  to  its  subsequent  universality.     Such  is 
a  brief  outline  of  the  earlier  kind  of  encyclopiedias. 

2.  The  first  encyclopedia  projier  that  demands 
our  attention  is  the  Enojclopcedia  Britannica,  of 
which  the  2d  comparatively  complete  edition, 
containing  biographical  and  historical  articles, 
ajipeared  in  10  vols,  between  1776  and  1783  ;  the 
3d  edition  was  comiileted  in  IS  vols,  in  1797;  the 
4th  edition,  in  20  vols.,  in  1810;  the  .'ith  and 
6th  editions  (which  were  not  true  reprints),  and 
supplements  in  6  vols.,  appearcil  between  1815 — 
1824;  the  7th  edition,  in  21  vols.,  in  1830—1842; 
and  the  Stli  and  last  edition,  in  21  vols.,  1852 — 
1860.  The  method  pursued  by  this  work,  while 
thoroughly  alphabetical,  consists  in  a  combination 
of  the  systematic  and  the  particular.  In  few 
instances  is  any  science  broken  up  into  fractional 
parts  ;  nearly  all  the  sciences  are  given  in  treatises 
as  they  severally  occur  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet. 
In  some  cases,  however,  whore  obscurity  might 
result  from  such  a  plan,  the  other  method  is  adoiited. 
A  marked  feature  of  this  work,  is  the  number  of 
complete  treatises  and.  dissertations  which  it  con- 
tains by  men  of  Euroj)ean  name.  From  first  to 
last,  this  Encyclopa'dia  has  bren  execTited  and 
jniblished  in  Edinburgh,  tlie  literary  reputation  of 
which  it  has  helped  in  no  small  degree  to  increase. 
The  next  encyclopiedia  that  we  nuist  notice  is  the 
Encyelopedie  Melhodiijue  par  Ordre  des  Matiires, 
which  was  begun  in  1781,  and  was  not  finished 
till  1832,  when  it  apjieared  in  201  volumes.  Each 
suljject  is  treated  in  a  se])arate  volume  or  series 
of  volumes,  so  that  the  work  is  a  collection  of 
separiite  dictionaries,  more  extensive  than  any  ency- 
clopaedic work  that  has  yet  appeared.  A  work 
of  higher  scientific  value,  however,  and  even  of 
a  more  varied  nature,  has  been  in  progress  for 
nearly  half  a  century  in  Germany,  undertaken 
originally  by  Professors  Ersch  and  (Jruber  in  1S18, 
and  which  h.as  since  continued  to  appear,  in  three 
several  sections  of  the  al]>h.abct,  uj)  to  the  )iresent 
time.  There  have  already  (1S61)  appeared  of  this 
great  Allgenwine  Enci/elopddic  der  \V i^settseitnft  nnd 
Kiinste  some  125  volumes.  In  1802,  Dr  Abraham 
liees  jirojeeted  an  extended  aud  improved  edition 
of  Ephraim  Chambers's  C'lic/npiiditi,  -Hhich  was 
completed  in  45  volumes  in  1819.  The  system  of 
cross  references  ])eculiar  to  E.  Chambers  is  very 
efl'ectually  carried  out  in  this  book  ;  but  besides 
including  a  great  accession  of  historical  aud  bio- 
graphical detail,  it  contained  a  large  mnnbcr  of 
ipajicid,  prepared  by  competent  writers,  on  subjects 


ENC  YCLOPEUISTS— EN  D. 


with  which  their  Ufe  had  rendered  them  familiar. 
Another  work  of  considerable  merit,  which  began  to 
appear  in  1810,  was  Brewster's  Edinburgh  Encyclo- 
pedia, edited  by  Dr  (now  Sir  David)  Brewster,  and 
completed  in  IS  volumes  in  1S3I).  It  was,  if  any- 
thing, too  much  given  U])  to  physical  science,  even 
for  the  taste  of  the  19th  centurj'.  In  1S12,  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  encyclopedic  puljlications  by 
the  appearance  of  the  Conversations-Lexicon  of  F.  A. 
Erockhaus  of  Leijisic.  It  has  since  gone  through 
as  many  as  ten  eilitions,  the  last  issue  of  it,  amount- 
ing to  15  volumes,  having  a])pearcd  between  1851 
and  1855.  It  has  been  translated  into  nearly  all  the 
civilised  languages  of  Europe;  no  fewer  than /o;/?- 
English  works  of  the  kind  being  professeiUy  founded 
on  it:  these  are  the  Enri/ctopwdia  Americana,  in 
14  vols.  (Philadelphia,  1829—1848) ;  the  Popular 
Encydopo'dia,  7  vols.  (Glasgow,  1841);  the  American 
Cijdopadia,  and  Chambers's  Eno/clopadia,  both  in 
course  of  jiublieation.  Of  these,  the  last-mentioned 
is  a  substantially  new  work,  foUo\ving  in  its  con- 
struction the  admirable  plan  of  the  Conversations- 
Lexicon,  but  making  use  of  its  valuable  matter  only 
so  far  as  it  is  foimd  siutable. 

The  next  encyclopiedic  work  which  appeared  after 
the  Conversations-Lexicon,  was  one  projected  accord- 
ing to  an  original  philosophic  plan  by  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge,  in  1818,  and  finished  in  1845,  in 
30  volumes.  This  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana  was 
arranged  in  four  <livisions :  1st,  the  pure  sciences ; 
2d,  the  mixed  and  applied  sciences ;  3d,  biography 
and   history  ;    and   4th,  miscellaneous   and   lexico- 

fraphic  articles.  The  contributions  to  the  first  two 
i\"ision3  were  written  by  pei-sons  of  recognised 
ability,  and  they  have  nearly  all  been  published 
separately  in  8vo  volumes  since  the  Metropolitana 
appeared.  If  the  book  had  any  fault,  it  was  that 
the  plan  of  it  was  too  rigiiUy  philosophical,  and 
therefore  not  adapted  to  be  consulted  dictionary 
fashion  ;  for  although  in  one  sense  the  alphabetic 
arrangement,  by  its  jimible  of  subjects,  is  most 
heterogeneous  and  irrational,  it  recommends  itself 
to  popiJar  acceptance  liy  its  extreme  simi)Ucity ; 
and  in  point  of  fact,  no  cncyclopoBdia  has  ever  been 
thoroughly  popidar  that  has  not  been  executed  on 
the  plan  of  a  single  alphabet,  in  which  all  subjects, 
however  various,  are  included.  Next  appeared  the 
Penny  Ci/clopadia  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Uscfnil  Knowledge,  which  was  begun  in  1833, 
and  completed  in  1843,  in  28  volimics.  This  work 
was  pcrnai>s,  at  the  time  it  appeared,  the  most 
useful  and  convenient,  for  the  purposes  of  general 
consultation,  of  any  encyclopedical  treatise  that  had 
ever  been  issued.  The  English  Cyclopadia  is  founded 
on  the  copyright  of  the  Penny  Cyclopedia,  but  is 
rearranged  into  four  great  divisions,  which  are  each 
given  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet,  \\z.,  "eography, 
natural  historj',  biography,  and  ai-ts  and  sciences. 
This  ))ubhcation  was  begim  in  1853,  and  was  com- 
pleted in  18C1  in  22  vohmics.  Among  a  host  of 
abridgments  and  smaller  publications  of  this  char- 
acter which  have  appeared  in  the  course  of  the 
present  century,  may  be  mentioned  Wilkes's  Ency- 
clopedia Londonensis,  in  24  vols.  4to  (Lond.  1810 
— 1829)  ;  the  Encyclopedia  Perthensis,  in  23  vob. 
(Edinburgh,  181G) ;  and  the  London  Encyclopedia, 
22  vols.  (Lond.  1829).  The  French  have  likewise 
published  an  Enc/clopi-die  des  Gens  da  Monde,  in 
22  vols.  8vo  (Par.  183,3—1844)  ;  an  Encyclopedic 
Moderue,  which,  with  its  Supplement,  occupies 
36  vols.  8vo  (Par.  1857) ;  and  a  Dictionnaire  de  la 
Conversation  el  de  la  Lecture,  in  68  vols.  (Par.  1839 
— 1851),  of  which  a  new  edition,  begun  in  1851, 
is  still  in  progress.  The  last  of  these  is  to  a 
large  extent  based  on  the  Conversations- Lexicon  of 
Brockhaus.     The  most  notable  of  the  other  German 


encyclopajdias  are  Meyer's  Grosse  Conversations- 
Lexicon,  in  38  vols.,  1840 — 1852,  besides  6  vohmies 
of  a  Sup])lenient  and  8  volumes  of  jilates,  &c.,  in 
1853 — 1855  ;  and  Pierer's  Universal  Lexicon,  in  .34 
vols.  (Alteuburg,  1840 — 184G),  a  new  and  imjiroved 
edition  of  which  Ijegan  to  appear  in  1851.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  at  present  (1861)  several 
encyclopa;dias  in  courae  of  pubhcation  in  other 
European  coimtries;  all  of  which  are  based  upon 
the  Conversations-Lexicon — viz.,  the  Enciclopedia 
Espanola,  begun  at  Madrid  in  1842 ;  the  Suova 
Encidopedia  Popolare  Italiana,  begiin  at  Turin 
in  1850;  the  Almenn.  Dansk  Konversations-Lexicon 
(Copenhagen,  1849) ;  and  the  SvensH  Kotiversa- 
lions- Lexikon,  begun  at  Stockholm  in  1845  ;  besides 
others  in  Russia,  Hungary,  the  Netherlands,  &c. 

3.  We  have  now  to  direct  attention  briefly  to 
those  books  that  are  dictionaries  or  encyclopaedias 
for  one  branch  of  knowledge.  These  works  have 
been  always  veiy  numerou.s,  both  in  this  country 
and  on  the  continent.  Such  are  the  Biogrophie 
Universelle  (commenced  in  1811 ;  new  edition,  1854, 
still  going  on) ;  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary, 
in  32  vols.  (1812—1817);  the  Didionnaire  den 
Scie7tces  Medicates,  60- vols.  (Par.  1812—1822); 
Nouveau  Dictionnaire  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  36  vols. 
(Par.  1816—1819);  F.  Cuvier's  Dictionnaire  des 
Sciences  Xaturelles,  61  vols,  text,  10  vols,  plates, 
(1816 — 1845);  Dictionnaire  de  V Industrie,  ic,  10 
vols.  (Par.  1831—1841)  ;  M'GuUoch's  Commercial 
Dictionary  (2d  edition,  1834 ;  last  edition,  1859)  ; 
M'Culloch's  Geographical  Dictionary  (1st  edition, 
1841  ;  new  edition,  1851);  the  Dictionary  of  Prac- 
tical Medicine,  3  vols.  (Lond.  1844—1858)  ;  Cham- 
bers's Cyclopedia  of  English  Literature  (1S43  ;  new 
edition,  1858) ;  Creasy's  Encyclopedia  of  Civil  Engi- 
neering (1847) ;  Johnston's  Gazetteer  (1850 ;  new 
edition,  1859).  Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture, 
2  vols.  (1851)  ;  the  XouvelU:  Biographic  Generate 
(begun  in  1853,  and  stiU  going  on) ;  Lippincott's 
Gazetteer  of  the  United  States  (Philadelphia,  1854) ; 
Lippincott's  General  Gazdteer  (1855) ;  Allil>one's 
Dictionary  of  British  and  American  Authors  (Phila- 
delphia,    1859)  ;    Macaiday's    Medical    Dictionary, 

1  vol.  (Edinburgh,  1S59) ;  and  Schmid's  Enajclopddie 
des  Gesammten  Ei-zidiungs-und  Unterriditgwesen 
(1859).  Nor  must  we  overlook  the  dictionaries  of 
Dr  William  Smith,  i-iz.,  the  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biogi-aphy  arid  Mt/tluilogy,  3  vols.  (1843 
-1848;  new  edit.  1849—1851);  the  Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  1  vol.  (1848) ;  the 
Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geographi/,  2  vols. 
(1854—1857) ;    and    the    Didionary  of   tlie   Bible, 

2  vols.  (1860 — 1861).  These  dictionaries  are  the  pro- 
duct of  the  ripest  scholarship  in  Britain,  and  are 
perhaps  the  most  splendid  specimen  of  encyclo- 
piedias  devoted  to  sjieeial  branches  of  knowledge 
that  have  anJ^There  ajipeared.    See  Dictionary. 

ENCYCLOPEDISTS.    See  Encyclopedia. 

END.  This  familiar  word  is  concerned  in  some 
important  discussions,  and  especially  in  Ethics.  It  is 
in  the  sense  of  'the  thing  aimed  at,'  the  object, 
purj)Ose,  or  goal  of  himian  action,  that  we  have  here 
to  consider  it.  There  is  a  fundamental  contriist 
between  Science  and  Art,  Knowledge  and  Practice. 
Science,  or  Knowledge,  embraces  the  general  order 
of  the  universe,  and  states  that  order  in  the  form 
by  which  we  can  take  in  as  much  as  possible  in  one 
view  ;  it  is  the  fullest  intellectual  comprehension  of 
the  plienomena  of  nature  that  the  mind  can  attain 
to.  Art,  or  Practice,  on  the  other  hand,  selects 
and  appropriates  certain  items  of  knowledge,  so  as 
to  subserve  some  usefid  purjjose,  some  exigency 
of  human  life.  Thus,  Agi-icidture,  Navigation,"Law, 
PoUtics,  Etlucation   are    all  branches   of   Practice ; 

49 


EXDE.AUC— ENDIVE. 


they  inrolve  knowledge,  but  in  strict  subordination 
to  their  several  i>urposcs.  The  navigator  studies 
Astronomy,  not  with  a  view  to  enlighten  his  under- 
standing as  to  the  mysteries  of  the  solar  system 
and  the  starry  sphere,  but  %vith  a  view  to  the 
guidance  of  his  course  in  the  sea.  In  short,  to  an 
Art  (the  word  is  not  here  used  in  the  narrow  sense 
of  a  Fine  Art),  or  a  department  of  Practice,  belongs 
in  the  lii-st  place  the  consideration  of  the  end. 
Every  Art  has  its  end,  wliich  is  its  distinction  from 
every  other.  In  most  of  the  ai-ts,  the  end  is  clear 
and  unmistakable :  we  all  know  what  is  expected 
of  a  builder,  a  soldier,  or  a  judge ;  the  only 
question  is  how  to  obtain  the  knowledge  requisite 
for  adequately  performing  each  sep.orate  function. 
But  there  are  some  departments  where  the  end 
itself  is  not  agreed  upon,  which  casts  a  peculiar 
diff-culty  on  the  practice.  Thus,  it  was  remarked 
under  (L'ivili.satio.\,  that  the  end  of  the  whole 
mechanism  of  Human  Society,  including  Politics, 
&c.,  is  differently  \-iewed  by  different  minds.  But 
it  is  in  the  one  special  Department  of  Morality 
that  the  consideration  of  the  end  is  of  most  vital 
consequence.  This  feature  of  the  ethical  problem 
has  been  very  Uttle  adverted  to  in  modem  dis- 
cussions, while  the  ancient  philosophers  kept  it 
more  prominently  before  them.  Ai'istotle  begins  his 
Etfdcs  by  remarking  that  every  art  aims  at  some 
good ;  most  arts,  as  medicine,  ship-building,  general- 
ship, having  Hmited  or  partial  ends ;  ■while  some 
comprehend  much  wider  ends  than  others.  The 
largest  end  of  all  is  the  good  of  mankind  collectively. 
Hence  he  goes  on  to  inquire  what  is  the  highest 
good  of  man,  and  finds  that  happiness  is  neither 
Pleasure,  nor  Honour,  nor  Virtue  (by  itself),  nor 
Wealth,  but  that  it  is  'an  energy  of  the  sold 
according  to  vu-tue ; '  activity,  in  opposition  to 
Oriental  notions  of  luxiu'ious  repose,  being  an  essen- 
tial in  his  eyes.  He  has  ne.xt,  therefore,  to  inquire 
what  '  rirtiie '  is,  according  to  which  a  man  must 
employ  his  activity — a  question  of  no  easy  solution. 
Still,  the  discussion  brings  out  the  one  fact,  that 
Morahty  is  a  branch  of  Practice,  but  unlike  most 
arts  in  this,  that  the  end  is  pecidiarly  difficiUt  to 
determine  precisely.  Accordingly,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  in  connection  with  it  a  set  of  discussions, 
called  by  Mr  J.  S.  JIOl  {Logic,  concluiliug  chapter) 
Teleology,  or  the  Doctrine  of  Ends,  con-esponding  to 
what  the  German  metaphysicians  have  termed  the 
Principles  of  Practical  Reason.  The  various  theories 
of  Moral  Obligation  differ  in  their  statement  of  the 
end  of  Morality :  according  to  one,  it  is  the  self- 
interest  of  the  ir.dixndual ;  according  to  another, 
the  interest  of  mnnkind  on  the  whole.  The  most 
prevalent  theory  is  the  harmonising  with  a  certain 
inward  sentiment  caUed  the  Moral  Sense.  See 
Eiincs. 

ENDE'MIC  (from  ert,  among,  and  demos,  the 
people),  a  term  applied  to  diseases  which  affect 
numbers  of  persons  simultaneously,  but  so  as  to  sliew 
a  connection  with  localities  as  well  as  with  their 
inhabitants.  Endemic  diseases  are  usually  spoken 
of  a3  contrasted  with  Epidemic  (q.  v.)  and  Sporadic 
(([.  V.)  ;  the  first  term  indicating  that  a  disease 
infests  habitually  the  population  within  certain 
geographical  limits,  and  also  that  it  is  incapable  of 
being  transferred  or  communicated  beyond  those 
limits  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  disease  is  termed 
epidemic  if  it  is  transmitted  without  reference 
to  locality ;  and  sporadic  if  it  occurs  in  isolated 
instances  only.  The  theory,  accordingly,  of  endemic 
diseases  is,  that  they  are  in  some  way  or  other 
connected  with  the  soil — the  result  of  teirestrial 
influences,  or  minmis — of  poisons  generated  within 
the  earth,  or  near  its  surf.ice.  and  diU'used  throiigli 
the  air,  so  as  to  be  weakened  in  proportion  to  the 
iu 


distance  from  the  source  of  the  poison.  Such 
poisons  are  always  observed  to  be  more  vindeut 
in  simimer  than  in  winter — more  dangerous  at 
night,  when  the  vapours  are  concentrated  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  than  in  the  day-time — more 
abundant  in  the  jilains,  and  in  close  confined 
places,  than  at  a  certain  degree  of  elevation — 
more  e;isily  carried  in  the  direction  of  the  wind 
than  in  the  opposite — and  very  often  arrested 
altogether  by  water,  or  by  a  belt  of  forest  or 
other  luxuriant  vegetation. '  In  all  these  particu- 
lars, cndanic  are  different  from  epidemic  diseases, 
which  bear  no  very  obvious  relation  to  the  soil, 
and  are  not  observed  to  be  considerably  modified 
either  by  the  jwevailing  winds  or  the  period 
of  the  day  or  night  at  which  e.xposure  to  their 
influence  takes  place.  The  most  marked  tyjje  of 
an  endemic  tlisease  is  Ague  (q.  v.)  or  Intermittent 
Fever,  which  has  all  the  habits  mentioned  above, 
and  is  to  so  marked  a  degree  a  denizen  of  ]).articular 
tracts  of  country  as  to  lead  to  their  being  in  some 
instances  almost  depopvdated.  Many  ])laces  in 
Italy  are  a  ])rey  to  the  aria  catllva  or  malaria,  as 
it  is  popularly  called ;  and  hence,  no  doubt,  even 
more  than  for  protection  from  human  foes,  tlie 
custom  so  jirevalent  in  that  country  of  buUtling  the 
villages  on  the  tops  of  lulls,  so  as  to  secure  immu- 
nity from  the  poisonous  vapours  raised  by  the  solar 
heat  from  the  plains  lying  on  either  side  at  the 
base  of  the  Apennines.  Terresti-ial  iniasms,  or  such 
poisons  as  generate  endemic  diseases,  are  usually 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  marshy  flats,  or  of 
uncultivated  tracts  of  laud  at  the  confluence  of 
rivers,  or  where  a  delta,  or  a  wide  channel  subject  to 
overflow,  is  formed  at  the  upper  end  of  a  lake.  In 
proportion,  too,  as  the  heat  of  the  sim  is  greater,  the 
tendency  to  malarious  emanations  is  increased  ;  and 
in  the  tropics,  accordingly,  large  tracts  of  jungle 
and  forest  are  often  rcnilered  absolutely  uninhabit- 
able and  almost  impassable  at  certain  seasons, 
by  the  invisible  and  odouiless  germs  of  inter- 
mittent, remittent,  and  even  continued  Fevers 
(q.  v.),  which  are  more  fatal  and  unmanageable 
than  the  most  terrible  epidemic  pestilences  to  those 
who  are  exposed  to  them.  Such  diseases  are 
almost  always  sudden  in  their  mode  of  attack, 
and  they  indicate  the  range  of  their  influence  by 
the  number  of  persons  attacked ;  but  they  are 
wholly  free  in  most  cases  from  the  suspicion  of 
communication  by  Contagion  (q.  v.),  which  is  so 
frequent  in  the  case  of  epidemic  tUseases.  The 
precise  nature  of  the  malarious  poison  has  never  yet 
been  discovered  with  any  approach  to  exactness. 
It  is  known,  however,  to  Ije  almost  invariably 
checked  by  drainage  and  ciUtivation  of  the  soil ;  and 
hence  many  jilaees  in  Europe,  formerly  very  pro- 
ductive of  endemic  diseases,  have  now  ceased  to  be 
so,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tuscan  Maremma,  and 
some  parts  of  Kent  and  Essex,  and  of  the  Lothians 
in  Scotland. 

E'NDI^RBY  LAND,  discovered  by  Biscoe  in 
lS."il,  lies  in  lat.  67°  30'  S.,  and  long.  50°  E.  It 
appeared  to  the  discoverer  to  be  of  considerable 
extent,  and  was  closely  bound  by  field  ice,  but 
owing  to  stress  of  weather  and  the  extreme  cold,  it 
coidd  not  be  approached  within  20  or  30  miles,  and 
Biscoe  was  thus  unalile  to  say  whether  the  land  he 
discovered  was  an  island  or  a  strip  of  continental 
coast. 

E'KDIVE  (Ckhorium  Endivia),  an  annual  or 
biennial  plant,  of  the  same  genus  with  Chicory 
(q.  v.),  said  to  be  a  native  of  China  and  Ja|ian,  but 
w.iich  is  natur.ilised  in  the  I^ovant,  and  has  long 
been  in  cultivation  ;is  a  garden  vegetable ;  its 
blanched  root-leaves  being  much  used  as  a  salad. 


ENDOCAHDITIS— ENDOSMOSE. 


and  also  sometimes  for  stewing  and  in  soups.  The 
root-leaves  are  numerous,  smooth,  wavy  at  the 
margin.  The  varieties  with  much  curled  leaves  are 
prefeiTed.  Some  of  the  varieties  boll  of  themselves, 
aud  are  th\is  blanched ;  others  require  to  be  tied 
up.  In  Britain,  the  seed  is  usiially  sovim  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  the  end  of  June,  and  l)y  a  little 
care  and  protection,  plants  may  be  kejit  lit  for  use 
throughout  most  of  the  winter. 

ENDOCARDI'TIS,  inflammation  or  disease  of 
the  internal  surface  of  the  heart,  resulting  in  the 
deposit   of   fibrin   upon   the   valves.      See   He^vkt, 

DlSE,V.SE  OF. 

EXDO'GENOUS  PLANTS,  or  ENDOGENS 
(Gr.  endon,  within,  and  amo.%  birth  or  origin), 
one  of  the  great  classes  into  which  the  vegetable 
kingdom  is  divided,  the  others  recei-vdng  the  corre- 
sponding designations  of  Kxorjenoiis  Plants  and 
Arro<ii'nous  Plants.  The  character  from  which  this 
drsiguation  is  derived  is  found  in  the  structure  of 
tlic  stem,  wliich  does  not  increase  in  thickness  by 
additional  layers  on  the  outside  like  the  exog^ious 
sti!m,  famiUarly  illustrated  in  all  the  trees  of  the 
colder  parts  of  the  world,  but  receives  its  adtlitions 
of  woody  matter  in  the  interior ;  and  in  general 
does  not  continue  to  increase  indetinitely  in  thick- 
ness like  the  exogenous  stem,  but  is  arrested  when 
a  certain  thicliness  has  been  attained,  tlifferent  in 
different  species,  and  afterwanls  increases  only  in 
loi'gth.     ^\^len  a  transverse  section  is  made  of  an 


Transverse  and  Vertical  Sections  of  Endogenous  Stem. 

endogenous  stem,  numerous  bundles  of  vessels  are 
seen  dispersed  in-egiUarly  in  cellular  tissue,  the 
younger  and  softer  parts  of  the  stem  exhibiting 
the  ccUular  tissue  in  greatest  proportion,  the  older 
.and  lower  parts  chiefly  al)Oiuiding  in  vascidar 
bundles,  wliich  are,  however,  somewhat  scattei-ed 
in  the  central  part  of  the  stem,  and  are  densely 
aggregated  towards  the  circumference,  there,  in  the 
])alms  generally,  forming  very  hard  wood,  in  some  of 
them  wood  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  cut  with  a 
hatchet.  The  stems  of  endogenous  plants  in  the 
far  greater  nimiber  of  cases  produce  terminal  buds 
only,  and  not  lateral  buds,  and  are  therefore  im- 
branched.  From  the  bases  of  the  leaves,  definite 
bundles  of  vascidar  tissue  converge  towards  the 
centre ;  but  these  extending  downwards  extend 
also  outwards,  and  thus  an  interlacuig  of  fibres 
takes  place,  which  coutributes  not  a  Uttle  to  the 
strength  and  compactness  of  the  wood  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem.  As  the  fibres  extend  down- 
wards, they  also  become  attenuated,  spiral  and 
porous  vessels  disappearing,  aud  nothuig  but  the 
most  ligneous  substance  remaining.  It  is  the  har- 
dening of  the  outer  part  of  the  stem  which  arrests 
its  increase  in  thickness.  Endogenous  stems  have 
not  a  distinct  pUh,  nor  any  medullary  rays.  Wlien 
the  central  part  is  soft  and  pith-like,  yet  it  is  not 
distinctly  separated  from  the  surroimiUng  wood,  and 
has  no  tneduUary  sheaih.  In  many  endogenous 
plants,  as  in  the  greater  nimiber  of  grasses,  the 
centre  of  the  stem  is  hollow.  This  is  not  the 
case  at  first,  when  the  stem  begins  to  grow ;   and 


when  any  cause  makes  the  growth  of  the  stem 
imusually  slow,  so  that  it  is  much  stunted,  it 
remains  solid  ;  the  fistular  character  of  the  sti'm  is 
the  result  of  its  rapid  gro^vtb,  ru|)turing  the  cells  of 
the  central  ]>ortion,  which  fiually  disapjieai.  Endo- 
genous stems  have  no  camhiura  and  no  projier 
bark.  There  is,  indeed,  a  cellidar  epidermis ;  and 
there  is  also  within  it,  and  exterior  to  the  hardest 
woody  part  of  the  stem,  a  comparatively  soft  layer 
of  a  corky  substance,  which  is  sometimes  called 
bark,  sometimes  false  bark,  which  does  not  separate 
from  the  wood  below  it  without  leaving  myriads  of 
little  broken  threads,  the  ends  of  the  fibres  wliich 
have  extended  into  it  from  the  hardest  p:;rt  of 
the  stem.  In  those  exogenous  plants  which  pro- 
duce later.al  buds  and  bi'anches,  the  fibres  of  the 
branches  on  descending  to  the  stem  extend  on  the 
outside  of  the  ])roper  stem,  between  its  hardest 
j)ortion  and  the  fal.se  liark  ;  and  in  this  way  a  great 
thickness  is  sometimes  attained,  as  in  the  dragon- 
tree.  In  the  Grasses,  a  plexus  of  fibres  takes  \nace 
at  the  nodes,  the  fibres  crossing  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  No  British  tree — and  it  may  almost  be  said, 
no  tree  of  temperate  or  colder  climates — is  endogen- 
ous. Almost  all  the  endogenous  trees  are  palms, 
although  a  few,  as  the  dragon-tree,  belong  to  other 
orders.  Endogenous  ]dants,  however,  are  numerous 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Among  endogenous  plants 
are  many  of  the  plants  most  useful  to  mankind, 
particularly  ])alnis  and  grasses,  all  the  true  coni- 
jilants  being  included  among  the  latter.  Nutritious 
substances  are  very  extensively  produced  both  iu 
the  fruit  or  seed,  aud  in  other  |iarts ;  poisonous 
products  are  comparatively  rare,  although  found  iu 
the  Aracere,  LUiacae,  Melanthacece,  and  other  orders. 
Ai-omatic  secretions  are  characteristic  chiefly  of  one 
order,  Scitaminew.  Besides  palms  and  grasses, 
many  of  the  endogenous  plants  are  of  gi-eat  beauty, 
and  many  produce  most  beautiful  flowera.  Lilies 
and  orchids  may  be  mentioned  as  instances. 

Eudogenous  jjlants  are  monocotyledonous ;  and  the 
terms  endogenous  and  monocotyledonous  are  there- 
fore often  emplo3-cd  indiscriminately  to  designate 
the  class.  But  Lindley  distinguishes  a  class  of  Dic- 
lyofjens  (q.  v.),  which,  although  monocotyledonous, 
have  stems  approaching  to  the  exogenous  character. 
The  leaves  of  endogenous  jdauts  generally  exhibit 
parallel  venation,  which  is  indeed  .strictly  confined 
to  them,  although  a  venation  resembling  it,  or  rather 
simidatiug  it,  may  be  seen  in  some  exogenous 
plants.  The  seed  also  germinates  in  a  peculiar 
manner,  different  from  that  of  exogenous  plants, 
aud  to  which  the  name  endorhizal  has  been  given, 
the  radicle  being  protruded  from  within  the  sub- 
stance of  the  embryo,  and  surroimded  by  a  cellular 
sheath  formed  from  the  integument  whicli  it  breaks 
in  its  egress. 

ENDO'RSE.    See  Bill. 

ENDORSE,  in  Heraldry,  an  Ordinary  contain- 
ing the  fourth  part  of  a  pale.  Endorsed,  again,  or 
indorsed,  signifies  that  objects  are  placed  on  the 
shield  back  to  back. 

ENDOSMO'SE  and  EXOSMO'SE  (Gr.  inward 
motion  aud  outward  motion),  terms  a]>plied  by 
Dutrochct,  the  first  investigator,  to  the  transfusion 
th.at  takes  place  when  two  liquids  or  two  gases  of 
different  densities  are  separated  by  an  animal  or  a 
vegetable  membrane.  As  the  transmission  has  no 
necessary  relation  to  outwards  or  inwards,  the  term 
osmose,  or  osmotic  action,  is  now  preferred.  See 
DiKFUSIOX. 

This  action  performs  a  very  important  part  in 
living  organisms,  and  explains  many  phenomena  of 
the  circulation  of  sap  and  the  processes  of  nutrition, 
which  were  jireviously  refeiTed  only  to  the  wouderfid 


ENDYMION— ENEMY. 


action  of  vital  ciiergj-.  Thus,  the  blood  contimially 
streaming  tUrougli  the  capUlary  vessels  pives  forth 
a  portion  to  the  siuTounding  colls,  and  so  suppUos 
them  with  the  necessary  chyle.  This  ni.ay,  however, 
by  the  expansion  of  the  capillary  vessels  (see  Inflam- 
mation), load  to  imraotlenate  exudation.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  blood,  in  passing  by.  takes  up  a 
number  of  worn-out  coustitueutji  of  the  juices  of 
these  cells,  and  in  this  way  serves,  by  the  exchange 
which  it  effects,  to  restore  the  body,  and  to  disburden 
it  of  products  which  have  become  useless.— In  plants 
.-Uso,  osmose  performs  an  important  ]>art  in  the  pro- 
cess of  nutrition  and  the  motion  of  the  sap.  The 
substances  in  the  cells  of  plants  are  usually  denser 
than  the  fluids  without,  and  thus  a  process  of  ondos- 
mose  tikes  place,  by  which  tlie  plant  is  supplied  in 
the  lii-st  instance  from  the  soil,  being  incap.able, 
however,  of  appropriating  any  nourishment  wliich  is 
not  presented  in  a  liquid  state  to  the  fibrils  of  its 
roots;  whUst  that  which  the  roots  give  off  by  cxos- 
mose,  is  suiiposed  gradually  to  uulit  the  soil  for  the 
growth  of  the  s.-une  kind  of  pl.ant.  The  bursi;mg  of 
the  capsules  of  some  kinds  of  jilants  is  owing  to 
a  process  of  endosmose  going  on  in  the  cells,  as  in 
the  fruit  of  the  Elaterium  or  Squirting  Cucumber. 
Some  of  the  Entozoa,  as  tape- worms,  seem  to  live 
entirely  by  endosmose.    See  Osmotic  Action. 

EXDVailON,  in  Greek  Mj-thology,  was  a  son 
cither  of  Zeus  or  of  AethUos,  and  foDowed,  according 
to  some  accounts,  tlic  occupation  of  a  herdsm.an  or 
hunter,  but  according  to  others,  was  king  of  Elis. 
On  account  of  his  uprightness,  he  is  said  to  have 
received,  at  his  own  request,    from  Zeus,  the  gift 
of   immortality,   unfading    youth,    and    everlasting 
sleep ;   but    another  version   is,   that   Zeus  having 
taken  him  up  to  Olympus,  E.  fell  in  love  with  Here 
(Juno),  and  was  coudemuetl  by  her  enraged  husband 
to  eternal  sleep  ou  Mount  Latmos.     Others,  again, 
prettily  fable  that  Selene  (the  Moon),  charmed  by 
the  beauty  of  the  youth,  conveyed  him  to  Caria, 
and  sent  him  to  sleep  on  Moimt  Latmos.  that  she 
might  nightly  Iciss  him  imobserved.     The  Eleans,  on 
thecontrary, declared  that  he  died  among  them,  and 
in  proof  of  it  were  wont   to  shew  his  monument. 
The   m>'th  of   E.  has  been  happily  interpreted  Ijy 
Max  Miiller  in  his  article  on  Comparative  M}i;h- 
ologj',  in  the  Oxford  Essays  (185G).     E.,  according  to 
him,  is  one  of  the  many  names  of  the  sun,  but  with 
special  reference  to  the  setting  or  dj-iug  snu,  being 
formed  from  cndiio,  probably  a  dialectic  variety  of 
duo,  the  technical  verb  in  Greek  to  express  sunset. 
E.  sleeps  in  the  cave  of  Latmos,  i.  e.,  of  night  (from 
the  same  root  as  Lcto  or  Latona,  the  night).     So  far 
the  myth  poetically  describes  certain  phenomena  of 
nature,  the  sinking  of  the  sun  in  the  west,  and  the 
rising  of  the  moon,  that  seems  to  follow  his  depart- 
ing beams.     But  the   original   signification   of  the 
metaphors  becoming  lost,  as  might  natuRiUy  happen 
■when  the  words  expressing  them  had  only  a  local 
usage,  it  was,  we  m.ay  say,  inevitable  that  people 
should    transfer    the    metajihors    to    pei-sons,    and 
invent  a  liistory  to  supply  the  place  of  the  vanished 
poetrj'.      And  this    invention,    or,   more   properly, 
explanation  (for  it  was  doubtless  made  in  all  good 
faith),  is   what   properly  constitutes   the   myth    of 
Endymion.     The  story  has  been  made  the  subject 
of  a  poem  by  Keats. 

EXE'MA  (Or.  en,  in,  and  iljmi,  I  enter),  a  medicine 
or  fluid  substance  conveyed  into  the  body  by  injec- 
tion, usually  through  the  rectimi  or  lower  bowel. 
See  Cly-stek. 

E'NESIIES,  Adhering  to  the  Queen's.  By  25 
YAw.  III.  st.  5,  c.  2,  it  is  declared  that  if  a  man  'be 
adherent  to  the  king's  enemies  in  his  realm,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort,  in  the  realm  or  elsewhere,' 


he  is  to  be  held  guilty  of  treason.  Under  this 
stJitute,  tlie  subjects  of  states  at  war  with  us  are 
held  to  be  enemies,  though  war  has  not  been 
solemnly  proclaimed.  Every  species  of  assistance, 
whether  by  joining  in  acts  of  hostihty,  or  sending 
sup])lies  or  intelligence  to  the  enemy,  is  deemed  an 
act  of  aiUicronce."  To  incite  to  hostilities  the  sub- 
jects of  a  st.ite  at  amity  with  us,  is  not  held  to 
fall  under  this  provision.'  But  if  the  subjects  of  a 
friendly  state  make  a  hostile  invasion,  any  British 
subject  rendering  assistance  will  be  deemed  guilty 
of  treason  under  this  clause.     See  Tbe.\son. 

ENEMY.  An  enemy,  according  to  the  civU  law, 
is  one  who  has  puMicly  declared  war  against  us,  or 
we  against  him;  all  others  are  thieves  or  robbers. 
Hostes  hi  sunt  qui  nobis,  aut  quibus  nos,  publice 
bellum  decrevimus;  cateri  latrones  aut  prcedones  sunt. 

Digest,  i.  IG,  lis.     Thus,  in  order  to  constitute  an 

enemy,  there  must  be  a  public  declaration  of  war. 
This   declaration   must   also    be   made   liy   a  duly 
organised  state  or  kingdom,  for  a  declaration  of  war 
by  any  tmbuJent  body  of  men  is  not  suiTicient ;  and 
a  hostile  act  committed  by  private  citizens  will  not 
justify  a  war,  unless  that  act  be  sanctioned  by  the 
government.      The  puqiose   for  which  this   public 
declaration  is  required,  is  stated  by  Grotius  to  be 
that  it  may  be  clearly  known  that  the  war  is  under- 
taken not  as  a  veutiire.  but  by  the  will  of  the  two 
people.     Hostilities  having  been  formally  declared, 
every  subject   of  the   hostile   nations   becomes   an 
enemy  of  the  opposing  state,  as  do  likewise  those 
independent  nations  which  attach  themselves  to  the 
interests   of   either  p.arty.      According   to    ancient 
usage,  the  utmost  violence  and  cruelty  was  lawful 
towards  those  who  were  enemies  of  the  st.ate ;  but 
by  the  humane  principles  which  prevail  in  modern 
times,  warfare  is  to  be  carried  on  subject  to  certain 
general  rules,  which  are  intended  as  much  as  may 
be  to  abridge  the  calamities  of  war,  and  to  protect 
the  rights  of  individuals.     Thus,  an  army  invading 
an    enemy's    country    is    bound    to   suffer,   as    far 
as   possible,  the    peaceable   iuliabitants   to   remain 
unmolested.    Unnecessary  devastation  of  the  country 
and  the  seizure  of  property  are  .also  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  civilised  w.ar;    and  Grotius  Lays  it  down 
that  the  use   of    poisoned  weapons,  and  of   ass.is- 
sination,  and  violence   to  women,  are  to  be   repro- 
bated.    Ou  the  other  hand,  individuals  taking  up 
anns,  -n-ithout  the  sanction  of  the  state,  in  order  to 
.annoy  an  invading  enemy,  are  regarded  as  lawless 
maraudei-s.     The  result  of  this  distinction  is,  th.at 
such  persons  arc  not  treated  as  prisoners  of  war, 
but  are  subject  to  be  summarily  dealt  with  by  the 
commander  of  the  invading  army.     As  to  the  right 
of  individuals  to  fit  out  vessels  for  the  annoyance 
of  the  enemy,  see  Privateering  and  Pibacy.     It 
appears  to  be  a  recognised  principle  of  international 
law,  that  the  property  of  an  alien  enemy  residing  in 
cither  of  the  hostile  states  may  be  confiscated.   The 
Americans,  during  the  war  with  England,  .asserted 
this  right  in  resard  to  British  property  found  in 
their  teiTitory.     But  the  usage  of  civilised  nations 
for  a  long  jieriod  has  much  modified  the  stern  rule 
of  law.     It  is  provided  by  Magna  Charta,  cap.  30, 
that  if  merchants  'be  of  a  land  making  war  with 
us,  and  be  found  in  our  realm  at  the  beginning  of 
the  wars,  they  shall  be  attached  without  any  harm 
of  body  or  goods,  until  it  be  known  to  us,  or  om- 
chief  justice,  how  our  merchants  be  intreated  there 
in   the  land   making  w.ar  against  ns;    and   if   our 
merchants  he  well  intreated  there,  theirs  shall  be 
likewise  with  us.'      And  by  27   Edw.  III.  c.  17, 
merchants  of  a  foreign  state  .at  war  with  us  were 
allowed  forty  d.ay3,  after  proclamation  of  hostilities, 
wherein  to  remove  from   the  kingdom  themselves 
and  their  goods ;  and  if  that  space  of  time  were  not 


ENERGICO— EXGAGEMEXT. 


sufficient,  forty  days  more  were  tr>  be  conceded  to 
them.  Vattel  (iii.  4,  60)  denies  that  the  right  to 
confiscate  the  goods  of  an  ahen  enemy  is  a  right 
inherent  in  a  state  by  the  law  of  nations,  insisting 
that  a  sovereign  having  jiermitted  foreigners  to 
enter  the  state,  and  to  continue  there,  had  tacitly 
promised  them  full  liberty  and  security  for  their 
return.  Whatever  be  the  principle,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  almost  universal  practice  of  modern 
nations  h.as  been  to  respect  the  property  of  indivi- 
duals at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  Provisions 
arc  frequently  inserted  into  commerci.al  treaties, 
stipulating  that,  in  case  of  war,  the  subjects  of  the  ; 
enemy  sh,^ll  have  time  to  depart,  and  even  that  they 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  and  carry  on  a  peace- 
able trade.  As  to  the  practice  in  regard  to  Embargo 
and  Letters  of  Marqte,  see  those  articles.  The 
right  to  confiscate  the  debts  of  the  subjects  of  a 
hostile  nation  appears  to  rest  on  the  same  basis  as 
that  of  the  couliscatiou  of  other  property.  Trade 
between  the  subjects  of  two  hostile  powers  is 
absolutely  suspended  during  hostilities,  unless  per- 
mitted by  express  sanction ;  and  the  importation 
of  articles  particularly  usefid  in  war  is  contraband. 
All  such  ai-ticles,  whether  supplied  by  subjects  of 
the  enemy,  or  of  another  state,  are  seized  and  con- 
fiscated. See  CosTE.VBAND  OF  Wak  ;  see  also  Prize 
and  Prisoner  of  War.  On  the  subject  of  this 
article,  see  Orotius,  De  Jure  Belli  et  Fads,  lib.  iii. 
cc.  3  to  7 ;  Vattel's  Laio  of  Nations,  b.  iii.  c.  4  and  5 ; 
Kent's  Commenlaries,  vol.  i.  c.  3. 

ENE'RGICO,  an  Italian  term  in  music,  meaning 
with  energy  and  force ;  ■with  strong  articulation 
and  accentuation,  and  a  marked  powerfid  delivery 
of  the  single  notes,  without  losing  in  distinctness 
of  execution. 

ENFANTIN,  BARTn^LoiY  Prosper,  the  chief 
representative  of  St  Simonism,  and  as  such,  usually 
styled  Pfire  Enfantin,  was  the  son  of  a  banker  at 
Paris,  where  he  was  horn  in  the  year  1796.  He 
became  a  pupil  in  the  Jicole  Polyleclmique  in  1S12, 
but  was  expelled  in  1S14,  in  consequence  of  his 
having  joined  the  pupils  who  left  school  and  fought 
again.st  the  alhes  on  the  heights  of  Jlontmartre  and 
St  Chaumont.  lie  was  afterwards  a  commercial 
traveller  in  Russia,  then  a  banker's  clerk,  and  in 
1825  became  dii-ector  of  the  Caisse  Hijpothecaire. 
About  this  time,  he  became  a  disciple  of  St  Simon, 
whose  ideas  he  developed,  after  the  death  of  their 
author,  in  the  Producteur.  After  the  JiJy  revolu- 
tion, E.  associated  himself  with  JI.  Bazard  for  the 
active  propajjation  of  St  Simonism.  Bazard  preached 
it  in  its  relations  to  philosophy  and  politics ;  E., 
mainly  in  its  relations  to  the  social  state.  Soon, 
however,  a  schism  broke  out  between  the  two  on  the 
question  of  marriage  and  the  relation  of  the  sexes. 
Ivecognising  the  *  mobility '  of  the  affections,  E. 
affirmed  that  they  ought  to  be  '  free,'  and  of  course 
pronounced  against  the  tics  of  marriage.  E.'s  views 
were  pushed  so  far,  that  government  deemed  it 
necessary  to  interfere  on  the  grounds  of  public 
decency.  The  'Supreme  Father'  (as  his  disciples 
were  wont  rather  profanely  to  call  him)  was,  after  a 
trial  of  two  daj-s,  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprison- 
ment, and  to  jiay  a  line  of  100  francs.  Being  released 
at  the  expiration  of  a  few  months,  K  went  to  Egypt, 
and,  after  an  absence  of  two  y^ears,  returned  to 
France,  and  became  a  post-master  and  farmer  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lyon.  In  1841,  he  came  to  Paris,  and 
■was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Scientific  Commis- 
sion for  Algiers,  and  on  his  return  from  Africa,  wi-ote 
a  sensible,  interesting  book,  entitled  Colonisation  de 
rAlgHrie  (Paris,  1843).  ^Vfter  the  revolution  of 
1848,  he  edited  the  joum.al  entitled  Le  Credit  Public, 
a  paper  retaining   much   of  the   old   St   Simoniau 


character,  but  which  had  to  stop  in  1850  for  want 
of  funds.  Since  then,  E.  has  held  an  im|)ortant 
situation  on  the  Lyon  and  Mediterranean  Railway. 
His  principal  works  are  his  Doctrine  de  St  Siimm,  in 
conjunction  witli  others  (Paris.  1830) ;  his  Trails 
d'Economie  Pol'dique  (Paris,  1S31),  and  La  Rcliijion 
Saint- Simoniame  (Paris,  1831).  His  most  recent 
production  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  is  a 
pamphlet  entitled  Pi/ionse  ou  Pcre  Felix  (ISiiS),  a 
jircacher  who  had  attacked  him.  (Died  1st  Sep.  1SC4.) 

ENFEO'FFMENT.     See  Feoff.me.nt. 

E'NFIELD    RIFLE   FACTORY.     See  Small 

Arms  Factories,  Royal. 

ENFILA'DE  is  a  military  term  applied  to  a  fire 
of  musketry  or  artillery  made  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  a  line  of  troops  or  of  a  line  of  rampart.  A 
besieging  battery  so  placed  as  to  send  its  shot  along 
any  part  of  the  line  of  a  fortification,  and  inside  the 
parapet,  does  great  execution  in  dismounting  the 
guns,  which  thus  present  the  Largest  surface  to  the 
balls.  Hence  the  lines  of  rampart  should  be  planned 
that  their  prolongations  maj'  fall  in  situations  inac- 
cessible to  the  enemy.  AVhere  this  is  not  possible, 
the  lines  are  cither  broken,  or  are  protected  by 
Bonnets  (q.  v.),  or  by  Traverses  (q.  v.),  or  Blindages 
(q.  v.).  In  the  siege  of  a  fortress,  the  trenches 
of  approach  are  cut  in  a  zigzag,  to  prevent  the 
defenders  enfilading  them  from  the  walls. 

EXFRA'XCHISE,     ENFRANCHISEMEXT, 

to  make  free ;  the  admission  to  certain  liberties  or 
privileges.  Thus,  a  person  made  a  denizen  of  the 
country,  or  receiving  the  freedom  of  a  city  or  burgh, 
is  said  to  be  enfranchised. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT    OF    COPYHOLDS. 

See  Copyholds. 

ENGADI'NE,  a  famous  vallej'  in  Smtzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Grisons,  second  only  to  the  Valais 
in  length,  extends  north-east  for  about  50  miles 
along  the  banks  of  the  Inn,  from  the  foot  of  Mount 
Maloja  to  the  'N'illage  of  Martinsbruck.  It  is 
(liWded  into  two  portions — that  toward  the  south- 
west, called  the  Upper  Engadine,  and  that  tow.ird 
the  north-east,  the  Lower  Engadine.  The  Latter 
is  wild  and  bleak ;  pent  up  within  narrow  limits 
among  the  hills,  and  having  a  huge  bairier  of 
glaciers  between  it  and  Italy,  its  climate  is  dismal. 
Frost  and  snow  occur  in  July,  and  winter  prevails 
for  nine  months  of  the  year.  The  Upjjcr  Engailino 
is  more  open,  and  possesses  much  fine  meadow- 
land.  The  Inn,  which  enters  the  valley  at  its 
south-west  or  upper  extremity,  and  flows  through 
it,  has  many  towns  upon  its  banlis,  the  highest 
of  which,  Silvaplana,  is  about  5G00  feet  aliove 
sea-level,  while  the  lowest,  Martinsbruck,  is  3137 
feet.  The  inhabitants  devote  themselves  prin- 
cipally to  the  rearing  of  cattle  ;  they  also  make 
cheese,  and  export  it  largely.  More  than  one-half 
of  the  yoimg  men  emigrate  at  an  early  age,  and 
betake  themselves  to  continental  capitals,  where 
they  often  attain  comparative  wealth,  in  which  case 
they  almost  invariably  return,  build  a  house  in  their 
native  valley,  and  therein  spend  the  remainder  of 
their  daj's.  Pop.  about  11,000,  almost  all  of  the 
Reformed  or  CaU-inistic  Church.  The  language 
most  generally  spoken  is  the  Ladin  (a  corruption 
of  Latin),  a  Romanic  tongue,  but  differing  from 
the  other  Romanic  dialects  of  the  Rhaetian  Alps, 
and  bearing  a  resemblance  to  the  Italian. 

ENGA'GEMENT,  Milit.akv,  considered  as  a 
conflict  betwc  •:!  two  armies  or  hostile  forces,  cannot 
be  described  within  limits  suitable  for  this  work. 
Almost  every  term  applicable  to  armies  in  the  field 
bears  relation,  in  some  way  or  other,  to  a  hostile 

53 


ENGAGEMENT— ENGINEER. 


enga;;cinent,  and  those  terms  w-ill  be  found  briefly 
uoticed  under  their  iiroper  headings. 

ENGAGEMENT,  Naval,  admits  of  more  precise 
and  terse  ilhistration  than  a  militaiy  engagement, 
liecause  each  ship  of  war  is  a  unit  in  itself,  bounded 
by  a  clearly  marked  watery  margin  from  all  the 
other  ships  of  a  fleet 

In  the  small  war- vessels  of  ancient  times,  before 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  a  naval  engagement 
usually  began  by  running  the  galleys  \'iolently 
against  each  other,  to  crush  or  sink  the  enemy  by 
means  of  the  beak  or  prow.  The  prows  were,  for 
this  purpose,  armed  with  brazen  or  iron  points.  On 
the  deck  was  sometimes  a  kind  of  turret  fiUed  with 
soldiers,  the  proliable  jjrecursor  of  the  forecastle  in 
modern  .ships ;  and  there  was  also  frequently  a 
platform  for  accommodating  swordsmen,  slingers, 
and  j.aveliumen.  High  and  bulky  shijis,  of  no  great 
length,  were  best  for  this  kind  of  warfare.  Some- 
times a  massive  piece  of  iron  or  lead,  called  a 
dolphin,  was  let  Aovra  violently  from  the  yard-arm, 
to  cnisli  or  brc;ik  through  some  part  of  tlie  enemy's 
vessel.  The  men  fastened  sickles  to  the  end  of  long 
poles,  to  cut  the  enemy's  rigging  and  sails.  Other 
means  for  carrjnng  on  a  hostile  attack  were  batte^-ing- 
rams—\ivA\'y  maces  with  very  long  handles,  stone- 
throwing  machines,  and  graiipling-irons. 

In  modern  ships,  prcpar.ations  for  an  eng.agement 
are  made  with  the  utmost  coolness  and  precision. 
The  boatswain  and  his  mates  commimicate  to  aU  the 
crew  the  order  to  '  clear  for  action.'  The  men  take 
theirdknmocks,  lower  them,  tie  them  up,  and  can-y 
them  iff  the  quarter-deck,  poop,  forecastle,  and  other 
parts  of  the  ship,  where  they  are  stowed  between  a 
double  netting  above  the  gunwale,  and  form  a  partial 
defence  against  the  enemy's  musketry.  The  s.ails, 
yards,  booms,  bowsjjrit,  &e.,  are  secured  by  strong 
chains  and  extra  ropes,  to  prevent  or  lessen  disaster 
if  they  are  shot  away.  The  boatswain  and  the 
carjienter  collect  together,  and  place  at  hand  all  kinds 
of  jueees  of  wood,  iron,  rope,  and  canvas  that  may 
be  usefiU  in  quickly  repairing  shot-holes  and  other 
damage.  The  giuiner  and  his  mates  examine  the 
cannon  and  the  tilled  cartridges,  and  see  tliat  all  the 
imjilements  for  gunnery  are  at  hand.  The  master 
and  his  subordinate  otticers  look  to  the  trim  and  state 
of  the  sails.  The  lieutenants  visit  all  the  decks,  to 
see  that  oljstructions  of  every  kind  are  removed. 
Wien  the  engagement  is  about  to  begin,  the  drums 
beat  to  anns.  Every  man  repairs  to  his  jilace. 
The  marines  are  drawn  up  in  rank  and  file  on  the 
quarter-deck,  poop,  and  forecastle.  The  surgeon  and 
his  assistants  are  ready  in  the  cockpit  to  amputate 
limbs,  extract  bullets,  and  dress  wounds.  Then 
begins  the  battle,  which  varies  in  its  character 
according  to  the  number  and  kind  of  ships  on 
each  side,  the  nature  of  the  sea,  the  direction  of 
the  wind,  and  a  multitude  of  other  circumstances. 
In  the  British  navy,  the  order  of  battle  for  a 
fleet  is  onlinarily  in  two  lines,  each  being  divided 
into  the  Starlmard  and  Port  Division  or  squadron. 
When  the  b.attle  is  ended,  if  it  li.is  been  a  severe 
one,  the  probabilities  are  th.at  many  men  have 
been  killed  or  wounded,  decks  and  sides  battered 
and  splintered,  cannon  dismounted,  rigging,  masts, 
yards,  .and  sails  destroyed  or  torn.  The  whole 
ship's  crew,  excejrt  those  disabled,  then  work  hard 
to  get  the  vessel  back  into  trim  ;  an  attempt  that 
frequently  cannot  be  realised  -H-ithout  aid  from 
other  shi]>3,  or  from  the  resources  of  a  ])ort. 

E'NGELHAUDT,  Joit.  GEono  Veit,  a  learned 
German  theologian,  was  born  12th  November  1701, 
nt  Neust.adt  on  the  Aiscli,  and  stiulied  at  Erlangen, 
wliere,  in  1820,  he  was  appointed  extraordin.ary 
professor,  and  in  1822  ordinary  professor  of  theology.  I 


He  died  13th  September  1853.  Patristic  and  medieval 
dogmatics,  and  Neoplatouism,  are  the  subjects 
which  he  has  chiefly  investigated.  In  1820,  he  pub- 
lished at  Erlangen  a  translation  of  the  first  Ennead 
of  I'lotinus;  in  1823  appeared  his  translation  of 
the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 
His  Kirchengescliiclitlichen  Ahltaudlungen  (Erl.  1832), 
Audegung  des  speculativen  Theils  des  Evangeliums 
Johannis  durch  einen  deul.icheii  mysticlien  Tlieolagen 
(Erl.  1S30),  and  his  contribution  to  the  history  of 
the  mystical  theology,  entitled  Hiehard  von  St  I'iclor 
und  Johannes  Ruysbroek  (Erl.  1838),  are  works  of 
great  value,  and  have  thrown  a  new  light  on  many 
important  points.  Very  useful,  too,  especially  on 
account  of  the  richness  of  their  special  notices,  .are 
his  Ilandbuch  der  Kirchengexcliichte  (Erl.  1834),  and 
Dogmengescliicltte  (Neustadt,  1839).  E.,  in  the  course 
of  his  life,  wrote  many  learned  dissertations  in  the 
Journal  of  Historical  Theology,  among  which  may 
be  specified  his  Ueber  die  Hesi/cliiasten,  and  Ueber 
Erasmus  Sarcerius. 

ENGHIEN,  Loots  Antoink  HE^^^I  be  Bour- 
bon, Due    d',   only   son    of    Prince    Henri   Louis 
Joseph,   Due  de  Bourbon,   was  born   at  Chantilly, 
2d  August  1772.     In  1789,  he  quitted  France,  and 
travelled  through  several  countries  of  Europe.     In 
I  1792,  he  entered  the  corps  of  emvp-ls  assembled  by 
\  his  grandfather,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  on  the  Ilhine, 
'  and  commanded  the  vanguard  from  1796  untU  1799. 
,  At   the  peace   of   LuneviJIe,   in   the   year  1801,  he 
went  to  reside  at  Ettenheim,  an  old  chlteau  on  the 
German   side    of   the    Pthine,    not   far  from   Stras- 
I  burg,   and  within   the   territories  of  the   Duke  of 
Baden.     Here   he   married   the  Princess   Charlotte 
of  Rohan  Kochefort,  and  lived  as  a  private  citizen. 
When  the  conspiracy  of  the  Bourbon  ]irince3,  headed 
by  Cadoudal,  I'ichegiai,  &c.,  against   the   life    and 
authority  of   Bonaparte,  was  discovered  at   Paris, 
'  the  latter  chose  to  believe  that  the  Duo  d'E.  was 
])rivy   to   it,  although   there  was   not    a   tittle    of 
evidence   to   prove   this.     Perhaps   Bonaparte   was 
afraid  that  the  valour  and   humanity  of  the  last 
descendant  of  the  great  CondC  might  one  day  prove 
dangerous  to  his  power.     Be  th.at  as   it   may,  he 
}  unscrupulouslv  resolved  to  seize  the  person  of  the 
'  duke.     On  the  night  of  the  17th  March  1804,  the 
[  neutral   territory  of   Baden  w:i3  violated,  and  the 
I  chflteau  of   ICttenheim  suri-ouuded  with   a  body  of 
soldiers  and  gendarmes.     The  duke,  at  fii'st,  endea- 
voured to  defend  himself ;   but  the  force  w.as  too 
great  to  be  opposed,  and  he,  with  sever.al  frienils 
and  domestics,  was  captured,  and  carried  prisoner 
to  Strasburg,  and  immediately  after  to  Vincennes. 
On  the  20th  of  March,  he  was  tried  before  a  court- 
martial,   consisting  of  eight  officers,   ami   after   an 
examination  of  five  hours,  was  condemned  to  death. 
j  Half   an    hour    later,    the    sentence   was   put   into 
execution.     So  cruel  and   audaciously  criminal    an 
!  act  has  fixed  a  dee])   stigma   on  the   character   of 
i  Bonaparte.     M.  Dupin  h.as  published  the  I'ecords  of 
the  trial,  and  shewn  the  illegality  of  the  proceedings 
of    the    military   commission.     This   illegality   was 
])ubHcly  acknowledged  by  General  HuUiu,  the  ^iresi- 
dent  of  the  court.'  After  the  Kestoration,  the  bones 
of  the  judicially  murdered  duke  were  taken  up,  and 
interreil  in  the  chajjcl  of  the  castle  at  Vincennes. 

ENGINEE'R  and  ENGINEERING.  Engi- 
neering, the  business  of  the  engineer,  is  the  art 
of  designing  and  superintending  the  execution  of 
works  of  a  constructive  character,  such  as  roads, 
railways,  bridges,  canals,  harbours,  docks,  works 
for  snpplyin"  water  to  towns,  drainage  and  sewerage 
works,  miumg  machinery,  and  the  working  of 
metals. 

It   may   be   divided   into    two   kinds— civil   and 


EXGrNEEK^ENGINEEES. 


militarj".  The  military  engineer  is  an  officer  in  the 
6er\'ice  of  government,  whose  duties  are  principally 
to  construct  fortilications,  to  make  surveys  for  war- 
like purposes,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  an  army 
by  the  construction  of  roads  and  bridges ;  in  short, 
to  execute  all  engineeong  works  of  a  military 
nature  ;  but  he  is  also,  especially  in  this  country, 
called  upon  to  undertake  many  works  which  more 
jiroperly  belong  to  the  business  of  the  civil  engineer, 
such  as  the  survey  of  the  country — called  the 
Ordnance  Survey — the  inspection  of  public  works, 
and,  in  short,  all  the  duties  of  a  government 
engineer. 

The  civTl  engineering  profession  is  subdivided  into 
several  sections,  according  to  the  special  nature  of 
the  employment  of  its  members.  The  railway 
engineer  projects  and  superintends  the  execution 
of  railways  and  all  the  works  in  connection  with 
them,  such  as  the  alteration  of  roads  and  streams, 
the  construction  of  viaducts,  bridges,  cuttings,  and 
embanlcmeut.s.  The  hydraulic  engineer  constructs 
the  works  connected  with  the  supply  of  water 
to  towns,  the  filtering  of  water,  its  collection  in 
reservoirs,  and  its  distribution  through  a  town  or 
district ;  the  irrigation  and  drainage  of  tracts  of 
country  ;  the  i>rotection  of  low  lands  from  inunda- 
tion, and  the  use  of  water  as  a  motive-power.  The 
dock  and  harbour  engineer  has  the  management 
of  all  works  connected  with  the  sea  or  naxdgable 
waters,  such  as  the  construction  of  ])iers,  break- 
waters, docks,  harbours,  and  Ught-houses.  The 
mechanical  engineer  is  principally  concerned  in  the 
manufacture  of  machinery,  the  working  of  metals, 
the  construction  of  shi]is,  steamers,  cannon,  and  all 
the  various  structures  in  which  the  metals  bear  a 
prominent  part.  Then  there  is  the  mining  engineer, 
who  discovers  minerals  and  manages  mines ;  there 
are  engineers  who  are  specially  engaged  in  the 
drainage  of  towTis,  and  many  other  less  prominent 
divisions  of  the  profession. 

In  all  engineering  works,  the  contractor  takes  a 
very  important  part  ;  he  executes  the  works  from 
the  designs,  and  imder  the  direction  and  super- 
intendence of  the  engineer,  and  on  his  abdity  and 
good  manajjement  the  success  of  undertaldngs  very 
materially  depends. 

The  engineering  works  of  antiquity  are  both 
numcro\is  and  prominent,  many  of  them  remaining 
while  all  other  traces  of  their  constructers  have  been 
.swept  away.  The  most  notable  of  the  works  belong- 
ing to  very  remote  antiquity  are  the  harbours  of  the 
Phccnicians,  the  palaces  and  sewerage  of  Nimroud, 
-nnd  the  pyramids  of  Egyjit ;  next  in  order  come  the 
harbours  of  ancient  Greece,  the  bridge  of  boats  across 
the  Daniinelles,  made  by  Xerxes,  to  transport  his 
immense  army  into  Europe,  and  his  canal  across  the 
isthmus  of  the  peninsula  of  Jlount  Athos.  The 
buildings  of  ancient  Home  next  claim  attention — its 
theatrics,  temples,  baths,  and  aqueducts,  some  of 
which  carried  water  from  distances  of  more  than 
fifty  miles  into  Kome ;  its  roads,  bridges,  and 
drainage-works  vie  in  extent  and  magnilicence  with 
tile  most  celebrated  works  of  modem  times. 

Prom  that  period  down  to  the  commencement  of 
the  ISth  c,  the  most  extensive  works  executed  are 
the  canals,  embankments,  and  other  hydraulic  con- 
structions used  by  the  Dutch  for  the  purposes  of 
inland  navigation,  and  to  protect  their  low  lands  from 
the  sea  ;  the  canals  of  North  Italy,  the  cathedrals 
and  fortilications  of  medieval  Europe. 

Civil  engineering,  as  a  distinct  prnjhs'ion,  may  be 
said  to  have  originated,  in  England,  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  ;  since  that  time,  the 
improvements  in  the  steam-engine  by  James  Watt, 
its  subsequent  application  to  the  railway  system  by 
George  Stephenson,  and  its  uso  in  navigation,  have 


given  a  great  impulse  to  commerce  and  civilisation ; 
which,  in  their  turn,  have  created  the  necessity  for 
the  numerous  and  magnificent  engineering  works 
of  modem  times  ;  such  as  the  innumerable  railways, 
roads,  aud  canals  that  intersect  this  and  foreign 
coimtries  ;  the  bridges,  water-works,  docks,  har- 
bours, and  vessels  that  facilitate  our  commerce  aud 
increase  our  comfort  and  prosperity.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  of  these  works  may  be  mentioned 
the  tubular  bridges  of  tiie  St  Lawrence  anil  Menai 
Strait,  the  Niagara  railway  suspension  bridge,  and 
the  electric  telegraph  system,  which  covers  this 
country  and  the  seas  and  countries  of  Europe, 
and  may,  at  some  future  time,  connect  us  with 
the  continents  of  America,  Australia,  and  India. 
Among  the  more  celebi'ated  British  engineers  are 
the  Stephensons,  the  fiennies,  the  Brunels,  Telford, 
Smeaton,  and  Locke. 

The  education  of  those  who  would  rise  to  eminence 
in  the  profession,  must  embrace  a  fair  knowledge  of 
pure  mathematics  and  of  the  mixed  sciences  of 
natural  philosophy,  such  as  mechanics,  hydrostatics, 
hydraulics,  and  optics.  They  should  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  projections,  and 
should  aim  at  being  good  draughtsmen  and  rapid 
and  accurate  arithmeticians. 

Engineering  is  represented  in  this  country  by 
several  institutions  and  societies,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  London  Listitution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
established  in  181S,  'for  facilitating  the  acquire- 
ment of  professional  knowledge,  and  for  promoting 
mechanical  philoso])hy  ;'  there  are  alio  many 
schools  and  colleges  throughout  the  kingdom  in 
which  engineering  is  made  a  special  study. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  every  day 
opens  fresh  fields  to  engineeiong  science  and  labour ; 
and  that  as  the  first  beginnings  of  the  art  are  lost 
in  the  obscurity  of  remote  antiquity,  so  we  see  no 
termination  to  its  usefidness  and  necessity. 

The  more  important  operations  involved  in 
engineering  are  treated  of  under  such  heads  as 
BRniGES,  C^LXALi!,  Aqitedccts,  Ejld.vxkmexts, 
TuBUL/VR  Bridges,  Roads,  Railways,  Rivers, 
SusPEXsioy  Bridges,  &c. 

ENGINEERS,  The  Royal  Corps  op,  forms  one 
component  jiortion  of  the  army  of  the  British  empire. 
A  similar  corjis  exists  in  all  regular  armies.  It  is 
the  scientific  and  constructive  branch,  intrusted 
with  the  making  and  defending  of  all  militai-y 
woris,  aud  the  attack  and  conquest  of  similar  works 
belonging  to  an  enemy.  It  is  true  that  civilians  are 
often  employed  to  construct  the  buildings  them- 
selves, at  a  stated  price  ;  but  the  military  engineers 
make  the  plans,  and  are  responsible  to  the  country 
for  tlieir  efficiency.  At  the  present  time,  for 
instance  (1861),  contractors  are  at  work  on  fortifica- 
tions at  Portsmouth  and  elsewhere,  but  on  jdans 
and  under  orders  for  which  the  engineer  depart- 
ment of  the  government  is  responsible. 

The  lioj-al  Engineers  of  the  United  Kingdom 
form  one  regiment  or  corps.  The  officers,  in  time 
of  peace,  are  scattered  all  over  the  world.  Their 
service  is  continuous,  xmlike  that  of  other  branches 
of  the  army.  There  is  no  half-pay,  except  on 
permanent  retirement ;  and  no  unemployed  list. 
They  have  much  wear  and  tear  of  body  aud  mind, 
and  are  considered  entitled  to  a  competent  retiring 
allowance  at  an  earUer  are  than  other  officers. 
Their  regidar  pay  corresponds  to  the  active  i)ay  of 
other  officers  of  the  same  rank ;  but  they  exclu- 
sively receive  in  addition  extra  pay,  amounting  to 
one  half  their  ordinary  pay  when  on  dutj-  at  home, 
and  equalling  their  ordinary  pay  when  employed 
abroad.  There  is  an  establishment  of  Engineers 
in  each  colony,  to  conduct  and  superintend  all  the 
military  buildings  and  works.      The  entire  forse 


ENGINEERS— ENGLAJvD. 


is  under  a  jiarticular  department  of  tlie  War-office, 
that  <if  the  Ins])ector-gencraI  of  Fortiticatious. 
Until  the  year  176;i,  the  duties  of  military  engineers 
were  discharged  by  officers  taken  from  the  regular 
nnny.  In  that  year,  however,  the  corps  of  Engineers 
was  formed,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  mihtary 
service.  In  17S3,  it  was  made  a  royal  corjis,  and 
a  distinctive  uniform  adopted.  Several  companies 
of  artificers  were,  in  1S12,  converted  into  Sappers 
and  Miners,  and  placed  under  the  Engineers. 

The  non-commissioned  oflioers  and  privates  of  this 
valuable  corps  are  all  workmen  who  have  learned 
some  mechanical  trade ;  hence  their  skill  in  .all 
constructive  operations.  The  Ordnance  Survej'  has 
been  intrusted  to  the  corps.  For  many  purposes, 
the  men  are  lent,  to  attend  to  special  and  pecidiar 
work  ;  and  at  such  times  their  emolument  is  always 
increased.  They  often  buy  their  discharge,  in  order 
to  go  into  civil  employments,  when  the  prospects  are 
gooiL  The  [wriod  of  regidar  service  is  21  j-ears  ; 
but  they  can  jiurchase  their  discharge  at  any  time. 
ITiey  have  to  ])ay  more  for  their  discharge  than 
other  corps  in  the  army.  The  average  length  of 
ser\-ice  is  found  to  be  something  imder  five  years,  so 
many  are  the  inducements  to  the  men  to  purchase 
their  discharge. 

Officers  intended  for  the  Engineers  enter  the  Eoj'al 
Military  Academy  as  cadets,  and  compete  from  time 
to  time  for  commissions.  When  in  the  corjis,  pro- 
motion is  by  seniority,  the  purchase  system  not 
ha%-ing  been  introduced. 

The  Army  Estimates  for  1861 — 186i!  provided  for 
the  following  number  of  officers  and  men  in  the 
corps  of  Eoyal  Engineers  : 


Officers,  . 

Non-commissioned  officers, 
Kank  and  fUc, 


.■584 

,     370 

3781 

4235 

.     VJO 


The  sum  set  down  for  their  cost  for  the  year  was 
.£2(51,881,  which,  however,  does  not  include  any 
commissariat  charges.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
C'hatham,  where  there  are  Engineer  barracks.  The 
corps  is  gi'oujied  into  battalions  and  companies. 

ENGINEERS,  in  the  Eoyal  Navy,  are  the  persons 
who  attend  to  the  machinery  on  board  the  war- 
steamers.  When  such  steamers  were  at  first  adopted, 
men  wei-e  obtained  from  private  engineering  estab- 
lishments, or  from  merchant-steamers.  In  1847  and 
1848,  many  changes  were  made,  to  induce  skih'id 
and  steady  men  to  enter  the  ser\-ice,  and  to  main- 
tain better  discipline.  The  higher  gi-ades  of  them 
were  raised  from  the  raidi  of  warrant  officers  to  that 
of  commissioned  officers  of  a  civil  branch.  There 
are  now  the  grades  of  inspector  of  machinery,  chief- 
engineer,  and  assistant-engineer,  the  last  rank  being 
subdivided  into  three  classes.  All  these  are  com- 
missioned officers,  and  arc  strictly  examined  before 
admission  ;  their  rank  and  jiromotion  being  by  selec- 
tion, and  dependent  on  skill,  character,  and  lenrth 
of  service.  A  chief-engineer  is  expected  to  be  aole 
to  make  notes  in  the  log  of  every  particiJar  con- 
cerning the  engines  and  boilers  ;  to  draw  rough 
.sketches  of  the  machinery,  with  figured  dimensions 
fit  to  work  from  ;  to  understand  and  manage  every- 
thing relating  to  engines,  boilers,  and  furnaces ;  to 
understand  i)ractical  mechanism  generally,  and  the 
prineijiles  of  theoretical  mechanism.  The  assistant- 
engineer  is  expected  to  po.ssess,  in  a  smaller  degree, 
the  same  kinds  of  knowledge  and  skill  as  tlie  chief- 
engineer  ;  anil  to  act  under  his  orders.  The  pay 
varies  from  £401  for  an  inspector  of  machinery, 
down  to  £64  for  a  third-cl.a.ss  assistant-engineer  on 
harbour  service  ;  the  harbour-pay  varies  from  £143 
to  £55. 
i6 


I  The  Navy  Estimates  for  1861 — 1S62  jirovided 
,  for  1080  naval  engineers,  besides  8  inspectors  of 
!  machinery. 

!  E'NGLAND,  the  southern  and  larger  section  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  most  important 
member  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  (Jreat  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  geography  of  E.  will  be  found 
under  the  head  of  Great  Britain,  the  present 
article  being  confined  to  a  sketch  of  its  history 
prc\-ious  to  the  union  with  Scotland. 
1  Of  the  inhabitants  of  E.  before  the  Christian  era, 
little  is  known.  In  some  of  the  ancient  geographei-s, 
there  are  a  few  scattered  notices  of  a  rude  population, 
.  with  whom  a  limited  commerce  in  tin  was  carried 
on  by  the  Phoenician  merchants ;  and  our  informa- 
1  tion  scarcely  extemls  further.  WTiat  is  known  of 
I  E.  under  the  Roman  occupation  has  already  been 
embodied  in  the  article  Britannia.  An  account  of 
the  country  during  the  jicriod  interi-ening  between 
;  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  and  the  Nonnan 
:  Conquest  will  be  fomid  in  the  article  Anglo-Saxons. 
j  When  William  of  Normandy  landed  in  E.  to 
claim  the  crown  which  Edward  the  Confessor  had 
'  bequeathed  to  him,  he  found  that  the  people  had 
raised  to  the  throne  Harold,  the  son  of  a  popular 
,  nobleman.  The  resources  of  the  Saxons,  however, 
'  had  been  wasted  in  domestic  conflicts  before  the 
j  attack  of  William  ;  and  tlie  b.-ittle  of  Hastings 
(1066  A.D.)  gave  E.  with  comparative  ease  to  the 
I  Norm.ans.  The  next  twenty  jears  saw  the  conquest 
completed,  and  uearly  all  the  large  landed  estates 
of  the  Saxons  pass,  on  every  pretext  except  the 
true  one,  into  the  hands  of  the  Normans.  \\  illiam 
cl.iimed,  indeed,  to  rule  as  sovereign  by  hereditary 
right,  but  this  made  little  difference  to  the  fact  of 
conquest.  All  the  high  offices  in  the  state  and 
in  the  church  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  new  race. 
The  Danes  alone  could  retain  either  property  or 
dignity.  For  long,  some  of  the  Saxons  maintained 
an  unequal  resistance,  retiring  to  the  forests  as  tho 
outlaws  whose  adventures  furnished  the  materials 
for  those  favourite  popular  legends,  where,  as  iu 
Robiu  Hood,  the  spoiling  of  the  richer  classes  is 
depicted  as  one  of  the  chief  \Trtues.  In  the  course 
of  time,  the  Noi-raans  were  absorbed  among  the 
Saxons,  their  very  language  iUsai)peariug,  though 
leaving  many  traces.  From  this  union  arose  the 
English  people  and  the  English  language  as  they 
now  exist. 

The  (mion  of  the  Normans  with  the  Saxons  was 

not  fully  effected  so  long  as  the  Normans  retained 

I  their    foreign  possessions.      In  King  John's  reign, 

the  whole  of  these  were  lost,  cxcejitiug  Guienue  and 

[  Poito>i.     Long  wars  mider  Henry  111.  .and  Edward 

!  III.,  and  his   f.amous  son,  the  IJlack  Prince,  were 

continued,  in  the  endeavour  to  regain  the  lost  ])0s- 

i  sessions ;   yet  great  victories  like  those  of  C'ressy 

I  (I.'!46   A.D.)    and   Poictiers   (1356  A.D.)   seemed    to 

leave  no    result,  for   no   sooner  were   the   English 

armies  withdrawn,  than  the  populations  returned  to 

their  French    allegiance.     After    Agincourt    (1415 

A.  !>.),  Henry  V.,  when  he  had  forced  himself  to  bo 

acknowledged    heir    to    the    French    throne,    was 

virtually   king   of  France,  and   held   liis    court   in 

Paris ;  yet,  in   a  few  years   more,  the  rebellion  of 

Joan  of  Arc  came  at  a  time  when  E.  w.as  weakened 

with  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  ami  (1451  a.d.)  notliing 

of  foreign  ground  was  left  to  this  country  excepting 

Calais. 

To  their  efforts  to  conquer  France,  the  Nonnan 
kings  added  othei-s.  Henry  II.  conquered  Ireland 
(1171  A.i>.),  Edw.ard  I.  conquered  Wales  (1285  A.D.), 
and  had  almost  adiled  Scotland  to  his  dominions. 
The  bravery  of  Wallace  and  Bruce  defeated  the 
armies  of  Edward  II.,  his  successor  ;  and  though  the 
idea   of    the   conquest   of   Scotland  was   always   a 


ENGLAND. 


favourite  one,  an  oiiijortiinity  for  attempting  it  on  a 
;;reat  scale  never  aj»aiu  j>resenteil  itself. 

The  great  struggles  of  the  successors  of  William 
■were  with  the  ecclesiastics  and  with  the  barons. 
Sometimes  in  these  the  popular  sympathies  were 
with,  and  sometimes  against  the  crown.  The  con- 
([ueror  liiniself  and  his  immediate  successors  had 
no  difiiculty  in  maintaining  the  superiority  of  the 
courts  of  justice  over  the  ecclesiastics  ;  but  even 
a  sovereign  so  bold  and  skilful  as  Henry  11.  was 
forced,  after  the  outcry  occasioned  by  the  murder 
of  Thomas-il-Becket  (1170  A.  D.),  to  yield  the  point. 
The  right  to  nominate  the  higher  ecclesiastics  was 
also  secured  by  the  i>ope3.  The  degradatit-'U  of  the 
Knglish  monarchy  was  at  its  lowest  when  King  John 
consented  (121.S  A.  D.)  to  hold  the  crown  as  a  gift 
from  Home.  The  weaknesses  of  this  monarch  had 
good  .as  well  as  evil  results,  for  from  him  the  barons 
won  their  Great  Charter  (1215  a.d.).  From  Henry 
II.  something  similar  had  abeady  been  gained  ;  but 
it  w.as  the  M.agjia  Cliarta  of  John  which  firmly 
cst.ablished  two  great  English  principles — that  no 
man  should  suffer  arbitrary  imprisoumeut,  and  that 
no  tax  should  be  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
council  of  the  nation.  Under  Edward  I.,  the  famous 
statute  that  no  manner  of  tax  should  be  imposed 
without  the  common  consent  of  the  bishops,  barons, 
and  burgesses  of  the  realm,  was  passed  (1290  A.D.)  ; 
and  l)efore  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  the  foimdations 
of  parliamentaiy  government  had  been  laid. 

The  union  of  the  liouses  of  York  and  Lancaster 
under  Henry  VII.  begins  a  new  period  in  English 
history.  Part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
Pcrluu  Warbeck  and  other  pretenders  to  the  throne, 
in  support  of  whose  claims  the  turbulent  nobles 
foimd  vent  for  their  restlessness.  But  the  greater 
part  of  Ids  long  reign  was  distinguished  from 
preceding  reigns  as  a  time  of  j)eace  and  economy. 
Uuring  it,  men's  minds  ripened  for  the  great 
events  of  the  next  reign.  Henry  VIIL  succeeded, 
uniler  the  most  favouralde  auspices.  He  found  the 
alliance  of  his  now  important  country  coiu-ted  by 
both  of  his  gi'cat  contemporaries,  Francis  I.  and 
C'harles  V.  But  the  interest  of  the  foreign  compli- 
cations of  the  reign  merges  in  the  struggle  between 
the  courts  of  E.  and  of  Kome.  The  origin  of  the 
contest  was  the  divorce  which  Henry  desired  to 
have  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  brother's 
widow,  to  whom  he  had  been  married  by  pajial 
licence.  Cranmer  and  the  English  Church  pro- 
nounced the  marriage  to  be  nidi,  but  a  form.al 
decree  of  divorce  by  the  bead  of  the  church  was 
then  thought  necessary  in  Catholic  Eiu'ope.  Pope 
Clement  and  the  consistory,  influenced  by  Spanish 
counsels,  delayed,  by  every  jiossiblc  means,  the 
decision  of  the  question.  E.,  however,  was  ready 
enough  to  supjiort  Henry.  Wickliffe  .and  his  adher- 
ents had  done  not  a  little  to  shake  the  attach- 
ment of  the  nation  to  a  foreign  spiritual  authority, 
V>y  preaching  iloctrines  which  dispensed  with  the 
necessity  for  it.  A  parliament  met,  when  the  Ctuu- 
mons  took  the  signilicaut  step  of  presenting  a  long 
memorial  of  complaints  against  the  church.  The 
]»ope,  still  shewing  no  signs  of  yielding,  bills 
fallowed,  declaring  the  king  the  head  of  the 
church  ;  rendering  the  inferior  clergy  amenable  to 
the  civil  covirts  ;  abolishing  the  ji.aymcnt  of  the 
lirst  year's  frviits  of  ecclesiastical  livings  to  Kome  ; 
and  perh.aps  a  more  important  thing  than  any  of 
these,  declaring  that  no  convocation  should  meet 
uiUess  the  king  should  simimou  it,  and  that  no 
ecclesiastical  canons  should  have  force  except  with 
the  kinfj's  consent.  To  these  measures,  the  pope 
replied  liy  refusing  the  divorce,  and  excoinmimi- 
catiug  the  king  (15.'i3  A.  v.).  The  breach  thus 
became  irreparable. 


A  new  act  was  jL-ussed  giving  to  tlie  magistrates 
the  power  of  judging  in  questions  of  heresy.  The 
next  stei)  was  the  suppression  of  nearly  400  of  the 
smaller  monasteries.  The  subsideuce  of  an  insigni- 
ficant ]i(]pular  reaction,  incited  by  the  lower  clergy, 
was  followed  by  the  suppression  of  the  great  abbeys. 
All  these  changes,  however,  touched  only  matters  of 
church  government.  Ou  matters  of  faith,  Henry 
and  his  parliaments  were  as  orthodox  .as  the  most 
couservative  could  wish.  Tliey  embodied  the  leading 
doctrines  of  Komanism,  disputed  by  the  Protestants, 
in  an  act  of  parliament,  known  among  the  people  as 
'  the  bloody  si.x  articles,'  and  enforced  conformity 
under  severe  penalties. 

Henry  was  succeeded  by  Edw.ard  VI.  His  reign 
was  marked  by  the  general  progi-ess  which  the 
Keformation  now  made  from  questions  of  govern- 
ment to  questions  of  doctrine.  More  thoroughly 
than  ever  the  power  of  the  clergy  was  s.apped.  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  (154S  a.d.)  deprived  them 
of  the  mysterious  authority  which  the  use  of  a 
foreign  language  in  worship  gave  them  in  the  eyes 
of  the  jieople,  and  the  42  .-irticles  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1552  a.d.),  the  foiuidation  of  the  present 
30,  denied,  among  other  things,  their  power  to  work 
miracles  in  the  elevation  of  the  mass. 

The  next  reign  saw  the  inevitable  reaction.  The 
superstitions  of  the  populace  had  been  too  rudely 
handled,  and—  as  often  happens  before  a  onsis — ■ 
there  came  a  period  of  physical  suft'ering.  The  con- 
version of  cornlields  into  sheep-walks,  induced  by 
the  high  value  of  wool  as  an  article  of  export,  had 
thi'own  many  out  of  employment ;  and  the  country 
was,  moreover,  infested  with  tlie  crowd  of  v.agrants 
whom  the  monasteries  had  been  \vont  to  maintain. 
The  popular  dissatisfaction  coupled  these  things 
with  the  Eeforiuation.  Thus  the  opportunity  was 
prepared  for  the  atrocities  of  the  reign  of  Mary. 
The  queen  herself  was  interested,  by  her  mother's 
honour  and  her  own,  to  uphold  the  Romanist 
faith  ;  and  her  gloomy  temper,  aggrav.ated  Ijy  her 
uidi.appy  chiliUess  marri.age,  believed  that  it  did 
true  service  to  God  when  it  gave  the  rein  to 
the  bigotry  of  Pole  and  Bonner.  In  her  first 
parliament  (1553  a.d.),  the  wdiole  legislation  of 
Edward  VI.  was  repealed,  leaving  the  Church  of 
England  one  iu  ceremonial  and  doctrine  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Another  parliament  (r5.')5  a.d.) 
rejiealed  the  legislation  of  Henry  A'lIL,  thus  re- 
establishing the  pajial  supremacy.  Everything  that 
the  reformers  had  done  was  thus  undone.  Still 
the  adherents  of  the  Reformation  were  numerous, 
and  when  legislation  failed  to  convert  them,  the 
fires  of  Smithtield  were  tried.  Hooper,  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  was  one  of  the  first  to  suffer.  Latimer, 
Ridley,  Cranmer,  followed,  and  the  number  who 
perished  is  not  less  than  oOO  by  fire,  and  100  by 
torture  and  the  cruelties  of  confinement.  Nothing  i 
more  was  wanted  to  turn  the  iiojjular  mind  at  once  i 
ami  for  ever  from  the  Chiu'ch  of  Kome.  I 

The  accession  of  tiie  I'rotestaut  princess  Elizabeth  f 
came  as  a  relief  to  the  whole  nation.  The  Roman- 
ists themselves  were  weary  of  the  policy  w-hich  , 
m.ade  E.  the  tool  of  Spain,  and  were  sickened 
with  the  cruelties  wliich  had  been  enacted.  Eliza- 
beth began  by  releasing  from  jirison  all  confined  j 
on  charges  of  heresy.  Parliament  followed  (1550 
A.  D.)  with  acts  restorinjj  the  royal  supremacy  over 
the  church,  and  rcturmng  in  general  to  the  legis- 
lation of  Edward  VI.  The  I'rayer-book  and  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  were  adjusted  as  they  still 
exist.  Fortunately  for  the  country,  the  ministry 
of  Elizabeth,  guided  by  the  .able  hand  of  Cecil, 
was  one  of  peace.  No  opportimity  was  lost  of 
aiding  the  Protestant  cause  throughout  Europe  ; 
but  Eliz.abeth  had  almost  no  open  wars,  and  her  Ion" 


EXGLiAND. 


reign  was  cUstiirlicd  by  almost  no  domestic  colli- 
sions. Tbo  mistake  committed  in  detaining  the 
queen  of  Scotland  in  an  English  prison,  gave  a 
constant  incitement  to  disaU'ection  among  the 
adherents  of  the  old  faith,  but  no  serious  conse- 
quences ensued.  Towards  the  close  of  the  reign, 
I'rotcstant  and  Catholic  were  alike  patriotic  in 
ropeUin^  the  Armada  (158S  A.  D.).  On  the  death 
of  Elizabeth,  the  crowns  of  E.  and  Scotland  were 
united. 

The  reign  of  James  VI.  does  not  present  much 
that  is  remarkable.  The  plot,  for  which  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  sufl'ered  long  afterwards,  and  the 
Gunpowder  Plot — the  insignificant  proportions  of 
whicn  were  so  magnified  for  factious  purjjoses — 
disturbed  the  earlier  years ;  and  the  close  of  the 
reign  foimd  the  nation  engaged  in  an  unfortunate 
war  to  assist  the  king's  son-in-law,  Frederick, 
Elector  of  Bohemi.i,  against  the  Emperor  Ferdinand 
II.  of  Germany.  But  for  the  greater  portion  of  the 
23  years  of  the  reign,  there  was  neither  foreign 
nor  domestic  war.  These  j-ears  the  king  occupied 
industriously  in  rendering  monarchy  odious  and 
contemptible.  He  lavished  money  upon  unworthy 
favourites,  and  to  supply  his  extravagance,  openly 
sold  the  diimities  of  the  peerage  and  the  other 
honours  of  the  state.  His  personal  demeanoivr  was 
vain,  weak,  and  ridiculous ;  but  in  contrast  with  the 
insignificance  of  his  talents  was  his  extravagant 
conception  of  the  extent  of  his  royal  prerogative. 
His  conduct  occasioned  great  discontent  in  parha- 
raent,  and  but  for  his  timidity,  might  have  led  to 
more  serious  consequences. 

The  misfortunes  of  Charles  I.  were  the  legitimate 
result  of  the  principles  of  bis  father.  Charles  com- 
mitted the  mistake  of  repeating,  in  the  17th  c,  acts 
which  the  Plantagenet  sovereigns  had  done  with 
impunity  in  the  14th  and  15th.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  exact  a  benevolence  to  carry  on  the  war. 
Had  he  been  successful,  this  might  have  been  over- 
looked, but  when  the  bad  management  of  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  lost  the  fleet  off  Eochelle,  the 
indignation  of  the  Commons  was  without  bounds. 
In  place  of  taking  measures  to  aUay  this  feeling,  the 
king  dissolved  the  parUament,  and  resolved  to  govern 
without  calling  another.  In  1630,  he  concluded 
peace,  and  for  the  next  seven  years,  in  council  with 
•Strafford  and  Laud,  he  carried  on  the  government. 
Taxes  were  raised  as  before  without  parliamentary 
authority ;  and  when  the  taxes  failed,  money  was 
raised  by  selling  to  the  lloman  Catholics  immunities 
from  the  penal  Taws  against  tlieir  worship. 

Nevertheless,  there  were  limits  to  these  methods 
of  raising  money;  and  in  163",  when  the  kuig  found 
himself  mvolved  in  a  war  with  Scotland,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  endeavour  to  introduce  a  litm-gy  there, 
he  was  compelled  to  call  a  p.arUaraent.  The  Com- 
mons refused  supplies,  and  were  again  dissolved. 
In  1640,  the  king  oncfe  more  simunoned  a  parliament. 
He  found  the  temper  of  the  Houses  more  indomitable 
than  evei'.  In  jilace  of  voting  him  supplies,  they 
impeached  his  minister  Stra£ford,  and  condemned 
him  to  death.  The  Commons  then  presented  a 
grand  remonstrance  to  the  lung,  embodying  all  the 
grievances  the  nation  had  suffered  since  the  death 
of  ElizabetlL  Matters  proceeded  from  bad  to  worse, 
till  an  ojicn  rujiture  came,  and  an  appeal  was 
made  to  arms.  In  Augiist  1642,  the  king  erected 
bis  standard  at  Nottingham,  while  the  rebels  took 
arms  under  the  Earl  of  Essex.  The  first  conflict 
was  at  Edgehill,  where  the  loss  on  both  sides  was 
severe  and  nearly  equal.  Tlie  fortune  of  war  con- 
tinued to  vary,  till  at  Marston  Moor  it  turned 
against  Charles,  and  at  Naseby,  in  June  1645,  he 
was  finally  defeated.  He  was  executed  on  30th 
January  1049. 


The  government  for  the  next  four  years  was 
conducted  by  parliament.  Meanwhile,  Cromwell 
was  rising  into  distinction,  and  power  gradually 
fell  from  the  hands  of  parUanient  into  those  of 
the  military.  In  1053,  Cromwell  had  himself  pro- 
claimed '  Protector.'  He  was  now  absolute  monarch. 
He  governed  with  a  firm  hand,  and  never  was  E. 
more  res])ected  abroad  than  during  his  time.  In 
1654,  he  concluded  peace  with  Holland,  and  employed 
the  gall.ont  Admiral  Blake  iu  an  expedition  against 
the  Spaniards,  which  ended  brilliantly  for  the 
English  navy.  But  the  nation  grew  as  discontented 
with  the  government  of  Cromwell  as  it  had  been 
with  that  of  Charles.  After  the  death  of  the  Pro- 
tector in  165S,  and  a  short  interval  during  which 
his  son  Richard  held  the  office,  parliament  received 
with  acclamations  a  proposal  from  Charles  II.  to 
return.  In  May  1660,  the  populace  clamoured  with 
delight  on  the  royal  entry  to  London  of  him  who, 
a  few  years  before,  had  lied  from  Worcester  for  his 
life. 

A^Hiile  Clarendon  was  minister,  the  government 
of  Charles  II.  was  well  conducted.  A  war  with 
Holland  was  brought  to  a  successful  ending  in  the 
conquest  of  New  York.  On  Clarendon's  resignation, 
the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  min- 
istry known  as  the  Cabal.  They  were  as  profligate 
and  as  careless  as  the  king  himself.  A  succession 
of  cruelties  against  the  Catnolies,  for  which  the  pre- 
tended revelations  of  Titus  O.ates  and  his  imitators 
furnished  the  excuse,  betokened  rather  the  wanton 
temper  of  the  sovereign  and  the  nation,  than  any 
zeal  for  the  Protestant  religion.  The  only  act 
which  reflects  much  credit  on  any  ]iortion  of  the 
reign  was  the  p.assing.  in  1070,  of  the  Habeas  Corpua 
Act,  designed  more  effectually  to  protect  the  liberty 
of  the  person.  Strong  eflbrts  were  made  in  parlia- 
ment after  that  to  pass  the  Exclusion  Bill,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  exclude  the  Didie  of  York, 
as  a  Roman  Catholic,  fiom  the  succession.  To  the 
great  satisfaction  of  the  king,  parliament  rejected 
the  bdl.  In  1081,  parliament  was  dissolved,  and 
Charles  II.  never  called  another. 

After  this  there  was  a  change  for  the  worse  in 
the  character  of  the  government ;  from  being  wan- 
tonly indiU'erent,  it  became  sidlenly  mischievous. 
Piesbyterians  and  Nouconfonuists  were  excluded 
from  all  offices.  Among  other  arbitrary  acts,  may  be 
mentioned  the  recall  of  their  charters  from  London 
and  many  of  the  other  princiii.al  cities,  which  were 
only  restored,  with  diminished  ju'lvileges,  on  p.ay- 
ment  of  heaN^j'  fines.  Conduct  such  as  this  made 
men  more  than  ever  afraid  of  the  succession  of 
the  king's  brother.  A  conspiracy  to  secure  the 
succession  to  the  Duke  of  Alomuouth,  an  illegiti- 
luate  son  of  the  king,  was  formed.  Lord  Howard 
betrayed  the  conspiracy,  and  among  others  who 
suffered  death  for  it  were  Lord  Russell  and 
Algernon  Sidney. 

When  the  king  died,  in  16S5,  James  II.  succeeded 
amid  universal  dissatisfaction.  Monmouth's  attemjit 
to  seize  the  throne,  however,  was  mismanaged,  and 
failed.  The  punishment  of  those  who  had  aided 
his  rising  formed  an  occasion  for  the  peqietration 
of  great  cnielties  by  Jeffreys,  then  chief  justice  of 
England.  In  the  meantime,  nothing  could  be  fairer 
than  the  king's  language.  Ho  issued  a  declaration 
in  favour  of  general  toleration,  and  announced  that 
the  penal  laws  against  Catholics  were  no  longer 
to  be  enforced.  A  second  declaration  to  the  samo 
effect  was  issued,  but  he  went  further,  and  added 
to  it  an  order  that  the  clergy  should  read  it  in  all 
churches.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  six 
bishops  presented  an  adtlress  to  the  throne,  himnbly 
setting  forth  that  their  duty  to  m.aintain  the  Pro- 
testant  establishment  would    not    i)eriiiit   them   to 


EXGLAND— ENGLAND  AND  IRELAND,  CHURCH  OF. 


give  obedience  to  the  royal  mandate.  For  this 
they  were  indicted  as  guilty  of  sedition.  The  trial 
of  the  bishc^is  (1G8S  a.d.)  was  the  tnrning-point 
of  James's  career.  It  created  immense  excitement, 
and  when  the  jury  retiirned  a  verdict  of  not  guilty, 
even  the  soldiers  joined  in  the  tumultuous  rejoicings. 

William,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married 
Mary,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  kmg,  had  long 
been  intriguing  with  the  malcontents.  He  now 
landed  in  E.  with  a  small  body  of  troops.  The 
soldiers,  the  leading  nobles,  even  the  king's  own 
children,  joining  the  prince,  the  king  fled  to  France. 
Parliament  then  settled  the  crown  jointlj'on  William 
and  Mary  for  life.  James,  with  the  assistance  of 
liouis  XIV.,  made  one  effort  to  retrain  his  throne. 
He  landed  in  Ireland,  where  the  lord  lieutenant, 
TjTconnel,  was  devoted  to  his  cause,  and  managed 
to  luise  an  army.  William  defeated  him  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  and  the  contest  was  soon  after 
this  terminated  by  the  second  flight  of  James  to 
France.  So  easily  was  the  great  revolution  of  1688 
effected. 

The  domestic  government  of  William  was  marked 
by  his  efforts  to  introduce  a  general  toleration  ;  but 
of  his  foreign  administration,  which  led  the  country 
into  costly  wars,  it  is  hartlly  possible  to  sj>eak  in 
very  favourable  terms.  To  reduce  the  threatening 
power  of  France,  E.,  in  alliance  with  Holland  and 
Oermany,  embarked  in  a  protracted  contest.  Its 
termination  at  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697, 
lirought  to  E.  nothing  beyond  an  increase  of  reputa- 
tion.    William  died  in  1702. 

Under  Queen  Anne,  the  war  ivith  France  was 
renewed,  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough's  sj)leudid 
%ictories  of  Oudenarde,  Blenheim,  and  Ramilies  were 
achieved.  With  these  the  history  of  E.  as  a  separate 
state  closes.  In  1707,  the  long-«-ished-f<)r  union 
with  Scotland  was  accomplished  ;  and  after  that. 
Great  Britain,  united  imder  one  legislature,  as  well 
jis  under  one  crown,  has  a  common  interest  among 
nations,  and  therefore  a  common  history. 

A  table  of  the  English  sovereigns  is  appended, 
beginning  with  Alfred,  and  continued,  for  con- 
venience' sake,  to  the  present  time  : 


Henry  IV., 
Henry  V., 
Ik-nry  VI., 

Edward  IV., 
Kdward  V., 
Richard  HI., 


Ilenrv  \TI., 
Ilenr'y  VIII., 
Kdward  VI , 
Mary, 
Elizabeth, 


James  I,, 
Charles  I.,      . 

Commonwealth, 


Charles  II., 
James  II., 


House  of  Lancastrr. 


IIousE  of  York. 


UousE  op  Tl-dor. 


Stcart  LiNi:. 


Stdart  Line. 


Becan  to 
itoi,;a. 

1399 
1413 
U32 


1461 
H83 
1483 

14S5 
1509 
1.517 
1553 
1558 


1603 
IG^'S 


1600 
1085 


Yean  of 

Keipn. 

14 

9 
39 


24 

38 

6 

5 

45 


HouSJS  OF  OaANGE. 

William  and  Mary,  .  .  .        IGSS 

Stvabt  Line. 


35 

3 


14 
12 


Brunswick  Line. 


1714 
1727 
1700 
1820 
1830 
1S37 


13 
33 
CO 
10 
7 


Asolo-Saxon  Line. 
Alfred,  king  of  Wessex, 
Edward  1.,  king  of  Wcs^cx,  Mcrcia,  etc., 
Atbelstun,  kin^  of  England, 
Edmund  I.,    . 

Edred,      ..... 
Edwy,  .  .  .  .  . 

Edcar,       ..... 

EdWar.1  11., 

Etbelrert,  .... 

Edmund  II.,  •  .  .  .  . 


Canute,  . 
Harold  I., 
Hardicanute, 


Edward  III., 
Harold  II., 


Willi.am  I., 
Williuin  II., 
Henry  I., 


Stephen, 


Ilcnrv  II , 
Uicliard  1., 
John, 

llenvv  in., 
Edw.ird  I.,     . 
Edwaril  II., 
Edwar.l  III.,  . 
Ritb;ird  II., 


Danish  Line. 


Saxo:c  Link. 


NoRMAS  Line. 


IIocsB  OF  Tlois. 

rr-ASTAOENBT    LiNE. 


Brimn  to 
Roign. 


871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
U.i5 
959 
975 
07!t 
lOIC 


1017 
103S 
1039 


1041 

1006 


1006 
10.S7 
1100 


1135 


1154 

1189 
1109 
1210 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 


SO 

24 

15 

6 

9 

4 

16 

3 

38 

1 


19 
3 
3 


21 
13 
35 


35 
10 
17 
56 
35 
20 
50 
23 


George  I., 
George  II., 
George  III., 
George  IV., 
William  IV., 
Victoria, 

ENGLAND,  New.     See  New  Engi.and. 

ENGLAND  AND  IRELAND,  UxiTED  CnTOca 
OF.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  origin  and  early  history, 
as  well  as  an  outline  of  the  doctrines  and  form 
of  government  of  this  church,  will  be  found  imder 
the  head  AxaLO-CATHOLic  Cihtrch.  See  also  the 
articles  Augustlxe,  DtrasT^UJ,  and  Odo.  Up  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  ecclesiastical  affairs  woidd 
be  more  properly  described  as  the  Iiistory  of  the 
Church  in  England  ;  from  that  period  the  Chiuvh  of 
England  dates  her  existence.  She,  however,  retains 
so  much  of  antiquity,  .and  her  institutions,  laws, 
and  formularies  are  so  interwoven  \rith  the  history 
of  the  [last,  that  it  woiUd  be  impossible  to  have 
any  correct  or  connected  view  of  them,  and  of  her 
connection  with  Oie  state^  her  characteristic  feature, 
without  at  least  glancing  rajiidly  over  the  leading 
events  between  the  Couiiuest  and  the  reign  of 
Heiu'y  VIII.  Dming  the  tliree  centuries  from  the 
Norman  Conquest  (1066)  to  the  ])reaching  of  \Viekliffe 
(1356),  her  history  can  be  regariled  oidy  as  a 
continual  struggle  between  the  ecclesiastical  and 
ci\'il  power,  and  there  would  be  little  else  to  describe 
than  the  methods  by  which  the  mitre  triumphed 
over  the  crown,  and  the  cro'\\Ti  invaded  the  rights 
and  property  of  the  church.  In  the  tune  of 
Williain  I.,  nearly  half  the  countrj'  was  in  the  hands 
of  spiritual  persons.  He  ejected  the  English  clergy, 
and  supplanted  them  with  Normans ;  and  although 
he  was  possessed  of  fidl  power  over  the  church,  yet 
in  his  reign  were  sown  the  seeds  of  future  papal 
encroachments.  Papal  legates  were  then  ilrst  intro- 
duced into  England,  and  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
separated  from  the  civil.  From  this  time,  the 
increased  influence  of  Rome  maj'  be  traced  to  the 
defective  titles,  the  usur]i.ations,  and  the  violent 
conduct  of  the  kings.  Thus,  the  defective  title  of 
Henry  I.  made  him  seek  popularity  by  recalling  the 
primate  Anscbn.  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  his  brother  Willi.am,  and  had  fled  the  country. 
Anselm  was  devoted  to  the  pope,  who  had  espoused 
his  quarrel,  and  refused  to  do  homage  to  the  king 
for  the  temporaUties  of  his  see,  till  at  length  Henry 


ENGLAND  AND  IRELAND,  CHURCH  OF. 


found  bimsclf  ol)lige<l  to  sniTcnder  the  rii;ht  of 
Jiiivfliluii:  Thus,  too,  Stephen's  usurpation  ojioiioil 
the  way  for  further  encroachments  ;  and  Henry  II., 
who  found  the  power  of  Rome  greatly  augmented, 
lielped  to  extend  it  further,  by  accepting  a  grant  of 
Ireland  from  the  pope.  Then  followed  the  opposition 
of  Thomas  ilBeeket,  which  arose  out  of  the  question 
of  the  punishment  of  ecclesi;istics  by  the  civil  power. 
For  the  moment,  it  seemed  that  "the  quarrel  was 
healed  by  the  CoiMtUuliom  agreed  on  at  Clarendon 
(q.  v.),  but  it  broke  out  more  violently  than  ever. 
The  pope  discharged  Bccket  from  his  o.ath,  and 
condemned  the  Constitutions.  Becket  had  lied  from 
the  kingdom;  and  his  subsequent  return,  murder, 
and  canonisation,  all  tended  to  strengthen  the 
authority  of  the  church.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
the  reign  of  John,  when  England  was  laid  under  an 
interdict,  and  the  king  resigned  his  crown  to  the 
i)ope,  that  the  jiapal  encroaehmenta  rose  to  their 
height;  and  the  weak  reign  of  Henry  III.,  which 
followed,  did  nothing  to  ab.ate  them.  Edw,ard  I. 
gave  a  check  to  the  power  of  the  clergy,  sub- 
jected them  to  taxation,  and  ])a.ssed  the  statute  of 
Mortmain  (1279),  which  prohiljited  the  transfer  of 
land  %vithout  the  king's  consent.  There  is  little  to 
lie  said  as  to  innovations  in  doctrine  during  these 
tiiree  centuries  ;  but  it  may  be  noted,  that  about 
the  middle  of  this  period,  viz.,  1213,  the  council  of 
8t  John  Lateran  declared  transubstantiation,  or  the 
boflily  presence  of  Christ  in  the  consecrated  elements, 
to  be  a  tenet  of  the  church. 

It  was  in  1356  that  a  new  period  commenced. 
Wicklift'c  then  published  liis  first  work,  entitled 
The  Last  Aije  of  the  Churdi,  directed  against  the 
covetousness  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  His  doc- 
trines correspond  in  many  points  with  those  now 
taught  by  the  Church  of  England,  but  he  differed 
from  her  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  Episcopacy, 
which  he  rejected  ;  he  also  believed  in  purgatorj', 
and  ]>ermitted  prayers  for  the  dead.  His  chief 
objects  of  attack  were  the  papal  indulgences,  and 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  It  has  been 
observed  concerning  the  condemnation  at  Oxford  of 
Wickliffe's  opinions  with  respect  to  the  latter,  that 
'this  was  the  first  plenary  determination  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  case,  so  that  this  doctrine, 
which  brought  so  many  to  the  stake,  had  but  with 
us  140  years'  prescription  before  the  times  of  Martin 
Luther.'  In  a  limited  sense,  he  upheld  the  efficacy 
of  the  seven  sacraments.  Wickliffe  had  a  large  body 
of  followers.  They  were  called  LollanU,  probably 
from  a  German  word,  lutleii,  to  sing'irith  a  low  voice. 
The  storm  of  jiersecution  which  ho  escaped  by 
death,  fell  u])on  them.  Henry  IV.  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  fortify  his  usurjicd  position  by  assisting  the 
bishops  .against  the  Lollards ;  and  from  this  time 
to  the  Keform.ation,  there  was  iin  uninterrupted 
succession  of  confessors  and  martyrs.  Sir  John 
Oldcastle,  Lord  Cobham,  was  the  most  illustrious 
of  these  sufferers.  Fox  gives  a  detailed  account 
of  nearly  twenty  individuals  burned  for  heresy 
between  the  death  of  Lord  Cobh.am  and  1509,  when 
Henry  VIIX.  ascended  the  throne.  To  some  extent, 
the  blood  of  these  martjTS  was  the  seed  of  the 
Reformed  Church  ;  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
'liidden  seed'  which  w.as  growing  secretly,  from 
the  time  that  Wickliffe  g.av'e  to  his  countrymen  a 
translation  of  the  .Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue. 
The  progress  of  learning,  and  csiiecially  the  study 
of  Greek,  led  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
8.acred  books,  whilst  the  invention  of  printing  (1442) 
caused  a  wider  circuI.ation  of  them. 

The  above  causes,  however,  woiUd  prob.ably  have 
proved  insufficient  to  produce  the  great  change 
which  w.aa  now  impending,  had  not  Henry  V'lII.'s 
divorce  from  Catharine  of  .Spain  led   to  a  quarrel 


between  him  and  the  yto\io,  which  ended  in  the 
total  .abolition  of  the  ]i,a]).al  authority  within  the 
kingdom.  Then  beg.an  the  Reformation  in  earnest. 
For  the  details  of  that  great  event,  consult  the 
article  under  that  head,  and  the  lives  of  such  men 
as  Wolsey,  Sir  Thomas  More.  Fisher,  Clement, 
Luther,  Cromwell,  Crannu^r,  Latimer,  and  Ridley, 
&c.  From  tlus  period  may  be  dated  the  existence 
of  the  Church  of  England  as  a  separate  body,  and 
her  linal  separation  from  Rome.  For  the  opinicuis 
of  the  church  in  Henry's  reign,  two  important 
books  which  were  then  pubUshed  should  be  con- 
sulted— viz.,  the  liixhojts  Booh,  or  the  Oodlij  and 
Pious  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,  and  the  King's 
Book,  which  was  a  republication  of  the  same  in  a 
more  perfect  form  in  154.'J,  and  called  Tlie  Necessary 
Erudition  fiiranij  Christian  Man,  and  w.as  called  the 
King's  Book  because  jmt  forth  by  royal  authority. 
A  book  of  Articli's  dei'iee<i  by  the  Kimjes  Jlighnes 
Majestie  to  stahlyshe  Christen  Unitie,  should  also 
be  consulted.  It  h.as  been  stated  in  the  .article 
ANGLO-C'ATnoLic  CnUEt'H,  that  the  refonn.ation  in 
doctrine  did  not  make  much  progress  in  Henry's 
reign  ;  from  these  books,  it  will  be  seen  th<at  it  was 
rather  retrogi'ade.  The  monks,  too,  who  were  dis- 
possessed at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
were  dispersed  .amongst  local  cures,  and  kept  alive 
the  old  opinions,  and  the  lower  orders  were  not  .as 
yet  favourable  to  the  new  doctrines.  Cranmer  was 
the  leader  and  presiding  genius  of  the  Reformed 
opinions  ;  and  the  youth  of  Edward  VI.  left  the 
king  pliant  in  the  hands  of  the  archbishop.  The 
Book  of  HomiUes,  jnit  forth  in  1540,  the  New  Com- 
munion Serrice  and  Catechism  in  154S,  the  lii-st 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  1549,  and  the  Forty-two 
Articles  in  1553,  all  bear  the  impress  of  his  hand, 
and  it  was  these  which  advanced  and  fixed  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation.  Nor  was  the  temjwral 
authority  idle  on  the  s.ame  side — Bonner  and 
Gartliner  were  conmiitted  to  prison,  and  l>oth  were 
deprived  of  their  Viishoprics.  In  fact,  the  way  in 
which  all  the  institutions  of  the  Church  of  England 
were  established  in  Edward  N'l.'s  reign  by  the  help 
of  the  civil  magistrate,  have  brought  upon  her  the 
ch.arge  of  Erastianism.  The  civil  )iower  had  just 
delivered  her  from  a  foreign  tyranny  ;  and  when 
the  weak  he.xlth  of  the  young  king,  the  known 
sentiments  of  his  successor,  Mary,  the  ignorance  of 
the  common  people,  and  the  interested  views  of  the 
old  clergy,  are  considered,  it  cannot  be  a  m.atter  of 
surprise,  still  less  of  bl.ame,  that  the  same  ann  was 
relied  upon  for  the  establishment  of  the  new  forms 
of  religion. 

Although  Mary  promised  .at  her  accession  th.at 
she  would  put  constraint  on  no  person's  religion,  her 
promise  was  not  kept.  Bonner  and  (i!.ardiner  were 
restored  ;  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  Cate- 
chism were  declared  heretical ;  the  kingdom  was 
reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome ;  a  jicrsecution  of 
the  chief  reformers  commenced — Rogei-s  w.as  burned 
at  Smithlicld,  Hooper  at  Gloucester,  Saunders  at 
Coventry,  T.aylor  at  H.adley.  The  jmsons  were 
filled  with  '  heretics ; '  many  lied  beyond  sea  ;  some 
purchased  safety  by  an  outward  conformity.  Cran- 
mer, Latimer,  and  Ridley  i)erished  in  the  flames 
at  O.xford.  Canlin.al  Pole  was  made  ])riin.ate.  t)ne 
benefit  w.as  conferred  on  the  church  by  Mary — she 
siirrundered  all  the  church  lands,  as  well  as  the  first 
fruits  and  tenths,  which  had  lieen  seized  by  Henry. 
At  last  the  deatli  of  Mary,  with  which  that  of  the 
c.ardin.al  was  all  but  sinudtaneous,  delivered  the 
church  from  its  oppressors.  The  passing  of  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  restored  the  Common  Pr.ayer-book  to  general 
use,  and  enjoined  the  same  dresses  .as  were  in  use 
at  the  time  of  the  first  Pr.ayer-book  of  Edward  VI. 


ENGLAND  AND  lEEL^VND,  CHURCH  OF. 


AJl  the  bishops  except  one,  Kitchin  of  Llandaff, 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  uuifomiity,  and  were 
ejected  from  their  sees  to  the  number  of  14  (the 
eleven  remaining  sees  were  vacant  by  deaths),  and 
175  other  beneiiced  clergy  were  deprived  for  the 
same  cause — no  very  considerable  number,  when  it 
is  remembered  that  there  were  then  11400  benefices 
in  England.  There  was  some  difficulty  in  Idling 
up  the  vacant  liisboprics,  and  perhaps  some  slight 
informalities.  Matthew  Parker  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  For  the  refutation  of  the 
fable  of  the  Nag's-heau  Consecration,  see  the 
article  xmder  that  head.  In  15G2,  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  were  finally  reviewed  and  subscribed. 
These,  with  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  are  the 
tests  of  orthodo.xy  in  the  Chuich  of  England. 

But  what  was  done  to  satisfy  the  scruples  of 
Protestant  nonconformists  ?  An  attempt  in  this 
direction  was  made  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  at 
the  Hampton  CorRT  Confekence  (q.  v.).  The 
result  was  another  review  of  the  Common  Prayer- 
book  ;  and  this,  with  the  new  translation  of 
the  Bible,  and  the  passing  of  the  canons  of  1604, 
were  the  princij>al  ecclesiastical  events  of  James's 
reign.  These  canons  received  the  sanction  of  the 
crown,  but  not  that  of  parliament  ;  they  are 
not,  tlierefore,  binding  on  the  laity,  but  they  are 
still  binding  on  the  clergy  to  some  extent,  and 
they  regidate  the  practice  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  are  the  only  rule,  on  some  points,  to 
which  the  bishops  and  clergy  can  appeal.  See  the 
articles  Laud  and  Church  of  Scotland  for  the 
events  of  Charles  I.'s  reign.  The  great  rebellion 
overthrew  both  church  and  state.  The  bishops 
were  declared  '  delinqiients,'  robbed  of  their  property, 
and  abolished  ;  and  the  clergy  were  ejected  from 
their  beneliccs.  Laud  was  put  to  death  in  1645. 
The  Church  of  England  had  no  corporate  existence 
during  this  intcr\'aL  With  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy,  16C0,  came  the  restoration  of  the  church. 
The  reaction  from  Puritanism  to  Prelacy  was  com- 
plete. Attempts  were  made,  but  with  small  success, 
to  win  over  tlie  Puritan  leaders  ;  bishoprics  were 
offered  to  Baxter,  C.alamy,  and  IxejTiolds  ;  Init  the 
last  only  accepted.  The  Savoy  Conference  (q.  v.) 
was  an  unsuccessful,  perhaps  insincere  attempt  to 
comprehend  the  nonconformists  in  the  Established 
Church.  But  the  demands  of  the  Presbyterians 
were  most  immoderate.  Baxter  went  so  far  as  to 
propose  the  substitution  of  an  entirely  new  book  of 
bis  own  composition,  in  the  place  of  the  Common 
Prayer-book.  After  the  failure  of  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference, this  was  once  more  reviewed  ;  and  a  new 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  1GC2  made  its  use,  as  it  now 
stands,  compulsorj'  in  ;dl  the  churches. 

The  Church  of  Engl.and  passed  through  one  more 
critical  period  before  reaching  that  tranquillity  in 
which,  for  upwards  of  a  century,  she  slumbered  too 
securely.  In  1687,  James  II.  j)ulilished  the  famous 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  which  filled  up  the 
measure  of  popidar  discontent,  and  finally  cost  him 
his  crown.  Although  by  this  declaration,  which 
was  perfectly  illegal,  liberty  of  conscience  was  per- 
mitted to  all  his  subjects,  it  was  clearly  understood 
that  the  liberty  was  intended  only  for  the  pajiists. 
The  nonconfonuists  refused  to  accept  the  treacher- 
ous boon.  Eighteen  bishops  out  of  twenty-five 
refused  to  publish  the  declaration,  as  ordered,  in 
their  dioceses.  Seven  of  them — .Sancroft,  Lloyd, 
Ken,  Turner,  Lake,  White,  and  Trelawny — drew  up 
a  remonstrance  to  the  king  ;  they  were  summoned 
before  the  privy  council,  and  sent  to  the  Tower. 
The  whole  city  was  iu  commotion ;  and  great  was 
the  rejoicing  when,  on  being  brought  to  trial  in 
Westminster  Hall,  they  were  acquitted.  On  the  5th 
of  November  following,  1688,  the  Prince  of  Orange 


landed  in  England.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
o>it  of  these  seven  bishops  three  refused  to  swear 
allegiance  to  him,  and  were  joined  by  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  clergy ;  these  were  called  Non- 
juroi-3.  In  the  first  year  of  William  and  Mary's 
reign,  the  Toleration  Act  was  passed,  and  dissent 
ceased  to  be  illegal.  Another  attempt  was  made  to 
comprehend  the  nonconformists  iu  the  church,  but 
the  lower  house  of  Convocation  was  in  no  tolerant 
mood,  and  the  attempt  failed,  but  chieUy  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disturbances  in  Scotland.  In  1"17, 
Convocation  was  dissolved.  After  ^lumbering  for 
nearly  140  years,  it  has  been  once  more  called  into 
life  and  action  in  the  province  of  Canterbury.  See 
the  article  Convocations. 

That  the  Church  of  England,  after  fighting  for  its 
very  existence  against  popery  on  the  one  hand,  and 
against  Puritanism  on  the  other,  shoiUd  have  sub- 
sided into  inactivity  during  the  dull  reigns  of  the 
Georges,  is  less  a  matter  of  surprise  than  of  regi-et. 
The  peaceful  enjojincnt  of  her  temporalities  in  a 
didl,  irreligious,  not  to  say  infidel  age,  may  easUy 
account  for,  though  it  cannot  excuse,  her  idleness. 
But  that  in  the  rise  of  John  Wesley,  1730,  she 
should  have  failed  to  see  a  grand  opportunity  for 
herself,  is  a  matter  of  both  surjirise  and  regret ; 
she,  however,  let  it  pass ;  nor  can  she  hope  that 
such  another  will  ever  again  present  itself.  The 
utmost  that  can  be  hoped  is,  that  she  has  seen  her 
error.  The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of 
the  church  is  the  Act  of  Union,  which  came  into 
effect  on  the  1st  of  January  ISOl,  and  imited  the 
churches  of  England  and  Ireland  in  all  matters  of 
doctrine,  worship,  and  discipUne.  The  lleformation 
had  made  some  progress  in  Ireland  imder  Edward 
VI.  Five  Protestant  bishops  were  appointed  ui 
1550,  and  the  Enghsh  Bible  and  Liturgy  were 
introduced  in  1551 ;  but  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
the  Reformed  doctrines  have  never  found  much 
acceptance  with  the  native  jjopidation  ;  and  although 
a  Protestant  church  was  established  Ijy  law,  it  was 
and  is  the  church  of  the  minority  (see  Ireland). 
In  16.35,  the  English  Articles  were  received  ;  aud 
in  1662,  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was 
adopted  by  convocation.  Before  the  political  union 
of  the  countries,  the  two  churches  were  in  full 
communion.  By  an  act  of  the  imperial  parliament 
in  1833,  ten  of  the  Irish  bishopries  were  suppressed, 
and  the  funds  thus  obtained  were  ajtplied  to  the 
augmentation  of  small  livings  and  the  building  and 
repair  of  chiu-ches.  There  are  now  twelve  Irish 
bishops. 

In  later  times,  two  great  controversies  have 
shaken  the  English  Church,  but  have  led  to 
nothing  more  than  some  internal  divisions,  and  the 
secession  of  some  members  to  Rome,  aud  a  few  to 
the  ranks  of  dissent.  These  were  the  Tractarian 
and  the  Gorham  controversies.  The  former  was 
occasioned  by  some  Tracts  which  began  to  be 
[jublished  at  Oxford  in  1833,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  revive  something  of  the  spirit  of  Catholic 
antiqiuty,  and  reform  the  abuses  and  slovenly 
practices  which  had  crei>t  into  every  part  of  the 
church  system.  See  Tracts  for  the  Times.  The 
Gorham  Controversy  (q.  v.)  related  to  the  doctrine 
of  baptismal  regeneration.  The  Tractarians  are 
accused  of  llomanising  tendencies  ;  and  their  views, 
when  carried  to  extremes,  imdoubtedly  lead  iu 
that  direction,  as  is  proved  liy  the  numerous 
secessions  to  that  church.  With  the  extreme  Low- 
Church  party.  Episcopacy  is  rather  an  expedient 
than  a  uecessaiy  form  of  church  government.  They 
think  but  little  of  the  efficacy  of  sacraments,  and 
deny  that  regeneration  necessarily  takes  jilace  in 
infant  l)aptism.  Justification  by  faith,  the  atone- 
ment of  the  cross,  and  the  Calviuistic  doctrines  on 

Hi 


EXGLA^'TE— EXG  LISH. 


election,  are  their  leading  topics  in  preaching.  See 
the  life  of  Simeon  and  of  VEXS  for  the  views  of 
this  party. 

What  ai-c  called  Broad  Chtrch  views,  are  those 
which  are  attributed  to  men  of  the  Ai-nold  school, 
and  the  followers  of  Mr  Maurice  (q.  v.).  Those  who 
hold  them  can  scarcely  be  called  a  party,  .and  are, 
indeed,  imwiUing  to  be  so  considered ;  but  if  their 
])osition  must  be  defined,  they  niiyht  be  described 
as  a  party  between,  and  somewli.it  antagonistic 
to,  both  the  High  and  Low  Church  parties.  The 
High  Church  party  insist  on  the  authority  of 
the  church  and  priesthood,  the  efficacy  of  sacra- 
ments when  rightly  received,  and  the  necessity  of 
a|iostolical  succession  in  the  m.itter  of  orders,  and 
in  their  gener.al  teaching  they  take  the  Prayer-book 
as  the  exponent  of  .Scrijitiire.  They  are  scrupulous 
in  obser\*ing  the  rubrics,  and  have  done  much  to 
re\'ive  the  practice  of  daily  prayer  in  the  churches, 
and  the  observance  of  the  festivals.  Order,  unity, 
antiquity,  and  catholicity  are  what  they  profess  to 
have  in  view. 

There  are  at  present,  in  roimd  numbers,  11,730 
benefices  in  England  and  Wales,  of  which  12()0  are 
new  districts,  which  are  being  continually  formed  out 
of  the  old  large  and  overpopulous  parishes.    Various 
acts  of  legislation  have  of  late  years  facihtated  this. 
These   districts    arc    called    perpetual   curacies,   or 
incumbencies,  and  for   the  most  part  are  but  very 
slenderly  endowed     The   old   benefices   are   either 
rectories,  where  the  incumbent  receives  the  rji-eal  or 
corn  tithes,  or  -(-icarages,  where  he  receives  the  small 
tithe  only.      The   great   tithes   had  anciently  been 
bestowed  upon  the  neighbouring  monasteries,  who 
undertook   the   cure   of   the   souls,   and   a])i)otnted 
vicars  for  the  purpose,  who  lived  on  the  small  tithes 
and  the  offerings  of  the  people.     At  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries,  many  of  the  great  tithes  were 
given  to  Lajnnen,  and  laj-men  now  extensively  hold 
them,  and  some  to  endowed  colleges.      There  are 
two   popiUar   errors   with   respect    to   church   pro- 
perty:  one  is,  that  the  endowments  were  in  some 
way  made  by  the  state;   the  other,  that  they  are 
vei-y    rich.      Neither  of   these    is    the    case.     The 
endowments  were   .all  by  private  beneficence,  and 
there  is  no   temu-e   so   ancient   as   that   by  which 
the    parish    church   holds   her   propertj'.      In    the 
aggregate,    the    amount    is   very    large,    and  was 
ascertained  by  the  commission   appointed   in   1830 
to   be   as   follows:  Bishops,    £181,631;  deans   and 
chapters,   £300,005;    parochial   clergy,   i'3,251,159: 
tottil   annual   revenue,   £3,792,885.      The   revenues 
of  the  Irish  branch  are  stated  at   £1,000,000,  but 
this  is  probably  in  excess  of  the  tiiith.     Since  1830, 
the  English   revenues  must  have  rather  increased 
from  private  beneficence   and  the  increase  in   the 
value  of   property.     Divided   equally  amongst   the 
whole    number   of    benefices,   this    woiUd   give    an 
average  of  less  than  £.'500  per  annum  for  the  joint 
support   of    incimibeut   and    curates.      It    appears, 
from  the  last    census,  that   there   are  in   England 
and  Wales   14,077  churches  or   chapels,  served   by 
17,320   ministers,   or   123   ministers    to    every    100 
biultlings.      The    fixed    character   of    the    ehurcli 
endowments,  and  their  generally  substantial  build- 
ings, have   secured   for   the   poorest  and   the  most 
sccjuestered,    and    sometimes    the    most    populous 
neighbourhoods,  from  which  we.alth  and  civilisation 
have   emigr.ited,  at   least   a   nucleus,   and   often  a 
fruitful  seed  of  moral  and  religious  improvement ; 
whilst  the  fixity  of  the  church  doctrines  has  lieen  a 
standard  of  truth  to  restrain  the  license  of  individual 
opinion.     The  church  r.ites,  amounting  to  £500,000 
annually,  are  no  part  of  the  ministers'  endowment ; 
they    .are    collected    from    time    immemorial,    and 
exclusively  devoted  to   the  repairs   of  the  church 


fabric,  and  the  warming,  lighting,  cleaning,  &c.,  of 
the  church;  and  are  under  the  exclusive  control 
of  the  churchwardens ;  of  these  there  are  two 
in  each  p.-irish,  one  generally  nominated  by  the 
minister,  the  other  elected  by  the  parishioners. 

The  Church  of  England  has  three  orders  of  clergy 
— bishofis,  priests,  and  deacons.  Generally,  a  de:pee 
at  one  of  the  English  universities,  or  of  Dublin,  is 
required  in  a  candidate  for  orders ;  but  in  W.-Ues  and 
some  of  the  more  populous  districts,  this  condition 
is  dispensed  with.  There  are  2  archbishops  (Canter- 
bury .and  York)  and  20  bishojis  in  England ;  besides 
2  archbishops  and  10  bishops  in  IrelancL  Tho 
archdeacons  and  nual  deans  assist  the  bishops  in 
the  m.anagement  of  their  dioceses. 

The  i).atrou.age  of  tho  church  is  in  a  great  variety 
of  hands — in  the  cio^vn,  the  bishops,  the  nobles  and 
gentry,  and  incorporate  bodies  such  as  colleges 
and  cathedrals.  Advowsons  and  next  presentations 
may  bo  sold  as  property,  but  a  presentation  may 
not  be  sold  when  a  living  is  vacant.  A  clergjinan 
is  '  ])rcsentcd '  to  his  living  by  the  patron,  he  is 
inducted  by  the  bishop  or  his  appointee ;  he  mu£t 
'  read  himself  in,'  i.  e.,  lie  must  reiul  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  .after  the  morning  or  evening  pr.ayer  within 
two  months  after  induction. 

The  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  is  not  in  union 
with  that  of  England. 

The  above  liketch  h.os  been  Largely  drawn  from 
Short's  excellent  JlUtoiijofUie  Ghurdi  ofEiniland; 
see  also  M;irsden's  able  Dictionary  of  C/i  ristiaii 
Churches  and  Sects,  and  Hardwick ;  also  Fuller's 
Church  Hislorii,  Collier,  Strjqje,  Jlosheim,  Burnet, 
and  Clarendon.  Among  the  great  divines  Avhose 
works  should  be  consulted  for  further  infonnation 
regarding  the  ^'iews  of  the  church,  may  be  named 
Barrow,  reai-son.  Hooker,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Lightfoot, 
Hammond,  Sancroft,  South,  Tillotson,  Bishop  Butler, 
Atterbury,  Bull,  Sherlock,  and  others. 

ENGLANTE,  in  HeraUUy,  is  bearing  acorns  or 
other  similar  glands. 

E'NGLESHERY,  E'NGLESBURY,  i.e.,  being 
an  Eughshman.  The  jiresentment  of  Eiigleshery 
is  thus  explained,  Hale's  PI.  of  Croien,  p.  44C : 
'  Anciently,  there  wis  a  law  introduced  by  Canutus 
the  D.ane,  that  if  .auj'  m.an  were  slain  in  the  fields, 
and  the  mauslaj-er  were  unknown,  and  coiUd  luit 
be  taken,  the  township  where  he  was  sl.ain  should 
be  amerced  to  sLxty-six  marks ;  and  it  it  were  not 
sufficient  to  pay  it,  the  himdrcd  should  be  ch.arged, 
unless  it  could  be  made  appear  before  the  coroner, 
upon  the  view  of  the  body,  that  the  party  slain  was 
an  Enijiisiiman ;  and  this  making  it  .appear  was 
various  according  to  the  custom  of  several  places, 
but  most  onlinarily  it  was  by  the  testimony  of 
two  males  of  the  part  of  the  father  of  him  that 
w.as  slain,  and  by  two  females  of  the  part  of  his 
mother.'  William  the  Conqueror  continued  this 
law.  Presentment  of  Englcshery  w.as  taken  away 
21  Edw.  III.  St.  1,  c.  4. 

E'NGLISH,  forms  the  first  part  of  several 
geographical  names. — 1.  English  Cove  is  .a  bay 
of  the  Pacific  Oce.an,  on  the  south-west  coast  of 
New  Ireland,  in  lat.  4°  54'  S.,  and  long.  152°  35'  E. 
— 2.  English  Harbour,  on  the  south  side  of 
Antigua,  is  one  of  the  best  havens  in  the  West 
IiiiUes.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  17°  3'  N.,  and  long. 
01"  45'  W.— 3.  English  Harlinur  is  on  the  Pacific 
shore  of  Costa  llica,  in  Central  America,  lying  in 
lat.  S°  50'  N.,  and  long.  83'  55'  W.— 4.  English 
Itiver  is  au  estuary  on  the  west  side  of  I)cl.ago.a 
Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  in  Africa.  It 
is  .about  lat.  25°  58'  S.,  .and  long.  32°  3G'  E.— 
5.  English  lliver,  otherwise  kuo^vii  as  Mississippi  or 
Great  W.ater,  enters  Huilson's  B.ay  from  tho  west. 


ENGLISH  CH.tNNEL— ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


at  Fort  Cliurcliill,  about  lat.  59°  N.  and  long.  94'  W., 
after  an  estimated  coui-se  of  6'M  miles. 

ENGLISH     or    BRITI.SH     CHANNEL    {La 

Munche  or  the  SUcfe  of  the  French,  .ind  the  Oceatms 
Britannicus  of  the  Romans)  is  the  narrow  sea 
which  separates  England  and  Franco,  h,a\nng  on 
the  north  the  English  counties  of  Kent,  Sussex, 
Hants,  Dorset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall ;  and  on  the 
.south  the  French  pro^•inces  of  jVrtois,  Picardy, 
Normandy,  and  Brctapne.  On  the  oust,  it  joins 
the  North  Sea,  at  the  .Strait  of  Dover,  where  it  is 
narrowest,  being  only  '1\  miles  wide  from  Dover 
to  Cape  Grisnez.  From  this  strait  it  nms  west- 
south-west  for  2S0  miles,  and  joins  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  at  the  Chops,  mth  a  breadth  of  100  miles 
between  the  SciUy  Isles  and  Ush.ant  Isle.  With 
an  average  breadth  of  70  miles,  it  is  90  miles  wide 
from  Brighton  to  Havre ;  60  miles  from  Portland 
I'oint  to  Cape  La  Hague  ;  140  miles — iis  g^e.^test 
breadth— from  Sidmouth  to  St  JIalo ;  and  100  to  110 
miles  west  of  the  latter  line.  It  occupies  2.3,900 
s<iuare  geographical  miles,  and  includes  the  Scilly 
Isles,  Channel  Isles,  Ushant  Isle,  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  many  islets  and  rocks,  especially  off  the  coast 
of  Bretagne.  It  is  shallowest  at  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  where  a  chalk-ridge  at  the  depth  of  twelve 
to  thirty  fathoms  joins  England  and  France.  West 
of  this,  it  deepens  to  si.xty  fathoms,  with  some 
banks  at  three  to  five  fathoms,  and  some  hollows 
five  to  thii-ty  fathoms  deeper  than  the  parts 
around.  A  coarse  gravel  covers  the  bottom.  The 
English  coast-line  of  the  E.  C.  is  390  miles  long, 
with  an  inshore  depth  of  twelve  to  fifty-five 
fathoms,  and  the  French  coast-line  of  the  E.  C. 
is  570  miles  long.  Westerly  winds  prevail  in  the 
E.  C,  and  the  current,  though  imperceptible,  is 
always  from  west  to  east.  The  E.  C.  abounds  in 
fish,  of  which  the  chief  are  pilchard,  mackerel,  and 
oysters. 

ENGLISH  CONSTITU'TIOX.  See  Parlia- 
ment. 

ENGLISH  DRA'MA.    See  Dk.i_ma. 

ENGLISH  LA'NGUAGE,  which  is  now  spoken 
by  upwards  of  .50  millions  of  the  earth's  inhabitants, 
is  in  its  vocabulary  one  of  the  most  heterogeneous 
that  ever  existed ;  a  fact,  the  causes  of  which 
are  to  be  traced  in  the  history  of  England  (q.  v.). 
Its  comjwsition  and  grammatical  character  are 
thus  described  by  M.  JliiUer  in  his  Lectures  on 
tlie  Science  of  Language  (1S61).  '  Tliere  is,  perh.aps, 
no  language  so  fuU  of  words  exndently  derived 
from  the  most  distant  sources  as  English.  Every 
country  of  the  globe  seems  to  have  brought  some 
of  its  verbal  manufactures  to  the  intellectual 
market  of  England.  Latin,  Greek.  Hebrew,  Celtic, 
Saxon,  Danish,  French,  .Sp.anisb,  Italian,  German 
— nay,  even  Hindust.ani,  Malay,  and  Chinese  words 
— lie  mixed  together  in  the  English  dictionary. 
On  the  evidence  of  words  alone,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  cla.ssify  EngUsh  with  any  other  of 
the  established  stocks  and  steins  of  human  speech. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  smaller  ingre- 
dients, we  find,  on  comi>aring  the  Teutonic  mth 
the  Latin,  or  Neo-Latin,  or  Norman  elements  in 
EngUsh,  that  the  latter  have  a  decided  majority 
over  the  home-grown  Saxon  terms.  This  may 
seem  incrediVile ;  and  if  we  simply  took  a  page  of 
any  EncUsh  book,  and  counted  therein  the  words 
of  purely  Saxon  and  Latin  origin,  the  majority 
would  be  no  doul)t  on  the  Saxon  side.  The 
articles,  pronouns,  i>re[iositions,  and  au.xiliary  verbs, 
all  of  which  are  of  Saxon  growth,  occur  over 
and  over  again  in  one  and  the  same  page.  Thus, 
Hickes  maintained  that  nine-tenths  of  the  English 
dictionary   were   Sa.\on,   because   there   were   only 


three  words  of  Latin  origin  in  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
Sharon  Turner,  who  extended  his  observations  over 
a  larger  field,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
relation  of  Norman  to  Saxon  was  as  four  to  six. 
.\nother  -writer,  who  estimates  the  whole  number  of 
English  words  at  38,000,  assigns  23,000  to  a  Saxon, 
and  15,000  to  a  cla.ssical  somce.  On  taking,  however, 
a  more  accurate  inventory,  and  counting  every  word 
in  the  dictionaries  of  Robertson  and  Webster,  M. 
Thommerel  h-os  established  the  fact,  that  the  number 
of  Teutonic  or  Saxon  words  in  English  amounts  to 
only  13,3.30  against  29,354  words  which  can  either 
mediately  or  immediately  be  traced  to  a  Latin 
source.  On  the  evidence  of  its  dictionarj-,  there- 
fore, and  treating  English  .as  a  mixed  language,  it 
would  have  to  be  classified  together  with  French, 
Italian,  and  Spanish,  as  one  of  the  Piomance  or  Neo- 
Latin  di.alects.  Languages,  however,  though  mixed 
in  their  dictionary',  can  never  be  mixed  in  theii- 
grammar.  Hervas  was  told  by  missionaries,  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  18th  c.  the  Araucans  hardly 
used  a  single  word  which  was  not  Sp.anish,  though 
they  preserved  both  the  grammar  and  the  sjmtax  of 
their  own  native  speech.  Tliis  is  the  reason  why 
grammar  is  made  the  criterion  of  the  rehitionship 
and  the  base  of  the  classification  in  almost  all 
languages ;  and  it  follows,  therefore,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  that  in  the  classification  and  in  the  science 
of  language,  it  is  impossible  to  admit  the  exist- 
ence of  a  mixed  idiom.  We  may  form  whole 
sentences  in  English,  consisting  entirely  of  Latin  or 
Rom.ance  words ;  yet  whatever  there  is  left  of 
gi-ammar  in  English  bears  imniiatakable  traces  of 
Teutonic  workmanship.  What  may  now  be  called 
grammar  in  English,  is  little  more  than  the  ter- 
minations of  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative 
plur.al  of  nouns,  the  degrees  of  comparison,  and  a 
few  of  the  persons  and  tenses  of  the  verb.  Yet  the 
single  s,  used  as  the  exponent  of  the  third  person 
singidar  of  the  indicative  present,  is  irrefr.agable 
evidence  that  in  a  scientific  classification  of  lan- 
guages, English,  though  it  did  not  retain  a  single 
word  of  S.axon  origin,  would  have  to  be  classed  as 
Saxon,  and  as  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  stem 
of  the  Aryan  family  of  speech.'     See  Language. 

In  tracing  the  growth  of  the  English  language, 
the  history  is  usually  divided  into  fuur  leading 
periods  :  the  A  mjlo-Suxon  Period  (449  A.  D. — 106ft 
A.D.);  the  Semi-Saxon  Period  (from  ln(>i!  a.  D. — 
1250  a.  d.)  ;  the  Earlij  Uniili.sh  Period,  comprising 
the  two  periods  of  Old  and  Middle  EiiolUh  (from 
1250  A.  D. — 1550  A.  D.)  ;  and  the  Modern  English 
Period  (from  1550  a.d.  to  the  present  time). 

As  early  as  the  5th  c,  Teutonic  invaders  from 
the  continent  settled  in  this  couutiy,  and  drove  the 
original  Celtic-speaking  inhabitants  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  island ;  so  that  before  the  battle  of 
H;isting^  (10G6),  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  had  been 
spoken  in  England  for  at'  least  600  yeai-s.  The  final 
absorption,  after  a  hmg  conflict,  by  the  kings  of 
Wessex,  or  West  Saxons,  of  the  various  portions 
of  the  Heptarchy,  in  the  9th  c,  went  far  to  make 
the  ruling  speech  of  the  land  identical  with  that 
of  Berkshire  and  Hants,  the  rccoyuised  centre  of 
the  predominant  sept.  The  use,  besides,  of  this 
Southern  Anglo-Teuton  speech  as  the  instrument 
of  literary  communication,  w.as  permanently  con- 
firmed by  Kins  Alfred,  a  native  of  Berks.  Fiu-ther 
back  than  the  time  of  this  literary  monarch,  few 
existing  remains  of  the  language  permit  us  to  go ; 
yet,  from  the  writings  of  Ca.-dmon,  who  was  a 
North  Anglian,  and  a  few  ecclesiastical  MSS.  of 
the  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  which  extended  from 
the  Humber  to  the  Fii-th  of  Forth,  it  has  been 
generally  concluded  that  at  least  two  di.alectical 
j)eculiaiities   must   have   existed   in   the   island — a 

C3 


ENGLISH  L.VXUUAGE-EXGLISH  LITERATURE. 


northern  and  a  southern  one.  The  Anglian  or 
Northern  dialect,  it  lia.s  been  presumed,  w.as,  to 
some  extent,  marked  wth  Scandinavian  fe.itnrcs  ; 
while  the  Saxon  or  Southern  dialect  w.as  more 
purely  Low-tiermanic,  thou<;h  the  Anj^lian  was 
also  Low-Germanic  in  all  essentials.  Some  have 
accounted  for  the  jiartial  a)ipro.\imation  of  the 
Anglian  dialect  to  ScandinaWan  by  tlie  fact  that  the 
Panes,  at  a  later  period,  effected  a  settlement  in 
the  north-east  of  England ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  argued  that  '  certain  jjeculiarities  of  a  Scandi- 
na\'iau  character  are  to  be  found  in  the  Anglian, 
even  of  a  date  anterior  to  the  tirst  Banish  occu- 
liation  of  a  part  of  England  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  ninth  century.'  Some  philologers,  again,  insist 
on  distributing  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  into 
more  dialects  than  two  ;  but  it  will  lie  sufficient  if 
the  reader  be.ar  in  mind  the  two  which  have  been 
mentioned.  Now,  the  question  arises,  which  of  the 
dialects  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  specifically  the  parent 
of  the  English  tongue  ?  Two  answer.s  have  been 
given  to  this  qviestion.  It  has  been  alleged  that 
after  the  Noi-man  Conquest,  the  classical  Saxon 
of  Wessex  lost  its  temporary  supremacy,  and  gra- 
dually gave  way  to  a  difl'erent  dialect — namely,  that 
of  the  Jlidland  counties  of  England.  This  was 
the  district  where  the  universities  sprung  up,  and 
where  the  rich  monasteries  and  other  religious 
foundations  took  their  rise ;  and  in  siijiport  of  this 
theory,  it  is  argued  by  competent  scholars,  that 
the  dialect  which  is  most  closely  allied  to  the 
standard  English  of  oiu-  day  is  that  of  Northamp- 
tonshire and  some  neighbouring  counties.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained  by  no  less 
an  authority  than  Sir  Frederick  Madden,  and  his 
conclusion  seems  not  unlikely,  that  we  must  look  for 
the  real  gi-oundwork  of  our  langu.ige  in  a  gradual 
coalescence  of  nearly  all  the  leadmg  dialects  of 
England.     See  his  edition  of  Layamon'a  Brut,  1847. 

The  period  known  as  Semi-Saxon,  in  the  history 
of  oiu-  English  tongue,  dates  from  about  the  Conquest 
until  near  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  This 
was  a  transition  era,  and,  like  every  era  of  the 
kind,  one  of  confusion,  both  to  those  using  the  lan- 
guage, and  to  those  desirous  of  tracing  its  history. 
The  monks  of  the  time,  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
medieval  Latin,  h.ad  in  a  great  measure  forgotten 
the  grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language ;  and 
when  they  attempted  to  write  their  mother-tongue, 
did  so  very  batUy.  In  fact,  their  langiuige  is  just 
imgrammatical  Anglo-Saxon,  and  very  jirobably  had 
its  counterpart  in  the  urns  loquendi  of  the  common 
people.  The  Saxon  Chronicle,  as  it  is  called,  which 
bears  date  1173,  and  L.ayaraon"s  Bnit,  about  1190 
or  1200,  exhibit  traces  of  the  Ijreaking-up  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  Tlie  inflections  and  genders  of  the 
substantives,  the  definite  and  indefinite  declensions 
of  adjectives,  are  for  the  most  part  disregarded ;  a 
marked  partiality  is  shewn  for  weak  preterites  and 
participles  ;  there  is  a  constant  substitution  of  en  for 
on  in  the  plurals  of  verbs ;  and  the  final  e  is  often 
discarded ;  besides  a  great  uncertainty  prevailing 
in  the  government  of  jirepositions.  As  regards  the 
Semi-Saxon  vocaljnlary  itself,  although  employed 
in  literature  a  century  and  a  half  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  it  exhibits  but  few  traces  of  Norman- 
French  ;  proving  beyond  question,  that  the  imme- 
diate eii'ects  of  that  great  change  were  by  no 
means  so  important  on  tlie  Anglo-Saxon  tongue 
as  they  were  at  one  time  believed  to  liavc  been. 

When  we  come  to  the  Earhi  Englw/i  Period,  wo 
have  escaped  most  of  the  perplexities  which  attach 
themselves  to  the  Semi-Saxon  era  of  our  language. 
The  principles  of  the  English  tongue  now  assert 
themselves  actively  in  contrast  with  those  of  its 
Teutonic  origin.  The  Anglo-Saxon  was  rich  in 
64 


inflections,  which  the  English  has  contiived  to  get 
rid  of.  It  prefers  to  cxiu-ess  the  various  modifi- 
cations of  an  idea  by  some  relational  word  or  words 
attaclieil  to  the  leading  ide.a.  During  the  Semi- 
Saxon  period,  as  we  have  seen,  the  verbs  suffered 
much  less  inflectional  change  than  the  substantives 
and  a<ljectives  ;  this  will  be  found  to  hold  tliroughoiit 
the  entire  250  years  of  the  era  of  reconstruction. 
In  the  fine  poem  of  Tlie  Owl  ami  the  Xiijhtingale, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  vowels  a,  e,  v,  in  final  syllables,  are 
all  represented  by  e,  and  the  final  n  of  the  infinitive 
is  beginning  to  disappear.  In  the  Chronicle  of 
Robert  of  Gloucester,  we  encounter,  besides,  a  great 
number  of  French  words,  which  had  gradually 
become  familiar  to  tfle  people,  through  the  presence 
of  theii-  Nonnan  masters.  The  presence  of  French 
is,  besides,  very  noticeable  in  the  jioctry  of  Chaucer 
and  Gower.  Wh.at  fear  could  not  accomplish, 
literary  respect  jiroduced  ;  for  it  is  no  doubt  to 
the  literary  men  of  England,  rather  than  to  its 
masters,  that  we  owe  so  large  an  admixture  of 
French  expressions  and  of  French  terminology. 
Our  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  belongs 
to  this  period.  Piers  Plowman  has  but  few  French 
words,  while  Lydgate  and  Bishop  Peacock  have 
too  many ;  and  More's  Edward  V.  (1509),  and 
the  Nut  Broien  Maid  (1500),  are  comparatively 
modern  in  their  style  and  tone.  As  to  Scotland, 
again,  in  the  Anglian  counties  lying  south  of  the 
I'orth,  the  language  in  all  respects  was  similar  to 
its  more  southern  neighbour,  and  underwent  such 
changes  as  we  have  noted  in  its  more  Saxon  com- 
peer. Barbour,  a  Scottish  contempor.ary  of  Chaucer, 
wrote  purer  English  than  Chaucer  cUd,  and  his 
poems  resembled  in  a  striking  degree  the  homely 
phraseology  of  Piem  Plowman.  Regarding  the 
north-eastern  dialects  of  Scotland,  some  diversity 
of  opinion  exists.  Some  antiquaries  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  large  infusion  of  Norse  or  Scandinavian 
elements  in  these  dialects  is  to  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  of  a  Norwegian  kingdom  h.aving  been 
maintained  in  the  east  of  Scotland  during  the 
1 1th  c.  for  a  period  of  thirty  years ;  while  others 
allege  with  more  ])robability,  that  the  language  of 
the  north-east  of  Scotland  is  as  decideiUy  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  its  form  and  substance  as  that  of  Norfolk 
or  Yorkshire. 

In  the  Modern  English  Period,  says  Professor 
Spalding,  'the  organisation  of  the  English  language 
may  be  said  to  be  complete.  The  laws  determming 
the  changes  to  be  made  on  words,  and  regidating 
the  grammatical  structure  of  sentences,  had  been 
definitively  fixed,  and  were  generally  obeyed  ;  all 
that  had  still  to  be  gained  in  this  ]>articidar,  was  an 
increase  of  case  and  dexterity  in  tlie  application  of 
the  rules.  The  vocabulary,  doubtless,  was  not  so 
far  advanced.  It  was  receiving  constant  acces- 
sions ;  and  the  three-and-a-haH  centuries  that  have 
since  elapsed,  have  increased  our  stock  of  words 
immensely.  But  this  is  a  process  which  is  still 
going  on,  and  which  never  comes  to  a  stoji  in  the 
speech  of  any  jieoplc  ;  and  the  gi'aminar  being  once 
thoroughly  founded,  the  effects  of  glossarial  changes 
are  only  secondary,  imtil  the  time  arrives  when 
they  co-ojierate  with  other  causes  in  breaking  u])  a 
langu.age  altogether.' — For  further  information,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  such  accessiUe  works  as  those 
of  Lath.am,  Craik,  and  Spalding. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  like  every  other 
mental  product,  is  qualified  by  the  history  of  the 
nation  to  which  it  lielongs.  'I'lie  great  social  eras 
of  a  country's  liistory  have  alw.ays  been  found  to 
correspond  with  the  gi-e.at  intellectual  eras  of  her 
growtli.  It  will,  however,  be  sufficient  for  our 
purpose  to  .arrange  the  literary  annals  of  England 
into  three  periods  :   1.  The  period  antecedent  to  the 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


Norman  Conquest ;  2.   The  period  extending  from 

the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  English  Reformation  ; 
and  3.  The  jieriod  extending  from  the  English 
Reformation  to  the  present  day. 

1.  The  Period  Antecedent  to  the  Co/itjitest. — This 
period  possesses  a  literature  composed  in  three 
distinct  languages — the  Celtic,  the  Latin,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  Regarding  the  Celtic  Uterature,  see  i 
Celtic  N.-vtions,  Irish  Literature,  and  Welsh 
Literature.  The  introduction  of  Latin  literature 
into  this  country  was  considerably  later  than  , 
the  Roman  invasion  of  it.  The  cultivation  of 
the  letters  of  Rome  followed  as  a  necessary  con-  i 
sequence  on  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
the  country.  St  Patrick  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  teacher  of  Christianity  in  the  British  Islands, 
some  time  l>efore  the  midtlle  of  the  oth  century. 
Ireland  was  the  scene  of  his  labours ;  and  it  is 
well  known  that  it  was  by  Irish  missionaries,  chief 
among  whom  was  .St  Columba  (q.  v.),  that  the 
first  light  of  the  gospel  was  attempted  to  be 
disseminated  in  iScotlaud  and  the  north  of  England. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  Gth  c,  St  Augustine 
landed  in  the  south  of  England,  .and  laid  the 
foimdations  of  the  Anglo-Catholic  Church.  These 
great  evangelists,  however,  rather  prepared  the 
way  for  literary  effort  on  the  part  of  others,  than 
were  themselves  literary.  The  earliest  names  of 
importance  that  we  encounter  are  Alcuin  and 
Erigena,  Bede  and  Alfred.  After  the  immigration 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  into  Britain,  this  people  began 
to  form  a  literature  of  their  own.  Their  tliree 
historical  poems — the  Gleeman's  Song,  the  Battle  of 
Finnesburgh,  and  the  Tale  of  Beowulf — are  mainly 
versions  of  events  which  happened  on  the  continent 
before  the  descent  on  the  shores  of  EnglancL  The 
last,  which  is  essentially  a  Norse  tale,  is  the  oidy 
poem  resembling  an  Iliad  which  the  Anglo-Saxons 
possess.  Except  the  remarkable  religious  poems 
of  the  Northumbrian  monk  Ciedmon,  in  the  7th 
c,  little  more  of  any  moment  in  verse  has  been 
handed  down  to  us  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  people. 
But  this  people,  though  comparatively  poor  in 
poetry,  are  eminently  simple  and  straightforward 
prose  writers.  King  Alfred  discarded  Latin  in 
all  his  communications  with  his  subjects,  and  in 
consequence  the  Anglo-Saxon  made  an  impressive 
start  throughout  the  whole  of  England.  From  the 
Saxon  Chronicle,  which  is  made  up  from  the  MS. 
of  several  conventual  records,  modern  scholars  have 
derived  special  and  valu.able  information.  Portions 
of  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  translated  into  this 
language,  several  <if  the  leading  men  of  the  time, 
such  as  Aldhelni,  Bede,  and  Alfred,  lending  their 
assistance.  Sermons  and  grammars,  glossaries  and 
medical  treatises,  geographies  and  dialogues  between 
Solomon  and  Saturn,  make  up  the  file  of  this  period 
of  the  literatiu"e.  This  notice  of  the  first  period 
must  be  concluded  bj'  an  allusion  to  the  illustrious 
name  of  Alfred,  who,  by  his  enlightenment  and 
his  virtue,  has  rendered  the  Oth  c,  in  which  he 
flourished,  one  of  the  brightest  spots  in  the  whole 
range  of  English  literature.  His  favourite  literary 
employment  was  rendering  works  written  in  Latin, 
a  language  which  he  only  knew  imperfectly,  into 
his  n.ative  tongue.  He  did  not  scruple  to  add  a 
picturesque  story,  a  bit  of  geography,  or  a  devout 
prayer,  when  occasion  suited,  to  the  original  text  of 
his  author.  Even  in  his  version  of  the  last  of  the 
philosophic  Romans,  he  sometimes  vies  with  Boethius 
in  pa-ssages  of  solemn  eloquence  or  of  specidative 
meditation. 

2.  The  Period  extending  from  the  Norman  Con- 
qxList  to  the  Enijlixli  Reformation. — The  Conquest 
had  the  effect  of  changing  the  langiuige  and 
manners  of  the  court ;  it  took  but  little  effect  on 

J61 


those  of  the  obstinate  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
In  a  few  centuries,  the  English  people  compelled 
their  Norman  masters  to  acquire  the  despised 
Anglo-Saxon ;  and  if  there  was  a  considei-able 
importation  of  Norman-French  into  our  literature,  it 
was  owing  much  more  to  such  %vriters  as  Chaucer 
and  Gower,  who  took  what  suited  them  from  what- 
ever quarter,  than  to  any  lordly  influence  of  the 
Norman  nobility  domineering  over  the  abject  necks 
of  their  Teutonic  enemies.  In  a  generation  or  two 
after  the  Conquest,  classical  and  theological  learning 
made  very  considerable  progress.  Monasteries  were 
busy,  and  the  English  universities  were  both  by  this 
time  founded ;  while  an  interchange  of  teachers 
and  pupils  constantly  went  on  between  the  English 
seminaries  and  those  of  France  and  other  countries. 
Lanfranc  and  Anselm,  Hales  and  Duns  Scotus, 
Michael  Scot  and  Roger  Bacon,  had  attained  to 
a  great  eminence  in  speculative  and  in  physical 
jihilosophy.  Doubtless  their  thinking  was  more 
characterised  by  its  hair-splitting  ingenuity  than 
bj-  its  solidity,  but  the  1.3th  c.  stands  out  in  a  dis- 
tinguished manner  in  England,  and  indeed  thi-ough- 
out  Europe,  for  its  peculiar  devotion  to  speculative 
studies.  But  all  these  philosophers  "wrote  in  Latin, 
and  so  did  the  historical  \\Titers  of  the  time. 
These  were  William  of  Malmesbury,  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  ilatthew  Paris, 
and  other  chroniclers.  One  of  the  most  curious  and 
amusing  phases  through  which  our  literature  passed 
was  the  composition  of  local  squibs,  generally  of  a 
personal  character,  in  rhymed  Latin  couplets.  The 
ecclesiastics  frequently  came  in  for  more  than  their 
share  of  this  rude  abuse.  It  is  to  Walter  Mapes,  a 
man  of  wit  and  fancy,  we  owe  a  highly  popular 
drinking-song  of  this  period,  beginning  Hihi  est  pro- 
posittim  in  tabtrna  mori  ('I  devise  to  end  my  days 
in  a  tavern  di-inking;'  see  Leigh  Himt's  felicitous 
translation),  which  almost  rivals  in  spirit  and  vigour 
the  Jolly  Good  Ale  and  Old  of  two  centuries  later. 
The  satire  passed  from  the  clergj',  and  was  directed 
against  the  feeble  king  (.John).  De  Montfort  and 
the  other  great  barons  who  distinguished  them- 
selves at  Ruunymede,  are  the  universal  theme  of 
pojiular  praise.  The  Gtsfa  Homavorinn,  a  medley  of 
the  most  dissimilar  elements,  compiled  by  nobody 
knows  who,  contain  tales  and  apologues,  fables  and 
satires,  stories  of  pathos  and  of  humour,  worked 
up  into  a  form  closely  resembling  the  French 
Fabliaux.  These  Gesta  liave  been  instrumental 
in  suggesting  some  of  the  noljlest  themes  to  our 
more  recent  literature,  and  thus  possess  double 
claims  on  our  affectionate  regard.  The  Merdiant  of 
Venice,  Marmion,  &c.,  owe  much  to  these  rade  tales 
of  a  bygone  age.  The  French  Fabliaux  affected 
our  literature  but  little  before  the  time  of  Chaucer. 
Except  the  productions  of  a  poetess,  Marie  of 
France,  few  of  these  comjiositions  have  come  down 
to  us  of  very  great  merit.  The  romances  of  chivalry, 
rude  and  sjiirited,  pathetic  and  imagnnative,  are 
{  well  worth  the  attention  of  the  student  of  English 
literature;  such  are  the  fine  old  story  of  Haveloh 
the  Dane,  the  Gest  of  King  Horn,  Bern's  of  Hamp- 
toun,  Gwj  of  Waricick ;  and  last  and  best  'of  all  are 
those  romances  written  in  French,  but  composed 
by  Englishmeu,  that  celebrate  the  glory  and  fall  of 
King  Arthur  and  his  knights  of  the  Round  Table, 
of  which  splendid  use  has  recently  been  made 
by  Alfred  Tennyson  in  his  Iihjlls  of  the  King.  But 
what  during  all  this  time  has  become  of  the  old 
vernacular  tongue  of  England  as  a  mediimi  of  lite- 
rary expression  ?  Driven  from  the  monasteries  and 
universities,  for  the  most  part,  and  only  slightly 
retained  in  jjoetry,  it  might  have  been  expected  to 
decay  and  die  out.  But  such  was  the  native  vitality 
of  the  people  who  spoke  it,  that  it  kept  its  place, 


ENGLISH  LITER ATUEE. 


almost  without  a  literatiire,  only  uudergomg  such 
changes  as  time  ine\-itably  effects  upon  a  nascent 
language.  Thus  the  Anglo-Saxon  merged  into  the 
Semi-Saxon,  which  grew  and  flourished,  although 
it  cout;uus  Tery  little  literature  of  much  import- 
ance, except  tlic  Bnd  of  Layamon,  '  the  Enghsh 
Ennius.'  The  14th  and  15th  centuries  (the  period 
of  the  Early  English)  are  of  great  importance,  both 
in  the  progress  of  English  history  and  of  English 
literature ;  for  although  the  age  of  Edward  II.  was 
inglorious  in  both,  yet  in  the  next  reign  the 
victories  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers  heralded  as  with 
trumpet-blast  the  age  of  thought  and  of  poetry, 
represented  by  Wickliffe  and  Chaucer,  both  of  them 
brave-hearted  genuine  Englishmen.  The  translation 
(the  fii-st  ever  executed)  of  the  Bible  into  English, 
which  was  completed  by  'Wickliffe  about  1380,  is 
a  work  of  great  value,  not  only  as  a  monument  in 
the  religions  history  of  our  nation,  but  in  a  philo- 
logical point  of  \'iew,  being,  as  it  is,  '  all  but 
first  among  the  prose-^vritings  in  oxu-  old  tongue.' 
The  j)rincipal  book  which  precedes  it,  and  the 
very  oldest  written  in  Early  English,  is  Sir  John 
Mande^'ille's  accoimt  of  liis  eastern  travels  (1356). 
Somewhat  later  (between  1390  and  1400),  Geoffrey 
Chaucer,  the  geniune  father  of  English  poetry, 
pubUshed  his  Canterbury  Tales.  A  shrewd  and 
sagacious  observer,  he  has  left  behind  him  in  these 
Tales  a  series  of  sportive  and  pathetic  narratives, 
told  with  such  a  wonderful  power  of  tenderness  and 
humour,  in  such  a  simple,  healthy  style  (although 
his  English  is  largely  modified  by  French  innova- 
tions), that  they  have  been  the  wonder  and  delight 
of  all  succeeding  times.  Laurence  Minot,  Richard 
EoUe,  Langland  or  Longlande,  author  of  Piers 
Ploicman,  and  Gower,  fitly  close  round  Chaucer  as 
contemporaries  who  ^vrote  more  or  less  vigorous 
verse.  About  the  same  period  flourished  in  Scotland 
John  Barbour,  whose  e]iic  narrative,  T/ie  Bruce,  was 
^\■ritten  about  1376.  The  language  of  this  poem 
resembles  that  contemporaneously  employed  in  the 
south.  In  the  following  c.  (the  15th),  and  in  the 
early  part  of  the  16th,  occur  in  England  the  names 
of  John  Lydgate  (1430),  whose  London  Lyckpenny  is 
still  agreeable  reading ;  Alexander  Barclay,  whose 
Ship  of  Fools  was  ]>rmted  in  1509  ;  John  Skelton, 
author  of  the  scurrilous  satii-e  of  Colin  Clout  (died 
1529);  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey  (beheaded  1546 — 
1547) ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  (died  1541).  The  prose 
writers  of  this  period  are  Sir  John  Fortescne,  chief- 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench  under  Henry  \T^.,  who 
flourished  1430 — 1470,  and  who  wrote,  among  other 
things,  a  tract  on  the  Difference  between,  an  Absolute 
and  Limited  Monarchy,  as  it  more  paHicularly 
regards  the.  English  Constitution  ;  William  Caxton, 
who  introduced  printing  into  Britain  in  1474 — the 
first  book  ever  printed  in  this  country  being  the 
Game  of  Chess ;  Fabian,  author  of  the  Concordance 
of  Stories,  died  1512;  Hall,  an  English  lawyer  (died 
i.T47),  who  -wTote  a  chronicle  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses;  and  Tyndale,  burned  (153G)  for  heresy.  In 
Scotland,  durmg  the  same  period,  we  encounter  in 
poetry  the  names  of  James  I.,  king  of  Scotland 
(murdered  1437),  author  of  the  Kinfs  Quhair,  &c.  ; 
Andrew  Wjmtoun,  jirior  of  Lochleven,  whose  Oryyy- 
nale  Cronyhil  of  Scotland  was  completed  about  1-120; 
Blind  Harry,  author  of  The  Adventures  of  William 
WallcKe-,  a  work  written  about  1460,  and  long  exceed- 
ingly popidar  with  the  Scottish  peasantry  ;  Robert 
Hemysou  (tiled  1508),  author  of  Tlie  Tcatainenl  of 
Cresseid,  &c.  ;  William  Dunbar  (died  about  1520), 
whose  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  shews  him  to 
have  possessed  great  boldness  and  vigour  in  his 
delineations  of  character  ;  and  Gavin  Douglas  (died 
1.522),  whose  best  work  is  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
Jineid  into  Scottish  verse. 
66 


3.  The  Period  extending  from  the  English  Ilefor- 
mation  to  the  Present  Day. — Among  the  brilliant 
works  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  there  is  probably 
none  of  whicli  we  may  not  detect  germs  in  some 
of  the  efforts  whicli  were  made  in  the  century 
that  jireceded.  In  theology,  tlie  names  of  L.atinier 
(burned  1555),  of  Cranmer  (burned  1556),  and  of 
Ridley  (burned  1555),  shine  forth  conspicuously; 
and  it  is  suilicicut  to  mention  Sir  Thomas  Jloro 
(beheaded  1535),  author  of  Utopia,  a  curious 
philosophical  work,  and  Roger  Aseliam  (died  1508), 
.as  excellent  miscellaneous  writers  of  that  time. 
As  we  have  alrc;idy  taken  up  the  English  drama 
imder  the  article  Drama,  we  need  only  mention 
here  Sack\Tlle  (died  1608),  author  of  Mirrour  for 
Maijistrates,  &c.  ;  Brooke  (drowned  1563),  author 
of  the  Tragical  History  of  J'omeus  and  Jtdiet ; 
and  the  .Scotchmen,  Sir  David  Lyndsay,  Lyon 
King-at-arms  (died  about  1557),  Boece,  Major, 
Melville,  and,  above  all,  George  Buchanan  (died 
1582),  who  is  universally  admitted  to  have  been  one 
of  the  iinest  classical  scholars  that  ever  appeared 
in  Christendom.  The  founding  of  the  Scottish 
universities,  and  the  dissemination,  mainly  through 
the  influence  of  the  great  reformer  John  Knox, 
of  gi'ammar  and  parish  schools  throughout  the 
coimtry,  bade  fail-  to  give  to  Scotland  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  literature  of  Great  Britain  ;  a 
result  wliich  unforeseen  ecclesiastico-political  troubles 
long  frustrated.  The  era  on  which  >\e  are  next 
to  look,  the  Elizabethan,  is  the  most  brilUant  in 
the  literary  history  of  England.  We  may  quote 
here  the  words  of  Lord  Jeffrey :  '  In  ]>oint  of 
real  force  and  originality  of  genius,  neither  the 
age  of  Pericles,  nor  the  age  of  Augustus,  nor  the 
times  of  Leo  X.,  or  of  Louis  XIV.,  can  come  at 
all  into  comparison.  For  in  that  short  period  we 
shall  find  the  names  of  almost  all  the  great  men 
that  this  nation  has  ever  produced ;  the  names  of 
Shakspeare,  and  Bacon,  and  Spenser,  and  Sidney;  of 
Raleigh,  and  Hooker,  and  Taylor ;  of  Xapier,  and 
Milton,  and  Cudworth,  and  Hobbes ;  and  many 
others — men,  all  of  them  not  merely  of  great  talents 
and  accomplishments,  but  of  vast  compass  and  reach 
of  imderstanding,  and  of  minds  tridy  creative ;  not 
men  who  perfected  art  by  the  delicacy  of  their  taste, 
or  digested  luiowledge  by  the  justness  of  their 
reasonings  ;  but  men  who  made  vast  and  substanti.al 
additions  to  the  materials  \ipon  which  taste  and 
reason  must  hereafter  be  employed,  and  who  enlarged 
to  an  incredible  and  unparalleled  extent  both  the 
stores  and  the  resoiirces  of  the  hmnan  faculties.' 
Even  the  minor  dramatists  of  the  tijne,  such  as 
Marlowe  and  Chapman,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
Jonson  .and  Drummond,  are  all  nearly  the  equals 
of  any  succeeding  poets  that  have  ai>peared.  In 
the  latter  half  of  this  period  a  new  chiss  of  poetic 
writers  started  uj),  who  wore  lyrical  rather  tlian 
dramatic,  and  whose  occasional  verses,  sometimes 
descriptive,  sometimes  amatory,  and  sometimes  reli- 
gious, are  characterised  by  a  bright  and  delicate 
fancy,  as  if  morning  sunbeams  glittered  on  their 
pages.  These  are  George  Wither,  William  Browne, 
Frances  Quarles,  and  George  Herbert,  '  the  sweet 
psalmist  of  the  17tli  century'  (as  lOmerson  calls 
liim).  The  last  forty  j-ears  of  the  17th  c.  are  gener- 
ally known  as  the  ago  of  the  Restoration  and 
the  Revolution.  During  this  period,  the  literature 
of  the  stage  was  disgraced  by  its  indecency.  Charles 
II.  and  his  court  liad  brought  back  with  them 
from  Franco  a  love  of  polite  profligacy,  which 
found  its  most  fitting  expression  in  the  comedy 
of  intrigue.  Fom-  names  stand  out  conspicuous 
as  *  sinners  above  all  men  in  that  generation' — 
Wycherly,  Congreve,  Vanbrngli,  and  Farquhar.  Yet 
theology   could   boast   of  such    names    .-vs    Baxter, 


EXGKAILED— ENGRAVING. 


Owen,  C'alamj',  Collier,  Leighton,  South,  TiUotson, 
and  Barrow.  This  was  also  the  epoch  when  the 
great  Jlilton,  tlriven  into  the  shades  of  obscurity 
iiy  ])oIitical  adversities,  fulfilled  the  uttered  hope 
of  his  youth,  and  wrote  '  something  which  posterity 
will  not  wiUingly  let  ilie.'  About  this  time,  too, 
Walton  angled,  and  Butler  burlesqued  dissent ;  Mar- 
Tell  turned  his  keen  irony  against  the  High  Church ; 
Locke  and  Newton  speculated  and  discovered  ;  and 
John  Dryden,  the  literary  chief  of  the  time,  '  found 
the  English  language  (according  to  Dr  Johnson)  of 
brick  and  left  it  of  marble.' 

The  literary  histor)'  of  the  18th  c,  and  of  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  has  been  variously  estimated.  If  it 
was  overvalued  by  those  who  lived  in  it,  and  in  the 
age  that  succeeded,  it  has  assuredly  been  under- 
valued in  our  own  day.  It  was  long  glorified  as 
the  Augustan  age  of  English  literature  ;  but  among 
ourselves  it  has  been  set  aside  as  a  sceptical,  utUi- 
tarian  age,  when  poetry  could  find  no  higher  field 
than  didactic  discussion,  and  prose  found  nothing  to 
amuse  but  comic  and  domestic  naiTative,  or  bitter 
and  stinging  satire.  The  truth,  as  usual,  lies  in 
the  middle.  Tliis  age  was  far  from  being  superior 
to  every  era  that  had  gone  before  it,  and  it  was 
not  quite  so  low  as  some  of  its  hostile  critics 
have  represented.  One  thing,  however,  is  beyond 
dispute,  viz.,  that  the  form,  both  in  poetry  and  in 
prose,  had  come  to  be  nnich  more  regarded  than 
the  matlei:  Addison,  Swift,  and  Johnson,  may  be 
taken  as  types  of  the  prose  writers  of  this  century. 
The  first  for  ease  and  grace  is  unmatched  in  any 
age ;  the  second  stands  equally  high  for  rough  and 
pointed  vigour ;  and  the  third  is  famous  for  his 
ponderous,  finely  balanced  sentences,  the  dignity  of 
which  not  unfrequently  surpassed  the  sense.  The 
poetry  of  the  time  is  represented  by  Pope,  and  it 
has  been  gravely  asked  whether  he  was  a  poet  at 
all.  He  certainly  versified  with  brilliant  elegance, 
and  the  terror  which  his  poUshed  epigrams  excited 
in  the  breasts  of  his  enemies,  shewed  him  to  possess 
a  force  of  genius  which  at  least  demands  our  admira- 
tion. Yoimg  and  Akenside  were  perhaps  animated 
by  a  higher  poetic  sense,  but  they  accomplished  much 
less ;  and  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  Thomson, 
Gray,  Collins,  Beattie,  and  Cowper.  Incomparably 
the  greatest  poet,  however,  of  the  ISth  c.  was 
Robert  Bums.  Richardson,  Fielding,  SmoUett, 
Sterne,  Goldsmith,  and  Mackenzie  are  its  novelists ; 
IJurae,  Robertson,  and  Gibbon,  its  historians ; 
Butler,  Berkeley,  Clarke,  Shaftesbury,  Hume,  Paley, 
and  Adam  Smith  its  philosophers. 

The  19th  c,  though  full  of  interest  for  us,  is, 
from  the  novelty  and  the  variety  of  the  intellectual 
character  employed  in  it,  one  of  the  most  difficult  to 
analyse  of  the  whole  range  of  EngUsh  literature.  It 
has  been  a  time  of  extraordinaiy  activity,  books 
have  been  midtiplied  to  an  imprecedented  degree, 
and  readers  have  increased  in  an  equal  proportion. 
It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  the  first  quarter 
of  this  centm-y  is  gi-eater  in  hterature  than  any 
subsequent  j)ortion  of  it.  It  is  greater,  besides,  in 
poetry  than  in  prose.  The  early  names  of  Coleridge 
and  Wordsworth,  of  Scott  and  BjTOn,  of  Shelley 
and  Keats,  of  Campbell  and  Southey,  are  higher 
than  any  now  prominent  except  that  of  Tennyson. 
This  is  the  age,  besides,  of  novels  and  romances, 
of  reviews  and  periodicals.  Jeffrey  and  Sydney 
Smith,  H-azhtt  and  John  Foster,  De  Quincey  and 
Carlyle,  are  the  great  names  in  review-literature ; 
Hall,  Chalmers,  and  Irving  in  pulpit  oratory ; 
Stewart,  Mackintosh,  Bentham,  Brown,  Hamilton, 
and  Mill  in  philosojdiy ;  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Bulwer 
Lytton,  Miss  Bronte,  and  Miss  Evans,  as  novehsts ; 
Uallam,  Macaiday,  Thirlwall,  Grote,  Milman,  and 
Carlyle,  as  historians ;  Ruskin,  as  a  writer  on  art ; 


Tennyson,  the  Brownings,  Matthew  and  Ed^i-in 
Arnold,  Dobell,  and  Smith,  as  jioets ;  and  in  the 
New  World  beyond  the  Atlantic,  Washington 
Irving,  Poe,  Longfellow,  Cooper,  Prescott,  Emerson, 
Bancroft,  and  Hawthorne,  with  many  more,  rise 
before  the  mind  when  one  tries  to  seize  upon  the 
great  living  authors  of  this  age  or  those  recently 
dead.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  literature  of 
the  18th  and  19th  centuries  is  devoted  to  scie;>ce, 
which  can  shew  a  crowd  of  illustrious  names  too 
numerous  to  mention.  Besides,  in  scientific  works, 
the  matter  is  of  so  much  greater  importance  than 
the  form,  and  so  little  attention  is  i<aid  in  general 
to  the  latter  liy  scientific  'm-iters,  that  it  is  not 
customary  to  include  them  in  a  sun-ey  of  literature 
proper. 

ENGRAI'LED,   in  Heraldry,   a   line    composed 
of    a    series    of   little   half-moons,    or    semicircles, 


Engi-aded. 


Invected. 


supposed  to  have  been  made  in  it  by  had.     Engrailed 
is  the  opposite  of  invected. 

ENGRA'VING,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  the  art  of 
incising  designs,  writing,  &c.,  on  any  hard  substance, 
such  as  stone,  metal,  or  wood.  Many  branches  of 
the  art  are  of  great  antiquity ;  such  as  gem-engrav- 
ing, cameo-cutting,  and  die-sinking.  The  more 
important  of  these  ornamental  and  useful  kinds  of 
engraving  are  described  under  their  proper  heads. 
But  in  a  narrower  sense,  engraving  is  the  special 
designation  of  the  art  of  cutting  or  indenting  the 
surface  of  metal  plates  or  of  blocks  of  wood  with 
designs,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  off  impressions  or 
prints  of  the  designs  on  paper.  This  department  of 
the  art  arose  as  late  as  the  15th  c,  the  earliest 
wood-engraving  with  a  date  being  1423,  and  the 
earliest  dated  engr.a\Tng  from  a  metal  plate  being 
1461. 

Wood-engraving  differs  from  engraving  on  metal 
in  this,  that  on  a  metal  plate  the  traces  or  marks 
which  are  to  appear  on  the  paper  are  cut  or  sunk 
into  the  plate,  and  when  printed  from  are  filled 
with  ink,  while  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  kejit  clean ; 
whereas  in  wood- engraving  they  are  left  prominent 
or  in  relief,  and  the  blank  parts  of  the  design  are 
cut  away.  Hence  a  wood-cut  acts  as  a  ti/pe,  and  is 
inked  and  jirinted  from  in  the  usual  way.  See 
Printing.  This  makes  wood-engra%Tng  pecidiarly 
suitable  for  the  illustration  of  books  ;  as  the  blocks 
can  be  printed  from  along  with  the  letterpress; 
while  the  impressions  from  a  metal  plate  must  be 
taken  by  themselves,  and  by  a  slow  process.  The 
fiu-ther  treatment  of  the  important  art  of  WooD- 
EXGRAVlxo  is  reserved  for  a  separate  article ;  our 
attention  at  present  being  confined  to  engraving  on 
metal. 

It  is  beyond  our  scope  to  enter  into  the  practical 
details  of  the  various  processes  ;  we  can  only  aim  at 
enabUng  a  reader  altogether  ignorant  of  them  to 
conceive  how  the  effects  may  be  produced,  and  to 
understand  the  terms  currently  iised  in  speakin"  of 
this  kind  of  art. 

The  metals  most  commonly  used  for  eDgra\'ing 
are  copper  and  steel,  the  former  having  the  advan- 
tage of  being  more  easily  worked,  the  latter  of 
greater  durability.     The   processes  of  working  are 

C7 


ENGRAVING. 


essentially  the  same  in  both.  The  several  manners 
or  stj'les  of  cngravinf;  are  <listin<»iushed  as  Line- 
engra\Tng,  Mczzotinto,  Stippling,  and  Aquatinta. 

1.  Line-eiii/raring — in  wliich,  ;is  the  name  implies, 
the  effect  is  produced  by  a  comliiuation  of  lines — 
is  executed  either  by  direct  incision  wntli  the  graver 
or  the  dry-point,  or  liy  a  combination  of  incision 
with  etching — a  chemical  i)rocess  to  be  immediately 
described.  The  r/rai>tr  or  bun'n  is  usually  in  the 
form  of  a  quadrangular  prism,  fitted  into  a  short 
handle.  In  making  the  incision,  the  graver  is 
pushed  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  line  required, 
being  held  by  the  handle,  at  an  angle  very  slightly 
inclined  to  tlie  plane  of  the  copper.  A  sn-aper  is 
required  to  scrape  off  the  barb  or  burr  which  is 
formed  by  the  action  of  the  gi'aver  and  diy-point. 
The  rubber  is  a  roll  of  cloth  dipped  in  oil,  and  is 
used  to  make  the  surface  smooth.  A  huriiinher  is 
required  to  jiolish  the  plate,  and  erase  any  scratches 
Avhich  it  may  accidentally  receive,  and  also  to  make 
lighter  .any  part  of  the  work  which  may  have  been 
made  too  dark.  The  ilrii-poinl  is  like  a  semng- 
needle  fixed  into  a  hancUe,  and  is  used  to  cut  or 
scratch  the  finer  lines.  The  gr.aver  cuts  the  copper 
clean  out,  the  tlry -point  throws  it  up  on  each  side  ; 
and  in  some  cases  this  is  not  scraped  off,  but 
made  use  of  till  it  is  worn  off,  as  it  gives  richness 
to  the  line. 

In  etching,  the  first  step  is  to  cover  the  plate  with 
a  composition  of  wax,  .isphiiltum,  gtim  mastic,  resin, 
&c.,  dissolved  by  heat ;  an  outline  of  the  design,  made 
on  paper  in  pencil  or  red  chalk,  is  then  '  transferred' 
to  the  sm-face  of  this  composition,  by  being  passed 
through  a  i>ress.  The  subject  is  then  drawn  on  the 
groimd  with  the  etcliing-point,  which  cuts  through 
it,  and  exposes  the  copper.  Kiching-point^  or  needles 
resemble  large  sewing-needles  shortened,  and  fixed 
into  handles  four  or  five  inches  long ;  some  are 
made  oval,  to  produce  broader  lines.  A  rim  of  wax 
being  jmt  round  the  plate,  acid  is  poured  on,  and 
corrodes  the  copper  not  protected  by  the  ground. 
If  the  acid  is  found  not  to  h.ave  acted  sufficiently, 
it  may  be  applied  again  to  the  whole  design,  or 
only  to  portions  of  it,  by  stopping  up,  -vrith  a  mi.x- 
tm'e  of  lampblack  and  Venice  turpentine  applied 
with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  what  has  been  snfficieutly 
biilen  ift- 

When  a  series  of  parallel  lines  are  wanted,  as  in 
backgi'ounds,  &c.,  an  ingenious  machine  called  a 
ruler  is  cmxiloyed,  the  accuracy  of  whose  operation 
is  exceedingly  ])erfect.  This  is  made  to  act  on 
etching-gi'ound  by  a  point  or  diamond  connected 
with  the  apparatus,  and  the  tracings  are  bit  in  with 
aquafortis  in  tlie  ordinary  way. 

2.  The  j>roces3  of  tnezzotinto  is  by  no  means  so 
difficult  as  line-engr.a\-ing.  The  plate  is  prepared 
bj'  being  indented  or  hacked  all  over  by  an  instru- 
ment with  a  serrated  edge,  called  a  cradle,  which  is 
rocked  to  and  fro  upon  it  in  all  directions.  The  barl) 
or  na))  thus  pro<lnced  retains  the  printer's  ink,  and  if 
printed,  a  imiform  dark  surface  would  be  the  resiUt. 
On  this  plate,  after  a  tracing  has  been  transferred, 
the  engraver  goes  to  work  with  tools  called  scrapers 
and  burnishers — those  parts  of  the  ground  most 
smoothed  being  the  highest  lights,  and  the  ground 
the  least  o]>erated  on  pr<.)ducing  the  deepest  shadows. 
As  the  work  proceeds,  it  may  be  blackened  with  ink, 
applied  witli  a  printer's  ball  or  otherwise,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  effect.  The  design  is  sometimes 
etched  on  the  plate  by  the  ordinary  process,  before 
the  mczzotinto  ground  is  laid. 

3.  Aquatint  Engraving. — By  this  method,  the  effect 
of  drawings  in  ludian  ink  is  produced  ;  and  at  one 
time  it  was  greatly  made  use  <if  in  rendering  the 
drawings  of  r.iul  Samlliy  and  our  early  watur- 
colour  painters,  and  p.articularly  prints  for  drawing- 


books.  In  this  process,  which  is  a  very  complex 
kind  of  etching,  the  ground,  which  is  composed  of 
pulverised  rosin  and  spirits  of  wine,  assumes  when 
dry  a  granulated  form  ;  and  the  aquafortis  .acting 
on  the  metal  between  the  particles,  reduces  the 
surface  to  a  state  that  an  iuqiression  from  it 
resembles  a  tint  or  wash  of  colour  on  ])aper.  DaWd 
Allan  engraved  liis  celebrated  illustrations  of  the 
Gentle  Shepherd  in  this  manner.  It  has  now  gone 
almost  entirely  out  of  use,  liaving,  like  engraving  in 
imit.ations  of  dr.awings  in  clialk  or  pencil,  been  in 
a  great  degree  sui>erseded  by  lithography. 

4.  In  engra\*ing  in  Stipple,  wliicli  was  much  in 
vogue  in  the  end  of  the  hvst  century,  the  drawing 
.and  effect  are  produced  by  small  dots,  in  jiKace  of 
luies.  Ryland,  B.artolozzi,  and  .Slierwin,  excelled 
in  this  style.  It  is  well  suited  for  portraits  ;  several 
of  Eaeburn's  have  been  capitally  engraved  in  stipple 
by  Walker.  It  involves  much  more  labour  than 
mczzotinto,  and  is  now  Uttle  practised. 

Plate-printing. — Copper-plates,  engraved  in  any  of 
the  above  styles,  are  ready  for  press  as  soon  as  they 
are  finished  by  the  engraver.  The  method  of  print- 
ing from  them  is  very  simple.  Their  engraved  sur- 
face is  daubed  over  with  a  thick  oleaginous  ink,  so 
that  the  lines  are  effectually  filled.  As  this  dirties 
the  whole  face  of  the  plate,  it  is  necessary  to  clean 
it,  which  is  done  by  the  workman  wiping  it  first 
with  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  then  with  the  palms  of  his 
hands,  rubbed  on  tine  whiting.  It  m.ay  be  calculated 
that  a  hundred  times  more  ink  is  thus  removed 
than  actually  remains  in  the  indentations ;  how- 
ever, such  is  necessary.  The  plate  being  thoroughly 
cleaned,  it  is  laid  on  a  press  (see  fig.),  mth  a  piece 


\ 


./> 


of  damped  paper  over  it ;  and  being  wound  beneath 
a  roller  covered  with  blanket-stufl",  it  is  forced 
to  yield  an  impression  on  the  jiaper.  The  plate 
requires  to  be  kept  at  a  moderate  w;irmth  during 
the  operation.  The  frequent  ndibing  of  the  plate 
with  the  hand  to  clean  it,  as  m.ay  be  supposed,  tends 
gi-e.atly  to  wear  it  down ;  and  such  is  the  wear 
chiefly  from  tliis  cause,  th.at  few  copper-phates  will 
yield  more  than  a  few  thousands  of  mipressions  in 
good  order.  The  earliest,  called  proofi,  are  alw.ays 
the  best  and  most  highly  prized. 

In  consequence  of  this  defect  in  cojiper,  the  prac- 
tice of  engraving  steel-plates,  for  all  siibjects  reqmring 
a  great  many  impressions,  has  now  become  very 
common.  This  process  was  introduced  by  the  late 
Mr  I'erkins  of  London,  wlu)  originally  softened  the 
plates,  engraved  them,  and  then  rehardened  them — 
a  practice  now  abandoned,  as  ordinary  steel-platea 
can  be  worked  upon  by  the  burin,  dry-point,  scraper, 
and  burnisher  with  perfect  facility.  Etching  on 
steel-plates  is  executed  much  in  the  s.ame  w.ay  as  in 
the  process  on  copper.  An  engraving  on  a  steel- 
]>late  may  be  transferred  in  relief  to  a  softened  steel 
cylinder  I)y  pressure  ;  and  this  cylinder,  after  being 
hardened,  m.ay  again  transfer  the  design  by  rolling 


ENGRAVING. 


it  upon  a  fresh  steel-plate;  and  thus  the  design  may 
be  multiplied  at  pleasiu'e. 

History  of  En'jravinrj. — This  most  important  in- 
vention, by  which  the  productions  of  art  are  diffused 
without  hmit,  is  said  to  have  been  accidental,  and 
is  claimed  for  Tommaso  Fiuiguen-a,  who  lirst  took 
impressions  on  paper  about  the  year  1440.  His 
employment  was  executing  ornamental  engraving, 
chiefly  on  articles  used  in  religious  services,  such 
as  small  portable  sliriues,  or  altar-pieces.  These 
were  generally  made  of  silver,  and  the  designs 
engraveil  on  them  were  HUed  up  with  a  black 
composition,  that  hardened  in  a  short  time.  This 
composition  was  called  iu  Italian  niello  {from  Lat. 
uifjeUus,  dim.  of  nif/ci\  black),  and  the  workers  in  it 
niellatori.  It  was  the  practice  of  Finiguen-a,  in  the 
course  of  executing  his  work,  to  prove  it  by  rubbing 
lampblack  and  oil  into,  and  pressing  paper  over 
it ;  he  thus  obtained  an  impression  of  his  work 
up  to  a  particular  stage,  and  was  enabled  safely 
to  carry  it  ou  till  it  was  completed.  Finiguerra's 
title  to  the  invention  has  been  disputed ;  and  iu  a 
recent  work  by  J.  D.  Passavant,  Le  Peintre-Graeeur 
(Leip.  18G0),  a  strong  case  seems  to  be  made  out 
for  its  German  origin.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
principal  early  Italian  engravers  who  followed 
Finiguerra,  were  Bacio  Baldini  (born  about  1436,  died 
1515)  ;  Sandro  BotticeUi  (born  14;J7,  ilied  1515)— he 
embellished  an  edition  of  Dante's  Inferno,  brought 
out  iu  1481 ;  Antonio  Pollajuoli  (born  1426,  died 
1498,  at  Florence) ;  Antb-ea  Mantegna  (born  at 
Padua  14.S1,  died  at  Mantua  1505) ;  and  Marc 
Antonio  Ila\-moudi  (born  at  Bologna  14S7  or  14SS, 
died  1539),  who  executed  his  chief  works  at  Kome. 
The  most  celebrated  early  German  engravers  were 
Martin  Schoenganer  (bom  at  Colmar  about  1455, 
died  1499) ;  Israel  van  Mechein,  or  Meckenen  (born 
at  Meckenen  on  the  Meuse  about  1450.  and  ilied 
1523)  ;  Michel  Wohlgemuth,  who  died  in  1519 ; 
Albert  Diirer  (born  at  Nurnberg  in  1471,  died  in 
1528)  ;  and  Lucas  van  Leyden  (born  at  Leydeu 
1494,  tUed  1533).  The  engravings  of  all  these  artists 
are  very  valuable,  not  only  from  their  scarceness,  and 
as  illustrating  the  early  history  and  progress  of  the 
art,  but  as  exemphfying  many  high  qualities  that 
have  never  been  surpassed  in  later  times.  The 
most  of  them  were  painters,  and  engraved  their  own 
works,  except  Marc  Antonio,  who  engraved  chiefly 
those  of  Kaphael,  by  whom  he  was  employed,  and 
who  occasionally  overlooked  and  directed  him.  All 
those  engravers,  and  their  immediate  followers, 
executed  their  works  with  the  graver;  but  soon 
after,  engravings  came  to  be  generally  executed 
by  two  processes — etching,  and  cutting  with  the 
graver  or  the  dry-point.  The  works  of  these  early 
masters  are  often  remarkable  for  character  and 
expression,  as  those,  for  instance,  by  Mantegna ; 
and  for  the  correctness  and  high  style  of  the 
drawing,  for  which  qualities  Marc  Antonio  has 
never  been  surjjassed  ;  also  for  flnish  of  the  most 
careful  and  elaborate  kind,  which  has  been  carried 
fm-ther  by  Alliert  Diirer  and  Lucas  van  Leyden 
than  by  any  other  engra\'ers.  The  styles  of  these 
earlj-  engravers  were  cidtivated  by  numerous  suc- 
cessors, several  of  whom  followed  their  masters  as 
closely  as  they  could,  while  others  diverged  into 
something  like  originality  :  the  chief  names  are 
Agostino  Veneziano,  about  1620 ;  Nicol.is  Belin  da 
Modena,  and  Giov.  Ghisi,  1630 ;  Luc.  Damesz, 
who  died  in  1533 ;  Giov.  Giac.  Cara^lio,  and 
Marco  da  Piavenna,  about  1640 ;  Giul.  Bonasone, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1498,  died  in  Home  in  1564 ; 
Eneus  Vicus,  George  Vens,  Henrid  Aldegraf,  and 
Jean  Sebast.  Bcehm,  about  1550  ;  Adrian,  Charles, 
William,  and  John  CoUert.  Adam  and  George 
Ghisi,  Sutermann,  Virgilius  Solis,  C'orueUns  Cort, 


Martin  Kota,  and  others,  ranging  from  the  middle 
to  the  end  of  the  16th  century.  Agost.  Caracci, 
the  celebrated  painter,  executed  many  siiirited 
engravings.  Saenredam,  De  Bruyn,  Galle,  Keller- 
thaller,  Alberti,  De  Goudt,  G.  de  Pass,  Sadeler, 
arc  names  of  well-known  engravers  that  enter  on 
the  17th  century.  Henry  Goltzius  is  noted  for 
the  number  and  variety  of  his  works,  and  his 
imitations  of  the  styles  of  the  older  masters.  In 
the  plates  of  engravers  towards  the  middle  of  the 
17th,  and  beginning  of  the  ISth  c,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  work  consists  of  etching,  the  graver 
being  chiefly  used  for  deepening  and  clearing  up 
the  etching.  This  arose  from  the  manner  of 
working  being  well  adapted  for  rendering  the  style 
of  the  painters  of  that  period,  whose  works  were 
distinguished  for  freedom  of  execution  or  touch, 
and  clearness  and  transparency.  The  most  noted 
engravers  of  this  period  were  tlie  Vischers,  who 
flourished  between  1610  and  1650,  and  engraved 
many  of  Berghem's  pictiu-cs  ;  Bols wert,  1 020 ;  Lucas 
Vosterraan  the  Elder,  1630 ;  Suyderhoef,  about 
1G40.  These  engravers  rendered  many  of  the  works 
of  Rubens  iu  a  very  spirited  manner.  Coryn  Boel — 
whose  engravings  from  Teuiers  are  in  some  respects 
superior  even  to  Le  Bas — Troyen,  and  Van  Kessel, 
are  worthy  contemporaries. 

In  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.,  a  race  of  engravers  o£ 
portraits  arose,  who  carried  execution  ^v^th  the 
graver  almost  to  perfection.  The  works  of  the 
artists  they  engraved  from  were  florid  in  style, 
with  a  great  display  of  drapery  and  lace,  and 
accessories  iu  the  backgrounds  elaborately  executed. 
Among  these  engravers  the  following  rank  highest ; 
Gerard  Edelinck  (b.  Antwerp  1627,  d.  Paris  1707) — ■ 
he  was  one  of  the  best  engi'avers  of  the  period, 
and  sjieciaUy  patronised  by  Louis  XIV. ;  Masson 
(b.  1636,  d.  1700) ;  Larmessiu  (b.  1640,  d.  1GS4) ;  Drevet 
the  Elder  (b.  1664,  d.  1739) ;  Drevet  the  Younger 
(b.  1697);  GerardAndran(b.  1640,  d.  1703).  There  was 
a  large  family  of  Audrans  engi'avers,  but  Gerard 
was  tile  most  celebrated,  indeed  he  was  one  of  the 
best  of  the  French  engravers.  Among  engravers  of 
talent  in  England  may  be  mentioned  Robert  Walker 
(b.  1572)  ;  William  Faithome  (b.  London  between 
1620  and  1630,  d.  1694)  executed  many  excellent 
engravings  of  portraits  ;  George  Vertue  (l.i.  London 
1684,  d.  1756),  a  good  engraver,  and  a  man  of 
general  information  and  taste  in  matters  of  art  ; 
John  Smith  (b.  London  1654,  d.  1722)  executed  m 
niezzotinto  a  vast  number  of  interesting  portraits. 
In  the  18th  c.,  there  were  numerous  excellent 
engi'avers,  by  whose  works  the  taste  for  the  pictm'es 
of  the  Dutch  school  of  the  17th  c.  has  been  widely 
extended.  Two  of  the  most  distinguished  of  these 
•\\-ere  John  Phihp  le  Bas  (b.  Paris  1708,  d.  1782)  and 
John  George  Wdle  (b.  Kiinigsberg  1717,  d.  1808). 
Their  styles  are  totally  dissimilar.  Le  Bas's  plates 
are  chiefly  etched,  and  remarkable  for  spirit 
and  sharpness  of  touch  and  transparency;  accord- 
ingly, mostly  all  his  works  are  after  painters  who 
excelled  in  these  qualities,  particidarly  Teniers. 
Wille's  engravings,  again,  are  of  the  most  careful 
and  el.aborate  description,  and  his  best  prints  are 
after  Gerard  Dow,  Terburg,  Mieris,  and  Metzu — 
masters  distinguished  for  the  high  finish  of  their 
pictures.  He  worked  mth  the  graver ;  and  liis  plates 
are  distinguished  by  the  precision  and  clearness 
with  which  the  lines  are  cut. 

It  was  about  the  middle  and  latter  portion  of 
last  centui-y  that  engraving  reached  its  highest 
point  in  England.  The  works  of  William  Hogarth 
(b.  London  1098,  d.  1764)  are  of  world-wide  cele- 
brity, but  that  is  owing  mainly  to  the  excellence 
and  dramatic  interest  of  the  pictures  from  which 
the    engravings   are  made,  though,  no   doubt,  his 


ENGRAVING. 


prints  are  engraved  in  a  firm  clear  style,  similar 
to  that  practised  by  the  French  engravers  of  the 
time,  several  of  whom  were  employed  by  him. 
It  was  Sir  Robert  Strange  (b.  Orkney  1721, 
d.  London  1792),  an  engraver  of  figures,  and  William 
Woolet  (b.  >Iaidstone  1735,  d.  London  17S5), 
a  landscape-engraver,  who  imparted  to  English 
engiaviiig  those  qualities  and  characteristics  that 
enable  us  to  claim  a  style  of  tngraWng  that  is 
national,  differing  from  other  stj'les,  and  that  has 
arisen  and  been  best  caiTied  out  in  this  coimtiy.  In 
drawing  and  form,  Strange  was  rather  defective; 
but  he  excelled  in  what  engravers  call  colour,  or  the 
art  of  producing,  by  means  of  variety  of  line,  a 
texture  or  quality  that  compensates  for  the  want  of 
colour,  by  gi\Tng  to  the  engraving  something  of  the 
richness  jiroduced  by  colour  in  a  picture.  His  imita- 
tion of  the  softness  and  semi-transparency  of  flesh 
was  particularly  successfiU,  and  superior  to  that  of 
the  French  engravers,  whose  works,  though  in  most 
respects  admirable,  failed  in  that  respect,  and  had, 
in  the  more  delicate  parts,  a  hard  or  metallic  look. 
Woolet  treated  landscape-engra'i'ing  in  a  manner 
totally  new,  imparting  to  it  more  firmness  and 
decision,  by  making  great  use  of  the  graver.  His 
works  have  more  finish  and  force  than  former  land- 
scape-engi-avers,  but  they  are  in  some  degree  liable 
to  the  objection  of  hardness,  in  the  treatment  of 
foliage  in  particiUar.  The  works  of  these  two 
engravers  have  had  a  marked  influence  on  art,  not 
only  in  this  country,  but  abroad.  The  merit  of 
Strange's  style  was  acknowledged  on  the  conti- 
nent ;  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academies  of 
Florence,  Bologna,  Parma,  and  Rome.  At  the  end 
of  last  centiu-j',  art  had  fallen  very  low  on  the 
continent,  but  a  regeneration  was  beginning ;  and  in 
It.aly,  engravers  were  then  arising,  such  as  Volpato 
and  Cimego,  who  studied  and  imitated  the  softness 
and,  technically  speaking,  fleshiness  of  texture  that 
distinguished  the  works  of  the  British  engraver ; 
those,  again,  were  followed  by  Raphael  Morghen, 
Longhi,  Jlercurii,  and  others,  in  Italj' ;  by  Boucher 
Desnoyers,  Forster,  &c.,  in  France ;  and  by  Miiller, 
Keller,  Gruner,  and  numerous  other  engravers  in 
Germany.  By  them,  engra\ang  has  been  carried  to 
the  highest  pitch.  Amongst  their  works,  the  io\- 
lo wing  are  c/if/i-<i'(E?(t'rc«.-  'The  Last  Supper,'  after 
Da  Vinci,  by  R.  Morghen ;  the  '  Spozalizia,'  after 
Raphael,  by  Longhi ;  '  La  Belle  Jardiniere,'  and 
other  works,  after  Raphael,  by  Bo\ieher  Desnoyers, 
who  has  engraved  the  works  of  Raph.ael  perhaps  on 
the  whole  oetter  than  any  other  engraver ;  '  The 
Madonna  de  San  Sisto,'  by  Miiller,  and  '  The  Dispute 
on  the  Sacrament,'  after  Raphael,  of  Keller.  No 
engravings  executed  in  this  country  come  up  to 
the  works  of  these  last-named  m.asters,  who  have 
engraved  works  of  a  higher  class  than  the  majority 
of  those  done  by  Strange,  while  the  di'awiug  and 
general  treatment  of  their  works  are  in  a  purer  and 
more  correct  style.  However,  the  engravings  of 
Burnet,  Raimbach,  Stewart,  and  others  after  WUkie 
and  contemporary  British  painters,  deservedly  hold 
the  highest  place  among  works  of  the  class  to 
which  they  belong,  and  betoken  clearly  the  great 
influence  which  Strange  exercised  on  their  style. 
At  present,  few  figure-subjects  are  executed  in 
the  line-manner,  and  tliat  art  has  certainly  f,allen 
in  this  country.  This  may  be  accounted  for, 
perha]>s,  by  the  great  use  made  of  mechanical 
appliances,  in  portions  of  the  work,  to  save  time, 
and  by  the  preference  shewn  for  raezzotiuto- 
engraving  as  practised  at  present,  that  is,  ■Kith  a 
mixture  of  lining  or  stippling.  Tlie  greater  num- 
ber of  Landseor's  works  have  been  engraved  in 
that  way,  and  it  is  now  adopted  for  rendering  the 
works  of  John  I'hiUip  and  jlillais,  and  the  leading 


artists  of  the  day.  Several,  however,  of  Landsecr's 
earlier  works  have  been  engraved  in  the  line  manner, 
particularly  his  pictm-es  of  '  Drovers  leaWng  the 
(jramjiians,'  and  'The  Watering-place,'  by  Watt, 
which  are  capital  examples  of  line-engraving. 
TTiere  is  no  good  modem  school  of  landscape-engrav- 
ing on  the  continent ;  the  influence  of  Woolet  was 
entirely  confined  to  this  country,  where  landscape- 
engraving,  particularly  in  illustrated  works  after 
Turner,  has  attained  great  excellence. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  mezzotinto- 
engraving  was  practised  in  England  with  great 
success  ;  arising  from  its  being  ]>eculiarly  adapted 
to  render  effectively  the  works  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds. M'Anlell,  Earlom,  Watson,  Smith,  Valentine 
Green,  and  Ward  were  among  the  best  engravers  of 
his  works.  The  invention  of  this  process  is  gener- 
ally given  to  Prince  Rupert,  others  ascribe  it  to 
Dr  Wren,  1662,  and  state  that  Prince  Rupert  merely 
improved  on  the  invention.  It  has  been  jiractised 
very  generally  from  the  time  of  its  invention,  but 
attained  its  highest  position  in  Sir  Joshu.a's  time; 
and  it  is  very  successfully  carried  out  now,  in  an 
altered  manner,  additional  force  being  aimed  at,  by 
means  of  stippling  and  etching.  It  is  well  calcu- 
lated for  producing  broad  effects  :  Turner's  Liber 
Studioriim,  and  the  landscapes  after  Constable,  are 
admirable  examples  of  its  capabilities  in  this  w.ay ; 
the  effect  in  Turner's  plates,  however,  is  heightened 
by  etching. 

Etching  has  been  already  described  as  a  p.art 
of  the  process  of  cngra\'Tng ;  but  as  practised  by 
painters,  it  is  classed  as  a  distinct  art.  The  plate 
is  prepared  with  a  ground,  and  corroded  in  the  same 
way  ;  but  the  treatment  is  more  free.  Not  being 
tied  to  the  task  of  literally  copying  or  translating 
the  idea  of  another,  like  the  engraver,  the  painter 
has  scope  to  impart  a  spirit  to  his  work  jieculiarly 
suggestive  of  what  he  intends  to  embody  ;  his  idea 
is  represented  directly,  and  not  at  second-hand,  as 
it  were.  The  etchings  of  Rembrandt,  Paul  Potter, 
Karl  du  Jardin,  Adrian  Vandevelde,  Teniers,  Ostade, 
Berghcm,  Backhuysen,  Van  Dj'ck,  Claude,  Salvator 
Rosa,  C'analetti,  and  other  painters,  are  very  highly 
valued,  as  convejaug  more  completely  the  feeling 
of  the  ]iainter  than  the  best  engravings.  Etching 
w.as  more  practised  by  the  old  than  by  modem 
painters  ;  yet  Wilkie,  Landseer,  and  other  modern 
artists,  have  etched  various  plates,  remarkable  for 
character  and  spii-it. 

English  Works  on  Engraving — Sculpture,  or  lite 
History  and  Art  of  Chalcoijraphy  and  Engraving 
on  Copper,  by  John  Evelyu  (Lond.  12mo,  166.3 ; 
8vo,  1755)  ;  The  Art  of  Engraving  and  Etching,  n-il/i 
the  Way  of  Printing  Copper-plates,  by  M.  Faithorne 
(Lond.  1702) ;  Sculptura  Historico-tedmico,  or  the 
History  and  A  rl  of  Engraving,  extracted  from  Bal- 
dinucci  Florcnt,  Le  Compt,  Faithorne,  tlve  Ahecadario 
Pittorico,  and  other  authors  (Lond.  4to,  1747,  17G6, 
and  1770)  ;  An  E/tsay  vpoti  Prints,  by  Gilpin  (Lond. 
8vo,  1767,  1768,  and  1781);  Strutt's  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Engravers  (2  vols.,  4to,  Lond.  1785) ; 
Landseer's  Lectures  oh  Engraving  (8vo,  Lond.  1S06) ; 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of 
Engraving  vpon  Copper  and  on  Wood,  by  William 
Yoimg  Ottley  (4to,  Lond.  ISIG). 

Of  late  years,  many  inventions  have  been  intro- 
duced, haWng  for  their  object  to  sujiersede  the  slow 
and  laborious  manual  operations  of  engra%'ing  by 
means  of  machinery  and  other  appliances.  It  is, 
however,  to  business  aud  ornamental  purposes  that 
tliey  are  applicable,  and  not  to  the  production  of 
artistic  engravings  of  tlie  kind  treated  of  in  this 
article.  The  subject  will  be  noticed  under  Machine 
Engravixo,  Medals,  Glass,  &c.  With  regard  to 
the  reproduction  of  plates,  and  other  apjilicationa  of 


ENGRAVINGS— ENLISTMENT. 


galvanic  electricity  to  engra\Tng,  see  Galvanism 
and  Magneto-Electricity.  See  also  Photographic 
Engraving. 

ENGRAVINGS,  Property  of.  The  property 
of  engravings  and  prints  is  secured  by  statutes 
similar  to  those  for  the  protection  of  literary 
propertj'.  By  S  Geo.  II.  c.  13,  the  property  of 
historical  and  other  prints  was  declared  to  be 
invested  in  the  inventor  for  14  years.  The 
proprietor's  name  must  be  affixed  to  each  print, 
and  the  statute  imposes  a  penalty  on  printsellers 
and  others  pirating  the  same.  The  provisions  of 
this  statute  were  extended  by  7  Geo.  III.  c.  38, 
which  secures  to  the  widow  of  WiUiam  Hogarth 
the  sole  right  of  printing  and  reprinting  his  works 
for  the  period  of  20  j'ears.  The  other  acts  are 
17  Geo.  III.  c.  57,  0  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  59— which 
extends  the  former  .acts  to  the  whole  United  King- 
dom— and  15  Vict.  c.  12.  The  latter  act — the  object 
of  which  was  to  enable  her  Majesty  to  carry  into 
effect  a  convention  with  France  on  the  subject  of 
copyright,  to  extend  and  explain  the  international 
copyright  acts,  and  to  exj)laiii  the  acts  relating 
to  copjTight  in  engravings — reduces  the  duties  on 
foreign  engravings,  and  extends  the  protection  of 
the  acts  to  prints  taken  by  lithography,  or  '  any 
other  mechanical  process  by  which  prints  or  impres- 
sions of  drawings  or  designs  are  capable  of  being 
midtiplied  indefinitely ' — a  clause  which  has  now 
been  found  to  cover  photographs. 

ENGROSSING  and  REGRA'TING.     An 

engrosser,  rcgrater,  or  forestaller,  is  a  person  who 
buys  grain,  flesh,  fish,  or  other  articles  of  food,  with 
the  intention  of  selling  them  again  at  an  enhanced 
price,  cither  in  the  same  fair  or  market,  or  in 
another  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  who  purchases  or 
contracts  for  com  while  still  in  the  field.  These 
practices  were  regarded  as  criminal  in  most  conn- 
tries,  before  the  laws  by  which  trade  is  regidated 
were  properly  imderstood.  In  England,  they  were 
forbidden  by  various  statutes,  from  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.  to  th.it  of  Queen  Ajiue.  These  statutes 
were  repealed  by  12  Geo.  III.  c.  71,  on  the  ]ire- 
amble,  that  it  hath  been  foimd  by  experience,  that 
the  restraints  laid  upon  the  dealing  in  com,  meal, 
flour,  cattle,  and  sundry  other  sorts  of  victuals,  by 
preventing  a  free  trade  in  the  said  commodities, 
have  a  tendency  to  discourage  the  growth,  and  to 
enhance  the  price  of  the  same.  It  was  foimd,  how- 
ever, that  engrossing  was  not  ordy  a  st.atutory  but 
a  common  law  offence,  and  a  prosecution  for  it  in 
the  latter  character  actually  took  place  in  the 
present  century.  The  Act  7  and  S  Vict.  e.  24,  for 
aboUshing  the  offences  of  forestalling,  regrating,  and 
engrossing,  was  consequently  passed.  Besides  declar- 
ing that  the  several  offences  of  badgering,  engross- 
ing, forestalling,  and  regrating  be  utterly  taken 
away  and  abolished,  and  that  no  information  or 
prosecution  shall  lie  either  at  common  law  or  by 
\Ti'tue  of  any  statute,  either  in  England,  Scotland, 
or  Ireland,  this  statute  repeals  a  whole  host  of 
earlier  enactments  in  restraint  of  trade,  which  had 
been  omitted  in  the  statute  in  the  time  of  George 
III.,  above  refeiTed  to.  The  rubrics  of  these  enact- 
ments give  a  curious  picture  not  only  of  the  trading 
errors,  but  in  many  other  respects  of  the  obsolete 
customs  of  our  ancestors.  The  first,  for  example 
(51  Henry  III.),  is  called  a '  Statute  of  the  Pillory  and 
Tumbrel,  and  of  the  Assize  of  Bread  and  Ale.'  Tlien 
there  is  an  act  passed  in  several  reigns  which 
provides  for  the  punishment  of  '  a  butcher  or  cook 
that  buyeth  flesh  of  .Tews,  and  seUeth  the  same  to 
Christians.' 

Notwithstanding  the  doctrine  of  the  Scottish  law, 
that  statutes  may  he  repealed  by  mere  desuetude,  it 


was  thought  safer  to  include  the  Scottish  statutes  to 
the  same  effect.  The  earliest  is  1503,  c.  38,  and  the 
latest  1661,  c.  280. 

The  statute  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  24  does  not  apply  to 
the  spreading  of  false  rumours,  with  the  intent  to 
enliance  or  decry  the  jjrice  of  merchandise,  or  pre- 
venting goods  fi'om  being  brought  to  market  by 
force  or  threats,  which  continue  to  be  punishable  as 
if  that  act  had  not  been  made. 

ENGROSSING  A  DEED.     See  Ingrossing. 

ENGUE'RA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Valencia,  43  miles  south-west  of  the  tovra  of  that 
name.  It  is  poorly  built,  and  has  nan'ow  and 
irregular  streets.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and 
woollen  goods,  and  some  trade  in  cattle  and  agricul- 
tural produce.     Pop.  5250. 

ENGUICHE.  A  hunting-horn,  the  rim  around 
the  mouth  of  which  is  of  a  different  coloiu"  from  tho 
horn  itself,  is  said  heraldically  to  be  enguiche,  of 
the  colour  in  question. 

ENHARMO'NIC,  a  term  applied  in  Music  when 
the  name  of  a  note  is  changed  without  any  sensible 
difference  of  sound,  such  as  C'S  and  Db,  F£  and  Gb. 
Correctly  speaking,  there  is,  or  ought  to  be,  a 
difference;  but  on  keyed  instruments,  such  as  the 
organ  and  pianoforte,  there  can  be  none,  as  the 
same  key  serves  for  both  sharji  and  flat,  while 
with  a  just  equal  temperament  the  ear  is  in  no 
way  offended.  In  harmony,  the  principal  seat  of 
enharmonic  change  is  in  the  chord  of  the  tliminished 
seventh,  which,  by  a  change  of  the  notes,  may  be 
treated  fundamentally  in  four  different  ways,  without 
any  sensible  difference  in  the  intonation. 

ENKHUI'SEN,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of 
the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  North  Holland, 
is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Ziuder  Zee, 
about  30  miles  north-east  of  Amsterdam.  It  is 
built  with  great  regidarity,  and  is  of  a  circidar  form. 
The  most  important  public  building  is  an  ele»ant 
town-house,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  tower.  There 
are  also  numerous  ecclesiastical  edifices,  several  salt- 
refineries,  ship-biulding  yards,  .and  a  cannon-foundrj'. 
Formerly,  E.  was  a  town  of  some  importance — 400 
vessels  used  to  leave  its  harbour  annually  for  the 
herring-fisheries  ;  at  present,  not  more  than  7  vessels 
are  thus  employed.  It  has  stiU  some  trade  in  butter, 
cheese,  timber,  cattle,  and  fish.     Pop.  5400. 

ENLI'STMENT  is  the  mode  by  which  the 
English  army  is  supplied  with  troops,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Con.scriptiox  prevailing  in  many 
other  coimtries.  Enlistment  was  in  private  hands 
until  the  year  1802,  middlemen  procuring  recruits, 
and  receiving  a  profit  or  commission  for  their 
trouble.  This  system  being  subject  to  much  abuse, 
the  matter  was  taken  into  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  above-named  year,  aud  is  now  managed 
by  the  adjutant-general.  Formerly,  a  soldier  en- 
hsted  for  life,  and  could  never  look  forward  to  a 
period  of  freedom  ;  or,  at  best,  he  could  not  retire 
on  a  pension  while  still  possessed  of  a  fair  share  of 
health  and  strength.  This  system  was  changed  in 
1847,  by  an  act  relating  to  limifed  enlistment ; 
which  provided  that  a  man  should  enlist  for  10 
years  for  the  infantry,  or  for  12  for  the  cavalry  or 
artillery.  At  the  expii'ation  of  this  period,  he  could 
either  quit  the  army,  without  pension ;  or  re-enlist 
for  the  remainder  of  21  j'ears  for  the  infantry,  or  24 
years  for  cavalry  or  artiUery.  This  second  period 
of  service  entitled  the  soldier  to  a  pension  for  life, 
after  his  discharge :  and,  in  1SG8,  twojjence  a  day 
was  added  to  the  pay  of  every  soldier  who  re- 
enlisted  (or  re-engaged).  This  system  of  enlistment 
provided  soldiers  :  but  did  nothing  for  the  groxrth 
of  trained  reserves,  with  which  to  bring  the  army  to 

71 


ENLISTMENT— ENNISKILLEN. 


fighting  strength  in  the  event  of  war.  The  '  Army 
Enlistment  Act,'  of  1S70,  seeks  to  remedy  this 
defect,  by  allowing  men  to  enlist  for  12  years,  wiiU 
the  iimlcrstaniling  that  6  j-e.ars  or  less  shall  be 
passed  with  the  colours,  and  the  remainder  with  the 
reserve.  This  is  known  .as  'short  service;'  and, 
under  the  system,  from  1870  onward,  a  reserve  of 
trained  soldiers  will  be  formed.  It  is  estimated 
that  with  an  army  of  180,000  men,  of  whom  three- 
fourths  are  to  serve  only  six  years  with  the  colours, 
there  will  accrue  by  1SS2,  a  reserve  of  100,000 
trained  men,  all  under  32  years  of  age.  If  appren- 
tices cnhst,  the  master  may  recover  them  under 
certain  conditions  detailed  in  the  Mutiny  Act 
(q.  V.)  (which  is  jiassej  every  year).  The  Mutiny 
Act  also  provides  that  servants  enlisting  before 
the  term  of  their  engagement,  are  validly  enUsted, 
and  are  entitled  to  wages  U[)  to  the  date  of 
enlistment.  Periods  of  imprisonment  are  not 
reckoned  as  ]>art  of  the  time  of  limited  enlist- 
ment. A  recruit  enlists  into  either  one  of  the 
70  sub-district  brigades,  each  of  which  comprises 
either  a  two-battahon  regiment,  or  two  single- 
battalion  regiments,  or  he  enlists  for  gener.al  service 
in  any  rei;iment  to  which  the  Adjutant-general 
may  post  him ;  but  artificers,  as  armourers,  &c.,  are 
usually  enlisted  for  general  service,  so  that  their 
services  may  be  made  available  where  most  re- 
quired. Every  recruit  is  asked  whether  he  belongs 
to  the  militia,  and  whether  he  enlists  willingly. 
He  has  to  apjiear  before  a  magistrate,  and  m.ike 
declaration  that  the  enlistment  is  voluntary  on  his 
part.  Several  other  questions  are  put  to  him; 
some  of  the  Articles  of  War  are  read  to  him ; 
and  he  is  e.\pected  to  understand  his  real  position 
before  the  oath  is  administered.  If,  at  this  inter- 
view with  the  magistrate,  the  young  man  repents 
of  his  previous  engagement  with  the  recruiting- 
officer,  he  may  buy  himself  off  by  paying  twenty 
shillings  as  Smart-money  (q.  v.),  and  defraying 
any  other  expense  he  may  have  occasioned.  He 
c;iunot  retract  without  paying  this  fine  ;  a  simple 
refusal  to  take  the  oath  is  followed  by  imprison- 
ment. 

ENLISTMENT,  in  the  Navy,  is  managed  by  the 
Admiralty,  and  is  changed  from  time  to  time  in  its 
details,  according  to  the  degree  of  wiUingness  among 
seafaring  men  to  enter  the  service.  In  18.30,  an 
act  was  passed  to  give  certain  addition.al  advan- 
tages to  volunteer  seamen.  In  18.35,  another  act 
empow'ered  the  crowni  to  doul)le  the  amount  of 
bounty  given  to  a  volunteer,  if  he  w.os  already  a 
seaman.  In  1847,  it  was  enacted  that  such  persons 
as  were  entitled,  if  enlisted,  to  double  bomity, 
should  form  a  select  class ;  and  that  sliipowners 
should  not  be  allowed  to  hire  such  j)ersons  as 
crews  for  merchant-ships,  if  the  government  thought 
j)roper  to  issue  a  proclamation  to  that  effect. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Paissia, 
in  1854,  it  was  deemed  expedient  not  only  to  give 
extra  boiuities  to  seamen  wilUng  to  enlist,  but  to 
make  a  money-present  to  seamen  already  in  the 
navy,  as  an  equivalent  advantage.  The  bounty 
given  to  seamen  varies  from  time  to  time,  accord- 
ing to  the  exigencies  of  the  service ;  but  recent 
legislation  has  established  a  distinction  between 
limited  and  continuous  service.  A  seaman  may 
enlist  for  five  or  for  ten  years,  or  for  the  jicriod 
the  ship  he  enters  is  in  commission ;  if  for  the  longer 
])eriod,  he  receives  higher  pay  and  other  advantages. 
At  the  end  of  this  longer  period,  he  may  demand 
his  discharge  ;  and,  if  abroad,  he  may  claim  to  lie 
brought  home  free  of  expense.  His  commanding- 
officer  m.ay,  in  emergency,  retain  his  further  service 
for  six  months,  on  j>ayment  of  another  increase 
of  ji.ay.     The  crown,  besides,  possesses  a  power  of 


compelling  renewed  service  from  seamen  under  certain 
conditions,  in  case  of  invasion  or  other  national 
peril. 

Other  m.atters  bearing  on  this  suTijcct  will  be 
found  noticed  under  Bountv,  Co.\st  Volunteers, 
Impres-sjient,  and  Manning  the  Navy. 

ENMANCH16,  or  EMANCH^.     See  Maxche. 

ENNEMOSER,  .Ioseph,  known  as  a  medico- 
philosojihic  writer,  was  born  15th  Novemlier  1787, 
at  Hintersee,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  commenced  his 
academic  studies  at  Innsbruck  in  1800.  On  the 
rising  of  the  Tyrolese  against  the  French  in  1800,  E. 
followed  Andreas  Hofer  as  his  secretarj',  and  honour- 
ably distinguished  himself  in  battle  on  several  occa- 
sions. At  the  close  of  the  war,  he  went  to  Erlangen, 
and  subsequently  to  Vienna,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cluding his  studies.  Here,  however,  he  experienced 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  the  means  of 
subsistence,  but  fortmiately  fell  in  with  a  merchant 
from  Altona,  in  whose  company  he  travelled  for  some 
time.  When  Napoleon  declared  war  ag.ainst  Russia 
in  1812,  E.  was  despatched  to  England,  to  solicit  aid 
for  the  TjTolese  in  their  meditated  insm'rectiou 
against  the  French  domination.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  by  Friedrich  Wilhelm  III.,  king  of 
Prussia,  an  officer  in  a  regiment  of  volunteers,  and 
soon  gathered  about  him  a  company  of  Tyrolese 
marksmen,  who  were  of  great  service  during  the  c;un- 
paigns  of  1813  and  1814.  After  the  peace  of  Paris, 
E.  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  finished  his  curriculum, 
and  in  181G  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
In  1819,  he  was  made  Professor  of  Meilicine  at  the 
new  university  of  Bonn,  where  he  lectured  on 
Anthropologj',  Physical  Therapeutics,  and  Pathologj^ 
A  love  of  his  native  country  induced  him  to  settle 
as  a  physician  in  Innsbruck,  but  in  1841  he  went 
to  Munich,  where  he  obtained  a  great  rejiutation 
by  the  application  of  magnetism  as  a  curative 
power.  Among  his  "WTitings  may  be  mentioned, 
Dcr  Maiinetismus  in  seiner  gescMchtUchen  Entwicke- 
lunrj  (Leip.  1819),  which  is  reckoned  his  principal 
work  ;  Ilistorisch-psiichokxjische  Untersiic/iuniien  ilber 
den  Urspruwj  und  das  Wesen  der  MenscUichcn  Seele 
(Bonn,  1824) ;  Anthropolorfische  Ansichten  ziir  bessern 
Kenntni.sz  des  Menschen  (Bonn,  1828);  Der  Marjnetis- 
mus  im  Verhaltnisz  zur  Natiir  und  Eeligion  (Stuttg. 
1842) ;  Dei-  Geist  des  Menschen  in  der  yatur  (Stuttg. 
1849) ;  Was  ist  die  Cholera  (2d  eilit.,  Stuttg.  1850) ; 
and  Anleilung  zur  Mesmer' scheii  Praxis  (Stuttg. 
1852).     He  died  in  1854. 

E'NNIS,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough, 
chief  town  of  county  Clare,  Ireland,  on  the  Fergus, 
20  miles  W.N.W.  of  Limerick,  is  a  neat  town,  with 
some  good  houses.  Pop.  (1871)  G503,  of  whom  0102 
were  Koman  Catholics,  and  401  of  all  other  de- 
nominations. It  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
It  has  the  ruins  of  a  monastery  founded  in  1240  by 
O'Brien,  Prince  of  Thomond.  Near  the  town  is 
Eunis  College,  founded  by  Erasmus  Smith.  E.  has 
a  valuable  limestone  quarry,  large  Hour-mills,  and 
some  trade  in  grain  and  cattle. 

ENNISCO'RTHY,  a  market-town  in  the  middle 
of  Wexford  county,  Ireland,  on  a  rising  ground  on 
the  Slaney,  14  miles  N.N.W.  of  Wexford.  The 
Slaney  is  here  tidal  and  navig.able  for  barges,  and 
flows  through  a  fertile  and  beautiful  valley.  Pop. 
(1871)  5504,  iif  whom  4900  were  Bomau  Catholics, 
and  028  of  all  other  denominations.  E.  has  a  large 
corn-trade.  It  arose  in  a  Norman  castle,  still  en- 
tire, founded  by  liaymond  le  Gros,  one  of  the  early 
Anglo-Norman  invaders.  Cromwell  took  E.  in  1049; 
and  the  Irish  rebels  stormed  an<l  burned  it  in  1798. 

ENNISKl'LLEN,  a  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough,  chief  town  of  cminty  Fermanagh, 
Ireland,  about  75  miles  W.S.W.  of  Belfast,  is  beau- 


EN'NIUS— ENOCH. 


i 


tifully  situated  on  the  Erne ;  the  greater  portion  on 
an  isle  iu  the  river  between  the  Ujiper  and  Lower 
Loughs  Erue.  It  consists  mainly  of  one  undulating 
streut  runuing  E.  and  W.  Around,  are  richly 
cultivated  eminences  and  many  line  mansions.  Its 
two  forts  command  the  only  pass  for  50  miles  into 
Ulster  across  the  Erue.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  cutlery  and  straw-plait.  Pop.  (1871)  5836,  of 
whom  3'J72  were  Koman  Catholics,  2090  Episcopa- 
lians, and  the  rest  of  other  denominations.  It 
returns  one  member  to  parliament.  E.  is  famous 
for  the  vict(n-y,  iu  1680,  of  the  troops  of  William 
III.,  under  Lord  Hamilton,  over  a  superior  force  of 
James  II.,  under  Lord  Galmoy.  The  banners  taken 
in  the  battle  of  the  Boyue  hang  in  the  town-hall. 
The  regiment  of  Euniskilleners,  or  6th  Dragoons,  was 
first  instituted  from  the  brave  defenders  of  the  town. 

E'XNITJS,  one  of  the  earliest  Roman  poets,  the 
father  of  the  Itoman  Epos,  was  born  at  Rudise,  in 
Calabria,  about  240  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  was  probably  of  Greek  extraction.  He  is  said 
to  have  served  in  the  wars,  and  to  have  risen  to 
the  rank  of  a  centurion.  In  Sardinia,  he  became 
acquainted  with  Cato  the  Elder,  and  i-etnrned  with 
him  to  Rome  when  about  the  age  of  38.  Here 
he  g.ained  for  himself  the  friendship  of  the  most 
eminent  men,  among  others  that  of  Scipio  Africanus 
the  Elder,  and  attained  (what  was  then  exceedingly 
rare  in  the  case  of  an  alien)  to  the  rank  of  a  Roman 
citizen.  He  supported  himself  in  a  decent  but 
humble  manner  by  instructing  some  young  Romans 
of  distinguished  families  in  the  Cireek  language  and 
literature,  his  accurate  knowledge  of  which  explains 
the  influence  he  had  on  the  development  of  the  Latin 
tongue.  He  died  when  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
70,  or  about  190  B.C.  His  remains  were  inten-ed  in 
the  tomb  of  the  Scijiios,  and  his  bust  was  placed 
among  those  of  that  great  family.  E,  has  tried 
his  powers  in  almost  every  species  of  poetry,  and 
although  his  language  and  versification  are  "rough 
and  unpolished,  these  defects  are  fully  compensated 
by  the  energy  of  his  expressions,  and  the  fire  of  his 
poetry.  His  poems  were  highly  esteemed  by  Cicero, 
Horace,  and  Virgil :  the  last,  indeed,  frequently 
introduces  whole  lines  from  the  poetry  of  E.  into 
his  own  compositions.  His  memory  seems  to  have 
been  lovingly  cherished  by  his  countrymen  ;  Nostcr 
Ennius,  '  Uur  Ennius,'  they  used  to  call  him.  Of 
his  tragedies,  comedies,  satires,  and  particularly  of 
his  Ann(ile.<!,  an  epos  in  18  books,  only  fragments  are 
still  extant.  What  adds  to  our  regTet  isT  that  it  is 
believed  his  whole  works  were  extant  as  late  as  the 
13th  c.  (A.  G.  Cramer,  NaiLschivnid-).  The  frag- 
ments have  been  collected  and  edited  by  various 
scholai-s,  among  others  by  Hcssel  (Amst.  17i)7).  The 
fragments  of  the  Aiiital(:>!  lla^•e  been  edited  by  .Spau- 
genberg  (Lei]).  1825).  Comjiare  Hoch,  Be  kitnian- 
orum  Annalium  FnKjmeutis  (Bonn,  1839).  The  few 
fragments  of  his  dramas  that  have  cojne  down  to 
us  were  collected  by  Bothe  in  the  Puelantm  Lal'd 
Sceiiicorum  Fmgimiila  (5  vols.). 

ENNS,  a  river  of  Austria,  rises  at  the  northern 
base  of  a  branch  of  the  Noric  Alps  in  the  crown- 
land  of  Salzburg,  12  miles  south  of  Iladstadt.  It 
first  flows  north  to  Radstadt,  then  north-north-east 
to  Hieflau,  after  which  it  j>roceeds  in  a  general 
direction  north-north-west,  passes  Steyer,  and  joins 
the  Danube  U  miles  below  the  toMii  of  Linz,  after 
a  course  of  about  120  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  are 
the  Salza  and  the  Steyer.  For  the  last  15  miles  of 
its  course,  the  E.  forms  the  boundary  between 
Upper  Austria  (Ober  der  Enns)  and  Lower  Austria 
(Unter  dor  Enns).  The  scenery  on  the  banks  of  the 
E.  is  in  general  bold  and  romantic,  as  it  flows,  for 
the  most   part,   between   parallel   moimtaiu-chains, 


which  are  lofty  and  precipitous.  In  its  lower  course, 
it  becomes  navigable,  but  it  is  chiefly  important 
from  the  valuable  water-jrower  which  it  supplies. 

E'NOCH,  the  name  of  two  differeut  individuals 
in  Scriiiture.— 1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain,  who  built 
a  city  which  was  called  after  his  name.— 2.  The  son 
of  Jared,  and  father  of  Methuselah.  A  peculiarly 
mysterious  interest  attaches  to  him  on  account  of 
the  su]jernatuTal  manner  in  which  his  eartlily  career 
terminated.  We  are  told  by  the  writer  of  Genesis, 
that  E.  '  walked  with  God  300  years  .  .  .  and  he  was 
not ;  for  God  took  him.'  What  the  statement  '  he 
was  not'  signified  to  the  later  Jews,  is  explained  by 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews:  'Enoch 
was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death.'  E. 
and  Elijah  are  the  only  human  beings  on  record  who 
did  not  require  to  discharge  the  delit  which  mortals 
owe  to  nature.  It  may  naturally  be  supposed 
that  E.  was  a  character  on  whom  the  exti'avagant 
fancy  of  the  later  Jews  would  fasten  with  unusual 
pleasure.  As  they  came  more  and  more  into  contact 
with  Grecian  and  other  culture,  they  felt  the 
necessity  of  linking  on  the  arts  and  sciences  of 
Gentile  nations  to  i;heir  own  historj-,  if  they  would 
continue  to  preserve  that  feeling  of  supremacy  which 
was  so  dear  to  their  pride  as  the  chosen  people. 
Hence,  E.  ajipears  as  the  inventor  of  writing,  arith- 
metic, astronomy,  &c.,  and  is  affirmed  to  have  fiUed 
.300  books  with  the  revelations  which  he  received, 
the  number  300  being  obviously  suggested  bj'  the 
numljer  of  years  diu-ing  which  he  is"  said  to  have 
walked  witli  God. 

ENOCH,  Book  op.  This  book,  from  which, 
curiously  enough,  St  Jude  quotes  as  if  it  were 
history,  shews  how  richly  m)i;hical  the  history  of 
the  mysterious  antediluvian  Euoch  had  become ! 
It  was  [iroliably  written  originally  in  Aramaic,  by 
a  native  of  Palestine,  Ln  the  2d  c.  B.C.  The  precise 
date  is  not  known.  At  subsequent  periods,  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  enlarged  by  additions  and  inter- 
polations. It  is  divided  into  five  parts  ;  and  the 
p'rst  discourses  of  such  subjects  as  the  fall  of  the 
angels,  and  the  journey  of  E.  through  the  earth 
and  through  Paradise  in  the  company  of  an  angel, 
by  whom  he  is  initiated  into  the  secrets  of 
nature,  &c. ;  the  second  contains  E.'s  accoimt  of 
what  was  revealed  to  him  concerning  the  heavenly 
or  spiritual  region ;  the  third  treats  of  astronony  and 
the  phenomena  of  the  seasons  ;  the  fourth  repre- 
sents E.  beholding,  in  prophetic  vision,  the  course  of 
Divine  Providence  till  the  coming  of  the  Messiah ; 
and  the  Inst  consists  of  exhortations  based  on  wh.-it 
has  preceded.  The  book  was  current  in  the  primi- 
tive church,  and  was  quoted  l)y  the  Fathers,  but  was 
lost  sight  of  b}'  Christian  WTitcrs  about  the  close  of 
the  8th  century,  so  that  imtil  last  century  it  was 
only  known  by  extracts.  Fortunately,  however, 
the  traveller  Bruce  discovered  in  Abyssinia  three 
complete  MSS.  of  the  work,  which  he  brought  to 
England  in  1773.  These  MSS.  proved  to  \>e  an 
Ethiopic  version  made  from  the  Greek  one,  in  use 
among  the  Fathers,  as  was  evident  from  the  coinci- 
dence of  language.  The  Ethiopic  version  did  not 
appear  till  1838,  when  it  w.as  pubh.shed  by  Arch- 
bishop Lawrence.  An  Enghsh  translation,  however, 
by  the  same  writer,  had  appeared  in  1821,  which 
passed  through  three  editions,  and  formed  the  basis  of 
the  German  edition  of  Hoffmann  (Jena,  1833—1838). 
In  1840,  C4frUrer  published  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
work;  but  by  far  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Dr  A. 
DiUmann,  who,  in  1851,  ])ublislK<l  the  Ethiopic  text 
from  five  MSS. ;  and  in  1853,  a  German  translation, 
with  an  introduction  and  commentary,  which  has 
recently  turned  the  attention  of  many  Cierman 
scholars  to  the  subject. 

73 


ENOS-ENSIGN. 


E'NOS  (anciently,  ^nos),  an  ancient  town  and 
seaport  of  Kiu'opean  Turkey,  in  the  jiroN-inee  of 
Runiili,  is  situated  on  a  rocky  istlmius  at  the 
mouth  of  a  i,nilf  of  the  same  name,  about  35  miles 
west-north-west  of  Gallipoli.  It  is  the  port  of 
Adriauo])le,  and  has  some  trade  in  wool,  camels' 
hair,  cotton,  leather,  silk,  &e.  Its  harbom-  is 
commodious,  but  so  shallow,  from  being  choked  up 
with  sand,  that  it  admits  only  small  vessels.  Po]). 
6000,  }>rincipally  Greeks.  The  Gulf  of  Enos  is 
about  24  miles  wide  at  the  entrance,  extends  into 
the  country  for  about  14  miles,  and  is  on  an 
average  5  miles  broad. 

The  tomi  of  E.  is  very  ancient.  Virgil  mentions 
it  (-En.  iii.  18)  as  beinjr  one  of  the  towns  foimded 
by  iEneas,  after  the  sack  of  Troy  ;  and  Homer  also 
attests  its  antiquity  by  alluding  to  it  in  his  great 
poem  (//.  iv.  519). 

EJfRIQTJEZ,  Gomez  Antonio  (properly,  ExRi- 
QUEZ  DE  Paz),  a  Spanish  poet,  the  son  of  a  baptized 
Portuguese  Jew,  was  born  at  Segovia  early  in  tlie 
17th  century.  He  entered  the  army  in  his  20th 
year,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  ;  but  in  1G36, 
had  to  Hee  the  country,  to  escai)e  the  persecution  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  suspected  him  of  a  secret 
leaning  to  the  creed  of  his  father.  E.  settled  at 
Amsterdam,  and  latterly  professed  the  Jewish  faith ; 
in  consequence  of  which,  he  was  burned  in  effig;,' 
by  the  pious  Catholics  of  Seville,  Hth  April  1660. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  Dming  his 
residence  in  Spain,  E.  had  considerable  reputation  as 
a  tlramatic  poet.  According  to  his  own  account,  he 
wrote  22  comedies,  which  met  with  great  success  on 
the  stage,  in  consequence  of  which,  several  of  them 
passed  as  Calderon's.  La  jmidente  Abigail,  Enyaiiar 
para  reinar,  Celos  no  ofenden  al  sol,  and  A  lo  que 
ohligan  hs  celos,  were  published  under  the  name  of 
Fernando  de  Zi'irate.  E's.  comedies  shew  him  to 
have  jjossessed  much  inventiveness,  but  in  other 
respects  they  deserve  little  praise.  Among  his 
other  writings  are  Las  Academias  morales  (Rouen, 
1642),  containing  some  fiue  elegiac  verse ;  La  Culpa 
del  primer  peregrino  (Rouen,  1644),  a  mystico- 
theologie  poem;  El  siglo  Pitag6rico  (Rouen,  1647), 
a  series  of  satirical  portraits  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  in  verse;  and  El  Samson  Nazareno  (Rouen, 
1656),  an  abortive  epic.  For  a  notice  of  E.  and  his 
writings,  see  Estudios  historicos  poliiicos  y  literarios 
sobere  Ins  Judios  de  Kspaha,  by  Jos6  Amador  de  los 
Rios  (Madrid,  1848). 

RNRO'LIMENT,  entry  upon  a  register  or  record. 

Enrolment  of  Deeds. — In  order  to  prevent  the 
secret  transfer  of  lands  which  was  efl'ected  in 
England  by  means  of  a  Bargain  and  Sale  (q.  v.),  it 
was  prorided  by  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16,  that  no 
transfer  of  laud  should  lie  effected  by  bargain  and 
sale,  unless  the  deed  were  enrolled  within  si.K 
months  of  the  date  of  the  deed.  By  the  Fines  and 
Recoveries  Act  (3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74),  it  is  enacted 
that  all  transfers  of  land  etfectod  under  the  provi- 
sions of  that  statute,  must  be  enrolled  in  the  Com't 
of  Chancery  within  six  months  after  the  execution. 

Enrolment  of  Decree  in  Chancenj. — A  decree  in  a 
suit  in  Chancery  docs  not  receive  full  effect  jnitil  it 
has  been  enrolled.  A  cause  may  be  re-heard  by  the 
judge  before  whom  it  has  been  argued,  or  may  be 
taken  to  tlie  court  of  appeal  until  enrolled ;  but 
after  enrolment  the  cause  can  only  be  heard  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  If  not  enrolled  Avithin  six  months, 
an  order  for  enrolment  is  necessary.  The  opjtosite 
party  wishing  to  prevent  an  enrolment,  must  lodge 
a  caveat,  if  lie  has  not  presented  a  petition  for 
re-hearing. 

ENSEMBLE  (Fr.),  the  general  effect  produced 
by  the  whole  figures  or  objects  in  a  picture,  the 
74 


persons  and  plot  of  a  drama,  or  the  various  parts 
of  a  musical  performance. 

E'NSIGN  was,  until  1871,  the  title  of  the  lowest 
combatant  rank  of  commissioned  officers  in  the 
British  army,  and  is  derived  from  their  being 
charged  with  the  duty  of  carrying  the  regimental 
colours  or  ensign  (Fr.  cnsrignr,  Lat.  insigne).  In 
the  hand-to-hand  melees  of  the  middle  ages,  the 
preservation  of  the  colours  or  staixlard,  as  the 
rallying-point  of  those  lighting  under  the  same 
leader,  was  a  matter  of  vital  inijinrtance,  and  was 
only  intrusted  to  the  bravest  and  most  trustworthy. 
The  colours  were  committed  to  him  with  imjiosing 
ceremony  in  presence  of  the  assembled  regiment, 
and  he  had  to  take  an  oath  to  defend  them  with 
life  and  limb,  and  if  need  were,  to  wrap  himself  in 
them  as  a  shroud,  and  devote  himself  to  death. 
The  man  who  undertook  this  jierilous  post  received 
sometimes  as  much  as  sixfold  the  usual  pay.  It 
was  doubtless  in  this  way  that  the  point  of  honour 
arose  respecting  the  colouis.  History  records  re- 
peated instances  where  the  oath  was  kept  to  the 
letter.  In  the  modern  system  of  w.arfare,  the  regi- 
mental colours  are  seldom  exposed  to  such  danger, 
and  the  ollice  of  ensign  is  of  less  account.  In  the 
infantry,  there  were  two  kinils  of  subalterns  below 
the  captain,  viz.,  the  lieutenant  aud  the  ensign.  In 
the  cavalry  aud  artillery,  the  duties  of  ensign  were 
taken  by  officers  who  had  the  titles  of  cornet  or 
second-lieutenant.  When  a  gentleman  entered  the 
army,  he  began  as  an  ensign  (if  in  the  infantry), 
and  from  this  rank  he  rose  by  purchase  or  seniority. 
The  price  of  an  ensign's  commission  is  stated  under 
C0.MMIS.S10X.S,  Akjiv,  as  well  as  the  extra  price  to 
be  paid  on  rising  to  the  rauk  of  lieutenant.  Tlie 
jLiy  was  5j>'.  3i/.  per  day,  and  the  half-pay  Is.  lOrl. 
to  3s.;  although  it  was  most  imiisual  for  an  ensign 
to  be  on  half- pay.  An  ensign  in  the  Foot  Guards 
ranked  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  army,  and,  on  trans- 
ferring his  services  to  an  infantry  or  cavalry  regi- 
ment, exchanged  with  an  officer  of  that  grade. 

The  rank  of  ensign  having  been  abolished  in  the 
British  army,  the  number  of  lieutenants  has  been 
proportionately  increased ;  but  for  three  years  the 
otiicer  only  receives  the  same  pay  as  the  ensign 
formerly  had.  The  officer  enters  in  the  probation- 
ary grade  of  sub-lieutenant,  which  is  converted  to 
lieutenant  as  soon  as  he  proves  himself  qualified  to 
command  soldiers. 

In  the  late  East  India  Company's  ai-my,  a  cadet 
became  an  ensign,  in  rank  and  pay,  directly  he 
landed  in  India. 

Ensign  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  flags 
belonging  to  the  British  fleet ;  and,  under  that  or 
some  other  name,  to  most  other  fleets.  It  is  a  large 
flag  or  banner  hoisted  on  an  ensign  staff,  a  long  ])ole 
erected  over  the  iiooji,  or  at  the  gaff  when  the  ship 
is  under  sail.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  denote  the 
nation  to  which  the  ship  belongs.  The  English 
ensign  has  for  a  groundwork  one  of  three  colours — 
red,  white,  iir  blue — and  bears  the  Union  double 
cross  of  St  (ieorge  aud  St  Andrew,  or  Union-Jack 
(q.  v.),  in  the  upper  corner  next  the  m:ist  (dexter- 
chief).  The  trhite  ensign  is  also  divided  into  four 
quarters  by  a  red  cross  of  St  George,  and  is  limited 
to  sliip.i-of-war.  Merchant-vessels  are  oidy  allowed 
to  carry  the  red  ensign ;  but  yachts,  if  of  clubs 
acknowledged  by  the  Admiralty,  colonial  armed 
vessels,  ships  connected  with  government  depart- 
ments, and  merchant-vessels  commanded  by  oliicera 
of  the  Naval  Reserve,  are  jiermitted  to  use  the  blue 
ensign.  Formerly,  the  English  admirals  required 
ships  of  all  other  nations  to  dip  their  ensigns  to  the 
Englisli  liag  :  the  refusal  of  the  Dutch  to  comply 
witli  this  custom,  was  the  signal  for  one  of  Blake'a 
bloodiest  euoouuters  with  Van  Tromp. 


ENTABLATUEE— ENTADA. 


ENTABLATURE,  that  part  of  a  design  in 
classic  architecture  which  surmounts  the  Columns 
(q.  v.),  and  rests  iipon  the  capitals.  It  is  usually 
aboiit  two  diameters  of  the  column  in  hcit^ht,  and 
is  divided  in  every  style  of  classical  architecture 
into  three  parts — architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 
These  parts  vary  in  their  relative  proportions  in 
different  styles.  In  Doric  architecture,  for  example, 
if  the  entablature  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts, 
two  of  these  form  tlie  lieight  of  the  architrave,  three 
that  of  the  frieze,  and- three  that  of  the  cornice.  In 
the  other  styles,  the  relative  proportions  are  as 
three,  three,  and  foiu'. 

The  term  entablature  was  not  used  till  the  17th 
c,  the  members  composing  it  being  previously 
simply  designated  the  cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave. 

1.  Tlie  Archilrave  is  the  horizontal  portion  which 
rests  immediately  upon  the  abacus  of  tlie  column.  It 
is  usually  ornamented  vnth  horizontal  mouldings, 
^^•ith  Hat  spaces  or  fuclce  between.  The  upper 
moulding  always  projects  fiu-thcr  than  the  others, 
so  as  to  throw  off  the  rain.  This  moulding  varies  in 
different  styles.   In  Doric  (fig.  1),  it  is  a  plain  square 


Fig  1. — Example  of  Doric  Entablature. 

jirojection,  with  small  pendants  or  (lullm  under  the 
triglyphs.  In  the  other  styles,  it  is  generally  an 
ogee  or  talon  mouliling.  These  mouldings  are  fre- 
quently enriched  with  leaf  ornaments,  and  in  very 
florid  designs  the  facia;  are  also  enriched. 

2.  The  Frieze  is  the  middle  portion  of  the  entab- 
lature, between  the  top  of  the  architrave  and  the 
bed  of  the  cornice.  In  the  Doric  style,  it  is 
ornamented  with  triglyphs  or  slight  projections, 
divided  by  angular  grooves  into  three  parts.  The 
spaces  between  the  triglyphs  (called  metopes)  are 
square,  and  are  cither  plain  or  enriched,  either  with 
figure-sculpture,  as  in  the  Parthenon,  or  with  bulls' 
heads,  patera;,  or  other  ornaments.  In  the  other 
styles,  the  frieze  is  never  cut  into  portions,  but  is 
either  left  quite  plain  or  ornamented  with  iigure- 
sculpture  or  scroll-work.  The  former  is  most  usual 
in  Greek  art,  the  latter  in  Roman.  In  late  Roman 
works,  the  frieze  is  sometimes  swelled  or  made  to 
project  with  a  curve. 

3.  The  Cornice  fonns  the  upper  portion  of  the 
entablature.  It  is  divided  into  several  parts.  The 
lower  moidding  or  mouldings  resting  on  the  frieze 
are  called  the  bed-moiddings — the  upper  projecting 
part  is  called  the  Corona  (q.  v.),  and  between  the 
two  there  are  frequently  introduced  modillions  and 
dentil  bands.  The  bed-moidding  is  generally  of  an 
oval  or  echinus  form,  and  is  frequently  enriched 
with  the  egg  and  tongue  or  leaf  ornaments.  The 
upper  moulding  of  the  corona  is  generally  of  a 
cymarecta  form  (see  Colttmn,  fig.  I),  and  is  often 


ornamented  with  lions'  heads.  These  represent  the 
openings  through  wliich  the  rain  was  at  first  led  off 
from  the  roof-gutters,  which  were  cut  in  the  top 
of  this  moulding,  and  were  retained  as  ornaments 
after  their  original  use  was  discontinued.  The 
corona  projects  well  over  the  frieze  and  architrave, 
and  protects  them  from  rain,  while  at  the  same 
time,  by  its  broad  shadow,  it  gives  repose  and 
variety  of  effect  to  the  building.  The  soffit,  or 
under  side  of  the  corona,  is  frequently  panelled  and 
ornamented  with  paterie. 

Origin. — The  component  jiarts  of  the  entablature 
are  said,  with  some  appearance  of  truth,  to  owe 
their  origin  to  the  forms  of  the  construction  of  the 
oldest  temples.  These  were  of  wood,  and  were  put 
together  in  the  manner  most  natural  for  that 
material.  The  square  beams  laid  across  from  post 
to  post  are  represented  by  the  architrave ;  the 
triglyjihs  of  the  frieze  are  copied  from  the  ends  of 
the  cross-beams ;  the  cornice  is  taken  from  the 
boarding  which  covered  the  rafters  and  ties  of  the 
roof — projected  so  as  to  throw  off  the  rain ;  and  the 
dentils  and  modillions  shew  the  ends  of  the  rafters 
left  uncovered. 

Whatever  the  origin  of  the  entablature  may  have 
been,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  as  connected  with 
Greek  and  Roman  art,  how  persistent  the  entabla- 
ture was  as  a  feature  in  the  decoration  of  these 
classic  styles.  So  long  as  buddings  consisted  of  one 
story  in  height,  this  was  quite  natural ;  but  after 
this  simple  system  was  abandoned,  and  when,  as  in 
Roman  architecture,  series  of  columns  and  entabla- 
tures were  pded  one  above  the  other — not  used  con- 
structionally,  but  simply  applied  to  the  face  of  the 


iAUAIIMIIMM 


Fig.  2. — Example  of  Composite  Entablature. 

building — the  cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave  still 
retained  their  ])laces  and  proportions.  In  the  revived 
Roman  art  of  the  10th  c,  the  entablature  was  used 
in  a  manner  still  further  removed  from  its  orirnnal 
purpose  (fig.  2).  The  strict  proportions  of  the 
various  parts  were  entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  frieze 
was  increased  in  height,  so  as  to  admit  of  small 
windows,  to  fight  the  entresol  or  Mezzanin  (q.  v.), 
and  in  the  French  and  EugUsh  forms  of  the  renais- 
sance, the  various  members  become  stUl  more 
attenuated  and  altered  fi'om  the  original  design  (see 
Renaissance).  But  in  no  modification  of  classic 
architecture,  however  debased,  is  the  entablature 
awanting.  The  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  are 
essential  portions  of  every  chissic  design. 

ENTADA,  a  genus  of  climbing  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Leijiiminoscp,  suborder  Mimosece, 
ha\'ing  pinnate  or  bipinnate  leaves,  and  remark- 
able for  their  great  pods,  in  which  the  seeds  He 
amidst  a  glutinous   or  gelatinous   substance.     The 

7S 


ENTAIL. 


seeds  of  E.  Purscetha,  an  East  Indiau  species,  are 
saponaoeous,  and  arc  used  for  washing  tlie  hair. 
The  phint  attains  a  great  size  :  its  pods  are  some- 
times fully  tivo  feet  long,  and  six  inches  broad ;  the 
seeds  are  beautiful  brown  beans,  so  large  that  in 
Ceylon  tlioy  are  often  hollowed  out  and  used  as 
tinder-l)oxes. 

ENTAI'L,  or  ENTAY'LE  (Fr.  talUer,  to  cut), 
often  used  by  old  English  autliors  for  any  architec- 
tur.al  ornament  which  is  sciUptured  or  out  in  stone. 
Chaucer  speaks  of 

'  An  image  of  an  other  entaile  ; ' 

and  other  ex.amples  are  given  by  Parker  [Glossary 
of  Arcliiteclun). 

ENTAIL,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  called  in  Scot- 
land, Uxihie,  from  Fr.  iaiiler,  to  cut,  properly 
signities  any  destination  by  wliich  the  legal  course 
of  succession  is  cut  oft',  one  or  more  of  the  heirs- 
at-law  being  excluded  or  postponed,  and  the  settle- 
ment of  land  made  upon  a  partieidar  heir  or  series 
of  heirs.  The  desu-e  to  preserve  in  our  own  family 
land  which  we  have  either  inherited  or  acquired, 
appears  to  be  inherent  in  the  human  mind.  The 
first  distinct  trace  of  tlie  existence  of  entails,  is 
to  be  foimd  in  the  Roman  law.  The  Greeks, 
indeed,  permitted  persons  to  name  successors  to 
theii'  estates,  and  to  appoint  a  substitute  who 
shoidd  take  the  estate  on  the  fadure  of  liim  first 
named.  The  substitute,  as  appointed,  was  per- 
mitted to  succeed  on  the  death  of  the  institute 
(as  he  w.is  called)  without  lea\-ing  issue  or  without 
alienating  the  estate.  But  this  limited  right  fell 
far  shortof  the  power  of  entailing  which  has  since 
prevailed  in  various  countries.  At  Home,  under 
the  later  emperors,  the  practice  of  settling  land 
upon  a  series  of  heirs,  by  means  of  Fideicommissa 
(q.  v.),  grew  up,  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  state. 
These  deeds,  which  were  origin.ally  simply  a  trust 
reposed  in  the  honour  of  a  friend,  to  whom  the 
property  was  conveyed,  to  carry  out  the  will  of  the 
grantor,  by  degrees  received  the  sanction  of  the 
law.  In  their  early  form,  they  contained  merely  a 
substitution  of  heii-s.  Thus,  '  Bo;io  ne  testamenlum 
J'aciat,  donee  liberos  susceperit.'  '  Boijo  vl  tcstamento 
suo  Seium  haredemfaciat.^  'Bor/o  hmredem,  ne  liare- 
ditatem  alknid,  sed  rditupmt  fdinilite..' — Heineceius, 
s.  G58.  But  by  the  later  haw,  a  much  fuller  form 
of  settlement  was  ■  admitted,  whereljy  the  estate 
■was  protected  from  every  sort  of  aUenation.  '  Volo 
i)ieas  crdcs  non  vendi  ah  hceredibus  meis,  neque 
fmncrari  super  eas :  sed  inanere  eas  Jirmas,  sim- 
pllces,  filiis  meis  el  nepotibus  in  universuvi  tempiis. 
Si  cdiquis  aidem  eormn  voluerit  vendere  partem 
suam,  vel  /(.enerari  super  earn,  potestatem  haheat 
vendere  coheredi  suo  et  fcmerari  ab  eo:  si  autem 
aliquis  prmter  haec  feeerit,  erit  quod  ohiigatur,  inutile 
Clique  irritum.' — Dig.  xxxi.  SS,  s.  15.  Here  we 
liave  an  examjile  of  the  principal  chaxises  of  a 
strict  entail  as  subsequently  more  fully  carried 
out  in  Scotland.  It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that 
this  Koman  form  must  have  been  adopted  by  the 
■Scottish  lawyers  in  framing  their  deeds  of  entail. 
The  limitation  to  a  particular  line  of  descent,  the 
prnliiljition  to  alienate  or  burden  with  debt,  and  the 
still  more  pccuUar  feature  of  the  declar.ation  of 
forfeiture  in  case  of  non-compliance,  are  to  be  found 
in  l>oth  forms.  There  are,  however,  two  points  in 
which  the  Koman  law  diilered  from  that  which 
prevailed  for  many  years  in  Scotland — viz.,  that  the 
formerdid  not  recognise  the  right  of  primogenitiu'e, 
and  that  the  limitation  of  the  deed  was  restricted  to 
four  generations.  For  the  right  of  primogeniture,  as 
recognised  i!i  deeds  of  entail,  we  are  indebted  to  the 
feudal  law.  That  system,  which  has  luiited  with 
70 


the  civil  law  to  form  a  basis  for  the  codes  of  modem 
Em'ope,  did  not,  in  its  original  form,  recognise  the 
right  of  a  holder  of  land  to  alienate  his  feudal 
benefice.  But  the  right  of  the  eldest  son  to  represent 
his  father,  both  in  the  duties  and  privileges  of  the 
fief,  if  not  an  original  principle  of  the  system,  was 
universally  recogniseil  in  the  days  of  its  greatest 
power.  We  shall  preseutl}'  see  how  this  principle 
was  embodied  in  a  Scottish  deed  of  entalL  Wo 
come  now  to  consider  entails  as  they  have  existed 
in  modern  nations. 

Jii  Enijland,  the  Saxons,  it  is  said,  prohibited  the 
.alienation  of  lauds  by  those  who  had  succeeded 
to  them  under  condition  that  they  should  not 
alienate. — WUkins's  Leges  Saxonicir;,  p.  43  (note). 
Among  the  S.axons,  the  law  of  jirimogeniture  was 
not  recognised.  But  on  the  estabUshment  of  the 
feudal  laws  in  England,  a  practice  began  to  jirevail 
whereby  an  estate  was  settled  upon  a  particular 
series  of  heirs,  as  '  to  a  man  and  the  heii's  of  his 
body.'  This  is  the  first  germ  of  an  entail  in 
England.  It  was  called  a  fee-simple  conditional, 
because  the  judges  refused  to  recognise  an  .absolute 
limitation  of  the  estate  to  a  particiUar  line  of  heirs, 
liut  held  the  destination  to  be  conditional  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir,  and  th.at  tliat  condition  having  been 
pm'ified,  the  donee  was  free  to  alienate  the  est.ate. 
The  common  law  thus  refusing  to  recognise  entails, 
a  statute  was  passed  which  had  the  cflect  of  intro- 
ducing that  practice  into  England.  This  was  the 
famoiis  statute  De  Bonis  (q.  v.),  whereby  it  was 
declared  that  the  estate  shoiJd  be  held  secundum 
fonnam  doni.  In  order  to  the  creation  of  an  eut.ail 
under  this  statute,  it  \\;is  not  enough  that  the 
estate  was  hmited  to  '  a  man  .and  his  heirs,'  as  those 
words  were  held  to  constitute  an  estate  in  fee ;  it 
was  necessary  that  the  estate  should  be  given  to 
'  a  man  and  the  heirs  of  lus  body,'  or  '  to  a  man  .and 
the  heirs  of  his  body  by  his  wife  Joan.'  The  former 
was  called  a  geuer,al,  the  latter  a  special  entail. 
Another  form  whereby  lands  might  be  entailed 
mider  the  statute  De  Donis,  was  by  settlement  in 
Frankmarriage  (q.  v.).  For  nearly  200  years  after 
the  passing  of  this  act,  lands  settled  in  the  form 
which  it  prescribed  continued  to  be  held  under  the 
fetters  of  a  strict  entail.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
law,  which  in  Scotland,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
was  to  strengthen  the  power  of  entads,  was,  in 
England,  in  the  opposite  du'ection.  For  a  long 
time,  tenants  in  tail,  taking  .advantage  of  legal 
technicalities,  were  able  ])r.acticaUy  to  defeat  the 
limitation  in  tad  by  means  of  a  Discontinuance. 
But  it  was  not  tdl  the  time  of  Edward  IV'.  that  an 
efl'eetual  means  of  evading  the  provisions  of  the 
act  w.as  brought  into  use  ;  this  w;is  .achieved  by 
means  of  a  process  called  a  common  recovery.  See 
Fines  and  Recovekies.  By  this  process,  a  teu.ant 
in  tail  could  bar  the  entail,  and  convert  the  estate 
into  a  fee-simple.  Another  mode  of  b.arring  an  entail 
was  by  means  of  a  Fine  (q.  v.).  It  had  been  declared 
by  the  statute  De  Donis,  that  levying  a  line  of  laiuk 
should  be  no  bar  to  the  entail  ;  but  by  32  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  ,30,  it  was  enacted  that  a  fiue  of  lauds, 
when  duly  levied,  should  be  a  complete  bar  to  the 
tenant  in  tail,  and  those  claiming  under  him.  It  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  operation  of  a  fine  was 
confined  to  those  claiming  under  tlie  tenant  in  tail  ; 
tliosc  who  had  rights  of  reversion  or  remainder 
uuiler  the  grantor  of  the  entail  were  not  excluded  by 
this  species  of  assurance ;  so  that  by  means  of  a 
recovery  only  could  an  estate  tail  be  converted  into 
a  fee-simple.  From  the  introduction  of  common 
recoveries  till  the  passing  of  the  Fines  and  Recoveries 
.\ct  (3  and  4  Will.  IV^  c.  74),  a  period  of  more  than 
300  years,  it  was  impossible  that  an  estate  eoidd  be 
held   under  the  fetters  of  an  entail,  if  the  tenant 


ENTASIS— ENTELLUS  MONKEY. 


in  tail  and  the  next  heir  chose  to  combine  to  defeat 
the  entail.  By  the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act,  the 
technicaUties  formerly  necessary  in  order  to  bar  an 
entail  were  removed,  and  tenant  iu  tail  may  now,  by 
a  simple  conveyance,  alienate  his  estate  at  plea.sure. 
An  estate  taU  is  a  freehold  of  a  limited  description. 
Tenant  in  tail  may  commit  Waste  (q.  v.).  Formerly, 
an  estate  tail  was  not  liable  to  the  debts  of  the 
tenant,  but  by  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  11(1,  this  restriction 
has  been  removed.  Copyhold  lands  have  been  held 
not  to  fall  under  the  operation  of  the  statute  De 
Bonis.  A  limitation,  therefore,  whicli  in  a  freehold 
creates  an  estate  tad,  in  copyhold  lands  creates  a 
fee-simple  comlitional,  according  to  the  old  common 
law,  except  where  the  custom  of  the  manor  is  to 
the  contrary. 

In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  entails  appear  first  to 
have  taken  their  rise  from  the  feudal  usages.  It  has 
been  observed  by  Lord  Kames,  that  while  the  feudal 
system  was  iu  its  vigour,  eveiy  estate  was  in  fact 
entailed,  because  no  proprietor  had  any  power  to 
alter  the  order  of  the  succession.  But  when  the 
stricter  feudal  principles  gave  way,  and  the  power  of 
alienatmg  land  began  to  be  recognised,  the  holders 
of  estates  sought  to  secure,  by  deed,  in  their  own 
families  the  hands  which  they  possessed.  The  form 
lirst  adopted  for  this  purpose  was  the  simple  destina- 
tion, whereby  the  estate  was  simply  limited  to  a 
particular  series  of  hell's,  «itliout  prohibition  to 
alienate,  or  declaration  of  forfeiture  for  contravention 
of  the  will  of  the  grantor.  In  this  form,  the  deed 
must  have  resemljled  the  early  English  entails. 
The  feudal  law  of  prunogeniture  having  been  received 
as  a  principle  of  common  law,  the  estate  woidd 
n.aturally  descend  from  father  to  sou  in  the  Hne 
indicated  by  the  deed.  But,  as  it  was  held  that 
those  succeeding  imder  this  deed  were  not  restrained 
from  alienating,  the  practice  of  adding  prohibitory 
clauses  was  introduced.  Entails  in  this  form  were 
held  to  bind  the  heir  from  granting  gratuitous  aUena- 
tions  ;  but  he  was  not  restrained  from  selling  the 
estate,  or  burdening  it  with  debt.  Early  in  the 
17th  c,  a  fiu'ther  addition  was  made  to  the  form  of 
the  deed  by  the  introduction  of  irritant  and  resolu- 
tive clauses,  i.  e.,  clauses  declaring  the  act  of  aliena^ 
tion  to  be  null,  and  to  infer  the  forfeiture  of  the 
estate.  The  form  thus  adopted,  which  re-senibles 
closely  the  form  of  the  Iloman  deed  already  noticed, 
was  fortified  by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session 
in  the  Stormont  entaU,  jNl.  13994,  holding  that 
an  estate  so  ]trotected  could  not  be  attached  by 
creditors.  This  decision  created  much  differenct) 
of  opinion  amongst  lawyers  as  to  the  power  of  tlie 
grantor  thus  to  protect  an  estate  from  the  onerous 
act  of  the  heir,  hi  consequence  of  which  the  famous 
Scotch  Entail  Act,  1GS5,  c.  22,  was  passed,  by  which 
it  was  enacted  that  an  estate  conveyed  by  a  deed 
fortified  by  prohibitory,  irritant,  and  rosclutive 
clauses,  and  recorded  iu  a  particidar  register,  should 
be  effectually  seciured  iu  the  line  of  destination. 
This  act  has  always  been  most  strictly  viewed  by 
Scottish  lawyers ;  and  entails  which  have  been 
found  deficient  in  any  of  the  prescriljed  requisites, 
have  been  regarded  by  the  courts  as  utterly  ineffec- 
tual. The  first  Lord  Mcadowbaiik,  in  a  judgment 
which  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  leading 
authority,  laid  it  down  that  entails  '  are  the  mere 
creatures  of  statute,'  and  that  where  the  interests 
of  third  parties  are  concerned,  every  part  of  an 
entail  is  liable  to  the  strictest  intcrjiretation  (Hamil- 
ton V.  ilacdowall,  3d  March  1815).  The  operation 
of  the  old  entail  act  was  found,  notwithstanding, 
to  be  of  the  most  oppressive  character.  Statutes 
were  in  consequence  passed  from  time  to  time, 
empowering  heirs  of  entail  to  gi-ant  leases  of  their 
lands   of   longer   duration   than   could  be   gi'anted 


under  the  act  1685,  and  to  make  provisions  for  their 
families.  But  at  length,  by  the  11th  and  1 2th 
Vict.  c.  36,  the  power  of  fettering  lands  by  a  strict 
entail  has  been  finally  destroyed.  By  this  act,  heirs 
under  an  existing  entail  may  disentail,  with  the  con- 
sent of  certain  hieirs  next  in  succession  ;  and  in  all 
entails  made  after  1st  August  1848,  and  also  in  old 
entails  where  the  heir  in  possession  was  born  since 
1st  August  1848,  the  heir  of  entad  in  possession 
may,  by  means  of  a  simple  deed  of  disentail,  free 
his  estate  from  the  restrictions  of  the  entail. 

In  America,  before  the  rebeUion,  the  English  law 
as  to  estates  taU  prevailed.  But  in  the  United 
States,  the  law  of  entads  has  been  gradually  aban- 
doned by  the  several  states ;  and  property  can  now 
be  fettered,  to  a  limited  extent  only,  l)y  means 
of  executory  Devises  (q.  v.).  In  France,  the  power 
of  creating  entails  has  varied  much  at  different 
periods,  from  the  right  to  make  a  perpetual  entaU, 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  original  principle,  to 
a  limitation  to  four,  and  at  one  time  to  two  degrees. 
But  by  the  Code  Napoleon,  ss.  89G — 897,  entails  are 
now  absolutely  prohiljited.  In  Spain,  also,  entails, 
which  were  permitted  under  certain  restrictions, 
have  been  entu'ely  abolished  by  a  law  of  the 
Cortes  in  1820.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  right 
of  securing  land  in  a  particular  family,  which  com- 
mends itself  to  the  natural  feehngs,  has  been  found 
so  oppressive  in  operation,  and  so  injurious  to  the 
public  interest,  that  after  an  existence  of  more 
than  600  years  it  has  been  practically  discarded 
almost  simultaneously  by  the  general  consent  of 
modem  nations. 

E'NTASIS  (Or.),  the  swelling  outline  given  to 
the  shaft  of  a  Column  (q.  v.). 

ENTELLUS  MONKEY,  or  HONUMAN 
(Scmnopilhecus  Entellus),  an  East  Indian  species  of 
monkey,  with  yellowish  fur,  face  of  violet  tinge, 
surrounded  with  projecting  hairs,  long  limbs,  and 
very  long  muscular  and  powerful — though  not  pre- 
hensile— tail.  It  is  held  in  superstitious  reverence 
by  the  Hindus,  and  is  often  to  be  seen  exhibiting 
much  imiiudent  famdiaritj^  in  the  precincts  of 
temples ;  indeed,  temples  are  often  specially  dedi- 
cated to  it ;  hospitals  are  erected  for  its  reception 
when  sick  or  woimded.  Hindu  laws  affix  a  far 
more  severe  punishment  to  the  slaughter  of  one 
of  these  sacred  monkej-s  than  of  a  man ;  the  peasant 


^>^ 


Eutellus  Monkey  [Scmnojnlhcciis  JSntcllus). 

esteems  it  an  honour  when  his  garden  is  plundered 
or  his  house  robbed  by  troops  of  them,  and  woidd 
consider  it  an  act  of  the  greatest  sacrilege  to  drive 
them  away.  They  take  their  jilaces  with  jierfect 
confidence  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  gaze  at  the 
passing  crowd.     This  is  one  of  the  very  few  species 


ENTERITIS— ENTOMOLOGY. 


of  monkeys  found  in  the  northern  jnovinces  of 
India,  and  in  summer  ascends  the  Himalaya  to 
the  pine-forests,  and  almost  to  the  snow-line  ;  it  has 
even  succeeded  in  crossing  the  mountains,  and 
occurs  in  Bhotan. 

ENTEKI'TIS  (Gr.  enteron,  the  intestines),  inflam- 
mation of  the  bowels,  and  especially  of  their  muscu- 
lar and  serous  coat,  leading  to  Constipation  (q.  v.) 
and  pain,  with  Colic  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes  Ileus 
(q.  v.).  Enteritis  is  distinguished  from  these  last  affec- 
tions, indeed,  only  by  the  presence  of  inflammatory 
symptoms — i.  c.,  pain,  tenderness,  fever,  &c.,  from  a 
very  early  stage  of  the  disease,  and  in  so  decided  a 
form  as  to  require  special  attention.  If  enteritis 
does  not  depend  upon  mechanical  obstruction,  it 
may  be  combated  by  hot  fomentations,  with  moder-  \ 
ate  leeching  and  coiuiter-irritation,  and  the  internal 
administration  of  opium.  Injections  of  warm  water, 
or  of  asafo:tida  and  tm-pentine  (see  Clyster), 
should  be  at  the  same  time  given  to  clear  the  lower 
bowel ;  and  all  jiurgatives,  except  in  some  cases 
castor  oU,  should  bo  .avoided.  The  disease  is,  how- 
ever, one  of  great  danger,  and  shoiUd  never  be 
incautiously  treated  with  domestic  remedies.  It  is 
closely  aUied  to  Peritonitis  (q.  v.),  and  often  depends 
Tipon  internal  mechanical  causes,  or  on  external 
injury. 

In  the  Loicer  Animals. — Inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  .imong  the  heavier  breeds  of  horses, 
generally  results  from  some  error  of  diet,  such  as 
a  long  fast  foUoweil  by  a  largo,  hastily  devoiu"ed 
meal,  indigestible  or  easily  fermentable  footl,  or 
large  draughts  of  water  at  improper  times,  ^^^len 
thus  produced,  it  is  frequently  preceded  by  stomach 
staggers  or  colic,  affects  chiefly  the  mucous  coat 
of  the  large  intestines,  and  often  runs  its  coiu-se 
in  from  eight  to  twelve  hours.  With  increasing 
fever  and  restlessness,  the  pidse  soon  rises  to  70  or 
upwards,  and,  ludike  what  obtains  in  cohc,  con- 
tinues throughout  considerably  above  the  natural 
standard  of  40  beats  per  minute.  The  p.oin  is 
great,  but  the  animal,  instead  of  recklessly  throwing 
himself  about,  as  in  coUc,  gets  up  and  lies  do'vvii 
cautiously.  Respiration  is  quickened,  the  bowels 
torpid.  Cold  sweats,  stu]ior,  and  occasionally 
delirium,  precede  death.  ^V^len  connected  with, 
or  occurring  as  a  sequel  to  influenza,  lamiuitis, 
and  other  complaints,  the  small  intestines  are  as 
much  affected  as  the  large,  and  the  peritoneal  as 
well  as  tlic  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels.  This  form 
is  more  common  in  the  lighter  breeds.  Wlien 
the  patient  is  seen  early,  Mhilst  the  pulse  is  still 
clear  and  distmct,  and  not  above  60,  and  the 
legs  and  cai-s  wann,  bloodletting  is  useful,  as  it 
relieves  the  overloaded  vessels,  and  prevents  that 
exudation  of  blood  which  speedily  becomes  ]ioured 
out  in  the  interior  of  the  bowels.  This  disease 
should  be  treated  as  follows  :  In  a  i)int  of  oU,  or 
au  infusion  of  two  drachms  of  aloes  in  hot  water, 
give  a  scni()le  of  calomel  and  an  ounce  of  lauda- 
niuu,  and  repeat  the  calomel  and  laudanum  every 
hour  in  gruel  until  the  bowels  are  opened,  or 
live  or  six  doses  are  given.  Encourage  the  action 
of  the  bowels  by  using  every  half  hoiu"  soap  and 
water  clystei-s,  to  which  add  laudanum  so  long 
as  pain  and  straining  continue.  If  the  animal 
is  nauseated  and  stupid,  with  a  colil  skin,  and  a 
weak  quick  jiulse,  bleeiUng  and  reducing  remedies 
are  very  injurious ;  and  the  only  hope  lies  in  follow- 
ing up  one  dose  of  the  calomel  and  aloes  with 
small  doses  of  laiulanum  and  sweet  sjiirit  of  nitre, 
or  other  stimulants,  repeated  every  forty  minutes. 
In  all  stages,  woollen  cloths  WTimg  out  of  hot  water 
and  applied  to  the  belly  encourage  the  action  of  the 
bowels,  and  relieve  the  pain. 

Enteritis  in  cattle  is  mostly  produced  by  coarse 
78 


wet  pasture,  acrid  or  poisonous  plants,  bad  water, 
and  overdriving.  The  symptoms  are  fever  and 
thirst,  a  quick  but  rather  weak  pulse,  restless  twitch- 
ing up  of  the  hind  limbs,  tenderness  of  the  belly, 
and  torjiidity  of  the  bowels.  Calves  generally  die 
in  three  or  four  days,  other  cattle  in  a  week  or 
nine  days.  Bleed  early,  ojien  the  bowels  with  a 
pint  of  oil  and  a  drachm  of  calomel,  which  may 
be  repeated  in  eight  or  ten  hours,  if  no  effect 
is  produced.  Give  eveiy  hour  fifteen  drops  of 
Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite  in  water,  until  sii 
or  seven  doses  are  given.  Allow  only  slop|)y  and 
laxative  food,  such  as  treacle,  gruel,  or  a  thin 
bran  mash ;  employ  clysters  and  hot  cloths  to  the 
belly,  and  use  two-oimce  doses  of  laudanum  if  the 
pain  is  great.  Enteritis  in  sheep  mostly  occurs  in 
cold  exjiosed  localities,  and  where  flocks  are  sub- 
jected to  great  privations  or  improper  feeding. 
The  symptoms  and  treatment  resemble  those  of 
cattle. 

ENTOMOXOGY  (Gr.  entomon,  an  insect,  logos, 
a  iliscourse),  the  science  which  has  Insects  (q.  v.) 
for  its  subject.  The  mere  collector  of  insects  may 
be  one  of  the  humblest  labourers  in  the  great  field 
of  natural  history,  but  his  laboiu-s  contribute  mate- 
rials for  the  more  philosophic  naturahst  who  studies 
the  structures  of  these  creatures,  and  compares 
them  with  one  another  according  to  the  unity  and 
the  variety  of  design  which  they  exhibit.  And 
when  we  begin  to  take  into  accoimt  the  vast  number 
of  different  species  of  insects,  their  gTcat  diversities 
of  structiu'e  and  of  habits,  their  great  complexity  of 
organisation,  the  wonderful  transformations  which 
many  of  them  imdergo  at  different  stages  of  their 
existence,  and  the  equally  wonderful  but  extremely 
various  instincts  which  many  of  them  display,  wo 
find  entomology  to  be  a  science  worthy  to  engage 
the  noblest  mind.  But  besides  all  these  things,  we 
must  remember  that  insects  serve  most  un])ortant 
purjioses  in  the  general  economy  of  uatme ;  and 
that  some  of  them  are  directly  usefid  to  man,  some 
directly  injurious,  at  least  when  their  nimibera  are 
at  any  time  excessively  multiplied. 

Entomology,  along  mth  the  other  branches  of 
natural  history,  was  cultivated  by  Aristotle  and 
other  Greeks.  Aristotle  is  the  most  ancient  author 
of  whose  works  anything  relating  to  this  science  now 
remains.  Pliny  has  little  on  this  subject  liut  what 
is  copied  from  Aristotle  ;  and  it  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  have  been  again  studied  as  a  science  till  the  ICth 
c,  when  attention  began  once  more  to  be  dii'ectcd 
to  it,  although  it  was  not  tdl  the  17th  c.  that  much 
progress  was  made,  or  that  any  important  works  on 
entomology  appeared.  Insects  then  began  to  bo 
described,  not  only  those  of  Europe,  but  also  some  of 
the  curious  and  splendid  insects  of  trojiioal  countries ; 
bees  and  other  insects  of  i)ai'ticular  interest  received 
attention  ;  the  metamorjihoses  of  insects  began  to 
be  studied,  and  their  anatomy  to  bo  investigatecL 
The  names  of  Goedart,  Jlalpighi,  Swammerdam, 
Leuwenhoek,  and  E.ay  deserve  to  be  particidarly 
mentioned  ;  but  the  infant  state  of  the  science  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  fact,  that  about  the  end  of  the 
17th  c,  Kay  estimated  the  wliolo  number  of  insects 
in  the  world  at  10,000  species,  a  ninn1)er  sni.aller  than 
is  now  knowTi  to  exist  in  Britain  alone.  In  tlie  18th 
c,  the  name  of  LinniBus  occupies  as  high  a  place  in 
the  history  of  entomology  as  in  that  of  kindred 
branches  of  science.  The  progress  of  the  science 
was  much  promoted  by  his  arrangement  and  exhibi- 
tion of  the  discoveries  of  prcWous  and  contemporary 
naturalists;  and  by  his  system  of  classilication, 
founded  on  characters  taken  from  the  ^^•ings,  or 
their  absence,  a  system  professedly  artificial,  yet  so 
harmonismg  with  the  most  natural  distribution  into 
groups,  that  some  of   its  orders  were  indicated  by 


ENTOMOSTRACA— ENTOPHYTES. 


Aristotle,  and  that  it  has  retained  and  seems  likely  to 
retain  its  place,  modified,  indeed,  but  not  essentially 
changed.  De  Goer  and  Faliricius  are  perhajis,  after 
Liima;us,  the  most  worthy  to  be  named  of  the  great 
entomologists  of  the  18th  century.  At  the  close  of 
the  18th  and  beginning  of  the  19th  c,  the  name  of 
Latrcille  is  pre-eminently  conspicuous  ;  and  in  the 
year  1815,  a  new  impulse  began  to  be  given  to  the 
study  of  entomology  in  Britain  by  the  publication  of 
the  ,i(hnirable  Introduction  lo  Entomofoiiij  of  Messrs 
Kirby  and  Spence,  a  work  combining  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  merits  of  being  .it  once  popular  and 
scientific.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c,  the 
nmnber  of  insects  known  and  described  has  prodi- 
giously increased  ;  many  entomologists  have  with 
great  advantage  devoted  themselves  particidarly  to 
the  study  of  particular  orders  of  insects  ;  and  many 
\'aluable  monograjihs  have  appeared.  Entomological 
litcratm-e  has  now  become  very  extensive.  The 
progress  of  the  science  has  owed  not  a  little  to 
entomological  societies,  of  which  the  Entomological 
Society  of  London  may  be  particidarly  mentioned. 
We  cannot  attempt  to  enumerate  the  distinguished 
entomologists  of  the  19th  c,  but  perhaps  the  names 
of  Leach,  Macleaj',  Cm-tis,  Stephens,  Westwood, 
Smith,  AVallier,  Stainton,  Swainson,  and  Chuckard, 
deserve  particular  notice  among  those  of  Britain  ; 
Meigen,  J  urine,  Gyllenhal,  Gravcnhorst,  Hubner, 
Dufour,  Boisduval,  Erichsen,  and  Lacordaire  among 
those  of  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  Say  among 
those  of  America.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we 
have  hot  yet  any  eomidete  work  on  the  insects  of 
Britain.  The  Jnsccia  Britannlca,  of  which  some 
volumes  by  difierent  authors  have  been  pubhshed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Entomological  Society, 
is  intended  to  supply  the  want. 

ENTOMO'STRACA  (Gr.  inse'ct-sheUs),  a  term 
introduced  by  Muller,  and  adopted  by  Latredle, 
Cuvier,  and  other  uaturahsts,  to  desigmate  the  second 
of  their  two  gi-eat  divisions  of  Crustaceans  (q.  v.).  j 
The  number  of  species  of  E.  is  very  great.  They  are 
all  of  small  size,  except  the  King-crabs  {Limulus), 
which  in  many  resjiects  differ  from  all  the  rest, 
and  have  recently  been  formed  by  some  natura- 
lists into  a  sub-class  of  cnistaceans  by  themselves,  1 
Many  of  them  are  minute,  and  exist  in  great ; 
numbers  both  iu  fresh  and  s.alt  water,  particvilarly 
in  stagnant  or  nearly  stagnant  fresh  w.ater,  afTording 
to  many  kinds  of  fishes  their  principal  food.  They 
differ  very  much  in  general  form ;  the  number  of 
organs  of  locomotion  is  also  very  various — in  some 
very  few,  in  some  more  than  one  hundred — usually 
adapted  for  swimming  only,  and  attached  to  the 
abdominal  as  well  as  to  the  thoracic  segments ;  but 
there  never  is  a  fin-like  expansion  of  the  tail,  as 
in  some  of  the  malacostracous  cnistaceans.  The 
antenn.'B  of  some  are,  however,  used  as  organs  of 
locomotion.  Some  of  the  E.  have  months  fitted  for 
mastication,  and  some  for  suction.  Not  a  few  are 
I>arasitic.  The  heart  has  the  form  of  a  long  vesseh 
One  or  two  nervous  knots  or  globidcs  sui)ply  the 
place  of  a  brain.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  in 
certain  .species  attached  to  some  of  the  organs  of 
locomotion,  in  the  form  of  hairs,  often  grouped  into 
beards,  combs,  or  tufts,  or  blade-like  expansions  of 
the  anterior  legs  are  subservient  to  the  purpose  of 
respiration ;  in  others,  no  special  organs  of  respira- 
tion are  known  to  exist.  The  eyes  are  sometimes 
conMuent,  so  as  to  form  a  single  mass — one  eye — in 
the  front  of  the  head.  The  name  E.  has  been  given  to 
these  creatures  in  consequence  of  most  of  the  species 
having  shells  of  one  or  two  piece.s,  rather  horny  than 
calcareous,  and  of  very  slender  consistence,  generally 
almost  membranous  and  transparent.  In  very  many, 
the  shell  consists  of  two  valves,  capable  of  being 
completely  closed,  but  which,  at  the  pleasure  of  the 


little  animal,  can  also  be  opened  so  as  to  permit  the 
antenna;  and  feet  to  be  stretched  out. 

The  study  of  the  smaller  crustaceans  has  recently 
been  prosecuted  with  great  assiduity  and  success, 
by  Mdne-Edwards  and  others  ;  and  in  consequence 
of  the  great  diflTerenees  existing  among  them,  new 
classifications  have  been  proposed,  and  the  name  E. 
has  by  some  been  restricted  to  those  which  have  a 
mouth  formed  for  mastication,  but  no  special  organs 
of  respiration,  forming  a  section  which  is  subdivided 
into  two  orders,  Ostrapoda  and  Copepoda,  the  fomier 
having  a  bivalve  shell  or  shield,  the  latter  destitute 
of  it. — But  the  name  E.  is  still  commonly  employed 
in  its  former  wider  sense. 

ENTOMOSTRACA,  Fossil.  E.  attained  their 
maximum  size  in  the  pala.'Ozoic  waters,  which  they 
tenanted  in  vast  shoals.  The  Silurian  TrUobito 
(q.  V.)  was  a  phyllopod,  and  the  Pteregotus  (q.  v.) 
of  the  old  red  sandstone  was  nearly  allied  to  the 
modern  limulus.  Small  bivalvular  species  are  foiuid 
in  all  strata,  sometimes,  as  at  Burdie-House,  near 
Edinburgh,  forming  layers  of  considerable  thickness, 
at  others  scattered  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
dried  sediments  of  lakes,  as  in  the  fresh- water  clays 
of  the  Wealden,  or  forming  in  some  places  a  large 
proportion  of  chalk,  with  the  multitudes  of  their 
thin  calcareous  covering.?. 

E'NTOPHYTES  (Ento}}Iiyta  ;  Gr.  enton,  within, 
and  phyton,  a  plant),  a  term  usually  employed  to 
denote  those  parasitic  plants  which  grow  on  liWng 
animals.  It  is  seldom  extended  to  vegetable  para- 
sites which  grow  on  li^ng  vegetables,  whether  ou 
external  or  internal  parts,  nor  is  it  restricted  to 
those  which  are  foiuid  in  the  internal  ca\dties,  or 
within  the  substance  of  animal  bodies,  but  includes 
all  which  have  their  seat  on  living  animal  tissues. 
It  does  not,  like  the  analogous  term  Entozoa,  denote 
any  particular  cla.ss  of  organised  beings  ;  some  of 
the  E.  are  Alr/ic,  and  some  Funiji,  but  to  these  two 
orders  they  are  limited,  and  all  of  them  belong  to 
the  lower  sections  of  these  orders  ;  some  of  them  to 
those  lowest  sections  in  which  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  two  orders  cannot  easily  be  traced, 
so  that  they  are  referred  to  the  one  or  the  other  ou 
very  slender  grounds;  those  in  which  a  colouring 
matter  is  present  being  reckoned  alga?,  although  it 
can  be  observed  only  in  masses  of  aggregated  eeUs, 
and  not  in  the  cells  when  ™wed  separately,  and 
those  which  even  in  the  mass  apjiear  entirely  colour- 
less, being  considered  fimgi.  Many  of  the  alg» 
and  fungi  parasitic  on  plants  are  nearly  allied  to 
those  which  occur  on  animals  ;  thus,  ergot  and  tho 
Icind  of  mildew  which  has  proved  so  destructive  to 
Aanes,  are  refcn'cd  to  the  same  genus  {Oidiuiii)  to 
which  is  also  referred  the  fungus  found  in  the 
diseased  mucous  membrane  in  eases  of  aphl/ue  or 
thrusk  :  and  another  genus  (Bolrytis,  q.  v.)  contains 
the  fiuigus  called  INIuscardine,  or  Sillvworm  Hot,  so 
destructive  to  sQkworms,  together  with  the  fungus 
which  accompanies  or  causes  the  jiotato  disease,  aud 
many  other  species  which  infest  jilauts.  Conmion 
mould  is  even  sujiposed  to  occur  on  animal  tissues 
tending  to  decay,  during  life,  as  well  as  on  dead 
animal  an<l  vegetable  substances. 

Vegetable  parasites  occur  both  in  man  and  iu  the 
lower  animals  ;  not  a  few  of  them  are  peculiar  to 
fishes,  aud  more  are  ])eculiar  to  insects  than  to  any 
other  class  of  animals.  The  fungi  which  grow  ou 
the  bodies  of  insects  sometimes  attain  an  extra- 
ordinary development :  Spliceria  Sinensis,  which 
grows  on  a  Chinese  caterpillar,  and  to  which  medi- 
cinal virtues,  probably  imaginary,  are  ascribed  in 
China,  attains  a  length  greater  than  that  of  the 
caterpillar  itself.  A  sinular  species  (S.  liohertsii]  ia 
foimd  on  the  caterpillar  of  a  New  Zealand  moth. 

79 


ENTOPHYTES— EXTOZOA. 


The  situations  in  whicli  E.  occur  are  very  varions. 
Some,  like  the  tlirush  fungus  already  noticed, 
appear  in  tliscased  conditions  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane ;  some  lind  their  place  in  the  lunus,  the  ear, 
or  other  organs ;  some  on  the  skin,  in  tlie  liair 
foUicles,  and  in  as  well  as  on  the  hair  itself.  The 
'  fiu' '  whi';h  apjjears  on  the  tongue  when  the  stomach 
is  disordered,  aboimds  in  the  extremely  slender 
imbranching  threads  of  the  alga  called  LrpMhrix 
buixalis,  which  also  vegetates  hixuriantly  in  cavities 
and  corners  of  the  teeth  not  sufficiently  visited  by 
the  tooth-brush.  The  limgs  of  birds,  the  gills  of 
fishes,  the  intestines  of  insects,  the  wing-covers  of 
beetles,  the  eggs  of  molluscs,  all  have  their  pecidiar 
vegetable  parasites  by  which  they  are  sometimes 
infested. 

It  is  often  by  no  means  easy  to  say  whether  the 
presence  of  E.  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  consequence 
or  as  the  cause  of  disease  ;  sometimes  it  may  be 
both.  Sometimes  it  appears  to  be  certainly  a  conse- 
quence, as  when  the  Sarcinn  (or  Merismopeedia) 
reiitricidi  occurs  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  diseases  called  Faviis, 
Pon-iiio,  Tinea,  Herpes  tonsurans.  Plica  Polonica, 
Menta/jra,  Pitifriasis  versicolor,  &c.,  it  seems  entitled 
to  be  regarded  as  the  cause  of  the  diseased  state, 
and  the  cure  of  the  disease  seems  to  be  accomplished 
by  killing  the  parasite,  often  a  thing  of  no  little 
ditficulty. 

^\^lence  the  germs  of  E.  are.  derived  is  often  a 
question  to  which  it  would  not  be  easy  to  find  an 
answer.  Their  spores  are  extremely  minute ;  but 
there  are  no  plants  which  produce  seeds  or  spores 
more  abundantly  than  some  of  them  do  ;  the  growth 
of  the  plants  themselves  is  very  rapid,  and  repro- 
duction is  '  very  intense  and  rapid.' 

It  has  sometimes  been  imagined  that  epidemic 
diseases  may  be  caused  by  spores  of  E.  conveyed 
through  the  air ;  no  evidence  has,  however,  been 
produced  to  render  this  opinion  probable.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  the  existence  of 
cholera  fungi  or  alga;,  but  it  completely  failed. 

ENTOZO'A.  This  term  is  applied  to  all  the  animal 
forms  which  live  cither  in  the  natural  cavities 
(as,  for  example,  the  intestinal  canal),  or  in  the 
solid  tissues  (as,  for  example,  the  liver)  of  other 
animals.  The  number  of  these  parasites  is  so 
great  (there  being  at  least  20  distinct  species  of 
worms  found  in  man,  14  in  the  dog,  15  in  the 
horse,  11  in  the  common  fowl,  &c.),  and  their 
occurrence  so  frequent,  especially  in  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  that  we  must  regard  their  presence, 
at  all  events  in  many  species,  rather  as  the  normal 
condition,  than  as  a  morbid  state  due  to  accidental 
causes. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  many  of  the  animals 
included  amongst  the  E.  only  enjoy  a  parasitic 
existence  during  a  part  of  their  total  life,  which 
often,  as  iu  the  well-knowTi  case  of  perfect  insects, 
presents  very  varied  and  distinct  phases.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  lai-\-ai  of  the  gadtly  {GiJstrus  eqtii) 
undergo  their  entire  development  in  the  stomach 
of  the  horse,  attaching  themselves  liy  minute  hooks 
to  the  gastric  mucous  membrane  ;  they  tlien  detach 
themselves,  pass  along  the  intestines,  and  in  due 
time  are  discharged,  and  luidergo  their  further 
changes  externally ;  and  many  similar  instances 
might  be  quoted.  For  this  reason,  and  addition- 
ally because  parasites  are  now  known  to  belong 
to  various  classes  of  animals,  we  no  longer  attempt, 
like  Limi;eus  and  Cuvier,  to  form  a  8i)ecial  group 
of  E. ;  and  a  reference  to  the  Veiinei  intcstiiue  in 
the  Sijslema  Xalurie,  or  to  the  Entozoaires  in  the 
Jilyite  Animal,  at  once  shews  tliat  these  illustrious 
naturalists  gron]ied  together  animals  with  few  or  no 
true  natural  alliuitics, 
80 


Although  most  E.  belong  to  the  class  of  Vennea, 
or  Worms,  this,  as  h.is  been  already  observed,  is  by 
no  means  exclusively  the  case.  Thus,  even  fishes 
may  lead  a  parasitic  existence  ;  a  fish  of  the  genus 
Ficras/er  being  frequently  found  in  the  respiratory 
cavity  of  the  lloUithuria  tubnlnsa,  or  •Sca-cuctimbir, 
anil  small  fishes  having  been  frequently  observed  in 
the  cavity  of  the  Asleria  discoides.  Amongst  the 
crustaceans,  instances  of  )iarasitism  are  by  no  means 
rare  ;  different  species  of  Lernau  being  abundant 
in  the  branchial  (or  gill)  cavity,  and  on  the  surface 
of  numerous  fi.slies,  ^\bilc  the  Linijiiiilula:  infest 
mammals,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  being  found  in  tho 
olfactory  sinuses,  the  larynx,  tlie  lungs,  the  peri- 
toneal cavity,  &e.  The  instances  in  which  molluscs 
are  foimd  to  live  parasiticallj'  are  few ;  certain 
gasteropods,  however,  inhabit  tlie  bodies  of  echino- 
derms,  holothurias,  and  comatulas ;  and  amongst 
the  lamcUibranchiates,  species  of  modiolaria  and 
mytilus  live  in  the  bodies  of  ascidians.  There  arc 
several  ciises  of  polyps  which  h.ave  been  observed 
to  adopt  a  parasitic  existence  ;  and  finally,  various 
protozoa  are  not  unfrequently  met  with  iu  tho 
animal  fiuids  ;  for  example,  certain  species  of  y'ihrio, 
Cercoinonas,  and  Parameciani,  have  been  found  in 
the  intestinal  evacuations  in  cholera  and  diarrhcea ; 
Monads  have  been  foimd  in  the  urine  in  cholera, 
and  certain  infusoria  and  rhizopoda  in  the  blood 
of  the  dog,  the  frog,  and  many  other  animals.  See 
Hjematozoa. 

The  more  common  kinds  of  E.  appear  to  have 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earliest  physicians  and 
uatiu-alists  whose  opinions  or  works  have  reached 
us.  Hippocrates  speaks  of  several  womis,  especially 
the  tjeniai  and  ascarides,  infesting  the  human  intes- 
tinal canal ;  and  Pythagoras  learned  iu  India  that 
the  bark  of  the  pomegranate  acted  almost  as  a 
specific  in  cases  of  tape-wonn.  Aristotle  noticed 
both  the  tape-worm  of  the  dog  and  of  man,  and  the 
Cysticercus  eclluJosm  (see  Cestoid  Worms)  of  tho 
pig ;  but  utterly  unconscious  that  the  cysticercus, 
under  favourable  conditions,  became  developed  into 
a  t.ape-worm  (see  T.A.rE-W0KMS),  referred  the  origin 
of  all  intestinal  M'orms  to  spontaneous  generation 
— a  doctrine  that  seems  to  have  been  generally 
adopted  tUl  the  17th  c,  when  Redi  published  (in 
1684)  a  work  on  Helminthology,  iu  which  he  dis- 
tinctly shewed  that  the  generation  of  various  E. 
followed  the  same  laws  as  in  higher  animals,  and 
that  in  many  instances  there  were  distinct  males 
and  females.  The  great  recent  discovery,  that  the 
vesicular  or  bladder-like  parasites,  such  as  the 
different  species  of  cysticercus  and  co?nurus,  are 
cestoid  w'orms  in  an  early  stage  of  d<;velopmeut,  is 
.alluded  to  in  Cestoid  Worms,  and  will  be  more 
fully  noticed  in  the  article  Tape-wokms. 

Another  point  of  general  interest  in  connection 
with  E.,  is  the  part  of  the  body  iu  which  they  are 
found.  WhOe  most  five  in  the  intestinal  canal  and 
other  open  ca^nties  (as  the  lar\nx,  ]>roncliial  tubes, 
&c.),  others  are  found  in  the  closed  cavities  and  iu 
the  parenchymatous  tissue  of  the  liver  and  other 
solid  organs.  Thus  (confining  our  remarks  to  the 
E.  occurring  in  man),  Ancliylosloma  duodenale, 
Stronijyhis  duodenalis,  two  species  of  Ascnris, 
Oxt/uris  vermicularis,  Trichoceptialus  dhpar,  Disloma 
he.teroj>lii/es,  at  least  four  species  of  Tcenia,  and 
Bothriocephalus  lattis,  have  been  found  in  different 
])art3  of  the  intestinal  canal ;  whUe  Stroiiijijlns  fji'jaa 
inhal)its  the  kidney,  another  species  of  Stromjijlus 
the  lungs,  a  species  of  S/iiroplera  tUe  bladder,  two 
species  of  Pitaria  ami  Monostonia  Lentis  the  eye. 
Trichina  spiralis  the  voluntary  muscles,  two  sjiecies 
of  Kcliirtococcus  and  Vi/slicercus  celliilosa',  various 
I)arenehymatous  tissues,  two  species  of  Distoma  the 
gall-bhadder,  another   species  the  portal  vem,  and 


ENTE'ACT— ENTRY  OF  AN  HEIR. 


the  Filaria  Medinemis,  or  guinea-worm,  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissue. 

Davafne,  who  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
highest  Uving  authorities  on  this  subject,  gives  the 
fciliowing  synopsis  of  the  E.  occurring  in  man  and 
the  domestic  animals  (see  his  Traila  des  Entozoaires, 
Paris,  18G0). 

Type  1.  Pkotozoa,  including  the  genera  Bac- 
terium,  Vibrio,  Monas,  Cercovumas,  Trichomonas, 
Paramecium. 

Type  II.  Ce-stofdea,  including  the  families  of 
7\e»iadw  and  Bothrioceplmlidie.  The  Twniadai 
occur  (1)  in  their  undeveloped,  cystic,  or  vesicular 
form,  constituting  the  genera  Ctemirus  and  Ci/sticer- 
ctis ;  and  (2)  in  their  perfect,  ribbon-like  shape, 
constituting  the  genus  Tcenia,  of  which  about  20 
sjiecies  have  been  described.  The  Bothrioci'pli- 
alidtv  contain  the  single  genus  Bothriocephalus, 
which  embraces  various  species.  Their  early  or 
vcsicidar  stage  has  not  yet  been  described. 

Type  III.  Tbejiatodea,  including  two  well- 
marked  secondary  tyjies :  (1)  The  Polyslomida, 
which  live  as  epizoa  on  the  skin  or  gills  of  aquatic 
animals,  and  which  do  not  concern  us  here  ;  and  (2) 
the  Distomidcc,  including  the  genera  Monosloma, 
DisloDw,  Holostoma,  Amphisloma,  with  the  doubtful 
genera  of  Tctrastoma  and  Hexathrydium. 

Type  IV.  Acanthocephala,  with  the  single 
genus  Echinorhynclius. 

Type  V.  Nejlvtoidea.  Passing  over  two  cases 
in  which  these  worms  have  been  discovered,  appar- 
ently in  their  larval  or  imperfectly  developed  state 
(once  by  llainey  in  the  human  trachea,  and  once  by 
Viilpian  in  the  kidney  of  the  dog),  Davaine  gives 
the  foUowing  genera,  Oxijuris,  Asciiris,  Spiroplerct, 
Trichina,  Trichosoma,  Trichoeephalus,  Filaria, 
Dochmius,  Sderosloma,  Strongi/lus,  Andiylostoma, 
Daclylius. 

Type  VI.  Acanthotheca,  including  the  genus 
PentaMoma. 

Alarming  as  the  above  list  may  seem,  compara- 
ti\'ely  few  of  the  worms  contained  in  it  do  in 
reality  give  rise  to  dangerous  or  severe  sjTnptoms. 
It  seems  to  be  a  condition  of  parasitism,  that  the 
.-luimal  upon  which  the  parasite  lives  must  not  be 
destroyed  by  it ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  by  one 
of  our  highest  authorities  on  this  subject.  Van 
Beneden,  tliafc  in  many  cases  the  parasite  does  not 
so  much  attack  the  organism  in  which  it  exists,  as 
its  superabimdant  products.  Dujardin  and  other 
helmiuthologists  have  described  cases  in  which 
wonns  were  developed  by  thousands  in  persons 
apparently  in  good  health.  The  symptoms  occa- 
sioned by  Ascarides,  Teniae,  &e.,  are  described  in 
the  articles  Ascaki.s,  Tape-worms,  &c. 

Tlie  miUtipUcation  of  worms  is  most  rapid  in 
debilitated  persons,  especially  children  living  in 
cold  and  damp  situations  ;  and  impure  water,  imripe 
fruits,  and  raw  or  imperfectly  cooked  me-it,  have 
consideral>le  influence  on  the  development  of  these 
animals.  For  the  description  of  the  medicines  used 
for  their  destruction,  see  the  article  Vekmifuges  ; 
and  for  information  regarding  the  structure  and 
habits  of  the  most  important    E.,  see   the  articles 

ASCARIS,  BOTHKIOCEPHALUS,  CeSTOID  WoKMS, 
FlLARI.i,    MONOSTOMA,    NeMATOIDEA,     SpIROPTERA, 

Strongylus,  Tape- worms,  TREnrATOiDE  a.  Trichina, 
Trichocephalcs. 

ENTR'ACT,  in  Slusic,  is  an  instrumental  piece, 
composed  in  the  form  of  a  little  symjihony  or  over- 
ture, to  be  performed  between  the  acts  of  a  jilay. 

E'NTR6  DOTI'RO  E  MI'NHO,  or,  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called,  MlNHO,  a  province  of  Portugal,  in 
the  extreme  north-west  of  the  country,  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Galicia,  from  which  it  is  separated 


by  the  river  Minho  ;  on  the  E.  by  Galicia  and  Tras 
OS  Montes ;  on  the  S.  by  the  province  of  Bcira, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Dom-o  ; 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  has  an 
area  of  .about  309-1  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  988,985.  It  has  been  called  the  Paradise  of 
Portugal,  and  indeed  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
any  territory  in  Europe  of  equal  extent  exhibits 
so  much  beauty.  It  is  traversed  from  north-east 
to  south-west  by  three  mountain-ranges,  which, 
however,  sink  down  as  they  approach  the  coast, 
leaving  a  considerable  tract  of  undulating  country 
along  the  sea-margin.  The  chief  rivers,  besides 
those  already  mentioned  as  forming  the  northern 
and  southern  boundaries  of  the  province,  are  the 
Lima— a  portion  of  the  vale  of  which  is  said  to 
form  the  loveliest  landscape  in  the  world — the 
Cavado,  and  the  Tamego.  The  climate  is  agreeable 
and  healthy.  The  chief  productions  are  wine,  oil, 
flax,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  vegetables. 
Wine,  which  is  shipped  at  Oporto,  is  largely 
exported.  Along  the  coast  are  niunerous  fisheries, 
at  which  great  numbers  find  employment.  The 
province  of  Minho  consists  of  three  districts,  Braga, 
Vianne,  aud  Porto,  with  the  town  of  Braga  for  the 
capital 

ENTRB  EI'OS  (the  Spanish  for  Between  Rivers) 
takes  its  name  from  its  occupying  the  space  between 
the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay,  immediately  above 
the  point  where  they  unite  to  form  the  Plate.  It  is 
one  of  the  states  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  32,000  square  miles,  and 
the  population  at  134,271  inhabitants.  The  country 
is  almost  entirely  pastoral — its  principal  productions 
being  hides,  horns,  tallow,  and  jerked  beef.  The 
soil  is  not  well  fitted  for  cultivation,  for,  besides 
being  rather  swampy  throughout,  it  is  subject,  in 
the  south,  to  annual  floods.  The  capital  is  Bajada 
de  Santa  Fe  or  Parana,  the  other  principal  towns 
are  Gualeguay,  Gualeguarchu,  and  Concepcion  de  la 
China. 

ENTREMETS,  ENTREES,  French  terms  now 
used  in  England  to  designate  certain  courses  of  dishes 
served  at  fashionable  dinners.  The  chief  dishes  are 
entrees,  and  the  lighter  dishes  are  entremets. 

ENTRESOL.     See  Mezzanin. 

ENTRO'PIUM,  or  ENTRO'PION  (Gr.  en,  in,  and 
frepo,  I  turn),  inversion  of  the  eyelashes,  or  even 
eyelid,  consequent  either  on  loss  of  substance,  or  on 
inflammatory  swelling  of  the  lid.  If  confined  to 
one  or  two  eyelashes,  they  should  be  plucked  out 
by  the  roots,  and  the  bulbs  should  be  cauterised ; 
but  the  radical  cure  of  severe  entropium  requires 
a  careful  adaptation  of  the  surgeon's  art  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  particular  case,  and  should 
not  be  attempted  by  unskilled  hands. 

ENTRY,  Right  of.  A  person  is  said,  in  English 
law,  to  have  a  right  of  entry  who  has  been  wrong- 
fully dispossessed  or  ousted  of  land  aud  tenements 
by  Abatement,  Intrusion,  or  Disseisin.  See  the 
several  articles  under  these  heads.  A  right  of  entry 
was  formerly  lost  by  suffering  a  descent  cast,  i.  e., 
where  the  tenant  tortiously  in  possession  is  per- 
mitted to  continue  unmolested  till  his  death,  and  is 
succeeded  by  his  heir.  This  result  of  suffering  a 
descent  cast  is  removed,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27, 
and  right  of  entry  is  now  lost  by  not  asserting  it 
for  twenty  years. 

ENTRY  OF  AN  HEIR.  In  the  feudal  law  of 
Scotland,  this  term  was  applied  to  the  recognition  of 
the  heir  of  a  vassal  by  the  superior  or  dominus. 
Strictly,  the  whole  rights  of  the  vassal  in  the 
property  return  to  the  superior  on  his  death,  and 

81 


ENVELOPES— EOCEITE. 


must  be  renewed  to  his  heir.  The  renewal,  liowever, 
is  not  optiiinal,  it  is  merely  an  occasion  of  exacting 
dues  of  entry  from  the  heir,  which  tend,  of  course, 
to  diminish  the  value  of  the  property,  and  of 
putting  fees  into  the  pockets  of  conveyancing 
lawj'ors,  who  are  the  only  real  gainers  by  the 
arrangement.     See  Com'EYANcnJO. 

E'NVELOPES.  UntU  the  introduction  of  the 
penny-postage  system,  envelopes  for  written  letters 
were  very  little  atlopted ;  it  was  far  more  customary 
to  secme,  by  wafer  or  sealing-wax,  the  sheet  of  paper 
on  which  the  letter  was  -wTitten.  When  the  postage 
was  rendered  xmiform  for  all  distances,  and  prepay- 
ment enforced,  or  at  least  recommended,  it  was 
supposed  that  stamped  envelopes  woidd  bo  con- 
venient coverings  for  lettei's,  sealing  the  letter  and 
paying  the  postage  at  one  operation.  Such  has 
indeed  been  the  case ;  but  the  envelope-manufac- 
ture has  since  taken  a  new  direction,  and  to  an 
extent  that  no  one  could  have  contemplated.  Several 
large  tii-ms  in  London  and  elsewhere  can  make 
envelopes  more  cheaply  than  the  government,  and 
can  vary  the  size,  shape,  colour,  and  quality  to  an 
indeiinite  degree ;  as  a  consequence,  although  enve- 
lopes bearing  the  government  impressed  stamp  are 
still  in  demand,  the  unstamped  varieties  are  used  in 
very  much  larger  quantities.  They  are  made  by  two 
methods,  involving  different  amounts  of  machine- 
power.  The  paper  is  first  cut  into  quadrangidar 
pieces  rather  longer  than  wide,  by  a  cutting  blade 
brought  to  bear  upon  a  pile  of  sheets  at  once ;  and 
then  cutting-dies  reduce  these  pieces  to  the  proper 
shape,  generally  lozenge  or  diamond  form,  but  some- 
times with  curvilinear  edges.  For  some  kinds,  it  is 
foimd  to  economise  both  time  and  paper  to  stamp 
the  pieces  out  at  once  from  the  rough  sheets.  The 
subsequent  folding  and  gumming  are  performed 
generally  by  hand,  sometimes  by  machine.  In  the 
haud-method,  women  and  girls  fold  with  almost 
incredible  quickness,  ha^^ug  very  simple  giude- 
pieces  to  aid  them  in  giving  the  proper  oblon" 
quadrangular  shape  to  the  fold.  The  gum  is  applied 
with  a  small  brush,  either  aU  along  the  overlapping 
edges,  or  in  spots  here  and  there,  according  to  the 
quahty  of  the  envelope. 

The  envelope-machines,  however,  such  as  those 
of  Messrs  De  la  Rue,  are  beautifid  examples  of 
automatic  mechanism.  In  the  kind  invented  and 
used  by  this  celebrated  firm,  a  cutting-machine 
severs  the  blanks  or  papers ;  and  dies  are  employed 
to  stamp  the  device  on  the  spot  where  the  seal 
■would  otherwise  He.  The  blanks  are  then  fed  into 
the  folding-machine,  where  they  pass  through  a 
curious  series  of  processes.  Each  blank  is  can-ied 
down  into  a  box,  where  a  plunger  makes  four  creases 
in  it ;  two  short  levers  fold  down  two  of  the  flaps 
thus  made;  a  gumming  apparatus  comes  up,  and 
applies  a  line  of  wet  gum  to  each  flap-edge  ;  two 
small  levers  then  fold  down  the  other  two  flaps 
(but  only  fastening  one  of  them) ;  and  finally,  the 
envelope  is  shifted  aside  to  a  pile,  and  makes  way 
for  another.  All  these  processes  are  gone  through 
in  one  second,  enabling  the  machine  to  make  sixty 
envelopes  per  miirate.  Where  twelve  of  these 
macliiues  are  working  at  once,  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
mDlion  envelopes  are  put  out  of  hand  in  a  very  short 
time.  Kearly  a  million  and  a  half  of  enveloped 
letters  pass  through  the  post  every  day  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  most  of  the  envelopes  for  which  are  of 
home  maniifactiu'e  ;  and  besides  this,  a  large  export 
trade  is  maintained.  The  stamped  envelopes  aU  go 
to  Somerset  House,  to  have  the  stamp  impressed 
upon  them,  which  is  done  by  a  beautifid  machine, 
chielly  invented  by  Mr  Edwin  Hill,  in  which  emboss- 
ing and  colour-printing  are  ingeniously  combined. 
These    envelopes    are    sold    by    the    Stamp-office, 


between  which    and  the    Post-office   a    monetary 
adjustment  becomes  necessary. 

E'NVOY,  a  diplomatic  minister  of  the  second 
order,  i.  e.,  inferior  in  rank  to  an  ambassador. 
Envoys  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  ministers 
plenipotentiary,  the  internuncios  of  the  pope,  and 
all  other  inferior  diplomatic  ministers,  diiJ'er  from 
ambassadors  in  this,  that  although  they  receive 
their  credentials,  like  ambassadors,  immediately 
from  their  sovereign,  they  represent  not  his 
personal  dignity,  but  only  lus  affairs.  They  stand 
to  him  just  as  au  ordinary  agent  does  to  his 
principal,  and  their  acts  or  ju-omises  are  his  in 
a  business,  though  not  in  a  personal  sense.  It  is 
said  that  this  class  of  di])lomatist3  was  first 
introduced  by  Louis  XI.  of  France,  towards  the 
end  of  the  loth  century.  The  envoy  is  superior 
in  rank  to  the  charge  d'affaires,  whose  creden- 
tials proceed  from  the  ministers  of  the  state 
from  which  he  is  sent,  and  are  addressed  to  the 
ministers  of  the  state  to  which  he  is  sent ;  or  are  a 
mere  delegation  from  an  ambassador  or  envoy  to 
conduct  the  afi'aii'S  of  the  mission  iu  his  absence. 
Consuls  (q.  v.)  are  not  generally  reckoned  among 
diplomatic  ministers,  though,  where  they  have 
diplomatic  duties  to  perform  independently  of  au 
ambassador  or  envoy,  they  are  accredited,  and 
treated  as  ministers.  According  to  the  division  of 
diplomatic  agents  into  four  classes,  which  was  made 
by  the  great  powers  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  in 
1815 — viz.  1.  Ambassadors,  legates,  and  nuncios  ; 
2.  Envoys,  ministers,  and  other  agents  accredited  to 
sovereigns  ;  and  3.  Charggs  d'affaires,  accredited  by 
and  to  the  departments  of  Foreign  Affairs — an 
envoy  would  be  of  the  second,  and  a  chargS 
d'affaires  of  the  third  rank.  But  the  practice  of  this 
country  has  interjected  between  the  ambassador 
and  the  envoy  a  second  class,  called  envoys  extra- 
ordinary and  ministers  plenipotentiary,  which,  of 
com^se,  throws  the  ordinary  envoy  into  the  third, 
and  the  chargS  d'affaires  into  the  fourth  class.  See 
Chakge  d'Ajfaikes,  Ambassadok,  Embassy,  and 
Consul. 

ENYED.    See  Nagy-enyed. 

E'OCENE  {eos,  dawn,  and  hainos,  recent),  a  term 
introduced  by  LyeU  to  characterise  the  Lower 
Tertiary  strata,  from  the  idea  that  the  fossil  shells 
of  that  period  contain  au  extremely  smaU  jiroportion 
(34  per  cent.)  of  Uving  species.  He  accordingly  looks 
upon  these  beds  as  indicating  the  dawn  of  the 
existing  state  of  the  testaceous  fauna — no  recent 
species  ha\Tng  been  detected  in  the  older  rocks. 
The  gradual  appro.ximation  of  the  living  inhabitants 
of  the  globe  to  the  present  forms  is  the  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  Eocene  and  newer  deposits.  The 
Eocene  beds  rest  on  the  chalk.  Like  the  other  Ter- 
tiary strata,  these  deposits  occupy  small  and  detached 
areas  when  compared  with  the  older  measiu-es.  It 
is  not  difficult  to  determine  the  relative  position  of 
Primary  or  Secondary  strata,  because  of  the  great 
extent  of  particular  beds,  being  frequently  continu- 
ous over  extensive  districts.  But  Tertiary  deposits 
are  more  isolated,  and  occur  in  smaller  and  more 
detached  patches  ;  hence  it  is  difficidt  to  determine 
the  contemporaneity  of  the  sections  of  the  various 
periods,  occurring  as  they  do  in  different  isolated 
localities.  Their  relations  must  bo  determined  from 
the  petralogical  structure  of  the  beds,  which,  how- 
ever, is  very  inconstant,  or  from  the  more  satis- 
factory evidence  derived  from  their  fossiliferous 
contents. 

In  the  follo%ving  table  are  given  the  generally 
received  divisions  of  this  period,  with  the  luaximmu 
thickness  (in  English  feet)  of  the  English  strata,  and 
the  French  and  Belgian  eqiuvalent  beds  : 


EOLIAN  HAEP— EPACREDACE^. 


I.  Hampstead  series, 


2.  Bembridge  series, 


,  Osborne  series, 
,  Ucadon  series,  . 

Dagshot  series. 


G.  London  clay  series, 
7.  Plastic  clay  series, 
0.  Thanet  sands  series, 


( Calcaire  laeustre  supe- 
175  <     rieur,  and  Grds  de  Fon- 

l     tainebleau.— Hupelien. 

r  Gypseous  series  of  Mont- 
iisi     "'"rtre.Calcairelacustro 

I     inoyeinie,  and  Calcaire 

I,    siUceux.— Tongrien. 

182  I  ^^^^  ^^^  Beauchamp, 

I'  Sables  moycnnes,  Calcair- 

1270  J      Sr03sicr,andLitscoquile 

j      liercs.— Laeckenien  and 

I.     ItruxelliLn. 

Wanting     in     France. — 

Ypresicn. 
Argile  plastiqueet  lignite. 
— Lundenien  superieur. 
/  Wanting      in     France. 


160 


Landenien  inferieur. 
Total  thickness,     2542  feet. 

EO'LIAIf  HARP.     See  zEollw  Hakp. 
EON  DE  BEAUMONT,  Charles  GENEvrbvE 
Lotns  AuousTE  Andke  Timotui5e  d',  known  as  the 
C/iemlier  d'Eon,  was  born  at  Tonnerre,  iu  Burgundy, 
in  1728,  studied  law,  and  became  au  advocate.     He 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  Prince  of  Couti  by  some 
political  writiags ;  and  iu  1755,  was  introduced  by 
the   latter  to   Louis   XV.,   who   employed   him   in 
diplomatic  missions  to  Russia  and  Austria.     After 
serving   a   short    time    in    the   army,   not   ivithout 
distinction,   he   was    seut   to    London    in    1701    as 
secretary  of  embassy,  and  shortly  after  was  made 
minister-jjlenipotentiary.     Becoming  the  victim  of  a 
court  cabal,  however,   which  deprived  him  of  his 
office,  he  took  his  revenge  by  publishing  his  secret 
correspondence  with  the  French  court,  which  con- 
tained, among  other  tilings,  libels  on  various  persons. 
For  one  of  these,  he  was  prosecuted  in  London  ;  aud 
to  avoid  judgment,  fled  to  the  continent.     He,  how- 
ever, returned  to  England  again  ;  but,  on  the  death 
of  Loms  XV.,  the  French  ministry  deemed  it  prudent 
to  recall  him,  as  they  were  afraid  he  might  betray 
their   secrets   to   the    English    government,    whicli 
made  him  brilliant  offers.     The  pretext  laid  hold  of 
for  this  purpose,  was  the  scaudal  e.tcited  iu  London 
by  his  ha\Tug  assumed  the  garb  of  a  woman,  whicli 
he  had  done  at  the  request  of  Louis,  the  better,  it 
may  be  presumed,  to  hide  his  designs  as  a  'secret 
agent.'     On  his  return  to  France,  however,  Eon  was 
very  favourably  received  ;    antl   Louis    XVI.   even 
ordered  him  to  make  use  of  the  feminine  garb  iu 
future.    In  1783,  he  again  jiroceeded  to  London,  not, 
however,  in  any  Wsible  official  capacity;  and,  though 
dressed   as   a   woman,  gave   lessons   m  fencing,  'of 
which  art  he  was  a  complete  master.     On  the°out- 
break  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  hastened  home, 
and  offered  his  services  to  the  nation  ;  but  as  nothing 
caino  of  his  offer,   he  finally  rctiu-ned  to  Londou, 
where  he  sank  into  the  greatest  misery,  and  died 
21st  May  1810.     An  examination  of  Eon's  remains 
by  Mr  J.  Copeland,  a  surgeon,  settled  the  question 
of  his  sex,  and  put  an  end  to  the  curiosity  of  the  Eng- 
lish public.     His  wi-itings  apjieared  at  Amsterdam 
1775,  under  the  title  of  Loisirs  du  Chemlier  d'Jioii. 
The  ilemoires  which  bear  his  name  are  not  genuine. 
EOO'A,  or  MI'DDLEBURO,  one  of  the  Friendly 
or  Tonga  Islands,  is  30  miles  in  circuit,  aud  contains 
300  inhabitants.     It  is  in  lat.  18°  It)'  ti.,  aud  long. 
175°  37'  W.      The   sm-face,   which  is  rocky  and 
barren,  rises  600  feet  above  the  sea.      The  group, 
as  a  whole,  was  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1G43. 

EOTVOS,  JozsEP,  a  higUy  distinguished  Hunga- 
rian author,  was  bom  3d  September  1813  at  Buda ; 
educated  at  home  by  a  tutor  of  rc]iublicau  senti- 
ments, and  studied  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at 
the  university  of  Pesth  during  the  years  1825 — 1831. 
He  became  an  advocate  in  1833,  but  soon  resolved 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  literature,  iu  which 


field  he  had  ah-eady  won  a  great  reputation  by  his 
comedies  Kritikusok  (The  Critics)  and  HdzaxuWc 
(ihe  Weddings),  and   also   hy  his   tragedy   BoszCc 
(Iievenge).    After  his  return  from  a  journey  through 
Germany,   France,  England,   Switzerland,  and   the 
JNetherlands,  he  published  his  Prkon  lleform  (Oefdmi- 
imsreform,  Pesth,  1838),  which  was  instrumental  in 
bringmg  about  many  wholesome  improvements  in 
regard  to  prisons.     This  was  followed  (1838—1841) 
by  his  novel  entitled  The  Carthusian,  which  excited 
great  interest,  and  was  jironounced  to  be  one  of  the 
best  productions  of  Hungarian  Uturature.     E.  now 
began  to  distinguish  himself  in  pohtics.     Wlien  the 
Liberal  party  spUt,  in  1844,  into  Municipalists  and 
Centralists,  he  became  one   of  the   most  eloquent 
advocates  of  the  pohcy  of  the  latter  party,  and  wrote 
nimierous  articles  in  favoiu-  of  it  in  the  Pcsti  Hirlap 
which  are  mai-ked   by  varied   learning,  fulness  of 
thought,  and  elegance  of   expression.      They  were 
issued  iu  a  collected  form  at  Leipsic  in  184G,  under 
the  title  of  Reform.      The  Villa, /e  Notarif  (A'  Falu' 
JegyzOje,   3  vols.,  Pesth,  1844— 184G  ;    English  by 
Otto  Wencksteni,  1850 ;  German  by  Mailath)  is  a 
work  of  the  highest  order  of  merit.     For  variety  of 
incident,  easy  vigour  of  style,  humour,  livehness, 
and  freshness  of  descriptive  power,  it  has  been  pro- 
nounced equal  to  the  best  of  the  Waverlei/  Novels 
It  was  followed  in  1847— 1848  by  his  Magi/arorszdg 
1514— 4ere  (Hungary  in  1514),  which  describes  the 
insurrection  of  the  peasants  that  happened  iu  that 
year  in  a  masterly  style.     'When  the  revolution  of 
1848  broke  out,  E.  was  appointed  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,   but   soon   became   aware   of   his   own 
incapacity  for  the  work  of  a  practical  statesman, 
and  abandoning  his  country,  which  he  deemed  it 
impossible  for  him  to  serve,  retu-ed  for  some  time  to 
Munich,  where  he  employed  himself  exclusively  in 
literary  pursuits.     The  most  importaut  fruit  of  his 
residence  here  was  Der  Mnjluss  der  Ideen.  dcs  19 
Jahrh.   aiif  Staat   mid    Gesdlschafl.      In    1851,    E. 
returned  to  Hungai-y.    In  1859,  he  publisheil  anony- 
mously his  Garantten  der  Macht  mid  Einheit  (Esler- 
reh:hs.      In    1867,   he   was    appointed   Minister    of 
Worship  aud  Education,  and  in  that  ca])acity  en- 
gaged actively  in  the  work  of  reform.     He  died  at 
Pesth  on  the  3d  of  February  1871. 

EPACRIDA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenons 
plants,  consisting  of  shrubs  aud  small  trees,  which, 


Springelia  Incarnata ; 
,  flower  and  calyx ;  2,  anther ;  3,  stamens  and  ovary. 


both    iu   appearance   and   in   botanical   characters, 
much  resemble  the  Ericece,  or  Heath  family.     The 


El'ACT— EPAULEM  ENT. 


Epacris  Grandiflora. 


most  important  distinguishing  structural  character 
is  indeed  found  in  the  simplicity  o£  the  anthers, 
which  are  onc-ceUed,  open  longitudinally,  and  are 
destitute  of  appendages. 
The  flowers  of  the  E.  have 
generally  a  tubular  corolla, 
dividing  into  five — rarely 
four  —  segments  ;  which, 
however,  sometimes  become 
separate  petals.  The  calyx 
is  persistent,  often  coloured, 
has  the  same  nimiber  of  seg- 
ments with  the  corolla,  and 
is  suiTOunded  with  small 
bracts.  The  stamens  are 
fewer  than  in  the  JUricecp, 
usually  equal  in  number  to 
the  segments  of  the  corolla, 
and  alternate  with  them. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  a 
capsule,  sometimes  a  berry, 
sometimes  a  drupe.  The 
leaves  are  simple,  generally 
<alteniate,  often  crowded ; 
the  flowers  in  spikes,  in 
teiininal  racemes,  or  axillary 
and  solitary. — About  400 
species  of  E.  are  known, 
all  natives  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  and  Australia ;  in 
wliich  regions  they  seem 
to  occupy  the  place  of  the  heaths  of  other  parts 
of  the  world.  Some,  particularly  of  the  genus 
Epacris,  are  well-known  ornaments  of  our  green- 
houses, and  are  flowering  slirubs  of  great  beauty. 
Some  produce  edible  berries  resembling  the  cran- 
berry.   See  Crakberev. 

E'PACT,  in  Clii-onology,  is  the  excess  of  the  solar 
month  above  the  bmar  synotlical  month  ;  or  of  the 
solar  year  above  the  lunar  year  of  twelve  synodical 
months  ;  or  of  several  solar  months  above  as  many 
synodical  months ;  or  of  several  solar  years  above  as 
many  periods,  each  consisting  of  12sjTiodical  months. 
The  menstrual  epact  is  the  excess  of  the  civil  calen- 
dar month  above  the  lunar  month.  For  a  month  of 
31  days,  this  epact  is  1  day  H  hom-s  15  minutes  57 
seconds,  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  occur  on  the 
first  day  of  the  month.  The  annual  epact  is  the 
excess  of  the  solar  year  above  the  lunar.  As  the 
Julian  solar  j'ear  is  (nearly)  305  days,  and  the  Julian 
lunar  year  is  (nearly)  354  days,  the  annual  epact  is 
nearly  II  days.  The  epact  for  two  Jidian  yeai-s  is, 
therefore,  nearly  22  days  ;  for  three  years,  33  days  ; 
and  so  on.  When,  however,  the  epact  passes  30 
days,  30  faUs  to  be  deducted  from  it,  as  making  an 
intercalary  month.  For  tliree  years,  then,  the  epact 
is  properly  3 ;  and  for  4  years,  adding  1 1  days,  it  is 
14  days ;  and  so  on.  Following  the  cycle,  starting 
from  a  new  moon  on  the  1st  of  January,  we  find 
th.at  the  epact  becomes  30  or  0  in  the  19th  year. 
The  epact  for  the  20th  year  is  again  1 1 ;  and  so  on. 
The  years  in  the  cycle  are  marked  by  Roman 
numerals,  I.  II.  III.,  &c.,  caUed  the  Golden  Numbers ; 
and  a  table  of  the  Julian  epacts  exhibits  each  year 
in  the  cycle  with  its  golden  number  and  epact.  As 
the  Gregorian  year  (see  Cale.vdar)  diflers  from,  and 
is  in  advance  of,  the  Juhan  by  II  days  (the  number 
lost  on  the  Julian  accoimt  before  the  Gregorian 
coiniiut.ation  of  time  was  introduced  in  England), 
and  as  1 1  days  is  the  difference  between  the  solar 
and  limar  years,  it  follows  tliat  the  Gregorian  epact 
for  any  year  is  the  same  with  the  Julian  epact  for 
the  year  preceding  it. 

EPAMINO'NDAS,  the  most  eminent  of  Theban 

8i 


generals  and  statesmen,  and  one  who   for   a  long 
period  elevated  his  coimtiy  to  the  highest  point  of 
honour  and  prosperity,  was  born  414  B.  c.     Jle  was 
descended  frum  an  ancient  but  impoverished  family, 
and  led  a  retired  life  till  his  40th  year,  profiting  by 
the   instructions   of   Lysis    the   Pythagorean,   who 
inspired  him  with  enthusiasm  for  the  elevated  ideas 
which  it  was  the  object  of  his  life  to  realise.     E. 
first  becomes   prominent  during   the   period  when 
the  Lacedemonians  garrisoned  the  citadel  of  Thebes, 
and   kept  the  inhaliitants  in    subjection.     Though 
he  took  no  part   iu  the   desperate  but   successful 
stratagem   by  which   his   fellow-citizens   recovered 
the  Cadmeia  in  379  E.  c,  he  stepped  forward  imme- 
diately after  into  the  ranks  of  the  patriots  ;  and 
when  sent  to  Sparta  iu  371  B.C.  along  with  several 
others,  in  order  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the 
two  coimtries,  E.  displayed  as  much  iirmness  and 
dignity  as   eloquence  in  the   deb.ate  which  ensued 
upon  the  question    whether  Thebes  should   ratify 
the   treaty  in  the  name    of  all  Ba^otia,  the   residt 
of  which   ratification  would  have  been   equivalent 
to  a   recognition   of  her  claim  to   supremacy  over 
the    Boeotian  towns.      To  this  the  Lacedemonians 
demurred,  and    the  war  was    again   resumed ;   E. 
was   appointed   commander-in-chief ;    and,   in   pon- 
junction  ^vith  his   friend  Pelopidas,  with  an  army 
of  COOO  men,  defeated  double  that  number  of  the 
enemy  at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.).     Two  years  later,  he 
and    Pelopidas    marched    into    the    Peloponnesus, 
incited   several    of   the   allied  tribes   to   fall  away 
from    Sparta,   and   then   tm'ned   his   arms   against 
that  city,  wliich,  however,  was  bravely  defended  by 
Agesilaus.    On  his  return  to  Thebes,  E.  was  accused 
of   having   violated  the   laws   of  his   country,    by 
retaining  the  supreme  power  in  his  hands  beyond 
the  time  appointed  by  law ;   but  was  acquitted  iu 
consequence  of  his  ojicn  and  animated  defence.     In 
the  spring  of  308  B.C.,  the  war  was  renewed  with 
increased  fury  between  Tliebcs  and  Sparta,  and  E. 
once  more  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus,  but  did 
not   accomplish   much ;    and   on   his   return   home, 
received  a  check  from  Chabrias  at  Corinth.  To  atone 
for  this  unsuccessful  undertaking,  he  advanced  with 
33,000  men  into  Arcadia,  and  joined  battle  with  the 
main  body  of  the  enemy  near  Mantineia,  in  the  j'car 
362  B.  c.     E.,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  succeeded  iu 
breaking   the   Spartan   phalanx,  but  was  mortally 
woimded  in  the  breast  by  a  javelin.     Being  told  by 
the  physicians  that  he  woidd  die  as  soon  as  the 
weapon  was  extracted,  on  receiving  intelligence  that 
the  Boeotians  had  gained  the  victory,  he  is  said  to 
h.ave   torn    out   the   javelin    with    his    own    hand, 
exclaiming :  '  I  have  lived  long  enough.'     His  moral 
purity,  justice,   and  clemency  are   extolled   by  the 
ancients  as  much  as  his  military  talents ;  and  it  is 
expressly  recorded   of   him,  that    he  never  told  a 
lie,  even  in    jest.     Compare    Bauch,  Epaminondaa 
vnd    Thcbens  Kampf  um   die  Jlcgenwnie  (Breslau, 
1834). 

EPAU'LEMENT  (from  the  French  <<paii!e, 
shoulder),  iu  siege-works,  is  a  portion  of  a  battery 
or  earthwork.  The  siege-batteries  are  generally 
shielded,  at  one  end  at  least,  by  ejiaulements, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  main  line  of  the 
battery.  The  object  is  to  protect  the  guns  and 
gunners  from  a  flanking  fire.  The  name  is  often 
giv<'n  erroneously  to  the  parapet  of  tlio  battery 
itself,  but  it  applies  properly  to  the  flanking  return 
only.  Sometimes  the  whole  of  a  small  (u-  secondary 
earthwork,  including  the  b.attery  and  its  flanks,  is 
called  an  epaiUcment ;  and  sometuues  tlie  same 
name  is  given  to  an  isolated  breast- work  intended 
to  shield  the  cavalry  employed  in  defending  a  body 
of  liesiegers. 
An  ipaule  is  the  shoulder  of  a  bastion,  where 


EPAULETTE— EPHEMERA. 


one  of  the  faces  and  one  of  the  flanks  meet ;  and 
this  points  to  the  proper  meaning  of  epaulement, 
as  a  shoulder  or  flanJiing  work. 

E'PAXJLETTE,  from  the  same  French  source 
as  epaiUement,  is  a  shoulder-knot  worn  by  com- 
missioned officers  in  the  naval  profession,  both  as  an 
ornament  and  a  distinction.  In  the  British  na\y, 
the  officers  of  and  above  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
wear  epa\ilette3  of  gold  lace,  one  on  each  shoulder, 
Bub-Iieutenants  wearing  one  only.  Ranks  and 
degrees  are  marked  in  a  very  systematic  way  by 
means  of  crowns,  anchors,  and  stars  worked  in 
silver  on  the  epaulette,  and  also  by  the  size  of  the 
cords  of  the  epaulette  itself.  This  decoration  was 
formerly  universal  in  the  British  army,  officers 
wearing  those  of  gold,  men  of  worsted ;  but  they 
were  abolished  at  the  time  of  the  Russian  war,  in 
consequence  of  the  danger  to  which  officers  thus 
easily  marked  out  were  exposed  from  the  enemy's 
sharpshooters.  Militia  officers  wore  epaulettes  of 
silver  cords. 

EPEE,  Charles  Michel,  Abb£  de  l',  one   of 

the  founders  of  the  system  of  instruction  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  bom  at  Versailles,  2oth 
November  1712.  He  studied  for  the  church,  and 
entering  into  holy  orders,  became  a  preacher  and 
canon  at  Troyes,  but  eventually,  on  account  of  his 
Jansenist  opinions,  was  deprived  of  this  appoint- 
ment. He  now  lived  in  retirement  in  Paris.  In 
the  year  1755,  he  first  began  to  occupy  himself 
with  the  education  of  two  deaf  and  dumb  sisters ; 
and,  as  he  asserts,  without  any  previous  knowledge 
of  Pereira's  eiTorts  in  the  cause,  invented  a  language 
of  signs,  by  which  jiersons  thus  afflicted  might  be 
enabled  to  hold  intercourse  with  their  fellow- 
creatures.  His  first  attempts  being  crowned  with 
success,  he  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the 
subject.  At  his  own  expense,  he  founded  an  insti- 
tution for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  laboured  with 
unwearied  zeal  for  its  prosperity.  His  favourite 
wish,  however,  the  foimdation  of  such  an  institu- 
tion at  the  public  cost,  was  not  fulfilled  tUl  after 
his  death,  which  took  place  23d  December  1789. 
He  wrote  a  work,  entitled  Institution  des  Soui-ds 
et  Muels  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1774),  which  afterwards 
appeared  in  an  improved  form  under  the  title, 
La  Veritable  Maniire  cCInstniire  les  Sourds  et 
Muel3  (Paris,  1784). 

EPEI'RA,  a  genus  of  spiders,  the  type  of  a  family 
called  Epeirid<e.  They  are  of  those  spiders  which 
have  only  a  pair  of  piUmonary  sacs  and  spiracles ; 


Epcira  Diadema. 

construct  webs  with  regular  meshes,  formed  by  con- 
centric circles  and  straight  radii ;  and  are  furnished 
with  a  iiair  of  almost  contiguous  eyes  on  each  side, 
other  four  eyes  forming  a  quadrangle  in  the  centre. 
Many  of  thejn  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 


their  colours  and  of  their  forms.  Several  species 
abound  in  our  gardens,  particularly  in  autumn.  E. 
diadema  is  one  of  the  largest  British  spiders.  It  is 
found  in  moors,  the  borders  of  woods,  &c. ;  but  it 
is  in  tropical  countries  that  the  Epeiridre  exist  in 
greatest  numbers,  and  attain  the  greatest  size  and 
beauty,  e-xtending  from  branch  to  branch  their  lace- 
work,  remarkable  for  gracefulness  of  design.  The 
net,  when  loaded  "with  wings,  wing-covers,  and 
limbs  of  insects  that  have  been  prej'ed  upon,  is 
often  loosened,  and  f.iUs  do%vn  ujion  the  central 
nest  or  den  of  the  spider  ;  and  successive  nets 
thus  falling  do^vni,  form  at  last  a  ball  sometimes 
as  large  as  a  man's  head.  Some  of  the  spider  cords, 
carried  horizontally  from  ti'ee  to  tree  at  a  consider- 
able height  from  the  ground,  '  are  so  strong  as 
to  cause  a  painful  check  across  the  face  when 
moving  quickly  against  them  ;  and  more  than 
once,'  Sir  J.  E.  Teunent  says,  '  in  riding  I  have 
had  my  hat  lifted  off  my  head  by  a  single  thread.' 
. — Tennent's  Ceylon. 

EPERIES  (Lat.  Fragopolis  or  Eperenimtm ; 
Hung.  Ejierje.%  Slovak  Pressova),  an  old  town  of 
Hung.ar>%  in  the  county  of  Saros,  of  which  it  is  the 
capital,  is  agreeably  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tarcza,  about  150  miles  north-east  of  Pesth.  It  is 
surrounded  with  walls,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
contains  some  houses  of  the  loth  and  IGth  centuries, 
buUt  in  the  style  of  those  in  Naples,  with  which  E. 
was  much  connected  in  the  middle  ages.  Its  prin- 
cipal buildings  aie  the  Church  of  St  Nicholas,  the 
communal  college,  with  500  students  and  a  bbrary 
consisting  of  14,000  volumes,  and  the  county  hall. 
It  has  manufactm-es  of  earthen-ware  and  of  linens 
and  woollens,  and  has  some  trade  in  linen 
goods,  corn,  and  Tokay  wine.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  Sovar  saltworks,  which  produce  5000 
tons  of  salt  annually.  Pop.  iu  1869,  10,772,  almost 
wholly  Slavonic. 

EPERNAY,  a  town  of  France,  iu  the  department 
of  Marnc,  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Viiis  de  Cham- 
pagne, and  is  situated  in  the  miilst  of  a  rich  rme- 
g^o^^'ing  district,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Marne,  19 
miles  west-north-west  of  Chalons.  It  is  well  built, 
clean,  and  well  paved.  Its  environs  consist,  for  the 
most  part,  of  elegant  \'illas,  with  vaults  att.^ched, 
belonging  to  the  Champagne  wine-merchants.  E. 
manilfactures  large  quantities  of  earthen- ware  from 
a  clay  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  called 
Terre  de  Chamjvirjne  ;  also  hosiery,  refiued  sugar, 
and  leather.  It  has  a  brisk  trade  in  bottles,  corks, 
wire,  champagne  wines,  &c.     Pop.  9346. 

E'PHAH,  a  measui-e  of  capacity  for  dry  goods  in 
use  among  the  Hebrews.  It  contained  three  English 
pecks  and  three  pints. 

EPHE'MERA  (Gr.  lasting  for  a  day),  a  Linnsean 

genus  of  ueuropteroiis  insects,  now  forming  the 
family  or  tribe  Ephemeridw.  They  are  allied  to  the 
LibeUulida:,  or  Dragon-flies,  but  differ  from  them  in 
many  very  important  respects.  They  have  received 
their  name,  to  which  corresponds  the  English  Day- 
fly,  sometimes  also  appUed  to  them,  from  the  brief 
duration  of  their  existence  in  the  perfect  state,  in 
which,  very  unlike  the  dragon-flies,  they  are  beheved 
to  take  no  food,  merely  jjropagating  their  species, 
and  dj-ing.  From  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 
they  begin  to  be  seen,  some  of  them  are  also  called 
May-fly  ;  and  by  this  name  are  well  known  to 
anglers,  who  use  them,  and  artificially  imitate 
them  as  excellent  lures  for  trout.  The  eggs  of 
the  ephemerse  are  also  a  favourite  food  of  tishes ; 
they  cohere  together  in  a  gelatinous  mass.  The 
lan'K  and  pup^  are  aquatic,  and  iu  these  states  the 
ephemerae  have  a  much  longer  life  than  iu  their 


EPHEMERA— EPHESUS. 


jierfoct  state,  extending  even  to  years.  The  larvaj 
and  pupas  are  sufficiently  voracious.  The  abdouiin 
of  the  larva  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  a  set  of 
leaflet*,  which  serve  instead  of  gills  for  respiration, 
and  arc  also  used  in  locomotion,  although  there  are 
six  feet  attached  to  the  thoracic  segments.  The 
pupte  differ  little  from  the  larvre  except  in  having 
rudimentary  win^  enclosed  under  scales.  Both 
]ar\'a!  and  pupte  nave  the  abdomen  terminated  by 
two  or  tliree  jointed  tilaments,  which  the  perfect 
insect  also  has,  sometimes  very  long.  The  body  of 
the  perfect  insect  is  soft  and  slender ;  the  wings 
resemble  in  form  those  of  dragon-tlies,  but  are  soft 
and  lilmy ;  in  repose,  they  are  elevated  vertically 
above  the  body  :  the  second  pair  of  wings  are  much 
smaller  than  the  first,  and  in  some  species  are 
altogether  wanting ;  the  organs  of  the  mouth  arc 
so  soft  and  small  as  not  easily  to  be  discerned, 
and  to  be  apparently  unfit  for  any  kind  of  nse. 
Ephcmene,  in  their  larva  and  pupa  states,  live 
chietly  under  stones  in  water,  or  in  bxirrows  which 
they  make  in  the  banks  of  streams,  A\'Tieu  ready 
for  their  final  change,  they  creep  out  of  the  water 
to  imdergo  it  on  some  plant  or  other  object  by  the 
water-side,  generally  tov\ard3  simset  on  some  fine 
day  of  summer  or  autunm.  After  having  attained 
their  \vinged  state,  however,  they  cast  off  a  complete 
slough  or  envelope,  so  perfect,  that  it  exhibits  even 
the  limbs,  abdominal  filaments,  and  antennre  ;  and 
these  '  ghost-Uke  exuviae '  are  sometimes  so  abundant 
in  the  neighbo\irhood  of  streams,  as  to  cover  in  '  a 
pearly  layer'  the  hat  and  basket  of  the  angler.  The 
multitudes  of  ephemera;  are  often  very  great,  filling 
the  air  as  a  cloud ;  nay,  so  abundant  are  they  at 
times,  that  their  bodies  have  been  known  to  cover 
the  ground  in  certain  districts  of  France,  and  have 
teen  gathered  from  particular  spots  in  cart-loads  to 
be  used  as  manure. 

EPHE'JIERA,  or  FEBRIS  DLARIA  in  Latin 
(from  Gr.  epi  and  Itemera,  on  a  day),  a  fever  which 
lasts  only  a  single  day,  or  part  of  a  day,  and  is 

fenerally  dependent  on  some  sUght  local  irritation, 
t   hardly  requires  any  other   treatment  than  the 
removal  of  the  cause,  if  known. 

EPHE'MEEIS  (Gr.  'for  the  day')  is  a  name 
applied  to  almanacs  from  their  containing  notices 
for  each  day.  It  is  mostly  confined  to  astronomical 
tables  giving  the  daily  places  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  and  other  phenomena  of  the  heavens.  Such 
tables  have  become  common  since  the  days  of 
Kepler.  The  first  were  published  by  Purbach  for 
the  years  1450 — 1461.  Those  of  Kegiomontanus, 
for  1474,  were  much  more  accurate,  and.  his  Ephem- 
erides  met  with  universal  acceptance.  Similar 
publications  were  afterivards  made  by  Leovitius, 
Origauus,  Kepler,  and  others.  The  most  important 
works  of  the  kind  at  present  are  the  French  Con- 
naiesance  des  Tempa,  the  English  Nautical  Almanac, 
the  Effemeridi  di  Milano,  and  the  Berlin  Astrono- 
minchen  JaJirVudier. 

EPHE'SIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  is  a  letter 
addressed  by  St  Paul,  during  his  first  imprisonment 
at  Home,  to  the  church  which  assembled  in  Ephesus 
(q.  v.).  This  chm-ch  had  been  planted  by  the 
apostle  himself,  and,  as  we  infer  from  various  cir- 
cumstances mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
was  an  object  of  his  special  afi'ection.  The  epistle 
w.os  written  almost  at  the  same  time  as  that  to  the 
C'olossiaus,  and  consequently  breathes  the  same 
spirit  of  exalted  piety  and  fervid  faith,  besides 
containing  many  similar  thoughts  and  exhorta- 
tions. It  may  lie  divided  into  two  grand  parts, 
the  first  of  which  is  for  the  most  part  doctrinal, 
and  the  seoond  practical  The  proofs  of  its  genuineness 

86 


and  aitthenlicity  have  generally  been  considered 
unquestionable  ;  but  recently  De  Wette,  in  his 
Introduction  to  a  Conwientary  on  the  Ephesians 
(■2d  edit.  1S47),  has  tried  to  shew  that  this  epistle 
is  simjily  an  expansion  of  the  grander  epistle  to 
the  Colossians,  though  he  admits  that  it  has  the 
appearance  of  haWng  been  compiled  in  the  apostolic 
age. 

E'PHESUS,  one  of  the  twelve  Ionic  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  was  situated  in  Lydia,  near  the  month 
of  the  river  Caystrus,  in  the  midst  of  an  alluvial 
plain.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  as  old  as  the 
Trojan  war,  but  its  primitive  history  has  been 
confused  by  mj-ths.  It  bore  a  great  variety  of 
names  at  cUfTerent  times,  the  ])rincipal  of  which, 
besides  E.,  were  Orty^a  and  Ptelea.  According  to 
Strabo,  it  was  foimded  by  Androclus,  son  of  Co<Ii-us, 
and  this  is  the  most  probable  of  the  accounts  which 
have  come  do-mi  to  us,  though  others  held  to  the 
tradition  of  its  Amazonian  origin.  It  was  long 
before  E.  acquired  auj'  jiohtical  importance,  in  spite 
of  being  a  sacred  city  from  an  early  period.  Sub- 
dued first  by  the  Lydian,  and  next  by  the  Persian 
kings,  it  was  included,  after  the  death  of  Alexaniler 
the  Great,  in  the  territories  of  Lysiraachus  (281 
B.  c),  by  whom  it  was  greatly  strengthened.  Ulti- 
mately, it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans ; 
and  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  Avhen  Strabo  wrote,  it 
was  '  the  greatest  place  of  trade  of  all  the  cities  of 
Asia  west  of  the  Taurus.'  This  was  idso  its  condi- 
tion when  ^ited  by  St  Paid,  who  resided  hero 
three  years  ;  but  the  destruction  of  its  great  temple 
by  the  Goths,  in  260  A.  D.,  gave  it  a  blow  from 
which  it  never  recovered.  In  341  A.  D.,  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  third  general  council  of  the  Christian 
Church.  Its  general  history,  while  a  city  of  the 
Byzantine  emjiire,  w.os  unimportant,  and  before  the 
days  of  Tamerlane  it  had  almost  com])letely  perished. 
— The  ruins  of  E.  comprise  a  stadium  087  feet  long, 
fragments  of  a  great  theatre  (alluded  to  in  the 
accoimt  of  St  PaiU's  preaching  in  the  city),  of  an 
odeum  or  music-hall,  and  of  various  walls  and 
towers,  belonging  to  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Byzan- 
tine eras.  Near  the  western  extremity  of  the 
town  are  also  some  massive  structures,  which  over- 
look the  swamp  or  marsh  where  was  the  ancient 
harbour.  These  are  regarded  with  much  j)robability 
as  the  site  of  the  famous  Temple  of  Diana.  This 
marvellous  budding,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  was  originally  built  by  Chersiphron ;  but 
after  its  destruction  by  Herostrat\is  on  the  night 
(as  is  said)  when  Alexander  the  Gre.at  was  born 
(356  B.  c),  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  inhabitants  in  a 
style  of  greater  splendoiu'  than  before,  the  very 
women  contributing  their  ornaments  to  secure  the 
necessary  funds ;  yet,  notmthstandin"  this  enthu- 
siasm, more  than  two  hundred  years  elapsed  before 
the  new  edifice  was  completely  finished.  It  was 
the  largest  Greek  temple  ever  constructed.  Its 
length  was  425  feet,  its  width  220,  the  number 
of  Its  columns  128,  of  which  36  were  cai-ved,  and 
their  height  60  feet.  It  h.ad  an  area  more  than 
four  times  that  of  the  Partiienon  at  Athens,  and 
even  the  Olympcium  was  only  about  two-thirds 
as  great.  But  even  more  wonderfid  than  the 
temple  itself  were  the  numberless  statues  aud 
pictures  which  it  contained,  executed  by  the  best 
masters  of  Greece.  The  altar  of  the  goddess  was 
principally  adorned  with  the  works  of  Praxiteles, 
riundered  of  its  treasures  by  Nero,  and  burned  (as 
lia.s  been  mentioned)  by  the  Goths,  it  w.as  most 
likely  finally  destroyed  by  the  iconoclasts,  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  I.,  who  issued  his  celebrated 
edict  against  the  ceremonies  of  the  pagan  reli- 
gion 381  A.D.  The  site  of  E.  is  now  occupied  by 
some  wietched  villages,  the  princii)al  of  which  is 


EPHOD— EPHRAEM  SYEUS. 


Ayasaluk. — Certain  cabalistic  'words  or  sayings  are 
said  to  liaTe  been  inscribed  on  the  figure  of  Diana, 
which  being  copied  and  carried  about  as  charms, 
became  known  as  Ephesce  liiorce  (Mason's  Anatomie 
o/Sorcerie,  1G12). 

EPHOD,  a  vestment  worn  by  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  over  the  Mi'd  or  second  (purple)  tunic.  It 
consisted  of  two  shoulder-pieces,  one  covering  the 
back,  the  other  the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the 
body,  not  unhke  the  Greek  epOnis.  Two  onyx  stones 
set  in  gold  fastened  it  on  the  shoulders,  and  on  each 
of  the  stones  were  engraved  the  names  of  six  tribes, 
according  to  their  order.  The  material  of  which 
the  ephod  was  wrought  was  extremely  costly  and 
magnificent :  '  gold,  blue,  purple,  crimson,  and  fine 
twined  linen.'  A  girdle  or  Ijaud,  of  one  piece  with 
the  ephod,  fastened  it  round  the  body.  Just  above 
this  girdle,  in  the  middle  of  the  ephod,  and  joined 
to  it  by  little  gold  chains,  rings,  and  strings,  rested 
the  square  oracular  breast-plate  with  the  mysterious 
Urim  and  Thummim.  See  also  High-Priest  and 
Ukim  axd  TmjiDiiM. 

Originally  intended  to  be  worn  by  the  high-priest 
exclusively,  ephods  of  an  inferior  material  seem 
to  liave  been  in  common  use  in  later  times  by  the 
ordinary  priests.  Even  Da\-id,  when  bringing  the 
ark  back  to  Jenisalem,  appeared  in  one.  There 
is  also  mention  made  of  an  ephod  in  several 
passages  of  the  book  of  Judges  and  Samuel,  where 
the  word  must  needs  stand  either  for  the  wliole 
priestly  apparatus  of  an  illegal  service,  or  simply 
for  a  statue  or  an  idol.  The  Talmud  imderstands 
this  ephod  to  have  been  a  colossal  shoiUder  vest- 
ment of  gold,  to  which  di\"ine  honours  were 
rendered. 

E'PHORI  (Gr.  'overseers'),  an  order  of  magis- 
trates in  ancient  times  which  appears  to  have  origin- 
ated at  Sparta,  and  to  have  been  peculiar  to  the 
Doric  governments.  When  or  by  whom  the  ephori 
were  first  instituted,  is  a  point  of  great  uncertainty. 
Herodotus  attributes  their  creation  to  Lycurgus, 
and  Aristotle  to  Theopompus  (770—720  B.  c).  Their 
duty  was  to  superintend  the  internal  administra- 
tion of  the  state,  especially  affairs  of  justice,  for 
which  a  particular  building  was  assigned  them, 
called  the  Ephorion.  One  of  their  most  important 
functions  was  the  oversight,  at  least  in  part,  of  the 
education  of  youth,  for  we  are  told  by  Athenzeus 
that  they  inspected  the  clothing  and  bedding  of 
the  young  men.  Tlie  ephori  were  five  in  num- 
ber ;  they  were  elected  by  and  from  the  people 
— on  which  Aristotle  observes,  that  through  them 
the  demos  enjoyed  a  participation  in  the  highest 
magistracy  of  the  state — and  held  their  office 
only  for  one  year.  Their  influence  gradually 
increased,  for  their  powers  were  so  ill  defined  that 
it  was  diflicult  to  say  what  was  not  imder  their 
cognizance  and  authority.  Cicero  draws  a  com- 
parison between  the  ephoralty  of  Sparta  and  the 
tribunate  of  Kome,  which  is  not  altogether 
unwarranted  bj'  the  facts  of  the  case.  Ultimately, 
the  kings  themselves  became  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  ephori.  Cleomenes,  for  examiJe,  was 
brought  before  them  for  bribery ;  Agesilaus  was 
fined,  and  Pausanius  imprisoned ;  and  in  extreme 
cases  they  could  prefer  charges  against  them, 
and  have  them  tried  before  the  supreme  criminal 
court.  They  also  transacted  the  negotiations  with 
foreign  powers,  subscribed  treaties,  raised  troops, 
'  intrusted  the  army  to  the  king  or  some  otlier 
general,'  and,  in  fact,  acted  as  the  executive  of 
the  state.  Midler  regards  the  ephoralty  as  'the 
principle  of  change  in  the  Spartan  constitution, 
and,  in  the  end,  the  cause  of  its  dissolution.'  In 
the  hands  of  the  ephori,  the  constitution  of  Sparta 


certainly  ceased  to  be  a  geniune  aristocracy,  and 
became  a  sort  of  oligarchy ;  but  this  point  is 
involved  in  much  oljscurity  and  perjjlexity.  Their 
authority,  however,  was  at  last  destroyed  by  Agis 
and  Cleomenes,  who  murdered  the  ephori  for  tie 
time  being,  and  restored  the  old  Spartan  consti- 
tution (225  B.C.). 

E'PHRAEM  SY'RtJS,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  prolific  ecclesiastical  WTiters  of  the  Sjnian 
Church.  Several  accounts  of  his  life  have  been 
handed  down  to  us,  but  they  aU  bear  more  or  less 
such  a  legendary  character,  that  the  real  facts  to  be 
gathered  from  them  are  but  scanty.  It  appears,  then, 
that  Ephraem  (Heb.  Ephraim)  was  bom  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  '  some- 
where between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,'  most  prob- 
ably at  Nisibis.  His  parents  were,  according  to 
some,  heathens  ;  and  E.,  repudiating  their  idolatry 
at  an  early  age,  had  to  leave  their  roof.  Jacob, 
Bishop  of  Nisibis,  took  care  of  the  boj^,  and  under- 
took his  education.  His  progress  in  learning  was 
so  satisfactory  that  the  bishop  was  soon  able  to 
make  him  teacher  at  his  own  school ;  and  when  in 
325  A.  D.  Jacob  went  to  the  council  of  Nictea,  E. 
accompanied  him  thither.  In  363,  Nisibis  was  ceded 
by  JovLnian  to  the  Persians,  and  E.  first  retired  into 
Roman  territor}',  then  went  to  Anid,  his  mother's 
birthplace,  and  finally  settled  in  Edessa  (Orfa), 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  so  poor  when  he  first  arrived  at  Edessa, 
that  he  was  obhged  to  take  service  at  a  public 
bath,  but  he  soon  became  acquainted  with  hermits 
of  the  neighboujhood,  and  adopted  their  haljits : 
he  retired  into  a  cave  near  the  to^Ti,  and  led 
the  life  of  a  recluse.  But  so  great  were  his  piety 
and  asceticism,  as  well  as  his  readiness  to  lielp 
the  poor  and  tend  the  sick,  that  he  was  looked 
upon  as  a  saint,  and  his  day  is  stUl  celebrated, 
at  different  dates,  in  various  churches.  Among  his 
usual  denominations,  more  especially  referring  to 
his  teachings  and  writings,  are  'Prophet  of  the 
Syrians,  Column  of  the  Church,  Harp  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,'  &c. ;  and  his  name  is  never  mentioned 
without  the  'Mor'  or  'Man'  (Lord,  My  Master) 
being  prefixed.  But  for  all  that,  he  had  no  lack 
of  enemies.  His  burning  zeal  for  preaching  and 
converting  led  him  to  attack  most  fiercely  almost 
every  one  beyond  the  pale  of  his  peculiar  creed. 
He  spoke  and  wrote  unceasingly  against  Idolaters, 
'Chaldees,'  Jews,  and  heretics  of  all  kinds,  espe- 
cially Arians,  S.abellians,  Manichajans,  Novatians, 
&c.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he  paid  a  visit 
to  Basil  the  Great,  in  Cappadocian  Cffisarea,  who 
could  not  prevail  upon  him  to  accept  of  any  higher 
office  in  the  church  than  a  deanery,  though  he 
spared  no  effort  to  make  him  bishop.  Ileturned 
to  Edessa,  he  found  plagxie  and  famine  raging  there, 
and  to  his  over-exertions  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers  his  death  is  attributed  by  some.  He 
expired  in  the  same  year  with  Basil,  in  37S,  not 
before  having  given  the  strictest  injunctions  that 
his  burial  should  be  of  the  very  simplest  descrip- 
tion. With  respect  to  the  Testament  which  he  is 
reported  to  have  dictated  in  his  dying  hour — 
much  as  it  has  been  used  for  biograpliical  purposes 
^we  can  take  no  notice  whatever  of  it,  as  it  is 
entirely  spurious. 

The  visit  to  Basilius,  unimportant  as  it  seems,  has 
been  of  very  great  moment.  The  legend  which 
surrounds  this,  as  all  other  incidents  of  his  life,  with 
a  halo  of  miracle,  records  that  the  two  men,  although 
previously  ignorant  of  each  other's  language,  began 
to  speak  them  fluently  at  this  interview — Basilius 
Syriac,  and  E.  Greek.  This  wonderful  ciicum- 
stance  first  induced  the  learned  to  enter  upon  the 
question,    whether  E.,  hsilf  of  whose   voliiminoua 

87 


EPHEAIM— EPIC  POETRY. 


works  are  in  Oreck,  did  really  understand  that 
langiiaiiic  ;  and  further,  whether  he  luiderstood  any 
languai;e  but  his  own,  Sjniac.  If  he  did  not,  what 
^^ew  was  to  l>e  taken  of  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  of  which  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  as 
well  as  the  Septuarint  and  the  Greek  Fathers,  must 
have  been  a  sealed  book  to  him.  There  were,  and 
are  still,  gi-eat  differences  of  opinion  on  these  points, 
but  it  is  generally  taken  for  granted  now,  that  he 
did  not  understand  any  language  but  his  own  ;  that 
he  made  use  of  the  common  Syriac  version,  the 
Peshito ;  that  his  grammatical  and  linguistic  notes 
are  taken  from  diiierent  8,>Tiac  Commentaries,  and 
that  the  Greek  portion  of  his  works  consists  partly 
of  translations  made  from  his  Syi-iac  after  liis  death, 
or  even  during  l\is  lifetime,  and  partly  of  interpola- 
tions. Both  the  praise  and  the  blame  which  have 
been  indiscriminately  bestowed  upon  him  as  a  winter 
are  exaggerated.  His  chief  merit  lies  in  the  glowing 
fervour  and  the  deep  piety  which  he  infused  into 
all  he  wrote,  more  particularly  into  his  elegiac 
hymns.  Diction  and  form  are  poetical  throughout, 
and  when  not  soaring  into  the  infinite,  of  no 
mean  beaut}'.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the 
matchless  simplicity  and  awing  grandeur  of  the 
Syriac  idiom. 

We  \nil  now  enumerate  his  principal  works  and 
their  editions.  Those  (mider  his  name)  in  Greek, 
consist  of  Sermons  or  Homihes,  and  Treatises  of  an 
exegetic,  dogmatic,  and  ascetic  nature.  Photius 
records  that  he  ^vrote  more  than  a  thousand  such 
sermons  ;  Sozomenos  speaks  of  '  300  myriads  ; '  but, 
as  we  said  before,  of  those  that  have  come  down  to 
us,  some  are  spurious,  and  others  at  least  suspi- 
cious. Gerhard  Vossius  translated  171  treatises  from 
Greek  MSS.  foimd  in  Italian  libraries,  into  Latin, 
and  published  them  at  Rome,  15S9 — 1598,  in  3  vols. 
(There  is  but  one  piece  in  them  translated  from  the 
Syriac.)  They  were  reprinted  in  Cologne  in  1603, 
1619  (1675),  and  also  in  Antwei-p,  in  16f9.  The  first 
Greek  edition  appeared  in  Oxford  in  1709,  edited 
from  28  Oxford  MSS.,  by  E.  Thwaites.  The  most 
important  of  his  Syi-iac  works  are,  besides  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  homilies,  sermons,  poems,  &c.,  his 
commentaries,  or  rather  schoha,  on  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Their  value  to  us,  however,  is  limited  to 
their  aiding  us  in  explaining  and  fixing  some  read- 
ings of  the  Peshito  (see  Peshito),  and  in  enriching 
our  critical  apparatus.  That  he  abso  commented  on 
the  Gospels  is  certain,  but  no  MS.  has  been  found  as 
yet,  not  even  in  a  Greek  or  Arabic  translation.  As 
to  the  songs  and  prayers  in  the  Syrian  Liturgy 
ascribed  to  E.,  they  are  simply  composed  in  his 
manner,  and  betray  their  comparatively  recent 
origin  at  the  first  glance.  The  principal  edition 
of  his  works  in  SjTiac  and  Greek  was  jniblished 
in  6  vols,  in  Kome,  imder  the  papal  authority 
(1732—1746). 

The  principal  writers  on  E.  are :  Sozomenos, 
Hist.  Eccl.  iii.  16 ;  Assemani,  Proleg.  and  Bihlioth. 
Orient;  Cretlner,  De  Proph.  Min.  Vers.  Syr.  (1827); 
Lengerke,  Comm.  de  Ephr.  Si/r.  S.  S.  Interprele 
(HaUe,  1828);  and  De  Ephr.  Syr.  Arte  Ilcrmen.,  &c. 
(1831).  Some  tasteful  German  translations  of 
hyums,  by  Zingerle,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Zeitschr. 
d.  Deutschen  Morgenl.  Gesellsch.  passim. 

E'PHRAIM,  the  younger  son  of  Joseph  by  his 
wife  Asenath,  and  the  founder  of  one  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel.  It  is  possible  that  he  may  have 
received  liis  name,  which  signifies  '  double  fruitfiJ- 
ness,'  from  havuig  been  born  during  the  seven  years 
of  plenty.  His  grandfather,  Jacob,  shortly  before 
his  death,  prophesied  the  greatness  of  his  posterity 
when  giving  him  his  blessing :  '  His  seed  sliall 
become  a  multitude  of  nations  '  (Gen.  xhnii.  19). 
After  the  Israelites  had  left  Egypt,  the  tribe  of 


Ephraim  numbered  40,500  (Nimibers,  i.  32,  33) ;  but 
from  causes  not  specified,  and  not  discoverable,  it 
had  sunk,  forty  years  later,  on  the  eve  of  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  to  32,500  (Numbers,  xxvi.  37). 
Yet  it  was  imder  the  leadersliip  of  an  E])hraimitc, 
Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  that  the  Canaanites  were 
subjugated,  and  the  land  possessed.  This  seems  to 
have  given  the  tribe  a  much  higher  influence  than 
might  have  been  expected  from  its  numerical  strength. 
We  find  Judah  and  Ephraim  classed  together  as 
taking  their  inheritance  first  (.Tosh.  xv.  x\t.,  &c.). 
The  precise  bomidaries  of  Ephraim,  as  of  the  other 
tribes,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  It  occupied 
the  centre  of  Palestine,  was  bounded  on  the  south 
by  Dan  and  Benjamin,  and  stretched  from  the 
Jordan  on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
■west.  From  scattered  notices  of  the  Ephraimites  in 
the  earUer  annals  of  the  Hebrews,  we  infer  that 
they  were,  on  the  whole,  jealous  of  their  brethren. 
This  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  length  broke  out 
into  rebeUion  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  and  the 
new  kingdom  of  Israel,  ruled  over  by  Jeroboam, 
was  for  the  most  part  merely  the  kingdom  of 
Ephraim,  for  the  land  wliich  lay  to  the  north 
of  it  coidd  hardly  be  said  to  be  actually  in  the 
possession  of  the  tribes  whose  names  it  bore, 
the  original  inhabitants  keeping  stubborn  hold  of 
their  cities  and  strongholds.  See  Israel,  King- 
dom OF. 

EPI,  or  GLROTJETTE  (Fr.),  a  species  of  orna- 
mental ironwork  with  which  the  cones  of  pa^nlions 
or  pointed  roofs  are  sometimes  surmounted  in  the 
renaissance  stj-le  of  architecture.  One  of  the  finest 
examples  is  that  which  siu'mounts  the  Tourelle 
aux  Pastorals  at  the  Hotel  de  Bourgtheroulde  in 
Rouen. 

EPIC  POETRY  (Gr.  epos,  a  word,  a  discouree 
or  narrative).  The  two  chief  kinds  of  poetry,  are 
Epic  poetry  and  Ljtic  poetry.  Epic  poetry  has 
outward  objects  for  its  subject,  of  which  it  gives 
an  imaginative  narrative.  The  events  themselves 
may  be  partly  real  and  partly  fictitious,  or  they 
may  be  altogether  fictitious.  Lyric  poetrj',  on  the 
other  hand,  sets  forth  the  inward  occurrences  of 
the  writer  or  speaker's  o«ti  mind — his  feelings  and 
reflections.  No  composition,  perhaps,  answers,  in 
all  its  parts,  to  the  one  of  these  descriptions,  or  to 
the  other  ;  but  a  piece  or  poem  is  classed  as  epic  or 
lyric  according  to  the  element  that  predominates. 
Under  each  of  these  grand  divisions,  or  genera, 
there  are  subdivisions,  or  species.  The  longer  poems 
of  the  epic  genus  embrace  an  extensive  series  of 
events,  and  the  actions  of  numerous  personages. 
The  term  heroic  epic,  or  heroic  poem,  is  properly 
applied  to  such  works  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of 
Homer,  Virgil's  JEneid,  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered, 
Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  and  others,  which 
describe  the  achievements  of  the  gods  and  heroes 
of  antiquity,  or  of  the  little  less  mythic  knights 
of  medieval  chivalry.  Poems,  again,  like  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost  and  D.ante's  Divina  Commedia,  are 
sacred  epics.  Byron's  Childe  Harold,  with  the 
length  and  narrative  structure  of  an  epic,  abounds 
in  reflection,  sentiment,  and  satire,  and  thus  is,  in 
substance,  as  much  lyric  as  epic.  Productions  like 
those  now  named  form  the  class  of  grand  epics,  or 
ei>ic  poems,  by  way  of  eminence.  But  there  are 
several  species  of  minor  poems  which,  from  their 
nature,  must  also  be  ranked  as  epics.  One  of  these 
is  the  Idyl,  a  term  applied  to  what  is  called  j'cstoral 
poetry,  or  to  descriptions  in  general  of  natural 
scenery,  and  of  the  actions  and  manners  of  men 
in  calm,  ordinary  life.  Burns's  Cotter's  i^alurday 
Kiijht,  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village,  and  most  of 
Crabbe's  iwems,  are  idyls ;  eo  are  poetical  epistles. 


EPICHARMUS— EPICURUS. 


The   ballad    (q.  v.)    is    another    species    of    minor 
epic. 

Attempts  at  epic  poetry  are  now  rare,  the  spirit 
of  the  age  being  against  that  form  of  composition. 
Instead  of  epic  poems,  we  have  nonh,  which,  so 
far  as  subject  is  concerned,  may  be  considered  as 
the  epics  of  modem  civil  and  domestic  life. 

EPICHA'RMUS,  a  famous  Greek  poet,  was  bom 
in  the  island  of  Cos,  in  the  5th  c,  B.C.  At  first,  he 
studied  philosophy  imder  Pythagoras;  but  a  resi- 
dence at  Mcgara,  the  native  soil  of  corned}',  gave 
him  a  taste  for  that  branch  of  the  drama.  After 
the  destruction  of  Megara,  in  484  B.C.,  he  removed 
to  .SjTacuse,  where,  at  the  court  of  Hiero,  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  From  this  circumstance, 
he  is  often  mentioned  by  the  ancients  as  a  SicUian. 
Almost  nothing  else  is  known  of  his  personal  history 
except  that  he  died  at  the  age  of  90,  or,  as  some 
say,  of  97.  The  date  of  his  death,  as  of  his  birth,  is 
unknown.  E.  is  called  by  Theocritus  the  father  of 
comedy,  and  Plato  assigns  to  him  a  place  among 
comic  writers  as  high  as  that  of  Homer  among  ejiio 
poets.  He  certainly  did  a  good  ser^'ice  in  exclud- 
ing, to  a  large  extent,  from  his  dramas  the  viUgar 
bulfoonery  which  disgraced  all  previous  comedies, 
and  in  introducing  a  regular  plot  in  which  the  comus 
or  band  of  revellers  sustained  the  dialogue.  None 
of  E.'3  works  survive  entire;  but  we  possess 
several  fragments  and  the  titles  of  thirty-five. 
They  embraced  a  wide  variety  of  topics,  mj'tho- 
logical,  social,  and  political.  From  one  of  them, 
Plautus  borrowed  the  plot  of  his  .l/entrcAnii',  which 
shews  a  great  amount  of  constructive  skill.  The 
fragments  of  E.  have  been  collected  and  edited  by 
H.  P.  Krurmann  (Harlem,  1834).  Compare  Grysar, 
De  Doriensium  Comcedla  (Colon.  1828),  and  MuUer's 
Dorians. 

EPICTE'TUS,  a  celebrated  disciple  of  the  Stoa, 
was  born  at  Hierapolis,  in  Plirj-gia,  about  fifty  years 
after  the  birth  of  Christ.  He  was  at  first  the  slave 
of  Epaphroditus,  a  f  reedman  of  Nero,  at  Rome,  whose 
abusive  treatment  he  is  said  to  have  endured  with 
the  composui'e  characteristic  of  the  sect  to  which 
he  belonged.  He  was  afterwards  manumitted,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  Stoic  philosophy.  Domitian 
hated  him  on  account  of  his  principles,  and  banished 
him,  along  with  several  other  philosophers,  from 
Rome.  E.  settled  at  NikopoUs,  in  Epirus.  Under  the 
pressure  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  his  serious 
moral  views  received  a  character  rather  of  self-denial 
than  of  energy ;  to  renoimce,  to  endure,  and  not  to 
set  the  mind  upon  anything  beyond  the  power  of  the 
individual  to  attain,  being  the  points  chiefly  insisted 
on.  His  pupil,  Arrianus,  collected  the  maxims  of 
E.  in  the  work  entitled  Enclteiridion  ('  Handbook ') 
and  in  eight  books  of  Commentaries,  four  of  which 
are  lost.  The  pecuhar  excellence  of  the  writings 
of  E.  consists  in  their  simple  and  noble  earnestness. 
That  real  heartfelt  love  of  good  and  hatred  of  evil 
which  we  are  in  the  habit  of  supposing  an  exclu- 
sively Christian  feeling,  does  manifest  itself  very 
finely  and  beautifully  in  these,  yet,  as  Professor 
Brandis  says,  'there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  Epictetea 
to  shew  that  he  was  acquainted  with  Christianitj', 
and  still  less  that  he  had  adopted  Christianity, 
cither  in  part  or  entirely.'  Some  of  his  opinions, 
moreover,  are  essentially  Christian  in  their  nature, 
though,  of  course,  they  are  unconnected  with  the 
facts  of  revelation.  E.  believes  in  our  '  resemblance ' 
to  God,  in  our  '  relationship '  to  him,  and  in  our 
'union'  with  him  through  the  coincidence  of  the 
'  will '  and  the  '  soul ; '  he  recognises  the  contest 
between  good  and  evil,  the  life-struggle  in  the  heart, 
the  divine  life  against  which  the  law  in  the  mem- 
bers wars ;  and  he  aifirma  the  necessity  of  '  invoking 


God's  assistance  in  the  strife,'  that  the  inner  life 
may  become  pure  as  God  is  pure.  There  are 
several  good  editions  of  the  works  of  E.,  the  most 
complete  of  which  is  that  of  Schweighaiiser  (Leip. 
1800). 

EPICU'RUS,A^-DEPICURE'ANISM.  Epicurus, 
an  illustrious  Greek  philosopher,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Samos,  341  B.C.,  seven  years  after  the 
death  of  Plato.  His  father,  Neocles,  is  said  to  have 
been  a  schoolmaster,  and  his  mother,  Chosrestrate, 
to  have  practised  arts  of  magic.  At  the  age  of  18, 
he  repaired  to  Athens,  where  it  has  been  supposed 
that  he  may  have  had  for  his  teacher  Xenocrates  or 
Theophrastius,  or  perhaps  both,  but  he  himself  used 
to  declare  that  he  was  self-taught.  Of  the  older 
philosophers,  he  was  most  attached  to  Anaxagoras 
and  Democritus,  his  system  of  physics  being 
evidently  built  upon  the  atomic  speculations  of  the 
hatter.  E.'s  stay  at  Athens  on  this  occasion  was 
short.  At  Mitylene,  in  his  thirty-second  j'ear, 
he  first  opened  a  school;  and  there  and  at  Lamp- 
sacus  he  taught  for  five  years.  In  306  B.C.,  he 
returned  to  Athens,  and  established  a  school  of 
philosophy  in  a  garden  which  he  purchased  and 
laid  out  for  the  purpose.  From  this  circumstance, 
his  followers  were  called  the  'philosophers  of  the 
garden.'  Although  E.  laid  down  the  doctrine, 
that  pleasure  is  the  chief  good,  the  life  that  he 
and  his  friends  led  was  one  of  the  greatest  tem- 
perance and  simphcity.  They  were  content,  vre 
are  told,  with  a  small  cup  of  light  wine,  and  aU 
the  rest  of  their  drink  was  water ;  and  an  inscrip- 
tion over  the  gate  promised  to  those  who  might 
wish  to  enter  no  better  fare  than  barley-cakes 
and  water.  The  chastity  of  E.  was  so  mcontestable, 
that  Chrysippus,  one  of  his  principal  opponents, 
in  order  to  deprive  him  of  all  merit  on  the  score 
of  it,  ascribed  it  to  his  being  without  passions. 
The  calumnies  which  the  Stoics  circulated  concern- 
ing him  are  imdeserving  of  notice,  and  were  at 
no  time  generaUy  believed.  E.'s  success  as  a 
teacher  was  signal ;  gi-eat  niunbers  flocked  to  his 
school  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and  from  Asia 
Jlinor,  most  of  whom  became  warmly  attached  to 
their  master,  as  well  as  to  his  doctrines,  for 
E.  seems  to  have  been  characterised  not  less 
by  amiability  and  benevolence  than  by  force  of 
intellect.  He  died  270  B.C.,  in  the  seventy-second 
year  of  his  age. 

E.  was  a  most  voluminous  writer.  According  to 
Diogenes  Laertius,  he  left  300  volumes.  Among 
others,  he  had  37  books  on  Natural  Philosophy,  a 
treatise  on  Atoms  and  the  Vacuum  ;  one  on  Love ; 
one  on  Choice  and  Avoidance  ;  another  on  the  Chief 
Good  ;  four  essays  on  Lives ;  one  on  Sight ;  one  on 
Touch  ;  another  on  Images  ;  another  on  Justice  and 
the  other  Virtues,  &c.  Almost  all  these  works  are 
lost :  the  only  writings  of  E.  that  have  come  do\vn 
to  us  are  three  letters,  and  a  number  of  detached 
sentences  or  sajdngs,  preserved  by  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius, in  his  hfe  of  the  philosopher.  The  principal 
soiu'ces  of  our  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  of  E., 
besides  the  above  letters,  &c.,  are  Cicero,  Seneca, 
and,  above  all,  Lucretius,  whose  great  poem,  De 
Jierum  Natura,  contains  substantially  the  Epicurean 
philosophy. 

Although  the  majority  of  E.'s  'nTitings  referred 
to  natural  philosophy,  yet  he  was  not  a  physicist, 
properly  speaking.  He  studied  nature  with  a  moral 
rather  than  with  a  scientific  design.  According  to 
him,  the  great  evil  that  afflicted  men — the  incubus 
on  human  happiness — was  rE.4R  ;  fear  of  the  goda 
and  fear  of  death.  To  get  rid  of  these  two  fears, 
was  the  ultimate  aim  of  all  his  speculations  on 
nature. 

The  following  is  a  brief  account  of  his  views.     R 


EPICUEUS-EPICYCLE. 


recc^rtlcd  the  universe  (T6  Pan)  as  corporeal,  and  as 
iuiinito  in  extent,  and  eternal  in  duration.  He  recog- 
nised two  kinds  of  existence — that  of  bodies,  and 
that  of  vacuum,  or  space,  or  the  intangible  nature. 
Of  his  bodies,  some  are  compounds,  and  some  atoms 
or  indiWsible  elements,  out  of  which  the  compoimds 
are  formed.  The  world,  as  we  now  see  it,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  collision  and  whirling  together  of 
these  atoms.  He  also  held  the  doctrine  of  [lurccption 
by  imaijen  (Or.  eidOla),  which  are  incessantly  stream- 
ing off  from  the  surface  of  all  bodies,  and  wliich  are 
necessary  to  bring  us  into  rapport  with  the  ■world 
without.  In  like  manner,  he  believed  that  soimd- 
ing  bodies  threw  off  emanations,  by  which  we  are 
brought  into  sj-mpathy  with  them  ;  and  that  per- 
ception by  smell  took  place  in  the  same  way.  In 
psychology,  E.  was  a  decided  materialist,  holding, 
for  various  reasons,  that  the  soul  is  a  bodily 
substance,  composed  of  subtile  particles,  dissemi- 
nated through  the  whole  frame,  and  having  a  great 
resemblance  to  spirit  or  breath  with  a  mixture  of 
heat. 

In  seeking  to  imderstand  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  E.  has  no  scientific  end  in  \-iew ;  his  sole 
object  is  to  enable  the  mind  to  account  for  them  to 
itself,  without  the  necessity  of  imagining  any  super- 
natural agency  at  work.  '  The  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,'  says  E.,  '  admit  of  various  causes  being 
assigned  for  their  ]iroduction,  equally  conformable 
to  the  facts  learned  from  the  senses.  If,  then,  in 
thinking  of  any  appearance,  we  suppose  it  brought 
about  by  the  same  cause  that  produces  another 
appearance  which  gives  no  alarm  or  uneasiness, 
we  are  as  much  delivered  from  uneasiness  as  if 
we  saw  that  such  is  the  cause  of  it.'  E.  did  not 
deny  that  there  are  gods,  but  he  strenuously  main- 
tained, that  as  '  happy  and  imperishable  beings,' 
they  could  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  affairs  of 
the  universe  or  of  men.  '  Beware,'  he  says,  '  of 
attributing  the  revolutions  of  the  heaven,  and 
echpses,  and  the  rising  and  setting  of  stars,  either  to 
the  original  contrivance  or  continued  regulation  of 
such  a  being.  For  business,  and  cares,  and  anger, 
and  benevolence,  are  not  accordant  with  happiness, 
but  arise  from  weakness,  and  fear,  and  dependence 
on  others.' 

E.  next  proceeds  to  deal  with  the  fear  of  death. 
Having  proved  in  his  psychology  that  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  body  involves  that  of  the  soul,  he 
argues  that  the  most  terrible  of  all  evils,  death, 
is  nothing  to  us,  '  since  when  me  are,  deatli  is  not ; 
and  when  death  is,  we  are  not.  It  is  nothing,  then, 
to  the  dead  or  the  living ;  for  to  the  one  class  it 
is  not  near,  and  the  other  class  are  no  longer 
in  existence.'  ^Vhether  E.  actually  succeeded  in 
removing  the  terrors  of  death  by  his  syllogism, 
may  be  doubted. 

The  positive  part  of  £.'3  system  may  be  noticed 
in  a  few  words.  He  held  that  2'leasure  was  the 
chief  good,  and  it  is  from  a  misapprehension  of  the 
meaning  of  this  word  as  used  by  E.  that  the 
term  Epicurean  came  to  signify  one  who  indulged 
his  sensual  appetites  without  stint  or  measure.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  use  of  the 
word  '  pleasure '  was  calculated  to  produce  the 
mischievous  results  with  which  the  later  Epicurean- 
ism was  charged.  According  to  E.,  the  sources  and 
tests  of  all  ethical  truth  arc  the  feelings  (pathe),  and 
these  are  two,  pleasure  and  pain.  We  delight  in  the 
one,  and  avoid  the  other  instinctively.  'When  we 
s.ay  that  pleasure  is  the  end  of  life,  we  do  not  mean 
the  pleasures  of  the  debauchee  or  the  sensualist,  as 
some  from  ignorance  or  from  mahgnity  represent, 
but  freedom  of  the  body  from  pain,  and  of  the  soul 
from  anxiety.  For  it  is  not  continuous  drinkinga 
and  revellings,  nor  the  society  of  women,  nor  rare 
80 


viands,  and  other  luxuries  of  the  table,  that  con- 
stitute a  pleasant  life,  but  sober  contemplation  that 
searches  out  the  grounds  of  choice  and  avoidance, 
and  banishes  those  chimeras  that  harass  the  mind.' 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  E.  says :  '  If  the  means  to 
whioli  sensualists  owe  their  pleasures  dispelled  the 
anxieties  of  the  mind  ....  and  enabled  them  to 
set  limits  to  their  desires,  we  should  have  no 
grounds  to  bl,amc  them  for  taking  their  fill  of 
pleasure,  wherever  they  coiUd  find  it,  pro\'ided  it 
were  attended  with  no  pain  or  grief  from  any 
quarter ;  for  that  is  the  only  e^^l.'  The  whole 
question  of  ethics,  then,  comes  to  a  calculation  and 
balancing  of  pleasures  and  pains  ;  in  other  words, 
the  cardinal  \'irtue  is  prudence.  E.  rests  justice  on 
the  same  prudential  basis  as  temperance.  Denying 
any  abstract  and  eternal  right  and  wrong,  he 
affirms  that  injustice  is  an  e\'il,  because  it  exposes 
the  indiridual  to  disquietude  from  other  men ; 
justice  is  a  \'irtue,  because  it  seciut!3  him  from  this 
disquietude.  '  Injustice  is  not  an  evil  in  itself,  but 
becomes  so  from  the  fear  that  haunts  the  injurer 
of  not  being  able  to  escape  the  appointed  avengers 
of  such  acts.'  The  duties  of  friendship  and  good- 
fellowship  are  inculcated  on  the  same  ground^  of 
security  to  the  individual. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  system  of  E.  was  adopted 
by  many  distingiushed  men.  Horace,  Atticus,  and 
Pliny  the  Younger,  were  Epicureans ;  and  the 
splendid  poem  of  Lucretius  must  have  recommended 
the  sj'stem  to  many.  In  modem  times.  Epicurean- 
ism was  resuscitated  in  France  by  Pierre  Gassendi, 
who  published  an  account  of  E.'s  life  and  a  defence 
of  his  character  in  1647.  Many  eminent  French- 
men have  professed  his  principles  ;  among  others, 
Mohfere,  Saint  Evremont,  Count  de  Grammont, 
the  Duke  of  Rochefoucault,  Eousseau,  Fontenelle, 
and  Voltaire, 

EPICY'CLE.  The  earlier  astronomers  assumed 
that  all  the  motions  of  heavenly  bodies  took  place  in 
circles,  the  circle  being  held  to  be  the  most  perfect 
of  all  curves  ;  and  a  necessary  consequence  of  this 
assumption  was,  that  the  motions  must  have  a 
imiform  velocity.  Another  part  of  the  hj'jjothesis 
was.  that  all  the  heavenly  botUes  moved  roimd  the 
earth,  which  remained  at  rest  in  the  centre.  The 
observed  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  however,  were 
soon  seen  to  stand  in  glaring  inconsistency  with 
these  assumptions ;  and  to  remedy  this,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  have  recom-ae  to  additional  assumptions. 
For  the  sun  and  moon,  which  manifestly  do  not 
always  move  ■with  the  same  velocity,  the  liccen- 
trie  Circle  (q.  v.)  was  imagined.  The  case  of  the 
planets,  whose  motions  were  seen  to  be  sometimes 
direct,  sometimes  retrograde,  and  sometimes  alto- 
gether arrested,  offered  still  greater  difficidties  ;  to 
get  over  which,  the  idea  of  epici/cles  was  hit  upon. 
According  to  this  hypothesis,  while  a  planet  was 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  the  centre  of  that  small 
circle  was  describing  a  larger  circle  about  the  earth. 
This  larger  circle  was  called  the  deferent,  and  the 
smaller,  wliich  was  borne  upon  it,  was  called  the 
epie'jele  (Gr.  ep>,  upon).  In  this  way  the  motions 
of  the  planets  about  the  earth  were  conceived  to  be 
something  like  what  the  motion  of  the  moon  about 
the  sun  actually  is.  By  assuming  proper  propor- 
tions between  the  radii  of  the  deferent  circle  and 
the  epicycle,  and  between  the  velocities  of  the  two 
motions,  it  ■was  foimd  possible  to  account  pretty 
satisfactorily  for  the  above-mentioned  appearances 
and  in-egularities  in  the  motions  of  the  planets.  But 
it  is  only  the  iiTegidarities  arising  from  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  earth  about  the  sun  tliat  can  be  at  all 
explained  in  this  way,  and  not  those  arising  from 
the  elliptic  motions  of  the  planets  about  the  sim,  nor 
yet  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's  motions.    The 


EPICYCLOID— EPIDEMIC  MENTAL  DISEASES. 


successors  of  the  Greek  astronomers,  down  to  Tycho 
Brahc,  continued,  therefore,  to  increase  the  number 
of  epicycles,  setting  one  circle  upon  another,  until 
the  hypothesis,  iu  itself  complicated,  became  stUl 
more  so,  and  made  the  simplicity  of  the  Copemican 
system  at  once  strikiug. 

EPICY'CLOID  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  curve. 
When  a  circle  moves  upon  a  straight  line,  any  point 
in  its  circumference  describes  a  Cycloid  (q.  v.);  but 
if  the  circle  moves  on  the  convex  circiunference  of 
another  circle,  every  point  in  the  plane  of  the  first 
circle  describes  an  epicycloid  ;  and  if  on  the  con- 
cave circumference,  a  hyiiocycloid.  The  circle  that 
moves  is  the  generating  circle ;  the  other,  the  base. 
The  describing  point  is  not  necessarily  ui  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  generating  circle,  but  m.ay  be 
anJ^vhere  in  a  radius  or  its  prolongation.  This 
ciu've  was  first  investigated  by  the  Danish  astro- 
nomer Rumer.  It  has  many  remarkable  properties, 
and  is  even  useful  in  the  practical  arts.  The 
teeth  of  wheels  in  machinery  must  have  an  epicy- 
cloidal  form,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of 
movement. 

EPIDA'MNTJS.    See  DraAzzo. 

EPIDAXJ'RXJS,  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  on  the 

eastern  shore  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  the  district  of 
Argolis,  was  situated  on  a  small  promontory,  15 
stadia  in  circumference,  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,  in  lat. 
37°  38'  N.,  long.  23°  10'  E.  During  the  most  pros- 
perous period  of  Grecian  history,  E.  was  an  inde- 
Eendent  state.  It  was  colonised  first,  it  is  supposed, 
y  Carians  (hence  the  older  name  of  Epiairus, 
according  to  Aristotle),  and  afterwards  by  lonians, 
but  was  subsequently  invaded  by  a  Dorian  army 
under  Deiphontes,  the  son-in-law  of  Temenus  the 
Heracleide.  This  force  dethroned  Pitvreus,  the 
Ionian  king  of  E.,  compelled  him  and  his  citizens 
to  retire  to  Athens,  and  inaugurated  the  Dorian 
nde,  which  presented  the  ascendency  at  E.  during 
the  whole  of  the  historical  period.  The  form  of 
government  was  originally  monarchical,  but  after 
many  ^-icissitudes,  it  eventually  became  and  remained 
oligarchical.  At  an  early  period,  E.  became  one  of 
the  chief  commercial  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus.  It 
colonised  the  islands  of  Cos,  Calydnus,  and  NisyTus, 
as  ■well  as  the  town  of  ^gina,  which,  diuing  the 
6th  c,  attracted  all  its  commerce  from  the  then 
declining  mother-city.  E.  was  chiefly  famous  for 
its  temjue  of  .lilsculapius,  to  which  patients  resorted 
from  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world,  seeking  cures 
for  their  diseases.  The  site  of  this  temple  was  a 
plain  sivrrounded  by  mountains,  about  5  miles  west 
of  the  town,  and  which  is  still  called  Hieron,  the 
8anctuarj\  E.  had  also  numerous  temples,  among 
which  were  those  of  Artemis,  Dionysus,  Aphrodite, 
and  Her.o,  and  a  magnificent  theatre,  at  present  in  a 
more  perfect  state  of  preservation  than  any  iu  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  with  sufficient  accommodation 
for  12,000  spectators. 

E.  (modem  Greek,  Epidavro)  is  now  a  small 
nUage,  with  scarcely  100  inhabitants,  employed 
for  the  most  part  iu  raising  vegetables  for  the 
Athenian  market.  The  plain  surrounding  the 
village  is  productive  and  highly  cultivated.  Here, 
in  January  18'22,  a  congress  from  aU  parts  of  Greece 
assembled,  and  promulgated  the  constitution,  known 
as  the  constitution  of  Epidaurus. 

EPIDE'MIC  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  demos,  the  people), 
a  disease  which  attacks  mmibers  of  persons  in  one 
place  simidtaneously  or  in  succession,  and  which  in 
addition  is  observed  to  travel  from  place  to  place, 
often  in  the  direction  of  tlie  most  frequented  lines 
of  communication.  Many  epidemic  diseases  are  also 
cont.a^ous,  and  .ill  of  them  suggest  the  necessity  of 
carefvQ  inquiry  into  the  ventilation,  drainage,  food, 


driuk,  and  habits  of  the  persons  liable  to  be  affected. 
In  presence  of  an  epidemic,  it  is  proper  to  take 
unusual  precautions  to  preserve  the  public  health 
(see  Health,  Public),  and  not  unfrequently  the 
organisation  of  a  regular  house-to-house  visitation 
of  the  locality  is  calculated  to  do  much  good,  by 
directing  the  minds  of  the  poor  and  ignorant  to 
their  duties  in  respect  to  themselves  and  to  each 
other.  See  Ent)EMIO  for  further  observations  on 
this  subject ;  also  Contagion,  Infection,  Eev'Eb, 
Cholera,  &c. 

EPIDEMIC  MENTAL  DISEASES.  When  we 
consider  how  ordinary  and  normal  thoughts  and 
emotions  spread  from  one  man  to  many,  and  sway 
miUtitudes  to  the  same  views  and  actions,  it  is  no 
longer  a  mystei-y  that  morbid  conditions  of  the 
mind  should  become  at  times  no  less  epidemic  than 
physical  diseases.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  fact.  A 
mental  disorder  may  spread  from  man  to  man,  and 
may  involve  whole  nations.  It  depends  for  its 
propagation,  like  an  epidemic  disease,  first  upon 
external  circumstances,  and  secondly,  upon  the 
pecijiar  condition  or  constitution  of  the  individuals 
afi'ected.  Like  the  bodily  affection,  the  causes 
which  provoke  the  insanity  and  the  tendency  to  be 
affected  may  have  been  in  process  of  development 
for  years.  Both  attack  the  weak  rather  than  the 
strong ;  both  exist  for  a  season,  and  disappear.  In 
the  case  of  the  mental  malady,  the  external  influ- 
ences— those  which  constitute  the  moral  atmosphere 
— are  ignorance  or  imperfect  knowledge,  the  power 
of  one  mind  over  another,  the  influence  of  language, 
the  diffusion  of  particular  opinions,  the  tendency  to 
imitate.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  physical 
causes  exercise  an  important  influence  in  the  pro- 
duction of  such  general  mental  contlitions.  In  1842 
and  IS-W,  there  occurred  in  Germany  and  France, 
among  the  military,  epidemics  of  meningitis  with 
delirium,  or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the 
brain,  when  no  moral  factors  were  at  work,  but 
when  diet,  temperature,  &c.  were.  But  even  where 
the  origin  cannot  be  so  distinctly  traced,  the  co-oper- 
ation of  external  as  weD  as  psychical  agents  may  be 
legitimately  predicated.  It  would  accordindy  bo 
Ulogical  to  limit  the  production  of  the  Dancing  Mania 
(q.  v.),  which  occasionally,  during  several  centuries, 
swept  over  Europe,  to  the  reaction  succeeding  the 
dread  of  the  end  of  the  world,  which  had  previously 
prevailed  epidemically.  An  examination  of  about  a 
hundred  manifestations  such  as  that  alluded  to, 
collected  from  various  sources,  demonstrates  that 
not  merely  the  intoxication  of  joy,  but  the  most 
absurd  forms  of  belief — that  dreams,  delusions, 
superstitions,  corruptions  of  language,  all  instincts 
and  passions,  even  movements  and  cries,  may  assume 
the  form,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  may  foUow  the 
haws  of  epidemic  diseases.  In  far-distant  ages, 
there  are  records  of  a  histrionic  plague,  when,  after 
a  simimer  of  intense  heat,  all  conceived  themselves 
players,  and  traversed  the  streets,  and  simk  and 
died,  repeating  verses,  and  exhibiting  extravagant 
gesticulations  ;  of  whole  communities  being  stricken 
with  nightmare,  which  was  so  general  as  to  ba 
supposed  and  called  contagious.  There  have  been 
epidemics  of  homicidal  and  suicidal  mania.  In  one 
age,  hundreds  are  foimd  possessed  by  Satan ;  iu 
another,  larger  numbers  converted  into  wolves  ;  and 
in  recent  times,  the  leaping  ague  of  Forfarshire,  and 
outbiursts  of  pyromania  in  various  jJaces,  remind 
us  that  there  may  be  still  in  the  constitution  of  tho 
lumian  mind,  and  in  the  education  and  the  habits 
of  life  prevailing,  elements  capable  of  realising  the 
catastrophe  suggested  by  Bishop  Butler's  question  : 
What  is  to  prevent  a  whole  nation  becoming  mad  ! 
The  instances  of  epidemic  mental  disease  recorded 
in  the  following  tabic,  have  been  selected  from  a 


EPIDEMIC  MEXTAL  DISEASES— EPIDERMIS. 


vast  numl)cr  of  others,  with  a  \-iew  of  shewing  not  |  range  of  the  phenomenon  through  the  powers  and 
the  frequency  or  extent  of  such  affection,  but  the  I  propensities  of  our  nature. 


Popular  Natop. 

rormofDlicaic. 

Year. 

Number  Affi-elcd. 

Autliorltf. 

St  Yitus's— St  John's  Dance, 

Clioreamania 

1374 

Hundreds 

Heckcr 

Wolf-niadnesB,    . 

Lycanlhropia 

1523 

M 

Calmicl 

I'ossession,       .... 

Ucmononiania 

1642,  &c. 

// 

II 

Convulsionaries  of  St  Medard, 

Tliconiania 

1731 

tl 

II 

Incendiarism, 

Pyroniania 

1800 

Many 

Marc 

AVitclicraft 

Demonopathia 

Various 

Thousands 

Various 

Suicide,   ... 

Mehmcholia 

tl 

Esquirol 

Visions 

Dt'lusions 

w 

Many 

1  Bricredo 
Boi&mont 

Timoria,  Panic, 

Panphobia 

1(146 

Many 

Edin.  lievieto 
\           1849 

There  appears  to  he  no  guarantee  that  the  present 
and  future  generations  sh.all  be  exem])ted  from 
similar  visitations,  except  in  the  universal  diffusion 
of  kno-svledge  and  sound  thinking,  for  it  is  invariably 
in  the  darkness  of  ignorance  or  in  the  twilight  of 
imperfect  knowledge  that  the  moral  plague  comes. — 
Hecker's  Epidemics  of  the  Middle  Af/es;  Calmiel, 
De  la  Folic  consklerce  sous  le  Point  de  Vue  Patholo- 
ijiquc,  Philosophique,  Historique  et  Judiciaire,  depiiis 
la  Renaissance  des  Sciences  en  Europe  jusqau  dix- 
neuvieme  Slide,  &c.  j  and  Psychological  Journal, 
passim. 

EPIDE'RMIS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  the 
skin),  a  semi-transparent  membrane,  containing 
neither  vessels  nor  nerves,  and  everywhere  forming 
an  external  covering  to  the  corium  or  true  skin. 
See  Skin.  The  epidermis  is  called  in  ordinary 
language  the  scarf-skin.  It  consists  of  two  layers, 
chemically  and  morphologically  distinct — viz.,  the 
mucous  larjer,  which  lies  immediately  upon  the 
corium,  and  the  horny  layer,  which  forms  the 
outermost  sm'face  of  the  body. 

The  mucous  layer  (known  formerly  as  the  rete 
mucosum,  s.  Malpighianum)  is  of  a  W'liitish  or 
shghtly  brown  tint  (in  the  Negro,  dark  gray  or 
black),  and  is  composed  of  small  soft  cells.     The 


I'criiendioular  Section  of  the  Skin  of  the  Leg  of  a  Negro : 
Magnified  2J0  diameters. 

a,  a,  p:ipnia)  of  the  cutis ;  b,  deepest  intensely  coloured  layer  of 
perpendicularly  elongated  cells  of  the  mucous  layer;  c,  upper 
fitriitum  of  the  same  layer  ;  d,  horny  layer. 

innermost  of  these  cells,  resting  on  the  surface  of 
the  corium,  arc  elongated  and  arranged  perpen- 
dicularly ;  upon  these  follow  elongated  or  roundish 
cells  in  many  Layers,  which,  in  proportion  to  their 
distance  from  the  corium,  acquire,  from  their  mutual 
92 


pressure,  a  polygonal  form,  which  may  even  be 
recognised  in  individual  cells. 

All  the  cells  in  the  mucous  layer  are  nucleated 
vesicles  distended  with  fluid,  and  likewise  contain- 
ing minute  gramUes,  which  diminish  in  number  in 
the  more  external  cells. 

The  horny  layer  forms  the  external  semi-trans- 
parent part  of  the  epidermis,  which  in  the  white 
races  is  colourless,  and  is  composed  almost  wholly 
of  uniform  cells,  metamorphosed  into  plates  or 
scales.  The  deepest  plates  in  some  degree  resemble 
the  uppermost  cells  of  the  mucous  layer ;  but  in  the 
second  or  third  layer  we  find  the  flattening  com- 
mence ;  till  at  length,  after  a  gradual  series  of  modi- 
fications, we  have  the  hard,  horny  scales  which 
occur  on  the  surface,  where  they  are  regiJarly  east 
off  with  more  or  less  r.apidity,  and  replaced  by 
those  beneath  them.* 

The  colour  of  the  epidermis  differs  in  dififerent 
persons  and  in  different  })arts  of  the  body.  It  is 
deepest  aromid  the  nipple,  especially  in  women 
during  pregnancy  and  after  they  have  borne  chUdren. 
A  more  or  less  dark  pigment  is  often  deposited,  in 
persons  who  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  in  the  face, 
neck,  back  of  the  hands,  &c.  These  tints  are  not 
produced  by  speci.ol  pigment-cells,  but  are  seated 
in  the  common  cells  of  the  mucous  layer,  roiuid 
whoso  nuclei  granular  pigment  is  deposited.  In 
the  Negro  and  the  other  coloured  races,  it  is 
also  only  the  epidermis  which  is  coloured,  while 
the  corium  completely  resembles  that  of  Em-opcans. 
The  per])encUcular  cells  (see  b  in  the  figm'e)  are 
the  darkest,  and  form  a  sharply  marked  fringe 
at  the  edge  of  the  clear  corium.  To  these  succeed 
browni  cells,  which  accumidate  in  the  depressions 
between  the  papill.T?,  and  as  we  approach  the  horny 
layer,  we  have  yellowish  cells.  The  Iiorny  Layer 
of  the  Negro  also  inclines  to  a  yellow  or  brownish 
tint. 

Morbid  coloration  of  the  epidermis  (freckles, 
mother's  marks,  &c.)  is  produced  in  the  same  way 
as  the  colour  of  the  Negro's  skin.  Nimierous 
instances  of  partially  or  entirely  white  Negroes  and 
of  black  Europeans,  not  as  a  consequence  of  change 
of  climate  but  as  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  skin, 
are  on  record. 

The  thickness  of  the  epidermis  vanes  extremely. 
While  upon  the  cheeks,  brow,  and  eyelids,  it  varies 
from  TTjth  to  ^th  of  a  line,  on  the  palm  of  the  hand 
it  ranges  from  ^d  to  A  a  line,  and  on  the  sole  of  the 
foot  sometimes  even  exceeds  a  line.  In  some  parts 
of  the  body  the  horny  layer  is  thicker  than  the 
mucous  ;  in  other,  the  mucous  is  the  thicker  of  the 
two.     As  the  chief  use  of  the  epidermis  is  that  of 

*  In  reptiles  and  ampliibians,  this  layer  is  periodically 
cast  off  in  a  more  or  less  entire  state,  a  new  one  being 
previously  formed  beneath  it ;  and  in  man,  desquama- 
tion in  large  patches  often  occtu's  after  certain  diseases, 
especially  scaiiatin.a. 


EPIDOTE— EPILEPS  Y . 


aflforiUiig  protection  to  the  soft  and  tender  subjacent 
parts,  it  attains  its  greatest  thickness  on  those 
portions  of  the  body  (the  pahn  of  the  hand  and  the 
solo  of  the  foot)  which  are  most  exposed  to  pressure 
and  friction. 

In  plants,  as  in  animals,  the  epidermis  is  formed 
of  ilatteued  cells,  of  which  also  new  layers  are  con- 
tinually produced  from  the  bark  below,  whilst  the 
outer  ones  dry  up,  lose  their  vitaUty,  and  peel  oiT, 
crack  and  split  off,  or  otherwise  become  separated 
from  the  living  organism.  The  cells  of  the  epidermis 
arc  often  enlarged  outwards,  so  as  to  form  projec- 
tions, sometimes  very  slight,  sometimes  elongated 
into  Hairs  (q.  v.).  Glands  (q.  v.)  are  also  connected 
with  the  epidermis,  sometimes  by  the  iuter\'ention 
of  hairs,  sometimes  without,  and  in  this  way  it 
contributes  to  the  secretion  of  substances  formed  in 
plants  by  the  wonderful  chemistry  of  nature,  and  on 
which  their  value  to  man  often  greatly  depends. 
The  cells  of  the  epidermis  are  usually  tilled  with  a 
colourless  fluid,  but  resinous  and  waxy  substances 
are  sometimes  found  iu  them,  and  sometimes  silica 
(as  in  grasses  and  Equisetacea;),  sometimes  carbonate 
of  lime  (as  in  the  Cliaras).  The  epidermis  is  pierced 
by  Slomaia  (q.  v.).  When  the  epidermis  of  plants 
is  subjected  to  prolonged  maceration,  it  can  often 
be  made  to  separate  into  two  parts ;  one,  which  is 
more  strictly  called  the  epidermis,  being  the  inner, 
lower,  and  thicker  membrane ;  the  other,  which  is 
called  the  Pellicle  or  Cuticle,  being  very  thin,  and 
extending  continuously  over  every  part  of  the  plant 
except  where  it  is  pierced  by  the  stomata.  Thiis, 
this  superficial  pellicle  invests  even  the  finest  hairs. 
In  some  of  the  Algce,  it  seems  to  constitute  the 
whole  integtiment.  In  the  greater  number  of  plants, 
the  epidermis  is  thin  and  soft,  but  sometimes  it  is 
thick,  and  sometimes  hard. 

E'PIDOTE,  a  mineral  allied  to  garnet,  composed 
of  silica  and  alumina,  with  a  considerable  proportion 
of  lime,  or  of  peroxide  of  iron,  or  of  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese. These  diversities  of  composition  constitute 
three  very  distinct  varieties  ;  and  of  these  there  are 
sub-varieties,  tlifTering  in  colour  and  other  parti- 
ciUars  (Pistacite,  Bucklandite,  Withamite,  Zoisite,  &c.). 
E.  is  sometimes  found  massive,  foliated,  columnar, 
granular,  or  incrusting ;  often  crystallised.  Its 
ciystals  are  prisms,  variously  modifietL  Its  preva- 
lent colours  are  green,  yellow,  and  gray,  but  some 
of  the  v.arieties  are  red  and  black.  It  is  found  in 
gneiss,  syenite,  trap,  and  other  rocks  in  a  number 
of  localities  in  Scotland,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
world. 

EPIGA'STRIUM  (Or.  epi,  over,  and  gasta;  the 
stomach),  the  part  of  the  Abdomen  (q.  v.)  which 
chiefly  corresponds  to  the  situation  of  tlie  stomach, 
extending  from  the  Stemimi  (q.  v.)  towards  the 
Navel  or  Umbilicus  (q.  v.),  and  boimded  on  each  side 
by  the  Hjqwchunders  (q.  v.).  It  is  called  in  jjopijar 
language  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

EPIGE'NESIS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  jenefia,  a  forma- 
tion), a  formation  upon,  or  iu  addition  to,  previously 
existing  parts.  The  word  is  applied  in  physiology 
to  that  theory  of  new  formations  in  organised  beings 
which  supposes  them  to  spring  from  superadded 
centres  of  vital  actiWty,  as  opposed  to  the  theory 
which  presumes  that  the  new  is  formed  by  a 
development  or  modification  of  the  old  structure. 
See  Ovum. 

EPIGLOTTIS.    See  Larynx. 

EPIGRAM,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek, 
and  literally  siijnifying  an  '  inscription.'  In  point 
of  fact,  the  epigrams  of  the  Greeks  were  simply 
inscriptions  on  tombs,  statues,  and  monuments, 
written  in  verse,  and  marked  by  great  simplicity 


of  style,  but  having  nothing  in  common  with  what 
now  passes  under  the  name.  It  was  among  the 
Romans  that  the  ejtigram  first  assimied  a  satirical 
character.  Catullus  and  ilartial  are  reckoned 
the  best  Latin  epigrammatists.  In  modem  times, 
an  epigram  is  imderstood  to  be  a  very  short  poem, 
generally  from  two  to  eight  lines,  containing  a 
witty  or  ingenious  thought  expressed  in  pointed 
phraseologj',  and  in  general  reserving  the  essence 
of  the  wit  to  the  close,  as  the  seqjent  is  fabled 
to  keep  its  sting  in  its  tail.  The  French  excel  all 
other  nations  in  this  kind  of  poetry.  Their  earliest 
epigrammatist  of  any  note  was  Clement  Marob 
(1405—1544)  ;  their  liest  are  Bodeau,  Voltaire,  and 
Piron.  The  epigrams  of  German  writers  are  for  the 
most  part  hap])ily  expressed  moral  proverbs,  but  the 
Xenieii  of  Scluller  and  Goethe  contain  not  a  few 
sharp  and  biting  verses  of  a  satirical  character.  In 
Britain,  Pope,  Bums,  BjTon,  Moore,  and  other  writers 
have  shewn  a  remarkable  power  of  epigrammatic 
satire. 

E'PIGRAPH  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  rjrapho,  I 
ivrite),  a  terse  inscription  placed  upon  architectural 
or  other  monuments,  for  the  purpose  of  denoting 
their  use  or  appropriation,  and  very  frequently 
worked  in  and  forming  part  of  their  ornamental 
details. 

E'PILEPSY  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  lamlano,  future, 
lepso,  I  seize),  a  form  of  disease  characterised  by 
sudden  insensibihty,  with  convulsive  movements  of 
the  volmitary  muscles,  and  occasionally  arrest  of 
the  breathing,  owing  to  spasm  of  the  muscles  of 
respiration,  and  temporary  closure  of  the  Glottis 
(q.  v.).  Epilepsy  was  called  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
the  '  sacred  disease.'  Owing  to  the  mysterious 
and  extraordinary  character  of  the  convidsion  of 
epilepsy,  it  was  always,  iu  ancient  times,  sup- 
posed to  be  due  in  a  very  special  manner  to  the 
influence  of  the  gods,  or  of  evil  spuits ;  Hippo- 
crates, however,  combats  this  idea  in  a  special 
treatise,  in  which  he  maintains  that  epilepsy  is 
no  more  and  no  less  divme  than  all  other  dis- 
eases. The  same  idea  of  the  specially  supernatural 
character  of  epilepsy  is  she\vn  forth  in  the  deeply 
rooted  oriental  notion  of  demoniac  possession.  See 
Demoxiacs.  Epilepsy  is  often  called,  in  modern 
language,  the  '  falling  sickness,'  and  this  name  is  not 
only  descriptive  of  one  of  its  most  striking  pheno- 
mena, but  also  points  distinctly  to  the  most  obvious 
danger  of  the  fit.  The  patient  is  seized,  without 
reference  to  his  condition  or  occujiation  at  the 
moment,  mth  insensibility,  often  so  complete  and 
sudden  as  to  lead  to  serious  accidents  and  bodily 
injuries ;  in  the  most  aggravated  cases,  he  has  no 
premonitory  sensations  whatever,  but  falls  down 
without  any  attempt  to  save  himself,  and  usually 
with  a  wild  inarticulate  crj'  of  some  kind,  imme- 
diately after  which  the  face  is  violently  distorted, 
the  head  drawn  towards  one  or  other  shoulder, 
and  the  whole  body  con\'ulsed.  These  convulsions 
follow  in  rapid  succession  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
are  attended  by  foaming  at  the  mouth,  and  by 
great  li\-idit)',  or,  in  some  cases,  livid  paUor,  which, 
mth  the  irregular  spasmodic  movements  of  the  Ups, 
nostrils,  and  eyes,  give  a  frightfidly  ghastly  expres- 
sion to  the  coimtenance,  and  almost  invariably  lead 
the  bystanders  to  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  imme- 
diate danger  of  the  fit.  The  immediate  danger  is, 
in  reality,  not  great,  excepting  that  the  sudden 
attack  may  lead  to  an  injurious  or  fatal  fall ;  the 
tongue,  however,  may  be  bitten  if  protruded  during 
the  con^^Usion,  or  the  patient  may  be  so  placed 
as  to  injure  himself  seriously  by  the  repeated  and 
unconscious  movements  of  his  body,  or  he  may 
suffocate   himself  by  accidentally  falling  with  his 

93 


EPILEPSY. 


face  in  water,  or  otherwise  closing  >ip  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  or  by  dragging  upon  a  tightened  neck- 
cloth. Care  should  be  always  taken  to  avoid 
these  accidents  by  keeping  the  epileptic  as  much  as 
possible  within  view  of  persons  acquainted  with 
his  condition,  and  able  to  give  such  assistance 
as  m.'vy  be  required ;  as  well  as  by  warning  the 
patient  himself  to  avoid  all  places  in  which  a  fall 
wouUl  be  especially  dangerous.  But  when  an  un- 
skilled person  happens  to  witness  a  lit  of  epLlejisy, 
he  will  do  well  to  remember  that  beyond  the  simplest 
and  most  obvious  precautions  against  the  dangers 
mentioned  above,  there  is  literally  nothing  to  be 
done  ;  and  any  attempt  to  rouse  the  patient  by 
vaolent  stimuli,  as  ammonia  appUed  to  the  nostrils, 
or  by  dashing  water  in  the  face,  or,  stUl  more,  by 
administering  medicines  hastily  recommended  by  the 
ignorant  and  thoughtless,  is  almost  certain  to  do  more 
hann  than  good.  The  tongue  should  be  looked  to,  a 
piece  of  cork  or  other  gag  being,  if  necessary,  inserted 
between  the  teeth ;  the  patient  should  be  then 
placed  on  a  mattress  or  other  soft  place  near  the 
ground ;  his  neckcloth  should  be  removed,  and  the 
dress  loosened  round  the  chest ;  the  head  should  be, 
if  possible,  a  little  raised,  and  a  free  circidation  of 
air  maintained  (this  last  precaution  being  very  apt 
to  be  neglected  in  case  of  a  crowd)  ;  with  these 
things  done,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  in  the 
vast  majority  of  epileptic  cases  nothing  has  been  left 
imdoue  which  will  conduce  to  recovery.  The  ordi- 
nary course  of  the  fit  (which  usually  lasts  from  five 
to  twenty  minutes  altogether)  is  as  follows  :  the 
con\Tilsion3  gradually  diminish  in  intensity,  .and 
the  patient  passes  into  a  state  of  deep  but  motion- 
less stupor,  \vith  dilated  pupils,  and  sometimes,  but 
not  always,  vnih.  snoring  or  noisy  breathing ;  the 
foaming  at  the  mouth  ceases,  the  colour  gradually 
returns,  and  this  st.ite  leads  to  recovery  through 
a  more  or  less  protracted,  but  apparently  natural 
sleep,  the  patient,  on  awaking,  being  often  quite 
unconscious  that  he  has  been  the  subject  of  any 
anxiety,  or,  indeed,  in  any  unusual  coniUtion  what- 
ever. Although  in  all  cases  of  true  epilepsy  there 
is  a  stage  of  complete  Coma  (q.  v.),  or  unconscious- 
ness, yet  the  fit  is  often  very  transient,  and  but 
little  attended  by  convidsion,  being  also  less  sudden 
than  above  described,  and  not  necessarily  causing 
a  fall  to  the  ground ;  in  some  cases,  also,  fits  of 
greater  intensity  are  preceded  by  certain  premoni- 
tory symptoms  or  peculiar  sensations,  which  act 
as  warnings  to  the  patient  himself,  and  lead  him  to 
place  himself  in  a  position  of  safety  on  the  approach 
of  the  paroxysm.  Having  in  view  these  distinc- 
tions (which  are  certainly  of  considerable  practical 
importance),  the  French  language,  both  popid.ar  and 
scientific,  has  adopted  the  terms  of  grand  mal  and 
petit  iMil  (i.  e.,  great  and  little  evil),  as  characterising 
the  more  and  less  dangerous  forms  of  epilejjsy 
respectively.  The  sensations  which  precede  the  lit 
in  some  epileptics  have  been  termed  in  Latin  the 
aura  (i.e.,  breath)  epileptica,  from  their  supposed 
resemblance  to  a  current  of  cold  air  passing  over  the 
body,  and  proceeding  from  the  extremities  towards 
the  head.  This  description  does  not,  however,  hold 
good  in  all  cases ;  and  not  nufreqiiently,  as  men- 
tioned above,  there  is  no  aura,  or  unusual  sensation 
of  any  kind,  preceding  the  fit.  It  must  be  mentioned, 
however,  as  bearing  on  treatment,  and  as  being  quite 
within  the  bounds  of  popular  medicine,  that  some  of 
the  most  ancient  authorities  assert  strongly  the 
power  of  a  tight  bandage,  placed  suddenly  upon  the 
limb  in  which  the  aura  begins,  to  cut  short,  or  oven 
to  ])rcvent  altogether,  the  fit  of  epilepsy.  Although 
this  alleged  fact  has  often  been  regarded  as  doubt- 
ful, it  hivs  never  been  altogether  discredited,  and 
has  of  late  years  been  brought  into  renewed  notice 
94 


by  good  observers.  It  is  even  maintained  that 
such  a  bandage,  placed  experimentally  upon  one  or 
other  of  the  limbs,  and  tightened  on  the  approach 
of  a  fit,  has  been  found  effective  in  some  cases  in 
which  there  was  no  distinctly  local  sensation ;  and 
epileptics  have  been  repeatedly  convinced  of  tho 
propriety  of  habitually  wearing  a  bandage  loosely 
applied  upon  the  arm,  which  they  have  been  able, 
by  carefidly  watching  their  own  sensations,  and  by 
being  watched  in  turn  by  othei-s,  to  get  tightened 
at  the  proper  time.  There  is  no  doubt  room  for 
fallacy  in  these  observations,  but  they  may  safely 
be  commended  to  notice,  as  invohong  no  possible 
risk  of  mischief,  and  as  far  more  worthy  of  extended 
trial  than  the  great  majority  of  popidar  remedies  in 
epilepsy. 

But  the  fit  and  its  treatment  form  only  a  part  of 
the  anxieties  which  arise  out  of  a  case  of  epilepsy. 
The  ultimate  danger  of  the  disease  has  little  rela- 
tion to  the  severity  of  the  individual  fits,  except  in 
the  modified  sense  exjilained  above  ;  the  frequency 
of  the  attacks  being  apparently  much  more  apt  to 
influence  the  duration  of  life  than  their  character. 
Indeed,  although  epileptics  may  survive  several 
severe  paroxysms  at  distant  intervals,  and  recover 
in  the  end  with  an  apparently  unbroken  constitution, 
it  rarely  happens  that  very  frecjuently  repeated 
attacks,  even  of  the  petit  mal,  are  unattended  by 
some  permanent  depreciation  of  the  powers  of  mind 
or  of  body.  The  most  frequent,  perhajis,  of  all  the 
more  serious  consequences  of  confirmed  cjjilepsy  is 
insanity  (q.  v.),  sometimes  assuming  the  form  of 
acute  mania  or  monomania  following  the  attacks, 
but  quite  as  frequently  tending  to  gradual  imbecility 
without  any  acute  seizure.  Sometimes  the  develoji- 
meut  of  the  epileptic  insanity,  or  dementia,  is 
attended  by  palsy,  and  other  indications  of  struc- 
tural disorder  of  the  brain ;  in  other  instances,  no 
such  consequences  occur,  and  the  brain  after  death 
may  be  found  to  have  very  little  tangible  disease, 
or  only  such  disease  as  is  found  in  numerous  other 
cases  of  f imctional  derangement,  ^'ery  often,  even 
when  the  mind  remains  tolerably  entire,  there  is 
loss  of  memory,  and  a  certain  want  of  acuteness  and 
depression  of  spirits,  which  unfit  the  individual  for 
the  regular  business  of  life.  Disordera  of  the  diges- 
tion arc  also  not  uncommon ;  and  there  is  frequently 
a  want  of  tone  and  vigour  in  all  the  bodily  fimc- 
tious,  which  communicates  a  habitual  expression  of 
languor  and  reserve  to  the  epileptic.  Added  to  this, 
it  can  hardly  be  matter  of  siu'prise  that  the  know- 
ledge of  his  infirmity  should  deeply  influence  the 
mind  of  the  epileptic,  and  i)roduce  a  distaste  for 
.active  occupations,  especially  for  such  as  expose  him 
to  more  than  ordinary  observation. 

The  causes  and  the  radical  cure  of  epilepsy  are 
almost  equally  involved  in  mystery.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  to  be  dependent  on  an  increased 
afliux  of  blood  to  the  brain  ;  while  by  other  observers 
and  p.athologic.al  authorities  it  li.os  been  attributed, 
with  about  equal  force  of  reasoning,  to  precisely 
the  opposite  condition.  Certain  cases  undoubtedly 
depend  upon  organic  disease,  as  tumours  or  injuries 
to  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  more  especi.ally 
near  the  surface.  Local  sources  of  irritation  in 
other  parts  of  tho  body  have  also  been  supposed 
to  be  exciting  causes  of  epilepsy  ;  and  cases  are 
recorded  in  which  the  disease  has  been  cured  by  the 
amputation  of  a  finger  or  the  division  of  a  nerve. 
The  attention  of  recent  obscn-ers  has  been  especially 
directed  to  the  medulla  oblong.ata  and  Spinal  Cord 
(q.  v.),  as  being  the  most  probable  physiological  seats 
of  a  disease  -so  decidedly  marked  by  eonviUsivo 
movements.  l?ut  as  yet  little  more  tlian  the  most 
v.ague  theoretical  inferences  can  bo  drawn  from  their 
researches   as   to  the  cause  either  of   the  morbid 


EPILEPSY— EPILOBIUM. 


tendency  in  epilepsy  or  of  the  paroxysm.  One  of 
the  most  curious  anil  suggestive  of  these  recent 
facts  is  the  experiment  of  Brown-Sequard,  shewing 
that  epilepsy,  or  a  state  closely  resembling  it,  may 
be  induced  in  certain  animals  by  division  of  certain 
portions  of  the  spinal  conl,  the  artificial  disease  con- 
tinuing long  after  the  primary  efl'ects  of  the  injmy 
have  ceased.  A  still  more  curious  and  inexplicable 
phenomenon  has  resulted  from  the  multiplication  of 
such  experiments  ;  for  Browu-Sequard  has  shewn 
that  in  guinea-pigs  this  artificial  ejiilepsy  is  some- 
times jjropagated  to  the  oftsi^ring,  becoming,  like  the 
natural  disease,  a  hereditary  and  congenital  morbid 
tendency.  On  these  strange  facts  it  would  be  pre- 
matiU"o  to  indulge  in  speculation  in  this  place,  but 
their  great  importance  can  hardly  be  overlooked. 

The  condition  of  the  epUeptic  seems  to  be 
favour.ably  aifected  by  everythiig  which  conduces 
to  a  quiet  and  hopeful  state  of  the  mind,  and  to  a 
Wgorous  condition  of  the  body.  The  treatment  of 
the  disease  should  therefore,  in  general  terms,  be  of 
the  kind  termed  Tonic  (q.v.),  and  should  be  .adapted 
with  care,  and  after  very  minute  and  careful  iuqiury, 
to  the  removal  of  all  the  special  bad  habits,  and 
occasional  causes  of  depression,  which  tend  to  bring 
the  sj'stem  into  a  condition  below  par,  in  the  indi- 
vidual case.  The  influence  of  a  happy  and  quiet 
domestic  life,  without  imhealthy  excitement,  and 
■with  proper  occupations,  varied  by  amusement  and 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  marriage  of  epileptics  is,  however, 
not  too  readily  to  be  sanctioned,  as  it  has  been 
known  to  be  followed,  not  only  by  an  increase  of 
the  disease,  but  by  its  transmission  to  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  family.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
too  absolute  nile  on  this  subject  is  not  without  its 
dangers,  and  perhaps  the  practical  difficulties  of 
the  question  are  not  to  be  met  by  any  defined  or 
dogmatic  expression  of  opinion,  foimded  on  the 
general  pathology  of  the  disease.  If  the  tendency 
exist,  even  slightly  developed,  upon  both  sides  in 
Bueh  a  connection,  it  needs  harcUy  be  stated  that 
the  dangers  of  transmission  to  the  descendants  is 
increased,  in  a  very  great  degree.  Hence,  inter- 
marriages within  epileptic  families  must  be  regarded 
as  always  in  the  highest  degree  imprudent.  Parents 
and  guardians  are  undoubtedly  justified  in  making 
this  disease  an  object  of  special  solicitude,  and 
reserve  or  concealment  on  this  subject  on  either 
side,  in  the  case  of  a  proposed  marriage,  should  be 
regarded  as  equidly  dishonourable  with  any  other 
form  of  deception  in  a  matter  so  important  to  the 
welfare  of  society  and  of  the  parties  concerned. 

According  to  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  respected 
of  American  physicians  (Dr  Jackson  of  Boston), 
the  ei)ileptic  tendency  may  often  be  successfully 
treated  by  the  systematic  use  of  an  exclusively 
vegetable  diet,  or  by  a  very  considerable  reduction 
of  the  proportion  of  animal  food.  Among  the  innu- 
merable remetlies  recommended  by  authorities,  the 
salts  of  iron  and  zinc  have  jjerhaps  the  largest 
amount  of  experience  in  their  favoiu' ;  and  Counter- 
ii-ritants  (q.  v.)  apphed  to  the  nape  of  the  neck,  or 
between  the  shoulders,  cither  by  bhstering,  the 
use  of  the  seton,  or  even  actual  cautery,  has  been 
often  followed  by  prolongation  of  the  intervals,  or 
decrease  in  the  severity  of  the  fits.  Almost  all  the 
accredited  remedies,  however,  have  been  observed 
to  produce  a  temjrorary  relief  of  this  kind,  even 
when  without  any  permanent  influence  on  the 
course  of  the  disease. 

Some  of  the  Loxoer  Animalu  are  subject  to 
epUeptic  fits.  The  disease  is  common  in  dogs 
and  highly  bred  pigs.  The  creatures  writhe  with 
involuntary  s]iasms,  and  are  for  the  time  without 
sight    or  hearing.     Sometimes   the  muscles  of  the 


throat  are  so  involved  that  fatal  suffocation  occurs. 
The  attack  is  generally  preceded  by  dulness,  and 
lasts  from  ten  to  thirty  minutes.  It  is  gener- 
ally traceable  to  torpidity  or  irregularity  of  the 
bowels,  worms,  debihty,  or  plethora.  In  dogs,  it  is 
a  frequent  sequel  of  distemper.  In  cattle,  it  usually 
occiu^s  in  connection  •vnt'h  the  engorgement  of  the 
first  or  third  stomachs  ;  they  throw  themselves 
violently  about,  bellowing  loudly,  but  seldom  die. 
It  is  rare  in  horses,  and  diii'ers  from  megrims,  for 
which  it  is  often  mistaken,  but  in  which  there 
are  no  spasms.  The  treatment  consists  in  freely 
opening  the  bowels,  removing  worms,  if  any  are 
present,  enjoining  bleeding  and  spare  diet,  ii  the 
patient's  condition  is  high,  and  generous  feeding  and 
tonics  where  it  is  low.  The  best  preventives  are 
carefully  regulated  diet,  an  occasional  laxative,  with 
a  course  of  tonics,  and  especially  of  arsenic. 

EPILO'BIUIH,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natiu-al 
order  Onagracecr,  having  fom-  deciduous  calyciue 
segments  ;  four  petals ;  a  much  elongated,  4-sided, 
4-ceUed,  4-valved,  many-seeded  capsule  ;  and  seeds 
tufted  with  hairs  at  one  end.  The  species  are 
herbaceous  perennials,  natives  of  temperate  and 
cold  countries,  and  very  widely  diffused  both  in  the 
northern  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Some  of 
them  are  very  ornamental,  from  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers.  Most  of  the  British  species  have  small 
flowers,  and  some  of  them  are  very  common  iu 
moist  places.  B.  anguslifolium,  which  differs  from 
all  the  other  British  species  in  haviug  the  petals 


Epilobium  Angustifolium  : 

I,  a  flower ;  2,  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,  shewing  tho 

arrangement  of  the  ovules  in  the  germen  ;  3,  a  seed. 

dissimilar  in  shape  and  size,  is  frequently  planted  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies,  on  accotmt  of  its  niuner- 
ous  and  beautiftU  rose-coloured  flowers;  but  its 
creeping  roots  are  apt  to  overrun  a  flower-garden. 
It  is  sometimes  called  French  Willow,  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  stems  and  leaves  to  some  kinds 
of  willow,  and  the  name  Willow-iieke  is  often 
extended'  to  the  whole  genus.  It  is  found  in  very 
northern  regions,  and  its  leaves  and  yoimg  shoots 
are  sometimes  a  grateful  adiUtion  to  the  meals 
of  the  arctic  traveller,  although  not  Ukely  to  be 
relished  in  almost  any  other  circumstances.  The 
jiith,  when  dried,  yields  a  qiiantity  of  sugar  to  bod- 
ing water,  and  is  used  in  Kamtchatka  for  making 
a  kind  of  ale,  from  which  also  ^^negar  is  made. 

95 


EPILOGUE-EPIRUS. 


EPILOGUE  (Gr.  epi,  upon  or  after,  ami  logos,  a 
speech)  means,  in  oratory,  the  summiuj;  up  or  con- 
clusion of  a  discourse  ;  but,  in  connection  with  the 
drama,  it  denotes  the  short  speech  in  ]>rose  or  vei-se 
which  frequently,  in  foi-raer  times,  was  subjoined 
to  plays,  especially  to  comedies.  The  epilogue  was 
always  merry  and  familiar  in  its  tone,  and  was 
intended  to  establish  a  kindly  imderstanding  between 
the  actor  and  the  auilience,  as  well  as  to  conciliate 
the  latter  for  the  faiilts  of  the  play,  if  there  were 
any,  and  to  send  them  away  in  good-himiour.  One 
of  the  neatest  and  ])rettiest  epilogues  ever  written, 
and  one  which  completely  realises  what  an  cpUogue 
should  be,  is  that  sjjoken  by  KosaUnd  at  the 
conclusion  of  Shakspeare's  As  l'o«  Like  It. 

EPIME'NIDES,  a  Greek  poet  and  priest,  born 
probably  at  Pha!st\is  in  Crete,  in  the  6th  or  7th  c. 
B.  c,  and  lived  at  Cnossus.  His  history  has  only 
reached  us  in  a  mj-thical  form.  He  is  said  to  have 
fallen  asleep  in  a  cave  when  a  boy,  and  not  to 
have  wakened  for  5"  years.  Like  Eip  Van  Winkle, 
he  was  naturally  much  astonished  and  perplexed 
on  his  return  to  broad  dayUght.  His  period  of 
slumber,  however,  had  not  passed  away  unprofit- 
ably.  His  sold,  disengaging  itself  from  its  fleshly 
])rison,  betook  itself  in  the  interval  to  the  study  of 
medicine  and  natural  philosophy  ;  and  when  it  had 
shuflled  on  again  its  mortal  coil,  E.  found  himself 
a  man  of  gi'eat  knowledge  and  wisdom.  Goethe 
has  written  a  poem  on  the  subject,  Z>es  Epimenides 
Enmcheii.  E.  went  to  Athens  about  596  B.C., 
where,  by  the  performance  of  various  mj-stical 
rites  and  sacritices,  he  stayed  a  plague  with  which 
the  inhabitants  were  afflicted.  WTien  he  died  is 
not  known,  but  we  may  be  certain  that  he  did  not 
live  (as  is  fabled)  for  299  years.  That  he  wrote  the 
epic  poems  attributed  to  him,  the  longest  of  which 
was  on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  is  considered 
highly  improbable.  Compare  Heinrich.  E.  mis 
Krela  (Leip.  ISOl). 

EPINAL,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Vosges,  is  situated  in  a  delightful  district  at  the 
western  base  of  the  Vosges  mountains,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Moselle,  about  200  nules  east-south- 
east of  Paris.  Lat.  48"  10'  N.,  long.  6°  26'  E.  It  is 
a  well-built,  handsome  town,  with  clean,  regular, 
though  badly  paved  streets,  and  is  surmounted  by 
the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  the  gardens  attached 
to  which  are  much  admired.  Among  its  chief 
buildings  are  the  parish  church,  an  antique  Gothic 
stmcture ;  the  hospital,  formerly  a  Capuehin  con- 
vent ;  a  muscimi  of  pictures,  antiquities,  and  natural 
history ;  the  barracks ;  and  the  residence  of  the 
prefect  of  the  department.  E.  manufactures  chem- 
ical products,  lace,  block-tin,  wrought-iron,  pottery, 
cutlery,  paper,  and  leather,  and  has  some  trade 
in  grain,  wine,  timber,  &c.     Poj).  11,0/6. 

EPIPHA'NIUS,  St,  a  Christian  bishop,  and 
writer  of  the  4th  c,  was  bom  of  Je\rish  parents  in 
Palestine.  He  was  baptized  in  his  IGth  year,  anil 
was  educated  among  the  Egyptian  monks,  who 
inspired  him  with  an  aversion  to  all  liberal  science. 
He  rose  gradually  to  the  rank  of  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantia  (formerly  Salamis)  in  C'y|irus,  and  continued 
in  that  office  from  367  till  his  death  in  403.  His 
polemical  zeal  was  consjiicuously  manifested  against 
Origen.  He  had  proclaimed  him  a  heretic  in  his 
writings,  and  in  394  he  went  to  Palestine,  the  focus 
of  Origen's  adherents,  and  called  upon  John,  Bisho]) 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  two  monks,  Rufinua  and 
Jerome,  to  condemn  liim.  A  more  legitimate  object 
of  his  violent  opposition  was  the  increasing  worship 
of  images.  Jerome  relates  liow  he  indignantly  tore 
down  an  image  in  the  precincts  of  a  church  in 
Palestine,  as  bemg  contrary  to  the  divine  law.  Among 


his  writings,  collected  by  Petavius  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1622),  the  most  important  is  his  Panarion,  or 
catalogue  of  all  heresies  (80  in  number),  a  work 
which  strikingly  shews  his  unfitness  for  being  a 
historian.  His  credulity  and  want  of  honesty  are 
excessive. 

EPI'PHANY  (Gr.  Epiphdncia,  appearance), 
denoted,  among  the  heathen  Greeks,  a  festival  held 
in  commemoration  of  the  appearance  of  a  god  in  any 
particiUar  place.  The  word  subsequently  passed  into 
the  usage  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  was  used  to 
designate  the  manifestation  or  appearance  of  Christ 
upon  the  earth  to  the  Gentiles,  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  day  on  which  he  was  seen  and  wor- 
shipped by  the  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East. 
This  occasion  is  commemorated  in  the  church  on 
the  6th  of  January,  the  12th  day  after  Christmas, 
and  hence  the  Epiphany  is  also  called  Twelfth 
Day.  The  Epiphany,  which  is  said  not  to  have 
been  observed  as  a  separate  festival,  but  to  have 
been  included  in  the  feast  of  the  Nativity  till 
813,  is  observed  as  a  'scarlet  day'  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge. 

E'PIPHYTES  (Gr.  e;;?',  upon,  phi/ton,  a  plant), 
often  and  popidarly,  but  less  correctly,  called  Air. 
PLANTS,  are  plants  which  are  not  rooted  in  the 
ground,  but  are  attached  to  trees,  from  the  decaying 
portions  of  the  bark  of  which,  or  of  mosses  and  lichens 
which  grow  upon  it,  they  derive  their  nutriment, 
probably,  also,  dejiending  upon  the  air  for  it  to  a 
larger  extent  than  other  plants  do.  Mosses  and 
lichens  themselves,  growing  upon  trees,  may  be 
called  E.,  but  the  term  is  generally  used  of  phanero- 
gamous plants.  E.  are  not  connected  with  the  trees 
on  which  they  grow  in  the  peculiar  manner  of  the 
misletoe,  Balanopliora,  and  other  true  parasites^ 
not  sending  roots  like  them  into  the  wood  to  suck 
the  juice  of  the  tree.  It  is  chiefly  in  warm  climates 
that  phanerogamous  E.  are  found,  and  in  those 
which  are  also  moist.  Most  of  them  prefer  shady 
situations.  Within  the  tropics,  they  often  form  an 
interesting  and  remarkable  feature  of  the  vegetation. 
Some  of  the  Bromdiacea:  (as  TiUcnidsia),  Oadacece, 
Aracew,  Gesneracecr,  and  other  natural  orders  are  E. ; 
but  the  order  to  which  they  belong  more  than  to 
any  other  is  Oirhidacece.  Many  of  the  epiphytous 
orchids,  as  wcU  as  other  E.,  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty  ;  and  the  attention  which  has  recently  been 
given  to  their  cultivation  in  hothouses  has  been 
rewarded  by  the  most  perfect  success.  See  Orchids. 
Plants  which  usually  occur  as  E.  are  sometimes  also 
fomid  growing  on  rocks.  Although  seldom  foimd 
except  in  moist  climates,  E.  are  generally  capable  of 
enduring  a  considerable  amount  of  drought,  parting 
slowly  with  the  moisture  which  they  have  once 
imbibed. 

EPI'RUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  part  of  Greece, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  chain  of  Pindus,  on  the  S. 
by  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  on  the  W.  by  tlie  Ionian 
Sea,  and  on  the  N.  by  Illyria  and  Macedonia. 
It  formed  the  southern  jiart  of  modern  Albania,  or 
the  pashalio  of  Janina,  a  wild  and  mountainous 
region,  the  hamit  of  robbers  and  semi-civilised  tribes 
in  all  ages.  The  chief  town  was  Dodona  (q.  v.) ;  the 
chief  rivers,  the  Acheron,  Cocj'tus,  Arachthus,  and 
Ch.aradrus.  Anciently,  it  was  celebrated  for  its  cattle 
and  its  breed  of  Molossian  dogs.  Its  earliest  inha- 
bitants were  probably  Pelasgians.  In  the  historic 
period,  Theopompus  S)>eak3  of  fourteen  tribes,  most 
of  whom  were  believed  by  the  Greeks  themselves  to 
be  not  of  Hellenic  origin.  The  principal  were  the 
(.'haones,  Threspoti,  and  Molossi,  the  last  of  whom 
finally  obtained  the  entire  sovereignty  of  the  country. 
Of  the  Molossian  kings  of  E.,  the  most  distinguished 
was  Pyirhus,  who  long  waged  successful  war  against 


.i» 


KPISCOPACY— EPISTOL^  OBSCURORUM  VIRORUM. 


the  Romans.  But  after  this  race  of  kings  became 
extinct  (239^229  B.C.)  by  the  death  of  Ptolemy, 
_[;r.andsnn  of  Pyrrhus,  .a  republican  constitution  was 
■■ulopted,  whereupon  parties  sprang  up  among  them, 
and  the  ncigtiiKmring  Macedonians  got  the  upper 
hand.  On  the  confpiest  of  Macedonia  by  the 
Itomaua  (1G8  B.C.),  the  Epirots  were  accused  of 
having  assisted  Pereeus,  the  Macedonian  king,  and 
the  most  revengeful  measures  were  put  in  force 
agauist  them.  ^EmiUus  Paidus,  the  Uoman  general, 
]ilundered  and  razed  to  the  gr^iund  the  70  towns  of 
E.,  and  sold  into  slavery  ir)0,0O()  of  the  inh.abitants. 
From  this  period,  the  country  became  a  Roman 
])rovince,  .an<l  shared  tiic  vicissitudes  of  the  Roman 
and  Byzantine  empires,  untU  12U4,  when  one  of  the 
Comiieni  made  himself  independent.  This  dynasty, 
known  as  the  d'^.spot.t  of  Albania^  ruled  E.  until 
1-tGG,  when  it  was  finaUy  conquered  by  the  Turks; 
the  last '  despot,'  Georg.  Castriota,  better  known  as 
Skanderbeg  (q.v.),  having  for  more  than  20  years 
heroically  resisted  the  hordes  of  the  Ottoman 
empire. 

EPI'.SCOPACY  (Gr.  cpucopos,  bishop  or  overseer) 
i.s  that  form  of  church  government  in  wliich  one 
order  of  the  clergy  is  sujierior  to  another — namely, 
bishops  or  prelates  to  priests  or  presbyters,  the 
ordinary  ministers  of  parishes  or  congregations.  It 
is  sometimes  called  diocesan  qmcopaci/,  to  di-stin- 
guish  it  from  that  episcopacy  which  Presbyterians 
aiul  ludeiiendents  also  assert — the  oversight  of  lloeks 
liy  tlieir  pastors.  See  Bisuop.  It  is  not  essential 
to  episcopacy  th.at  there  should  be  archbishops, 
e.xalted  in  rank  and  authority  above  other  bishops, 
although  of  the  same  order :  and  in  some  Episco- 
palian churches  there  are  none. 

Episcopacy  has  aetuaUy  subsisted  imder  very 
various  moclitications  ;  the  power  of  bishops  being 
more  or  less  absolute,  or  more  or  less  controlled  by 
synods  of  ))resl)yters,  or  even — in  the  Protestant 
E|iiscopal  Church  of  the  United  .States — by  a 
diocesan  convention,  composed  both  of  presbyters 
and  lay  delegates.  The  power  of  the  bishop  is 
also  variously  affected  by  the  relations  subsisting 
between  church  and  state ;  and  great  differences 
exist  iu  this  respect  between  the  Chiu-ch  of  Eug- 
l.iutl,  the  Cluirch  of  Sweden,  and  the  Church  of 
Denmark,  all  Episcopalian,  and  all  coimected  with 
the  state  as  e.slabli.-<he.il  churches. 

The  Churcli  of  Rome,  the  CJreek  Cluirch,  and  other 
liranehes  of  the  Eastern  Church,  are  Episcopalian. 
Of  Episcopalian  Protestant  churches  not  established, 
the  most  important  are  that  in  the  United  States, 
that  in  Scotland,  and  the  Jloravian  C'hurch.  See 
Anouc.vm  CiiUKrir;    E.xoland,   Ciiukcii  of;   and 

SCOTTI.SI I  Er LSCOPA L  Oil L'UCIt. 

EPISCO'PIUS.  Simon  (whose  Dutch  name  was 
Bisschop),  the  head  of  the  Arminian  party  after  the 
ileath  of  Arminius,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  iu  1583, 
studied  ,at  Leyden,  took  his  degree  in  1606,  and  was 
iirdained  pastor  of  the  village  of  Bleyswyek  near 
I'.otterdam  in  lOlO.  In  the  fnlhiwing  year,  the 
States-general,  with  the  intention  of  putting  an 
end  to  the  agitations  created  by  the  controversies 
between  the  Gomarists  or  Calvhiistie  party  and  the 
Armiuians  or  Remonstrants,  ordered  a  conference 
to  be  held  in  their  presence  at  the  Hague  between 
six  ministers  of  each  party.  E.  was  one  of  the  six 
charged  with  the  advocacy  of  Amiinianism,  and 
highly  distinguished  himself  by  his  good  temper, 
ability,  aud  learning.  In  1612,  the  curators  of  the 
imiversity  of  Leyden  appointed  him  j^rofessor  of 
theology  in  the  room  of  Gomar,  who  had  gone  to 
Seelaud.  This  enraged  the  leaders  of  the  orthodox 
l)arty,  who  unscrupulously  accused  him  of  Socinian- 
ism,  aud  of   having  entered  into   an  alliance  with 


the  Roman  Catholics  for  the  destruction  of  Protest- 
antism. By  this  means  the  fanaticism  of  the  popiUaee 
was  roused  against  him  ;  he  w-as  insiUted  and  abused 
in  tlie  street,  and  on  one  occasion  narrowdy  escaped 
being  stoned  to  death.  The  house  of  his  brother  in 
Amsterdam  was  also  sacked,  under  the  pretext  th.at 
it  was  a  rendezvous  of  the  Remonstrants.  In  1618, 
occiu-red  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort  (q.  v.).  E.  was 
present,  alon"  with  several  other  Anninians.  The 
Calvinists,  who  happened  to  be  in  an  overwhelming 
m.ijority,  would  not  allow  him  to  speak ;  they  told 
him  that  the  synod  was  met  not  to  discuss,  but  to 
judge  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  proceedings  exhibited 
as  revolting  a  sjiecimen  of  high-handed  tyramiy  as 
any  on  record,  even  among  ecclesiastical  triljuiials. 
Expelled  from  the  church,  and  banished  from  the 
country,  E.  betook  himself  first  to  Antwerp,  and 
afterwards  to  Rouen  and  Paris,  but  in  1626  returned 
to  Rotterdam,  wdiere  the  odium  tlLColoijicnm  against 
his  party  had  become  less  virulent.  Here  he  married 
iu  1630,  and  four  years  after  was  made  primarius 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  newly  established  college 
of  the  Remonstrants.  He  died  in  1643.  E.  held 
enlightened  principles  in  regard  to  religious  tolera- 
tion. Kot  placing  a  high  value  on  merely  doctrinal 
views,  but  rather  believing  in  the  etiieacy  of  the 
Christian  spirit  to  elevate  and  purify  the  character, 
and  seeing,  moreover,  the  presence  of  this  spirit  in 
men  holding  the  most  conflicting  opinions  (when 
not  inflamed  with  controversial  hates),  he  would 
have  wished  a  broader  and  more  catholic  bond 
of  imity  among  Christians  than  the  opinionative 
creeds  of  his  day  i)ermitted.  His  eliief  works  are 
his  Coii/essio  Hononstrantiuin  (1621),  Apoloijia  pro 
Confessione  (1629),  and  Institntioiies  Tlieol>iriii-(e, 
incomiJete.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  at  Amsterdam  iu  2  vols.,  1650. 

EPISTLE.  The  lesson  in  the  church  service 
called  the  Ejiistle,  derives  its  name  from  being 
most  fi'equently  taken  from  the  Apostolic  Epistles, 
although  it  is  sometimes  also  taken  from  other 
parts  of  Scripture.  This  part  of  the  service  is 
believed  to  be  as  old  as  the  6th  century. 

EPISTLE  SIDE  OF  THE  ALTAR,  the  left 
side  of  tlio  altar  or  coramimion  table,  looking  from 
it,  at  which  in  the  church  service  the  epistle  of  the 
day  is  read.  It  is  of  lesser  cbstinetion  than  the  right 
or  gospel  side,  and  is  occu]iied  by  the  clergjTn.an  of 
lower  ecclesiastical  ranlc.  The  reader  of  the  epistle 
was  in  former  times  called  the  Epistler. 

EPISTOLiE     OBSCURORUM     VIRORUM 

(Lat.  Letters  of  Obscure  Men)  is  the  title  of  a 
collection  of  satirical  letters  which  appeared  at 
the  commencement  of  the  16th  e.,  and  professed 
to  be  the  composition  of  certam  ecclesiastics  and 
j)rofessors  in  Cologne  and  other  places  in  Rhenish 
(iermany.  They  were  directed  against  the  schol- 
astics and  monks,  and  lashed  with  merciless 
severity  their  doctrines,  writings,  morals,  modes  of 
sijcech,  manner  of  life,  follies  and  extravagances, 
aud  thus  heli)ed  in  no  small  degree  to  bring  about 
the  Reformation.  The  controversy  of  Reuchliu 
with  the  baptized  Jew,  Pfefferkoru,  concerning 
Hebrew  punctuation,  gave  the  rtrst  occasion  to  the 
Episiolce,  and  it  is  probable  that  their  title  itself 
was  suggested  by  the  Epistoloi  Claroruin  Virorum 
ad  Ilencldinutn  Phorcensum  (1514).  They  were 
addressed  to  Oetuin  Gratius  in  Deventer,  who  was 
by  no  means  so  complete  au  ignoramus  as  might  be 
supposed  from  this  circumstance,  but  who  hail 
m.ade  himself  odious  to  the  liberal  minds  of  the 
time  by  his  an-ogant  pretension  and  his  deter- 
mined hostility  to  the  spirit  of  his  age.  On  the 
flrst  appearance  of  the  work,  it  was  fathered  on 
Reuchlin ;  afterwards,  it  was  ascribed  to  Reuchlin, 

S7 


EPITAPH— EPITHELIUM. 


Erasmus,  and  Hutten.  More  recent  investigators 
have  inclined  to  the  belief,  that  the  jlrsl  part,  which 
ajipeared  at  Hagenau  in  1515  (but  professedly  at 
Venice),  was  the  jiroduction  of  Wolfgang  Angst,  a 
learned  and  mtty  book -printer  of  that  town ;  but, 
latterly,  doubt  has  also  been  ex]iressod  whether 
even  he  had  anything  to  do  with  the  EpisUilii-.  in 
the  composition  of  the  second  part  (published  in 
1519),  after  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Erotus  Kubeanus 
had  the  most  considerable  share.  The  circumstance 
of  the  EpUtolm  being  ]ilaced  in  the  catalogue  of 
forbidden  books  by  a  papal  bull,  helped  to  spread 
it  not  a  little.  Among  the  numerous  editions  of 
the  work  may  be  meutiuncd  those  ]iublished  at 
Frankfort  (1G43),  Mcttaire's  (Lond.  17l»3),  Muuch's 
(Leip.  18"27),  and  Itotermund's  (Hauov.  1827). 

E'PITAPH  (Gr.  <7«,  upon,  and  taphos,  a  hillock, 
mound,  or  other  monimieut  placed  over  a  grave). 
From  originally  signifying  a  monument,  this  word 
is  now  used  exclusively  to  designate  the  inscription 
commemorative  of  the  deceased  which  is  placed 
upon  the  monument.  This  perversion  may  in  some 
measure  have  arisen  from  the  remembrance  of  the 
funer.ol  orations  which  the  ancients  were  in  the 
haljit  of  pronouncing  at  fimerals.  But  the  epitaph, 
in  its  stricter  sense,  was  well  kuown  to  the  classical 
nations  of  antiquity ;  and,  indeed,  by  eveiy  people 
a  brief  commemoration  of  the  heroic  actions  or 
jiersonal  virtues  of  their  illustrious  dead  has  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  worthiest  occupations  of  the 
faculties  of  the  liWng.  As  epitaphs  were  not  ouly 
engraved  on  the  most  enduring  substances,  but  from 
their  brevity  were  easily  preserved  in  the  memory 
and  orally  transmitted,  wherever  we  find  the  litera- 
ture of  a  pcojile  at  all  we  are  pretty  sure  to  discover 
specimens  of  their  epitaphs.  Pettigrew  has  trans- 
lated several  from  Egyptian  sarcophagi  (Bohn's 
edition,  p.  5),  but  they  are  of  no  great  interest.  Hero- 
dotus (vii.  228)  has  jireserved  to  us  those  which  the 
Amphictyons  caused  to  be  inscribed  on  the  eohmins 
which  they  raised  in  honour  of  the  heroes  of 
Thermopyloe,  and  that  which  SLmouides,  from  per- 
sonal friendship,  placed  on  the  tomb  of  the  prophet 
Jlegistias.  The  general  inscription  for  the  whole 
of  them  was  to  this  effect  :  '  Four  thousand  from 
Peloponnesus  once  fought  on  this  spot  ^^^th  three 
hundred  myriads ; '  .and  that  whicli  was  special  to 
the  Spartans  was  still  more  memorable  :  '  Stranger, 
go  tell  the  Laccdemoniaus  that  we  lie  here  obedient 
to  their  commands.'  The  Antliologia  Graca,  edited 
by  Bnmk,  and  subsequently  by  Jacobs,  contams 
the  largest  collection  of  Greek  epitaphs  :  of  these 
many  were  transLated  and  published  by  Bohn  in 
1854,  imder  the  editorial  care  of  Mr  George  Burges. 
Of  Roman  epitaphs  every  antiquarian  museum 
even  in  this  country  presents  numerous  examples ; 
for  the  form  in  which  they  were  conceived  was 
adopted  by  our  own  Romanised  foref.athcrs,  and 
many  a  stone  bearing  the  well-knowm  D.  J/.  {Diis 
Jilaiiibus),  or  Siste  Viator,  probably  covered  the 
remains  of  those  whose  veins  never  contained  a 
drop  of  Roman  blood.  A  verj'  interesting  collection 
of  early  Christian  epitaphs  "will  be  found  in  Dr 
Charles  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombf:,  pub- 
lished in  1846.  The  naturally  epigrammatic  tiu"n 
of  the  French  mind  pecidiarly  adapts  it  for  this 
species  of  composition,  and  in  French  collections, 
such  as  the  liecueil  (V Epitaphes,  very  felicitous 
examples  are  to  be  foimd  both  in  Latin  and  in 
French.  Of  the  former  m.aybc  montii>ned  the  'Tan- 
dem felix ! '  which  the  Coimt  de  Tenia,  who  had 
enjoyed  every  form  of  tcmiioral  prosperity,  caused 
to  be  engi-aved  on  his  tomb  ;  and  of  the  latter,  the 
touching  epitaph  to  a  mother,  '  La  premitre  au 
rcndez-vous.'  A  large  portion  of  the  earlier  monu- 
ments,  and   consequently  of   the   epitaphs   of   this 


coimtry,  were  destroyed  at  the  Refonn.ation,  and 
subsecpiently  by  the  iconoclastic  rage  of  the  Puritans 
and  Presbyterians.  But  when  we  come  down  to  a 
later  date,  the  literature  of  no  people,  either  ancient 
or  modern,  can  vie  with  our  own  in  this  pecuUar 
branch,  for  whilst  English  epitaphs  jiosscss  the 
point  and  terseness  without  which  no  epitaph  can 
lie  successful,  they  exhibit  a  featiu-e  .almost  uuknown 
in  those  of  other  nations — that,  viz.,  of  wit,  or  more 
projierly  speaking,  perhaps,  of  humour.  It  seems  as 
if  the  wittiest  people  in  the  world,  as  the  English 
unquestionably  .are,  had  found  it  impossible  to 
contiue  their  raillery  to  the  living,  and  accordingly 
we  lind  that  the  h.arndess  peculiarities  of  the  dead 
have  often  been  hit  off  on  a  tondistone,  with  a 
feUeity  which  has  rendered  immortal  wh.at  other- 
wise the  next  generation  nnist  have  forgotten.  Of 
this  class  of  epitaphs  our  collectious  present  an 
almost  infinite  variety.  There  are  many  excellent 
old  collections  of  epitaphs,  such  iis  the  Thesaurus 
Kpitaphiorum  of  Philip  Labbc,  Paris,  1660.  Of 
modern  ones,  the  best  is  that  of  Pettigrew,  pub- 
lished by  Bohn,  which  is  so  aiTanged  as  to  mark 
the  diversity  of  ta-ste  prevailing  at  different  periods 
of  our  history.  See  also  the  works  of  Grntcr, 
Gn-esius,  Eeinesius,  Mimatori,  Mazoehius ;  the  ilonu- 
menta  Anglicana,  London,  171'J;  Weevur's  Anciiul 
Funeral  Monuments,  &c. 

EPITHALA'MIUM  was  a  species  of  poem  which 
it  was  the  custom  among  the  Greeks  aud  Rom.ans 
to  sing  in  chorus  near  the  bridal-chamber  (thalamus) 
of  a  newly  married  couple.  Anacreon,  Stesichorns, 
aud  Pindar  composed  poems  of  this  kind,  but  only 
scanty  fragments  have  been  preserved.  The  ejiitha- 
lamiiun  of  Peleus  .and  Thetis  by  Catidlus  is  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  Latin  poetry  extant ;  but 
probably  the  most  gorgeous  epithahamium  in  .all 
literiiture,  is  that  of  the  English  poet  Spenser.  A 
coUection  of  Greek  and  Latiu  cpithalaraia  is  to  bo 
found  in  Wernsdorf  s  Poette  Latin  i  Minorca  (4th  vol., 
part  2). 

EPITHE'LIUM  is  the  tcmi  .applied  in  anatomy 
to  the  ceU-tissuc  which,  in  Layers  of  various  thick- 
ness, invests  not  only  the  outer  surface  of  the 
body,  and  the  mucous  membranes  connected  with 
it — as,  for  exanqile,  those  of  the  nose,  lungs,  intes- 
tin.al  canal,  &e. — but  also  the  chiscd  ca\nties  of 
the  bodj',  such  as  the  great  serous  mendu'anes.  the 
ventricles  of  the  br.ain,  the  sj-novial  membranes  of 
joints,  the  interior  of  the  heart  aud  of  the  blood- 
vessels proceeding  to  and  from  it,  the  ducts  of 
glands,  &c. 

The  thickness  of  this  tissue  v.aries  extremely  with 
the  position  in  which  it  occurs.  In  some  parts  it 
consists  of  niunerous  strata  of  cells,  collectively 
forming  a  layer  of  more  than  a  line  in  thickness  ; 
in  other  parts,  it  is  composed  of  only  a  few  strata, 
or  often  of  only  a  single  stratum  of  cells,  and  can 
only  be  detected  by  the  miorosco|ie. 

The  cells  of  which  the  epithehum  is  composed  are 
usu.ally  soft  nucleated  cells  ;  they  m.ay  be  rouuiled, 
jiolygonal,  fusifonn,  cylindrical,  or  conical  in  shape, 
and  sometimes  they  possess  \'ibratile  cilia,  tlie 
.appearance  and  uses  of  which  will  presently  be 
exjJained. 

In  his  Mamml  of  Human  Jlistolo<j;/,  KiiUiUcr 
adopts  the  fiiUowing  .arrangement.  He  considers 
((()  epithelium  in  a  single  stratum,  and  (h)  epithelium 
in  many  layers. 

(<i)  Epillidium  in  a  single  stratum  may  bo  com- 
posed of 

1.  Rounded,  polygonal  cells,  constituting  the  variety 
knowni  as  pavement  or  tesselated  epithelium,  and 
occurring  as  an  investment  of  the  serous  mem- 
branes, of  most  synovial  niembraues,  of  the  lining 


EPITHELroM. 


membrane   of  the   heart  and   of  the  veins,  of  the 
canals  of  glands,  &c. 


Fig.  1. 
Dpideriiiis  istiU  ^nft  like  the 
t-pitbeliuin  ut  intt'rn;il  p;irU) 
(if   a    two  months'    liuman 
embryo.    Mat'.  -^50  tiiam. 


Epitliclial  cells  of  the  vessels  ; 
the  longer  one  from  the 
jirtcries,  the  shorter  ones 
frum  the  veins. 


less  flattened  celU  uhovc.  Tills  i.s  formed  laminated 
pavement  epithelium,  and  occurs  in  tlie  month,  lower 
part  of  ])liaryux,  (esophagus,  bladder,  &e. 

'J.  Rounded  cells  below,  more  elongated  ones  in 
the  middle,  and  ciliated  conical  ones  above.  This  is 
termed  laminated  ciliary  epithelium,  and  occurs  in 
the  larynx,  trachea,  and  larger  bronchial  tubes,  in 
the  greater  part  of  the  nasal  cavity,  &c. 


2.  Fusiform,  superficially  united  cells  (fusiform 
epithelium),  as  the  epithelitim  of  the  arteries  and 
of  many  vems. 


Fig.  3. 
KpUhelium  of  the  intestinal  villi  of  the  rabbit,    Mag.  300  diam. 

3.  C'jlindrical  cells  (cylinder  epithehum),  as  in  the 
intestine  from  the  stomach  to 
the  termination  of  the  aliment- 
ary canal,  in  the  excretory  ducts 
of  all  the  glands  opening  into 
the  intestine,  &c.  Various  illus- 
trations of  this  cylinder  epithe- 
lium are  given  in  the  article 
Digestion,   Oroans  and  Pko- 

CESS  OF. 

4.  Cylindrical  or  conical  cili- 
ated   cells,    as     the    epithelium 
of  the    more  minute  l)r()nclnal 
tubes,  of  the  nasal  cavities,  and  of  the  uterus. 

5.  Bounded  ciliated  cells,  as  the  ciliated  pavement 
epitheUum  of  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  in  the  fcetus. 


Fig.  4. 
Ciliated  ci-lls  from  the 
liner  hriinchial  tubes. 
Mag.  ^60  dium. 


l^amirated  pavement  epillicHuiii  investinp  a  Bimple  papilla 
(wiih  blood-TCiseU  in  the  intciiorj  fium  llie  gums  of  a  child. 
Mug.  200  diam, 

{h)  Epithelium  in  many  layers  may  be  composed  of : 
1.  Cijlindrkal  or  rounded  celh  bdoic,  arid  more  or 


Fig.  6. 

Ciliated  epithelium  from  the  traehea  of  a  man.  Map.  350  diam. 
«,  outermost  part  of  the  elastic  longitudinal  fibres ;  6, 
homogeneous  outermost  layer  of  the  mucous  membrane ; 
c,  deepest  round  cells;  d,  median  lung  cells;  e,  outermost 
conical  ciliated  cells. 

In  all  the  varieties  of  epithelium,  the  layer  of 
external  cells  is  being  constantly  disintegrated  and 
replaced  by  the  layer  immediately  beneath. 

The  uses  of  the  chief  varieties  of  epithelium,  espe- 
cially of  ciliated  ei)itheliimi,  require  some  notice. 

The  polygonal  or  jiavement  epithelium  mainly  acts 
like  the  epidermis,  as  a  protecting  medium  to  the 
soft  parts  beneath. 

The  cylindrical  epitheUum  additionally  takes  an 
active  part  in  the  process  of  secretion.  Dlus- 
trations  of  the  fimction  of  the  cells  forming  this 
variety  of  epitheliitm  are  given  in  the  articles 
Celis,  Animal;  Digestion,  Organs  and  Prockss 
of;  and  the  subject  will  be  further  noticed  under 
the  head  Secretion. 

In  connection  with  cUiated  epithelium,  we  must 
notice  ciliary  motion  generally,  in  so  far  as  it  occurs 
i)i  the  animal  kingdom.  Certain  surfaces  which 
are  lubricated  by  a  Huid,  are  covered  with  a  inidti- 
tude  of  hair-like  processes  of  extreme  delicacy  and 
minuteuess  (their  length  varying  from  t-qVu  to  -1-5-^.17 
of  an  inch),  which  from  their  shape  are  termed  c'dia, 
fi'oin  cilium,  an  ej'elasli.  During  life,  and  for  a 
certain  period  after  death,  these  filaments  exhil>it  a 
remarkaljle  movement,  each  cilium  bending  rajiidly 
in  one  direction,  and  rapidly  returning  to  its  original 
position  (according  to  Krause,  these  movements  range 
from  190  to  230  in  a  minute).  On  examining  a 
ciliated  surface  with  a  high  magnifying  power,  the 
motion  presents  an  appearance  somewhat  resembling 
that  of  a  cornfield  agitated  by  a  steady  breeze. 
Any  mintite  objects  coming  in  contact  with  the  free 
extremities  of  the  cilia  are  urged  onward  in  the 
direction  of  the  predominant  moveniLnt ;  and  the 
best  method  of  obser\-ing  the  course  of  the  ciliary 
current  is  to  sprinlde  the  surface  witli  a  little 
powdered  charcoal,  grains  of  which  may  speedily  be 
seen  to  move  onwards  in  a  definite  direction. 

An  easy  way  to  observe  this  phenomenon  is  to 
detach,  Ijy  scraping  with  a  knife,  a  small  piece  of 
epithelium  from  the  back  of  tlie  thi-oat  of  a  living 
frog.  The  scales,  moistened  with  water  or  senim,  will 
continue  to  exhibit  the  movement  of  their  adherent 
ciUa  for  a  very  considerable  time,  provided  the  piece 
be  kept  duly  moistened.  On  one  occasion,  a  piece 
prejiared  in  this  way  by  Mr  Bowman  and  Dr  Todd 
exhibited  motion  for  seventeen  hours ;  and  it  woidd 


EPIZOA-EPOCH. 


probably  liave  CDiitiniied  doing  so  for  a  longer 
time,  hail  not  the  luoistiire  around  it  evaporated ; 
and  if  the  epithelium  is  not  removed  from  the 
body  iif  an  animal  that  has  been  killed,  the  motinu 
continues  much  longer.  In  a  turtle,  after  death  liy 
decapitation,  it  hasted,  in  the  moutli,  nine  day.s  ; 
in  the  trachea  aud  lungs,  thirteen  days  ;  ami  in  the 
tesophagus,  sixteen  days.  In  num  and  raaunnals,  it 
seldom"  lasts  two  days,  and  usually  cciises  much 
sooner.  The  necessary  condition  for  their  movement 
appears  to  be  the  integrity  of  the  cells  to  which  they 
are  attached ;  ior  as  soon  as  these  shrink  n\t  for 
waut  of  moisture,  or  undergo  any  jihysical  change, 
the  cilia  cease  their  characteristic  action.  We  know 
nothing  with  certainty  regarding  the  mechanism  or 
source  of  ciliary  motion,  except  that  (as  it  contnuies 
on  detached  epithelium)  it  is  independent  of  both  the 
vascular  and  nervous  systems. 

This  phenomenon  e.vists  very  widely  throughout 
the  animal  kingdom.  Dr  Sharpey,  in  his  article 
CiLI.S.*  (published  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
ago),  notices  its  occm'rence  in  the  Infusoria,  iu 
Polyps  and  their  ova,  in  Acalepha?,  Actinia",  Echiiio- 
dermata,  Annelida,  MoUusca,  and  the  MoUuscoids 
(e.  g.,  Ascidians),  in  Reptiles,  Bii-ds,  and  Mammals. 
Sin°e  the  date  of  that  article,  it  has  been  dis- 
covered in  Sponges,  and  in  one  or  two  exceptional 
cases  in  Fishes  ;"  but  it  has  never  been  found  in 
any  part  of  the  body  of  Articidata  (Crustaceans, 
Insects,  or  Arachnidans).  The  parts  on  which 
it  occurs  arc  (1),  the  skin  or  surface  of  the  body, 
(2)  the  respiratory,  (3)  the  alimentary,  and  (4)  the 
gcuito-urinary  systems ;  and  it  has  been  observed 
in  the  ova  of  numerous  classes  of  animals,  from 
Reptiles  downwards  to  Infusoria.  In  most  of  the 
parts  in  which  we  observe  it,  its  use  appears  to 
be  of  a  mechanical  natiu-e— viz.,  to  convey  the 
fluids  or  other  mattei-s  along  the  surfaces  on  which 
the  cilia  e.xist,  or,  as  in  the  Infusoria,  to  carry  the 
entire  animal  through  the  water. 

1.  Cilia  have  been  found  on  the  external  surface 
in  Batrachian  l,arva\  in  Mollusca,  Aimeli<la,  Echiuo- 
dermata,  Actini.-e,  Medusie,  Pol>^)i,  and  Infusoria.  In 
most  cases,  their  function  is  respu-atory,  but  iu  many 
instances  it  is  also  locomotive  or  prehensile. 

2.  Ciliary  motion  has  been  observed  on  the  hniug 
membrane  of  the  air-passages  of  Mammals,  Birds, 
and  Reptiles,  where,  whatever  may  be  its  other 
uses,  it  serves  to  convey  the  secretions  along  the 
membranes,  together  with  any  foreign  matters  that 
may  be  present.  It  exists  also  on  the  external  gills 
of  Batrachian  larva',  and  on  the  respu-atory  organs 
of  MoUusca  aud  AnneUda.  The  cUia  which  exist 
externally  on  stiU  lower  animals  w^ithout  separate 
respiratory  organs,  assist  in  the  respiratory  process, 
by  renewing  the  water  on  the  surface. 

3.  It  occurs  iu  the  month,  throat,  and  giJlet  of 
various  reptiles,  and  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  the 
Mollusca,  Echinodermata,  many  Annelida,  and  Aca- 
lepha'. It  is  not  easy,  as  Dr  Sharpey  obsen-es,  to 
see  the  pui-pose  of  the  motion  in  all  these  cases.  In 
some,  it  may  merely  convey  secreted  matters  along 
the  surface  of  the  lining  membrane  ;  and  in  others 
it  seems  to  serve  in  place  of  ordinary  deglutition, 
to  carry  food  into  the  stomach. 

4.  It  is  observed  on  the  surface  of  the  reproduc- 
tive organs  of  Mammals,  Birds,  and  Reptiles.  From 
the  direction  of  the  current  beuig  from  without 
inwards,  the  office  of  the  cilia  may  be  to  hurry  down 
the  ovum,  in  addition  to  removing  the  nuicous 
secretion  of  the  membrane. 

In  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  ciliary  motion  exists 
at  the  neck  of  each  uriniferous  tube.  The  move- 
ment is   directed  towards   the   tube,   and    favours 

*  In  the  Cijclopwdia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 
ICO 


the  tlow  of  the  watery  portion  of  the  secretion 

towards  it. 

There  are  some  situations,  both  in  man  and  the 
lower  animals,  in  which  it  is  diliicult  to  determine 
what  functions  the  ciliary  motion  can  ]icrforni.  as, 
for  example,  iu  man,  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  ; 
and  in  the  frog,  in  the  closed  cavities  of  tlie  pericar- 
ilium  and  peritoneum. 

EPIZO'A.  This  term  is  applied  to  those  jiara- 
sitic  creatures  which  live  on  the  bodies  of  other 
animals,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the  skin. 
(Hu-  sp.aec  will  only  allow  of  our  noticing  those  that 
mfest  man.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  gi-oups  : 
(1)  Those  which  live  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
and  (2)  those  whieh  live  in  the  skin.  Fleas,  lice, 
bugs,  ticks,  &c.,  belong  to  the  first  group  ;  the  Itch- 
insect  or  Sarcoplex,  "the  Pimple-mite  or  Daiioil'X 
foUicuhnim,  and  possibly  some  other  species  of  tlie 
Acaridw,  to  the  second. 

In  a  zoological  point  of  view,  all  the  E.  that  infest 
the  hum.an  subject  are  Insects  or  Arachnidans.  The 
parasitic  insects  are  :  1.  Pidkida,  or  Fleas,  includ- 
ing—!. The  Common  Flea,  or  Piil&e  irritaus :  2. 
The  Sand-flea,  or  Pulex  pendranx,  known  also  as  the 
Chigo,  Chigger,  &c.  II.  Acanthida,  or  Soft  Built, 
including  the  common  Bed  Bug  or  Amnthia  (s.  Ci'mc.r) 
lecttdaria.      III.   Pediculida,    or   Lice,    includiiig— 

1.  The  Common  \jOViS,e,  or  Pedindux  capitis ;  2.  The 
Body  Louse,  or  Pcdiculus  vestimenti ;  3.  The  Crab 
Louse,  or  Pedicidus  (s.  Phthirim)  pubis;  4.  The  Louse 
occuiTing  in  Phthiriasis,  or  Pedicubis  tahescentiiim. 

The  parasitic  Arachnidans  belong  to  the  order  of 
Acarida,  or  Mites ;  indeed,  most  of  the  animals 
forming  the  different  families  of  this  order  lead  a 
parasitic  existence.  We  have — I.  Demodicida,  inebid- 
ing  the  Pimple-mite  or  Demodex  (s.  Acarus)  jhUirii- 
lorum  (the  dog  and  the  sheep  possess  each  a  special 
demodex).  II.  Sarcojilida,  including  the  Itch-mite 
or Sarcoptes  (s.  Acartis)  Scabiei.  (Most  of  ourdomestio 
animals  seem  to  be  iirfested  by  a  spcci.al  sarcoptes, 
the  species  of  which  are  nmnerous.)  III.  Irodida 
or  Ticks,  including— 1.  The  American  Tick  or  Lnnh's 
l(ominis  (common  m  Brazd)  ;  2.  The  Common  Wood- 
tick  (Dogs'  Tick),  or  ]xoilcs  riciniis.  There  arc 
probably  "many  species  of  Ixodes  which  are  occa- 
sionally found'  on  man.  IV.  Oamasida,  or  Beetle 
Lice,  including— 1.  The  Bii-d-mite,  or  Dennanijsmis 
avium    (occasionally    found    on    sicldy    persons)  ; 

2.  The  Jliana  Bug,  or  Argas  pcrsicKs  (common  in 
some  p.irts  of    Persia,   and   especially  at   Miana) ; 

3.  The  e'hincha  Bug,  or  Argas  chinclie  (occun-ing  in 
Columbia).  V.  Orobatida,  or  Grass-lice,  including 
the  Harvcst-Bug,  or  Leptus  autumnalis.  Sec  the 
articles  Bugs,  Flk,vs,  Itch  Insect,  Lice,  Ticks. 


EPIZOO'TICS  (Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  ziion,  an 
animal)  are  diseases  of  animals  which  manifest  a 
common  character,  and  prevail  at  the  saine  time 
over  considerable  tracts  of  country.  Like  epidemics, 
they  appear  to  depend  upon  some  peculiar  and  not 
well  ascertained  atmospheric  causes ;  where  the 
cases  are  neglected  or  overcrowded,  they  also  fre- 
quently become  contagious;  they  are  apt  to  take 
on  a  low  tyjie  of  fever,  and  are  better  treated  by 
supporting  than  by  reducing  remedies.  Intluenza 
in  horses,  ami  plcuro-pneumonia  and  vesicular 
epizootic  in  cattle,  arc  examples. 

E'l'OCH,  in  Chronology.    See  Cheonolocy. 

EPOCH,  in  Astronomy,  is  an  alibreviation  for 
'  longitude  at  the  ei>och  ; '  it  means  the  mean  helio- 
centric longitude  of  a  planet  in  its  orbit  at  any 
given  time— the  beginning  of  a  century,  for  instance. 
1'hc  epoch  of  a  planet  for  a  partii'ular  year  is  its 
mean  longitude  at  mean  noon,  on  .laiinary  1,  when 
it  is  leap  year,  and  on  December  31  of  the  preceding 


EPODE— EQUATION-. 


year,  when  it  is  a  common  year.     The  epocli  is  one 
of  the  elements  of  a  planet's  orbit. 

E'PODE  is  the  last  ])art  of  the  chorus  of  the 
.ancient  Greeks,  which  they  sun;;  after  t)ie  strophe 
and  antistrophe.  when  the  singers  had  returned  to 
then-  original  place.  The  epode  had  its  pecidiar 
measure  of  syllables  and  number  of  verses.  See 
CiioKr.s. 

E'PPING,  a  town  in  the  west  of  Esscc  county, 
England,  in  a  pleasant  healthy  situation,  at  the 
north  end  of  Epping  Forest,  16  miles  north-north- 
ea.st  of  London.  It  has  a  very  irregular  appearance. 
I'op.  (1S71)  '22~'y.  It  is  noted  for  its  cream,  butter, 
saus-ages,  ami  pork.  It  sends  large  quantities  of 
butter  to  London.  Epping  Royal  Forest,  formerly 
under  the  name  of  Waltham  Forest,  where  our 
ancient  kings  enjoyed  much  sport,  covered  aU  Essex, 
and  extended  almost  to  London.  It  is  now  hmited 
to  60,000  acres  in  the  south-west  jjart  of  the  comitj-. 
Of  this  tract,  only  12,000  acres  are  in  wastes  .and 
woods,  the  rest  being  now  enclosed  as  private 
property.  In  the  forest,  5  miles  from  E.,  is  Queen 
Ehzabeth's  himting-lodge.  Separated  by  the  river 
Roding  from  Epping  Forest  is  Hainault  Forest, 
lately  disforested.  Here  for  many  centuries  a  fair 
was  held  under  the  enonnous  Fairlop  oak,  not  now- 
existing,  and  a  stag  was  yearly  turned  out  in  the 
Forest  on  Easter  Monday,  for  the  amusement  of  the 
pubUc.  To  this  day,  a  stag  is  turned  out  yearly  for 
the  amusement  of  Cockney  huntsmen. 

EPROUVETTE  is  a  machine  for  proving  or 
testing  the  strength  of  gmipowder.  It  was  invented 
or  suggested  in  the  last  century  by  Robins,  but  was 
greatly  improved  by  Dr  Hutton. 

The  gun  eprouvette  determines  the  strength  of 
gimpowdcr  by  the  amount  of  recoil  produced.  A 
small  gim,  usually  a  '  half-pi>under,'  is  fixed  to  the 
lower  end  of  an  iron  rod  ;  its  base  being  adjusted 
to  an  arm  projecting  from  the  rod :  or  else  it 
is  suspended  from  an  iron  frame.  A  horizontal 
steel  axis  is  fixed  to  the  rod  or  frame  about  which 
the  gim  may  vibrate.  A  pointed  iron  rod  or  style 
projects  downwards  from  the  lower  side  of  the 
gun,  and  touches  a  groove  filled  with  soft  wax ; 
the  groove  is  so  shaped  that,  when  the  gun 
recoils,  the  point  cuts  a  path  for  itself  along  this 
wax;  and  the  length  of  this  path  determines  the 
amount  of  recoil.  Sometimes  a  brass  gradu.ated  arc 
wth  an  index  is  used  instea<l  of  the  pointed  style 
and  the  waxed  groove :  but  the  principle  of  action 
is  just  the  s.ame.  On  the  arc  the  recoil  should  vary 
from  26°  for  new  fine-grain  powder'  to  20°  .5'  for  old 
powder  of  coarse  grain.  This  system  of  proof  is 
resorted  to  annu.ally  at  minor  and  foreign  stations 
for  the  proof  of  all  powder  in  store,  to  ascertain 
the  amouut  of  deterioration;  five  roimds  consti- 
tute the  miuiuuim  proof.  Before  the  eprouvette  is 
resorted  to,  the  jiowder  must  pass  the  test  of  specific 
grarity,  by  weighing  not  less  than  o5  lbs.  to  the 
cubic  foot. 

The  mortar  eprouvette  determines  the  strength 
of  gunpowder  by  the  distance  to  which  a  l)all  is 
projected,  instead  of  the  distance  to  wliich  the  piece 
recoils.  It  is  generally  a  mortar  of  8-inch  bore,  in 
■which  2  to  4  ounces  of  powder  is  employed  to  propel 
an  acciu-ately  turned  iron  shot  to  a  distance  of 
about  120  yards.  Other  things  being  equ.al,  the 
strongest  gunpowder  sends  the  shot  to  the  greatest 
distance  ;  and  this  is  the  usual  mode  adopted  in 
testing  gxmpowder  supplied  to  the  government  by 
various  contractors. 

The  ordinary  ejirouvette  is  an  instrument  shaped 
like  a  small  pistol  without  a  barrel,  ami  having  its 
breach  chamber  closed  by  a  flat  plate  connected 
with   a   stroug  S])ring.     On   the   exiJosion    of  the 


powder    against   the  plate,  it  is  driven  back  to  a 
distance  indexed  accortling  to  the  strength  of  the 


Eprouvette. 

powder,  and   is   retained   at   its   extreme   state   of 
propidsion  by  a  ratchet  wheel. 

E'PSOM  (s.aid  to  have  originally  been  Ebb.asham) 
is  a  small  market-town  on  the  margin  of  the 
Banstead  Downs  in  Surrey,  15  miles  south-south- 
west of  Loudon  by  road,  and  14  miles  by  the  London 
and  South-Western  Railway.  The  famed  sidphate 
of  magnesia  springs  of  E.  gave  their  name  to  the 
Epsom  S.alts  formerly  manufactured  from  them. 
This  manufacture  has  been  .abandoned  from  tlie 
ease  with  which  these  salts  can  be  made  artificially. 
The  Royal  Jledical  College,  erected  on  the  Downs, 
and  established  in  1851,  provides  education  for  about 
170  boys,  the  sons  of  medical  men,  and  afifords  a 
home  to  decayed  members  of  the  profession  and  their 
widows.  Pop.  (1871)  627G.  On  the  Downs,  IJ  mile 
south  of  the  town,  the  famous  E.  horse-races  are  hehl 
yearly.  They  ai-e  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Charles  I.,  but  have  become  of  greater  import.ance 
since  the  institution  of  the  Derby  Stakes  in  1780 
(see  Deeey  D.^y).  The  races  last  four  days,  and  as 
many  as  100,000  persons  often  assemble  to  witness 
the  most  important  of  them. 

EPSOM    SALT,   or  SU'LPHATE    OF    MAG- 

NE'SIA  (MgO-l-SO;,IiO),  occurs  not  only  in  the 
water  of  mineral  springs,  as  at  Epsom,  Seidlitz,  and 
many  other  places ;  but  also  as  an  cttlorescence  on 
the  surface  of  various  rocks,  sometimes  along  with 
alum,  as  at  Ilurlet,  in  Renfrewshire ;  and  on  the 
ground,  as  in  some  parts  of  Spain  and  of  the  Russian 
steppes.  It  sometimes  occurs  snow-white  and  very 
pure,  sometimes  discoloured  by  impurities  ;  and  is 
either  in  the  foi-m  of  tine  thread-like  crystals,  or  in 
crusts,  flakes,  gramdes,  &c.  Its  crystals  are  prisms, 
.almost  rectangidar.  For  purjioses  of  commerce,  it 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphm'ic  acid 
upon  magnesian  limestone.     See  Magnesia. 

Epsom  salt  is  a  well-known  purgative  remedy 
much  in  use  in  household  meilicine.  It  may  be 
given  in  doses  from  two  ilrachms  to  one  ounce, 
according  to  the  effect  required,  in  a  tumbler  of 
water.  The  disagreeable  bitter  taste  is  much  relieved 
by  acidulating  with  nearly  a  tcaspoonfid  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  each  ounce  of  salt. 

E'PWORTH,  a  town  in  the  north-west  of  Lincohi- 
shire,  England,  30  miles  north-north-west  of  Lincoln. 
It  chiefly  consists  of  one  street,  above  two  miles 
long.  The  chief  cmploj-nients  are  hemp  and  flax 
dressing,  rope-making  and  malting.  Pop.  (1871) 
2205.  johu  Wesley,  founder  of  Methodism,  as  well 
as  Kilham,  founder  of  the  seceding  Wesleyans,  was 
bom  here. 

EQUABLE  MOTIOX  is  that  by  which  eeiual 
spaces  are  passed  over  in  equal  times. 

EQUAXITY.     Sec  Libertt,   EQCALm*,   Fea- 

TEUXITV. 

EQUA'TIOX,  An.niai.,  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous   of    the    subordinate    fluctuations   in    the 

lul 


EQUATION— EQUATION  OF  TIME. 


moon's  motion,  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  which 
increases  with  its  proxiuiity  to  the  earth  and  her 
satellite.  It  consists  in  an  alternate  increase  and 
decre.ise  in  her  longitude,  corresponding  with  the 
earth's  situation  in  its  annual  orbit,  i.  e.,  to  its 
angular  distance  from  the  ])eriheliou,  .and  therefore 
havinj;  a  year  instead  of  a  mouth,  or  aliijuot  jiart  of 
a  month,  for  its  period.  For  an  explanation  of  the 
mode  of  its  production,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Herschel's  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  art.  T.'iS,  et  seq. 
The  subject  is  too  .abstruse  for  explanation  in  this 
work. 

EQUATION,  Differential,  is  an  equation 
involvini;   differential   coefficients    (see   Calculus); 

such  is  r-r  +  a  —  —  x;  from  which  it  is  required 

dx'  ilx 

to  find  the  relation  between  y  .and  r.  The  theory  of 
the  solution  of  such  equations  is  an  extension  of  the 
integral  calculus,  and  is  a  branch  of  study  of  the 
highest  importance. 

EQUATION,  Fu.vcTiON.VL.     See  FnuCTioKS. 

EQUATION,  LuNAK.    See  Lunar  Theory. 

EQUATION  OF  E'QUINOXES  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  true  position  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  the  position  calcidated  on  the  supposition  that 
their  motion  is  uniform.    See  Precession. 

EQUATION  OF  LIGHT.  In  astronomical 
observations,  the  visual  ray  liy  which  we  see  any 
body  is  not  that  which  it  emits  at  the  moment  we 
look  at  it,  but  th.at  which  it  did  emit  some  time 
before,  viz.,  the  time  occupied  by  light  in  traversing 
the  interval  which  separates  it  from  us.  If,  then,  the 
body  be  in  motion,  its  aberration,  ,as  due  to  the 
earth's  velocity,  must  be  applied  as  a  correction, 
not  to  the  line  joining  the  earth's  place  at  the 
moment  of  observation  with  that  occupied  by  the 
body,  (as  seen)  at  the  same  moment,  but  at  that 
antecedent  moment  when  the  ray  quitted  it.  Hence 
is  derived  a  rule  .ajiplied  by  astronomers  for  the 
rectification  of  observations  made  on  a  moving  body, 
viz.,  from  the  known  laws  of  its  motion  and  the 
earth's,  calculate  its  relative  angidar  motion  in  the 
time  taken  by  light  to  jjass  from  it  to  the  earth. 
This  motion  is  the  total  amount  of  its  apparent 
displacement.  Its  effect  is  to  cbsplace  the  liody  in 
a  direction  contrary  to  its  apparent  motion,  an 
effect  one  p.art  of  which  is  due  to  abciTation, 
properly  so  caUed  (see  Aberration),  resulting  from 
the  composition  of  the  ifiotions  of  the  earth  and  of 
light,  and  another  part  to  the  fact  of  the  passage  of 
bght  occupying  time.  The  equation  of  light  is  the 
allowance  to  be  made  for  the  time  occupied  by  the 
light  in  traversing  a  variable  space. 

EQUATION  OF  PAYMENTS.  The  problem 
considered  imder  this  head  in  books  of  .arithmetic 
is  to  find  a  time  when,  if  a  sum  of  money  be  paid 
by  a  debtor,  which  is  eqxial  to  the  sum  of  several 
debts  p.ayalile  by  him  at  different  times,  no  loss 
will  be  sustained  by  either  the  debtor  or  creditor. 
The  rule  generally  given  is  as  follows  :  Multiply 
each  sum  due  by  the  time  at  which  it  is  p.ayable, 
and  then  divide  the  sum  of  the  products  by  the  sum 
of  the  debts :  the  (juotient  is  the  equ.ated  time. 
For  example,  if  i'lO  be  due  at  one  month,  and  £'20  at 
two  months,  find  as  an  equivalent  when  the  whole  £30 


may  be  i)aid  at  once.     Ans. 


10  X  1  +  20  X  2 
30 


=  1: 


months.  This  rule  is,  however,  incorrect  where  the 
debts  are  unequal,  because  it  takes  no  account  of 
the  balance  of  interest  and  discount.  A  correct 
rule  for  the  case  of  two  debts  and  simple  interest 
is  subjoined.  Let  d  and  D  denote  the  debts,  i  and 
T  the  times  of  paj'ment,  aud  r  one  year's  interest 


ou  D.     Then  if  A  =  T 
DT  +  rf« 


+  t-i -; — ,  and 


dr 


B  = 


Tl  + 


the  equated  time  vn]! 


1 


'Wlien  three  or  more  debts  are  con- 


rf;- 
V  (A»  -  4B). 
cemed,  the  plan  is  to  find  by  this  formula  the 
equated  time  for  the  first  two,  and  then  for  their 
sum  )iayable  at  their  equated  time,  and  the  third, 
and  so  on.  The  common  rule  is,  however,  suffi- 
ciently correct  for  ordinary  <ise. 

EQU.VTION  OF  THE  CENTRE.  H  the  earth 
moved  uniformly  roimd  tlie  sun  in  a  circle,  it 
would  be  easy  to  calculate  its  longitude  or  distance 
from  the  line  of  cqiunoxes  ,at  any  time.  One  year 
woidd  be  to  the  time  since  the  vernal  equinox  as 
,300°  to  the  arc  of  longitude  passed  over.  But  the 
orbit  of  the  e.ai-th  is  not  circular,  nor  is  its  motion 
uniform ;  the  orbit  is  slightly  elliptical,  and  the 
motion  is  quicker  at  perincUon  th.an  at  aphelion. 
The  true  rule,  then,  for  ascertaining  the  earth's 
longitude  is  contained  in  the  following  proportion  : 
one  year  is  to  the  time  ekapsed  as  the  whole  area  of 
the  earth's  orbit  is  to  the  area  swejit  over  by  the 
radius  vector  in  the  time.  This  is  a  deduction  from 
Kepler's  law  (see  Central  Forces),  that,  in  plane- 
tary motion,  equal  areas  (not  ani/lcx)  are  swept  over 
in  equal  times.  The  area  swept  over  being  ascer- 
tained from  the  laws  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  the 
elements  of  its  orbit,  it  is  a  question  of  geometry  to 
ascertain  the  angle  corresponding  to  the  area,  or  the 
true  longitude.  In  astronomy,  the  longitude,  as 
calculated  on  the  supposition  that  the  earth  moves 
uniformly  in  a  circle,  is  called  the  vteati  longitude 
of  the  earth  ;  and  it  happens,  from  the  orbit  being, 
as  we  said,  but  slightly  different  from  a  circle,  that 
the  mean  and  true  longitude  differ  but  shghtly. 
The  quantity  by  which  the  true  and  mean  longitudes 
differ  is  called  the  equation  (if  the  centre  :  and  this  is 
sometimes  to  be  added  to,  and  sometimes  to  be 
subtracted  from  the  mean  longitude,  to  oVitain  the 
true ;  and  sometimes  it  is  zero. 

EQUATION  OF  TIME.  It  wiU  be  seen  from 
the  article  Equation  of  the  Centre  (q.  v.)  that  the 
earth's  motion  in  the  ecliptic — or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  sun's  apparent  motion  in  longitude — is 
not  uniform.  This  want  of  uniformity  woidd  of 
itself  obviously  cause  an  irregidarity  in  the  time  of 
the  sun's  coming  to  the  meridian  on  successive  days ; 
but  besides  this  want  of  imiformity  in  the  sun's 
apparent  motion  in  the  ecliptic,  there  is  another 
cause  of  inequality  in  the  time  of  its  coming  on  the 
meridian — viz.,  the  obliqmty  of  the  ecliptic  to  the 
equinoctial.  Even  if  the  sun  moved  in  the  equi- 
noctial, there  would  be  an  ineqnahty  in  this  respect, 
owing  to  its  want  of  imiform  motion  ;  and  even  if 
it  moved  uniformly  in  the  ecliptic,  there  would  bo 
such  an  inequaUty,  owing  to  the  obliquity  of  its 
orbit  to  the  equinoctial.  These  two  independent 
causes  conjointly  produce  the  inequaUty  in  the  time 
of  its  appearance  on  the  meridian,  the  correction  for 
which  is  the  equ.ation  of  time. 

When  the  sun's  centre  comes  to  the  meridian,  it 
is  apparent  noon,  and  if  it  moved  unifoi-mly  on  the 
equinoctkal,  this  would  .ahv.ays  coincide  with  mean 
noon,  or  12  o'clock  on  a  good  solar  clock.  But  from 
the  causes  above  explained,  mean  and  apparent  noon 
differ,  the  latter  taking  jilace  sometimes  .as  nuich 
as  IGJ  minutes  before  the  former,  and  .at  others  as 
nuich  as  14^  minutes  after.  The  difference  for  .any 
day,  called,  as  we  have  said,  the  equation  of  time,  is 
to  be  found  inserted  in  ei)henierides  for  every  day 
of  the  year.  It  is  nothing  or  zero  at  four  different 
times  in  the  year,  at  which  the  whole  mean  and 
unequal  motions  exactly  agree — viz.,  .about  the  15th 
of  April,  the   15th  of   June,  the  31st  August,  and 


EQUATIONS. 


the  24tli  December.  At  all  other  times,  the  sirn 
is  either  too  f.-ist  or  too  slow  for  clock-time.  In 
the  ei)hemeri(lo3  above  referred  to,  the  sign  +  or 
—  is  prefixed  to  the  equation  of  time,  accord- 
nig  as  it  is  to  be  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  ajiparent  time  to  give  the  mean  time.  See 
Nautical  Alsiaxac. 


EQUATIONS.  An  equation  may  be  defined  to 
1)0  an  algebraical  sentence  stating  the  equality  of 
two  al^sebraical  e.xpressions,  or  of  an  al_r'ebraic;U 
expression  to  zero.  From  another  point  orview,  it 
is  the  algebraical  exi)ressiou  of  the  conditions  which 
connect  kno^^^l  and  unknown  quantities.  Thus 
(1),  ry  =  24,  and  (2),  x"  +  y"  =  52,  arc  two  equations 
expressing  the  relations  between  the  unknown  quan- 
tities X  and  y  and  known  quantities.  Generally, 
equations  are  fonned  from  observations  from  which 
an  object  of  inquiry  may  be  inferred,  but  which  do 
not  directly  touch  the  object.  Thus,  sujipose  we 
wish  to  ascertain  the  lengths  of  the  sides  of  a  rect- 
angular board  which  we  have  no  means  of  measuring, 
and  that  all  the  information  we  can  get  respecting  ?t 
is,  that  it  covers  (say)  24  square  feet,  and  that  the 
square  on  its  diagonal  is  (say)  52  square  feet.  From 
these  facts,  we  can  form  equations  from  which  we 
may  determine  the  lengths  of  the  sides.  In  the 
first  place,  we  know  that  its  area  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  its  sides,  and  if  we  call  these  x  and  y, 
we  have  xy  =  24,  the  first  of  the  equations  above 
given.  Again,  we  know  that  the  sum  of  the  squares 
on  the  sides  is  equal  to  the  sejuare  on  the  diagonal ; 
hence,  wo  have  the  second  equation,  :•■"  +  y-  =  52. 
From  these  two  equations,  we  should  be  able  to 
determine  the  values  of  x  and  y.  The  determin- 
ation of  these  values  is  called  the  solution  of  the 
equations. 

Equations  are  of  several  kinds.     Simple  equations 
are  those  which  contain  the  unknoira  quantity  in 


the   first   degree ;    thus,  ^  -|-  3  =  4,    is     a    simple 

equation.  Quadratic  equations  are  those  which 
contain  the  tmknown  quantity  in  the  second  degree  : 
^  "^ ^^  ~  ^^  -  ^<  is  a  quadratic  equation.  Cubic 
and  biquadratic  equations  involve  the  unknown  in 
tlie  third  and  fourth  powers  respectively.  For  the 
higher  equations,  there  are  no  special  names ;  they 
are  said  to  be  e([uations  of  the  degi-eo  indicated  by 
the  highest  power  of  the  unknown  which  they 
contain.  Simultaneous  equations  are  those  which 
involve  two  or  more  imknown  ([uantities,  and 
there  must  always  be  as  many  of  them,  in  order  to 
their  detcnnitiate  solution,  as  there  are  unknown 
quantities.  The^  equations  first  mentioned — viz., 
xy  =  24  —  x'  -I-  if  =  52,  are  siniidtaneous  equations. 
It  may  be  mentioned,  that  in  tlio  course  of  solving 
such  equations  the  ])rincii)al  difiiculties  encountered 
are  always  ultimately  the  same  as  in  the  solution  of 
equations  containing  only  one  unknown  quantity. 
For  instance,  in  the  equations  just  given,  if  we 
substitute  in  the  second  the  value  of  y  as  given  by 

the  first,  or  J/  =  — ,  we  have  x"  +  ^-=^X  =  52,  which 

^  XT 

may  be  solved  as  a  quadratic  equation.  The  general 
theory  of  equations,  then,  is  principally  concerned 
with  the  solution  of  equations  involving  one  unlvuown 
quantity  only,  for  to  this  sort  all  others  reduce 
themselves.  Indeterminate  equations  are  such  as 
do  not  set  forth  sufficient  relations  between  the 
unknown  quantities  for  their  absolute  determination, 
and  which  accordingly  admit  of  various  solutions. 
Thus,  xy  =  24  is  an  indeterminate  equation,  which 
IS  satisfied  by  the  values  x  =  3,  ?/  =  8 ;  or  x  =  G,  ?/  =  4  ■ 
or  X  =  2,  »/  =  12.  We  require  some  other  relation' 
such  as  ar  -I-  f  =  52,  to  enable  us  to  fix  on  one  of 
the  sets  of  values,  x  and  »/,  as  those  of  x.     For  other  | 


kinds  of  equations,  see  Exponential,  Fcnctionai, 
and  Dikferential. 

The  object  of  all  computation  is  the  determination 
of   numerical   values   for    unknown    quantities,   by 
means   of  the   relations  whicli  they  bear  to  other 
quantities  already  known.     The  solution  of   equa- 
tions, accordingly,  or,  m  other  words,  the  evolution 
of  the  imknown  rjuantities  involved  in  them,  is  the 
chief  business  of   algebra.     But  so  difficidt  is  this 
business,  that,  except  in  the  simple  cases  where  the 
unknown  quantity  rises  to  no  liigher  than  the  second 
degree,  all  the  resources  of  algebra  are  as  yet  inade- 
quate to  efi'ect  the  solution  of  equations  in  general 
and   definite   tei-ms.     For  equations  of  the  second 
degree,  or  quadratic  equations,  as  they  are  called, 
there  is  a  rigorous  method  of  solution  by  a  general 
formiUa  ;  but  as  yet  no  such  foimula  has  been  dis- 
covered for  equations  even  of  the  third  degree.     It 
is  tiiie,  that  for  eciuations  of  the  third  and  fourth 
degi-ees  general  methods   exist,  which  furnish  for- 
mulas which  express  under  a  finite  form  the  values 
of  the  roots.     See  Cakdan,  and  Cubic  Equation.s. 
But  all  such  formulas  are  found  to  involve  imarjiiiai-y 
expressions,  which,  except  in  particidar  cases,  make 
the    actual    computations     impracticable    tdl    the 
formulas  are  developed  in  inlmite  series,  and  the 
imaginaiy  tenns  disappear  by  mutually  destroying 
one  another.     'SATiat  is  caUed  Cardan's  formula,  for 
mstance  (and  all  others  are  reducible  to  it),  is  in  this 
predicament  %\henever  the  values  of  the  unknown 
quantity  are  all  real  ;  and  accordingly,  in  nearly  all 
such  cases,  the  values  are  not  obtainaMe  from  the 
formul33   directly,    but   from   the   infinite   series  of 
which    they    are    the    comjiact    exiiression.       But 
though   such    formula  as  Cardan's  are   useless  for 
the  purpose  of  numerical  computation,  the  search 
for  them  has  led  to  most  of  the  truths  which  con- 
stitute the  general  theory  of  equations,  and  throuf^h 
which  their  numerical  solution  may  be  said  to  have 
been  at  last  rendered  effective  and  general.     This 
method  of  munerical  solution  is  a  pm-efy  aritlimetieal 
process,   performed    upon   the  numer'ioal  coefficients 
of  equations,  aud  it  is  universally  applicable!  what- 
ever the   degree   of   the   equation   may  be.     'R'^itli 
this   method   are   connected  the  names  of  Budan, 
Fourier,  Horner,  aud  Sturm.     We  cannot  here  enter 
mto  an  account  of  it ;  the  reader  should  considt  on 
the  subject  Young's   Tlicory  and  Solution  of  Ali/e- 
braical  Equations  nf  the  Higher  Orders;  Peacock's 
Treatise   on  Ahjihra ;    and   La   Grange's  work  on 
Numerical  Solutions. 

The  rules  for  the  solution  of  the  simpler  foi-ms  of 
equations  are  to  be  found  in  all  elementary  text- 
books of  algebra.  It  must  sufiice  to  notice  "here  a 
few  of  the  leading  general  properties  of  equations. 
By  the  roots  of  an  equation  are  meant  those  values 
real  or  imaginary  of  the  unknown  which  satisfy  the 
equality ;  and  it  is  a  property  of  every  equation  to 
have  as  many  roots  .and  no  more  as  there  are  imits 
m  its  degree.  Thus,  a  quadratic  equation  has  two 
roots  ;  a  culiic  equation,  three  ;  and  a  biquadr.atic 
foiu-.  The  quadratic  equation  x^  -I-  5x  —  36  =  0  has 
two  roots,  -(-  9  and  -  4,  which  wOl  be  found  to 
satisfy  it.  Further,  the  exjiression  x"  -(-  5x  —  36  = 
(x  -  9){x  -I-  4)  =  0 ;  and  generally  if  the  roots  of 
an  equation 

F(X)  =  X:l  ±  A„.,X"-'  +  A„.yC"-2  +  .  .  . 

±  AiX  ±  A,  =  0 

(to  which  ''eneral  form  every  equation  of  the  nth 
degree  can  be  reduced),  ai-e 


±  Oi  ±  «i  ±  ds  .  .  .  ±  «,:  .  .  . 
then  U  + ai)(xTa2)(a:  +  aj)    ... 

(x  +  n„)  =  F(x)  =  0. 


EQUATOR— EQUIANGULAR. 


Hcnoc,  anil  from  obseiviiij;  tlie  way  in  which,  in  tlie 
multiiilication  of  tliose  factors,  the  coellicieuts 

A„_,,A„.,...A,.A<' 

arc  formed,  we  arrive  at  the  following  imirortaut 
results  : 

A,,.,  =  the  sum  of  the  roots,  with  their  signs 
changed. 

A,,.,  =  the  sum  of  the  products  of  eveiy  two  roots, 
with  their  signs  changed. 

A„^3  =  the  sum  of  the  products  of  every  three 
roots,  with  tlieir  signs  changed. 

A„  =  the  product  of  the  roots,  with  their  signs 
changed. 

The  factors,  it  will  be  observed,  are  formed  thus  : 
If  +0i  be  a  root,  then  .i-  =  Oi,  andx  —  aj  =  0  is  the 
factor.  If  the  root  were  —  a,,  then  a;  =  —  a,  ;  and 
the  factor  would  be  x  +  a^  =  0.  Observing  now 
the  way  in  which,  in  multiplying  a  series  of  snch 
factoi-s,  the  coefficients  of  the  resulting  polynomial 
are  formed,  we  arrive  at  this :  that  a  comjilete  equa- 
tion cannot  have  a  greater  number  of  positive  routs 
than  these  rliangesoi  sign  from  +  to  -  and  from 
—  to  +  in  the  series  of  terms  forming  its  first 
member ;  and  that  it  caimot  have  a  greater  number 
of  neg.ative  roots  than  there  ai-e  permanencies  or 
repetitions  of  the  same  sign  in  proceeding  from 
term  to  tei-m.  From  the  same  source,  many  other 
general  properties  of  equations,  of  value  in  their 
arithmetical  solution,  may  be  inferred.  The  sub- 
ject is,  however,  too  vast  to  be  more  than  glanced 
at  here. 

EQUA'TOR,  Celestial,  is  the  great  cu-cle  in 
the  sky  corresponding  to  the  extension  of  the 
equator  of  the  earth. 

EQUATOR,  Terrestrl\l,  the  great  circle  on  the 
earth's  surface  dividing  the  earth  into  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres,  and  half  way  between  the 
poles. 

EQUATO'RIAL,  an  important  astronomical 
instrument,  by  which  a  celestial  body  may  be 
observed  at  any  point  of  its  diurnal  course.  It  con- 
sists of  a  telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  circle, 
called  the  decUnation  circle,  whose  axis  penetrates 
at  right  angles  that  of  another  graduated  circle 
called  the  hour  circle,  and  is  whoUy  supported  by  it. 
The  pierced  axis,  which  is  called  the  principal  axis 
of  the  instnmient,  turns  on  fixed  supports ;  it  is 
pointed  to  the  pole  of  the  heavens,  aud  the  hour 
circle  is  of  course  parallel  to  the  equinoctial  In 
this  position,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  great  circle  of 
the  heavens  coiTesponding  to  the  decUnation  circle, 
passes  through  the  pole,  and  is  an  hour  circle  of  the 
heavens.  The  telescope  is  capable  of  being  moved 
in  the  plane  of  the  declination  circle.  If,  now,  the 
instnmient  be  so  adjusted  that  the  index  of  the 
decUnation  circle  miist  point  to  zero  when  an  equa- 
torial star  is  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view  of  the 
telescope,  and  the  index  of  the  hour  circle  must 
point  to  zero  when  the  telescope  is  in  the  meridian 
of  the  place,  it  is  clear  that  when  the  telescope  is 
directed  to  any  star,  the  index  of  the  declina- 
tion circle  will  mark  the  declination  of  the  star ; 
and  that  on  tlie  other  circle  its  right  ascension.  If 
the  telescope  be  clamped  when  directed  on  a  star,  it 
is  clear  that,  coxdd  the  instrument  lie  made  to 
rotate  on  its  principal  axis  with  entire  imiformity 
witli  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  the^st.ar 
would  always  appear  in  the  field  of  view.  This 
motion  of  rotation  is  conuuunicated  to  the  instru- 
ment by  clock-work. 

EQUE'.STllIAN  ORDER,  or  E'QUITES.  ^  This 
body  originally  fonued  the  cavalry  of  the  Roman 

m 


army,  and  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Romulus,  who  selected  from  the  three  ]irincip:U 
Koman  tribes  .'iOO  equites.  'J'hia  nunilier  was 
afterwards  gradu:illy  increased  to  .'JGOO,  wli<i  M'ere 
]iartly  of  j>atrician  and  partly  of  plebeian  rank,  and 
reqiiired  to  jiossess  a  certain  amount  of  ]iroperty. 
Each  of  these  equites  received  a  hoi-se  from  the  stiite ; 
but  about  403  B.C.,  a  new  body  of  equites  began  to 
make  their  appearance,  who  were  obliged  to  furnish 
a  horse  at  their  own  expense.  These  were  probably 
wealthy  iim-i  homhtes,  men  of  ccmestrian  fortune, 
but  not  descended  from  the  old  equites  (for  it 
should  be  observed  that  the  equestrian  dignity 
was  hereditary).  Until  1'2:{  v..(\,  the  equites  were 
exclusively  a  military  body  ;  but  in  that  year 
Cains  (Jracchus  carried  a  measure,  by  which  all 
the  judices  had  to  be  selected  from  them.  Now, 
for  the  first  time,  they  became  a  (Ustinct  order  or 
class  in  the  state,  and  were  called  Orilo  E(jiieslris. 
In  70  B.C.,  Sulla  deprived  them  of  this  privilege; 
but  their  power  did  not  then  decrease,  as  the 
forming  of  the  public  revenues  appears  to  liave 
fallen  into  their  hands.  After  the  conspiracy  of 
Catiline,  the  equestrian  order,  which  on  that 
memorable  occasion  had  \-igorously  supported  the 
Consid  Cicero,  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  third 
estate  in  the  Republic  ;  and  to  the  title  of  Seiialiis 
Populusrjue  Bomanu.i  was  added  et  Equeslris  Orilo. 
But,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  empii-e,  the 
honoiu',  like  many  others,  was  so  indiscriminately 
and  profusely  conferred,  that  it  fell  into  contempt, 
and  the  body  gradually  became  e.xtinct.  As  early 
as  the  later  wars  of  the  Republic,  the  equites  had 
ceased  to  constitute  the  common  soldiers  of  the 
Roman  cavalry,  and  figure  only  as  officers. 

EQUESTRIAN  STATUE,  the  represen- 
tation of  a  man  on  horseback.  Equestrian  statues 
were  awarded  as  a  high  honour  to  military  com- 
manders and  persons  of  distinction  in  Rome,  and 
latterly  were,  for  the  most  part,  restricted  to  the 
emperors,  the  most  famous  in  existence  being  that 
of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  which  now  stands 
in  the  Piazza  of  the  Capitol  at  Rome.  It  is  the  only 
ancient  equestrian  statue  in  bronze  that  has  been 
preserved  ;  an  exemption  which  it  probably  owed  to 
the  fact,  that  for  centuries  it  was  supposed  to  be  a 
statue  of  Coustantine.  The  action  of  the  horse  is  so 
fine,  and  the  air  of  motion  so  successfully  given  to  it, 
that  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  called  out  to  it 
'  Cammina  ! ' — (Go  on,  then  !).  It  was  originally  gilt, 
and  traces  of  the  gilding  are  stiU  visible  on  the 
horse's  head.  So  highly  is  this  statue  prized,  not 
only  for  its  artistic  but  its  historical  value,  that  an 
officer  used  regularly  to  be  appointed  by  the  Roman 
government  to  take  care  of  it,  under  the  designation 
of  the  Custode  del  Cavallo.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
rejoicings  by  which  llienzi's  elevation  to  the  tribune- 
ship  was  celebrated  in  1347,  wine  was  m.ade  to  run 
out  of  one  nostril  and  water  out  of  the  other  of  this 
famous  horse.  The  statue  then  stood  in  front  of  the 
Church  of  St  John  Lateran,  near  to  which  it  was 
found,  and  a  liunch  of  flowers  has  always  been  pre- 
sented annually  to  the  cha]iter  of  that  basilica,  in 
acknowledgment  of  o%vnershi]),  since  it  was  removed 
to  its  jircsent  site  on  the  Capitol.  All  European 
capitals  are  adorned,  or  disligured,  by  nmnerous 
equestrian  statues,  London  belonging  pre-eminently 
to  the  latter  category. 

EQUE'STRIANISM.    See  Hoksemanship. 

EQUIA'NGULAR,  having  equal  angles.  A 
figure  is  said  to  be  equiangular  all  whose  angles  are 
equal  to  one  another,  as  a  square,  or  any  regular 
polygim.  Also  triangles  and  other  figures  are  said 
to  be  equiangular  one  with  another  whose  corres- 
ponding angles  arc  equah 


EQUIDJE— EQUISETUM. 


EQUIPiE,  or  SOLIDUNGULA  (Lat.  solid- 
hoofed),  a  family  of  mammalia  of  the  order  Padiy- 
ilermtilii,  containing  only  a  small  number  of  specius, 
which  so  nearly  resemble  each  other  that  almost  all 
naturalists  agree  in  referring  them  to  one  genus, 
Eqnus.  They  are  tlistinguished  from  all  other 
quailrnpeds  by  the  complete  consohdation  of  the 
bones  of  the  toes,  or  the  extraordinary  development 
of  one  toe  alone  in  each  foot,  with  only  one  set  of 
phalangeal  and  of  metacarjial  or  metatarsal  bones, 
and  the  extremity  covered  by  a  single  undivided 
hoof.  There  arc,  however,  two  smaU  protuberances 
(splint  hones)  OD  each  side  of  the  metacaqial  or  meta- 
tarsal bone  [awon  or  cannon  hone),  which  represent 
other  toes.  The  E.  have  six  incisoi-s  in  each  jaw, 
and  six  molars  on  each  side  in  each  jaw  ;  the  males 
have  also  two  small  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
sometimes  in  both  jaws,  which  are  ahnust  always 
wanting  in  the  females.  The  molars  of  the  E.  have 
S(piare  crowns,  and  are  marked  by  laminae  of 
enamel  with  ridges  forming  four  crescents.  There 
is  a  wide  space  between  the  canine  teeth  and  the 
molars.  The  stomach  of  the  E.  is  simple,  but  the 
intestines  are  long,  and  the  caicum  extremely  large  ; 
the  digestive  organs  being  thus  very  diflerent  from 
those  of  the  ruminants,  but  e.xhil]itiug  an  equally 
perfect  adaptation  to  the  same  kind  of  not  easily 
assimilateil  food.  Another  distinctive  ])ecuharity 
of  the  E.  is,  that  the  females  have  two  teats  situated 
on  the  pubes,  between  the  thighs.  But  notwith- 
standing these  characters,  so  dissimilar  to  those  of 
tlic  ruminants,  they  a|)proach  them  very  much  in 
their  general  conformation,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
a  connecting  link  between  pachyderms  and  rumi- 
nants. The  largely  developed  and  flexible  upper 
lip  is  a  character  which  belongs  to  the  former  rather 
than  to  the  latter  order. 

The  E.  are  now  found  in  a  triJy  wild  state  only 
in  Asia  and  Africa.  Fossil  remains  exist  in  the 
newer  geological  formations  in  great  abundance  in 
many  parts  of  the  Old  World  ;  very  sparingly,  how- 
ever, in  the  New,  although  the  bones  of  a  jiecidiar 
and  distinct  species  {Equus  curvklens),  belonging 
to  the  Pleioceue  period,  have  been  found  in  South 
America. 

The  horse  and  the  ass  are  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant species  of  this  family.  The  dziggethai  has  also 
been  domesticated  and  made  nsefid  to  man.  Of  the 
other  sjiccies,  the  zebra,  quagga,  and  dauw,  it  is 
gener.ally  beheved  that  they  are  incapable  of  useful 
domestication. 

EQTTILA'TERAti,  having  equal  sides.  A  square 
is  equilaterah  The  equilateral  hj'perbola  is  that 
whose  axes  and  conjugate  diameters  are  equal. 

EQUILI'BRIUjr,  the  state  of  rest  or  balance  of 
a  body  or  system,  solid  or  fluid,  acted  upon  by 
various  forces.     See  Statics  and  Hydkostatics. 

EQUINO'CTIAL  is  the  same  with  the  celestial 
equator.  See  Equatok,  Celestial.  The  equinoctial 
jioints  are  those  in  which  the  equinoctial  and  the 
ecliptic  intersect.  See  Ecliptic.  Equinoctial  time 
is  time  reckoned  from  the  moment  when  the  point 
of  Aries  passes  the  Vernal  Equinox.  See  Equinoxes. 
This  instant  is  selected  as  a  convenient  central  point 
of  a  iniifomi  reckonmg  of  time  for  the  purjjoses  of 
astronomical  observers. 

E'QXJINOXES.  Sometimes  the  Equinoctial  Points 
(see  Equinoctial)  are  called  the  equino.xes.  More 
commonly,  by  the  equinoxes  are  meant  the  times 
when  the  sun  enters  those  points,  viz.,  21.st  March 
and  -'2d  September,  the  former  being  called  the 
Vernal  or  Spring  Etpiinox,  and  the  latter  the  Autum- 
nal. When  in  the  ei[uinoxes,  the  sun,  through  the 
earth's  rotation  on  its  axis,  seems  to  describe  the 
circle  of  the  equator  in  the  heavens,  and  the  days 


and  nights  are  of  equal  length  all  over  the  world. 
At  the  vernal  ccjuinox,  the  sun  is  passing  from 
south  to  north,  and  in  the  northern  hemisjihcre 
the  days  are  lengthening ;  at  the  .autiminal,  he  is 
]>assing  from  north  to  south,  and  the  days  are 
shortening.  As  the  earth  moves  more  rapidly  when 
near  the  sun,  or  in  winter,  the  sun's  apparent 
motion  is  not  uniform,  and  it  happens  that  he  takes 
eight  days  more  to  pass  from  the  vernal  to  the 
autuniuai  equino.v,  than  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  The  equinoctial  points  are  nut  stationary. 
See  Ecliptic. 

EQUI'PMENT,  E'QUIPAGE,  in  Mihtary  mat- 
ters, are  names  given  to  certain  of  the  necessaries 
for  officers  and  soldiers.  During  the  Crimean  War, 
many  officers  applied  for  .and  obtained  money  as 
compensation  for  the  loss  or  injur}'  of  their  equip- 
ment, comprising  horses,  horse-appoiBtments,  bag- 
gage, saddlery,  and  accoutrements.  Equipments 
issued  to  private  soldiers  are  expected  to  last  a 
certain  number  of  years,  and  small  deductions  from 
their  pay  are  made  in  the  event  of  the  aiticles  not 
lasting  the  proper  time.  In  those  cases  (in  the 
English  anny)  where  a  non-commissioned  officer 
receives  a  commission  on  the  ground  of  meritorious 
service,  an  allowance  of  £100,  if  in  the  infantry,  or 
£150,  if  in  the  cavalry,  is  made  to  him  to  provide  an 
equipment.  The  equipment  of  a  private  soldier  is 
often  used  as  a  name  for  the  whole  of  his  clothes, 
arms,  and  accoutrements  collectively.  The  equi- 
page of  an  army  is  of  two  kinds  :  it  includes  all  the 
furniture  of  the  camp,  such  as  tents  and  utensils, 
under  the  name  oi  eamp-equipage ;  whiie  Jield-eqid- 
paije  comprises  saddle-horses,  baggage-horses,  and 
baggage-wagons. 

EQUISE'TUM,  a  genus  of  Criqitogamous  plants, 
the  structure  and  affinities  of  which  are  not  yet  well 
imderstood,  but  which  many  botanists  regard  as 
constituting  a  sidj-order  of  ferns,  whilst  others  prefer 
to  make  it  a  distinct  order,  Kquisetaceir.  The 
English  n.ame  Horse-tail  is  often  given  to  all  the 
species.  They  have  a 
leafless,  cyhudrical,  hol- 
low, and  jointed  stem, 
each  joint  terminating 
in  a  membranous  and 
toothed  sheath,  which 
encloses  the  base  of  the 
one  above  it.  The  fructi-  V^!- 
fication  is  at  the  summit 
of  the  stem  in  spikes, 
which  somewhat  re- 
sembles trobUes  (cones), 
and  arc  formed  of  scales 
bearing  spore-cases  on 
their  lower  surface.  The 
spores  are  minute,  oval, 
or  roimd,  green,  and  each 
accompanied  with  four 
elastic  and  hygi'omet- 
rical  threads.  These 
threads  are  sometimes 
called  elata'S,  but  it  is 
by  no  means  certain 
that  they  ai'e  of  thfe 
same  nature  with  the 
spiral  filaments  so  called, 
which  are  mixed  with 
the  spores  of  many 
Ilepaticm  (q.  v.).  Each 
thread  terminates  in  a 
kind  of  club.  The  stems  gener.ally  have  lateral 
branches,  angidar,  but  otheririse  similar  in  structure 
to  the  stem,  growing  in  whorls  from  the  joints ;  some- 
times the  stem  is  simple ;  or  f ertUe  stems  are  simple, 

lOj 


Equisctum  Tehnateia  : 
summit  of  fertile  stem,  -with 
fructilication  ;  2,  .1  scale,  with 
its  stalk  (lateral  view) ;  3, 
a  spore,  with  its  filaments 
tini-olled ;  4,  a  spore,  with 
its  lilamcnts  hTgiometrically 
rulled  up.  ' 


EQUITABLE  DEFENCES-EQUITY. 


and  sterile  stems  are  branched.  The  species  of  this 
peiius  contain  a  peculiar  acid,  called  Eqiiisetic  Acid. 
Astrinsont  and  diuretic  properties  exist  in  these 
]>l;ints,  .ind  they  were  formerly  used  in  medicine,  but 
.lie  not  now  regarded  as  of  mucli  value.  It  has  been 
said  that  they  are  very  injurious  to  cattle  which  eat 
them,  but  this  seems  to  require  confirmation.  They 
abound  chicHy  in  damp  soils,  and  somctinips  so 
much  th.at  the  plough  and  harrow,  or  the  grubber, 
must  be  employed  to  extiqiate  them.  Some  of  them, 
however,  giow  in  dry  fields  and  gardens  ;  wliilst 
others  are'fouud  chielly  in  ditches  or  the  banks  of 
rivers.  Tliey  exist  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  are  seldom  of  large  size,  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  few  feet  iu  height,  but  a  comparatively 
gig.autic  species  has  recently  been  discovered  iu  tro- 
pical America.  The  rough  siliceous  stems  of  some 
species  are  used  for  smoothing  and  polishing  wood, 
jiarticidarly  those  of  E.  In/emak',  which  are  imported 
into  Britain  in  considerable  quantities  from  Holland, 
under  the  name  of  Dutch  Kusiies.  The  stems  of 
this  species  are  uubrauchcd,  or  a  little  branched  only 
,it  the  b.ise.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  and  is 
found  also,  rather  sparingly,  in  Xortli  America.  It 
has  been  projjosed  to  cultivate  it,  as  it  grows  well 
under  trees,  where  few  other  plants  would  thrive. 
The  stems  of  otlier  species,  as  A',  arveme,  the  most 
conmion  of  all  the  British  species,  are  used  for  scour- 
ing tin  and  pewter  vessels. 

E'QUITABLE  BEFE'NCES  at  comuion  l.aw 
were  introduced  by  the  Common  L.aw  Procedure  Act 
(15  and  16  Vict,  c.76,  s.  S3),  whereby  it  was  enacted 
that  the  defendant  in  any  cause,  and  tlie  plaintiff 
in  reple\Tn,  where  he  would  bo  entitled  to  rehef 
against  the  judgment  on  equitable  gi-ounds,  m.ay 
plead  the  facts  which  entitle  him  to  such  relief.  The 
effect  of  this  enactment  has  been  to  extend  materi- 
ally the  equitable  jmisdiction  of  common  law  courts, 
by  euabling  them  to  give  effect  to  a  plea  iu  cases 
where,  though  courts  of  law  had  no  remed}',  a  court 
of  equity  would  h,ave  afforded  nncondilional  reUef. 
It  has  been  remarked  by  Pollock,  C.  B.,  Clarke  v. 
Laurie  26,  Law  Jmu:  Ex.  .S6,  tlmt  '  it  is  an  estab- 
lished ride  now  ....  that  no  equitable  plea  shall 
be  permitted,  except  in  a  case  where  the  plea  and 
decision,  and  judgment  of  the  court  upon  it,  will 
work  out  and  complete  all  the  equity  that  belongs 
to  the  matter  to  which  the  plea  refers.'  A  defend- 
ant having  pleaded  an  equitable  defence  at  law, 
was  not  precluded  from  resorting  to  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  .although  the  conmion  Law  court  li.as  full 
jurisdiction,  and  his  plea  is  a  bar  to  the  action. 
Eoam  v.  Bremridge  25,  Law  Jour.  C'h.  102. 

EQUITABLE  ESTATES,  est.ates  the  right 
tn  which,  according  to  the  strict  rides  of  English 
common  law,  was  unrecognised,  but  which  received 
full  effect  in  a  court  of  equity.  These  estates  are  the 
Equity  of  Redemption  (q.  v.)  which  a  mortg.agor  has 
in  his  estate,  subject  to  the  mortgage,  and  the  right 
of  ccsUd  que  trust  in  a  tnist  estate.  Fonuerly,  these 
interests  were  not  even  recognised  by  courts  of  law ; 
but  by  7  Geo.  11.  c.  20,  and  1.5  and  16  Vict.  c.  76, 
courts  of  Law  are  now  empowered  to  t.ake  notice, 
and  give  effect  to  an  equitable  interest,  where  it 
appears  that  that  interest  is  clear  and  free  from 
question. 

EQUITABLE  JIO'RTGAGE  is  where  a  per- 
son, h.a\-ing  an  equitable  interest  in  an  estate,  mort- 
gages that  interest.  Thus,  a  ce-Uui  que  trust  may 
mortgage  his  estate  under  tlie  ti-ust,  or  a  mortgagor, 
who  has  already  mortgaged  his  estate,  may  convey 
his  Equity  of  Kcderaption  (q.  v.)  in  security  of  his 
debt  In  these  instances,  the  interest  operated 
upon  being  purely  equitable,  the  trans.action  is  an 
equitable  mortgage.  An  equitable  mortgage  may 
106 


also   be    effected   by  a  deposit  of   title-deeds    in 
security  of  debt.     Sec  Mortoagk,  Estate. 

E'QUITY,  Counrs  of,  England.  The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  iu  England  is  dividcil  into  two 
great  branches,  usually  known  as  common  law  and 
equity.  These  terms  serve  sufficiently  to  indicate 
the  character  of  the  principles  which  regulate  the 
practice  in  the  several  courts ;  for  although  within 
its  own  sphere  the  common  law  p.ays  regard  to 
equitable  principles,  yet  it  is  in  the  equity  coiu-ts 
that  princi]ile3  of  equitj'  have  been  m.atured  int!>  a 
separate  science.  The  supreme  courts  uf  equity  in 
England  are  tlie  Lord  Ch.anceUor's  Court,  the  Master 
of  the  IloU's  Court,  and  the  courts  of  the  tliree  Vice- 
chancellors.  Tlie  origin  of  the  sei)arate  equitable 
jurisdiction  existing  in  England  is  to  be  found  iu 
the  early  adoption  by  the  courts  of  common  law 
of  certain  set  forms  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  and 
their  refusal  to  apply  any  remedy  to  cases  which  did 
not  fall  within  those  limits.  Suitors  finding  that  in 
numerous  cases  redress  was  not  to  be  olitained  in 
the  ordinary  legal  tribimals,  h,ad  recourse  to  the 
king  as  the  fountain  of  justice,  who.  sitting  in 
council,  heard  the  complaints  upon  their  merits 
without  reference  to  the  technicalities  of  law.  As 
early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the  practice  began 
to  be  .adoj>ted  of  delegating  to  the  chancellor  the 
petitions  referred  to  the  king.  In  this  reign,  an 
.attemjjt  w.as  made  to  de^'ise  a  method  whereby  the 
common  law  courts  should  be  made  the  sole  tribunal 
for  the  redress  of  grievances.  By  the  statute  of 
Westminster  the  second  (1.3  Edw.  I.  c.  24),  it  was 
enacted  th.at  whenever  a  case  occurred  requiring  a 
new  writ,  the  Ch.ancery  (iu  which  all  suits  took  their 
rise)  should  frame  a  new  writ  to  suit  the  case.  Tliis 
statute  was  never  .acted  upon  to  the  pnriiose 
intended;  but  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  its 
pro\n3ions  were  made  use  of  by  John  W.althani,  who 
was  then  chancellor,  to  introduce  the  wTit  of  Suti- 
paita  (q.  v.),  returnable  to  Ch.ancery  oidy,  whereby 
the  Lord  Chancellor's  court  was  made  the  fonrni  of 
a  large  class  of  causes.  'From  this  time,'  s.ays  Mr 
Spcnce  (Chancery  Jurisdiction,  i.  .338),  'suits  by 
petition  or  biU  -without  any  preliminary  vnit  became 
a  common  course  of  procedure  before  the  chancellor, 
,as  it  had  been  in  the  coimcil.  On  the  petition  or 
bill  being  presented,  if  the  case  called  for  extra- 
ordinary interference,  a  writ  was  issued  by  the 
command  of  the  chancellor,  but  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  by  which  the  party  complained  against  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
to  answer  the  complaint,  and  abide  by  the  order 
of  the  court.'  Thus  w.as  introduced  into  Chancery 
the  practice  of  ex.amining  upon  oath  the  party  iu 
the  cause,  a  practice  unknown  .at  that  time  to 
common  law.  The  cases  heard  in  the  Chancery 
com-ts  were  decided  upon  the  jirhiciples  of  /loiie.ilii, 
equitu,  and  conscience.  The  next  ste])  which  tended 
to  -widen  the  equitable  jiuisdiction  of  the  Chancery 
courts,  was  the  exclusion  of  the  Ivom.an  law  from  the 
courts  of  common  la-w.  This  was  effected  by  a  pro- 
hibition  of  the  judges  iu  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
One  result  of  this  prohibition  w.as  to  exclude  alto- 
gether from  the  common  law  courts  the  question  of 
trusts.  There  can  be  little  doubt  tliat  the  common 
law  judges  had  this  .aim  in  view  in  the  course  which 
they  adopted.  Trusts  were  re]nignant  to  the  feudal 
law,  the  princiiiles  of  which  were  acted  upon  in  the 
common  law  courts.  The  Court  of  Chancery  at 
once  proceeded  to  give  a  remedy  in  tliis  class  of 
cases,  which  has  ever  since  formed  the  most  im- 
portant br.anch  of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  that 
court.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
in  m.atters  of  fraud,  which  .also  forms  an  important 
branch  of  the  equitable  jm'isdietiou  of  the  court,  i.i 
to  be  traced  to  the  abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber 


EQUITY. 


(q.  V.)  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Thus  has  sprung 
up  in  England  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery.  Owing  its  existence  to  the 
jealousy  and  cxclusiveness  of  the  common  law, 
which  adhered  to  aucient  customs  and  feudal  usages, 
it  has  not  inajitly  received  the  title  of  Equity.  It 
is  equitable  inasmuch  as  it  applied  a  measure  of 
justice  inaccessible  by  the  ordinary  procedure  ;  and 
equitable  in  the  princijiles  administered,  wliich  had 
reference  to  tlie  liroad  question  of  right  mifettered 
by  the  technicalities  of  law.  Yet  is  it  a  great  error 
to  supjiose  that  the  system  administered  in  courts 
of  equity  is  an  arbitrary  one  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
presiding  judge.  Such  probably  was  the  case  on 
the  first  introduction  of  sucli  a  triljunal ;  but  as 
time  progressed,  the  decisions  of  previous  judges 
formed  precedents  for  their  successors,  and  the 
precepts  of  the  Koman  law  were  early  adopted 
as  a  code  for  the  regulation  of  the  courts.  The 
independent  existence  of  the  equity  courts  in 
England  has  called  forth  the  animadversion  of 
otlier  nations.  A  ])ractice  directly  opposed  to 
that  pursued  in  nearly  every  other  civilised  state 
coidd  hardly  fail  to  occasion  such  a  residt.  The 
inconvenience  occasioned  to  suitors  by  the  necessity 
of  seeking  in  different  courts  the  remedy  for  civil 
injuries,  and  the  alleged  confusion  of  judicatories, 
have  been  strongly  dwelt  upon  by  the  enemies  of 
tliis  system.  Y'et  are  these  c\t1s  more  imaginary 
than  real.  The  relative  jurisdictions  of  common 
law  and  equity  are  now  so  clearly  defined  as  to 
leave  a  suitor  little  doubt  in  which  court  to  seek  his 
remedy.  In  place  of  opposing  jurisdictions,  the 
courts  of  common  law  and  equity  are  rather  inde- 
pendent tribunals  established  each  for  administering 
a  sejiarate  branch  of  a  jucUcial  system.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  contended  by  English  la^vyers,  and 
not  ■nithout  good  reason,  that  by  the  existence 
of  the  English  equity  courts  as  an  independent 
tribunal,  a  system  of  equity  has  been  gi-adually 
evolved  and  established  as  fixed  and  certain  in 
its  principles  as  a  code  of  laws,  and  one  which  is 
frequently  resorted  to  for  guidance  by  foreign 
tribunals.  The  popijar  delusion,  that  equity  courts 
administer  an  arbitrary  system  repugnant  to  law 
cannot  bo  too  strongly  controverted.  The  English 
courts  of  law  and  equity  had  for  many  years  past 
been  marked  out  for  reconstructioa  with  a  view  to 
the  consolidation  of  the  principles  and  practice  of 
both  courts,  under  the  name  of  a  High  Court  of 
Justice,  and  this  arrangement  has  occupied  the 
attention  of  parliament  for  some  years.  Mr  Justice 
Story  remarks,  that  equity  '  was  principally  applied 
to  remedy  defects  in  common  law  procedure,  and 
therefore  that  equity  jurisdiction  was  maintained 
on  the  same  ground  which  now  constitiites  the 
principal  cause  of  its  interference — viz.,  that  a 
wrong  is  done  for  which  there  is  no  plaui  adequate 
and  complete  remedy  in  the  courts  of  common 
law.'  The  jurisdiction  of  the  equity  courts  is 
divided  under  three  principal  heads — exclusive, 
concurrent,  and  assistant.  The  first  consists  almost 
entirely  of  the  admmistration  of  trusts ;  the  second 
comprises  questions  of  fraud,  of  account,  and  also, 
it  is  said  (Smith's  Pruiciplfs  of  E'/uifi/,  217>,  of 
specific  ])erformance  of  agreements.  Tins  matter 
appears,  however,  to  fall  more  naturally  under 
the  assistant  jurisdiction.  In  order  to  appreciate 
the  domain  of  the  equity  courts,  it  must  be  borne 
in  niind  that  common  law  confines  its  remedy 
usually  to  the  awarding  of  damages,  and  to  the  pro- 
nouncing a  judgment  absolutely  in  favoiu-  of  either 
plaintiff'  or  <lefendant ;  eiiuity,  on  the  other  hand, 
alone  goes  into  aU  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  will 
deliver  a  modified  judgment  where  circumstances 
demand   it.     The  judges   of   the   equity  courts   at 


present  consist  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  two  Lords 
Justices  of  Ap])eal.  the  Waster  of  the  EoUs,  and 
three  Vice-Chancellors.  Until  ISl.S,  almost  the 
whole  business  of  the  court  was  discharged  by  the 
Lord  Chancellor.  By  53  Geo.  III.  c.  24,  a  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  England  was  appointed ;  in  1833 
(3  and  4  WiU.  IV.  c.  49),  the  Master  of  the  RoUs  was 
required  to  hear  motions,  &c. ;  and  in  1841,  two 
additional  Vice-Chancellors  were  ap]iointed.  The 
Lords  Justices  of  Api)eal  were  created  in  1851. 
The  ordiiuiry  business  of  the  ecpiity  courts  is  trans- 
acted by  the  JIastcr  of  the  IloUs  and  the  three 
Vice-Chancellors.  The  Lord  Chancellor  also  may 
hear  causes  in  the  first  instance,  but  he  is  most 
usually  engaged  in  hearing  appeals.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  and  the  Lords  Justices  constitute  the 
court  of  appeal.  Appeals  may  be  heard  either  by 
the  Lord  Cliancellor  alone,  by  the  Chancellor  and 
one  of  the  Lords  Justices,  or  by  the  two  Lords 
Justices.  From  this  court  a  furtiier  appeal  lies  to 
the  House  of  Lords. 

EQUITY,  Pkucciples  of,  in  their  widest  sense, 
are  the  principles  of  eternal  justice,  of  which  all 
human  laws  are  but  adaptations.  'Eciuity,'  says 
Lord  Stair  (i.  1.  s.  17),  '  is  the  body  of  tlie  law, 
and  the  statutes  of  men  are  but  as  the  ornameuts 
and  vestitiire  thereof.'  In  this  sense,  equity  coin- 
cides with  the  Roman  precepts  of  law — 'honesti! 
vivere,  altenmi  non  kedere,  suum  cuique  tribuere' — 
[l7ist.  i.  1,  s.  3),  and  with  the  principles  of  justice  as 
laid  down  Ijy  the  inspired  -writer — '  to  do  justly,  to 
love  mercy,  and  to  wallc  humbly  with  thy  God.' — 
Jlicali,  vi.  S.  As  the  object  of  human  law  is  to  give 
expression  to  these  principles,  equitj'  is  thus  the 
basis  of  law.  But  it  is  impossible,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  that  any  code  of  laws  shoidd  provide  a 
remedy  suited  ti3  every  particular  case  ;  it  has,  there- 
fore, been  found  necessary  in  every  ci\'ilised  nation, 
to  establish  some  form  of  authority  which  shoidd 
control  the  rigour  and  remedy  the  deficiency  of  posi- 
tive law.  Thus,  it  is  the  function  of  the  law  to  lay 
down  a  code  of  ndes  whereby  the  rights  of  property 
and  the  transactions  of  commerce  shall  be  regulated  ; 
but  by  the  diversities  of  life  it  happens  that  various 
circumstances  will  occur  to  cause  these  fixed  rides 
to  operate  harshly  or  unjustly  in  particular  cases. 
A  party  may  complain  that  a  contract  didy  entered 
into  with  all  legal  fonnalities  has  been  obtained  by 
fraud ;  the  owner  of  an  estate  is  incapable  from 
infancy  or  lunacy  of  managing  his  affairs  ;  a  person 
ostensiljy  the  owner  of  large  property  is  found  to 
be  placed  in  possession  in  trust  only  for  the  benefit 
of  others.  In  these  and  many  other  eases,  the 
party  who,  in  compliance  with  every  ride  of  the 
law,  is  in  possession,  is  not  in  fact  the  ]>crson  who 
shoiUd  in  justice  exercise  the  right.  Here  equity 
steps  in.  Whde,  then,  all  law  may  be  said  to  bo 
equitable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  purpose  of  law  to 
dispense  justice,  yet,  in  the  technical  sense,  the  term 
eqiuty  is  confined  to  those  cases  not  specially  jiro- 
vided  for  by  positive  law.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
experience  has  shewn  that  it  woidd  Ije  most  incon- 
venient, and  subversive  of  order,  if  equity  shoidd 
arliitrarily  interjiose  to  remedy  every  apparent 
grievance,  and  therefore  it  is  that  the  operation  of 
equity  is  checked  within  certain  limits.  '  There  are 
many  eases  against  natural  justice  which  are  left 
wliolly  to  the  conscience  of  the  party,  and  are  with- 
out any  redress,  equitable  or  leg.al ;  and  so  f.ir  from 
a  court  of  equity  supplj-ing  imiversally  the  defects 
of  positive  legislation,  it  is  governed  by  the  same 
rides  of  interpretation  as  a  court  of  common  law, 
and  is  often  compelled  to  stop  where  common  law 
stops.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  court  of  justice, 
whether  of  law  or  of  equity,  to  consult  the  intention 
of  the  legislature.'^jtory,  Principles  of  EquiUi,  s.  14. 

io7 


EQUITY  OF  KEDE^rPTION— ERASMUS. 


Hence  arises  the  maxim,  that  '  equity  follows 
the  law.'  The  ]iriiieiiiles  of  equity,  therefore,  as 
luulerstooil  in  moilorn  times,  may  be  said  to  be  those 
jirinciples  of  natural  justice  which  are  ]icrniitto(l  to 
nuHlify  the  rigour  of  jHisitivc  law.  In  aiii>lyiuii 
those  |irinci])Ies  to  ]iractice,  the  equitable  jurisdiction 
has  been  intrusted  by  all  nations,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Enijland  (sec  Egnrv  Coirts),  to  the  same 
courts  in  which  the  positive  law  wa-s  administered. 
I'lut  in  the  inf.ancy  of  states,  the  bonnd.iries  of  law 
and  equity,  and  the  fimctions  of  the  ctinity  judge, 
were  not  so  clearly  defined  as  in  the  jiresent  day. 
Uy  the  Roman  law,  a  power,  called  the  jus  honor- 
(iriioii  or  jiohile  ojicium,  was  reposed  in  the  prietor 
of  contvollinj  on  equitiible  grounds  the  decisions  of 
the  ordin.ary  tribunals.*  Each  prretor,  on  entering 
<ipon  his  oiiice.  published  an  edict  declaring  the 
)irineiples  by  which  he  would  be  guided  in  discharg- 
ing his  duty  as  .an  equitable  magistrate.  The  prin- 
ciples so  declared  were  binding  on  the  pr.-etor  during 
his  year  of  office,  but  not  on  his  successor.  There 
can.howevei-,  be  little  doubt  that  in  process  of  time 
a  system  of  equitj'  was  gradually  evolved ;  aud 
ultimately,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  tlie 
edicts  of  the  pra;tors  were  collected  by  a  ci^-ilian 
named  Julianus,  and  embodied  in  a  single  code 
ciUcd  the  Perpetual  Edict  (q.  v.).  According  to 
the  practice  of  modern  nations,  the  courts  of  law 
are  accustomed  to  exercise  a  certain  equitable 
jurisilictiou  whereby,  within  prescribed  limits,  the 
rules  of  law  may  be  modified.  In  Scotland,  the 
equit.ible  power  of  the  Comt  of  Session  is  c;illed 
the  Xohile  OJicium  (q.  v.). 

EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION  the  interest 
which  a  mortgager  has  in  an  estate  which  he  has 
mortgaged.  An  equitj-  of  redemj)tion  may  be 
de\'ised,  granted,  or  entailed,  and  the  course  of 
descent  to  an  equity  of  redemption  is  governed  by 
the  same  laws  as  the  descent  to  the  land  would 
have  been.  Formerly,  the  equitable  interest  of  a 
mortgager  could  not  be  recognised  in  a  court  of 
law,  but  by  7  Geo.  II.  c.  20,  it  is  provided  that 
where  no  suit  is  pending  in  a  court  of  equity,  either 
for  foreclosure  or  redemption,  but  the  mortgagee 
attempts  to  obtain  possession  by  bringing  an  action 
of  ejectment,  in  such  a  case,  the  court  may  restore 
liis  estate  to  the  mortgager,  on  his  pa)TJient  of  the 
principal  and  interest  due  on  such  mortgage. 

EQUI'VALEXTS,  in  Chemistry.  See  ATcrac 
Weights,  or  Chemical  Eqcivalests. 

E  HA.     See  Chroxology. 

ERA'SED  AM)  ERA'DICATED,  her.aldicaUy 
signifies  that  an  oliject  is  plucked 
or  torn  off,  and  shewing  a  ragged 
edge  ;  as  opposed  to  coupu  or  coupy, 
cut,  which  shews  a  smooth  edge.  A 
tree  plucked  up  by  the  roots  is  said 
to  be  eradicated. 

ERASI'STKATUS,  one  of   the 

most  famous  physicians  .and  anato- 
mists of  ancient  times,  fiom-ished  in 
the  'Ai\  c.  B.C.,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  at  lulls,  in  the  island  of  Ceos.  He 
resided  for  some  time  at  the  court  of  Seleucus 
Kicator,  king  of  SjTia,  and  while  there,  acquired 
great  renown  by  discovering  aud  curing  the  disease 
of  tlio  king's  eldest  son,  who  was  pining  for  the  love 
of  the  young  and  beautiful  Stratonice,  whom  his 
father  in  his  old  age  had  married.     Afterwards,  E. 

♦  Tliis  function  of   the  prator  commenced  in  the 
earliest  times  \mdcr  the  kings  of  Rome,  and  continued 
to  attach  to  tlie  office  throush  all  the  changes  which 
di.stracted  the  nation, 
lOS 


lived  for  some  time  at  Alexandria,  where,  giving  up 
practice,  he  <levotcd  himself  with  great  energy  and 
success  to  his  anatomical  studies.  The  date  of  his 
death,  which  seems  to  have  taken  place  in  Asia 
Minor,  is  not  known.  He  ftnuuled  a  school  of 
medicine,  wrote  several  works  on  anatomy — in 
which  branch  he  was  most  celebrated — on  prac- 
tical niedicinc,  and  pharmacy.  He  believed  that 
the  heart  w.as  the  origin  both  of  the  veins  and 
arteries,  and,  had  it  not  been  his  conviotio!i  that  the 
arteries  contained  air  instead  of  lilood,  little  doubt 
is  entertained  but  that  he  would  have  anticip.ated 
Harvey  in  the  lUscovery  of  the  circidation  of  the 
blood.  Of  his  numerous  writings  only  some  obscure 
fragments  and  titles  have  been  jireserved.  Compare 
Hieromomis,  ErasiMrati  et  Erasistrateorum  Jlistoria 
(Jena,  1790). 

ERA'SMUS,  DE.sinERirs,  one  of  the  most 
vigorous  promoters  of  the  Keform.ation,  was  born 
at  Rotterdam,  SSth  October  14<;7.  He  was  the 
illegitimate  son  of  a  Dutchman  n.amed  Ghenaerd, 
or  "Garrit,  by  the  daughter  of  a  physician.  In 
accordance  with  the  f.ashion  .among  scholars  of 
his  time,  he  changed  the  name  Gher.aerd  into  its 
Latin  and  tJreek  equiv.alents  Desiderius  Er.asmns 
(more  coiTectly,  Erasmius) — meaning  desired,  loved. 
TUl  his  ninth  year,  E.  was  a  chorister  in  the 
cathedral  at  Utrecht.  He  was  then  sent  to  school 
■at  Deventer,  whore  his  talents  began  to  display 
themselves  in  so  brilli.ant  a  manner,  that  it  was 
even  then  predicted  that  he  Avould  one  d.ay  be  the 
most  learned  man  of  his  time.  After  the  death 
of  his  parents,  whom  he  lost  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
his  guardians  dete:"mined  on  bringing  him  up  to 
a  religious  life,  and — with  the  intention,  it  is  said, 
of  sharing  his  small  p.atrimony  among  themselves — 
in  his  r7th  year,  ])laced  him  in  the  monastery 
of  Emaus,  near  Gouda.  From  this  constrained 
manner  of  life,  however,  he  was  released  by  the 
Bishop  of  C.ambr.ay.  After  having  taken  priest's 
orders  in  1492,  he  went  to  Paris,  to  perfect  him- 
self in  theology  and  the  himiane  sciences.  Here 
he  supported  himself  in  a  somewh.at  precarious 
manner,  by  giving  private  lectures,  and  in  1497, 
accompanied  some  Englishmen,  who  had  been  his 
pupils,  to  England,  where  he  was  wcU  received  by 
the  king.  He,  however,  soon  returned  to  Paris,  and 
in  1506,  to  enrich  liis  knowledge,  visited  Italy.  At 
Turin,  he  took  the  degree  of  D"D.  Shortly  after,  he 
applied  to  the  pope  for  a  dispensation  from  his 
mon.istic  vows,  which  w.as  granted.  During  the 
course  of  his  journey,  he  «sited  Venice,  Parma, 
Rome,  and  other  interesting  cities,  in  company  with 
his  pupil,  Alexander  Stuart,  a  n.atm-al  son  of  James 
IV.  of  Scotland,  who,  along  with  his  father,  was 
afterwards  slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden.  At  Rome, 
the  most  brilliant  prospects  were  held  out  to  liim. 
Cardinal  Grimani,  a  f.amou3  lover  of  learning  in 
that  day,  oficred,  ojit  of  his  admiration  for  E.,  to 
make  him  'i>artaker  of  his  house  and  fortunes.' 
Other  eminent  nu-n  vied  with  (irimani  in  shewing 
respect  to  the  yomig  scholar,  among  whom  m.ay 
be  mentioned  ,Iohn  de  Medicis,  afterwards  Leo  X., 
Cardinal  Rapluael  of  St  George,  and  Giles  of  Viterbo, 
general  of  the  Augustines.  The  pope  (Julius  II.) 
also  ottered  him  a  place  among  his  penitentiaries, 
an  ofhce  of  considerable  conscqjience,  and  it  wouhl 
ajipoar,  a  'stop  to  the  highest  j>referments  in  that 
court.'  E.,  who  h.ad  always  an  eye  to  the  main 
chance,  regretted,  at  a  later  period  of  his  life,  tliat 
he  h.ad  not  accepted  the  offers  held  out  to  him  in 
Rome,  but  meanwhile,  having  pledged  himself  to 
return  to  England,  where  .also  he  had  many  friends, 
he  set  out  for  that  country  in  1509,  after  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII.  Li  several  of  the  cities 
through  which  he  passed  he  met  with  friends  anil 


ERASJIUS-ERASTUS. 


patrons,  who  wished  him  to  settle  amongst  them,  but 
as  Henry  was  a  correspondent  of  his,  E.  was  induced 
to  cherish  the  liighest  hopes  of  personal  favour  from 
that  monarch,  and  coidd  not  bo  prevaUed  on  to  stay 
for  more  than  a  very  brief  perioil.  He  had  no 
sooner,  however,  arrived  in  England  than  he  found 
out  his  mistake.  At  first,  he  lodged  with  .Sir  Thomas 
More,  and  during  his  stay  with  him  composed  his 
Encomium  Morice,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  the  pui-jiose  of 
which  is  to  expose  all  kintls  of  fools,  but  especially 
those  who  flourished  in  the  church,  not  sparing  the 
l)0pe  himself.  For  a  short  time  he  tilled  the  office 
of  Professor  of  (Jreek  at  O.xford,  but  on  the  whole 
was  very  scantily  supplied  with  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. Ill  1514,  he  returned  disappointed  to  the 
continent,  and  resided  chiefly  at  Basel,  where  he 
died,  12th  Jidy  1536.  E.'s  extensive  and  profound 
learning  was  equalled  by  lus  refined  taste  and 
lirilliaui  wit.  A  natural  love  of  independence  and 
quiet  made  him  jirefer  a  life  of  learned  leisure  and 
retirement  to  one  of  greater  publicity ;  nevertheless, 
the  readiness  with  which  he  assumed  the  character 
of  an  adroit  man  of  the  world,  brought  upon  him  the 
hostihty  of  many  of  the  nobler  spirits  of  liis  time. 
He  was  no  hero,  and  he  knew  it.  He  frauldy  con- 
fesses that  '  he  had  no  inclination  to  die  for  the  sake 
of  the  truth.'  Luther,  in  whom  the  soul  and  courage 
of  the  Apostle  Paul  seemed  to  be  revived,  over- 
whelmed hhu  with  reproaches  for  his  cowardice  in 
regard  to  the  P>efom>ation.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  E.  by  his  mental  constitution  was  averse  to 
enthusiasm.  He  was  a  scholar  and  a  critic,  not  a 
preacher  or  iconocla-st,  and  he  was  at  least  honest 
enough  to  abstain  from  denouncing  the  opinions  of 
Luther,  though  he  disapproved  strongly  of  his 
violent  language.  Besides,  there  was  a  tincture  of 
rationalism  ill  the  great  Dutchman,  which  probably 
helped  to  chill  his  love  of  mei-e  Lutheran  ism.  But 
his  services  in  the  cause  of  science  were  great  and 
lasting,  and  his  -sn-itings  are  still  esteemed  for  the 
importance  of  the  subjects  treated  of,  and  their 
classical  style.  Besides  editing  several  of  the  ancient 
authoi-s,  and  various  philological  and  theological 
writings,  he  prepared  the  earliest  edition  of  the 
GreekTestament,  which  appeared  at  Basel  in  1516. 
This  is  reckoned  by  some  his  greatest  work. 
Michaelis  says  that  perhaps  there  never  existed 
an  abler  editor  of  the  New  Testament,  and  that 
E.  possessed  in  the  highest  degree  natural  abilities, 
profound  learning,  a  rcailiness  in  detecting  errors, 
with  every  qualification  that  is  requisite  to  produce 
critical  sagacity.  His  best  known  work,  however, 
is  liis  CoUuiiuiii,  a  master-piece.  Of  aU  his  -n-ritings, 
this  has  exercised  the  greatest  influence.  The  first 
edition  appeared  in  1522,  but  did  not  please  E.,  who 
issued  a  second  during  the  same  year.  A  third 
appeared  in  1524.  This  book,  which  was  meant, 
according  to  Erasmus,  only  to  make  youths  better 
Latinists  and  better  men,  was  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne,  prohibited  in  France,  and  burned  in 
Spain.  No  one  who  takes  up  the  book  wUl 
wonder  at  its  condemnation.  It  contains  the  most 
virulent  and  satirical  onslaughts  on  monks,  cloister- 
life,  festivals,  jiilgrimages,  &c.,  but  it  is  disfigured 
by  lewd  and  unchaste  passages,  which  are  wholly 
inexcusable.  The  work  has  been  translated  into 
almost  all  the  modern  languages.  His  Encomium 
Morice,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. It  was  published  in  the  original,  with  a 
German  translation,  and  illustrations  by  Holbein, 
by  W.  G.  Becker  (Basel,  17S0).  E.  himself  super- 
intended an  edition  of  his  works,  published  by 
Fiobenius  in  Basel.  The  most  comjilete  edition  is 
that  of  Leclerc  (10  vols.,  Leyden,  1603—1006).  The 
life  of  E.  has  been  written  in  French  by  Burigny 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1758),  in  Genuau  by  JI  tiller  (Hambiu-g, 


1828),    and    in    English    by    Knight    (Cambridge, 
1726). 

ERA'STUS,  T110M.VS,  a  learned  physician  and 
theologian,  was  born  at  Baden  in  Switzerland, 
7th  September  1524.  His  real  name  was  Liebcr, 
which,  according  to  the  fashion  of  his  times,  he 
translated  into  Greek,  in  1540,  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Basel,  where  he  studied  divinity, 
])liiloso])hy,  and  literature.  He  subsequently  visited 
Italy,  where  he  betook  himself  to  medicine,  and 
olitained  the  degi'ee  of  M.D.  from  the  university 
of  Bologna.  After  an  absence  of  nine  j'cars,  he 
returned  to  his  own  country,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  the  court  of  the  princes  of  Henneberg,  where 
he  ac(piired  a  great  reputation  as  a  medical  practi- 
tioner. The  elector  palatine,  Frederick  III.,  now 
invited  him  to  his  court,  and  appointed  him  lirst 
physician  and  counsellor  of  state.  He  also  conferred 
on  him  the  chair  of  physic  in  the  university  of 
Heidelberg.  In  1581,  he  was  selected  to  till  a 
similar  office  at  Basel,  where  he  died,  December 
31,  1583,  after  establishing  a  liberal  foimdation 
for  the  provision  and  education  of  ])oor  students  in 
medicine,  which  was  long  called  the  Eraetian  funnda- 
lion.  Among  E.'s  medical  works  may  be  mentioned 
his  Dixputaliimum  dfl  Malicina  A'ora  Piulippl  Para- 
ccisi  (Basel,  1572 — 1573),  T/ie.ieji  de  Contagio  (Heidel- 
berg, 1574),  and  JJi:  Occult.  PItarmaco.  Potestatitiu.i 
(Heidelberg,  1574).  As  a  physician,  E.  is  creditably 
characterised  by  his  distrust  of  abstract  and  a  priori 
theoiising,  and  his  com-iction  that  experimental 
investigation  is  the  only  road  to  Imowledge.  But 
his  fame  now  rests  chiefly  on  what  he  wTote  in 
ecclesiastical  controversy.  In  his  book  De  Ca-iia 
Domini,  he  contended  for  the  figurative  iuterjireta- 
tion  of  the  passage,  'This  is  my  body,'  &c.,  and 
supported  this  view  at  the  conference  held  at 
Maulbron  between  the  divines  of  the  Palatinate 
and  those  of  Wittenberg.  But  his  great  work  is 
his  E.r.plicotio  QuaMiimis  Grarissimie  de  Excommuiii- 
colione.  Although  this  work  was  not  published  till 
some  years  after  his  death,  E.  had  published  the 
same  opinions  as  it  contains  in  the  fonn  of  theses, 
flirected  against  Gaspar  01e%-ianus,  a  refugee  from 
Treves,  ami  various  other  persons,  who  were  an.xious 
to  confer  on  ecclesiastical  tribunals  the  po^^■er  of 
punishing  vices  and  misdemeanours.  E.  denieil  the 
ric'ht  of  the  church  to  excommunicate,  exclude, 
absolve,  censure — in  short,  to  exercise  discipline. 
Denj-ing  'the  power  of  the  keys,'  he  compared  a 
pastor  to  a  professor  of  any  science,  who  can 
merely  instnict  his  students ;  he  held  that  the 
ordinances  of  the  gospel  should  be  open  and  free 
to  all,  and  that  penalties  being  both  in  their  nature 
and  effect  cird  and  not  spiritual,  ought  to  lie 
inflicted  only  by  the  civil  magistrate.  E.  formed 
no  sect,  neither  did  he  wish  to  do  so.  His  desire 
was,  in  fact,  of  an  exactly  contrary  character— viz., 
to  preserve  an  external  harmony  at  the  expense 
even  of  the  purity  of  the  visible  church.  He  would 
have  let  the  wheat  and  tares  grow  together  imtil 
the  end  of  the  worhl.  Many  eminent  men,  especi- 
ally in  the  Church  of  England,  have  shared  similar 
opinions  both  before  and  after  E.,  such  as  Cranmer, 
lieilmayn.  Cox,  Whitgift,  Lightfoot,  Selden,  &c. 
The  tenn  Erastian  has  long  been  a  favourite 
epithet  of  reproach  in  Scotland,  but  has  not  been 
employed  with  any  great  precision.  All  persons 
who  deny  the  power  of  an  established  church  to 
alter  her  own  laws  ■nathout  the  consent  of  the 
state— as,  for  example,  the  law  of  patronage— arc 
generally  accused  of  Erastianism,  although  the 
principles  of  E.  have  literally  nothing  to  do  with 
such  a  question.  An  English  translation  of  the 
Ej-plicatio  was  published  in  1669,  and  was  re-edited 
by  Dr  Robert  Lee  of  Edinbm'gh  in  1845. 


ERASUKE— ERCILLA  Y  ZUXIGA. 


ERA'SURE,  or  RA'ZURE  as  it  is  more  com- 
monly called  in  England,  from  the  Latin  rado,  to 
scrape  or  shave,  is  the  scraping  or  shaving  of  a  deed 
or  other  formal  ^v^iting.     In  England,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  vriil,  the  presimiption,  in  the  absence   of 
rebutting  evidence,  is  that  the  crasnre  was  made  at 
or  before  execution. — Doe  ex  dem  Tatham  v.  Gatta- 
more,  17  L.  T.  Rep  74.     '  If  an  alteration  or  erasure 
has    been    made    in    any    instrument    subsequent 
to  its  execution,  that  fact  ought  to  be  mentioned 
(in   the   Abstract,  or   epitome  of  the  evidences  of 
ownership),  together  with  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is   done,  and   more   particularly  so   as  a 
fraudulent  alteration  by  cither  of  those  means,  if 
made  by  the  person  himself  takmg  imder  it,  woidd 
vitiate  his  interest  altogether.     It  was  formerly  con- 
sidered that  an  alteration,  erasure,  or  interlineation 
(q.  v.),  would  void   the  whole  instnimcut,  even   in 
those  cases  where  it  was  made  by  a  stranger ;   but 
the  law  is  now  othermse,  as  it  is  clearly  settled 
that  no  alteration  made  by  a  stranger  will  prevent 
the    contents    of    an    instrument    from    retaining 
its   original  effect  and  operation,  where  it  can  be 
iJainly   shewn    what    that    effect    and    operation 
actually  was.      To  accomplish  this,  the   mutilated 
instrimient  may  be  given  in  e\-idenco  as  far  as  its 
contents    appear;    and   intrinsic    evidence  wUl   be 
admitted  to  shew  what  portions  have  been  altered 
or  erased,  and  also   the  words    contained  in  such 
altered  or  erased  parts ;  but  if,  for  want   of  such 
eridence,  or  any  deficiency  or   imcertaiuty  arising 
out  of  it,  the   original  contents   of  the   instrument 
cannot    be   ascertained,   then   the   old  rule   would 
become  applicable,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  the 
mutilated  instrument  woidd  become  void  for  uncer- 
tainty.'—Hughes'  Practice  of  Convqiancinrj,  i.  124, 
l'2o.     If  a  vriR  contains  any  alterations  or  erasure, 
the  attention  of  the  -witnesses  ought  to  be  directed 
to  the  particular  parts   in  which   each   alteration 
occur,  and  they  ought  to  place  their  initi.als  in  the 
margin  opposite,  before  the  vnU  is  executed,  and  to 
notice  this  having  been  done  by  a  memorandum, 
added  to  the  attestation  clause  at  the  end  of  the 
will  (//).  p.  945).     See  also  1  Vict.  c.  26.     In  Scot- 
land,  the  ride  as  to  erasure  is  somewhat  sti-icter 
than   in  England— the   legal   inference  being  that 
such   alterations  were  made  after  execution.      As 
to   necessary   or   bond  fide  alterations  which  may 
be   desired   by   the   parties,  corrections  of   clerical 
errors,    and    the    like,   after  the   deed    is    written 
out,  but  before  signatiu-e,  the  rule  in  Scotland  is, 
that   'the  deed  must   shew   that   they   have   been 
advisedly   adopted    by  the  party ;    and  this  wUl 
be   effected   by  mentioning   them   in  the   body   of 
the  writing.     Thus,  if  some  words  are  erased  and 
others  superinduced,  you  mention  th.at  the  super- 
induced  words    were    written    on   an    erasure ;    if 
words   are   simply  delete,  that  fact   is  noticed  ;  if 
words   are  added,  it  ought  to  be  on  the   margin, 
and  such  additions  signed  by  the  party,  with  his 
Christian  name  on  one  side,  and  his  surname  on  the 
other ;  and  such  marginal  addition  must  be  noticed 
in  the  body  of  the  writ,  so  as  to  specify  the  page  on 
wliich  it  occurs,  the  writer  of  it,   aud  that    it    is 
subscribed  by  the  attesting  witnesses.' — Menzies's 
Lectures  on  Conveynncing,  p.  124.     The  Roman  rule 
was,  that  the  alterations   should  be  made  by  the 
party  himself,  and  a  formal  clause  was  introduced 
into  their  deeds  to  this  effect,  '  Lituras,  inductiones, 
superinductioncs,   ipse   feci.'      As    a   general    rule, 
alterations   with  the    pen    are    in  all   cases   to  be 
))referred  to  erasure ;    and  suspicion  will  be  most 
effectually  removed  by  not  obUterating  the  words 
altered  so  completely  as  to  conceal  the  natiire  of 
the  correction.     '  The  worst  kmd  of  deletion,'  says 
Lord  Stair, '  is  when  the  words  deleted  cannot  be 
110 


read  (but  if  they  are  scored  that  they  can  be  read, 

it  will  appear  whether  they  be  de  substaiilialitiu.^), 
for  if  they  cannot  be  read,  they  will  be  esteemed  to 
be  such,  unless  the  contrary  appear  by  what  pro- 
cedes  and  follows,  or  that  there  be  a  marginal  note, 
bearing  the  deletion,  from  such  a  word  to  such  a 
word,  to  be  bf  consent. 

ERATO'STHENES,  an  eminent  Greek  writer, 
caUeti  on  account  of  his  varied  erudition,  the  Pliit- 
oloijid,  was  born  at  CjTCue  276  B.C.  Among  his 
teachers  were  Lysanias  the  grammarian,  and  Cal- 
limachus  the  i)oet.  By  Ptolemy  Euergetcs,  he  was 
called  to  Alexandria  to  superintend  his  great  library. 
Here  he  died  of  voluntary  starvation,  at  the  age  of 
SO,  having  become  blind,  and  wearied  of  Ufc.  As 
an  astronomer,  E.  holds  an  eminent  rank  among 
ancient  asti'onomers.  He  measm-ed  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  result  at  which  he  arrived 
— viz.,  that  it  was  23°  51  20"— must  be  reckoned  a 
very  fair  observation,  considering  the  age  in  which 
he  lived.  Hipparchus  used  it,  and  so  clid  the  cele- 
brated astronomer  Ptolemy.  An  astronomical  work 
which  goes  under  the  name  of  E,  but  which  is  cer- 
tainly not  his,  is  still  extant,  aud  is  called  Kalasler- 
ismoi ;  it  contains  an  account  of  the  constellations, 
their  fabidous  history,  and  the  stars  in  them.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  E.  did  draw  up  a  catalogue 
of  the  iixed  stars,  amoimting  to  675 ;  but  it  is  lost. 
A  letter  to  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egji)t,  on  the  dupli- 
cation of  the  cube,  is  the  only  complete  writmg  of 
his  that  we  possess.  E.'s  greatest  claim  to  distinc- 
tion, however,  is  iis  a  geometer.  In  his  .attempt  to 
measure  the  luaguitude  of  the  earth,  he  introduced 
the  method  which  is  used  at  the  present  day,  and 
found  the  cii-cunilerence  of  the  earth  to  be  2r)2,OII() 
stacUa  ;  which,  according  to  Pliny,  is  ."LSUO  Roman 
nules.  But  as  it  is  not  kuown  what  stadium  E.  used, 
it  is  possible  that  he  came  nearer  the  actual  cir- 
cumference than  the  above  figures  indicate.  His 
work  on  geography  must  have  been  of  great  value 
in  his  times  :  it  was  the  first  truly  scientific  treatise 
on  the  subject.  E.  worked  up  into  an  orgauic 
whole  the  scattered  infonuation  regarding  places 
and  countries  related  in  the  books  of  travels,  &c., 
contained  in  the  Alexandi-ian  Library.  He  also 
wrote  on  moral  jjhilosophy,  history,  gr.ammar,  &c. 
His  work  on  the  Old  Attic  Comedy  appears,  from 
the  remains  which  we  possess,  to  have  been  a  learned 
and  very  judicious  performance.  Such  fragments  of 
E.'3  wiitings  as  are  stLU  extant  have  been  collected 
by  Bernhardy  in  his  Eratosthenica  (Berlin,  1822). 

E'RBIXJjM  (sjTubol  E)  is  a  rare  metal,  the  com- 
]>ounds  of  which  are  fomid  in  a  few  scarce  minerals, 
especially  in  gadolinite,  obtained  from  Ytterby,  in 
Sweden.  In  its  compounds  and  properties  it 
resembles  the  metal  aliuniuium. 

ERCI'LLA  Y  ZUNIGA,  Alonso,  a  Spanish 
I>oet,  was  born  at  Madrid,  August  7,  15.33.  He 
w.is  the  third  son  of  a  Spanish  jurist,  and  at  an 
e.arly  period  became  page  to  the  Infanta  Don  Philip, 
son  of  Charles  V.,  aecompanj'ing  him  on  his  journey 
througli  the  Netherlands,  and  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  and  in  1554,  to  England,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  celebration  of  Philip's  luipti.als  with 
Queen  Mary.  Shortly  after,  E.  went  with  the  army 
dispatched  "to  America  to  queU  the  insmrection  of 
the  Auracanians  on  the  coast  of  Chili.  The  difR- 
cultics  with  which  the  Spaniards  hail  to  contend, 
the  heroism  displayed  by  the  natives  in  the  unequal 
contest,  and  the  multitude  of  gallant  achievements 
by  which  this  war  was  distinguished,  suggested  to 
E.  the  idea  of  making  it  the  subject  of  an  epic  ])oem. 
He  began  his  poem  on  the  spot,  about  the  year  1558, 
occasionally  committing  his  verses,  in  the  absence  of 
paper,  to  pieces  of  leather.     An  unfounded  suspicion 


EEEBUS— ERGOT. 


of  his  harinj;  plotted  an  insurrection  involved 
liim  in  a  jiainful  trial,  and  he  had  actually  ascended 
the  acatl'old  before  his  innocence  was  proved. 
Deeply  wounded,  the  brave  soldier  and  poet  turned 
to  Spain,  but  Phdip  treating  him  with  great  coldness 
and  ne_:,'lect,  E.  made  a  tour  through  France,  Italy, 
Germany,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  For  some  time 
he  held  the  office  of  chamberlain  to  tlie  emperor 
Uudolf  II.,  but  in  15S0  returned  to  Madrid,  where 
ho  in  vain  exerted  himself  to  realise  an  independ- 
ence. The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
obscurity  and  jioverty  at  Madrid,  where  he  died, 
at  what  period  has  not  been  ascertained.  His 
historic  epos,  written  in  the  oeto-syllabic  measure, 
and  entitled  Araucana,  is,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  episodes,  a  faithful  description  of  actual 
events.  Cervantes,  in  his  Don  Quixote,  compares 
it  with  the  best  Italian  epics,  and  it  has  iin- 
rloubtedly  not  a  Uttle  of  the  epic  style  and  spirit. 
The  first  part  is  the  freshest  in  character,  haxnug 
been  completed  before  the  author's  return  to 
Europe,  where  it  was  first  pubhshed  separately 
(Marliid,  1569).  The  second  part  appeared  nine 
years  later.  In  it,  E.  by  the  introduction  of  episodes, 
yielded  more  to  the  taste  of  the  time  ;  and  this  was 
still  more  the  case  in  the  thu'd  jiart,  which  was  first 
]>ublishcd,  along  with  the  two  others,  in  1590.  In 
iSpain,  aiul  likewise  in  other  countries,  many  reprints 
of  the  poem  appeared  (the  most  elegant,  2  vols., 
JIadrid,  1770  ;  tlie  most  accurate,  2  vols.,  Machid, 
182S).  A  continuation  was  ]>ublishedby  Don  Diego 
Santistevan  Osorio,  of  Leon  (Salamanca,  1597).  A 
German  translation  has  been  published  by  Winter- 
ling  (2  vols.,  Mnremborg,  1831). 

E'REBTJ.S — the  n.ame  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Chaos 
— signifies  darkness,  and  is  used  specially  to  denote 
the  dark  and  gloomy  cavern  beneath  the  earth, 
through  which  the  shades  must  pass  in  going  to 
Hades. 

EUE'CHTHEUS  or  ERICHTHO'NIUS,  and 
ERECHTHE'UM.  Ei-echtheus,  an  Attic  hero,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Hephaestus  and  the 
Earth,  and  to  have  been  reared  by  Athena.  One 
form  of  the  tradition  states  that  when  a  child  he 
was  placed  by  Athena  in  a  chest,  which  was  j 
intrusted  to  Agraulos,  Pandrosos,  and  Herse,  the 
daughters  of  Cecrops,  with  the  strict  charge  that 
it  was  not  to  be  opened.  Agi-aulos  and  Herse, 
however,  unable  to  restrain  then-  curiosity,  opened 
the  chest,  and  discovering  a  child  entwined  with 
serpents,  they  were  seized  with  madness,  and  threw 
themselves  down  the  most  precipitous  part  of  the 
Acropolis.  Afterwards  Erechtheus  was  the  chief 
means  of  establishing  tlie  worship  of  Athena  in 
Attica.  He  is  regarded  as  the  foimder  of  the 
Erechtheimi,  the  temple  of  Athena  Pohas,  guardian 
of  the  city.  This  original  Erechtheum,  which 
contained  Ercchtheus's  tomb  after  his  death,  and 
wliieh  w.as  called  by  his  name,  was  burned  by  the 
Persians,  but  a  new  and  m.agnificent  temple  was 
raised  upon  the  same  site — north  of  the  Parthenon, 
and  near  the  northern  w.all  of  the  Acropohs — in 
the  boginning  of  the  4th  c.  B.C.  The  second 
Erechtheum  was  a  splendid  structure  of  the  Ionic 
order,  of  an  oblong  shape,  extending  from  east  to 
west,  abutting  in  side  chambers  at  the  western 
end,  towards  the  north  and  south,  and  having 
porticoes  adorned  with  colunms  at  its  eastern,  its 
northern,  aud  southern  extremities.  It  is  now  a 
complete  ruin. 

ERE'CTION,  Lords  of,  those  of  the  nobihty  in 
Scotland  to  whom  the  king,  after  the  Reformation, 
p'anted  lands,  or  tithes,  which  formerly  belonged  to 
the  church.  They  were  also  calleil  TitiUars  of 
Tithes  ;  tlie  gifts  being  by  no  means  confined  to  the 


nobUity.  These  titulars  had  the  same  rights  to 
erected  benefices,  both  in  lands  and  tithes,  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  monasteries  and  other 
religious  houses.  The  grants  were  made  under  tha 
burden  of  providing  competent  stipends  to  the 
reformed  clergy — an  obligation  which  was  very 
little  attended  to  liy  the  gi-antees,  prior  to  tho 
decrees  arbitral  of  Charles  I.,  in  1G29.  Ersk  B  ii 
tit.  10,  s.  18. 

EREJIACAU'SIS  (Gr.  cremn,  gently,  and  Icmms, 

combustion)  is  a  term  originally  proposed  by  Liebig 

to   indicate   the     slow    process   of    combustion   at 

ordinary  temperatures,  which  ensues  when  organic 

compoimds,  such  as  wood,  are  left  exposed  to  the 

\  air,  and  gradually  rot  away  or  decay.     The  process 

I  consists  in  the  oxygen  (0)  of  the  air  combining  with 

the  hydrogen  (H)  of  the  wood  fomiing  water  (HO), 

and  in  less  quantity  with  the  carbon   (C)   forming 

;  carbonic   aeid    (C0„),  leaving   a   brown   moidd   or 

powder,   called  by  chemists   idmin,  or    humus,  in 

which  carbon  preponderates. 

E'KFURT,  a  town  and  fortress  (>f  Prussian 
Saxony,  capital  of  old  Thuringia,  stands  in  a  highly 
I  cultivated  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gera, 
,  14  miles  west  of  Weimar.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  pierced  by  si.x  gates,  and  is  strengthened  liy 
two  citadels,  the  Petersberg  and  the  Cyriaksburg, 
1  both  formerly  monasteries.  Among  the  numerous 
{  churches,  the  cathedral  and  the  Chiu-ch  of  St 
Severus  are  the  finest.  Tho  cathedral  is  one  of  the 
most  venerable  Gothic  buildmgs  in  Germany,  aud 
jiossesses,  besides  a  veiy  rich  portal,  sourptm-cs 
dating  from  the  Uth  to  the  16th  century.  Of  the 
convents,  only  that  of  the  Ursuliue  nuns  remains. 
The  monastery  of  St  Augustine,  famous  as  the 
residence  of  Luther,  and  in  which  his  cell  is  still 
pointed  out,  was  converted  in  tlie  year  1820  iuto  an 
asylum  for  deserted  children.  The  other  remarkable 
buddings  are,  the  university,  founded  in  137s,  and 
suppressed  in  1810;  the  royal  .academy;  the  library, 
containing  50,000  volumes  ;  numerous  educational 
establishments,  infirmaries,  &c.  Pop.  in  1871, 
43,610.  Horticulture,  and  an  extensive  trade  in 
seeds,  are  carried  on.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  woollen,  sUk,  cotton,  and  linen  gootls,  yarn, 
shoes,  stockings,  tobacco,  leather,  &c. 

E.  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  c.  by  one  Erpes,  from  whom  it  took  its 
original  name  of  Erpesford.  During  the  middle 
ages,  at  the  time  of  its  highest  i>rasperity,  E.  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  contained  00,UO0  inhabitants. 
In  740,  .St  Boniface  founded  a  bishopric  at  E., 
and  in  the  year  805  it  was  converted  into  an 
entrepot  of  commerce  by  Charlemagne.  It  after- 
wards belonged  to  the  Hanse-league,  then  to  the 
elector  of  Mainz,  from  1801— ISOb  to  I'russia,  and 
from  that  time  until  1813  it  was  under  French 
ride.  E.  was  finally  restored  to  Prussia  by  tho 
Congress  of  Vienna.  In  the  spring  of  1850,  the 
jiarliament  of  the  states,  which  had  combined 
together  fur  union,  held  its  sittings  at  Erfurt. 

E'RGOT,  a  diseased  condition  of  the  germeu  of 
grasses,  sometimes  also  observed  in  some  of  tho 
C'liperacece.  It  begins  to  shew  itself  when  the  ger- 
men  is  young  ;  different  parts  of  the  flower  assume 
a  mildewed  appearance,  and  become  covered  with 
a  white  coating  composed  of  a  multitude  of  mimito 
spore-lUie  boilies  mixed  -with  delicate  cobweb-like 
filaments  ;  a  sweet  fiuid,  at  first  limpid,  afterwards 
viscid  ami  yellowish,  is  exuded ;  the  anthers  and 
stigmas  become  cemented  together;  theo\ade  swells 
tdl  it  greatly  exceeds  the  size  of  the  proper  seed, 
bursts  its  iutegiuuents,  and  becomes  elongated  and 
frequently  curved,  often  carries  on  its  apex  a  cap 
formed    of  the   agglutinated   anthers  and  stigmas, 

111 


ERGOTISM— ERIC. 


Ergot  of  Kyc. 


ami  assumes  a  '^^y,  liiowii,  jmrple,  violet,  and  at 
lenjjtli  a  Mack  colour,  as  the  visckl  cxuilation  dries 
and  hardens.  The  structure  dilTers  very  uuieh  from 
that  of  the  jiroperly  developed  seed ;  the  (|ualitie9 
are  not  less  diftercnt,  .almost  one-half  of  the  whole 
substance  consists  of  funijin  :  and  the  cells  contain, 
instead  of  starch,  fjlobules  of  a  lu'culiar  lixed  oil  -  - 
Oil  of  Ekgot,  to  which  the  remarkable  (jualities  of 
ergot  are  supposed  to  be  chielly  or  entirely  due. 
Oil  of  ergot  forms  about  35  ])cr  ceut.  of  the  ergot  of 
rye.  Ergot  appears 
to  have  been  first 
obser\-ed  in  rye,  in 
which  it  becomes  vcr}' 
,  I  y  conspicuous  from  the 
I//,-  Large  size  it  attains, 
''  '  sometimes  an  inch  or 
even  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length.  It  is, 
however,  not  uncom- 
mon iu  wheat  and 
b.arley,  although  in 
them  it  is  not  so 
conspicuous,  from  its 
general  resemblance 
to  the  orduiary  ripened 
grain.  Kye -grass  is 
often  atl'ected  with 
ergot,  as  are  many 
other  grasses  ;  and  it 
is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  maize,  in 
which  also  it  attains 
its  gi-eatest  size.  Ergot 
has  been  supposed  to 
be  merely  a  disease 
occasi<)ned  by  wet  seasons  or  other  chmatic  causes. 
But  it  appears  now  to  be  fully  ascertained,  that 
it  is  a  disease  occasioned  by  the  presence  of 
the  myrAimn  of  a  fungus ;  the  spores  of  which 
may  perhaps  be  carried  to  the  Hower  through 
the  juices  of  the  ])lant,  for  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  ergot  in  a  field  of  grain  may  be  pro- 
duced by  infected  seed.  Mr  Quekett,  in  1838, 
described  a  fungus,  a  kind  of  Mould  (q.  v.),  which 
he  found  in  ergot,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Ergotrtlia  ahortifaciens.  Link  and  Berkeley 
afterwards  referred  it  to  the  genus  Oidium ;  and 
they,  as  well  as  others,  believed  it  to  be  the  true 
ergot  fungus.  The  spores  of  this  ergot  moidd,  how- 
ever, vegetate  readily,  under  proper  conditions  of 
warmth  and  moisture,  in  situations  vei-y  different 
from  that  iu  which  ergot  is  produced ;  and  its 
presence  is  pcrliaps  a  consequence  rather  than  the 
cause  of  ergot.  The  true  ergot  fungus  seems  to 
have  been  discovered  by  Tulasne,  who  published  a 
description  of  it  in  ISo.'j.  That  of  the  ergot  of  rye 
is  called  Cordiceps  (or  Claviccps)  purpurea;  its 
mycelium  alone  exists  in  ergot,  but  if  the  ergoted 
gi-ains  are  so\vn,  the  fungus  develops  itself  in  its 
]icrfect  form,  growing  in  Uttle  tufts  from  the  surface 
of  the  ergot,  with  stem  about  half  an  inch  long, 
and  subgiobular  head.  Allied  species  appear  to 
produce  the  ergot  of  other  grasses. 

Ergot  is  inflammable  ;  the  lixed  oil  which  it  con- 
tains, indeed,  makes  it  burn  reaiUly  if  brought  into 
contact  with  the  ilame  of  a  candle.  It  is  a  vahialile 
medicine,  exercising  a  sjjecillc  action  on  the  womb, 
jjarticularly  duruig  laljour,  and  by  the  greater 
frequency  and  force  of  the  contractions  which  it 
causes  when  cautiously  administered,  often  most 
benelicially  hastening  delivery.  Its  cmplojTnent 
for  this  jiurpose  is  said  to  have  originated — in  conse- 
quence, pi'nbaltly,  of  an  accidental  discover^' — witli  a 
pr^t^i^(•ial  female  jiractitioncr  in  ^'ranc^^  Its  intro- 
duction into  British  practice  dates  only  from  1824. 


It  is  the  ergot  of  rye  which  is  always  employed ; 
also  called  SriKRKi>  Uyk,  or  Secah  cornntum.  It 
has  been  emjUoyed  also  as  a  sedative  of  the  cinnda- 
tion,  to  check  various  kinds  of  hiemorrhage.  Ergot 
is  .administered  in  various  forms  —powder,  decoction, 
extract,  tincture,  oil  of  ergot,  &c. — In  large  or  fre- 
(picnt  doses,  ergot  is  a  poison,  sometimes  jircxlucing 
convulsions,  followed  by  death ;  sometimes  gan- 
giene  of  the  extremities,  resulting  in  mutilation 
or  in  death. 

Ergot  of  rye  consists  of  35  per  cent,  of  a  peculiar 
fixed  oil,  \\  of  ergotin,  4G  of  fnngin,  the  remainder 
being  gimi,  fat.  albvunen,  salts,  &c.  Ergot  burns 
with  a  _>'ello\v-\\'liite  lianie,  and  treated  with  water, 
yields  a  reddish  coloured  liquid  with  acid  properties. 
In  considerable  quantities,  it  is  a  poison  to  tho 
lower  animals  as  well  as  to  man. 

E'RGOTISIW,  the  constitutional  eflect  of  Ergot 
of  Eye  (q.  v.).     See  also  Rapuasia. 

ERIC  is  the  Scandinavian  form  of  the  n.ame 
Ilenricus,  Enrico,  and  Hemy  of  southern  nations. 
Many  kings  of  the  name  reigned  se]>arately  in 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  some  ruled  over  the 
whole  of  Scandinavia  after  the  union  of  Calniar. 
The  memory  of  the  two  earliest  riders  of  the  name 
in  Denmark  merits  our  notice  from  their  associa- 
tion with  the  introduction  of  Ohiistianity.  Eric  I., 
who  died  in  800,  protected  the  Christians  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  and,  under  the  direction  of 
the  missionary  Ausg.ar  or  Auscharius,  founded  the 
cathedral  of  Kibe,  the  first  Christian  church  in  the 
laud.  Li  his  time,  the  Northmen  began  those  incur- 
sions into  more  southern  countries,  which  were 
destined  to  exercise  so  permanent  an  inliucnce  on 
European  history.  Eric  11.  followed  in  the  steps 
of  his  father,  and  permitted  Ansgar  to  prosecute 
the  laboiu'  of  converting  ami  eirilising  the  jieople, 
which  won  for  him  the  title  of  the  Tutelar  Saint  of 
the  Noith.  To  Eric  11.  is  ascribed  the  reorganisation 
of  those  guilds  which  finally  merged  iu  the  niunici- 
]).al  corporations  of  tlie  middle  ages,  but  which  were, 
at  first,  a  mere  modification  of  the  heathen  brother- 
hoods of  the  Scandinarian  heroic  ages,  and  consti- 
tuted associations,  whose  members  were  a  privileged 
class,  separated  liy  distinct  laws,  rights,  and  duties 
from  the  rest  of  the  jicoj»le.  Demn.ark  suflered  in 
the  I'ith  c.  in  an  equal  degree  from  the  two  Erics 
who  ruled  over  her,  for  while  Eric,  surnamed  Enum, 
exhausted  the  strength  of  the  land  by  the  indomit- 
able pertinacity  with  which  he  endeavoured,  by 
force  of  anus,  to  compel  the  Vandals  and  other 
piratical  neighboiu's  to  accept  the  Christianity  whicli 
he  thrust  upon  them,  Eric  'the  Lamb'  crijipled 
the  powers  and  resoin-ces  of  the  crown  l)y  his  pusil- 
lanimous subserviency  to  the  clergy.  The  three 
Erics  (Eric  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII.)  who  occujiied  the 
throne,  "with  only  the  intermission  (if  a  few  years, 
from  1241  to  1319,  are  associated  with  one  of  the 
most  disastrous  periods  of  Danish  history.  Long 
minorities,  the  suicidal  jmictice  of  dismendiering  tlie 
crown-lauds  in  favour  of  younger  branches  of  tlie 
royal  house,  and  futile  attempts  to  restrain  the 
ever-increasing  encroachments  of  the  church,  com- 
bined to  bring  the  coimtry  to  the  brink  of  destruction. 
Eric  VI.  (Plogpenning)  and  Eric  VII.  ((Hipping) 
were  Ijoth  assassinated,  the  former  at  the  instigation 
of  a  brother,  and  the  latter  in  revenge  for  a  private 
injury.  Eric  Vlll.,  the  last  of  the  name  before  the 
union  of  ('almar,  died  childless,  and  was  succeeded, 
in  1319,  by  his  .ambitious  brother  Cliristo])lier,  who 
saw  himself  compelled  to  rep.ay  his  ])artisans  at  the 
expense  of  almost  all  the  prerogatives  and  appanages 
which  still  belonged  to  the  crown. 

In  Sweden,  the  first  of  the  n.ame  who  merits  our 
notice  is  King  Erie,  surnamed  the  Saint,  who  was 


EEICE.E— ERICSSON. 


slain  in  battle  in  11  Gl,  after  a  short  reign,  which 
was  signalised,  in  that  age  of  anarchy,  i)y  the 
foundation  of  many  churches  and  monasteries,  and 
by  the  promidgation  of  an  excellent  code  of  laws, 
known  as  St  Ericas  Larj.  This  law  contained 
proA-isions  by  which  a  higher  statiLs  in  society 
was  secured  to  women,  by  granting  them  a  fixed 
proportion  of  the  heritage  of  their  male  relatives, 
and  certain  definite  jirivileges  irithiu  their  house- 
holds. iSt  Eric  waged  frequent  war  with  the 
Finns,  and  compelled  them  to  adopt  the  outward 
forms  of  Christianity.  The  two  namesakes  and 
descendants  of  St  Erie,  who  nded  in  Sweden 
(luring  the  1,3th  c.,  and  Eric  XII.,  who  reigned  from 
1.350  to  1359,  have  little  claim  to  our  notice,  for 
internal  disturbances  and  wars  with  their  neigh- 
bours brought  about  the  same  fatal  residts  as  those 
wliich  are  associated  vriih  the  reigns  of  the  Erics  in 
Denmark  during  the  uiidtUe  .ages.  In  1412,  on  the 
death  of  the  great  Marg.aret,  her  relative,  Eric  of 
I'omerani.a,  succeeded  to  the  triple  crown  of  .Scandi- 
naWa,  in  accordance  with  the  articles  of  the  famous 
treaty  of  Calmar.  The  noble  heritage  that  had 
been  bequeathed  to  Eric  required  a  firmer  hand 
and  a  braver  spirit  than  his  to  keep  it  in  check  ; 
and  liis  reckless  disregard  of  treaties  and  oaths,  his 
neglect  of  his  duties,  and  his  misdirected  ambition, 
led,  after  years  of  dissensions,  maladministration,  and 
disaffection,  to  the  inevitable  result  that  Eric  was 
declared  to  have  forfeited  the  respective  thrones 
of  the  several  kingdoms,  which  proceeded  to  elect 
nUers  of  their  own.  The  intestine  wars  to  which 
this  condition  of  things  gave  rise,  plimged  the  whole 
of  ScandinaWa  into  anarchy,  and  sowed  seeds  of 
dissension  among  the  three  kindred  nations,  which 
bore  fatal  fraita  in  subsequent  ages.  The  last  ten 
years  of  Eric's  life  were  spent  in  the  exercise  of 
piracy  in  the  island  of  Gothland,  whither  he  had 
retired  ■with  his  mistress  and  a  band  of  followers, 
and  from  whence  he  sent  forth  jiiratical  expeditions 
to  pillage  both  friends  and  foes.  Eric  married 
I'hilippa,  daughter  of  Henry  FV.  of  England,  whose 
memory  is  stiS  cherished  in  the  north,  on  account  of 
the  many  noble  deeds  with  which  local  tradition 
as.sociates  her  n.ame.  Eric  XIV.,  the  last  of  the  name 
who  reigned  in  Sweden,  had  the  distinction  of  being 
at  once  one  of  the  worst  and  one  of  the  most  imhappy 
of  the  name.  He  succeeded,  in  1560,  to  the  throne 
of  his  father,  Gustaf  Vasa,  who  was  perhaps  the 
greatest  and  worthiest  monarch  that  ever  reignied 
over  Sweden,  and  immediately  on  his  accession,  he 
made  known  the  difference  that  was  so  unfavom'ably 
to  distinguish  his  reign  from  that  of  his  father,  by 
quarrelling  with  his  brothers,  thwarting  the  nobles, 
and  opposing  the  lower  orders.  His  fickleness  and 
extravagance  were  displayed  in  a  succession  of 
embassies,  which  were  iu  tmn  sent  to  almost  every 
European  court  to  demand  a  consort  for  this  vacillat- 
ing monarch,  who  us\ially  changed  his  mind  before 
his  envoj's  had  time  to  fulfil  their  missions.  Eliza- 
beth of  England  and  Mary  of  Scotland  were  more 
than  once  the  oljjects  of  his  matrimonial  schemes  ; 
but  when  the  resources  of  the  country  had  been 
seriously  crippled  by  these  costly  and  absurd  expe- 
ditions, Eric  married  a  Swedish  peasant-girl,  who 
idtimately  acquired  an  influence  over  hini  wliich  was 
ascribed  by  the  superstitious  to  witchcraft,  since  she 
alone  was  able  to  control  him  in  the  violent  paroxysms 
of  blind  fury  to  which  he  was  subject.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Eric  laboured  under  remittent  attacks  of 
insanity,  and  that  to  this  cause  may  be  attributed 
the  blood-thirsty  cruelty  vnth  which  he  persecuted 
those  of  his  o^vn  relatives  or  attendants  who  fell 
under  his  suspicion.  His  capricious  cruelties  at  length 
aliemated  the  minds  of  his  subjects,  who,  wearied 
with  the  continuous  wars  and  disturbances  in  which 


his  evil  passions  involved  them,  threw  off  their 
allegiance  iu  15G8,  and  solemnly  elected  his  brother 
John  to  the  throne.  For  nine  years,  the  unhappy 
Eric  suffered  every  indignity  at  the  hands  of  the 
keepers  appointed  by  his  brother  to  guard  him,  and 
in  1577,  he  was  compelled  to  terminate  his  miserable 
existence  by  swallowing  poison,  in  obedience  to  his 
brother's  orders.  Singidar  to  saj-,  this  half  madman 
was  a  person  of  cultivated  understanding,  and  he 
solaced  his  captivity  with  music  and  the  composition 
of  psalms,  and  in  keeping  a  voluminous  journal. 

ERI'CE^,  or  ERICA'CE/E,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  small  shrubs, 
but  containing  also  some  trees.  The  leaves  are 
opposite  or  in  whorls,  entire,  destitute  of  stipides, 
often  small,  generally  evergreen  and  rigid.  The 
flowers  are  sometimes  solitary  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  sometimes  grouped  in  dift'erent  modes  of 
inflorescence,  and  are  often  of  great  beauty,  in 
which  respect  no  order  of  plants  excels  this  ;  the 
beauty  of  the  smallest  species,  and  of  those  which 
have  very  small  flowers,  rivalling  that  of  others 
which  are  trees  profusely  covered  with  magnificent 
clusters.  About  900  species  of  this  order  are  known, 
of  which  the  greater  nuxiiljer  are  natives  of  South 
Africa,  which  particularly  aboimds  in  the  genus 
Erica,  and  its  aUies — the  true  Heaths  (q.  v.) — 
although  some  of  them  are  also  found  to  the  utmost 
limits  of  northern  vegetation.  They  are  rare  within 
the  tropics,  and  only  occur  at  considerable  eleva- 
tions. Few  species  are  foimd  in  AustraUa.  Many 
of  the  E.  are  social  plants,  and  a  single  species  some- 
times covers  great  tracts,  constituting  their  piincipal 
vegetation.  This  is  most  strikingly  exemplified  iu 
the  heaths  of  Europe  and  the  North  of  Asia. 
Medicinal  properties  exist  in  some  of  the  E.,  as 
the  Beareeery  (see  Arbutus),  and  the  Ground 
L.iUKEL  of  North  America  (Epigmi  repcns),  a  jiopular 
remedy  in  the  United  States  for  affections  of  the 
bowels  and  urluary  organs.  Narcotic  and  poisonous 
qualities  are  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence.  See 
ANDROjrEDA,  AzAi.F.v,  Kalmia,  Ledoi,  Ehododex- 
DRON.  The  berries  of  some  species  are  edible  (see 
Arbutus  and  Gaultheria),  although  none  are 
much  esteemed. — The  KHODODE>rDRE.E  have  some- 
times been  regarded  as  a  distmct  order,  but  are 
generally  considered  a  suborder  of  E.,  containing 
the  genera  Shododendron,  Azalea,  Kalmia,  Ledum, 
&c.  The  larger  leaves  and  flowers,  and  gener- 
ally also  the  larger  plants  of  the  order,  belong  to 
this  suliordcr ;  wliich,  however,  contains  also  niany 
small  shrubs  of  subarctic  and  elevated  mountainous 
regions. 

E'RICHT  or  E'RROCHT,  Locn,  lies  in  the 
north-west  of  Perthshire  and  south  of  Inverness- 
shire,  in  an  uninhabited  cUstrict,  the  wildest  and 
most  inaccessible  in  Scotland,  amid  the  Grampian 
momitains.  Its  banks  rise  steeply  from  the  water's 
edge.  It  is  fourteen  miles  long  and  nearly  one  mile 
broad,  and  it  extends  iu  a  south-west  direction  from 
near  Dahvhinnie  on  the  Dunkeld  and  Inverness 
road.  By  one  outlet  it  joins  Loch  Eannoch,  and  by 
another  it  nms  into  Loch  Lydoch,  its  waters  ulti- 
mately reaching  the  Tay.  Its  surface  is  about  1500 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  never  freezes.  In  a  cave 
at  the  south  end  of  the  loch,  Prince  Charles  lay  hid 
in  1740. 

E'RICSSON,  Jonx,  a  distinguished  engineer,  was 
born  in  Sweden  iu  180.3.  After  serving  for  some 
time  as  an  officer  of  engineers  in  the  Swedish  army, 
he  removed  in  1S2G  to  England,  and  continued  to 
occupy  himself  with  improvements  chiefly  on  steam 
machinery  and  its  applications.  It  is  to  E.  that 
steam  navigation  owes  the  Screw-jiropeller  (q.  v.). 
In  1839  he  went  to  New  York,  United  States,  where 

113 


ERIE— ERIOCATJIiACE.'E. 


he  has  lived  since,  ami  has  brought  out  his  im- 
proved caloric  engine,  &c.  He  constructed  the 
iron-clad  Monitor,  which  successfully  oiiposed  the 
Men-irnacl:  in  Hampton  Roads,  March  9,  1S62.  See 
Caloric  Engine. 

E'RIE,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  which  empty 
themselves  by  the  St  Lawrence,  sejiarates  Upper 
Canada  on  its  left  from  Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  New  York  on  its  riglit.  It  is  the  most 
southern  of  the  five,  receiving  at  its  south-western 
extremity  the  waters  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
and  Huron  by  the  river  Detroit,  and  discharging 
them  at  its  north-east  by  the  Niagara  into  Lake 
Ontario.  With  a  length  of  240  miles,  E.  has  a 
breadth  v.arj-ing  from  311  to  nearly  GO  miles,  vrtth  an 
area  of  !)t>0()  square  miles.  It  is  16  feet  below  the 
Huron,  and  322  and  5.55  respectively  above  the 
Ontario  and  the  Atl.intic.  At  its  south-western 
extremity  are  several  wooded  and  partly  cultivated 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  about  14  miles  iu 
circumfereuce.  It  is  by  far  the  shallowest  of  the 
five  great  lakes.  Its  mean  depth  is  stated  at  120 
feet ;  and  from  this  comparative  shallowness  and 
the  consequent  liabihty  to  a  heavy  grouud-swell, 
as  well  as  on  account  of  the  small  number  of 
good  harbours,  the  navigation  is  peculiarly  difficiUt 
and  dangerous.  The  chief  harbours  on  the  south, 
or  United  States  shore,  besides  the  natural  harbour 
of  Erie  itself  or  Presque  Isle,  are  those  of  Cleve- 
land, Sandusky  City,  and  Toledo ;  and  on  the 
north  or  Cana<iian  shore.  Ports  Dover,  Burwell,  and 
Stanley.  Lake  E.  receives  no  rivers  of  any  conse- 
quence. Its  commercial  importance,  however,  has 
been  largely  increased  by  art.  It  is  connected  bj' 
one  canal  with  the  Hudson,  and  by  more  than  one 
with  the  Ohio ;  while,  on  the  British  side,  it  com- 
mmiicates  with  the  Ontario  by  means  of  a  still  more 
available  work,  the  ship-channel  of  the  Welland. 
Its  navigation  generally  closes  in  the  beginning  of 
December,  and  the  lake  remains  more  or  less  frozen 
till  March  or  April.  The  commercial  importance  of 
this  lake  has  been  greatly  enhanced  the  last  few 
years  by  the  establishment  of  nimierous  lines  of 
railway  conuectiug  its  ports  with  the  interior.  The 
amount  of  traffic  on  the  lake  and  on  these  railwaj's 
is  enormous.  Lake  E.  was  the  scene  of  a  naval 
engagement  between  the  British  and  Americans, 
Sejitember  10,  1813,  in  which  the  latter  were  vic- 
torious. 

ERIE,  a  port  on  the  lake  of  its  own  name  in  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  stands  in  lat.  42°  8'  N.,  and 
long.  80°  10'  W.  Its  harbour,  one  of  the  largest  and 
best  on  the  coast,  is  formed  by  au  island  of  four 
miles  in  length,  which,  imder  the  appellation  of 
Presque  Isle,  still  preserves  the  memory  of  its  having 
beeu  a  peninsula.  The  belt  of  w.ater,  which  is  thus 
sheltered,  is  known  as  Presque  Isle  Bay,  and  forms 
a  natur.ll  harbour  for  the  city.  It  is  now  protected 
by  a  breakwater.  It  is  3J  mile3  long,  and  1  mile 
wide,  and  varies  in  depth  from  9  to  25  feet.  While 
much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  natural  advan- 
tages of  its  position,  E.  has  been  connected  by  means 
of  a  canal  with  the  Beaver,  a  feeder  of  the  Ohio  ; 
and  this  work,  independently  of  its  narigable  facili- 
ti<'S,  affords  extensive  water-power  to  mills  of 
diflfcrent  kinds.  It  is  -iSie  terminus  of  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Erie  Railway,  and  is  by  other  lines 
connected  with  New  York,  Cleveland,  &o.  This 
port  is  destined  to  become  an  important  centre  of 
trade.    Poj).  (1860)  9419. 

ERI'GENjV,  Jo.\nnes  Scotus,  a  famous  philoso- 
pher of  the  middle  ages,  w.as  born  probal)ly  iu 
Ireland,  and  llourished  during  the  9th  century. 
Very  little  is  known  regarding  his  history.  He 
appears  to  have  resided  principally  in  France,  at 
114 


the  court  of  Charles  the  BaliL  In  the  controversies 
of  his  time,  regarding  i)redestination  and  transub- 
stantiation,  he  took  part.  His  philosophic  opinions 
were  those  of  a  Neo-Platonist  rather  than  of  a 
scholastic.  His  love  for  the  mystic  doctrines  of  the 
old  Alexandrian  philosophers  was  shewn  by  his 
translation  of  the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  which  proved  to  be  a  weU-sprmg  of 
mysticism  during  the  middle  ages.  E.  held  that 
God  is  the  essential  ground  of  all  things,  from  whom 
all  thinss  emanate,  and  into  whom  they  return 
again.  Pantheism,  therefore,  lurks  in  his  system. 
His  prlnciiial  work  is  Ve  Dhnxione  jVa/urre  (pub- 
lished by  Gale,  Oxford,  1681).  One  of  its  leailing 
thoughts  is  the  identity  of  ]ihilosophy  and  religion, 
when  both  are  properly  apprehended.  E.  uttered 
his  opinions  \vith  great  bolilne.ss,  and  he  exhibited 
no  less  subtlety  and  strength  of  intellect  in  their 
defence.  He  expressed  his  contempt  for  theo- 
logical dogmatism,  aud  %'indicated  the  authority  of 
reason  over  all  other  authority.  His  words  are  : 
'  Authoritj'  is  derived  from  reason,  and  not  reason 
from  authority ;  and  when  the  former  is  not  con- 
firmed by  the  latter,  it  possesses  no  value.'  Consult 
Hjort's  Joli.  E.  odervom  Urspninye  einer  ChrisUic/ten 
Philosophie  (Copenh.  1823),  Standenmayer's  Joh.  E. 
und  die  Wissenschaft  seiner  Zeit  (Frankfurt,  1834), 
and  Taillandier  Scot.  E.  el  la  Philosophie  Scliolastiqut 
(Strasburg  and  Paris,  1843). 

ERI'GERON,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat\u-al 
order  Compositir,  suborder  Conjmhifera,  having 
heads  (flowers)  of  many  florets,  the  florets  of  the  ray 
numerous,  in  several  rows,  of  a  diflferent  colour  from 
those  of  the  disc.  Two  or  three  si)ecies  are  natives 
of  Britain,  the  most  common  of  which,  E.  acris,  has 
a  stem  IG — 18  inches  high,  narrow  entire  leaves, 
flower-stalks  forming  a  kind  of  corymb,  flowers  with 
yellow  disc  and  pale-blue  ray.  It  has  a  iiowerfiJ 
odour,  which  is  said  to  keep  away  fleas,  and  the 
name  Flea-b.'Uje  is  sometimes  given  to  the  plant. 
Its  ashes  contain  about  5  per  cent,  of  potash,  for 
the  sake  of  which  it  is  sometimes  collected  and 
bumecL  E.  Phihulelphicinn,  a  native  of  North 
America,  with  pale-]iurple  ray,  and  a  fetid  smell,  is 
valued  in  the  United  States  as  a  dim-etic. 

ERXNA'CEUS    and    ERINACE'ADyE.       See 

HEDOEnOO. 

ERI'NNA,  a  Greek  poetess,  concerning  the  date 
of  whose  birth  the  most  dilferent  statements  are 
advanced.  According  to  some,  she  w.as  the  intimate 
friend  of  Sappho  (hence  she  is  likemse  called  the 
Lesbian  singer),  aud  was  bom  at  Rhodes,  or  on  the 
Uttle  island  of  Telos,  situated  west  of  Rhodes  ;  while 
others  maintain  that  she  lived  iu  the  .age  of  Demos- 
thenes ;  and  others  again,  perplexed  by  such  a  wide 
difiference  in  point  of  time,  have  recourse  to  the 
hy])othesis  of  two  poetesses  of  this  n.ame.  E.  acquired 
such  celebrity  by  her  epic,  epigranunatic,  and  lyric 
))oems,  that  her  verses  were  compared  with  those  of 
Homer,  although  she  died  at  tlie  early  age  of  19. 
The  genuineness  of  the  fragments  that  stdl  exist 
under  her  name,  has  been  disputed  on  good  groimds. 
These  have  been  collected  by  Schneidewin  in  the 
Delectus  Poesis  Grraecce  Elegiacic  (Glittingen,  1838). 
Compare  Malzow  Le  Erinnm  Leshice  vita  el  EeVniuiis 
(Petersburg,  1836). 

ERIOBO'TRYA.     See  Loquat. 

ERIOCAULA'CEj-E,  a  natural  order  of  endogen- 
ous plants,  nearly  aUied  to  liestiaccir,  and  containing 
about  200  known  s]>ecies,  many  of  which  are  aq<iatio 
or  marsh  plants.  The  E.  are  chiefly  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  America  and  Australia.  One 
species,  Eriocaulon  septanrjulare,  Jointed  Pipbwort, 
is  foimd  in  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  in  some  of  the 


ERIODEXDEOX— ERLKOOTG. 


Hebrides  ;  a  little  grass-like  plant,  growing  in  lakes 
which  have  a  muddy  bottom,  and  exhibitms;  small 
globular  heads  of  flowers.     From  its  botanical  affini- 


ties, and  ^^^th  reference 
to  geographical  distri- 
bution, no  British  plant 
is  more  interesting.  The 
E.  form  a  remarkable 
feature  of  the  vegeta- 
tion of  some  parts  of 
South  America ;  but 
many  of  the  species 
bear  little  resemblance 
to  their  humble  north- 
ern congener,  being 
almost  shrubby,  4 — (i 
feet  high,  with  leafy, 
much-branched  stems, 
'  each  branchlet  ter- 
minated by  a  large 
white  ball,  composed 
of  a  vast  number  of 
smaller  heads,  placed 
on  pedimcles  of  unequal 
length.'  Many  of  them 
also  grow  on  arid  moun- 
tainous regions ;  others 
in  fiat  sandy  grounds, 
which  are  flooded  in  the 
wet  season. — Gardner's 
Travels  in  Brazil. 

ERIODE'NDROX, 

a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural    order    Stercu- 
liacece,  natives  of  tropi- 
Jointcd  Pipewoi-t  (EriocauJon  cal  countries,  the  thick 
scpUingularc) :  woody  capsides  of  which 

a,  tuft  of  leaves,  flowcr-stalk  with  contain  a  kind  of  wool 
flovveis  anil  part  of  ciecpins  surrounding  the  seeds, 
mot;  6,  seeil;  c,  bract  or  scale;  rru  j.      °  ^^^^s. 

d.  female  fiower;  e,  pistil;  /,  -Inese  trees  are  there- 
male  flower,  fore  sometimes  called 
Wool-trees.  The  wool 
of  E.  Samanna  is  used  in  Brazil  for  stuffing  pillows. 
K  (iiifractuosum,  of  which  one  variety,  found  in  the 
East  Indies,  is  sometimes  called  A'."  Jndicum,  and 
another  foimd  in  Africa,  £.  Giilneense,  is  a  tree  of 
great  height,  150  feet  or  more.  The  African  variety 
or  species  is  called  RiMi  and  Bextauo.  Park  men- 
tions it  by  the  latter  name.  Barth  says  it  is  gene- 
rally to  be  seen  growing  near  the  principal  g-ite  of 
large  towns  in  Hansa.  Its  wood  is  soft  and  spongy, 
chiefly  used  for  making  canoes.  The  seeds  of  £. 
Indicuni  are  eaten  in  Celebes.  They  are  roundish, 
and  of  the  size  of  peas.  The  trees  of  this  genus 
have  palmate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  large  and 
beautifid. 

ERIWA'X  (Persian,  Eewdn),  the  fortified  capital 
of  Russian  .-Vrmenia,  situated  to  the  north  of  Ararat, 
in  the  elevated  plain  of  Aras  or  Araxes,  lat.  40°  10' 
X.,  long.  44°  32'  £.,  3312  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
se.a.  It  consists  of  the  town,  properly  so  called,  and 
the  fortress,  which  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
high  walls,  and  provided  with  aqueducts ;  a  stone 
bridge  over  the  Zenga,  which  here  falls  into  the 
Ara.\es  ;  a  barracVrs,  three  mosques,  one  of  which 
has  been  converted  into  a  Russian  church,  the 
palace  of  the  Sardar,  and  a  bazaar.  Pup.  (1S5S) 
IK)  10,  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  com- 
merce. E.  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Persian 
province  of  Aran,  celebrated  for  its  sflk.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  o.,  the  khan  Rewan,  at  the 
command  of  Ismael,  the  shah  of  Persia,  erected  a 
strong  fortress,  which  he  called  after  his  own  name. 
An  Armenian  school  was  established  at  E.  in  1629, 
but  transferred  to  Ejmiadzin  in  1631.     During  the 


last  war  between  Russia  and  Persia,  E.  was  stormed 
by  the  Russian  general,  Paske%vitsch,  who  received 
the  surname  of  Eriwanski ;  and  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  at  Turlonanjai,  22d  February  182S, 
it  wa-s  given  up  by  Persia  to  Russia,  along  with  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  It  is  now  an  important 
Russian  post,  as  in  former  times  it  formed  the  bul- 
wark of  Persia  against  the  Turks,  and  afterwards 
against  Russia.  In  the  year  1840,  it  was  much 
devastated  by  an  earthquake. 

E'REANGEN,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  is  situated  in 
the  midst  of  a  well  cultivated  district,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Regnitz,  10  miles  north  of  Kiimbtu-g. 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  and  is  surroimded  by  walls 
pierced  by  seven  gates ;  its  streets— a  great  niunber 
of  which  were  erected  after  the  year  1706,  when  a 

fire   consumed   a   large   portion   of    the   town are 

straight  and  regular.  It  is  divided  into  the  Old 
and  New  Towns,  the  latter  founded  in  1686  by 
Christian,  markgraf  of  Bayreuth.  E.  is  the  seat  of 
a  university,  of  a  gymnasium,  of  agricuJtiu-al  and 
industrial  schools,  and  other  institutions.  The 
university,  however,  is  the  chief  building.  It  was 
foimded  in  1742,  and  is  celebrated  as  a  school  of 
Protestant  theology,  is  atteuded  by  between  400 
and  500  students,  has  a  library  containing  100,000 
vols,  and  1000  manuscripts,  and  also  zoological  and 
mineralogical  collections,  &c.  E.  owes  its  prosperity 
to  the  migration  thither  of  a  number  of  refugees 
from  France,  who  were  compelled  to  flee  on  "the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Kantes,  and  who  intro- 
duced many  new  branches  of  manufacture  at 
Erlangen.  Besides  its  extensive  stocking  and  clove 
manufactories,  which  provide  the  greater  jiart  of 
Germany  with  their  goods,  E.  has  great  mirror  and 
tobacco  factories,  and  manufactures  of  combs  and 
horn-ware.  E.  became  a  Bavarian  possession  by 
the  treaty  of  1809.    Pop.  10,923. 

E'RLAXJ   (Hung.   Eger),    an    episcopal    city  of 
Hungary,   in  the   coimty  of  Heves,  of  which  "it  is 
capital,   is   situated   on   both   banks   of    the    river 
Erlau,  in  a  delightful  valley  skii-ted  with  vine-clad 
hills.      It  is  surroiuided  by  old  walls,   pierced  by 
sLx  gates ;  has  foxu-  suburbs,  in  which  the  greater 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  dweU ;   and  although  in 
general  its  streets  are  narrow  and  have  a  neglected 
appearance,  it  is  rich  in  fine  pubUc  buildings.     The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Lyceum,  with  a  valuable 
fibrary,   and   an    obser\'atory   172   feet   high ;    the 
recently  built  cathedral,  the  episcopal  palace,   the 
Franciscan  and  the  Minorite  monasteries,  a  richly 
embeUished    Greek    church,    a    county    hall,    anil 
the   new   barracks.     E.  has   also  a  gymnasium,  an 
episcopal  seminary,  a   normal  and  drawing  school, 
a   hospital    founded    in    1730,    which    possesses    a 
cajiital  of  nearly  400,000  guilders,  and  other  import- 
ant  institutions.     The    two   baths,  the    Turkenhad 
ami    the    Bischofsbad,    both    of    which    are   much 
resorted  to  during  the  bathing-season,  are  sujiplicd 
from  two  warm  springs  which  rise  from  the  bank 
of  the  Erlau.      The  cultivation    of  the  \Tne  is  the 
principal   occupation   of   the   inhabitants.     The   E. 
wine,  the  best  red  wine  of  Hungary,  is  produced  in 
considerable  quantities,  and  is  in  request  even  in 
foreign  countries.     There  are  also  manufactiues  of 
Imens,  woollens,  hats,  &c.,  and  an  important  weekly 
market,  which  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  indus- 
try of  the  toTvn.     Pop.  19,815,  most  of  whom  are 
Roman  Cathohe   in   reUgion,  and  Magyar  in   race. 
E.   owes  its  importance  to  the   very  old  bishopric 
founded  here  by  St  Ste[)hen  in  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  c,  and  which,  in  1804,  was  raised  to  an  arch- 
bishopric. 

ERLKONIG,  in  German,  is  the  name  applied  to  a 
poetical,  personified,  natural  power  which,  according 

115      ° 


EF.M  KXOXYILLE— ERNE. 


to  Gorman  poetical  authorities,  prepares  nusilnif 
and  ruin  for  men,  and  especially  for  children, 
through  delusive  seductions.  The  name,  not  con- 
nected •n-ith  the  root  erle,  is  sjaionjouous  vith 
Elfen  Konig.  The  E.  was  introduced  into  German 
poetry  from  the  Sagas  of  the  North,  through  Herder's 
translation  of  the  Erlkiinig's  Daughter  from  the 
Danish,  ami  has  become  universally  known  through 
Goethe's  b.allcul  of  the  Erlkuiiiij. 

ERMENON  VILLE,  a  vill.age  in  the  south-east  of 
the  deji.artment  of  Oise,  in  France,  in  the  possession 
of  the  Gh-ardin  family.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  lieauti- 
ful  and  extensive  i)arks,  and  as  being  the  resting- 
place  of  Kousseaii,  for  which  reason  it  is  much  visited 
in  summer  by  strangers  from  Paris.  It  was  also 
the  residence  of  GabrieUe  d'Estrees,  the  mistress  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  inhabited  a  hmiting-tower,  part  of 
which  is  stiU  standing,  and  bears  her  name.  It 
became  still  more  celebrated  after  the  death  of 
Eousseau  in  177S.  During  the  revolution,  his 
ashes  were  removed  to  the  Pantheon,  but  conveyed 
back  to  E.  after  the  restoration.  It  had  nearly 
been  purchased  by  the  liande  Noire,  but  a  larger 
sum  was  otTered  by  Stanislaus  de  Girardin,  the  well 
known  Uberal  deputy,  and  E.  was  preserved  for  the 
lovers  of  art,  of  nature,  and  of 
"7  historical  monuments. 

E'RMINE,  white  fur,  with  black 
spots ;  the  reverse  of  which,  or  a 
black  fiu-  with  white  spots,  also 
used  in  heraldry,  is  called  Contre 
Ui'vihic.  Ermine  is  commonly  used 
to  dift'erence  the  arms  of  any  mem- 
ber of  a  family  who  is  connected 
vrith  the  law.  A  cross  composed 
of  four  ermine  spots  is  said  to  be  a  Cross  Ermine. 

ERMINE,  or  STOAT  [Mmtda  erminea),  a  species 
of  AVeasel  (q.  v.),  considerably  larger  than  the  com- 
mon weasel,  but  much  resembling  it  in  gener.il  fonn 
and  other  characters,  as  well  as  in  habits.  The  E. 
is  almost  ten  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  is  fully  four  inches  and  a  half  long.  It  is  of 
a  pale  reildish-brown  colour  in  summer,  the  under 
parts  yeUowish-white,  the  tip  of  the  tail  black  :  in 
winter — in    cold    countries  or   severe    seasons — tlie 


Ermine. 


'..jy 


Ermine : 
Summer  and  winter  drcsa. 


upjier  p.arts  change  to  a  yellomsh-white  or  .almost 
pure  white,  the  tip  of  the  taU,  however,  alioat/s 
remaining  black.  This  change  takes  place  more 
frequently  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Britain,  but  sometimes  even  in  the  south 
of  England  ;  and  when  it  is  only  ]iartially  accom- 
I>lished,  the  animal  presents  a  ]>icbald  appearance, 
and  very  often  remains  so  during  the  milder  winters 
Hi; 


I  if  Britain.  It  is  in  its  winter  dress  that  it  is  called 
E.,  and  yields  a  highly  valued  fur  ;  more  v.alnable, 
however,  when  obtained  from  the  coldest  northern 
regions  than  from  more  southern  and  temiicrato 
countries.  In  its  sunmier  dress  it  is  called  Stoat. 
It  dis))lays  indomitable  perseverance  in  the  pursuit 
of  its  prey,  which  consists  very  much  of  rats,  water- 
voles,  and  other  such  sm.all  qnadnipcds  ;  with  yoimg 
hares  and  rabbits,  gi'ouse,  partridges,  &c.  The  eggs 
of  birds  are  as  welcome  to  it  as  the  bu'ds  them- 
Belves.  The  E.  is  a  native  of  all  the  northern  i)art3 
of  the  world.  Its  range  extends  even  to  the  south 
of  Eiu"ope.  It  delights  in  moorish  districts,  and  is 
tolerably  abundant  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  It  is 
from  Norway,  Lapland,  Sil)eria,  and  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territories  that  the  E.  skins  of  commerce  are 
obtained,  which  are  used  not  only  for  ladies'  winter 
garments,  but  for  the  robes  of  kings  and  nobles,  and 
for  their  crowns  and  coronets,  E,  has  thus  obtained 
a  distinct  recognition  in  her.aldry.  In  malcing  up 
E.  fur,  the  tails  are  inserted  in  a  regtUar  mamier,  so 
that  their  rich  black  shall  contrast  with  the  pure 
white  of  the  rest  of  the  fur. 

ERNE  (Ilaliceiitjis),  a  genus  of  bu-ds  of  the  family 
FalconkliT,  and  of  the  eagle  groui) ;  differing  from 
the  true  eagles  in  the  greater  length  of  the  bill,  in 
the  toes  and  lower  part  of  the  tarsi  being  destitute 
of  feathers,  and  generally,  also,  in  frequenting  the 
sea-coast  and  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers  to  feed 
on  fish,  in  feeding  like  vultures  on  carrion  almost  as 
readily  as  on  newly  killed  prey,  and  in  inferior 
courage.  The  only  British  species  is  the  Com.mon' 
E.  (//.  albkilla),   also  known  as  the  Sea  Eagle  or 


''Jj^*^^' 


Conunon  Erne  {Uuliai'lm  albicilla). 

Wliite-tailed  .Sea  E.agle.  It  is  much  more  common  iu 
Britain  than  the  Golden  Eagle,  is  sometimes  seen 
evi-n  in  the  south  of  England  and  iu  inland  districts, 
occasionally  visiting  deer-p.arks  to  prey  on  very 
young  fawns  or  to  devour  dead  deer  ;  Ijut  is  of  more 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  doing 
considerable  injury  to  flocks  in  Sutherlandshirc, 
]jartieiUarly  diu'ing  the  season  of  young  lambs.  Its 
favourite  haunts,  where  it  roosts  and  makes  its 
nest,  .are  the  shelves  and  ledges  of  stupendous  preci- 
pices on  the  coast,  wliere  its  scream  often  mingles 
with  the  noise  of  the  perpetual  sm'ge.  It  sometimes 
also  breeds  on  crags  beside  inland  Lakes,  as  at  the 
Lakes  of  Killarney,  and  more  rarely  even  on  trees. 
Fishes  are  certainly  its  favourite  food,  although  its 
mode  of  procuring  them  is  not  well  known  ;  but 
watcr-fovv-1  are  also  its  very  frequent  prey.     It  is 


ERNE-ERNST  I. 


found  in  most  jiarts  of  Europe,  and  even  in  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  is  more  abvindant 
in  the  north  of  Europe  and  in  Siberia.  It  is  not 
knoH-n  as  a  native  of  America.  In  size,  the  E.  is 
inferior  to  the  Golden  Eagle,  being  seldom  more 
than  33  inclics  in  its  whole  length.  The  general 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  brown,  the  head  having  a 
paler  yellowish  tinge,  the  tail  in  the  adult  bird  is 
pure  white.  The  young,  sometimes  called  the 
Cinereous  Eagle,  has  a  grayer  phmiage  and  mottled 
tail. — Another  notable  species  of  this  genus  is  the 
WniTE-HEADED  E.  (//.  leucocephcdus)  of  America, 
also  called  the  White-headed  Eagle,  Bald  Eagle,  and 
Sea  Eagle,  the  chosen  symbol  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  l)ird  of  about  the  same  size  with  the  Common 
E.,  with  dark-brown  plumage,  and — in  an  adult  state 
— the  head,  neck,  tail,  and  belly  white.  It  is  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  North  America,  visiting  tlie 
arctic  regions  in  summer,  but  aboimding  chietiy  iu 
the  southern  states  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mississippi.  It  frecpieuts  both  the  sea-coast  and  the 
lakes  and  rivers,  and  may  be  often  seen  saihng 
through  the  column  of  spray  at  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 
It  is  very  fond  of  lish,  which  it  procures  by  wading 
m  shallow  streams,  and  also  by  compelling  the 
osprey  to  relinquish  prey  just  taken.  The  soaring 
and  evolutions  of  the  birds  in  the  air  on  such  occa- 
sions are  described  as  .sublune.  The  White-headed 
E.  feeds  also  on  lambs,  fawns,  poidtry,  &c. ;  kills 
swans,  geese,  and  other  water-fowl ;  and  does  not 
disdain  to  compel  viUtures  to  disgorge  for  its  use  the 
carrion  which  they  have  swallowed.  On  account  of 
its  habits  and  dispositions,  Franklin  expressed  his 
regret  that  it  had  been  chosen  as  the  symbol  of  his 
coimtry. — More  nearly  resembling  the  Common  E. 
is  another  North  American  si)ecies,  the  Bird  of 
WASiiiNriTOM  (//.  ]V(ish'niii(onii). — Austraha produces 
a  beautiful  species  (H.  leucoy<ister),  and  numerous 
species  are  foimd  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
amongst  which  are  some  of  comparatively  small 
size,  as  the  Poxdichekry  Kite  or  Brah^lvny  Kite 
[H.  poniico'ianufi)  of  In(.lia,  which  is  constantly  to  be 
seen  Kshing  like  a  giUl  in  the  rivers  of  that  country, 
and  is  by  the  Hindus  considered  sacred  to  Vishnu. 

ERNE,  a  river  and  lake  in  the  south-west  of 
Ulster  province,  Ireland.  The  river  rises  in  the  south 
of  Cavau  county,  in  the  small  but  beautifid  Lough 
Cowna.  It  runs  north  and  north-west,  merging  m 
Lough  Oughter,  iu  Cavan  county,  and  iu  Lough 
Erne  in  Fermanagh  county,  and  passes  Enniskilleu 
and  Ballyshannon.  It  then  flows  through  the  south 
corner  of  Donegal  county  into  Donegal  Bay.  It  has 
a  tot:d  course  of  7-  mdes.  On  the  river,  at  Bally- 
shannon, is  a  salmon-leap  fall,  over  a  rocky  ledjje  20 
feet  high  and  150  yards  broad,  and  the  river  leaps 
over  another  rocky  ledge  near  Belleck,  2.^  miles 
below  the  lower  end  of  the  loch.  Lough  Erne,  one 
of  the  linest  lochs  in  the  kingdom,  is  the  most 
attractive  feature  of  Fermanagh  county,  which  it 
bisects  lengthways,  and  almost  entirely  drains.  It 
extends  40  miles  from  south-cast  to  north-west,  and 
consists  of  two  lakes,  the  upper  and  lower,  joined 
by  a  narrower  part  10  miles  long,  and  assuming  in 
parts  the  character  of  a  river,  with  Enniskilleu  mid- 
way between  the  two  lakes.  The  Upper  Lough  is 
12  by  4  miles  in  extent,  10  to  75  feet  deep,  151  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  has  90  green  hilly  islets.  The 
Lower  Lough  is  20  by  74  mdes  in  extent,  100  to 
206  feet  deep,  148  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has 
109  similar  islets.  On  one  of  the  islets  is  a  round 
tower.  They  contain  salmon,  trout,  pike,  bream, 
and  eels.  The  scenery  around  is  singidarly  varied 
and  beautiful. 

ERNE'STI,  Joil.  Aug.,  the  founder  of  a  new 
school   of  theology  and  philosophy,  was  born  at 


Teunstiidt,  in  Thiiringia,  4th  August  1707.  He 
studied  at  Pforta,  Wittenberg,  and  Leipsio  ;  but 
after  having  been  appointed  rector  of  the  Thomas- 
school  in  Leipsic,  in  1734,  turned  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  old  classic  literature,  and  the  stutUes 
connected  with  it.  In  1742,  he  became  professor 
extraordinary  of  ancient  literature  in  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  in  175G  professor  of  rhetoric,  in  1759 
professor  of  theology,  and  died  11th  September 
1781.  E.  paved  the  way  to  theological  eminence  by 
a  thorough  study  of  philology,  and  was  thus  led 
to  a  more  correct  exegesis  of  the  bibUcal  authors, 
and  to  more  liberal  views  of  theology  in  general. 
In  fact,  it  is  niaiidy  to  him  that  we  owe  the  proper 
method  of  theological  exposition,  in  so  far  as  it 
rests  upon  correct  grammatical  elucidation.  He 
shewed  his  abUity  as  an  accurate  critic  and  gram- 
marian, in  his  editions  of  Xenophon's  MeiaorabUia 
of  Socrates;  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  Horner, 
CaUimacliu.%  Pohjhius,  Suetonius,  and  Tacitus;  but 
above  aU,  by  his  admirable  edition  of  Cicero  (5  vols., 
Leip.  1737—1739),  to  which  he  added  a  Clavis 
Ciceronia,  by  way  of  supplement.  He  was  also  the 
first  reviver  of  true  and  manly  eloquence  in  Ger- 
many. His  theological  writings  are  numerous.  The 
most  remarkable  are  the  Initia  Doctrime  Solidioiis, 
the  lustitulii)  Interprelis  Nori  Testamenti  (which  has 
been  translated  into  Enghsh),  the  Anti-Huratorlua 
(1755),  and  the  Opuscula  Tlwologica  (1792).  Com- 
jiare  Bauer  Formuhc  ac  disi:l/ilin(E  ErnestiaiuB  in- 
doles (Leip.  17S2).  Stallbaum  i)/e  Thomas- schulezu 
Leipsic  (Leip.  1839). 

ERNST,  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  founder  of  the 
Ernestinian  line,  or  the  elder  branch  of  the  princely 
House  of  Saxony,  was  the  elder  son  of  the  Elector 
Friedrich  the  Mild,  and  of  Margaret,  Archduchess 
of  Austria.  When  only  14  years  of  age,  he  was 
seized  and  carried  ofi'  from  the  castle  of  Altenbm-g, 
along  with  his  brother  Albrecht,  but  was  speedily 
recaptured.  This  incident,  known  in  German  his- 
tory as  the  SteaUng  of  the  Princes  (Prinzenmub), 
has  been  described  with  extraordinary  vividness  by 
Carlyle  in  the  Westminster  Jieview,  January  1855. 
He  succeeded  to  the  electoral  dignity  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  14G4,  but  governed  iu  common  with 
his  brother  for  21  years,  "in  1485,  however,  E.  and 
Albrecht  divided  the  paternal  possessions,  when  the 
former  obtained  as  his  share  Thuringia,  the  half  of 
the  district  then  called  Osterland,  with  Voigtland, 
the  Francoiiian  estates  of  the  House,  the  electoral 
dignity,  and  the  dukedom  of  Saxony.  E.  was  a  man 
who  took  a  great  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  people. 
Against  injustice,  tyranny,  and  lawlessness,  he  was 
implacable.  He  died  at  Kolditz  in  1486.  It  is  next 
to  impossible  to  trace  the  course  of  the  Ernestinian 
line  through  the  labjTinthine  mazes  of  the  endless 
German  genealogies ;  it  is  suflicient  to  say  that  after 
1638  the  Ernestinian  line  was  represented  by  the 
Dukes  of  Weimar,  who  gradually  obtained  the  whole 
possessions  of  the  House.  Johanu,  Duke  of  Weimar, 
who  died  in  1605,  left  several  sons,  the  eldest  of 
whom,  WiUielm,  became  the  founder  of  four  difl'erent 
branches,  all  of  which,  however,  were  reimited  under 
Ernst  August,  Duke  of  Weimar,  who  died  in  1748. 
After  1815,  the  duchy  of  Weimar  became  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,  and  its  present 
ruler  is  of  course  the  direct  representative  of  the 
Ernestinian  line.  The  other  three  families  by  which 
it  is  now  also  rejiresented  are  those  of  ^leiningen, 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  Altenburg. 

ERNST  I.,  surnamed  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  and  Altenburg,  founder  of  the  House  of  Gotlia, 
was  bom  at  the  castle  of  Altenburg,  24th  December 
1001.  He  was  the  sou  of  that  Johann,  Duke  of 
Weimar,  mentioned  in  the  previous  article,  who  died 

117 


ERNST  IV.— ERRATA. 


in  1G05,  -Mid  was  thus  connected  -with  the  nmin 
Ernestiuian  Hne.  E.  was  the  ninth  of  ten  brotliers, 
the  youugest  of  whom  was  the  famous  Beruhanl 
(q.  V.)  von  Weimar.  He  received  an  excellent 
education  from  his  mother,  Dorothea  Maria  von 
Anhalt.  After  the  arrival  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  lu 
Germany,  E.  entered  the  Swedish  service,  and  in 
various  cncanements  exhibited  great  courage  and 
skill,  completmg  the  victory  of  the  Trotestauts  at 
Liitzen,  after  the  fall  of  Gustavns.  After  the  battle 
of  Nordlingen,  2Gtli  August  1C34,  E.  withdrew  from 
the  theatre  of  strife,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life 
devoted  himself  to  restoring  the  prosperity  of  his 
territories,  which  had  been  frightfidly  devastated 
during  the  TMi-ty  Years'  War.  He  died  in  1675. 
Of  his  seven  sons,  the  eldest,  Friedrich,  continued  the 
line  of  Gotha,  while  the  third  became  the  founder  of 
the  House  of  Meiningen,  and  the  seventh,  the  founder 
of  the  House  of  Saalfeld.  E.  is  a  fine  tyiie  of  the 
old  German  Protestant  prince.  Zealously  attached 
to  the  doctrines  and  government  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  he  exercised  a  constant  watch  over  its  reli- 
gious and  educational  interests.  With  the  formalism, 
however,  that  often  characterises  '  strictly  rebgious ' 
people,  he  compelled  his  children  to  learn  the  whole 
Bible  by  heart.  He  was  much  interested  in  the 
cause  of  Christianity  abroad,  and  invited  to  his  court 
the  Abbot  Gregorius  fi'om  Abyssinia,  besides  sending 
thither  on  a  religious  embassy  Joh.  Mich.  Wansleb 
of  Erfurt.  He  also  carried  on  a  correspondence  with 
the  king  of  Ethiopia  and  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
His  hnebecame  extinct  by  the  death  of  Friedrich  IV. 
in  1S25. 

ERNST  IV.  (August  Kakl  Johaknes  Leopoi-d 
Alexander  Eduard),  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
elder  brother  of  the  late  Prince  Albert  (q.  v.),  born 
at  Coburg  21st  Jime  181S.  Both  brothers  received 
an  admirable  literary  and  scientific  education.  The 
family  to  which  he  belongs  is  a  branch  of  the  Ernes- 
tinian  line,  having  been  founded  in  1680  by  Albrecht, 
second  son  of  Ernst  the  Pious  (q.  v.).  When  E.  had 
completed  a  university  curriculum  at  Bonn,  he  entered 
the  military  service  of  the  king  of  S.axony,  but  left 
it  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
of  the  Grand-duke  of  Baden.  In  1844,  E.  succeeded 
his  father  as  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  In  his 
opinions  and  aspirations,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
his  age,  he  has  introduced  into  his  little  dominions 
manj'' beneficial  reforms,  and  aUayed  not  a  few  long- 
standing jealousies.  Yet  one  regrets  to  s.ay,  that 
his  enlightened  views  of  his  duty  as  a  ruler  have 
not  been  generally  appreciated  by  his  subjects. 
During  the  stormy  period  of  1848—1849,  by  spon- 
taneous concessions  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other  by  an  energetic  repression  of  the  political 
anarchists,  he  contrived  to  save  his  territories  from 
the  perils  of  revolution.  In  the  Slesvig- Holstcin 
war,  E.  took  a  prominent  part,  and  on  the  5th  AprU 
1849  won  the  battle  of  Eckenforde.  E.  is  a  great 
advocate  for  the  imity  of  the  German  nation,  and 
has  taken  a  prominent  part  in  most  of  the  efforts 
made  in  that  direction.  His  leisure  hours  are 
devoted  to  music  and  the  fine  arts.  His  operas, 
Zaitr>!  and  Casilda,  are  well  known  in  Germany, 
and  recently  (1861)  he  has  published  a  pamjililet 
(which  is  virtually  an  autobiography)  vindicating 
the  principles  on  which  he  governs  his  duchy. 
EROS.    See  Cupid. 

ERO'SION,  the  influence  of  a  stream  or  river 
in  hollowing  out  its  channel.  Even  the  smallest 
streams,  when  running  over  soft  strata,  as  cl.ay 
or  sand,  cut  out  channels,  and  remove  the  eroded 
materials.  Hollows  thus  produced  have  been 
observed  among  the  stratified  rocks.  One  th.at 
occurs  in  the  coalfield  of  the  forest  of  Dean  has 
118 


been  carefully  described.  The  trough  was  found 
to  br.anch,  wlien  tr.iced  in  the  progress  of  mining, 
over  a  considerable  area,  and  to  assume  all  the 
appearances  of  a  little  stream,  with  small  tributaries 
faUing  into  it.  When  the  hollows  thus  .abraded 
are  of  considerable  extent,  '  valleys  of  erosion'  arc 
produced.  Many  of  the  e.arUer  geologists  held 
that  rivers  had  hollowed  out  their  own  valleys. 
The  immense  amount  of  materials  brought  down 
by  rivers,  and  deposited  at  their  moutlis  as  deltas, 
shews  without  doubt  that  they  have  contributed 
materially  to  jiroduce  inequalities  on  the  earth's 
surface ;  but  the  examination  of  the  geological 
structure  of  valleys,  plainly  testifies  that_  almost 
every  great  hydrographical  basin  has  derived  its 
form  originally  from  some  other  agency,  although 
its  outline  may  have  been  subsequently  altered  by 
the  continued  action  of  currents  within  it. 

ERO'TIC  (from  the  Greek  eros,  love),  signifying 
in  general  whatever  is  marked  by  love  or  passion ; 
but  the  term  is  chiefly  applied  to  poetical  pieces 
of  wliich  love  is  the  predoininatLng  subject. 

EROTOMA'NIA,  a  species  of  mental  alienation 
caused  by  love.     See  Mania. 

ERPE'NIUS  (Latinised  from  Thomas  van 
Erpen),  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  eminent  of 
European  OrieutaUsts,  was  bom  at  Gorkum,  in 
Holland,  7th  September  1584.  At  an  early  age,  he 
was  sent  to  Leyden,  where  he  directed  his  attention 
first  to  theology,  but  afterwards  more  particularly 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.  Having  com- 
pleted his  educational  course,  he  travelled  through 
England,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany  ;  and  in  1613, 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Leyden. 
Here  he  erected  an  Arabic  press  in  his  own  house, 
caused  new  tyjies  to  be  cut,  and  not  only  wrote  but 
printed  a  great  number  of  important  works  bearing 
on  his  favourite  studies.  The  jirofessorship  of 
Hebrew  not  being  vacant  at  the  time  of  E.'s  transla- 
tion to  the  university  of  Leyden,  a  second  Hebrew 
chair  was  founded  expressly  for  him  in  1619.  Soon 
after  this  he  was  appointed  Oriental  interpreter  to 
the  government,  in  which  capacity  he  re.ad  and 
vrrote  replies  to  .aU  oHicial  documents  coming  from 
the  East.  Such  was  the  elegance  and  purity  of  his 
Arabic,  as  %\'Titten  at  this  time,  that  it  is  said  to 
have  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Emjieror  of 
Morocco.  Towards  the  close  of  his  Ufe,  tempting 
offers  of  honours  and  distinction  came  pouring  in 
upon  him  from  all  parts  of  Europe ;  but  he  was  never 
prevailed  upon  to  leave  his  native  country,  where, 
in  the  midst  of  an  eminent  career,  he  died  13th 
November  1624.  Although  the  present  standard  of 
Oriental  knowledge  in  Europe  is  much  in  advance 
of  that  of  E.'s  day,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was 
tlirough  him  principally  that  Eastern,  especially 
Arabic  studies  have  become  what  they  are.  With 
hardly  any  better  material  than  a  few  awkwarclly 
printed  Ar.abic  alph,abets,  he  contrived  to  write 
ills  famous  grammar  (Qrammatka  Arahicn,  qjihique 
lihris  methodke  explicata,  Leyden,  1613 ;  recent 
edition' by  Michaelis,  Giitt.  1771),  which  for  2U0 
years,  till  the  time  of  Silvcstre  do  Sacy,  enjoyed 
an  undisputed  supremacy ;  and  there  .arc  many 
who  think  his  Itadimnita  unsurp.asscd,  even  at  tlie 
])resent  day,  as  a  work  for  beginners.  Among  his 
other  important  works  the  best  known  is  his  Prover- 
hiorum  Arabicorum  Centuriie  Duos  (Leyden,  1614). 

]5RRA'TA,  the  list  of  errors  with  their  cor- 
rections placed  at  the  end  of  a  book.  From  greater 
carefulness  in  correcting  the  sheets  of  a  work  in 
passing  through  the  jiress,  errors  in  sense  or  tjqio- 
graphy  are  now  much  more  rare  than  formerly  ; 
in  many  instances,  indeed,  books  are  now  ]>rod\iced 
without  a  single  en-or  which  needs  to  l)e  pointed 


ERRATICS— ERSCH. 


out  and  coiTected.  On  the  subject  of  errata,  some 
interesting  particulars  ■H-ill  be  found  in  Disraeli's 
Curiosities  of  Liierature,  of  which  the  following 
may  be  taken  as  a  specimen  :  '  Besides  the  ordinary 
errata  which  happen  in  printing  a  work,  others 
have  been  purposely  committed,  that  the  errata 
may  contain  what  is  not  permitted  to  appear  in  the 
liofly  of  the  work.  Wherever  the  Inquisition  had 
any  power,  particularly  at  Home,  it  was  not  allowed 
to  employ  the  word  fatuni,  or  fata,  iu  any  book. 
An  author,  desirous  of  using  the  latter  word, 
adroitly  invented  this  scheme  :  he  had  printed  in 
his  book  facta,  and  in  the  errata  he  put,  "  For /acta, ! 
read  fata"." '  ] 

ERRA'TICS,  the  name  given  to  the  water-worn 
blocks  of  stone  that  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
boulder  clay,  or  are  still  enclosed  in  it,  because  they 
have  generally  been  derived  from  rocks  at  a  distance. 
See  BoDXDEKS  and  Boulder-clay. 

E'RRHINES  (Gr.  en,  iu,  and  rhin,  the  nose), 
meilicines  administered  locally  to  jiroduce  sneezin" 
and  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  in  catarrh,  and 
in  various  disorders  of  the  head  and  eyes.  Conunou 
snuff,  and  various  other  vegetable  irritants  in 
powder,  have  been  used  for  this  purpose. 

E'RROR,  Pkoceedixgs  ix,  the  form  l>y  which 
in  England  the  unsucccssfid  i)arty  in  an  action 
at  law  brings  his  case  for  consideration  before  a 
court  of  review.  The  successfid  party  is  entitled 
to  issue  execution  immediately  on  the  (signing  of) 
final  Judgment  (q.  v.),  unless  execution  be  stayed 
by  due  notice  of  tlie  intention  of  the  opposite 
party  to  bring  the  judgment  under  review.  Error 
may  be  in  fact  or  in  law.  If  the  error  is  in  fact, 
the  case  is  heard  before  the  court  before  which 
the  action  was  originally  tried ;  if  the  error  is 
in  law,  proceedings  must  bo  taken  before  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  (q.  v.).  WTiere  a 
jiarty  objects  to  the  ruling  of  the  judge,  the  form 
is  by  Bill  of  Exceptions  (q.  v.)  under  statute  of 
Westminster  the  second  (13  Ed.  I.  c.  31).  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  practice,  it  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  review  on  the  groimd  of  error, 
that  an  original  writ,  called  a  Writ  of  Error,  shoidd 
be  issued.  The  writ,  if  the  error  was  in  fact,  was 
styled  coram  nobis,  where  the  case  was  iu  the 
Queen's  Bench,  the  sovereign  being  presiuned  to 
preside  in  that  court ;  if  in  the  other  courts,  the 
vrnt  was  coram  vobin.  Writ  of  error  is  abohshed 
by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act ;  and  proceedings 
in  error  now  consist  of  a  simple  memorandum  of 
error,  lodged  with  the  officer  of  the  court,  accom- 
panied, if  the  error  be  in  fact,  %vith  an  affidavit  of 
tlie  matter  constituting  the  error.      The   effect  of 

Eroceedings  in  error  is  to  stay  immediate  execution  ; 
ut  the  plaintiff  in  error  must  proceed  within  a 
certain  number  of  days.  From  judgment  in  error  in 
the  Exchequer  Chamber,  an  appeal  lies  to  the 
House  of  Lords.  Proceedings  in  error  from  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  of  Lancaster,  and  from  the 
Court  of  Pleas  of  Durham,  and  generally  from  all 
inferior  courts  of  record,  are  brought  before  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  from  which  appeal  lies  to 
the  Exchequer  Chamber,  and  thence  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  coiuis  of  the  city  of  London,  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  and  of  the  Stannaries  of  Cornwall,  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  In  criminal  cases,  proceed- 
ings are  still  by  Writ  of  Error  (q.  v.). 

ERROR,  Writ  of,  in  civil  causes.  See  Error, 
Proceedings  vs.  In  criminal  causes,  is  an  original 
writ  from  the  common  law  side  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  addressed  to  the  judges  of  a  superior 
com-t,  by  which  they  are  authorised  to  examine  the 
record  on  which  judgment  was  given  in  the  inferior 


court,  and  to  confirm  or  reverse  the  judgment. 
Writ  of  error  formerly  lay  for  every  substantial 
defect  appearing  on  the  face  of  the  record,  for  which 
the  inilictment  might  have  been  quashed ;  but  by 
7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64,  it  was  i)rovided  that  several  tech- 
nical defects  should  be  cured  by  verdict.  By  14 
and  15  Vict.  c.  100,  eveiy  formal  defect  apparent  on 
the  face  of  the  indictment  must  be  objected  to 
before  the  jury  is  sworn,  and  not  after,  and  may 
then  be  amended.  Writ  of  error  now,  therefore, 
hes  only  for  defect  in  substance  appearing  on  the 
record,  as  where  a  man  ha\Tng  been  indicted  for  per- 
jury, it  appears  that  the  false  statements  were  not 
made  upon  oath.  Writ  of  error  camiot  be  obtained 
without  the  fiat  of  the  attorney-general,  which  is  not 
allowed  as  of  course,  but  is  usually  granted  on  due 
cause  shewn. 

ERRORS.  In  all  observations,  errors  must  be 
made.  The  best  instruments  h.ave  impcjfcctions ; 
and  no  man,  however  equable  his  temperament,  can 
always  rely  on  his  making  a  proper  use  of  his  senses. 
As  in  astronomy  mmierical  correctness  in  the  results 
of  instrumental  measurements  is  of  the  first  conse- 
quence, it  is  the  constant  care  of  the  observer  to 
detect  and  make  allowance  for  errors.  The  three 
])rincipal  som-ces  from  which  they  may  arise  arc — 
1st,  External  or  incidental  causes,  such  as  fluctua- 
tions of  weather,  which  disturb  the  amount  of 
refraction ;  changes  of  temperature,  affecting  the 
form  and  position  of  instruments,  &c.  ;  2d,  Errors 
of  observation,  being  such  as  arise  from  inexpertness, 
defective  \Tsion,  slowness  in  seizing  the  exact  instant 
of  an  occurrence,  atmospheric  indistinctness,  &c. ; 
and  such  eiTors  as  arise  from  slips  in  clamping  and 
momentary  derangements  of  the  instrument ;  3d, 
Instnmiental  defects,  o%ving  to  errors  in  workman- 
ship, and  such  as  arise  from  the  instrument  not  being 
properly  placed — called  errors  of  adjustment.  The 
first  two  classes  of  errors,  so  far  as  they  cannot  be 
reduced  to  known  laws,  ^•itiate  the  residts  of  obser- 
vations to  their  fidl  extent ;  but  being  accidental, 
they  necessaiily  sometimes  diminish  and  sometimes 
increase  them.  Hence,  by  taking  numerous  obser- 
vations under  varied  circumstances,  and  by  taking 
the  mean  or  average  of  the  results  obtained,  these 
errors  may  be  made  to  destroy  one  another  to  a  great 
extent,  and  so  far  may  be  subdued.  With  regard  to 
the  third  class,  it  is  the  peculiarity  of  astronomical 
observations  to  be  the  ultimate  means  of  detection 
of  all  defects  of  workmanship  and  adjustment  in 
instruments,  which  by  their  minuteness  elude  every 
other  mode  of  detection.  See  Sir  John  Herschel's 
Outlines  of  Astronomy,  §  13S  ct  serj.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  however,  that  the  method  of  subduing 
errors  of  the  first  two  classes  by  the  law  of  average 
j  is  not  applicable  in  all  cases.  In  certain  cases, 
'  recourse  must  be  had  to  what  is  known  as  the 
1  method  of  least  squares.  See  Squares,  the  Lea-st  ; 
I  see  also  PROBABrLiTiE.s. 

ERSCH,  JonANN  Samuel,  the  foimder  of  German 

j  bibliography,  was  born   at   Grossglogau,  in  Lower 

i  Silesia,   23d   June    176G ;    and   exhibited   from  an 

j  early  period   a  decided  bias   towards  that  branch 

I  of   literature  in  which   he  afterwards  obtained  so 

high  a  reputation.      At  Halle,  where  he  was  sent 

I  to  study  theology  in   1785,  he  devoted  himself  to 

historical  investigations.     After  several  vicissitudes, 

he  obtained,  in  1800,  the  office  of  librarian  to  the 

university  of  Jena.     Three  years  later,  he  was  called 

to  HaUe  as  professor  of  geography  and  statistics ; 

and  in   1808,  was  appointed,  iu  addition,  principal 

librarian.     He  died  at  Halle,   IGth  January   1S28. 

E.  was  long  engaged  in  miscellaneous  bibliographical 

work  for  other  scholars ;    but  in   1818,  along  with 

Gruber,   commenced  the  publication  at  Leipsic   of 

iia 


EKSE-ERSKIXE. 


the  Altgemeine  Enqidopiidle  der  Wissemclia/lea  und 
Kiimte  (Universal  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Sciences  and 
Arts),  a  work  of  immense  value.  By  his  Ilnndhuch 
der  Veiitxchen  Litemtur  seit  iler  Mitte  des  IS  Jtihrh. 
bis  au/die  Keuute  Zeil  (Handbook  of  German  Liter- 
ature from  the  Middle  of  the  ISth  Centm-y  to  the 
most  recent  Time,  4  vols.,  1812—1814),  he  iii-st 
established  modern  German  bibliographj;  in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  word ;  and  by  its  com- 
pleteness, accuracy,  and  mode  of  arrangement,  it 
is  undoubtedly  fitted  to  serve  as  a  model  for  the 
imitation  of  other  nations. 

ERSE  (a  corruption  of  Irish),  the  name  given  by 
the  Lowland  people  of  Scotland  to  the  langxi.age 
spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western  Highlands, 
as  being  of  Irish  origin.  See  Bketts  AiiXi  ScOTS. 
The  projier  name  is  Gaelic  (q.v.). 

EESE'K-TJJVA'K.     See  Neuhausel. 
E'RSKINE,  Ee^-.  Eben-ezer,  the  foimder  of  the 
Secession  Chm-ch  in  Scotland,  was  the  sun  of  the 
Rev.    Henry    Ei-skine,    minister   of    Chirnside,    in 
Berwickshire,  a  descendant  of  the  noble  family  of 
Mar,  and  was  bom  June  22,  1680.     He  stuiUed  at 
Edinbm-gh,  and  after  acting  for  some  time  as  tutor 
and  chaplain  in  the  family  of  the  Earl  of  Eothes,  he 
was  licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  by  the  presbj-tery 
of  Kirkcaldy  in  1702.     His  abilities  and  exceUeut 
character  soon  brought  him  into  notice,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  was  appointed  minister  of  Port- 
moak,  in  the  shire  of  Kmross.      Here  he  applied 
himself  indefatigably  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  became    so  deeply  con\-inced   that  to    jireach 
'  Christ  crucified '  was  his  grand  and  constant  duty 
as  a  minister,  that  after  some  time  the  earnestness, 
unction,    and    piety  which   now   marked   his    dis- 
courses, became  exceedingly  attractive  to  the  people 
accustomed  to   the  chilhng  'legalism'  which  then 
predominated  in  the  Scottish  pulpit.    E.'s  popularity 
was  not  confined  to  the  parish  of  Portmoak  ;  serious 
Chi-istians  from  all  parts  of  the  countiy  were  eager 
to  enjoy  occasionally  the  benefits  of  his  ministry, 
and  on   sacramental  occasions,  he   had  frequently 
attendants  from  the  distance  of  60  or  70  miles.     In 
1731,  he  was    translated  to  Stirling,  after  ha-(-ing 
discharged  the  pastoral  ofiiee  in  Portmoak  for  28 
years.     Previoiis  to  this   event,  however,  the  reh- 
gious    peculiarities    of   E.   had    brought    him   into 
unpleasant  relations  -svith  some  of  his  lirethren,  by 
the  interest  which  he  exhibited  in  a   book  called 
the  Marrow   of  Modern  Divinittj,   marked   by   its 
strong   evangehcalism   of   doctrine   and   sentiment. 
After  his  transference  to  Stirling,  E.  distinguished 
himself  by  his  advocacy  of  popular  rights  in  the 
settlement  of   ministers ;    and   xdtimately  involved 
himself    in    such    antagonism    to    the    Church    of 
Scotland,  or  at  least  to  the  ruling  party  in  it  of 
the  time,  that,  along  with  other  three  clergymen, 
he  was  deposed  in  1733.     (Eor  an  account  of  the 
circxmistances  which  led  to  these  depositions,  -see 
Uxited  Prise ytekians.)      He  was   shortly  after 
joined   by   his   brother   Ralph    and   several   other 
ministers.     Thev  now  virtually  formed  a  distinct 
sect,  but  they  still  continued  to  occupy  their  parish 
churches.     An  efiort  was  made  in  1734  to  restore 
them   to  their  legal  connection  -n-ith  the   church  ; 
it  was  imsuccessful.     In  1736,  E.   and   hi3_  friends 
formally  seceded,  but  stdl  it  was  not  till  1740  that 
tliey  were  ejected   from  their  churches.      Shortly 
after  this,  a  furious,  and,  as  it  seems  to  peojtic  now- 
a-days,  a  contemptible  squabble  broke  out  among 
the  seccdcrs   in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  taking 
the   burgess-oath.      The   result  was   a   division   of 
the  sect  into  two  bodies,  the  Burghers  and  Anti- 
burghers.     See  United   Presbyterians.     E.   was 
the  leader  of  the  Burghers.     Ue  died  June  22,  170G. 
120 


ERSKINE,  Rev.  Ralph,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Monilaws,  in  Northumberland,  March 
IS,  1685,  and  after  completing  the  usual  course  of 
study  incumbent  on  a  minister,  was  ordained  to  the 
parish  church  of  Dunfermhne  in  1711.  SjTnpa- 
thising  \rith  the  sentiments  of  his  brother  Ebenezer, 
he  withdrew  from  the  judicatures  of  the  Established 
Chiu-eh  in  1737.  In  the  controversy  concerning  tlie 
burgess-oath  he  also  took  part  with  his  brother.  E. 
died  November  6,  1752.  His  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Oospd  Sonnets  and  other  religious  works, 
which  were  once  highly  popular. 

ERSKINE,  John,  of  Camock,  and  afterwards  of 
Cardross,  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist,  and  Professor 
of  Scots  Law  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  was 
the  son  of  the  Honourable  John  Erskine  of  Camock, 
third  son  of  Lord  Cardross,  whose  descendants  hare 
now  succeeded  to   the   earldom  of   Buehan.     John 
Erekme,  the  father,  was  a  man  of  importance  in  his 
day,  not  onlv  on  accoimt  of  the  family  to  which  ho 
belonged,  which  even  then  had  been  prolific  in  his- 
torical charactei-s,  but  in  consequence  of  his  personal 
qualities  and  the  positions  which  he  held.     Having 
been  forced  to  quit  Scotland,  from  his  attachment  to 
the  Presbyterian  religion,  he  retired  to  Holland,  and 
became  an  oflicer  in  the   service  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  At  the  Revolution,  he  accompanied  William 
to  England,  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  services,  was 
appomted   lieutenant-governor    of    Stirling    Castle, 
and  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  reriment  of  foot     John 
E.,  the  younger,  born   1695,  became  a  member  of 
the   Faculty  of   Advocates    in    1719,  but   did  not 
succeed  as  a  practitioner  of  the  law.     On  the  death 
of  Alexander  Bain  in   1737,  Mr  E.  was  nominated 
to    succeed   him   in   the    chair    of   Scots   Law,   an 
office  the  duties  of  which  he  performed  with  great 
reputation  for  28  years.     For  many  years  Mr  E. 
made  use  of  Su-  George  Mackenzie's  (q.  v.)  Insldu- 
tions  of  the  Law  of  Scotland  as  his  text-book ;  but 
in  17»i  he  published  his  well-known  Principles  of 
the  Law  of  Scotland,  which  were  thenceforth  used 
for  that  purpose  by  himself  and  by  his  various  suc- 
cessor down  to  the  present  time.  On  his  retirement 
from  the  professorship  in  1765,  ilr  E.  occupied  him- 
self in   preparing   his   more   important   work.   The 
Inslitulcs  of  thi-^Law  of  Scotland,  but  it  was  not 
published  till  1773,  five  years  after  his  de.atli.     Mr 
E.  was  twice   married— first   to  Miss  McU^lle,  of 
tlie  noble  family  of  Leven  and  Meh-iUe,  by  whom 
he  left  the  afterwards  celebrated  clergym.an,  John 
Erskine;    and,   second,    Ann,   second   daughter    of 
Stirling  of  Keir,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  two 
daughters.     As  a  legal  writer,  Mr  E.  is  inferior  to 
none  of  our  Scottish  jurists,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Lord  Stair,  who  had  the  benefit  of  the  more 
learned   and  iK-ider  jucUcial  training  of  our  earlier 
lawyers,  who  were  educated  in  a  continental  school 
In  consequence  of  the  extent  to  which  lands  changed 
hands    in    Scotland   subsequent   to   the   rebellious, 
feudal   conveyancmg  became   the   most    promment 
subject  of  study  amongst  the  lawyers  of  ilr  E.  s 
day,  and  the  principles  of  commercial  law,  of  which 
Stair  laid  the  foundation,  and  which  have  become  so 
important  in  our  own  time,  were  somewhat  thrown 
into  the  shade.     The  labours  of  Jlr  Bell  in  these 
departments  have  again  brought  the  law  of  Scot- 
land into  connection  with   the  general  current  of 
European  law  .and   mercantile   practice  throughout 
the  world.     But  of  all  those  departments  which  con- 
stitute the   law  of   Scotland,  as   developed   by  the 
usages  and  forms  of  society  in  the   country  itself, 
there  is  at  the  present  day  no  clearer,  sounder,  or 
more  trustworthy  expositor  than  Mr  Ersldne. 

ERSKINE,    Rev.    Dr    John,    son    of    .John 
Er.skine  of   Camock,   the   author  of  the  InsMutes 


EESKINE. 


of  the  Law  of  Scotland,Vias  born  June  2, 1721,  studied 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1743  was 
licensed  to  [ireach  by  the  presbytery  of  Dunblane. 
In  the  following  year,  he  was  ordained  iniuister 
of  Kirkintilloch,  where  he  remained  until  1753, 
when  he  was  i>resented  to  the  parish  of  Culross, 
in  the  presbytery  of  Dunfermline.  In  1758, 
he  was  tran.slated  to  New  Greyfriars  Church,  Kdin- 
burgh ;  in  170G,  the  university  of  Edinburgh  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity;  and  in  1767,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
collegiate  charge  of  Old  Greyfriars,  where  he  had 
for  his  colleague  Dr  Ilobertson.  In  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he  was  for 
many  years  the  leader  of  the  popular  or  evan- 
gelical party ;  and  there  the  openness  and  integ- 
rity of  his  character  secured  him  the  confidence 
and  affection  of  Ins  friends,  and  the  esteem  and 
resjicct  of  liis  opponents.  Between  him  and  I'rin- 
cip.'d  Robertson,  the  leader  of  the  moderate  party, 
there  was  a  courteous  and  honoiu-able  friendship  ; 
and  the  funeral  sermon  which  ho  preached  on  the 
death  of  his  colleague,  did  equal  honour  to  E.'s 
head  and  heart.  He  died  January  19,  1803.  E.'s 
writings  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Tliey  consist 
of  essays,  letters,  senuons,  dissei'tations,  and 
pamphlets,  &e.,  mainly  of  a  religious  character,  and 
exhibit  a  superior  degree  of  ability.  .Su*  Walter 
8cott,  in  his  Hut/  Manim-inij,  gives  a  graphic  and 
accurate  description  of  his  powers  as  a  preacher. 

EUSKINE,  Thomas,  Lord  Erskine,  was  the 
yoimgcst  son  of  Henry  David,  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan  ; 
and  was  boi-n  in  Edinburgh,  10th  January  1750. 
Although  his  father,  at  the  period  of  his  birth,  was 
rechiced  to  an  income  of  £200  a  year,  he  transmitted 
to  him  the  blood  of  a  race  which  had  been  prolitio 
in  men  of  great  ability,  and  had  been  ennobled  before 
the  era  of  genuine  history.  The  countess,  who  was 
the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Stewart  of  Goodtrees,  in 
the  county  of  Midlothian,  was  not  only  a  godly 
Presbyterian  and  a  skilfid  housewife,  but  a  gifted 
and  accomplished  woman.  After  E.  liad  attended 
for  some  time  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  the 
family  removed  to  St  Andrews,  at  the  grammar 
school  of  which  place,  and  suljsequently  at  the 
university,  though  never  it  would  seem  as  a  matri- 
culated student,  Thomas  E.  received  the  rest  of 
such  education  as  fell  to  his  share.  His  desire  was 
to  stuily  for  a  profession  ;  but  his  pai'ents,  who  had 
sent  liis  elder  brother.  Lord  Cardross,  to  Leyden, 
and  were  educating  his  second  Ijrother,  Henry, 
afterwards  the  weIl-kno\^^^  Harry  Erskinc,  for  the 
Scottish  bar,  coidd  not  afford  the  ex|iense  of  a  third 
learned  education,  and  sent  him  to  sea  as  a  mid- 
shijjman.  In  this  capacity  he  scr\'ed  for  four  years, 
until  the  death  of  liis  father,  when  he  purchased  a 
commission  in  the  First  Iloyals,  and  was  for  some 
time  stationed  at  Minorca,  where  he  employed  his 
leisure  time  in  the  study  of  English  literatm'e.  On 
his  return  to  London,  his  birth,  his  acquirements, 
the  elegance  of  his  manners,  and  volubility  of  his 
conversation,  led  to  his  being  \\armly  received  in 
the  best  cii-cles.  It  was  then  that  lie  had  the 
contro\'ersy  with  Dr  Johnson  on  the  respective 
merits  of  Fielding  and  Ilichardson  which  Boswell 
has  recorded  ;  and  that  he  pubhshed  a  jiamphlet 
on  the  jjrevailing  abuses  in  the  army,  which,  though 
anonymous,  was  well  known  to  be  his,  and  obtained 
a  great  eircidation.  E.  now  grew  tired  of  the  army 
as  a  profession,  in  wliicli  he  saw  little  chance  of 
promotion  ;  and  while  in  tliis  humour,  an  accidental 
interview  which  he  had  with  Lord  Mansfield  at  an 
assize  court,  determined  him  to  jirosecute  the  study 
of  law.  E.  was  admitted  a  student  of  Lincoln's 
Inn,  2Gth  April  1775,  and  on  the  13th  January 
1770,  he  entered  his  name  on  the  books  of  Tiinity 


College,  Cambridge,  as  a  gentleman  commoner. 
Many  anecdotes  are  told  of  the  privations  which 
E.  underwent  when  studying  for  the  bar — how  he 
lived  on  '  cow-heel  and  trii>e,'  dressed  so  shabbily 
as  to  be  quite  remarkable,  and  boasted  that  out  <;/" 
his  mm  fumili/  he  did  not  know  a  lord.  Such 
stories,  though  probably  exaggerated,  jirove  that 
he  endured  considerable  privations — considering  liis 
rank — in  fitting  himself  for  the  legal  profession. 
Lord  Campbell  says,  that '  during  Easter  .and  Trinity 
terms  he  excited  a  gi'eat  sensation  in  the  diniug-hall 
by  appearing  •  with  a  student's  black  gown  over 
the  scarlet  regimentals  of  the  Royals;  prohuhlij 
vot  hariiifi  a  decent  suit  of  plain  clothes  to  put  on.' 
Though  E.  was  aided  by  his  aristocratic  connection, 
his  rise  was  still  very  wonderfid.  Without  the 
advantage  of  a  business  training,  or  what,  probably 
even  in  those  days,  was  far  more  important,  a 
business  connection,  he  rose  into  practice  with 
almost  unprecedented  rajiidity.  After  his  first 
speech,  the  attorneys  actually  Hocked  round  him 
with  their  retainers,  and  in  telling  the  story,  he 
used  sometimes  to  bring  the  nmuber  which  lie 
received  before  quitting  Westminster  Hall  up  to 
sixty -five !  His  two  first  clients  were  officers  in  the 
navy — Captain  Badlie,  who  held  an  office  in  Green- 
wich Hospital,  against  whom  a  rule  had  been 
obtained  calling  upon  him  to  shew  cause  why  a 
criminal  information  for  a  libel  reflecting  on  Lord 
Sandwich's  conduct  as  governor  of  the  charity, 
should  not  be  filed  upon  him ;  and  Admiral  Keppel, 
who  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  at  Portsmouth 
for  incapacity  and  misconduct  in  an  encounter 
with  the  French  fleet  off  Ushant ;  and  in  both 
cases  E.  derived  benefit  from  his  o'mi  early  ci;ni- 
nection  irith  the  service  and  the  special  information 
which  he  thus  possessed.  Admiral  Keppel  sent 
hmi  two  live-himdred-pound  notes  as  a  fee.  From 
this  time  forth,  E.'s  good-fortune  as  an  advocate 
was  uninterrupted.  In  1783,  he  was  returned  to 
parhamcnt  for  Portsmouth.  Four  years  and  a  half 
after  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  he  had  cleared  £8000 
to  £9000,  besides  paj'ing  his  debts,  he  had  got  a 
silk  gown,  business  of  at  least  £.3000  a  year,  and  a 
seat  in  ])arliament,  and  had  made  his  brother  Lord 
Advocate.  In  parliament,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
failed  so  egregiously  in  his  first  speech  as  to  leave 
scarcely  any  hope  in  the  bosoms  of  his  admirers, 
and  what  is  vei-y  singidar,  his  failure  and  Lord 
Eldon's  took  place  the  same  night.  To  some  extent 
the  phenomenon  was  accounted  for  by  Sheridan's 
remark  when  he  said  to  him:  'Erskine,  you  are 
afraid  of  Pitt,  and  that  is  the  llabby  part  of 
yoiu-  character.'  But  notwithstanding  his  political 
mortifications,  his  professional  career  went  on 
\rith  increasing  brilliancy.  In  178G,  he  was  made 
Attorney-general  to  the  I'rinee  of  Wales,  by  whom 
he  was  wai-mly  patronised,  but  towards  liim  and 
every  one  else  he  exhibited  that  manlj'  independence 
which  was  the  best  part  of  his  character.  The  fact 
of  his  aj)pearing  as  counsel  for  Thom.as  Paine  is 
more  to  his  credit,  than  even  the  brave  and  honest 
speech  which  he  made  in  his  defence ;  whilst  his 
removal  in  consequence  from  his  office  is,  as  Lord 
C'ami)bell  has  said,  a  lasting  (hsgrace  to  those  from 
whom  the  measure  proceeded.  Throughout  the 
political  trials  which  occurred  in  this  coimtry  at 
that  troubled  period,  he  enacted  the  same  manly 
part.  When  E.  was  proposed  for  the  woolsack,  an 
office  far  beyond  his  legal  attainments,  the  king, 
George  II  I.,  in  consenting  exclaimed :  '  What !  wliat ! 
well !  well ! — but  remember  he  is  your  chancellor, 
not  mine.'  Yet  liis  decisions  as  lord-chancellor, 
according  to  Lord  Campbell,  are  not  so  much  liad 
as  siipc>-jici(d,  though  by  some  equity  practitioners 
they  are  spoken  of   as  the  Apocryphi.     E.   was 

121 


EKYXGO— ERYTHK.EA. 


engaged   in   the  defence  of   Queen   Caroline.     He 
dieUlTtU  November  1823. 

ERY'NGO  [En/nriium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  U iiibctlijWa;  Iuutdj;  simjile  umbels, 
which  resemble  the  heads  of  conijiosite  flowers,  a 
leafy  involucre  and  leafy  calyx,  and  obovate,  scaly 
fruit  destitute  both  of  ridges  and  vitta;.  The  species 
are  numerous,  mostly  natives  of  the  warmer  tem- 
perate i)arts  of  the  world,  with  idtemate,  simple,  or 
divided  leaves,  which  have  marginal  spines.  One 
species  only  is  conmion  in  Britain,  the  Sea  Ekyn'oo, 
or  Sea  Holly  {A',  maritimum),  which  is  frequent  on 
sandy  sea-shores  ;  a  very  stiff,  rigid,  and  glaucous 
plant,  i'.  campesire  has  also  been  found  in  England 
and  Ireland,  but  is  very  rare.    Its  root  was  formerly 


>vKvJi 


7,  c  ,? 

Sea  Holly  [Ert/ngiuin  marUinium) : 
a,  a  floret ;  b,  ^  pctul ;  c,  a  stamen  ;  d,  the  pistil. 

much  employed  in  some  parts  of  Europe  as  a  tonic. 
That  of  M.  marilimuvi  is  used  in  the  same  way,  and 
possesses  the  same  properties,  being  sweet  and 
aromatic.  It  is  sold  in  a  candied  st.ate,  and  was 
formerly  reputed  stimulant,  restorative,  and  ajilu'o- 
disiac.  Shakspeare  makes  Falstaff  allude  to  the 
snowy  colour  and  supposed  properties  of  this  now 
almost  disused  sweetmeat,  for  the  preparation  of 
wliich  Colchester  has  long  been  famous  above  all 
other  places.  E.  root  has  also  been  used  as  an 
aperient  and  dim-etio.  Liun^us  recommends  the 
blanched  shoots  of  E.  tnariUmum  as  a  substitute  for 
.asparagus.  H.  fcetidum,  a  native  of  tlie  warm 
]>arts  of  America,  is  called  Fit-weed  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  decoction  of  it  being  much  used  as  a 
remedy  in  hysterical  cases.  jB.  arjuaticmn,  a  native 
of  low  wet  places  in  North  and  South  America,  is 
called  luattlesnake  Weed  and  Button  Snakeroot. 
The  root  is  diaphoretic  and  expectorant,  and  h.as  a 
spurious  reputation  as  a  cure  for  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake. 

ERY'SIMUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cruciferce,  tribe  Simjmbriece.  The  pod  is  four- 
sided.  E.  cheirantlioidcs,  a  branching  annual,  about 
IS  inches  high,  with  lanceolate  scarcely  toothed 
leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers,  is  found  in  many 
])arts  of  Eiu-oj>e,  and  also  in  North  America.  It  is 
not  uncommon  in  waste  places  and  cultivated 
groimds  in  Britain,  but  may  perhaps  have  been 
originally  introduced  for  its  metUcinal  use.  Its 
seeds  were  formerly  much  emj^loyed  as  an  anthel- 
mintic, from  which  it  has  the  name  of  Worm-seed. 
It  is  also  called  Tkeaclh  Mustard,  because  it  was 
employed  as  an   ingredient  in  the  famous    Venice 

I2i 


J'reaclc     E.  pcrfolialum  is  cultivated  in  Jap.an  for 
the  fixed    oil  of  its   seeds.      Some  of    the   plants 


Erysiiumu  Cliciranthoides  : 
ff,  root ;  J,  a  liranch,  in  which  flowering  has  recently  bopun ; 
f,  the  summit  of  a  braneh  in  a  innre  advanced  state,  shewing 
the  fruit ;  rf,  the  calyx ;  e,  the  parts  of  fructification,  dircsted 
(if  floral  envelopes ;  /,  a  flower. 

formerly  referred  to  E.  arc  now  included  in  other 
genera,  as  Sisijinhrium  (q.  v.)  and  AlliarUi  (q.  v.). 

ERYSI'PELAS  (Gr.  deiivation  xincertain).  an 
inflammatory  and  febrile  disease  of  the  skin, 
attended  by  diffused  redness  .and  swelling  of  the 
part  affected,  and  in  the  end  either  by  desqu.aniation 
or  by  vesication  of  the  cuticle,  or  scarf-skin,  in  the 
milder  forms,  and  by  suppur.ation  of  the  deeper 
parts  in  the  severer  varieties  of  the  disease  (jihleg- 
monous  erysipelas).  Erysipelas  affects,  in  a  large 
proportion  of  instances,  the  face  and  head ;  it  is  apt 
to  be  attended  with  severe  and  tjiihoid  fever  (see 
Fever),  and  often  mth  great  disorder  of  the  nervous 
system,  arising  in  some  instances  from  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  of  the  brain.  In  other  jiarts  of 
the  body,  severe  or  phlegmonotis  erysii>elas  is  apt  to 
be  succeeded  by  protracted  and  exhausting  suppura- 
tions, and  sometimes  by  diseases  of  the  bones,  or 
inflamm.ations  of  the  internal  organs.  Erysipelas  is 
frequently  an  Epidemic  (q.  v.)  disease;  it  is  also 
very  apt  to  recur  in  a  person  who  has  been  attacked 
once  or  oftener ;  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the 
form  which  affects  the  face.  It  is  seldom  that 
depletion  is  allowable  in  erysipelas,  but  the  bowels 
shoiUd  be  well  cleared  out  in  most  cases,  and  a 
Diivretic  (q.  v.)  given,  after  which  the  treatment 
consists  for  the  most  part  in  watching  narrowly  tlie 
progress  of  the  case,  keeping  tip  the  strength  as 
well  as  possible,  and  obviating  special  dangers  as 
they  occur.  In  some  cases,  iron  is  used  as  a  speciflo 
remedy. 

EIIYTHE'JIA  (Gr.  eruHiainii,  I  redden),  a  minor 
form  of  Erj'sipel.as  (q.  v.),  preseuting  the  same 
tendency  to  diffusion  and  redness,  but  not  so  much 
swelling,  and  little  disposition  towards  suppuration, 
or  even  vesication.  Erythema  is  chiefly  dangerous 
when  it  presents  itself  in  a  wandering  shape, 
attended  with  slow  consuming  fever.  The  nnu-iated 
tincture  of  iron,  in  doses  of  twenty  drops  in  water 
every  hour  or  two,  has  been  regarded  as  a  specific 
in  this  disease,  as  well  as  in  erysipelas.  Some  forms 
of  erj-theraa  are  distinctly  connected  with  c institu- 
tional diseases,  as  gout,  rheum.atisni,  syphilLs,  &c., 
and  depend  for  their  cure  on  the  removal  of  the 
cause. 

EKYTHRiE'A.    See  Centaury. 


ERYTHEINA— ESAU. 


ERYTHRI'NA.  See  Coral  Flowek. 
ERYTHRO'NIUar,  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacete,  -NTith  droopinn- 
tiowera  and  the  segments  of  the  perianth  reflexe<f 
K  dens  earns,  the  Dog-tooth  Violet,  so  called 
because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  little  white  bulbs 
to  dogs'  teeth,  is  a  well-knowii  ornament  of  otir 
Uower-borders  in  spring.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
central  parts  of  Europe  and  south  of  Siberia. 
Authebnintic  properties  are  ascribed  to  the  bulbs. 
Those  of  E.  Americanum  are  emetic. 

ERYTHROPHLyEUM,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Lr/juminosi^,  sub-order  Mimoned.  E. 
Guinecnse,  a  native  of  Guinea,  is  a  very  lar<re  tree, 
100  feet  high,  remarkable  for  the  great  quantity  of 
red  juice  which  every  part  of  it  contains,  and  inter- 
esting on  accoimt  of  the  emplojTnent  of  this  juice 
by  the  natives  for  an  ordeal  to  test  the  innocence  or 
gudt  of  a  person  accused  of  crune.  The  juice  is 
swallowed  in  large  draughts,  and  tliose  who  remain 
uninjured  by  it  are  supposed  to  lie  innocent. 

ERYTHROXYLA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  allied  to  Malpighiacea;.  They  are 
trees  or  shrubs,  with  alternate  simple  leaves,  stipides, 
flowers  growing  from  amidst  scale-like  bracts,  calj-x 
of  five  sepals,  corolla  of  five  petals,  each  petal  haWncr 
a  curious  appendage— a  plaited  scale— at  the  bas^ 
ten  stamens  united  at  the  base,  a  3-celled  ovary  with 
two  cells  empty,  and  the  third  containing  a  single 
ovide,  three  stj'les,  and  the  fruit  a  drupe.  Nearly 
100  species  are  known,  natives  of  warm  countries, 
and  chiefly  of  tropical  America.  To  this  order 
belongs  the  Coca  (q.  v.).  The  wood  of  some  of  the 
species  IS  bright  red;  that  of  Erylhroxylon  (Gr. 
red  wood)  suberosum  is  used  in  Brazil  for  dyeing, 
and  a  permanent  red  is  obtained  from  it.  That  of 
E.  hijpmdfolium  is  the  Bois  dlmile  (Od-wood)  of 
ilaiuitius. 

E'RZBERG.     See  Ei.senerz. 

ERZERU'M,  or  ERZIIOUM,  properly  Ersennn, 
a  strongly  fortiKed  town  in  Tiu-kish  Ai-menia,  in  lat. 
39°  55'  N.,  long.  41°  20"  E.,  not  far  from  the  northern 
source  of  the  Euplirates.  It  is  situated  in  a  hiijh, 
but  tolerably  well  cultivated  plain  ;  its  site  being 
o8()0  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  climate 
IS  cold  in  winter,  but  tby  in  summer.  E.  is  the 
residence  of  an  EugUsh,  a  Russian,  and  a  French 
consul;  and  is  beUeved  to  contain  upwards  of 
100,000  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Turks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Persians,  who  carry  on  a  brisk  trade, 
and  have  thus  attained  to  a  degree  of  jirosperity 
unusual  in  the  East.  The  copper  and  ii-on  wares 
of  E.  have  acquired  a  wide  celebrity.  Situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  important  highways  lead- 
ing from  Trebizond,  Transcaucasia,  Persia,  Kur- 
distan, Mesopotamia,  and  Anatolia,  E.  forms  an 
cntrepdt  of  commerce  between  Europe  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  interior  of  Asia,  and  narticijarly 
Persi.a,  on  the  other.  The  streets,  the"  houses  of 
which  are  built  of  mud,  wood,  or  sun-dried  bricks, 
are  narrow,  crooked,  and  filthy ;  and  ruins  of  forti- 
fications and  of  buildings  fonnerly  magnificent, 
everywhere  meet  the  eye.  The  town  consists  of 
the  fortress,  strictly  so-called,  and  four  suburbs.  The 
fortress,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  high  wall,  has,  on  the 
west,  a  citadel  called  Ijkaleh,  ivith  many  curious 
monuments,  and  a  mosque  of  Christian  origin.  The 
fortress  also  contains  15  mosques,  the  residence  of 
the  chief  magistrate,  some  caravanseras,  and  a  few 
elegant  houses  belonging  to  the  higher  order  of 
oUieials  and  Mohammedan  merchants.  The  suburbs 
boast  •_'4  mosques,  several  Armenian  churches,  and 
a  numl)er  of  large  bazaars  and  caravanseras.  E. 
imports  shawls,  silk  goods,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice, 
indigo,  &c. ;   and  exports   corn,   sheep,   and  cattle, 


horses,  mules,  and  gall-nuts.  The  native  manufac- 
tures here  have  been  in  part  superseded  by  British 
mauufactiu-es,  of  which  it  is  estimated  6000  bales, 
valued  at  £300,000,  are  annually  retaUed  in  the 
bazaars.  E.  is  a  very  ancient  town.  Its  Armenian 
name  was  A'arm  or  Garin  Khalalch  (the  city  of  the 
district  of  Garin),  whence  the  Arabian  caUfs  called  it 
Kali-Kalah.  Anatohus,  the  general  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  II.,  erected  here  the  fortress  of  Theo- 
dosiopolis,  in  the  5th  c,  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Syro- Armenian  trading  town  of  Arsen.  When  this 
place  was  destroyed  by  the  Seljuks,  the  inhabit- 
ants retreated  to  the  fortress  of  Theodosiopolis,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  Arsen-er-Biim,  i.  e.,  Arsen 
of  the  Romans  (or  Byzantines),  whence  the  modem 
Erzerum.  After  1049  it  was  a  thriving  emporium- 
but  in  1201  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 'the  Seljuks, 
when  100  churches  were  destroyed,  and  140,000 
inh.abitants  lost  their  lives.  In  1242,  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Mongols  ;  and,  finally,  in  1517, 
into  that  of  the  Tm-ks.  it  still,  however,  continued 
to  be  the  most  important  city  in  the  coimtry,  and 
at  the  commencement  of  the  19th  c.  had  a  popu- 
lation of  100,000  inhabitants.  In  the  war  of  1829, 
between  the  Turks  and  Russians,  the  taking  of  E. 
by  the  latter  decided  the  campaign  in  Asia,  "it  was 
restored  to  the  Tiu-ks  at  the  peace  of  Adrianoiile. 


E'RZGEBIRG^  ('Ore  Mountains'),  the  name 
given  to  the  chain  of  mountains,  rich  in  metals, 
stretching  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  on  the 
confines  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  from  the  valley 
of  the  Elbe  to  the  Fichtelgebirge,  in  long.  12°  20'  E. 
In  the  south,  it  rises  to  a  height  of^from  2000 
to  2500  feet,  forming  a  steep  wall  of  rock ;  in  the 
west,  it  forms  broad,'  slaty  plateaux,  and  gradually 
slopes  down  towards  the  Saxon  side  to  the  level  dis- 
tricts of  Altenburg  and  Leipsic.  In  consequence  of 
this  formation,  the  streams  flowing  southward  are 
small,  while  the  north  side  of  the  chain,  which  is 
well  wooded,  presents  a  series  of  romantic,  and  occa- 
sionally fertUe  and  thickly  peojiled  valleys,  watered 
by  the  Midde,  the  Pleisse,  and  their  numerous 
tributaries.  The  town  of  Gottesgabe,  the  site  of 
which  is  the  highest  in  Germany,  is  situated  towards 
the  south  of  the  E.  range,  in  long.  12°  54'  E.,  at  an 
elevation  of  3162  feet.  The  Keilberg,  the  highest 
point  of  the  range,  is  3S02  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  E.  is  chiefly  of  the  gneiss-granite  forma- 
tion, in  which  most  of  the  metal  strata  are  to  bo 
found     PoqAyry  and  basalt  Ukewise  appear. 

E'SAU  ('haiiy'  or  'rough'),  the  eldest  son  of 
Isaac,  and  twin-brother  of  Jacob.  As  E.  grew  up, 
he  became  '  a  man  of  the  field,'  a  cunning  hunter] 
and  his  father's  favourite.  He  seems  to  have  been 
a  %vild,  rough,  hearty  Bedouin,  or  son  of  the  desert, 
thinking  nothing  of  to-morrow,  but  living  with 
joyous  carelessness  from  day  to  day.  This  is 
apparent  from  the  manner  in  which  he  allowed 
•lacob  to  defraud  him  of  his  birthright,  although  it 
carried  with  it,  besides  many  temporal  advantages, 
the  Covenant-blessing  itself.  After  this  transaction, 
E.,  when  40  years  of  age,  married  two  Canaauitish 
women,  '  which  were  a  grief  of  mind  unto  Isaac  and 
to  Rebekah'  (Gen.  xxvi.  35).  Then  follows  the 
narrative  of  Jacob's  personation  of  Ins  brother,  and 
his  securing  irrevocably  the  blessing  to  himself.  E. 
now  swore  to  kill  his  brother,  whereupon  Rebekah 
sent  Jacob  to  his  imcle  Laban  in  Padanaram.  E. 
next  married  his  cousin  Mahalath,  the  daughter  of 
Islimael ;  and  ajjpears  to  have  established  himself  in 
his  wife's  country,  to  the  south  of  Palestine  in  Mount 
Seir.  Here  he  lived  probably  as  a  predatory  chief. 
When  Jacob  was  returning  from  Padanaram  e' 
encoimtered  him  with  400  of  his  Bedouins.  The 
meeting  was  a  touching  one.     The  wild  borderer  at 

123 


ESCALADE— ESC  HELLES. 


Escalop-Shell. 


least  was  in  earnest.  '  Esau  ran  to  meet  him,  and 
embraced  him,  and  fell  on  his  neck,  and  kissed  him' 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  4).  His  anuer  had  long  died  out.  E. 
next  appeal's  at  the  burial  of  his  father  Isaac,  whom 
he  seems  to  have  loved  with  the  warm  and  simple 
affection  of  a  child  of  natm-e,  and  having  obtained 
his  share  of  the  property,  '  went  into  the  country 
from  the  face  of  his  brother  Jacob'  (Gen.  xxxvi.  6). 
From  E.  the  region  of  Mount  Seir  took  the  name 
of  Edom  (q.  v.),  and  his  posterity  are  generally  called 
Edomites. 

E'SCALADE  (Fr.  from  Lat.  scala,  a  ladder),  in 
siege  operations,  is  a  mode  of  gaining  admission 
witliiu  the  enemy's  works.  It  consists  in  advancing 
over  the  glacis  and  covcrt-wuy ;  descending,  if 
necessary,  into  the  ditch  by  means  of  ladders ;  and 
ascending  to  the  parapet  of  the  cvurtain  and  bastions 
by  the  same  ladders  iliffcrently  placed.  The  ladders 
are  either  procured  on  the  spot,  or  are  sent  out 
with  the  siege-army.  A  convenient  form  is  in 
pieces  of  12  feet  length,  fitting  end  to  end  by 
means  of  sockets.  A  firing-party  is  usually  told  off, 
to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  enemy  upon  the  esca- 
laders,  especially  a  flank  fire  lengthwise  of  the 
clitch,  which  might  sweep  them  off  with  terrible 
rapidity.  The  leaders  of  an  escalade  constitute  a 
'  forlorn  hope.' 

ESCAXOP-SHELLS  are  often  used  in  heraldry 
to  signify  that  the  bearer  has  made 
many  long  voyages  by  sea.  As  the 
Pilgrim's  (q.  v.)  emblem,  they  were 
commonly  given  to  those  who  had 
been  to  the  Crusades ;  they  came 
to  be  regarded  as  indicating  either 
that  the  bearer  or  his  ancestor  had 
been  a  Crusader.  The  cscalop-shell 
was  the  emblem  of  .St  James  the 
Great,  and  is  generally  met  with 
in  churches  dedicated  to  him.  The  more  ordinary 
form  of  the  name  is  Sc.vllop-siiell  (q.  v.). 

ESCAPE  WARRANT  is  a  warrant  issued  by  a 
judge  for  the  apprehension  of  persons  who  have 
escaped  from  the  Queen's  Bench  or  Fleet  prisons. 
This  power  is  conferred  by  1  Anne,  s.  2,  c.  6, 
followed  by  5  Anne,  c.  9.  The  warrant  may  be 
issued  by  any  judge  of  the  court  wherein  the  action 
was  tried,  or  judgment  and  execution  ol)tained, 
ujioii  oath  in  writing,  of  the  escape  of  the  [larty, 
made  before  himself,  or  before  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners to  take  oaths.  The  apprehension  may  be 
effected  on  Sunday.  The  person  ajiprehended  is 
committed  to  the  charge  of  the  sheriff'  of  the  comity, 
who  is  made  responsible  for  his  safe  keeping. 

ESCA'PEMENT  is  the  term  applied  to  that  part 
of  the  machiner}'  of  a  watch  or  clock  by  which  the 
onward  revolving  motion  produced  by  the  moving 
power,  whether  weights  or  spring,  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  regulating  movement  of  the  pen- 
dulum or  balance-wheel.     See  Horology. 

ESCARP',  in  Fortification,  is  the  side  or  slope 
of  the  ditch  next  the  rampart,  and  of  the  parapet 
itself.  When  the  ditch  of  a  fortress  is  dry,  the 
escarp  is  usuaDy  faced  with  mason-work,  to  render 
it  difficult  of  ascent ;  and  behind  this  facing 
(rcv(iement)  there  are  often  jiassages  or  casemates 
for  defence.  In  temjiorary  fortifications,  the  revi'te- 
nient  is  sometimes  of  wood ;  and  in  field-works, 
palisades  at  the  foot,  or  fraises  on  the  bei-me  or 
edge  of  the  ditch,  arc  held  sufficient.  The  escarj)  is 
always  made  at  as  large  an  angle  as  the  nature  of 
the  soil  will  allow  ;  the  design  being  to  offer  the 
greatest  possible  obstacle  to  an  assailant. 

E'SCARS  are  large   heaps  of   gravel,  consisting 
chiellv  of  carboniferous  limestone,  that  were  accumu- 
l'24 


l.ated  during  the  Pleistocene  period.  They  occur 
in  Central  Ireland,  Imt  are  identical  with  the  osar 
of  Sweden  ;  and  under  the  name  of  kames,  they  are 
not  imknown  in  Scotland.  The  gravel  is  often 
heaped  into  narrow  ridges  40  to  SO  feet  high,  and 
from  1  to  20  miles  long. 

ESCAUT.    See  Scheldt. 

ESCHAR  (Gr.  csclicu-d),  a  slough  or  portion  of 
dead  or  disorganised  tissue.  The  name  is  commonly 
applied  to  artificial  sloughs  produced  by  the  appli- 
cation of  Caustics  (q.  v.). 

ESCHARO'TIC  (Gr.),  causing  an  eschar.  See 
Caustic. 

ESCHEAT  (Fr.  echoir,  from  Lat.  cadere,  to  fall 
or  happen),  an  incident  of  the  feudal  law  whereby, 
when  a  tenant  in  fee-simple  died,  leaving  no  heir 
capable  of  succeeding,  the  land  reverted  to  his  lord. 
By  the  earlier  usages,  this  effect  took  place  where 
there  was  no  representative  of  the  vassal  in  the 
seventh  degree,  which,  according  to  later  custom, 
was  extended  to  male  descendants )'»  infinitum  (Lih. 
Fend.  i.  1,  s.  4).  According  to  the  law  of  England, 
escheats  are  of  two  kinds — propter  dtj'edum  snnrjuinis, 
and  propter  delictum  'tenentis.  The  former  was  in 
accordance  with  the  feudal  usage ;  so  th.at  if  the 
owner  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  tUes  without  leaWng 
an  heir,  and  without  having  disposed  of  his  estate 
by  deed  or  will,  the  laud  reverts  to  the  overlord,  who 
in  the  present  day  is  almost  invariably  the  sove- 
reign, except  in  copyhold  estates,  which  escheat  to 
the  lord  of  the  manor.  The  most  frequent  instance  of 
escheat  is  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  bast-ard,  who, 
hawng  no  relations  but  descendants,  the  lauds  on 
his  death  intestate  and  without  issue,  must  revert  to 
the  crown.  Escheat  propter  delictum  tenentis  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  English  law.  It  happened  where  a  tenant 
in  fee-simjile  had  been  guilty  of  treason  or  felony,  in 
which  case,  not  only  his  estate  in  possession,  but  any 
estate  which  might  devolve  upon  him  by  the  rules 
of  descent,  escheated  to  his  lord ;  so  th.at  all  who 
might  succeed  thi-ough  him  were  cut  off  from  the 
inheritance.  This  rule  applied  to  all  felonies,  and 
was  productive  of  much  hardship.  By  modern  legis- 
lation, it  has  been  pro\-ided  that  attainder  for 
felony  shall  not  operate  as  a  bar  to  inheritance, 
except  in  case  of  treason  or  mm-der  (34  Geo.  III.  c. 
145,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  lOG,  13  and  1-i  Vict,  c. 
GO).  This  species  of  escheat  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  forfeiture  of  lands  to  the  crown  for  treason, 
wliicli  prevailed  in  other  countries  besides  England. 
See  FouFEiTtiRE. 

Escheat  in  Scotland  is  of  two  kinds — 1.  The  total 
forfeitiu'e  to  the  crown  of  all  projierty  heritable  and 
niov.able  belonguig  to  a  person  who  has  been  con- 
victed of  treason.  2.  It  signifies  the  forfeiture  of 
goods  by  a  debtor  who  has  failed  to  make  payment 
of  debt  in  obedience  to  legal  Dihgence  (q.  v.).  This 
species  of  escheat  for  debt  was  abolished  by  20 
Geo.  II.  c.  50.  It  was  of  two  kinds:  single  escheat, 
and  liferent  escheat.  By  the  former,  all  the  debtor's 
movables  were  forfeited  to  the  croimi ;  by  the  latter, 
the  annu.al  profits  of  the  debtor's  estate  were  for- 
feited to  the  superior.  Single  escheat  still  exists  in 
Scotland  as  a  imnishment  of  crime.  In  all  ca])it.al 
convictions,  it  is  ordered  that  the  prisoner's  '  whole 
movable  goods  .and  gear  lie  escheat  and  inbrought 
to  his  majesty's  use.'  In  cases  of  deforcement, 
bigamy,  jierjury,  and  some  others,  single  escheat  is 
imposed  by  statute  as  a  portion  of  the  penalty  on 
conviction.  Single  escheat  also  f.alls  upon  denuncia- 
tion for  outl.awry  ;  and  if  the  rebel  continues  for  a 
year  under  denunciation,  his  liferent  escheat  falls  to 
his  superior. 

ESCHELLES,  Le.s,  a  ^^llage  in  Savoy  (recently 
a  Sardinian,  now  a  French  state),  is  situated  on  the 


ESCHENBACH— ESCUK  LAL. 


Giiier,  12  miles  south-west  of  Chambery.  The 
valley  beyond  this  village  and  on  the  road  to 
Chambery  is  lilocked  up  by  a  huge  limestone  rock 
800  feet  high,  over  which  travellers  formerly  used  to 
climb  by  means  of  ladders,  and  hence  the  name 
given  to  this  village.  Through  this  mass  of  lime- 
stone the  public  road  now  passes  by  means  of  a 
tunnel,  which  is  '2~>  feet  high,  of  equal  width,  and 
1000  feet  long.  The  timucl  was  projected  and  com- 
meuced  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  finished  in  1817  by 
the  king  of  Sai'diuia. 

E'SCHENBACH,  Wolfeam  von,  a  celebrated 
poet  of  the  middle  ages,  was  born  in  the  second  h.alf 
of  the  12th  c.,  of  a  noble  famdy,  which  derived  its 
name  from  the  village  of  Eseheubach  near  Ansl)ach. 
He  received  tlic  honour  of  knighthood  at  Henncl)crg, 
and  passed  his  life  in  knightly  fashion.  In  1204, 
he  came  to  the  coiu't  of  Hermann,  landgraf  of 
Thuringia,  where  he  shone  among  the  poets  of  the 
time,  at  the  so-called  Wartburg-war  (a  rivalry  of 
the  German  minstrels  held  at  Wartbiu-g  in  1200 
or  1207).  Hermann's  successor,  Ludwig  the  Pious, 
appears  to  have  shewn  E.  little  favour,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  withtb'cw  from  the  Thiuingian  court 
towards  the  close  of  his  life.  He  died  some  time 
between  1219  and  1225,  and  was  buried  in  his  native 
WU.agc.  E.'s  poems  are  partly  original,  and  partly 
fashioned  after  French  and  Proven9al  models.  His 
rich  fancy,  deep  sentiment,  and  -i-ivid  power  of 
representation,  as  well  as  his  elegant  mastery  of 
langu.age  and  versification,  give  something  of  an 
epic  character  to  his  works,  the  princip.al  of  which 
are  Parcival,  composed  before  1212,  Willidm  von, 
Orari'je,  and  Tiluret.  Besides  these,  we  have  several 
love-songs  of  his.  E.  exercised  an  important  influ- 
ence on  his  time,  l)ut  subsequently  was  almost 
forgotten ;  and  it  is  only  recently  that  he  has  been 
restored  to  his  place  of  honour.  The  first  critical 
edition  of  his  works  was  that  by  Laclmiann  (Berl. 
1S.S3) ;  they  were  translated  into  modern  German 
by  San-Mai-h-e  (2  vols.,  Magdeb.  IS.SG— 1841).  The 
best  transl.ation  of  Parcival  and  Tilitrel  was  exe- 
cuted by  Simrock  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1S42). 

E'SCHER,  JoH.  Heinr.  Alfred,  a  distinguished 
S«nss  statesman,  was  born  at  Zurich,  20th  February 
1810,  and  studied  at  Boim  and  Berlin.  In  1842,  he 
w.as  created  Doctor  of  Law  at  Zurich ;  and  spent  the 
two  following  years  in  Paris,  devoting  his  attention 
chiefly  to  studies  connected  with  Itoman  law.  On 
his  return  to  Zurich,  E.  became  a  lecturer  in  the 
High  School,  the  sul  iject  of  his  Icctiu-es  being  chieQy 
the  political  law  of  the  Swiss  confederacy.  In  1844, 
he  was  elected  member  of  the  great  council  of  the 
canton,  and  was  thus  drawn  into  the  arena  of 
practical  statesmanship.  Even  at  th.at  early  period, 
his  sentiments  were  decidedly  liberal.  In  Janiaary 
184.5,  along  witli  six  others  who  shared  his  opinions, 
he  published  the  famous  summons  to  the  popular 
assembly  in  Unterstrass  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits.  His  election  into  the  Council  of  the  Interior 
in  184.5,  and  into  the  Council  of  Eilucation  in  1846, 
opened  a  wide  Held  for  his  administrative  talents  in 
his  n.ative  canton.  The  reorganisation  of  the  schools 
in  the  canton  of  Ziu-ich,  according  to  the  demands 
of  the  time,  is  chiefly  his  work.  In  December  1847, 
he  became  president  of  the  great  council ;  and  in  his 
opening  speech,  recommended  the  complete  reform 
of  the  confederacy,  and  the  greatest  possible  centra- 
lisation. In  1848,  he  was  sent  as  a  deputy  to  the 
Federal  Diet ;  and,  along  with  M.  MUnzinwr,  was 
charged  with  the  negotiations  entered  into  uetween 
Switzerland  and  Austria,  in  regard  to  the  canton  of 
Tessin.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  on  the 
introduction  of  the  directorial  system,  E.  became 
president  of  the  newly  elected  Council  of  Kegency. 


Since  that  time,  education,  the  reorganisation  of 
church  policy,  the  law  establishing  the  free  choice 
of  teachers  and  clergy  by  the  congregations,  have 
been  the  points  to  which  his  legislative  and  admin- 
istrative energies  have  been  chiefly  directed. 

E'SCHOLTZ  BAY,  a  portion  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  Russian  America,  forms  the  innermost  part 
of  Kotzebue  Sound,  the  first  great  inlet  to  the  north- 
east of  Behring's  Strait.  It  is  aljout  long.  161°  W., 
being  barely  on  the  outside  of  the  polar  circle.  It 
is  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  on  account  of  its  fossil 
remains,  which,  though  common  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Siberia,  are  comparatively  rare  on  that  of 
the  new  continent. 

ESCHSCHO'LTZIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Papaveracem,  of  which  E.  CaVifornica 
and  other  species,  natives  of  California,  have  now 
become  very  common  in  our  flower-gardens,  making 
a  showy  appearance  with  their  large  deep  yellow 
flowers.  The  genus  is  remarkable  for  the  calyx, 
which  separates  from  the  dilated  apex  of  the  flower- 
stalk,  being  thrown  off  by  the  expanding  flower, 
and  much  resembling  in  its  form  the  extinguisher 
of  a  candle. 

■  E'SCHWEGE,  a  town  of  the  electorate  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Werra,  25 
miles  east-south-east  of  Cassel.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  new  town,  and  a  suburb ;  is  surroimded 
with  walls  pierced  by  six  gates ;  and  is  well  buUt. 
The  only  biulding  of  note  is  the  castle,  which  was 
long  the  residence  of  the  landgrafs  of  Hessen- 
Rotenberg.  E.  has  manufactures  of  woollen  and 
linen  fabrics,  numerous  tanneries,  and  several  oil 
and  other  mills,  also  some  trade  in  fruit  and 
victuals.     Pop.  6000. 

E'SCORT.     See  Convoy. 

ESCU'DO  DE  VERA'GUA  denotes  at  once  a 
river  and  an  island  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  Central 
America — the  latter  being  at  the  mouth  of  the 
former.  They  are  situated  a  Uttle  to  the  east  of 
the  boundary  between  New  Granada  and  Costa 
Rica.  The  island  is  in  lat.  9°  K,  and  long.  81°  .30' 
W. ;  and  the  river,  being  only  15  miles  long,  derives 
its  importance,  if  any,  from  the  narrowness  of  the 
belt  which  here  separ.ates  the  two  oceans. 

ESCURIAL  (the  correct  title  is  El  Real  smo 
DE  Sax  Lorenzo  el  real  de  Escorial),  a  famous 
monastery  of  New  CastUe,  in  the  pro\'ince  of 
Madrid,  and  situated  30  miles  north-west  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  This  solitary*  pile  of  granite  has  been 
called  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world,  and  at  the 
time  of  its  erection  surpassed  every  biulding  of  the 
kind  in  size  and  m.agnificence.  It  owes  its  origin 
(at  least,  so  it  is  said)  to  an  inspired  vow  made  by 
Philip  II.  during  the  battle  of  St  Quentin.  On  that 
occasion,  he  implored  the  aid  of  St  Lorenzo,  on 
whose  day,  10th  August  1557,  the  battle  was  fought ; 
and  vowed  that,  shoidd  victory  be  granted  to  him, 
he  woidd  dedicate  a  monastery  to  the  saiut.  The 
E.  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  gridii-on,  in  allusion  to 
the  instnmient  of  St  Lorenzo's  martyrdom,  and 
forms  a  huge  rectangul.ir  parallelogram  744  feet  from 
north  to  south,  and  580  feet  from  east  to  west,  and 
divided  into  long  courts,  W'hich  indicate  the  inter- 
stices of  the  bars.  Towers  at  each  angle  of  this 
parallelogram  represent  the  feet  of  the  gridiron, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  lying  upside  down ;  and 
from  the  centre  of  one  of  the  sides,  a  range  of 
buUtling  abuts,  foi-ming  the  royal  residence,  and 
representing  the  handle.  The  E.  was  begun  in  1563, 
and  finished  in  1584,  and  was  intended  to  serve 
as  a  palace,  mausoleum,  and  monastery.  It  has  a 
splendid  chapel  with  three  naves,  320  feet  long,  and 
320  in  height  to  the  top  of  the  cupola.   The  PaMheon, 

125 


ESCUTCHEON— ESLA. 


or  royal  tomb,  is  a,  majjnificeutly  decorated  octagon 
cliaiiibcr,  30  I'cct  in  diameter  by  3S  feet  hij;h,  in 
the  light  sides  of  which  there  are  numerous  black 
marble  sarcophagi.  Kings  only  and  the  mothers 
of  kings  are  buried  here.  The  E.  is  an  immense 
building  ;  it  is  stated  that  it  has  14,000  doors  and 
11,000  windows,  and  its  cost  was  6,000,000  ducats. 
Its  library,  previous  to  the  siick  of  the  E.  by  the 
French  in  1808,  contained  30,000  printed  and  4."00 
MS.  volumes,  mainly  treasures  of  Arabic  literature, 
of  which  a  catalogue,  but  not  a  good  one,  w.as  drawn 
up  by  Casiri  iu  liis  Bihliot/ieca  Arab'ico-H ispanka 
(2  vols.,  Madrid,  17C0— 1770).  They  were,  however, 
at  that  time  removed  to  Madrid ;  and  on  being  sent 
back  to  the  E.,  it  w.os  discovered  that  the  libr.ary 
consisted  only  of  about  20,000  volumes — a  thii'd 
of  the  whole  ha\-iug  been  lost.  The  French  also 
]ilundered  the  place  of  its  valuable  collection  of 
coins,  medals,  and  pictures.  On  October  2,  1S72,  the 
E.  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  partially  burned. 
The  E.  is  saved  from  going  to  ruin  by  grants  of 
public  money,  which  arc  occasionally  made. 

ESCtT'TCHEOK,  in  Heraldry,  is  synonymous 
with  Shield  (q.  v.). 

ESCUTCHEON  OF  PRETENCE,  or  INES. 
CUTCHEON,  is  a  small  shield  jilaced  in  the  centre 
of  the  larger  one,  and  covering  a  portion  of  the 
charges  on  the  latter,  in  which  a  man  carries  the 
arms  of  his  ivife  when  she  is  the  heiress  of  her 
family.  It  is  said  to  be  carried  surtout,  or  over-all. 
Sometimes  also  a  shield  over-all  is  given  .is  a  reward 
of  honour ;  thus,  the  Earl  of  Stii-ling  did  bear  two 
coats  quarterly,  and  over-all  an  inescutcheon  of  Nova 
Scotia,  because  he  was  the  fii-st  planter  of  it. — 
Mackenzie,  Heraldry,  p.  82. 

E'SDRAS,  B00K.S  OF.  {The  word  Ksdras  is  the 
Greek  form  of  Ezra,  and  indicates  that  the  books 
so  named  do  not  exist  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee.)  In 
the  Vidcrate,  the  first  book  of  Esdras  means  the 
canonical  book  of  Ezra ;  and  the  second,  the 
canonical  book  of  Nehemiah ;  whilst  the  third  and 
fourth  are  what  we  call  the  lirst  and  second  books 
of  Esdras.  But  iu  the  Vatican  and  other  editions  of 
the  LXX.,  what  we  call  the  first  book  of  Esdras 
comes  first,  and  is  followed  by  the  canonical  book 
of  Ezra,  which  is  termed  the  second  book  of  Esdras. 
In  aU  the  earlier  editions  of  the  English  Bible, 
the  order  of  the  Vulgate  is  followed.  I'he  Geneva 
Bible  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  classification  now 
nscd,  according  to  which  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  give 
their  names  to  two  canonical  books,  and  the  two 
apocrjiihal  become  first  and  second  Esdras.  As 
regards  the  frst  book  of  Esdras,  it  is  for  the  most 
part  a  transcript — and  not  a  very  accurate  one — of 
Ezra  and  a  portion  of  Nehemiah,  together  with  the 
two  last  chapters  of  2d  Chronicles.  It  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  anything  regarding  its  age  or  author- 
shiji.  Josephus  quotes  it  extensively  in  his  Anti- 
quities, even  when  it  contradicts  Ezra  proper,  a  fact 
which  indicates  that  it  was  highly  valued  by  the 
Jews.  It  may  perhaps  be  interesting  to  notice  that 
the  hackneyed  phrase.  Magna  est  Veritas  et  prevaUhit 
(Truth  is  great,  and  will  prevail),  is  taken  from  the 
41st  verse  of  the  4th  chajiter  of  this  book.  The 
second  book  of  Esdras,  or  llcvclatiou  of  Esdras,  is 
wholly  different  iu  character  from  the  first,  and  it 
has  even  been  doubted  whether  it  is  the  work  of  a 
Je\vish  or  of  a  semi-Christian  writer.  Lawrence  and 
Hilgenfeld  argue  for  its  being  composed  28—25  e.c.  ; 
Liickc,  shortly  after  the  death  of  Caisar  (44  B.C.) ; 
while  Gfi'iirer,  Bauer,  and  Wieseler  assign  it  to  a 
period  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Domitian  (81—06  A.  D.). 
The  oiiinion  which  has  the  weightiest  evidence  in 
its  favour  is,  that  the  book  was  originally  the 
comjjosition  of  a  Jew,  but  that  it  has  been  largely 
12G 


interpolated  by  Christian  iiTiters.  The  book  was 
proliably  written  in  Egj'])t,  and  forms  part  of  what 
has  been  called  the  '  Apocalyjitic  Cycle '  of  Jewish 
literature  (see  Rkvel.\tion  of  St  John).  It  consists 
of  a  scries  of  angelic  visions  and  revelations  made 
to  Ezra,  regarding  the  mysteries  of  the  moral  world, 
and  the  final  triumph  of  the  righteous,  who,  how- 
ever, are  to  be  but '  a  very  few.'  The  descriptions 
are  occasionally  very  striking,  and  even  sublime, 
and  if  the  doctrinal  jmrtions  contain  the  original 
\news  of  a  man  living  licfore  the  apostohc  era,  the 
source  of  the  Pauline  phraseology  can  in  part  bo 
discovered. 

ESENBE'CKIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Diosmacecc.  The  bark  of  E.fcbr'ifmja  is  said 
to  be  equal  iu  its  effects  to  Peruvian  Bark.  It  is  a 
tree  forty  feet  high,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Brazil. 

ESK  (Gaolic,  uisii,  w.atcr),  the   name   of  several 
small    Scotch   rivers.      The   Dumfriesshire   Esk   is 
formed  by  the  coniluence  of  the  Black  anil  Wliito 
I  Esk,  whicli  rise  on  the  borders  of  Selkirkshire,  nc;ir 
Ettrick  Pen,  the  centre  of  the  Southern  Highlands, 
and  run  each  10  miles  south-south-east.     The  united 
stream  runs  35  miles  south,  and  forms  for  a  mile 
!  the  boundary  between  Scotland  and  England.     For 
]  the  last  S  miles  it  runs  south-south-west  in  Cumber- 
land, and  finally  falls  into  the  head  of  the  Solway 
Firth.      It  flows  iu  a  Silurian,  Carboniferous,  and 
Permian   basin,   through    some    charming   scenery, 
!  past  Langholm,  Canobie,  and  Longton.     The  upper 
'  part  of  the  valley  of  this   E.,  w'hich  is  wild    and 
jiastoral.  is  called  Eskdale  Muir. — The  Edinburgh- 
!  shire   North  and  South   Esk  rise   in  the    north   of 
!  Peeblesshire,  between   the   Pentland  and  Moorfoot 
I  Hills,    and    both    run    north-north-east   through   a 
beajitiful  tract  in  the  east  of   Edinburghshire,  the 
!  north   branch,  20   miles    long,  passing   Koslin   aud 
Hawthonideu,  and  the  south  branch  15  miles  long. 
The  two  branches  unite  in  D,alkcith  Park,  aud  run  3 
miles  north  into  the  Firth  of  Fortli  at  Musselburgh. 
The  basin  of  the  two  streams  is  chiefiy  Carbonifer- 
I  ous. — The  Forfarshire  North  and  South  ICsk.     The 
North   Esk   rises  in  the  Grampians,  in   the   north 
of   the  coimty,  and  runs  2.5   miles  south-east    into 
the  sea,  4  miles  north  of   Montrose.     At   Ganachy 
i  Bridge   it   ruus   half   a  mile   through  a  sandstone 
gorge  20  to  30  feet  deep.      In  the  lower  half  of  its 
I  com-se  it  di\-ides  Forfarshire  from  Kincardineshire. 
The  South  Esk  rises  in  the  Grampi.ans  of  the  west 
of  Forfarshire,  and  nms  40   miles   south-east   and 
east,  crossing  the  valley  of  Strathmorc.     It  jjasses 
:  Brechin,  aud  cuds  iu  the  tidal  basin  or  lagoon  of 
1  Montrose.      The  basins  of  both   consist   of  gneiss, 
mica-slate,  clay-slate,  and  old  red  sandstone. 
!      E'SKI-DJU'MNA,  a  town  of  Eiiropean  Turkey, 
in  the  proWnce  of  Bidi;aria,  is  situated  20  miles  west 
of  Shimil.a.     Lat.  43°  15'  N.,  long.  20°  35'  E.     Pop. 
I  6000. 

E'SKI-SA'GRA,  a  town  of  Em-opean  Turkey,  in 
I  the  province  of  Ilumili,  is  situated  at  the  southern 
'  b.ase  of  the  Balkan  Moimtains,  70  miles  north-west 
of  Adrianoplc.  In  the  vicinity  are  niunerous 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  also  several  mineral 
sprmgs,  which  are  in  great  repute.  The  manufac- 
tures are  carjiets,  co.arse  linens,  and  leather.  Pop. 
15,000  to  20,000. 

E'.SIjA,  a  river  of  Spain,  and  an  important  affluent 
to  the  Douro,  rises  in  the  ])rt>vince  of  Palencia,  Old 
Castile,  from  the  southern  b.aso  of  the  Asturias 
mountains,  10  mUes  north-west  of  the  town  of 
V.alleburon.  Throughout  the  whole  of  its  ooiirse,  it 
flows  south-west,  and  joins  the  Douro  15  miles 
below  the  town  of  Zamora.  It  is  125  miles  in 
length.  Its  waters,  which  are  joined  by  nimierous 
streams,  are  well  stocked  'with  fish. 


ESMERELDA— ESPARTEEO. 


ESMERE'LDA  (sigaifying  Emerald  in  Spanish) 
denotes  a  river,  a  town,  and  a  mountain-chain,  all  in 
America. — 1.  The  river  is  in  Ecuador  (q.  v.),  rising 
near  the  city  of  Quito,  and  entering  the  Paciiic 
after  a  course  of  110  miles,  in  lat.  1'  5'  N.,  and 
long.  79°  40'  W.— 2.  The  town  stands  10  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  containing  about 
401)0  inhabitants. — 3.  The  mountain-chain  stretches 
about  170  miles  east  and  west  in  iliuas  Gcracs, 
an  inland  i)rovince  of  Brazil,  about  the  middle  of 
the  length  of  the  country. 

ES'N6,  E'SNA,  or  E'SNEH,  the  hieroglyphic  Sen, 
and  the  Greek  Lalopolis  or  LatU'mpolUi — the  city  of 
the  Latus  fish  or  Latus  nohilis,  from  the  fish  there 
worshipped — is  a  small  and  baiUy  buUt  to\vn  of 
Upper  Egyi)t,  and  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile,  in  lat.  25°  15'  N.  The  central  portion 
of  E.  has  edifices  of  coloured  brick.  It  contains 
about  4000  inhabitants,  of  whom  1500  are  Copts, 
and  has  some  manufactories  of  blue  cotton,  and 
pottery.  There  are  famous  ruins  at  E.,  which 
consist  of  a  sandstone  temple,  with  a  portico  of  four 
rows  of  six  colimms,  which  appears  to  have  been 
founded  by  Thothmes  III.,  whose  name  is  seen  on 
the  jambs  of  a  door.  The  temple,  howfver,  seems 
to  have  been  restored  or  jirincipally  constructed  by 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  (246 — 222  B.C.),  and  the  pronaos 
was  erected  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
(41 — 54  A.'t).),  and  completed  in  that  of  Vesiiasiau. 
The  interior  is  of  the  date  of  Trajan,  the  Antonines, 
and  Geta,  whose  name,  erased  or  replaced  by  that  of 
CaracaUa,  is  there  found.  The  great  temple  was 
dedicated  to  Clmumis,  Satis,  and  Har-Hek.  It  has 
a  zodiac  hke  that  of  Denderah,  formerly  thought  to 
bo  of  the  most  remote  antiquity,  but  now  known  to 
be  no  older  than  the  Romans.  A  smaller  temple  with 
a  zoili;ic,  erected  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
formerly  stood  at  E'Deyr,  2^  miles  north  of  E.,  but 
it  has  been  destroyed.  At  E.  is  also  a  stone  quay, 
bearing  the  names  of  M.  Aurehus.  This  city  was  the 
capital  of  a  nome,  and  the  coins  struck  in  it  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  127 — 128  A.  D.,  represent  the  fish 
latiis. — Champollion,  Xot.  Descr.  p.  283;  Wilkinsim, 
Mod.  Egypt,  ii.  p.  268;  Tochon  D'Annecy,  Medailles. 

ESO'CID^,  a  family  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
which  is  now  regarded  as  including  only  the  Pikes 
(q.  v.),  but  in  which  the  Hying  fishes  (Exocoetiis) 
and  other  fishes,  now  constituting  the  family  ticom- 
herasocid'e  (q.  v.),  and  of  the  order  Pharijnrjwjnatlis, 
wer«  until  recently  includecL 

ESOTE'RIC  (Gr.)  is  a  term  derived  from  the 
ancient  mysteries,  in  which  it  was  applied  to  those 
doctrines  that  were  designed  for  the  initiated,  in 
contradistinctiim  to  those  that  were  imparted  to  the 
uninitiated,  which  were  termed  exoteric.  It  is  now 
used  in  various  relations  of  an  analogous  kind. 

ESPA'LIER,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  French, 
and  siguifyijig  a  railing  on  which  fziiit-treea  are 
trained  as  on  a  wall.  Such  railings  are  very 
variously  constructed — sometimes  of  wood,  some- 
times of  iron,  sometimes  of  upright  rails  held 
together  by  a  horizontal  rail  at  top,  sometimes 
chielly  of  horizontal  rails  with  upright  posts  for 
their  support.  Espaliers  may  be  very  conveniently 
and  cheaply  made  of  strong  iron  wire,  sustained 
by  u|iright  iron  or  wooden  posts,  as  in  ordinary 
wire-fences.  They  vary  in  height  from  foiur  to 
about  eight  feet,  according  to  situation  and  the 
size  of  the  garden.  They  have  the  advantage  of 
securing  the  fruit  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
effect  of  winds,  which  often  shake  off  great  part 
of  the  crop  of  standard  trees  whilst  still  imripe : 
and  from  the  full  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  excellent 
fruit  is  produced,  although  there  is  no  reflected  heat 
as  from  a  wall,  which  is  therefore  still  superior. 


Esi)alier3  are  very  common  in  gardens  in  Britain, 
and  add  at  once  to  the  beauty  and  the  productive- 
ness of  a  garden,  the  ground  not  being  overshadowed 
as  by  standard  trees,  although,  of  course,  the  roots 
of  the  trees  render  it  imsiutable  for  many  crops  to 
some  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  espalier.  Espa- 
liers are  often  used  to  separate  flower-borders  from 
plots  occupied  by  culinary  vegetables.  Apples  and 
pears  are  considered  more  suitable  for  espaliers 
than  any  other  kinds  of  fruit  trees  commonly  cidti- 
vated  in  Britain.  The  treatment  is  generally  similar 
to  that  of  wall  trees,  but  the  training  is  usually  by 
horizont;d  branches.  It  is  not  unusual,  when  trees 
have  become  old  and  their  branches  thick  and  firm, 
to  dispense  with  great  part  of  the  rails  necessary  in 
their  earlier  training. 

ESPARTE'RO,  JoAQtirN  Bai.domeko,  ex-regent 
of  Spain,  Count  of  Luchana,  Duke  of  Vittoria,  &c., 
was  born  in  the  year  1792,  at  Granatula,  in  La 
Mancha  (Ciudad  Real),  where  his  father,  Antonio 
Espartero,  followed  the  occupation  of  a  cartwTight. 
E.  was  intended  for  the  ecclesiastical  profession, 
and  in  1806  went  to  the  imiversity  of  Almagro,  but 
two  yeara  later,  on  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  the 
French,  he  entered  the  Sacred  Battalion  (Batcdloii 
Sarjrado),  so  called  fi'om  being  composed  almost 
entirely  of  students.  After  the  close  of  the  War 
of  Independence  in  1814,  he  went  to  South  America, 
where  he  fought  against  the  insiu-gents ;  but  after 
the  factory  gained  by  Bolivar  at  Ayacucho,  Decem- 
ber 9,  1824,  had  put  an  end  to  the  Sjianish  nile 
on  the  continent  of  America,  E.  returned  to  Spain. 
In  1832,  he  declared  himself  openly  in  favour  of 
the  succession  of  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII. ; 
and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  ci\'il  war  after 
the  king's  death,  he  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. In  August  1836,  he  succeeded  in 
saving  the  city  of  iladi'id,  and  became  successively 
gencral-in-chief  of  the  army  in  the  north,  viceroy 
of    Navarre,    and    captain-general   of   the    Basque 

j  provinces.     When  the  army  of  Don  Carlos  appeared 

[  before    Madrid    on   the    12th   September   1S37,   E. 

:  had  again  the  glory  of  saving  the  capitah  His 
successful  campaign  of  1839,  which  resulted  in  the 

I  expulsion  of  Don  Carlos  from  Spain,  procured  him 
the  title  of  Grandee  of  Spain,  and  Duque  de  la 
Vittoria  y  de  Morella.  In  1840,  the  queen-mother 
Christina  was  compelled  to  resign  her  office  of 
regent,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  1841,  E.  was  appointed 
by  the  Cortes  to  supply  her  place  imtU  the  queen 
(Isabella)  should  have  reached  her  majority.  E. 
gviided  the  helm  of  the  state  with  energy,  finn- 
uess,  and  abihty';  but  in  1S43,  an  imscrupidous 
and  unprincipled  combination  of  jiarties  naturally 
inimical  to  each  other,  the  Ropulihcans  and  the 
Moderados,  brought  about  his  fall.  E.  sailed  for 
England,  where  he  resided  for  four  years.  lu  1847, 
he  returned  to  Spain,  and  lived  quietly  at  Logrofto 
till  1854,  when  the  wretched  despotism  and  jjro- 
fligacy  with  which  the  name  of  Christina  is  asso- 
ciated, caiised  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  and 
compelled  the  queen-mother  to  leave  the  kingdom. 
E.  was  again  called  to  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  nation  for 
two  years  ;  Ijut  in  July  1856,  he  was  supplanted 
by  General  O'Donnell.  Since  then,  E.  has  taken 
no  part  in  political  agitation.  E.'s  career  has 
shewn  that  he  is  not  astute  enough  to  manage 
parties.  An  honest  man,  a  gallant  soldier,  and  a 
sound-headed  constitutionalist,  he  has,  nevertheless, 
not  exhibited  that  tact  and  foresight  which  are 
necessary  to  all  politicians,  but  especially  to  those 
of  Si)aiu — the  land  where  the  progress  of  hberty  and 
Icuowleilge  is  circumvented  at  every  step.  Compare 
J.  S.  Florez,  Espartero  Historia  de  sa  Vida  Mililare 
y  Politica  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  1843—1844). 

137 


ESPARTO-ESPY. 


ESPA'RTO  [Stipa  or  Mncrocliloa  tenaclssimn),  a 
{^nss  nearly  allied  to  the  well-kuowii  and  lieautiful 
Feather- inass  ((j.  v.),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  )>articularly  aliundant  in  some  ))arts  of  Spain. 
It  is  much  used  by  the  Spaniards  for  maTiing 
sandals,  nets,  sacks,  &c. ;  and  recently  it  has  become 
an  important  material  in  paper-making. 

ESPE'JO,  a  small  tovra  of  Spain,  in  the  jirovince 
of  Cordova,  and  20  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill.  It  is 
comparatively  well  built,  with  wide  and  regular 
streets.  It  "has  an  ancient  castle  of  the  Duke  of 
Modena  Cell.  E.  has  some  manufactm-es  of  linen 
and  woollen  goods,  and  some  trade  in  gram,  cattle, 
and  wool.     Pop.  52S4. 

ESPINASSE,  JuLu;  Je.\xne  Elf.onore  de  l', 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  women  of  her  time,  and 
one  who  combined  sparkling  gifts  with  a  heart 
susceptible  of  the  strongest  aU'ections,  was  born  at 
Lyon,  19th  November  1732,  and  was  the  illegitmiate 
daughter  of  a  Madame  d' Albion.  After  the  de.ath 
of  her  mother.  Mademoiselle  de  TE.,  who  had 
received  an  excellent  education,  went  to  live  at  the 
house  of  her  brother-in-law,  the  Marquis  de  Vichy- 
Chamroud,  in  whose  family  she  held  the  position  of 
qouvernante.  In  1752,  she  left  her  lirothcr-in-law's 
house,  and  went  to  Paris  in  the  quality  of  demoiselle 
de  com pagnie  to  the  Marquise  du  Defl'and  (q.  v.). 
The  two  ladies  lived  together  for  a  time  most 
acTceably,  imtil  it  became  evident  that  the  charms 
of  the  young  and  beautifid  demoiselle  had  enlisted 
on  her  side  the  admiration  of  the  circle  in  which 
Du  Deffand  had  formerly  been  the  eliief  attraction. 
Even  D'Alembert,  the  "famous  encyclopeilist,  who 
hitherto  had  been  the  most  constant  admirer  of  Du 
DefTand,  now  manifested  an  entire  devotion  to  the 
yoimger  and  more  fascinating  Espinasse.  A  nqiture 
between  the  ladies  was  the  consequence.  The 
friends  of  E.,  however,  obtained  for  her,  through 
the  Due  de  Choiseid,  an  annuity  from  the  king.  It 
is  said  that  D'Alembert  sought  her  hand  in  vain. 
She  died  23d  May  1776.  Her  Lettres,  &c.  (Pans, 
1809)  bear  witness  to  her  remarkable  cultivation. 

ESPINEL,  Vincent  de,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
musician,  was  born  at  P.onda  in  Granada,  28th 
December  1551.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  after- 
wards entered  into  the  army,  and  travelled  as  a 
soldier  through  a  great  jiart  of  Spain,  France,  and 
Italy,  meeting  with  the  adventures  which  he  relates 
in  his  Relaciones  de  la  Vkla  y  Aventuras  del  Escudero 
Marcos  de  Obrerjon  (Madr.  1618,  later  1S04;  in  Ger- 
man, by  Tieck,  Bres.  1827).  He  afterwards  returned 
to  his  native  country,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
received  a  benefice  in  Eonda,  his  native  town.  He 
was  subsequently  chaplain  in  the  royal  hospital  at 
Honda.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at 
Macb-id,  in  the  retirement  of  the  monastery  of  Santa 
Catalina,  where  he  died  in  1034.  He  pnbUshed  a 
book  of  poems  (Madr.  1591),  containing  chiefly  lyrics, 
and  a  translation  of  the  Epistola  ad  Pisoiics,  the  Ars 
Poelka  of  Horace.  He  was,  if  not  the  inventor,  the 
improver  of  the  ten-line  octosyllabic  stanza.  Verses 
written  in  this  form  have,  since  E.'s  day,  been  called 
in  Spain  Espinelas.  He  was  a  performer  on  the 
guitar,  to  which  he  added  the  fifth  string. 

ESPINHA'CA  (Serra  do),  a  mountain-chain  of 
Brazil,  extends  in  a  direction  generally  par.allel  with 
the  coast,  from  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Francisco 
to  the  head-waters  of  the  Uru.Eoiay.  Its  northern 
part  forms  the  eastern  limit  of  the  basin  of  the 
former  river.  The  Serra,  as  a  whole,  is  said  to  be 
rich  in  diamonds. 

ESPI'RITU  SA'NTO,  besides  ha^-ing  been  long 
applied  by  the  Spaniards  to  their  imaginary  con- 
tinent in  the  southern  hemisphere,  denotes  various 
128 


actual  localities.— 1.  E.  S.  is  a  small  maritime  pro- 
vince of  Brazil,  extending  in  S.  lat.  from  18"  30'  to 
21'  20',  and  lying  immediately  to  the  north  of  tho 
metropolitan  province  of  Kio  J.anciro.  This  province 
contains  also  a  town  .and  a  bay  of  its  own  name. — 

2.  E.  S.  is  the  largest  and  most  westerly  island  of 
tiie  New  Hebrides,  being  in  lat.  15'  S.,  and  long. 
167°  E.     It  is  saiil  to  measure  05  miles  by  20. — 

3.  E.  S.  is  a  c.ipe  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  in  lat.  52°  38'  S., 
and  long.  08"  37'  W.— 4.  E.  S.  is  a  considerable 
town  near  the  centre  of  Cuba.  It  contains  about 
9982  inhabitants,  fully  one-h.alf  Vicing  whites. — 
5.  E.  S.  is  a  bay  of  the  "Gidf  of  Mexico,  forming  part 
of  the  almost  continuous  back-water  of  Texas.  It 
is  in  lat.  28°  30'  N.,  and  long.  97°  30'  W.  Towards 
the  open  sea,  it  is  breasted  by  M.atagorda  Island, 
and  on  the  side  of  the  mainland,  it  receives  the 
Guadaloupe. 

ESPLANADE  (in  Fort.)  is  the  open  space  inten- 
tionally left  between  the  houses  of  a  city  and  tho 
glacis  of  its  citadel.  It  requires  to  be  .at  least  800 
paces  broad,  that  the  enemy,  in  case  of  his  gettin" 
possession  of  the  town,  may  not  be  able  to  assail 
the  citadel  imder  cover  of  tho  nearest  houses.  For 
this  purpose,  the  citadel  must  command  the  espla- 
nade, and  be  able  to  send  a  du-ect  fire  into  the 
streets  opening  ujion  it.  In  old  works  on  fortifica- 
tion, the  term"  is  often  applied  to  the  glacis  of  the 
counterscarp,  or  the  slope  of  the  parapet  of  the 
covered  way  towartls  the  country. 

ESPRINGAL,  or  SPRI'NGAL,  in  the  military 
engineering  of  the  days  before  the  introduction  of 
gunpowder  into  European  warfare,  was  a  in.achino 
for  throwing  missiles.  These  missiles  were  either 
large  darts  called  mncheltes,  or  arrows  winged  with 
brass,  and  called  virelonsjTom  their  whirliug  motion 
when  shot  forth.  The  csi)riug.al  probably  resembled 
in  some  degree  the  machine  engraved  in  Balista. 

ESPRIT  D'lVA,  an  aromatic  liqueur  made  in 
Switzerland,  from  a  plant  called  Genipi  {Aehillaa 
moschata,  or  Ptarmica  moscliata ;  see  Achilljca). 
Like  the  Stviss  lea,  made  from  the  same  plant,  it 
possesses  sudorific  proiierties. 

ESPY,  JAME.S  P.,  one  of  the  most  original  and 
•able  meteorologists  of  the  present  century,  was  tho 
son  of  a  farmer  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  was  born  in  1784  or  1785.  He  received  a  suiic- 
rior  education,  and,  during  the  earlier  part  of  his 
career,  was  one  of  the  best  classical  and  mathe- 
matical instructors  in  Philadelphia.  E.'s  attention 
was  first  strongly  turned  to  science  by  the  writmgs 
of  Daltou  and  Daniell  on  meteorology.  After  some 
time,  his  enthusiasm  became  so  great,  th.at  he 
resolved  to  give  np  teacliing,  and  to  rely  for  the 
means  of  prosecuting  his  meteorological  researches 
upon  his  slender  savings  .and  the  success  of  liis 
lectures  on  the  subject,  which,  fortunately,  turned 
out  to  be  far  more  attractive  tli.an  the  average  of 
]iopular  lectures.  His  first  course  was  delivered 
before  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Pennsylvania.  E.'s 
theory  of  storms  (with  which  his  name  is  specially 
connected)  drew  gener.al  attention  to  itself,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States.  See  Storms.  A 
memoir  on  this  subject  gained  for  him,  in  1836, 
the  Magellanic  premiivm  of  the  American  Philoso- 
jjhical  Society  of  Philadelphia.  In  1841  appeared 
his  work  on  the  Philosophij  of  Storms,  regarding 
which  the  Report  of  the  Acadi-mie  dr.i  Sciences 
(P.aris)  says,  '  that  the  theory  on  which  it  is  based 

alone    accoimts   for   the   jihcnomenii In   a 

word,  for  physical  geogi-aphy,  agriculture,  naviga- 
tion, and  meteorology,  "it  gives  us  new  explana- 
tions, indications  nsefid  for  ulterior  researches,  and 
redresses  many  .accredited  en-ors.'  L.ater  in  his 
life,  E.  became  Professor  in  the  Philadelphia  High 


ESQUIMAUX— ESQUIMAUX  DOG. 


School,  and  afterwards  in  the  Franklin  Institute 
of  that  city.  He  travelled  extensively  through  the 
United  States,  lecturinj;  on  his  favourite  theory  of 
storms,  and  studying  the  laws  of  climate,  imtU 
lie  acquired  the  i>oiiular  title  of  the  '  Storm-king.' 
After  tlie  organisatii  >ii  of  tlie  Smithsonian  Institution 
at  Washington,  he  w.is  commissioned  by  Dr  Henry, 
its  superintendent,  to  pursue  his  researclies.  It  was 
in  the  balls  of  the  Smithsonian  that  his  experiments 
on  tlie  rate  of  cooling  of  gases  of  ditlerent  densities 
wlien  expanded  were  made.  Tlie  cooling  eflfects  of 
expansion  on  dry  and  moist  air  also  formed  the 
subject  of  nice  experiments.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  liave  thrown  much  light  on  the  forma- 
tion of  cloud  aud  rain,  and  the  propelling  power  of 
winds.  They  afforded  materials  for  his  elaborate 
and  valualjle  reports  on  meteorology,  presented  to 
tlie  senate  of  the  United  States.  Four  of  these 
reports  were  published  at  the  expense  of  govern- 
ment. The  last  was  issued  in  1857,  which  embodies 
all  his  matured  o]»inions  on  meteorological  pheno- 
mena. This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on 
tlie  principles  of  the  science.  He  died  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  24th  January  1800,  at  the  residence  of  his 
nephew. 

ESQUIMAUX,  or  ESKIMOS,  is  the  name  of  a 
nation  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  all  the  seas,  bays, 
inlets,  and  islands  of  America  north  of  the  GO"  of 
X.  lat. ;  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  in 
long.  20°,  to  the  Strait  of  Behring,  in  long.  U>7°  W. 
On  the  Atlantic,  they  are  to  be  found  along  the 
entire  coast  of  Labrador  to  the  Strait  of  Belle- 
isle,  and  down  the  e.ast  side  of  Hudson's  B.ay  nearly 
as  far  as  James's  Bay;  while  on  the  Pacific  they 
reach  as  far  as  the  peninsiUa  of  Alaska.  They  are 
.also  to  be  met  witli  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  Behring's 
Strait,  aud  though  few  in  lumiber,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  widely  spread  nation  in  the  world, 
occupying,  acconling  to  JNIr  Gallatin,  not  less  than 
5100  miles  of  coast,  without  including  the  inlets  of 
the  sea.  '  The  Eskimo,'  says  Dr  Latham,  '  is  the 
only  family  common  to  the  Old  .and  New  World — 
an  important  fact  in  itself,  and  one  made  more 
important  still  liy  the  Eskimo  localities  being  the 
only  localities  where  the  two  continents  eome  into 
proximity.'  Nothing,  however,  has  as  yet  come 
out  of  a  consideration  of  this  fact  in  the  way  of 
tr.acing,  with  absolute  certainty,  a  connection 
between  the  E.  and  any  well-detined  Asiatic  race. 
The  name  itself,  E~^/uimaux  or  B-^himo,  does  not  help 
us  in  any  sucli  attempt,  being  from  an  Algonquin 
or  Abenaki  word,  signifying  '  eaters  of  raw  flesh.' 
This  is  not  the  native  name,  for  they  call  themselves 
'  luuit,'  or  '  people  ;'  the  Scandinavians  of  the  10th 
c.  called  them  '  Skroellingar,'  or  '  wretches  ; '  •while 
the  seamen  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  ships  designate 
them  .as  '  Seymos,'  or  '  Suckemos' — appellations, 
.according  to  llichardson,  '  evidently  derived  from 
the  vociierous  cries  of  SejTno  or  Teymo  with  winch 
the  jioor  jieople  greet  the  arrival  of  the  ships.'  The 
E.  are  usually  reckoned  by  ethnologists  to  belong  to 
the  Mongolian  race,  liut  Duponceau  and  Gallatin 
find  a  strong  resemblance  between  them  and  the 
J!ed  Indians  of  North  America,  which  is  the  view 
also  taken  by  Prich,ard — the  l.ast  mentioned  regard- 
ing them  as  a  kind  of  link  between  the  Northern 
Asiatic  aud  American  family  of  nations.  Latham, 
on  the  other  hand,  pronounces  them  to  be  Mongolian 
in  physiognomy,  with  fl.at  nose,  projecting  cheek- 
bones, eyes  often  oblique,  and  skin  more  brown  than 
red  or  copper  coloured ;  thus  presenting  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  North  American  Inilians.  Their 
language,  however,  is,  he  acknowledges,  American 
in  respect  to  its  gramm.atic.al  structure,  being  com- 
posed of  long  compoimd  words,  and  regidar,  though 
remarkable,  inflections.  With  respect  to  the  com- 
ics 


plexion  of  the  E.,  Sir  John  Richardson  is  of  a  diffe- 
rent opinion  from  any  of  these  .authors,  describing  it 
as  nearly  white,  when  relieved  from  the  smoke  and 
dirt  with  which  it  is  usu.ally  incrusted.  Many  of 
the  young  women,  he  considers,  may  even  be  called 
pretty,  when  this  operation  has  been  performed. 
'  The  yoimg  men,'  he  says,  '  have  little  beard  ;  but 
some  of  the  old  ones  have  a  toler.able  show  of  long 
gray  hairs  on  the  ujiper  lip  and  chin,  which  the  Bed 
Indians  never  have,  as  they  eradicate  all  str.ay  hairs. 
The  Eskimo  beard,  however,  is  in  no  instance  so  dense 
as  a  European  one.'  In  stature,  the  E.  are  usually 
represented  as  not  being  more  than  five  feet  in 
height ;  but  the  authority  just  mentioned  describes 
them  as  ranging  from  five  feet  to  five  feet  ten  inches, 
and  even  more.  They  are  broad-shouldered,  and, 
when  seated  in  their  beats,  look  tall  and  muscular, 
but,  when  standing,  appear  to  lose  some  of  their 
height,  from  the  shortness  of  their  lower  extremities. 
The  E.  live  usually  throughout  their  long  lines  of 
co.ast  in  sm.oll  villages,  containing  .about  five  or  six 
fiamilies  each.  The  men  occupy  themselves  entirely 
in  hunting,  whde  the  women  perform  the  domestic 
drudgery,  which  consists  principally  in  preparing 
the  food,  of  which  both  sexes  consume  a  large  quan- 
tity. This  is  almost  entirely  of  an  anim.al  nature,  but 
not  without  variety,  embracing  the  reindeer,  geese 
and  other  birds,  the  seal,  walrus,  salmon-trout,  aud 
various  other  kinds  of  fish.  They  are  expert  hunters 
and  fishers,  and,  aided  by  their  dogs,  make  consider- 
able havoc  among  the  arctic  animal  tribes.  Where 
whales  are  common,  August  and  September  are 
devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  these  animals,  and  great 
joy  is  manifested  when  they  capture  any  of  them, 
as  from  the  blubber  of  these  they  get  their  .sujiply 
of  od  for  lights  in  the  long  winter  season.  Of  vege- 
tables, they  scarcely  taste  any  except  in  the  autumn. 
'  Carbon  is  supplied  to  the  system  by  the  use  of 
much  oU  and  f.at  iu  the  diet,  and  draughts  of  warm 
blood  from  a  newly  killed  animal  are  considered 
as  contributing  gi'eatly  to  preserve  the  hunter  in 
health.'  The  habits  of  the  E.  are  filthy  and  revolting 
in  the  extreme.  A  great  p.art  of  their  food  is  con- 
sumed without  any  attempt  at  cooking  it,  and  they 
drink  the  blood  of  newly  killed  animals  >as  tlie 
greatest  delicacy  thiat  could  bo  offered  them.  In 
the  short  summer,  those  who  can  afford  it  live  in 
tents  ;  but  in  the  winter  they  aU  equally  live  in  snow- 
huts,  the  stench  of  which,  from  the  offal  with  which 
they  are  stored,  aud  the  filthy  od  that  gives  them 
hght,  makes  them  insupportable  to  the  European. 
The  di-ess  of  both  sexes  is  nearly  the  same,  con- 
sisting of  the  skins  of  animals,  reindeer,  birds,  .and 
even  fish — whatever  conduces  most  to  warmth, 
without  much  regard  to  appearance  ;  but  in  theii- 
winter  abodes  they  usu.ally  we.ar  nothing  except 
trousers.  Their  religion  consists  principally  in 
superstitious  obser\-anees,  but  they  believe,  we  are 
tr.ld,  in  two  greater  spirits,  and  m.any  lesser  ones. 
The  Moravian  mission  in  Greenland,  commenced 
by  the  Ijenevolent  Hans  Egede  (q.  v.),  in  1721, 
has  succeeded  in  converting  many  of  them  to 
Christianity ;  and  they  are  represented  by  the 
missionaries  to  be  a  mild  and  teach.able  people,  easUy 
led  by  kindness  to  distinguish  between  what  is 
morally  right  and  wrong.  Where  the  missionaries, 
how'ever,  have  uot  penetrated,  our  arctic  voyagers 
generally  sjie.ak  of  them  as  honest  among  them- 
selves, but  incorrigibly  dishonest,  and  prone  to 
lying  .and  exaggeration,  in  their  intercourse  with 
strangers. 

ESQUIMAUX  DOG,  a  kind  of  dog  extensively 
spread  over  the  most  northern  regions  of  North 
America  and  of  Eastern  Asia  ;  large,  powerful,  with 
long  r.ather  curling  hair,  tail  much  curved  over  the 
back  and  very  bushy,  short  and  pointed  ears,  and 

li'a 


ESQUIKE-ESS  AAD  -EFFENDI. 


somewhat  wolf-like  aspect.     These  dogs  are  much 
used  for  drawiug  sledges.     They  are  very  sagacious, 


Esquimaux,  l>ogs,  and  Sledge  for  one  person. 

docile,  and  patient.  The  colour  is  generally  black 
and  white,  browni  and  white,  or  dingy  white. 

ESQUI'RE  (Fr.  e.icuier,  a  shield-bearer,  from  Lat. 
scutum,  a  shield).  The  esquii-e  in  chivalry  was  the 
shield-bearer  or  armour-bearer  to  the  knight,  and 
hence  was  called  armiger  in  Latin.  He  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  thus  stood 
to  the  knight  in  the  relation  of  a  novice  or  appren- 
tice, pretty  much  as  the  page  did  to  him.  In  this 
cajiacity  he  was  spoken  of  as  a  bachelor,  just  as  the 
loiight-bachelor  came  latterly  to  be  distinguished 
from  him  who  had  already  attained  to  the  higher 
honours  of  chivalry.  When  fully  equipped,  each 
laiight  was  attended  by  two  esquires.  The  esquire 
was  a  gentleman,  and  had  the  right  of  bearing  arms 
on  his  own  shield  or  escutcheon,  which  is  surmounted 
by  a  helmet  placed  sideways,  with  its  vizor  closed, 
to  distinguish  him  from  a  knight  or  nobleman.  He 
had  also  the  sword,  the  emblem  of  chivalry,  though 
he  was  not  girded  with  the  knightly  belt.  His  spurs 
were  silver,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  golden 
spurs  of  the  knight ;  and  when  the  king  created 
esquires  of  old,  it  was  by  putting  silver  spurs  on 
their  heels,  and  collars  of  S.  S.  roimd  their  necks. 
Those  who  received  this  honour  directly  fi-om  the 
sovereign  were  in  general  the  esquii'es  for  the  king's 
body,  or  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  attend  him  in  his 
capacity  of  a  knight ;  an  oiEce  now  nearly  obsolete. 
Tenants  of  the  crown  who  held  by  knight's  service 
were  a  class  of  feudal  esquires  generally  supposed  to 
correspond  to  the  simple  ritters  or  knights  of  Ger- 
many, as  opposed  to  the  ritlers  who  were  gesdtUi/ii'n 
or  dubbed,  inasmuch  as  these  English  esquires  were 
entitled  to  claim  the  rank  of  knighthood.  Though 
the  title  of  esquire  has  now  come  to  be  given  without 
discrimination  to  all  persons  above  the  rank  of  a 
tradesman  or  shopkeeper,  the  following  seem  to  bo 
those  whose  claim  to  it  stands  on  the  ground  citlior 
of  legal  right  or  of  long-established  courtesy  :  1.  All 
the  untitled  sons  of  noblemen  ;  2.  TTie  eldest  sons 
of  knights  and  baronets  ;  ."i.  The  sons  of  the  younger 
sons  of  didies  and  marquises,  and  their  eldest 
sons.  All  these  are  esquires  by  birth.  Then  there 
are  esquires  by  profession,  whose  rank  does  not 
descend  to  their  children;  and  esquires  by  office — 
e.g.,  justices  of  the  peace — who  enjoy  the  title  only 
during  tlieir  tenure  of  office.  To  the  former  class 
belong  officers  in  the  army  and  na\'y,  b.arristers 
and  doctors  of  law,  and  doctors  of  medicine,  but 
not  surgeons. 

ESQUIUOL,  Jean-  Etiexne  DosnuiQUE,  one  of 

130 


the  greatest  physicians  for  the  insane  of  modem 
times,  was  born  at  ToiUouse,  4th  January  1772.  He 
served  in  the  military  lazaretto  at  Narbonne  in  1794, 
obtained  his  degree  of  Doctor  in  1805,  and  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  Salpfitri!:re  at  Paris  iu 
ISll.  After  1S17,  he  delivered  clinical  lectures 
on  the  diseases  of  the  mind,  and  their  cures ;  iu 
1818,  his  exertions  secured  the  appointment  of  a 
commission,  of  which  he  became  a  member,  for 
the  remedy  of  abuses  in  mad-houses;  in  1823,  ho 
became  inspector-general  of  the  University  ;  and  in 
1825,  first  physician  to  the  Maison  iles  Atiinis.  In 
the  following  year,  he  was  also  appointed  principal 
physician  of  the  Private  Limatic  Asylimi  at  Cliar- 
ent<in,  which  he  had  organised  with  ailmirablo 
skill.  At  the  July  revolution,  lie  lost  all  his  public 
offices,  and  withdrew  into  j)riv.-ite  life.  He  died 
12th  December  1840.  E.  combined,  in  a  triJy  rare 
and  wondei'ful  manner,  tlie  (lualitications  ri'q\iisito 
for  a  physician  of  the  body  and  a  physician  of  the 
mind.  By  his  himiane  and  moral  treatment  of  the 
msane,  he  often  effected  the  happiest  cures.  His 
Nvritings  embrace  all  the  questions  connected  with 
the  treatment  of  insanity.  E.  also  paid  gi'cat  atten- 
tion to  a  very  important  subject,  viz.,  the  con- 
struction of  suitable  buildings  for  the  insane ;  and 
most  of  the  modern  limatic  asylimis  in  France,  sucli 
as  those  of  Kouen,  Nantes,  and  JloutpelUer,  have 
been  built  according  to  his  suggestions  ami  advice. 
His  most  important  work  is  Des  Maladies  Mcntalea 
comidirHes  sons  les  Hoppoi-ls,  Medical,  lly(jtfnique 
cl  Medico-legal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1838). 

ESQUIROS,  Henki  Aiphon'SE,  a  poet  and 
romancist  of  France,  a  late  representative  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1814. 
He  made  his  bterary  debut  as  an  author  in  1834, 
when  he  published  a  vohniie  of  ]>oeins,  entitled  Les 
Hirondelles,  whicli  altliough  highly  jiraised  by  M. 
Victor  Hugo,  had  but  a  very  hmited  sale.  Lett 
Hirondelles  was  followed  by  two  romances,  Le  Ma'i:- 
cieii  (1837)  and  Charlotte  Corday  (1840).  About 
this  time  he  also  pubUshed  a  philosopliic  and  demo- 
cratic commentary  on  the  life  of  Clirist,  imder  the 
title  of  the  Kvangile  du  Peuple  (1840).  For  the 
pubUcatiou  of  this  work,  E.  w.as  prosecuted,  and 
sentenced  to  eight  months'  imprisonment  and  to  a 
fiue  of  500  francs,  30th  January  1841.  In  the  s;une 
year  he  published  his  Chants  d'nn  Prisonnier.  He 
also  wrote  three  little  worlcs  between  1841  and  1842 
— these  were  Lis  Merges  Marty  res,  Les  Vicrges 
Follcs,  and  Les  Viergcs  Sages.  His  Histoirc  des 
Montagnards  appeared  in  1847.  After  th»  revolu- 
tion of  February  1S4S,  E.  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Asseml)ly.  Distinguislicd  by  liis 
radical  opinions,  he  was  included,  after  the  2il 
December  1851,  among  the  number  of  nienibers  to 
be  expelled;  on  which  lie  retired  to  Eiiglaud.  His 
La  Vie  Future  an  Point  de  Viie  Socialiste  a]i|ieared 
iu  1857 ;  and  his  La  Morale  Unircrselle,  his 
L'Angleterre  et  la  I7c  Anglaise,  and  his  La  Neer- 
luude  et  la  Vie  Jlollandaise  in  1859.  In  1869,  lie 
was  returned  to  the  CorjJS  Legislatif  for  the  fuurtli 
circumscription  of  the  Bouches  du  Klionc  ;  and  was 
ap|iointed  supreme  administrator  of  that  department 
by  the  government  of  tlie  National  Defence  in  1870 — 
an  office  he  resigned  the  same  year,  at  the  chise  of 
wliich  he  became  editor  of  the  Egalile  of  Marseille. 

ESS  AAD-EFFEXDI,  Moii.\mmed,  a  Turkish  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Constantinople,  IGth  December 
1790.  He  was  surnamed  Sahaf-Zadeli,  'son  of  tlio 
bookbinder,'  on  account  of  his  father  having  been 
l)rcsident  of  a  corporation  of  bookbinders  and  libra- 
rians. At  the  age  of  18,  he  became  a  teacher ;  in 
1825,  he  w;is  ajipointed  historiograjjlicr  to  the  Otto- 
man eininre.     In   1831,  the  superintendence  of  the 


ESSEN-ESSENES. 


Talawin-i-weiaii  (Tableof  Events),  the  oiEcial  journal 
of  the  em])ire,  was  jilaeed  in  his  liaiuls.  In  18S5,  he 
was  cmployetl  by  the  late  Siiltan  Mahmoud  on  an 
embassy  to  Mohaninicd,  the  son  anil  successor  of 
the  kiut;  of  Persia.  E.  liad  also  the  titles  of  Grand 
Judge  of  ItouuR'lia,  Inspector-general  of  Schools,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction. 

The  works  of  E.  comprise,  among  otliers,  the  Uss-i- 
Tztifer  (the  Establishment  of  Victory),  a  work  which 
has  been  translated  into  Freucli,  and  jiublished  liy 
M.  Causin  de  Perceval,  with  the  following  title : 
Jllstoric  Sunvmarij  of  the  Deslrnctinn  of  the  Jani- 
zaries bij  the  Sultan  Mahmoud  in  IS'iC  (Par.  1833). 

K'SSEX,  a  town  in  Khenish  Prussia,  situated 
between  the  Rhur  and  the  Emsclier,  20  miles 
north-east  of  Dlisseldorf,  stands  in  the  midst 
of  a  rich  coal  and  iron  district.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded Ijy  the  liigh  clumneys  of  the  steam-engines 
used  in  worldug  the  mines.  As  it  has  risen  only 
very  recently  to  its  present  importance,  its  archi- 
tectiu'al  beauties  are  not  great ;  it  has,  however,  an 
imposing  cathedral,  containing  mauy  curious  reli- 
quaries, crosses,  &c.  E.  owes  its  ])rosperity  to  the 
inexhaustible  coal-mines  in  its  vicinity.  Owing  to 
this,  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  extensive 
works  for  all  sorts  of  manuiactures  in  iron.  The 
euormous  works  of  Herr  Krupj),  the  discoverer  of 
the  method  of  casting  steel  in  very  large  masses, 
who  employs  about  10,000  men,  are  at  E.  At  them 
are  manufactured  many  articles  used  for  peaceful 
purposes,  but  the  gigantic  steel  guns  which  the 
Germans  used  with  such  terrible  effect  at  the  recent 
siege  of  Paris  have  made  the  name  Krujip  world- 
renowned.  Pop.  (1S71)  o\,'y2G.  Althougli  the  in- 
dustrial activity  of  E.  is  only  of  I'ecent  growth,  the 
town  itself  is  very  old,  and  can  trace  its  origin  to 
the  famous  Benedictine  nimnery  of  the  same  name, 
founded  as  far  back  as  873  a.d. 

ESSENCE  DE  PETIT  GilAIN  is  obtained  by 
distillation  from  small  uuripe  oranges,  about  the 
size  of  a  cheiTy,  and  is  used  as  a  perfiune  in  t)io 
same  manner  as  Oraiiije-flower  Water. 

E'SSENCES  are  solutions  of  the  essential  oils  in 
.alcohol,  and  may  be  prepared  (1)  by  adding  recti- 
fied spirit  to  the  odoriferous  parts  of  plants,  or 
to  the  essential  oils,  and  distilling ;  or  (2)  simply  by 
adding  the  essential  oU  to  the  rectified  spirit,  and 
agitating  till  a  uniform  mixtm-e  is  obtained.  Tliua 
the  essence  of  lemons  is  merely  a  solution  of  the 
volatile  oil  of  lemons  in  rectified  spirit. 

ESSE'NES  (ICssCnoi,  JJssnioi),  a  small  religious 
fraternity  among  the  Jews,  whose  name  and 
origin,  as  well  as  character  and  historj',  are  alike 
involved  in  obscurity.  Still,  in  the  wide  field  of 
the  history  of  the  Semitic  religions,  there  are  not 
many  subjects  of  inipdry  of  greater  importance, 
or  calcidatcd  to  inspire  a  deeper  interest.  The 
Essenes  bore  one  of  the  most  momentous  parts  in 
the  development  of  Judaism.  Christianity  stands 
in  so  close  comiectiou  with  them,  th.at  John  the 
Baptist  and  Christ  himself  have  been  pronoimced 
to  have  originally  issued  from  their  ranks.  Jlore 
surjirising  than  all,  out  of  Essenisni,  in  the  stage 
of  Sabiuism,  has  sjirung  Islam  itself,  and  in  this 
last  development  of  its  tenets  and  practices  are  stiU 
jireserved  some  of  its  principal  rites.  It  is  but 
natural  that  from  the  days  of  the  Fathers  to  our 
own,  an  infinite  number  of  writers,  more  or  less 
f|ualificd  for  the  task,  should  have  endeavoiu-ed  to 
throw  light  on  this  mysterious  brotherhood,  but 
with  success  far  from  satisfactory.  The  reason  of 
this  is  obNious  enough.  Josephus,  Philo,  Pliny, 
Solinus,  Eusebius,  and  the  Fathers  generally,  were 
considered  the  sources,  and  the  only  sources,  from 
wliich  the  gemune  history  of  this  fraternity  could  be 


deduced.  Of  these,  PUny  indeed  has  a  geogi-.aphical 
notice,  which  cannot  be  traced  to  either  Philo  or 
Josephus ;  but  the  I'est  have  so  evidently  deriveil 
theu'  shallow  and  contradictory  aceoimts  indirectly, 
and  through  corrupted  channels,  from  those  two 
writers,  that  they  lose  .all  claim  to  consideration. 
Of  the  two  books  of  Philo  in  which  information 
regarding  the  Essenes  is  coutained,  one  {De  V'ila, 
Coufemjjtalira)  is  proved  to  have  been  written  about 
three  centuries  after  Philo's  death  by  a  Christian 
monk  as  a  panegyric  on  ascetic  raonachism.  The 
other  [Qtiod  Omiiis)  is,  to  say  the  least,  of  doubtful 
genuineness,  and  is,  moreover,  at  variance  with 
Josephus.  As  to  Josephus  himself,  it  is  now  pretty 
generally  allowed  that  his  Essenes  stand  in  mucli 
tlio  same  relation  to  the  historical  Essenes  as  the 
ideal  inh.abitants  of  the  Genitania  of  Tacitus  stand 
to  the  real  Germans  of  his  time.  Strange  that  for 
so  many  centmies  the  real  and  genuine  som'ces — 
the  Talmudical  WTitings — shoidd  never  have  been 
thought  of.  These,  torjetJier  with  .Josejihus  and 
Philo,  I'liny,  and  the  Aj-abians  Macrisi  and  Abvd- 
far.ag,  will  ])erhaps  better  enable  us  to  form  an  idea, 
not  only  of  the  real  state  of  this  commmiity,  but, 
what  is  of  no  less  moment,  to  trace  the  process 
by  which  they  gradually  arrived  at  their  pecvdiar 
mode  of  life  and  worship.  We  need  not  remind  the 
reader  that  we  must  strictly  confine  ourselves  hero 
to  an  epitome  of  facts  and  conclusions. 

We  have  to  premise,  that  exception  must  at 
the  outset  bo  taken  to  the  opening  statement  of 
Josephus,  that  there  were  three  different  'sects' 
among  the  Jews  :  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and 
the  Essenes — a  statement  which  has  been  cojiied 
and  accepted  from  that  day  to  the  present.  The 
Sadducees  ■were  a  political  party,  nothing  more 
or  less,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  held  religious 
views  antagonistic  to,  or  ratlrer  they  did  not  accept 
the  traditions  of,  their  adversaries,  the  I'harisee.«, 
who,  again,  forming  as  they  did,  the  bidlc  of  the 
nation,  cannot  rightly  be  called  a  sect.  Least  of  all 
were  the  Essenes  such.  They  were  Pharisees  of 
stronger  convictions,  and  carried  out  the  Pharisaic 
views  with  a  consistency  wliich  made  them  ridi- 
culous even  in  the  eyes  of  their  own  mother-party 
(Sota,  26,  a.) ;  neither  were  they  known  by  the  names 
of  Essenes,  this  being  a  very  late  designation, 
derived  cither  from  a  Ghaldee  word  Saclta,  and 
meaning  Bathers,  or  Baptists ;  or  from  Asa,  meaning 
Healers.  The  Mishna,  Beraitha,  and  Talunid  speak 
of  these  advanced  Pharisees  in  general  as  Chasidim 
{As.iidawi,J'ious  Men),  Nazii-im  (Abstineuts),  Toblo 
Shacharith  (Hemerobaptists),  Bauai  (Builders),  and 
Chaberim  (Friends).  The  Arabic  book  of  Maccabees 
calls  the  Essenes  simply  Assidaioi,  and  Macrisi 
speaks  of  'Nazu-s,  Essenes,  and  Baptists'  as  all 
being  '  Asaniim,'  or  Essenes. 

The  Xazirhood,  a  kind  of  voluntary  priesthood, 
enjoining  abstinence  from  wine,  flesh,  and  other 
sensual  enjoyments,  had,  in  the  troublous  times  of 
anti-Syrian  agitation,  and  the  general  upheaving  of 
society,  found  nmnerous  adliei-ents  (Tosifta  Nazir, 
c.  4;  Talm.  Bahli  Beracli.  48,  a.  1;  J/acc  ii.  49; 
Jos.  Antiq.  xviii.  1) ;  and  gradually  there  sprang 
up  (contrary  to  the  Bible,  which  restricts  this 
asceticism  to  a  certain  period)  a  host  of  men  calling 
themselves  '  Nazirs  for  ever' — Nazire  olam  (Nazir, 
4,  a.).  Pharisees  of  a  spiritual  and  contemplative 
bias,  mth  no  natmral  taste  for  the  conflicts  and 
activity  of  political  or  public  life,  or  wearied,  per- 
haps, with  the  vanity  of  human  aims,  took  this  vow 
of  Naidrship  for  life,  and  constituted  themselves 
into  a  sort  of  religious  club.  Levitical  purity  in 
its  strictest  and  highest  sense  made  them  draw 
closer  and  closer  the  innumerable  'fences'  wliich  the 
traditional  law  had  erected  round" the  biblical  law. 

131 


ESSENTIAL  OILS— ESSEQTJIBO. 


Any  one,  friind  or  foe,  could,  .it  any  inomeut,  by 
havin*^  touclunl  somothinL;  impure,  disturb  tliis 
purity  for  the  time,  and  necessitate  new  aud  endless 
puriticatious.  Tlius  it  became  necessary,  or  at  least 
expetlieut,  that  those  among  them  who  could  break 
nil  ties  of  frieudship  and  family,  should  retire  into 
a  solitude  not  easily  a])proachal.)le  by  a  stranger  to 
their  community.  Food,  again,  could  not  be  jire- 
parcd  save  by  those  of  the  brethren  who  knew  and 
strictly  obeyed  the  hyper-traditional  injunctions. 
Their  "dress,  every  imijlement  of  daily  use,  had  to  be 
made  under  similarly  stringent  laws  of  purity.  A 
n.-itur,al  consequence  of  this  their  ex.alted  notion  of 
outward  jiriesthood,  was — the  different  phases  of 
Avoman's  life  taken  into  consideration — their  general 
celibacy.  (The  explan.ition  given  liy  Josephus — the 
fear  of  the  corruption  of  both  towns  aud  women — is 
entirely  gr,atuitous,  and  utterly  in  discordance  with 
the  Jewish  notions  of  the  time.)  In  this  state  of 
voluntary  isolation,  trading  was  out  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  they  tilled  the  gi'ound,  and  lived  on  the  fruits 
of  the  earth.  Taking" thcii-  meals,  and  {hese  of  the 
coarsest  and  jilainest  description,  in  common,  they 
idealised  the  table  ijito  au  altar,  and,  pr.ayer  having 
beeu  said,  they  remained  standing  silently  roimd 
it  during  the  repast.  That  they  had  no  indiridual 
property,  follows  of  course,  .and  their  conmiimistio 
motto,  which  the  Mishna  (Aboth)  has  preserved  to 
Jis — '  Mine  is  tliine,  <and  thine  is  mine  ' — explains 
itself.  We  need  not  enlarge  further  on  their  sni.aU 
eccentricities — on  the  white  luieu  garment,  the  .apron 
(kenaphaim),  the  scoop  or  shovel ;  they  are  one  and 
all,  signs  .and  symbols  of  Levitieal  purity,  the  scoop 
reminding  us  of  a  certain  Mosaic  ordinance  during 
the  wanderings  in  the  desert,  the  apron  becomiug 
necessary  from  the  frequent  ablution  of  their  hands. 
Every  morning,  they  b.athed,  like  the  jiriests  who 
ministered  in  the  temple,  in  pure  spring  water. 
They  abhorred  blood  as  a  soiu'ce  of  unpmitj',  and 
for  this  reivson,  jirobiablj',  some  of  them  abstained 
also  from  going  up  to  the  temple,  where  sacrifices 
were  daily  offered;  others  we  lind  present  .at  a 
festival  in  the  temple  (Succah,  51,  5.3).  Their  offer- 
ings were  sent  .aUve  under  the  care  of  messengers. 
But  these  were  but  outward  sigus  of  purity,  stepjiing- 
stones  to  inner  piety,  to  communion  "with  Clod, 
which  was  only  to  be  acquired,  according  to  their 
notion,  by  solitiide  .and  an  ascetic  life.  The  belief 
in  the  efficacy  of  the  most  rigid  simplicity  .and  will- 
ing self-sacrifice,  they  held  in  common  with  tho 
Pharisees ;  their  horror  of  Oiaths,  their  frequent 
pnaycr.s,  their  occupation  with  mystical  doctrine, 
were  their  own.  Untroubled  by  the  noise  of  war 
or  the  strife  of  parties,  leading  a  life  divided  between 
the  bath,  .ablutions,  contemplation,  and  prayer ; 
despising  the  body  and  boddy  wants;  what  more 
natural  than  that  by  degrees  they  shoiUd  he 
led  into  a  kind  of  mystical  cnthusi.asm  and  fanati- 
cism. They  allegorised,  they  symbolised ;  anil  their 
efforts  cidniinated  in  seeing  the  unseen.  Absorbed 
in  the  attempt  to  f.athom  the  mysteries  of  tho 
n.ature  of  Ood,  one  of  their  principal  occupations 
w.as  the  study  of  the  name  of  God ;  of  that  unpro- 
nounceable name  which  oidy  the  High-priest  dared 
utter  once  a  year  in  the  Holy  of  Holies  during  the 
most  awfiU  aiul  solemn  service  on  the  D.ay  of  Atone- 
ment. The  knowledge  of  that  name  in  four,  in 
twelve,  and  in  twenty-fom-  letters,  would  give  them 
the  power  of  prophecy  .and  of  '  receiving  the  Holy 
Ghost.' 

Angelology,  derived  from  the  Magi,  fonned  a  pro- 
minent feature  of  their  creed.  In  course  of  time, 
they  were  looked  n])on  by  the  vulgar  as  saints 
and  workers  of  mir.acles.  A  wonderful  book  of 
cures  (Scplier  Jiefuoth),  which  Talmutlic,  Arabic,  .and 
Hyzantine  authorities  alike  ascribe  to  Solomon,  was 
132 


in  their  hands,  and  with  this,  '  by  the  aid  of  certain 
roots  and  stones,'  by  the  imposition  i)f  hands,  and 
certain  whisperings— a  practice  strongly  condemned 
by  the  l'h.arisee3  (SyiUieilr.  90,  a.) — they  cast  out 
demons,  and  healed  the  sick.  Philosophy  they 
regarded  in  so  far  only  .as  it  treated  of  the  existence 
of  God.  Jehovah  is  the  original  light;  from  Him 
proceed  a  number  of  sjiirits  (the  I'l.atonic  Ideas),  aud 
at  their  head  stands  the  Wisdom,  or  Lot/as,  into 
which,  after  deatli,  the  soid  is  again  absorbed.  Their 
code  of  Ethics  was  threefold— the  love  of  God,  of 
virtue,  .and  of  man ;  their  scale  of  perfectibility 
reaching  its  acme  in  the  communion  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Jiiiach  Hatodesh),  (Mishn.  .Sota,  99).  In  fine, 
mixing  up,  in  the  strangest  manner,  the  most 
cx.alted  and  the  must  jnierilo  notions,  they  became 
the  forerunners  of  the  Christian  Gnostics  and  of  the 
Jewish  Cabbalists,  aud,  it  m.ay  be,  of  m.any  secret, 
still  existing  orders,  who  m.ay  have  derived  from 
this  source  their  ceremonies  aud  the  gr.adations  of 
initi.ation. 

They  seem  never  to  h.ave  numbered  more  than 
400(t,  including  even  those  Nazirs  or  Essenes  who 
remained  in  their  own  families.  Their  colony 
.appears  to  have  been  est.ablished  chiefly  near  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  it  is  xuidoubtedly  this  colony  which 
has  served  Josephus  as  a  basis  to  his  romantic 
Essene  repubhc.  But,  however  distant  from  each 
other  they  might  be,  a  constant  intercomnuinica- 
tion  was  kept  up  through  a  body  of  delegates,  or 
angels  (Malachini).  As  they  had  sprung  from  tho 
Pharisees,  so  they  again  merged  into  them — part  of 
them,  we  shoidd  rather  say ;  the  remaining  ])art 
became  Ther.apeuto;,  or  Chiistians.  See  Ther.\- 
rEUT.E  and  Jewish  Skcts.  The  Talmud  gives  a 
distinct  .accoimt  of  their  ce.asing  to  exist  as  a  sepa- 
rate community  (Bechorot,  27),  and  so  soon  after 
their  extinction  did  they  fall  into  oblivion,  that  in 
the  third  centiu'y  we  find  a  Jewish  S.age  asking  who 
these  Hemerobaptists  had  been  (Ber.achot,  22,  ij. 

Much  has  been  written  aud  said  of  a  certain 
Hter.ature  which  they  possessed ;  on  this  we  aie 
unable  to  decide,  deprived  as  we  are  of  all  trust- 
worthy authority.  One  fragment  oidy  reni.ains ;  it 
is  quoted  in  the  Talmud  (Jerusch.  Beraehoth.  End) 
in  the  following  words  :  '  It  is  written  in  the  book 
of  the  C/iasUlim,  If  thou  leavest  it  (the  divine  law) 
for  one  day,  it  will  leave  thee  for  two.' 

In  addition  to  the  Talmud  .and  Midr.ash,  wo 
refer  the  reader  to  Joseph.  Antiq.  xv.  10,  xviii.  1; 
Jew.  War,  ii.  7,  8;  Pliilo,  Quod  Omnis  Proh.  lib. 
%  12;  I'linius,  Hist.  Naliir.  v.  17;  Epiphan.  Ifivrcs. 
xxix. ;  Hieron.,  Cyril!.,  Chrysost.,  &c.  Beckermann, 
Gesdiichd.  Xachr.  wis  dem  Allf/rth.  iiber  die  Kis., 
&e.  (Berl.  1S21) ;  Griitz,  (7e.wA.  d.  Jiiden  (Leip. 
ISoC) ;  Frankil  in  Zeitschr.  fitr  die  Ihlirj.  Inter., 
&c.,  iii.  (Berl.  1844),  &c. ;  and  Momitsselir,  Fiir 
Gesdi.  und  Wissenseh.,  &c.  ii.  (Leip.  1852),  &c. ; 
Spreuger,  Leben  u.  Lehre  Moluimmnds  (Berh  18G1). 

ESSE'NTIAL  OILS.    See  Oils. 

ESSEQUI'BO,  the  most  westerly  of  the  great 
rivers  of  British  Guiana,  enters  the  Atlantic  near 
the  territory  of  Veneznela,  in  lat.  7°  N.,  and  long. 
58°  40'  W.  It  forms,  .at  its  mouth,  an  estuary  of 
twenty  mUcs  in  width ;  and  it  is  f.avourably  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Demerara  and  the  Berbice  by 
the  absence  of  a  bar.  It  appears  to  excel  the  other 
streams  of  the  country  as  well  in  length  and  volume 
.as  in  its  navig.ablo  faciUties,  and  to  be  pr.actieable 
for  large  ships  up  to  its  first  falls — a  distance  of 
60  miles  from  the  sea.  The  greater  part  of  its 
course  of  GOO  miles  is  through  forests  of  the  most 
gigantic  vegetatiou.  Its  b.asni,  speaking  generally, 
corresponds  with  the  county  of  tho  same  name. 
This  subdivision   of   tlie    colony  is   inferior,  unless 


ESSEX— ESTABLISHED  CHtTRCH. 


in  purely  natural  resources,  to  either  of  the  two 
others  in  value  and  importance — Demerara  and 
Berliice  respectively  eontaiuing  the  principal  settle- 
ments, George  Town  and  Xew  Amsterdam. 

E'SSEX,  a  maritime  county  of  the  south-east  of 
England,   ha\-ing   the   North   Sea   on   the   E.;   the 
Thames  estuary,  dividing  it  from  Kent,  on  the  S. ; 
iliddlesex  and  Hertford  on  the  W. ;  and  Cambridge 
and  SuflTolk  on  the  north.     Its  greatest  length  from 
north-east  to  south-west  is  C3  miles,  and  the  greatest 
breadth   from   east   to   west   is   54  miles.      It  has 
1,0.5.5,101  statute  acres,  nine-tenths  being  arable  or 
in  grass,  and  a  twentieth  in  wooil.     The  coast-line 
is  Sj  miles  long.     Some  cliffs  at  the  Naze  are  35 
feet  high.      The  centre  and  north   of  the   county 
are  beautifully  diversified  and  richly  wooded,  the 
highest  point  being  Langdon  Hill,  (J20  feet  above 
the  sea.     Besides  the  Thames,  the  otlier  chief  rivers 
are  the  Stour,  50  miles  long  ;  Blackwater,  4G  miles  ; 
Lea,  Hodiug,  Crouch,  and  Chelmer.    The  east  of  the 
county  is  mostly  on  London  clay,  with  limestone 
beds    near   Harwich.       In    the    north-west,   chalk 
appears.     In  the  middle  and  north,  there  is  much 
diluvium,  with  chalk  fragments.     Crag  occurs  near 
Harwich,  and  stones  of  phosphate  of  lime  are  found 
hero  and  there.     E.  has  few  manufactiu-es,  except 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  where  are  chemi- 
cal works,  tar,  aud  other  works  of  a  kind  that  could 
not  l)e  carried  on  in  a  large  scale  within  the  metro- 
politan  Ijoiindaries.      The  Thames  Iron-work   and 
Ship-building    Company,   near    the    new    Victoria 
Docks,  are   another  manufacturing  feature  of  the 
county.     At  Colchester,  there  is  a  gre.at  silk-mill, 
as  there  are  also  at  Bocking,  Braintree,  and  Halstead. 
Tambour  lace   is   made  at  Coggesliall   and  a   few 
other  places  ;  there  is  straw-[ilaitiug  in  some  of  the 
smaller  towns,  but  the  county  has,  notwithstanding, 
comparatively  few  distinctive  manufactiires.     Th'e 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  beans,  potatoes, 
saffron,    caraway,   and  hops.      Great   numbers  of 
calves   are  fattened  for  the   London   market,  and 
there  are  large  sheep-flocks.   E.  has  valuable  oyster- 
fisheries.     Pop.  in  ISGl,  404,0-14;  in  1S71,  4GiJ,436. 
Ihe   county  is   almost   entirely   in   the   diocese   of 
Kochester.     E.  returns  six  members  to  parliament. 
£.  wa.s  once  forest-land,  and  the  seat  of  a  power- 
ful  tribe,  the   Trinobantes,    whose   famous    chiefs 
Caraetacus  and  Boadicea,  were  overthrown  by  the 
Komaus.     R  constituted  part  of  the  Roman  Flacia 
Cu-virn'ii.si,i.     It  has  afforded  many  Uoman  remaiu<! 
and  a  lioman  road  once  passed  through  Colchester, 
which  w;»3  an  important  Itoman  station.    The  Saxon 
kingdom  of  Essex  included  London  and  parts  of 
Middlesex,  Hertfonl,  Bedford,  and  Essex. 

ESSEX,  Robert  Deverecx,  Earl  of,  sou  of 
Walter  Devereux,  first  earl  of  E.,  was  born  at 
Netherwood  in  Herefordshire,  10th  November  1567; 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of 
ten,  where  he  remained  for  four  years.  Lord^Bur- 
leigh,  to  whose  guardianship  he  had  been  intrusted, 
introduced  the  handsome  and  gifted  youth  at  court 
in  15S4.  Here,  by  his  agreeable  manners,  his  appear- 
ance, and  talents,  he  established  himself  among 
troops  of  friends,  and  gained  the  special  favour  of 
Elizabeth.  In  1585,  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of 
Leicester  to  Holland,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Zutphen,  and  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land was  made  Master  of  the  Horse  and  Knight  of 
the  Garter.  After  the  death  of  Leicester,  E?  con- 
tinued to  rise  in  the  favour  of  Elizabeth,  who  loaded 
him  with  honours.  In  1591,  he  commanded  the 
forces  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Henry  IV.  of  France 
against  the  Spaniards,  but  achieved  no  success.  The 
next  few  years  were  spent  in  endeavouring  to  get 
the  better  of  Burleigh — the  wisest,  the  most  prudent. 


and  the  most  politic  of  all  Elizabeth's  advisers.     In 
1590  he  was  appomted  joint-commander  with  Lord 
Howard  m  the  expedition  against  Spain,  to  which 
Burleigh  was  .strongly  opposed;  and  though  E.  dis- 
I)l.ayed  aU  his  wonted  courage,  and  contributed  to 
the  capture  of  Cadiz,  which  caused  immense  loss  to 
the  Sjjaniards,  yet  the  expedition  resiUted  in  nothing, 
and  E.  had  to  defend  luiuself  against  various  accu- 
sations on  his  return.     In  159",  he  was  made  Earl 
Marshal  of  England,  and,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Bnr- 
leigh.  Chancellor  of  Cambridge.      In  159S  occurred 
the  first   fatal   mistake  in  E.'s  career.     Presuming 
upon  Elizabeth's  admiration  and  feminine  fondness 
for  his  person,  he  differed  from  her  about  some  trifling 
matter,  and  angrily  and   rudely  tm-ned   his   back 
upon  her  in  the  presence  of  some   of  the  council, 
and  her  majesty,  whose  language  was  hardly  more 
deUcate  than  her  father's,  gave  him  a  \-igorous  box 
on  the  ears,  telling  him  to"' go  and  be  hanged.'     A 
violeut   quarrel  ensued,  which,  though  apparently 
smoothed  up,  was  never  reaUy  so.    E.  was  afterwards, 
in  1599,  sent  to  Ireland — part  of  which  at  that  time 
was  in  a  state  of  rebeUion — as  lord-Ueuteiiant  of  th.at 
country;  but  here  his  government  was  ill-advi.se.l 
and  ineffectual,  and  after  a  few  unimportant  luidur- 
takings,  he  coucluded  a  truce  with  the  rebels,  wliich 
was  regarded  at  court  as  high  treason.     In  order  to 
confront  his  enemies,  he  hastened  back  to  London, 
contrary  to   the   queen's    express   commands,   and 
forced  his  way  into  Elizabeth's  bedchamlier.     Justly 
offended,  the  queen  deprived  liim  of  liis  dignities, 
and  commanded  that  he  should  be  called  to  aceoimt 
for  his  behaviour.     E.,  advancing  from  one  degree  of 
foolhardihood  to  another,  tried  to  excite  an  insur- 
rection in  London.     He  was  imprisoned,  tried,  and 
found  guilty.     Elizabeth  long  delayed  signing   tlie 
warrant  for  his  execution,  in  the  hope  that  he  would 
implore  her  pardon.     He  was  beheaded  on  the  25th 
Febniary  1001,  after  defendmg  himself  -n-ith  pride 
and  dignity.     E.  was  rash,  bold,  and  presumptuous  ; 
but  brave,  generous,  and  affectionate,  and  the  friend 
and  pati-on  of  literary  men. 

ES-SIOUT.     See  Siout. 

E'SSLINGEX,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  is  situated 
near  the  right  bank  of  the  Necker,  in  the  centre  of 
a  pleasing  and  fertile  district,  seven  miles  east-south- 
east of  Stuttgart.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper, 
and  five  suburbs,  and  is  surrounded  by  strong  walls, 
and  fortified  I)y  towers.  The  chief"  buildings  are 
the  Frauenkhr/iesL  splendid  edifice  in  the  purest 
Gothic  style,  buUt  in  1440.  and  sui-mounted  by  a 
spire  230  feet  high— the  old  .and  new  town-houses, 
and  the  old  castle.  It  has  the  greatest  machine- 
making  trade  of  the  kingdom,  has  manufactiu-es  of 
a  wme  caUed  Esslingen  ehamp.agne,  of  woollens, 
and  cotton  and  woollen  yams,  Lackered  iron,  silver- 
plate  and  tin  wares,  and  jiaper,  with  a  good  trade  in 
wine  and  agricultural  produce.     Pop.  (1871)  17,941. 

E.  was  founded  in  the  Sth  c,  and  received  in  1209 
the  rights  of  a  free  city  of  the  Gennau  empire. 
The  long  and  bloody  quarrel  which  existed  between 
it  and  tlie  House  of  Wurtemberg  was  brought  to 
an  end  at  the  peace  of  LuneWlle  (1802),  when  E., 
with  its  territory,  was  assigned  to  the  duchy  of 
Wiirtemljerg. 

ESSOUAN,  or  ESWAX.     See  Assou.ts-. 

ESTABLISHED  CHURCH,  a  church  estab- 
lished and  maintained  by  a  state  for  the  teaching  of 
Christianity  in  a  particular  fonn  within  its  boun- 
daries. Subsequent  to  the  Reformation,  many  of 
the  opinions  which  had  given  sanctity  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  still  kept  possession  of  men's  minds  ; 
amongst  these  was  the  notion,  that  the  civil  go- 
vernment of  each   state  was  bound  to  maintain   a 

133 


ESTABLISHED  CHURCH— ESTATE. 


particular  form  of  Christianity.  The  same  fallacious 
reasoning  which  in  more  recent  times  has  led  to  the 
search  for  one  absolutely  best  form  of  civil  gorern- 
nient  was  at  work  then  with  reference  to  the  church. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  not  the  best  form 
— of  that  the  Protestant  states  liad  become  con- 
vinced— but  all  forms  were  not  therefore  indifl'ereut ; 
and  if  one  was  better  than  anotlicr,  and  anotlier 
l.)ettcr  than  that,  there  must  be  an  alisolutely  best, 
which  the  state  was  bound  to  discover,  and  wlien 
discovered,  to  substitute  for  that  which  had  V>een 
abolished.  The  idea  that  the  good  or  bad  qualities 
of  forms  of  government,  whetlicr  ci\Tl  or  ecclesi- 
astical, so  long  as  they  did  not  violate  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  Christianity  or  morality,  were 
relative,  and  not  absolute,  and  that  whilst  one  might 
be  the  best  for  men  in  one  stage  of  development  or 
of  one  particular  temperament,  ,-inother  might  be 
the  best  for  those  who  differed  from  them  in  these 
respects,  did  not  belong  to  that  age.  Eacli  Protes- 
tant state  consequently  established  a  chxu'ch,  con- 
formity to  the  tenets  of  which  it  enforced,  not  only 
upon  those  who  as  ministers  were  henceforth  to 
enjoy  the  property  which  in  Roman  Catholic  times 
had  been  devoted  to  the  spiritual  interests  of  the 
conmiunity,  but  very  often  on  its  own  civil  servants 
and  ad^Tsei-s.  The  benelit  of  the  arrangement  was, 
that,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  tlie  means  which 
the  community  had  set  apart  for  its  o\m  spiritual 
improvement  were  protected  from  the  sjioHation  of 
[irivate  indiriduals ;  and  this  benefit  was  secured 
more  effectually  the  more  comjdetely  the  new 
church  took  the  place  of  the  old — iu  England,  for 
example,  better  than  in  Scotland ;  Iiut  as  each  of  the 
Protestant  states  had  substituted  one  form  of  church- 
government  for  another,  and  as  tlie  same  form  had 
not  been  adopted  by  them  all,  the  idea  of  there 
being  one  form  ■which  w,as  absolutely  preferable  to 
the  others,  though  not  abolished,  was  rudely  shaken. 
In  England,  Queen  Elizabeth  had  stated  in  her  cele- 
Ijrated  declaration,  that  she,  as  head  of  the  chvirch, 
*  would  not  endure  any  varying  or  departing  iu  the 
least  degree'  from  the  doctrines  of  the  Episcopal 
Chiu-ch  of  England  as  set  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles ;  and  yet  Presbyterianism  Avas  established 
iu  England  in  1649.  In  Scotlaud,  where  Presby- 
terianism had  at  first  taken  root,  Episcopalianism 
had  more  than  once  become  the  law  of  the  land. 
The  effect  of  such  occurrences  was  to  counteract 
the  belief  in  any  one  form  as  the  form  for  all  Chris- 
tendom, and  to  facilitate  dissent  and  the  formation 
of  sects.  The  pastors  of  these  sects  were  not  at  first 
recognised  by  the  law  as  entitled  to  any  of  the 
privileges  of  Christian  ministers.  Whatever  they 
might  be  to  their  owii  flock,  to  the  state  they  were 
laymen,  and  their  churches  were  mere  secular 
lecture-rooms,  or,  at  most,  places  of  meeting  for 
private  devotion.  See  Nonconfokjiity,  Dissentek.s, 
CuTTRcn,  &e.  GraduaUy  this  view  became  modified, 
and  the  civil  consequences  attaching  to  sacred  rites, 
when  performed  by  a  clergyman  of  the  establish- 
ment, were  extended  to  them  when  performed  by 
<lissenters.  See  M.vreiage.  But  thougli  many  of 
the  priAHleges,  and  all  the  liberties  belonging  to  the 
established  church,  have  now  been  extended  to 
dissenting  bodies,  including  Rom.au  Cathohes  (see 
Roman  Catholic  Emanxipation)  and  Jews  (see 
.jKW),the  cstaliUshed  churchesof  England  and  Scot- 
laud  arc  supported  by  tlie  state,  and  guarded  from 
spoliation  by  the  Coronation  Oath  (q.  v.).  The  grant 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  college  of  Maynooth,  and  the 
JRi';/ium  Donum  (q.  v.)  to  the  Presbyterian  ministers 
in  Ireland,  were  capitalised  by  the  act  (1809)  which 
disestablished  the  Irish  Church.  There  is  no  endow- 
ment to  other  religious  denominations,  as  in  France ; 
and  the  emoluments  of  the  established  church  in 
13t 


England,  though  modified  in  their  distribution  by 
the  labours  of  the  Ecclesi.astical  Commissioner's 
(q.  v.),  liave  not  yet  been  apjiropriated  to  any  other 
than  religious  uses  in  connection  with  that  church. 

The  cause  of  established  churches  is  very  generally 
maintained  on  the  ground  of  the  alleged  duty  of  the 
state  to  provide  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  people,  as  most  essential  to  their 
moral  welfare,  and  so  to  the  general  prosperity  of 
the  communitj'.  It  is  further  argued,  in  support  of 
the  same  cause,  that  c\vW  rulers,  or  the  people  as 
associated  in  a  free  state,  .are  under  a  moral  obliga- 
tion of  the  highest  kind,  to  acknowledge  God,  liis 
law,  and  his  ordinances.  Conceniiug  which,  and 
other  arguments,  for  and  against  established  churches, 
as  far  as  it  belongs  to  the  scheme  of  this  work  to 
notice  them,  the  reader  is  refen'ed  to  the  article 
VoLUNTARy  CHTJRCIIE.S.  It  may  here,  however,  be 
observed,  that  the  arguments  just  mentioned  do  not 
necessarily  infer,  even  when  admitted  to  the  utmost, 
that  the  state  is  bound  to  support  in  any  exclusive 
way  a  particular  sect  or  denomination,  unless,  on  the 
further  assumption  that  religious  truth  and  worth 
belong  to  that  denomination  alone.  Nor  does  the 
endowment  of  a  church  by  the  state  necessarily  follow 
from  the  fullest  adoption  of  the  principles  thus  con- 
tended for.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  point 
which  may  very  reasonably  be  disputed,  how  far  the 
common  arguments  against  state  endoimnents  are 
applicable  to  those  endowments  which  were  not 
originally  bestowed  by  the  state,  but  which  the 
state  has,  from  a  veiy  early  period,  recognised  .as 
belonging  to  the  church ;  a  description  which  will 
be  found  to  comprehend  great  p.art  of  the  existing 
endowments  of  established  churches.  The  exclusive 
])ossession  of  them  by  a  particular  denomination,  and 
their  rightfiU  appropriation  to  religious  uses,  are, 
however,  distinct  questions. 

ESTA'TE.  In  the  law  of  England,  an  estate 
in  lands,  tenements,  or  heredit;uiients,  signifies  such 
interest  as  the  tenant  hath  therein  ;  so  that  if  a 
man  grants  all  his  estate  in  D.ale  to  A.  and  his 
heirs,  everything  that  he  can  possibly  grant  shall 
pass  thereby. — Blackstone,  Comm.  ii.  103.  The  first 
division  of  estates  is  into  legal  .and  equitable.  By 
the  former  is  signified  the  estate  which  a  man  has 
by  the  common  law  ;  by  the  latter,  the  interest 
which  has  been  created  by  the  oper.atiou  of  a  court 
of  equity.  See  Eqcttaele  Estates,  Use.s,  Trf.sts. 
Legal  estates  are  considered  in  England  with  refer- 
ence to  the  quantity  of  the  est.ate,  the  time  of  enjoy- 
ment, and  the  number  of  persons  who  may  unite 
in  the  enjoyment.  Under  the  first  heail,  estates  are 
either  freehold  or  less  than  freehold.  Freehold 
estates,  again,  are  divided  into  freeholds  of  inherit- 
ance, or  Fees  (q.  v.) ;  and  freeholds  not  of  inherit- 
ance, or  for  life.  An  estate  for  life  may  be  for  the 
life  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  gi-antcd,  or  for 
that  of  another  person,  or  for  more  than  one  life. 
A  person  holding  an  estate  for  the  life  of  another  is 
called  tenant  pvr  mitre  vie.  Au  estate  pur  autre  vie 
lieing  a  freehold,  descends,  in  ease  of  the  death  of 
the  tenant  during  the  term,  to  his  heir,  and  not  to 
his  executor.  An  estate  by  the  Courtesy  of  England 
(q.  v.),  and  an  estate  in  Dower  (q.  v.),  are  estates  for 
life.  A  coiivey.ance  to  A.  B.,  without  mention  of 
hen's,  makes  the  grantee  tenant  for  life.  Au  estate 
to  a  woman  during  her  widowhood,  or  to  a  man 
uutil  the  occurrence  of  a  specified  event,  as  till  he 
receive  a  benefice,  will  bo  construed  to  be  an  estate 
for  life.  Tenants  for  life  are  entitled  to  take 
Estovers  (q.  v.),  but  they  must  not  commit  Waste 
(q.  v.).  The  representatives  of  a  tenant  for  life  are 
also  usually  entitled  to  take  the  Emblements  (q.  v.) 
on  the  expiry  of  the  term.  Estates  less  than  free- 
hold are  called  also  chattels  real.     This  species  of 


ESTATE  TAIL— ESTELLA. 


estate,  on  the  death  of  the  tenant,  passes,  like  other 
f 'battels  (q.  v.)  to  the  executor,  and  not  to  the  lieir. 
They  are  diWded  into  estates  for  years,  estates  at 
will,  and  estates  on  snfferance.  See  LE.ist.s.  Estates, 
with  referenee  to  the  time  of  their  enjojTuent,  may 
he  either  in  possession  or  in  expectancy.  An  estate 
in  possession  comjireheuds  not  only  an  estate  in  the 
actual  occupation  of  the  tenant,  but  one  from  which 
he  has  been  'v^Tonsfidly  ousted.  In  this  hitter  case, 
the  law  rcG;ard3  the  rightfid  tenant  as  havins;  the 
actual  estate,  to  wliich  is  attached  the  Right  of 
Entry  (q.  v.).  An  estate  in  expectancy  may  be  either 
ill  TiEVERsiON  or  Rem.\inder  (q.  v.).  Estates  of 
this  character  form  a  large  portion  of  the  riglits 
to  land  in  England,  and  are  the  subject  of  some 
i>f  the  most  su))tle  learning  of  the  English  law. 
With  reference  to  tlie  number  of  persons  entitled 
to  the  enjoyment,  estates  may  be  in  severalty,  in 
joint-tenaney,  in  co-parcenary,  or  in  common.  An 
estate  in  severalty  is  where  the  sole  right  to  the 
estate  is  in  a  single  person.     See  Joint-Tenancy, 

COPAKCENARY,  TENANTS  IN  COMMON. 

ESTATE  TAIL.     See  Entail. 

ESTATES  OF  THE  REALM.  The  three 
estates  of  the  realm  are  not  King,  Lords,  and 
Commons,  as  is  popularly  believed,  but  the  Lords 
Spiritual,  the  Lords  Temporal,  and  the  Commons. 
The  ancient  parliament  of  Scotland  consisted  of  the 
king  and  the  three  estates  of  the  realm,  by  which 
latter  was  meant — 1st,  the  archbishops,  bishops, 
abbots,  and  mitred  jiriors ;  2d,  the  barons,  under 
which  head  were  comprehended  not  only  the 
nobiht}%  but  tlie  commissioners  of  shires  and 
stewartries ;  and  3d,  the  commissioners  from  the 
royal  burghs.  All  these  assembled  in  one  house, 
and  formed  one  meeting,  by  a  majority  of  the 
votes  of  which  all  matters,  whether  legislative  or 
judicial,  were  determinetl. — Ersk.  b.  i.  tit.  3,  s.  2. 
Bell's  Dictionary.    See  States. 

E'STE  (ancient  Aiesle),  a  town  of  Venice,  is 
beautifidly  situated  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Euganean  Hills,  17  miles  south-south-west  of  Padua. 
It  is  an  old  town,  and  has  a  decidedly  Lombard 
appearance,  many  of  the  houses  being  sup;)orted  by 
avclios.  It  has  several  interesting  Iniildings,  among 
which  the  chief  arc  the  i^occa,  or  castle  of  Este,  with 
a  grim-lociUing  donjon  tower,  overhanging  the  town, 
and  the  church  of  fian  Martina,  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  surmounted  by  a  campanile,  which  slopes  as 
much  as  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa.  Both  church 
and  tower  have  been  sadly  disfigured  by  an  attempt 
to  modernise  them.  E.  manufactures  silk  goods, 
saltpetre,  liats,  and  earthenware  and  has  niuuerous 
silk-mills  and  whetstone  quarries  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  more  than  10,000. 

E'STE,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  illustrious 
famiUcs  of  Italy,  which,  according  to  the  historian 
Jliu-atori,  owed  its  origin  to  those  petty  princes  who 
governed  Tuscany  in  the  times  of  the  Carlovingians, 
and  who  were  in  aU  probaliility  of  the  race  of  the 
Longobards.  The  first  whose  figure  is  more  than  a 
mere  shadow  is  Adalbert,  who  died  about  917  A.  D. 
The  grandson  or  grand-nephew  of  Adalbert,  named 
Oberto,  was  one  of  the  Italian  nobles  who  offered 
the  crown  of  Italy  to  Otho  of  Saxony.  He  is  after- 
wards styled  Comes  sacri  palalii,  and  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  greatest  personages  in  the 
realm ;  he  married  a  daughter  of  Otho's,  and  died 
about  972  A.  D.  In  later  times,  the  family  of  E. 
received  from  the  emperors  several  distiicts  and 
counties,  to  be  held  as  fiefs  of  the  empire.  The 
family  divided,  at  an  early  )ieriod,  into  two  branches, 
the  German  and  Itahan.  The  former  was  founded 
by  Welf  or  Guelfo  IV.,  who  received  the  inves- 
titure of  the  duchy  of  Bavaria  from  the  Emperor 


Henry  IV.  in  1070.  The  Houses  of  Branswiek  and 
Hanover,  and  consequently  the  sovereigns  of  Great 
Britain,  also  called  Este-Guelfs,  are  descended  from 
this  person.  In  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries, 
the  history  of  the  E.  family,  as  heads  of  the  Guelf 
party,  is  interwoven  with  the  destinies  of  the  other 
nihug  families  and  small  repubUca  of  Northern 
Italy.  During  this  period,  they  first  gained  posses- 
sion of  Ferrara  and  the  march  of  Ancona  (120S 
A.  D.),  and  afterwards  of  Modena  and  Reggio  (12S8 
— 1289),  and  were  widely  celebrated  as  the  patrons 
of  art  and  literature.  One  of  the  most  illustrious 
was  Azzo  Vn.,  who  encouraged  Provencal  trouba- 
dours to  settle  at  his  eoiurt  at  Eerrara,  and  also 
founded  schools  in  that  city.  Alfonso  I.  (died 
1534)  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  soldier  and 
a  statesman,  and  was  celebrated  by  all  the  poets 
of  his  time,  particidarly  liy  Ariosto.  His  second 
wife  was  the  notorious  Lucrczia  Borgia.  His  quaiTel 
with  the  Popes  Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  and  Clement  VH., 
was  unfortunate,  as  an  interdict  was  laid  upon  him 
for  his  adherence  to  the  league  of  Cambray,  and  his 
2)apal  fiefs  declared  to  be  forfeited.  After  the  siege 
of  Rome,  in  1527,  the  duke  was  restored  to  his 
former  jiossessions  by  Charles  V.  His  successor, 
Ercole  or  HerciUes  II.,  who  married  Renate, 
daughter  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Anne  of 
Brittany,  attached  himself  to  Charles  V.  He  and 
his  brother,  a  dignitary  of  the  Catholic  Church,  were 
also  liberal  patrons  of  art  and  science  ;  the  latter  • 
erected  the  magnificent  Villa  d'Este  at  Tivoli.  The 
next  prince,  Alfonso  II.  (died  1597),  would  have  been 
noways  inferior  to  the  preceding  but  for  his  immo- 
derate love  of  splendour,  his  inordinate  ambition, 
and  the  cruelty  he  displayed  towards  the  poet  Tasso, 
whose  eccentricities,  however,  it  must  be  confessed, 
were  enough  to  try  the  patience  of  auy  reasonable 
mortal.  Alfonso  IV.,  ■nho  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  17th  c.,  was  very  fond  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  founded  the  Este  gallery  of  paintings.  Jiiiuddo 
(died  1737),  by  his  marriage  vnih  the  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Lunenburg,  imited  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  Houses,  separated  since  1070.  The 
male  line  of  tlie  House  of  E.  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Ercole  III.  m  1S03,  his  possessions  having 
been  previously  seized  by  the  French  invaders, 
an<l  annexed  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  His  only 
daughter  married  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  third 
son  of  Francis,  emperor  of  Austria.  Their  eldest 
son,  Francis  IV.,  by  the  treaty  of  1814 — 1815,  was 
restored  to  the  territories  which  had  belonged  to  his 
maternal  ancestors,  comprising  the  duchy  of  Modena ; 
and,  on  his  mother's  death,  obtained  the  duchies  of 
Massa  and  Carrai-a.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Francis  V.,  21st  January  1846.  The  connection 
which  the  family  of  E.,  like  others  of  the  small 
Itahan  principalities,  had  formed  with  Austria,  gave 
it,  of  course,  pro- Austrian  sympathies,  the  result  of 
which  has  been  fatal  to  its  popularity  and  dynastic 
existence.  In  1860,  the  sentiment  of  Italian  unity 
and  independence,  which  for  the  previoiis  15  or  20 
years  had  been  steadily  fostered  by  the  policy  of 
Sardinia,  triumphed  in  a  nniversal  explosion  of 
national  feeling,  which  united  the  penmsnla  (with 
the  exception  of  Rome  and  Venice)  under  the 
authority  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  Venice  was  added  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1866,  and  Rome  became  the 
capital  in  1870. 

ESTE'LLA,  an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Navarre,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ega,  about  27  miles  south-west  of 
Pamplona.  It  is  a  well-built,  clean  town,  with  several 
squares,  and  has,  in  the  environs,  a  variety  of 
agi-eeable  promenades  and  ple.asure-grounds.  It  has 
two  interesting  churches,  both  old,  and  one  of  thom, 
San  Juan,  a  fijie  building  with  a  very  lofty  tiiwer. 

ins 


ESTEPA— ESTHOXIA. 


The  manufactures  are  woollen  and  linen  fabrics, 
brandy,  and  earthenware.  A  tolerable  wiiie  is  made 
in  the  vicinity.  E.  has  some  trade  in  fniits,  wool, 
hardware,  and  gi'aiu.  Pop.  about  GOOO.  Here  Don 
Carlos  was  proclaimed  king  in  Xoveraber  lS3.'i ; 
ami  here,  in  February  1839,  six  of  his  oflicers  were 
tre.icherously  betrayed  and  executed  ■without  even  a 
foiTu  of  trial. 

ESTE'PA,  a  to^Vll  of  Spain,  in  the  proWnce  of 
Seville,  and  GO  miles  cast-south-east  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  well  built ;  has 
four  squares,  and  numerous  religious  edilices,  among 
which  ;irc  the  churches  of  Santa  Maria  and  San 
Sebastiau  ;  the  former,  a  nol)le  specimen  of  Gotliic, 
haNnng  three  naves,  and  a  richly  ornamented  interior. 
It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  baize,  and  oU, 
with  a  ti-ade  in  grain,  fruits,  oil,  brandy,  wool,  and 
cattle.  In  the  vicinity  are  mai'ble  and  builtUng- 
stone  quarries.     Pop.  7339. 

ESTEPO'NA,  a  maritime  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Malaga,  and  25  miles  north-north-east 
of  Gibraltar.  It  is  well  and  regularly  built ;  its 
streets  wide,  clean,  and  well  paved.  It  supplies 
Gibraltar  ■with  fi'uits  and  vegetables  ;  and  its  cliief 
industrial  features  are  its  fishing,  linen-weaving, 
and  manufactures  of  leather.     Pop.  9400. 

E'STERHAZY,  an  ancient  Himgarian  family, 
afterwards  raised  to  the  rank  of  princes  of  the 
empire,  the  representative  of  which  is  at  present 
the  richest  landed  proprietor  in  Austria.  The 
family  divided  into  three  main  branches — the 
Esesznek,  Altsohl  or  Zolyom,  aud  Forchtenstein 
lines.  A  descendant  of  the  last  family,  Nicholas 
de  Esterhazy,  born  in  1765,  travelled  over  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  and  resided  for  a  considerable 
time  in  England,  France,  aud  Italy.  He  founded 
the  splendid  collection  of  pictures  at  Vienna.  He 
also  made  a  choice  collection  of  dra'wings  and 
engravings.  \ATien  Napoleon,  in  1809,  entertained 
the  notion  of  weakening  Austria  by  the  separation 
of  Hungary,  he  made  overtures  to  Prince  Esterhazy 
respecting  the  crown  of  Hungary,  which,  however, 
were  decUned.  The  great  Haydn  composed  most  of 
his  works  at  the  court  of  Prince  Nicholas.  His 
son,  Prince  Paul  Anton  d'Esterhazy,  born  in  1786, 
entered  at  an  early  age  on  a  diplomatic  career. 
After  the  peace  of  Vienna,  he  ■H'ent  as  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Westph.aha.  From  1815  to  1818,  he 
represented  the  Austrian  government  at  London. 
He  filled  the  same  office  lietweeu  1830  and  1838, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  diijlomatic  tact 
and  ability.  In  1842,  he  retiu-ned  home,  and  con- 
tinued to  exert  himself  in  the  cause  of  pohtical 
and  literary  progress.  In  March  1848,  he  became 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in  the  cabinet  presided 
over  by  Batthyani  ;  but  when  the  struggle  between 
Aiistria  and  Ilungary  broke  out,  he  exliibited  more 
jjrudence  than  heroism  by  retiring  from  public 
ali'airs  altogether.  He  died  in  1S6G.  The  hereditary 
prince,  Nicholas  Paul  Charles  Esterhazy,  born  25th 
June  1817,  married  Lady  Sarah  Villiers,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Jersey. 

ESTHER  (the  word  signifies  '  the  planet  Venu.s ') 
is  the  Persian  name  of  Hadassah,  daughter  of  Abi- 
haii,  the  son  of  Shimei,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Beujamite. 
She  is  represented  m  Scripture  as  an  orjthan,  and 
as  having  been  brought  up  by  her  cousin  Mordecai, 
an  officer  in  the  household  of  the  Persian  monarch 
Ahasucrus.  Her  history,  as  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Esther,  is  well  known  and  extremely  interesting. 
When  the  misconduct  of  ^'ashti  had  cost  her  her 
'royal  estate,'  all  'the  fair  young  virgins'  of  the 
kingdom  were  gathered  together,  that  Ahasuerus 
might  choose  a  successor.  He  selected  Hadassah, 
who  received  the  name  of  E.  on  accoimt  of  her 

13G 


loveliness.  The  great  event  of  her  life  was  the 
saving  of  her  Jewish  countrymen  from  the  horrors 
of  that  universal  massacre  planned  by  the  malice 
of  Hamau,  and  consented  to  liy  the  thoughtless 
cruelty  of  an  Oriental  despot.  The  details  of  this 
event  are  too  familiar  to  require  narration.  It  is 
suthcient  to  say  th.at  E.'s  success  was  sign.al  ; 
and  the  feast  which  she  and  her  cousin  ^loi-decai 
appointed  in  memory  of  their  deliverance — viz.,  the 
feast  of  Purun  (i.  e.,  of  Lots),  is,  in  consequence,  cele- 
brated with  great  enthusiasm.  E.  is  not  mentioned 
in  jirofane  history,  whence  it  has  been  inferred  by 
some  that  she  was  not  exactly  the  wi/c  of  Ahasuerus 
(Xerxes),  but  rather  the  favourite  of  his  harem, 
to  which  she  uudoubtedly  belonged;  for,  as  we 
read  (ii.  8),  E.  was  consigned  '  to  the  custody  of 
Hegai,  keeper  of  the  women.'  This  hypothesis  is 
rendered  probable  by  the  fact,  that  the  Persian 
kings  did  not  choose  ■wives  from  their  harem,  but 
from  the  principal  Persian  families,  or  else  fx-om  the 
daughters  of  foreign  potentates. 

ESTHER.  Book  of,  one  of  the  very  latest  of 
the  canonical  works  itf  the  Old  Testament,  and 
commonly,  but  without  a  shadow  of  eWdence,  su]i- 
posed  to  be  Nmtten  by  Mordecai  or  Ezra.  This 
is  the  view  of  Ahenesra,  Clement  of  Alexandria. 
Augustine,  Gerhard,  and  others.  The  Talmud 
assigms  the  authorship  to  the  members  of  the  Great 
Synagogue,  a  semi-mj-thical  body,  who  are  made 
use  of  by  Jewish  rabbis  and  Christian  divines  as  a 
sort  of  Deiis  ex  niachiiia  to  solve  every  difficulty. 
According  to  the  opinions  of  the  most  learned  and 
imprejudiced  critics,  the  date  of  its  composition 
must  be  placed  after  the  downfall  of  the  J'ei'sian 
monarchy.  The  langiiage  is  much  later  than  that 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  aud  the  fact  of  occasional 
explanation  of  Persian  customs  fits  the  jieriod  of 
the  Seleucidaj  better  than  an  earlier  one.  The 
Hebrew  text  is  that  which  has  been  followed  in  the 
English  version ;  but  the  Sejituagint  is  full  of  late 
interpolations  and  additions  by  Alexandrian  Jews. 
The  book  is  held  in  the  highest  reverence  by  the 
Jews  ;  so  much  so,  that  Maimouides  declared  that, 
in  the  days  of  the  Messiah,  evci^y  .Temsh  scripture 
would  be  forgotten  excejit  the  bonk  of  Esther 
and  the  Pentateuch.  The  book  is  not  ■m-itten  in  a 
theocratic  spirit,  like  the  rest  of  Je%vish  literature. 
Nothing  is  directly  attributed  to  God ;  in  fact, 
his  name  is  not  once  mentioned.  Neither  is  there 
the  remotest  trace  of  rehgious  feeling  of  any  kind. 
Luther,  in  his  usual  ofi'-hand  hasty  way,  expressed 
his  contempt  for  the  book,  in  spite  of  the  admiration 
"which  the  Jews  bestowed  on  it,  censuring  it  for  its 
'  heathenish  extravagance,'  aud  declaring  that,  in 
his  judgment,  it  w.as  'more  worthy  than  all  of 
being  excluded  from  the  canon.'  The  absence  of  all 
recognition  of  God,  perplexed  some  of  the  ancient 
.lewish  commentators,  who  therefore  invented  the 
hyi)othesis,  that  the  book  was  originally  a  part  of 
the  Persian  chronicles,  probably  executed  by  Mor- 
decai ;  and  that,  being  intended  for  the  heathen,  the 
sacred  name  was  "wisely  left  out ! 

ESTHCNIA,  called  by  the  inhabitants  them- 
selves Wiroma  (i.  c.,  the  Border-land),  a  Russian 
government,  and  one  of  the  Baltic  Prminces  (q.  v.), 
extends  immediately  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  ; 
has  an  area  of  7597  square  miles,  and  a  nopulatiiux 
(1867)  of  322,608.  It  was  conquered  (1182—1241) 
by  the  Danes,  who  sold  it  to  the  Teutonic  knights 
in  1.346.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Swedes 
in  15GI,  but  w.as  taken  from  them  by  Peter  the 
(ireat  in  1710;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt  was 
finally  secured  to  Russia  in  1721.  One-third  of 
the  entire  surface,  which  is  in  gencr.al  fiat,  is  imder 
cidtivation,  and   produces   gi'cat   quantities  of  rye 


ESTOC-ESZEK. 


and  barley ;  tlio  rcmaiuiug  two-thirds  are  chiefly 
composed  of  sandy  tracts  and  marshes,  stremi  in 
many  places  with  large  blocks  of  granite ;  there 
are  also  extensive  forests  of  birch  and  pine.  The 
government  of  E.  is  divided  into  four  circles;  its 
principal  town  is  Reval  or  Revel  (q.  v.). 

The  inhaliitants  are  divided  into  Esthlandcrs 
and  Esths.  The  former  are  a  mixture  of  Swedes, 
Germans,  and  Russians,  and  comprise  the  nobles 
and  the  town-populations.  The  latter  belong  to  the 
Finnish  race,  and  are  the  original  possessors  of  the 
soil.  Their  language  is  soft  and  musical,  and  is 
divided  into  two  leading  dialects,  that  of  Revel  and 
that  of  Dorjiart.  They  also  possess  a  literature  rich 
in  splendid  national  songs.  See  Xeus,  Eslhnisclie 
Volkdieder  (Reval,  ISiJO^lSSl).  They  are  indus- 
trious, kind-hearted,  and  in  the  main  religious  and 
attached  to  the  Protestant  doctrines.  A  great  part 
of  Livonia  is  peopled  with  Esths,  the  entu-e  number 
of  whom  in  the  Baltic  provinces  is  about  e.jO.OOO. 

ESTO'C  (Italian),  a  small  dagger  worn  at  the 
girdle,  called  in  Elizabethan  times  a  Tucke  (q.  v.). 

ESTOILE,  or  STAR,  in  Heraldry,  differs  from  the 
Mullet  (q.  V.)  by  having  six  waved  jioints ;  the 
mullet  consisting  of  five  plain  points. 

ESTO'PPEL,  an  impediment  or  bar  to  a  right  of 
action,  arising  from  a  man's  own  act.  It  is  called 
an  estoppel  or  conclusion,  because  a  man's  own  act 
or  acceptance  stoppeth  or  closeth  up  liis  mouth  to 
allege  or  plead  the  truth. — Co.  Lilt.  So'2  a.  Estoppels 
are  ipf  three  kinds — 1.  By  matter  of  record,  where 
any  jiulgment  has  been  given  in  a  court  of  record, 
the  parties  to  the  suit  are  estop]ied  from  afterwards 
alleging  such  matters  as  would  be  contradictory 
to  the  record.  2.  By  matter  in  writing.  Thus,  a 
party  who  has  executed  a  deed  will  be  precluded 
from  afterwards  denpng,  in  any  action  brought 
upon  that  instnmient,  the  fact  of  which  it  is 
evidence.  3.  By  matter  in  pays,  as  by  livery,  by 
entry,  by  acceptance  of  rent,  &c. — by  any  of  which 
acts  a  man  is  barred  from  pleading  anything  to  the 
contrary.  The  jirinciple  of  estoppel  is  that  what  a 
man  has  once  solemnly  aUeged  is  to  be  presumed  to 
be  true,  and  therefore  he  should  not  be  suffered  to 
contr,adict.  The  doctrine  of  estoppel  jirevails  in 
America  as  well  as  in  England.  In  Scotland  also, 
the  same  principle  is  recognised,  under  the  name  of 
Personal  Exception  (q.  v.). 

ESTO'VER  (Fr.  estqffh;  to  furnish),  an  incident 
to  the  estate  of  a  tenant  for  life  or  for  years.  It  is 
the  right  which  the  tenant  has  to  make  use  of  the 
wood  on  the  estate  for  certain  definite  purjioses. 
Estovers,  or  hnte^  (Saxon),  are  of  three  kinds — house- 
bote, which  is  twofold — viz.,  esloverium  mlificandi 
el  ardendi,  a  right  to  wood  for  fuel  and  repairs  of 
the  house,  ploughbote,  estorerium  arandi,  wood  for 
ploughs  and  carts ;  and  h.aybote,  estnrtrium  claudendi, 
wood  for  repairing  hedges  and  fences. — Co.  Liti. 
41b. 

ESTREA'T  (Lat.  extractum),  in  English  Law,  a 
true  extract  copy  or  note  of  some  original  writing 
or  record,  and  specially  of  fines  or  amercements, 
as  entered  in  the  rolls  of  a  court,  to  be  levied  by 
bailiffs  or  other  officers.  When,  however,  it  is 
appUed  to  a  Recognisance  (q.  v.),  it  signifies  that 
the  recognisance  itself  is  estreated,  or  taken  out 
from'  among  the  other  records,  and  sent  to  the 
Exchequer. — Blackstone,  Comm.  iv.  253.  If  the 
condition  of  a  recognisance  be  broken,  the  recog- 
nisance is  forfeited ;  and  on  its  being  estreated, 
the  parties  become  debtors  to  the  crown  for  the 
stuns  in  which  they  are  bound. — Archbold,  Crim. 
Practke,  78.  The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  power 
over  i>enalties  and  forfeitures  incurred  at  assizes, 
anil  can  discharge  or  compound  them  at  its  discre- 


tion ;   but   that   court   has    no   power  over  recog- 
nisances forfeited  before  justices  of  the  peace. 

ESTREMADURA,  pre\-ious  to  the  new  distri- 
bution of  the  countiy,  a  province  of  Spain,  situated 
between  Portugal  and  New  Castile,  and  watered  I  ly 
the  Tagus  aud  the  Ouadiana.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Leon,  on  the  S.  by  Andalusia,  and,  since 
1833,  has  been  divided  into  the  two  prorinces  of 
Badajos  and  Caceres.  It  has  an  are.a  of  1G.554 
square  miles,  and  contains  about  000,000  iuhal  litauti*. 
Although  a  continuation  of  the  high  table-land 
of  New  Castile,  E.  is  not,  like  it,  a  uniform  plain, 
but  is  mountainoiLS  on  the  north  and  south,  and  is 
well  watered,  the  slopes  of  the  hills  being  covered 
with  wood,  and  the  valleys  with  rich  grass.  Not- 
\vithstanding  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  land  has 
lain  desolate  and  imcultivated  ever  since  the  expid- 
siou  of  the  Moors  in  the  13th  century.  This  is 
chiefly  to  be  attributed  to  the  Mesta,  or  right  of 
pasture,  which  causes  the  land  to  be  regarded  as 
the  common  property  of  the  possessors  of  flocks. 
The  breeding  of  goats,  swine,  horses,  asses,  and 
mules  is  much  attended  to.  Silk  and  hone3-  form 
no  inconsiderable  branches  of  trade.  Corn  is  still 
imported.  The  mines,  which  were  formerly  verj' 
productive,  are  no  longer  wrought.  Commerce  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  a  contraband  trade  with 
Portugal.  The  inhabitants  are  poor,  and,  from  the 
want  of  roads,  isolated  fi'om  the  rest  of  Spain,  and 
consequently  in  .a  low  state  of  ciNdlisation.  They 
make  exceUent  soldiers,  however,  and  have  produced 
a  series  of  brave  con'iuUtadores  and  generals. 

ESTREJIADURA,  next  to  Alemtcjo,  the  largest 
province  of  Portug.al,  has  an  area  of  8180  square  mile.'s, 
and,  including  the  capital,  Lisbon,  contained  in  ISGS, 
837,451  inhabitants.  The  greater  part  of  the  country 
is  hilly,  but  the  hills  do  not  attain  any  great  elevation. 
To  the  west  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tagus  are  the 
granite  mountains  of  the  ;Scrra  da  Cintra,  varying 
from  1500  to  1800  feet  in  height,  and  terminating 
in  the  Cabo  de  Roca.  To  the  south  of  the  Tagus 
are  liarren  moors,  partly  broken  by  morasses,  and 
the  limestone  chain  of  Arrabida,  rising  to  a  height 
of  1000  feet,  and  terminating  in  the  Cabo  de  Espichel. 
Many  districts  are  extremely  fertile,  others  are 
barren  and  uncidtivated.  The  Tagus,  which  is  only 
navigalile  as  far  as  x\brantes,  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Zezeres,  the  Sorraya,  aud  the  Canha,  and  is 
strewn  Avith  islands  at  its  mouth.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions of  the  country  are  wine,  oil,  fruits,  com, 
and  cork ;  but  even  the  s.andy  plains  are  covered 
with  cistus,  rosemarj",  mjTtles,  and  other  flowering 
and  fragrant  plants.  The  breeding  of  cattle  is  not 
much  attended  to.  The  minerals  are  marlile,  coal, 
and  sea-salt.  This  province  has  been  frequently 
visited  by  earthquakes. 

ESTREMO'Z,  a  fortified  town  of  Portugal  in  the 
province  of  Alenitejo,  is  23  miles  north-cast  of  Evora, 
and  about  the  same  distance  east  of  Elvas.  It  is 
built  roimd  the  base  of  the  hill  on  which  its  once 
formidable  castle,  erected  in  1360,  is  placed.  It  now 
ranks  as  the  fom-th  or  fiftli  stronghold  in  Portug,-il. 
E.  is  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  earthenware ; 
its  jars,  which  are  made  of  a  porous  claj',  and  have 
the  property  of  keeping  water  singidarly  cool,  are  of 
elegant  shape,  and  are  used  all  over  the  peninsula. 
The  earthenware  manufactures  of  E.  seeni  to  have 
continued  unchanged  since  Roman  times,  .as  until 
the  present  day  the  forms  into  which  the  jars  are 
cast  are  purely  classical.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
E.  is  a  marble  qu.arrj-.     Pop.  6500. 

E'SZEK,  a  royal  free  town  of  Slavonia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Drave,  twelve  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Danube,  is  the  chief  tovra  of 
the  district  of  Veroecze,  ajid  is  the  most  prosperous 

la? 


ETAMPES— ETHER. 


trading-town  of  Slaronia.  Since  the  Dra^-e  began 
til  lie  iiariiiated  dowiiwards  to  E.  by  steamers,  the 
t'lwn  has  driven  a  prosiierous  trade  in  corn,  wooil, 
Jiigs,  iron,  deals,  wine,  and  flax.  The  fortress  of 
Kszek,  known  in  l!oman  times  under  the  name  of 
Miu^i;!,  is  protected  by  a  fort  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Drave.  In  the  fortress,  the  commander's 
dwelling  and  the  towTi-house,  and  in  the  lower 
town  tile  coimty  buildings,  are  specially  worthy  of 
mention.  During  the  llungarian  revolution,  the 
to>¥Ti  was  at  first  lield  by  Coimt  Casimir  Batthyinjn, 
but  capitulated,  after  a  siege  of  several  weeks,  to 
the  Austrian  general.  Baron  Trebersberg.  Pop. 
(ISC9)  17,247,  more  than  one  half  of  whom  are 
Koman  Catholics,  the  rest  being  Ureek  Catholics, 
I'rotestants,  and  Jews. 

ETAJIPES  (anc.  Stampof),  a  town  of  Fr.ance,  in 
the  deiiartment  of  Seine-et-Oise,  is  situated  32  miles 
Bouth-south-west  of  Paris,  on  the  Orleans  Railway. 
It  consists  mainly  of  one  street,  about  four  miles 
long.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  ecclesiastical 
edifices.  E.  possesses  a  public  granar\-,  capalile  of 
containing  1400  tons  of  wheat.  In  and  around  E. 
there  arc  upwards  of  40  flour-mUls,  constantly 
employed  in  proviiUng  for  the  Paris  market ;  con- 
siderable quantities  of  garden-stuff  are  sent  from 
this  neighbourhood  to  the  capital.    Pop.  (1S72)  7503. 

ETANG  DE  BERRE,  a  salt-lake  of  France,  in 
the  south  of  the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone, 
communicates  ^vith  the  sea  by  a  nan-ow  channel, 
called  Tour-le-Bouc,  and  is  11  miles  long  by  9  broad 
at  its  widest  part.  This  lake  contains  gi-eat  quan- 
tities of  eels  and  other  fish.  Salt-worlcs  are  in 
operation  on  its  banks. 

ETA W AH,  a  town  of  the  Do.ab,  stands  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Jimina,  about  70  miles  below  Agra, 
in  lat.  26°  46'  N.,  and  long.  79°  4'  E.  Though  it 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  dreary  and  mean  place,  yet  it 
presents  some  remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  more 
particularly  many  of  those  ghats  or  flights  of  stairs 
which  facilitate  the  approach  to  the  river  for  the 
purpose  of  ritual  ablution.  It  contains  about  18,000 
inhabitants ;  and  its  prosperity,  such  as  it  is,  is 
owing  chiefly  to  its  position  at  the  jimction  of  the 
two  roads  which  lead  to  Agra  from  Cawnpore  and 
Calpee. 

ETA'WAH,  the  district  of  which  the  town  above 
mentioned  is  the  capital,  belongs  to  the  sub-presi- 
dency of  the  North-west  Prorinces.  It  hes  entirely 
in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna,  and  almost  exclusively 
within  the  Doab,  stretching  in  N.  lat.  from  26° 
21'  to  27°  9",  and  in  E.  long,  from  78'  46'  to  79° 
49',  and  containing  1674  square  mOes,  and  about 
500,000  irdiabitants.  The  district  was  at  one  time 
f.amous  for  the  murderous  fanaticism  of  the  Thugs, 
67  eoqises  of  their  strangled  \-ictim3  having  been 
foimd  in  the  wells  during  a  single  year. 

ETCHING.     See  E.^•GRA^-INO. 

ETCHING  UPON  GLASS.    See  Glass. 

E'THELBERT,  king  of  Kent,  and  fourth  in  direct 
descent  from  the  great  Hengist,  was  born  in  the 
year  552,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  about  the 
eighth  year  of  his  age.  The  representative  of  the 
first  Saxon  king  who  nded  in  England,  and  envious 
on  that  account  of  the  title  of  Bretwalda,  then 
enjoyed  by  Cealwin  of  Wessex,  E.  rashly  undertook 
an  expedition  against  that  king  in  568,  a  venture 
which,  had  he  known  the  extent  of  country  covered 
by  the  West  Saxons,  he  woidd  probably  never  have 
made.  The  rival  kings  met  at  Wibbandune,  now 
Wimbledon,  in  Surrey,  where  a  great  battle  took 
place,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  Ethelbert.  This  is 
recorded  as  being  the  first  battle  that  ever  occurred 
between  Anglo-Saxon  sovereigns.  Taught  by  dis- 
138 


aster  and  danger,  E.  became  more  ]>ruihnt.  His 
subsequent  schemes  were  more  successful,  and,  about 
the  year  590,  he  w.as  acknowledged  .is  Bretwalda 
of  the  Saxon  octarchy,  a  dignity  which  he  main- 
tained to  the  close  of  liis  reign  and  life.  In  570,  E. 
married  Bertha,  a  FrankiSh  princess.  The  lady  was 
a  Christian,  and  it  is  said  had  stipulated,  as  a  con- 
dition of  her  marriage,  that  she  should  be  allowed, 
after  her  arriv.al  in  Kent,  to  pr.actise  her  own  reli- 
gion. Her  amiable  jiiety  had  comjJetely  disanned 
E.  of  .all  violence  ag.ainst  the  Christian  rehgion  long 
before  the  most  important  event  of  his  life  took 
place,  viz.,  the  fonnal  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  his  kingdom.  This  was  effected  by  means  of 
the  ministr.ations  of  St  Augustine,  who  was  sent  to 
Britain  by  Pope  Gregory,  and  who  landed  in  Kent 
in  596.  In  the  follo%ving  year  the  kinjj  himself  Av.as 
converted,  and  Christianity  established  among  the 
liitherto  pagan  Saxons.  After  his  conversion  and 
ba])tism,  he  foimded  the  bishopric  of  Rochester, 
and,  in  concert  with  his  nephew  Sebert,  king  of 
Es.sex — who  also  had  been  converted — erected  the 
chinch  of  St  Paul's  in  London.     He  died  in  616. 

E.  is  also  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  firet 
WTitten  Saxon  laws.  These  are  the  Dooms,  as  they 
are  called  by  Bede,  '  which  he  established  with  the 
consent  of  his  Witan  in  the  days  of  St  Augiistine.' 
They  are  in  the  Saxon  language,  and  are  the  earliest 
^ratten  laws  that  exist  in  any  modem  tongue. 

ETHELRE'DA,  St,  a  daughter  of  the  king  of 
the  East  Angles,  in  the  7th  c.  canonised  for  her 
saintly  \-irtues,  and  whose  festival  in  the  calendar 
is  October  17.  Her  name  was  popidarly  abbreviated 
or  corrupted  into  St  Audrey.  At  a  fair  in  the  Isle 
of  Ely,  called  after  her  St  AucU'ey's  Fair,  it  was 
customary  to  sell  a  common  kind  of  lace,  which 
came  to  be  known  as  St  Aiulrey's  l.ace.  Tawdn/, 
as  applied  to  any  inferior  kind  of  fripperj'.  is  believed 
to  be  a  eorrujit  use  of  the  term  St  Audrey. 

E'THER  (otherwise  called  ETinT-ic  Etiiek,  Vinio 
Ethek,  and  ScrLPirCT.ic  Etiter)  is  prepared  from 
alcohol  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  at  an  ele- 
vated temperature.  On  the  small  scale,  the  appar- 
atus ■which  may  be  employed  for  the  jiurpose  is  the 
retort  and  receiver,  into  which  a  mixtiue  of  equal 


weights  of  spirits  of  wine,  or  rectified  spirit  and  oil 
of  vitriol,  or,  by  volimie,  2  of  alcohol  and  1  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  are  placed,  and  heat  being  cautio<islj' 
ajiplied,  a  hquid  distils  over,  which  consists  of 
ether  and  water.  In  a  short  time,  the  contents 
of  the  retort  begin  to  bl.acken,  and  the  operation 
must  be  stopped,  or  the  distillate  will  become  con- 
taminated with  sidphurous  acicL  On  the  largo 
scale,  a  modification  of  the  process  is  carried  on, 
which  renders  it  theoretically  a  '  continuous  process,' 
though,  practically,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of 
ether  distUled  over. 

The  conversion  of  alcohol  (C^HjO.HO)  into  ether 
(C.HjO)  and  water  (HO)  by  oU  of  vitriol  (HOSO,), 
was  at  one  time  considered  to  be  due  simply  to 
the  strong  affinity  of  the  oil  of  vitriol  for  water, 
which  enabled  it  to  take  possession  of  the  one  atom 


ETHER— ETHICS. 


of  water,  the  elements  of  ^vhicU  form  the  only 
difTorence  in  the  ultimate  composition  of  alcohol 
and  ether.  This  simple  mode  of  explaining  the 
pi'occss  of  etheritication,  however,  does  not  acknow- 
ledge that  the  atom  of  water  Is  not  retained  by 
tlie  oil  of  vitriol,  but  is  given  off  side  by  side  with 
tlio  ether  in  mechanical  solution  therewith.  The 
theory  of  the  process  now  generally  accepted  ia  too 
complex  for  introduction  here. 

Ether  is  a  eoloiu'less,  transparent,  volatile  liquid 
of  great  moliility  and  high  refractive  jiower,  and 
possessing  a  fragrant  odour,  and  a  liery,  passing  to 
a  cooling,  taste.  When  pure,  it  lias  the  specific 
gravity  '120  (water  =  1000)  at  Ci»°  V.,  though  the 
commercial  specimens  are  never  free  from  water  and 
alcohol,  and  have  the  density  T-IO.  It  boils  at  Oi'H" 
V.  (the  commercial  at  9G°),  and  yields  a  very  dense 
vapour,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  25SG,  as 
compared  with  air  1000.  When  reduced  to  a  temper- 
ature of  —  24°  F.,  ether  freezes.  It  volatiUses  spon- 
taneously wlien  ])Iaccd  in  an  imconfined  position, 
as  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  vaporises  so  quickly 
as  to  produce  intense  cold.  Indeed,  when  w.ater 
is  covered  with  ether,  and  the  latter  assisted  in 
its  evaporation  by  being  blo-mi  upon,  it  escapes  so 
readily  as  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  water 
to  .'i2°  r.,  when  it  freezes.  It  is  very  inflammable, 
burning  with  a  yellow-white  flame ;  and  mixed 
with  air  or  oxygen,  it  gives  rise  to  a  dangerous 
explosive  mixture,  and  hence  great  care  requires 
to  be  taken  in  its  distillation  to  keep  aU  lights 
and  fires  out  of  the  room  where  the  vapours 
are  condensing.  WTien  ether  is  added  to  its  own 
bulk  of  water,  briskly  agitated,  and  allowed  to 
settle,  the  two  liquids  appear  to  separate  again  ; 
liut  it  is  foimd  th.at  the  ether  has  taken  up 
one-eighth  of  its  volimie  of  the  water,  whilst  the 
latter  has  dissolved  the  same  quantity  of  ether. 
It  is  readily  miscilile  with  alcohol  in  all  proportions. 
Kther  is  one  of  the  best  solvents  for  the  oils  and 
fats,  and  hence  is  employed  in  analysis  for  the 
solution  and  separation  of  the  oils  from  other 
organic  matters,  as  in  the  analysis  of  oil-cakes,  &c. 
It  is  also  a  good  solvent  of  iodine,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, and  of  strj'chnine,  and  other  alkaloids,  as 
well  as  of  corrosive  subUmate,  and  other  salts. 

Ether  is  useful  in  the  preparation  of  freezing 
mixtures,  and  the  mixtiu-e  of  ether  and  solid  car- 
bonic acid  gives  rise  to  the  lowest  temperature 
which  has  as  yet  been  attained.  When  inhaled 
by  man  and  the  lower  animals,  ether  first  produces 
stimul.ating  and  intoxicating  effects,  but  afterwards 
it  gives  rise  to  drowsiness,  accompanied  by  complete 
insensibility,  which  entitles  ether  to  be  regarded  as 
an  important  anaesthetic  agent;  and,  indeed,  for  some 
time  it  was  the  oidy  agent  used  for  produciuf  AnreS- 
tliesia  (q.  v.)  in  operations,  but  has  been  entirely 
superseded  by  the  employment  of  chloroform. 

Ether  enters  into  combination  with  many  .'icids, 
forming  compound  ethers,  possessing  great  fragrancy, 
the  more  important  of  which  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

Acetic  Ethpr,      .    C.TIsO.CjHjOj. 

HutTrlc  Ether,    .    C,IIj0,C,II,O,  Tine-apple  Oil. 

ftiproic  Ether,    .     (  illso.O.^Ui.o,)  ,-  ,„, 

liutio  Ether.       .    C,UiO,r,„ll,"(l3i"  Essence  of  .Melons, 

rel.-iii-.inio  Ether,  CjIlsO.C'ialli.Oj,  Kssence  of  Quinces. 

(Enanlhic  Ether,     C,IliO,C„II|jO.,  Wine  Oil. 

There  are  other  ethers,  in  which  ordinary  ether 
is  not  one  of  the  members,  as 

Amyl  Acetic  Ether,     .    r,„n„0,C,nj()3,  Jargonelle  Pear  Oil. 

Amyl\alerianic  Ether,    C,„lI|,0.C,„IljO3,  Apple  Oil. 

Methyl  SalieyUc  Ether,     CjlljO.CuUsUj,  Oil  of  Winter  Greens. 

ETHER,  sometimes  .T.THER,  the  name  given  to 
the  meditmi  which  is  asstmied  in  astronomy  and 
physics    as    filling    all    space.     It   was   shewn   by 


I  Newton,  that  if  hght  consisted  of  m.aterial  particles 
j  ]irojected  from  luminous  boiUes,  these  must  move 
/aster  in  solids  and  liquids  than  in  air,  in  order  that 
the  laws  of  refraction  might  be  satisfied  in  their 
motions.  Huyghens,  on  the  other  hand,  shewed, 
that  to  accoimt  for  the  same  laws  on  the  supposition 
that  light  consisted  in  the  midulatory  motions  of  an 
elastic  medium,  it  must  move  more  slotcbj  in  solids 
and  fluids  than  in  gases.  Fizeau  and  Foucault 
have  lately,  by  different  methods,  measured  these 
velocities  relatively,  and  have  found  Huygheus's 
jircdiction  to  be  correct.  Light,  then,  consists  in 
the  ^^br.•^tory  motion  of  a  medium,  which  must,  of 
couree,  flu  all  space.  Tliis  is  called  lather.  As  yet, 
wo  have  no  idea  as  to  its  idtimate  nature  ;  some 
of  our  greatest  philosophers,  even,  have  supposed 
that  it  m.ay  be  of  the  class  of  ordinary  gases, 
and  that  our  atmosphere,  for  instance,  is  not  finite 
in  extent,  but  jierv.ades,  tvith  greatly  reduced 
dcnsit}',  aU  interpl.auetary  and  iuteretellar  space. 
Many  objections,  however,  may  easily  be  raised 
against  this  sujiposition.  Meanwhile,  we  may 
remark  that  the  mathematical  theory  of  light,  m 
the  hypothesis  of  imdulations,  requires  that  the 
vibratin"  medium  should  poissess  pro]ierties  more 
nearly  allied  to  those  of  an  elastic  solid  than  those 
of  a  liquid  or  a  gas.  The  ether  being  required  for 
the  explanation  of  the  existence  anil  the  propa- 
gation of  light,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance 
to  inquire  how  many  more  of  the  physical  forces 
may  be  referred  to  the  same  cause  or  medium. 
Radiant  he,at  most  certainly  may,  and,  in  all  prob- 
ability, gravitation,  molecular  actions,  magnetic, 
electric,  and  electro-dynamic  attractions  and  repul- 
sions, are  also  to  be  thus  explained.  As  to  sensible 
aud  latent  he.at,  electricity  and  magnetism  them- 
j  selves,  the  necessity  is  not  so  clear ;  but  even  these 
have  been  of  late  almost  s.atisfactordy  explained 
1  by  the  hypothesis  of  the  all-pervading  "ether.  Si'O 
FoKCE.  In  the  article  just  referred  to.  a  good  deal 
more  will  be  found  with  reference  to  this  subject, 
and  especially  ^^^th  reference  to  the  impossiliility 
of  the  ether's  consisting  of  air  or  other  gases,  which 
are  made  up  of  distinct  and  separated  particles. 

E'THICS,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  meaning  nearly 

the  same  thing  as  the  more  familiar  term  "Morals. 

I  The  science,  treating  of  the  nature  and  groimds  of 

Moral  Obligation,  and  expoimding  our  various  duties, 

1  is  caUed  sometimes  by  the  one  term,  and  sometimes 

by  the  other.     This  is  a  subject  wlierein  opinions  so 

difl'erent  from  each  other  have  been,  and  .are  still 

[  held,  that  a  writer's  task  must  lie  first  in  explaining 

I  what  are  the  chief  points  in  dispute,  and  next  in 

giving  an  account  of  the  positions  taken  up  by  the 

I  opposing  schools. 

There  are  two  distinct  questions  connected  with 
the^  Theory  of  Morals.  The  first  is  the  properly 
I  ethical  question,  and  is,  what  is  the  a-itii-ion  of  a 
^  moral  act?  otherwise  expressed  as  the  vioral  stan- 
dard— the  circumstance  determining  an  action  to  bo 
rigid,  and  not  wrong,  nor  simply  indifferent  as  regards 
right  and  wrong.  AVhat  determines  us  to  single  out 
some  conduct  as  the  subject  of  moral  apprSiation, 
and  other  conduct  as  the  subject  of  moral  disap- 
probation? We  consider  murder,  theft,  breach  of 
promises  or  contracts,  resistance  to  authority,  cruelty, 
ingratitude,  slander,  hohling  of  slaves,  polygamy,  to 
be  wrong,  or  immoral ;  and  the  science  of  ethics  is 
called  upon  to  assign  the  reason,  or  reasons,  why 
these  various  actions  are  so  accounted. 

The  other  question  is  properly  psychological ;  in 
other  words,  relates  to  the  constitution  of  th"e  human 
mmd.  It  is,  by  what  faculttj  of  our  nature  do  we 
recognise  this  difference  in  actions  ?  Is  it  by  one  of 
our  ordinary  inteUectual  faculties,  such  a.3  Reason  ? 
or  by  some  of  our  emotional  susceptibilities,  as  Lovo 

139 


ETHICS. 


and  Hatred?  or  by  a  mixed  facility  like  riudcnee? 
or  by  something  pecubar  and  distinct,  relating  to 
this  one  object  and  no  other,  as  the  eye  is  formed 
for  recognising  colour,  and  the  ear  for  sound  ? 
This  ijuestion  has  been  often  improperly  mixed  up 
with  the  other,  although  there  are  certain  theories 
wherein  the  answer  to  the  firet  dejiends  on  the 
answer  to  the  second. 

As  regards  the  Standard  of  Morals,  it  should  be 
premised  that  Punishment  for  neglect  is  what  shews 
an  action  to  be  obligatory.  VVe  may  dislike  a  man's 
conduct ;  but  if  we  do  not  consider  it  deserving  of 
punishment,  it  is  not  immoral  in  our  eyes.  People's 
imprudences,  whereby  they  hm-t  themselves  alone, 
are  disapproved  of ;  but  there  is  seldom  any  disposi- 
tion to  step  in  by  way  of  penalty  in  order  to  prevent 
such  conduct ;  the  disap]>robation,  therefore,  is  not 
of  the  moral  kind.  The  punishment  indicted  by 
society  is  partly  legal,  or  through  the  civil  govern- 
ment, and  partly  by  public  opinion,  which,  by 
attacliing  a  stigma  to  certain  conduct,  is  able  to 
inspire  no  less  dre.id  than  the  civil  authority.  The 
punishment,  by  society  acting  in  this  way,  is  some- 
times called  the  pojnilar  sanction,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  legal  sanction.  Dishonour  is  another  name 
for  the  same  thing.  Many  kinds  of  conduct  toler- 
ated by  law,  are  still  punished  by  the  loss  of  public 
esteem  and  the  infliction  of  disgrace.  Cowardice, 
eccentricity,  heterodoxy  beyoncl  cert.ain  limits, 
expose  the  indindual  to  public  censure.  Many 
kinds  of  inhumanity,  as  maltreating  dependents, 
have  no  other  check  than  expressed  disapprobation. 

There  have  been  various  theories  to  account  for 
the  singling  out  of  some  actions  to  be  authoritatively 
forbidden  by  L.aw  and  Society — that  is,  forbidden 
by  the  sanction  of  jninishment.  Some  have  said 
that  the  will  of  the  Deity,  or  di^ane  revel.ation,  has 
indicated  wh.at  we  are  not  to  do,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  left  to  us  but  to  conform  to  wh.at  is  thus 
prescribed  ;  others,  as  Cudworth,  maint.ain,  on  the 
eontrarj%  that  what  the  Deity  commands  must  be 
such  as  our  o«-n  conscienee  approves,  otherwise  we 
could  not  give  Him  the  character  of  being  independ- 
ently good  and  just.  It  has  been  said  that  Kight 
Reason  shews  us  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong ;  this  was  Cudworth's  own  'N'iew.  Samuel 
Clarke  conceived  that  there  was  an  etern.al  and 
intrinsic ^^/if.*5  in  the  things  considered  as  right,  and 
an  uulitness  in  the  wTong,  '  with  a  regard  to  which 
the  wiU  of  God  always  chooses,  and  which  ought 
Lkcwise  to  determine  the  wills  of  all  suliordinate 
rational  beings.'  Both  these  ■^Titers  .aimed  at  reply- 
ing to  Hobbes,  who  had  maintained  that  the  Civil 
Magistrate  is  supreme  in  Moralitj'  as  well  as  in 
Politics  ;  meaning,  however,  in  all  probabtUty,  that 
the  magistrate  himself  ought  to  frame  his  dictates 
in  one,  as  in  the  other,  with  a  view  to  the  pubbc 
good,  which  would  be  a  Utilitarian  ^-iew.  The 
phrase,  'the  Moral  Sense,'  which  now  represents 
perhajis  the  most  prevalent  moral  theory,  occui-s 
hrst  in  Lord  Shaftesbury's  Inquiry  Concerning 
Virtue,  from  whom  it  was  adopted  by  Hutchesou, 
and  h.as  since  passed  into  gener.al  currency.  Some- 
times it  has  been  maintained  that  a  regard  to  Self- 
interest  is  the  only  ultimate  nde  of  right,  which  has 
a  very  different  meaning,  according  as  we  look  at 
self  exclusive,  or  inclusive,  of  other  men's  wellbeing. 
The  most  enlarged  benevolence,  in  one  view,  is  but 
an  .aspect  of  self.  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Tlieory  of 
Mordl  Sentiments,  laid  down  .a.s  the  criterion  of  right, 
the  '  sympathetic  feelings  of  the  imp,ai-tial  and  well- 
infoniied  spectator.'  But  although  this  theory 
acknowledges  our  Itias  in  the  capacity  of  agents,  it 
presumes  us  to  be  infallible  wlieu  acting  as  judges 
or  critics,  a  position  by  no  means  self-evident.  The 
Bpect.ator  has  his  own  failings  as  well  as  the  actor, 
140 


unless  sjiecially  qualified  by  nature  and  education 
to  play  the  part  of  a  moral  judge.  But  to  pass  on. 
.leremy  Bcntham  is  known  as  the  most  distinguished 
projioimder  of  the  principle  of  UtUity  as  the  basis  of 
morals,  a  ]irinei]>le  explained  by  him  as  in  contrast, 
lirst  to  Asceticism,  and  next  to  '  Sympathy  and 
Antip.athy,'  by  which  he  meant  to  describe  all  those 
systems,  such  as  the  Moral  Sense  theory,  that  are 
grounded  in  internal  feeling,  instead  of  a  regard 
to  outward  consequences.  In  opposing  I'tility  to 
Asceticism,  lie  intended  to  imjily  that  there  was  no 
merit  attaching  to  self-denial  ;us  such,  and  that  the 
infliction  of  pain,  or  tlie  surrender  of  pleasure,  could 
only  be  justified  by  being  the  means  of  procuring  a 
greater  amount  of  happiness  th.an  w.as  lost.  Paley 
also  repudiated  the  doctrine  of  a  Moral  Sense,  and 
held  that  virtue  is  'tlie  doing  good  to  mankiml, 
in  obedience  to  the  will  of  God,  aud  for  the  sake 
of  everlasting  happiness.'  The  utilitarian  theory 
of  Bentham,  with  various  modifications,  has  been 
defended  and  cx])oun<leil  by  James  Mill,  in  liis 
Analysis  of  tlie  Human  Mind,  and  in  his  anonjnnous 
Fraipnent  on  Mackintosh ;  by  John  Austin,  in  his 
Province  of  Jurisprudence  Determined  ;  and  by  Mr 
John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  Dissertations  and  Discussions, 
and  in  Fraser's  Magazine  (Oct.  to  Dec.  1861). 

The  gre.at  controversy  m.ay  be  said  to  lie  between 
the  ailhercnts  of  the  Slor.al  Sense  in  some  fonn  or 
other,  and  those  that  deny  both  the  existence  of  a 
sep.arate  faculty  ia  the  minil  for  perceiring  moral 
distinctions,  and  the  v.alidity  of  the  determina- 
tions of  the  individual  conscience  ;  maintaining 
that  morahty  ouglit  to  be  foimded  on  a  regard  to 
the  wellbeing  of  mankind,  and  that  exclusively ; 
and  that  rides  of  morality  grounded  on  any  other 
motives  are  indefensible.  In  short,  tlie  question 
is.  Is  morality  an  intuition  of  the  mind,  or  is  it  like 
the  government  of  the  state,  a  positive  institution, 
on  which  different  societies  may  differ,  aud  wliich 
m.ay  be  set  up  or  be  abrogated  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  society  ? 

The  theory  of  Intuitive  Morality  was  vigorously 
.assaUed  by  Locke  in  his  Essay  on  tlie  Understanding 
(book  i.  chap.  3) ;  and  we  may  venture  to  say  that 
his  objections  to  what  he  called  '  Inn.ate  Practical 
Principles '  have  never  been  answered.  These  objec- 
tions have  been  given  in  a  condensed  form  by  P,aley 
(Moral  Philosophy,  book  i.).  Locke  urged  -that, 
in  point  of  fact,  there  are  no  princiiiles  universally 
received  among  men  ;  that  moral  rules  require  a 
reason  to  be  given  for  them,  which  ought  not  to  bo 
necess.ary,  if  they  are  innate  ;  that  virtue  is  gene- 
rally approved  of,  not  because  innate,  but  because 
jirotitable  ;  that  innumer.able  enormities  have  been 
practised  iii  various  countries  without  even  causing 
remorse ;  that  the  moral  rides  of  some  n.ations  .are 
fl.atly  contradicted  by  others  ;  that  no  one  h:is  ever 
been  able  to  tell  what  the  innate  rules  are  ;  that  we 
do  not  find  children  possessed  of  anj'  moral  rules, 
&o.  It  has  been  attempted  to  reply  to  the  objection, 
founded  on  the  great  variety  .and  ojiposition  of  moral 
rules  in  different  places  and  times,  by  saying  that 
although  the  substance  of  the  moral  codes  differ — 
one  part  of  the  world  being  monog.amous  and  chaste, 
while  other  nations  allow  promiscuous  intercourse 
of  the  sexes — .all  agree  in  enjoining  some  moral 
rules  ;  nowhere  is  there  an  absence  of  soci.al  and 
moral  obUgations.  But  tliis  is  to  depart  from  the 
origin.al  question,  which  was  to  assign  the  standard 
of  morals,  the  criterion  for  determming  which  of  two 
opposite  courses — monogamy  or  jiolygamy — is  the 
correct  or  mor.al  course.  The  intuitive  mor.ahst3 
say  that  human  u.ature  is  endowed  with  an  instinct 
which  at  once  ajiproves  the  right  and  disapproves  of 
the  wrong,  and  that  we  need  go  no  further  than  our 
own  conscienee  to  settle  the  point.     Now,  when  the 


ETHICS. 


existence  of  contradictory  consciences  is  pointed 
out,  it  is  not  to  the  puqjose  to  say  that  these 
are  still  consciences,  and  indicate  something  as 
obligatory  ;  this  all  admit :  what  wu  desire  is,  to 
determiue  which  we  are  to  follow. 

Dr  Whcwell,  in  hia  Elements  of  Moralit;/,  has 
proposed  a  way  out  of  this  serious  difficulty  by 
setting  up  a  supreme  or  Standard  Conscience,  by 
which  the  individual  conscience  may  be  squared 
and  corrected ;  but  he  has  not  told  us  who  are  the 
men  whose  conscience  is  the  standard ;  it  being 
obvious  that  the  human  race,  as  a  whole,  do  not 
recognise  any  such,  although  each  separate  com- 
numity  might  consent  to  take  some  of  its  most 
estimable  citizens,  or  the  interpreters  of  its  religious 
code,  as  models  to  conform  to. 

The  following  is  one  view  of  the  nature  and 
origin  of  our  moral  principles  which  would  seem 
free  from  the  grave  objections  above  alluded 
to.  If  we  set  aside  for  the  present  the  question 
as  to  the  proper  standard  of  murals,  the  criterion 
that  we  should  consider  the  right  criterion,  if 
we  had  to  enact  a  code  of  morals  for  the  first 
time,  and  if  we  look  at  the  moral  principles  that 
have  prevailed  in  different  nations  and  times,  we 
tli.dl  find  that  tliey  have  been  dictated  from  two 
distinct  kinds  of  motives.  The  one  is  Utdity,  in 
the  sense  of  the  common  safety  of  men  living 
in  society.  The  prohibitions  against  manslaying, 
theft,  breach  of  bargain,  rebellion,  are  necessary, 
wherever  men  have  formed  themselves  into  com- 
uumities  ;  and  it  is  the  agreement  in  such  matters 
as  these — although  sulijeet  still  to  very  great 
varieties — that  makes  iqi  the  amount  of  unifor- 
mity actviaUy  observed  in  the  moral  codes  of 
nations.  If  the  society  did  not  agree  to  protect  life 
and  property,  by  punisliing  the  murderer  and  the 
thief,  nothing  woidd  be  gained  by  coming  under 
the  sway  of  Uovernment,  and  himian  lieings  would 
not  be  got  to  associate  tliemselves  in  tribes  or 
nations.  The  common  end  gives  a  common  char- 
acter to  the  means,  without  supposmg  a  special 
instinct  to  suggest  that  stealing  is  wrong.  But,  in 
the  second  place,  there  have  been,  in  the  moral  codes 
of  all  countries,  prohibitions  not  connected  mth  any 
public  utility,  but  prompted  by  strong  sentimental 
likings  or  .aversions,  which  have  acquired  the  force 
of  law,  and  are  made  the  foundation  of  compulsory 
enactments.  Of  this  kind  is  the  antipathy  of  the 
Jew  and  the  Mohammedan  to  the  pig.  the  Hindu 
re])U_gnance  to  animal  food  gencraUy,  and  the  usages 
of  a  merely  ceremonial  kind  prevailing  among  many 
nations,  which  .are  as  stringently  enforced  by  law 
and  public  opinion  as  the  sacredness  of  life  and 
property.  For  a  woman,  among  the  Mussulmans, 
to  expose  her  face  in  ]iublic,  is  as  great  an  offence 
as  gomg  naked  woidd  be  with  us ;  while,  among 
savage  tribes,  in  warm  climates,  where  clothing 
is  little  required,  it  is  no  shame  to  expose  the 
whole  person.  For  these  practices,  no  reason  can 
be  given  ;  the  ]iublie  sentiment  has  determined 
some  things  to  be  right  and  others  wrong,  without 
reference  to  any  public  or  private  utility ;  and 
it  is  in  these  enactments,  foimded  on  liking  or 
disliking,  that  nations  have  differed  most  widely, 
the  difference  often  amoimting  to  contrariety.  The 
ancient  Greeks  held  it  as  a  s.icrcd  obligation  to 
drink  wine  in  honour  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) ;  the 
Nazarenes  among  the  Jews  .and  the  Mohammedans 
entertained  an  02)posite  view.  A  legislator  for  the 
North  American  Indians  might  prohibit  alcoholic 
liquors  on  the  ground  of  public  utility,  the  natives 
not  being  able  to  control  themselves  under  stimu- 
lants ;  but  the  ])rohibition  of  wine  in  those  other 
instances  is  probably  a  species  of  .asceticism,  or  an 
aversion  to  human  ple;isurcs  as  such,  which  belongs 


to  the  domain  of  sentiment,  and  not  to  the  consider- 
ation of  iitUity. 

Looking  at  the  many  capricious  injunctions  th.at 
owe  their-  origin  to  fancies  such  as  these,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  human  race  can  ever  gain 
anj-thing  by  departing  from  the  principle  of  utility 
as  the  sole  criterion  of  good  morality ;  and  there  is 
an  increasing  tendency  to  recognise  the  supremacy 
of  this  principle  both  in  Morals  and  in  Legislation. 
Justice,  truth,  pimty,  although  sometimes  viewed 
sentiment.iUy,  or  as  being  ends  themselves,  are  in 
men's  ])ractice  looked  upon  more  and  more  as  of  the 
natui'e  of  means,  the  promotion  of  human  happiness 
being  the  end. 

A  great  number  of  the  existing  moral  nUcs  can  be 
traced  to  a  distinct  historical  origin,  jiroving  still 
more  decisively  that  they  are  not  the  suggestions 
of  a  univei'sal  instinct  of  the  human  mind.  The 
Mohammedan  code  of  mor.als  came  from  Mohammed ; 
Confucius  was  the  moral  legisl.ator  of  one  large 
section  of  the  Chinese.  The  making  of  the  marriage 
tie  irrevocable  in  Christendom  was  an  exercise  of 
papal  authority  in  the  13th  c,  and  has  since  been 
repealed  in  some  Protestant  countries,  although 
retained  in  CathoUc  states.  See  Divorce,  Mak- 
RI.VGE.  The  sentiment  which  forbids  the  holding 
of  human  beings  as  slaves  is  chiefly  the  growth  of 
the  last  two  or  three  centuries. 

Although  the  doctrine  of  intuitive  morality  is,  in 
this  view,  denied,  it  is  stdl  admitted  that  there  is 
such  a  power  in  the  mind  as  Conscience,  wliich 
warns  us  when  we  are  doing  wrong,  and  is  to  a 
certam  extent  a  force  to  make  us  do  right.  But 
it  cannot  be  shewn  that  we  are  born  with  any 
such  principle,  combining  both  enlightenment  and 
motive  power.  Conscience  is  .a  growth.  There 
are  in  our  constitution  certain  primitive  impiUses 
that  so  far  coincide  with  what  is  our  dutj',  and 
therefore  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the  Con- 
science ;  these  are  principally  Self-preservation,  or 
a  regard  to  oirrselves,  and  Symp.athy,  or  a  regard 
to  others.  There  are  many  duties  that  we  are 
prompted  to  for  our  own  interest,  such  as  telling 
the  truth,  in  order  that  people  m.ay  confide  in  us ; 
obeying  the  laws,  to  avoid  pimishment,  &c.  But 
we  cannot  perform  all  oiu^  social  duties  if  we  look 
merely  to  oirrselves.  We  must,  in  addition  to  pru- 
dence, have  a  source  of  disinterested  action,  inducing 
us  both  to  avoid  injuring  oiu'  fellow-beings  in  the 
promotion  of  our  o^vn  selfishness,  and  occasionally 
to  sacrifice  ourselves  for  the  sake  of  others.  Such  a 
principle  exists  in  our  mental  nature,  although  not 
of  equal  streug'th  in  all  minds.  Being  provided 
with  these  two  primitive  springs  of  action,  we  are 
susceptible  of  being  educated  to  the  sense  of  moral 
obligation.  The  child  is  first  taught  obedience  by 
penalties,  and  is  made  to  associate  pain  with  for- 
bidden actions.  This  is  the  germ  of  conscience. 
Habits  of  .avoiding  what  is  prohibited  under  pen.al- 
ties  are  gradually  formed,  and  the  sense  of  Authority 
and  Law  is  thereby  acquired.  When  the  powers  of 
observation  and  reason  come  to  maturity,  the  indi- 
\'idual  sees  why  the  restrictions  of  duty  have  been 
imposed,  and  is  then  ready  of  his  own  accord,  and 
apart  from  the  fear  of  pimishment,  to  behave  rightly. 
The  Conscience,  grounded  on  Fear,  then  becomes  the 
Conscience  gTounded  on  spontaneous  approval. 

Conscience  thus  foUows,  and  does  not  precede, 
the  experience  of  human  authority.  Authority, 
s.anctioned  by  punishment,  is  the  type  and  the 
starting-point,  even  when  the  conscience  t.ake3 
an  independent  flight,  and  adopts  ndes  for  itself 
different  from  those  that  entered  into  its  education. 
The  great  mass  of  hiuuan  beings  have  nothing  more 
tliau  the  slavish  conscience,  or  the  habits  imparted 
by  the  exercise  of  the  parental  and  public  authority, 

141. 


ETHICS— ETHIOPIA. 


which  shews  what  is  the  most  natural  foundation  of 
moral  sentiment.  The  persons  that  judge  of  right 
for  themselves,  instead  of  imphcitly  recei\-ing  the 
maxims  peculiar  to  the  society  where  they  grow 
up,  are  so  few  as  to  be  the  exception  evcrvwherc  ; 
their  conscience  does  not  jirove  what  is  the  usu.il 
endo\nnent  of  human  nature  in  this  respect. 

Incjuiries  of  the  nature  of  those  above  sketched, 
]iroceed  ui>on  the  assumption  that  moral  distinc- 
tions have  their  ground  in  the  constitution  of  the 
world  and  of  man's  n.ature,  and  may  be  discovered 
by  the  exercise  of  human  reason,  as  the  other  laws 
of  the  universe  are.  But  practically,  the  rules  of 
moraUty  have,  in  almost  all  communities,  been  more 
or  less  dependent  upon  a  belief  in  divine  laws  super- 
naturally  revealed.  The  relation  of  tliese  to  scien- 
tific ethics  will  be  considered  under  Reveiatioj. 

ETHIO'PIA,  the  biblical  Kit.^h.  Originally,  aU 
the  nations  inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  tho 
globe,  as  known  to  the  ancients  ;  or  rather,  all  men 
of  dark-bro«Ti  or  black  colour,  were  called  Ethio- 
pians (Gr.  aitho — ops,  sunburned).  Later,  this  name 
was  given  more  particularly  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  south  of  Libya  and  Egji^t,  or  the 
Upper  Nile,  extending  from  10° — 25''  N.  lat.,  4-5° 
— 5S°  E.  long. — the  present  Nubia,  Senuaar,  Kor- 
dofan,  Abyssmia.  The  accoimts  which  the  ancients 
have  left  us  with  respect  to  this  ])eople  are,  even 
where  they  are  not  of  an  entirely  fabulous  nature, 
extremely  scanty  and  untrustworthy,  as  both 
Greeks  and  Romans  never  got  beyond  Napata, 
19°  N.  lat.  We  will  just  mention  that  from  tho 
Homeric  age  down  to  Ptolemy — who  is  somewhat 
better  informed — these  re<jions  were  peopled  bj' 
Pygmies,  Troglodj-tes  {dwellers  in  caverns),  Blem- 
myes  (hideous  men),  Macrobii  (long-live<l  men),  &c., 
besides  being  diWded  into  the  lands  of  cinnamon, 
myrrh,  of  elephant-eaters,  lish-eaters,  tortoise-eaters, 
serpent-eaters,  &o.  The  only  portion  of  ancient 
records  which  does  contain  something  akin  to  his- 
torical accounts,  is  that  which  refers  to  Meroe,  an 
island  formed  by  the  rivers  Astaphus  and  Astaboras, 
tributaries  of  the  Nile.  There  stood,  from  times 
immemorial,  an  oracle  of  Jupiter  Aimnon.  This, 
and  the  central  portion  of  the  island,  together  with 
the  extraoriUnary  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  abund- 
ance of  animiils,  metals,  &c.,  made  it  not  only 
the  chief  place  of  resort  for  ;ill  the  inhabitants  of 
the  adjacent  parts,  especially  the  numerous  nomad 
tribes,  but  also  the  emporium  for  India,  Arabia, 
Ethiopia,  Egypt,  Libya,  and  Carthage.  Thus  it 
grew  so  rapidly,  that  about  1000  B.C.  it  counted 
among  the  most  powerful  states  of  the  ancient 
world ;  and  about  760,  ha^-ing  ever  since  Sesostris 
been  tributary  to  Egjqit,  it  succeeded,  under 
Sabacus,  in  shaking  off  the  E.gjfptian  yoke,  and 
continued,  in  its  turn,  to  hold  Egyjit  for  about 
sixty  years.  During  the  reign  of  Psammetichus, 
240,000  Egyptians  settled  in  Meroe,  which,  the 
greater  ])art  of  the  immigrants  being  artisans, 
traders,  &c.,  rose  still  higher.  Many  new  cities 
were  built,  and  the  state  was  in  the  most  flourishing 
eontlition,  when  it  was  conimered  by  Cambyses, 
about  530  B.C.  He  fortified  the  capital  town,  and 
called  it  Meroe.  After  the  destruction  of  Thebes 
by  Cambyses.  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city 
took  refuge  there,  and  made  the  country  still  more 
Egyjitian.  Ergamenes  transformed  its  theocracy 
into  a  military  monarchy,  in  the  .'id  century.  Under 
Augustus,  Meroe  was  conquered,  and  a  Queen 
Caudace  is  mentioned  as  his  vassal.  Under  Nero, 
nothing  but  rains  marked  the  place  of  this  once 
])owerful  and  highly  civilised  state.  Up  to  this 
day,  remnants  of  mighty  buildings,  covered  ■with 
sculptures — representations  of  priestly  ceremonies, 
battles,  &c. — and  half-defaced  inscriptions  hewn  in 


rocks,  besides  rows  of  broken  s|)hinxes  and  colossi, 
are  frequently  met  with  in  those  parts. 

Their  religion,  art,  form  of  government,  and 
civilisation,  generally  being — in  their  chief  features 
at  least^so  identical  with  the  Egj'ptian  as  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  question,  M'hich  of  the  two  nations 
imparted  their  knowledge  to  the  other,  we  will 
refer  tlie  reader  for  these  points  to  the  article 
EoiiTT  ;  and  will  proceed  now  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  history  of  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Ethiopians — the  inhabitants  of  the  present  Haliesch, 
or  Abyssinia — as  we  derive  it  from  their  very  poor 
and  scanty  native  chronicles. 

Accorduig  to  tliese,  the  son  of  Solomon  and  the 
Queen  of  Shcba  (Makeda  as  tliey,  Balkis  as  the 
Arabian  historians  call  her),  named  Meuilehek,  was 
the  fii-st  king  of  tlic  Ethio])ians.  Few  kings'  names 
occur  up  to  the  time  of  Christ,  when  Ba/.en  occu- 
pied the  thi-one.  The  missionary  Fruraentius  (330) 
found  two  brothers  (Christians)  reignin" — Abreha 
and  Azbclia.  During  the  time  of  the  Greek  emperor 
Justin  (522),  King  Elezbaas  destroyed  the  state  of 
the  Homerites  in  Asia,  in  order  to  revenge  their 
persecutions  of  Cluistiaus ;  and  was  canonised. 
From  960  to  1300,  another  dynasty,  the  Zagoean, 
held  the  chief  power,  all  the  members  of  the 
Solomonic  d)Tiasty,  save  one,  having  been  murdereil 
by  Esal,  who  made  her  son  king.  In  1300,  Ikon- 
Amlak,  a  descendaut  of  this  one  scion  of  the 
house  of  D.avid,  who  liad  fled  to  Slieba,  i-egaineil 
possession  of  the  country,  and  made  Slieba,  instead 
of  Axum,  the  seat  of  government.  To  this  day, 
his  family  ndes  the  country.  Frequent  revolutions 
•\rithin,  more  especially  brought  about  by  the 
religious  squabbles  imjiorted  by  tlie  Portuguese 
towards  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  and  a  host  of 
enemies  aU  aroimd — the  most  formidable  of  whom 
were  wild  nomad  tribes  of  the  desert — forced  the 
kiugs  more  than  once  to  apply  for  foreign  help ; 
amongst  others,  that  of  the  Turks  in  1508 ;  and 
the  affairs  of  tlie  modern  state  have  at  all  times 
been  anything  but  prosperous.  Speciiil  mention 
is  made  of  King  Zara-Jakob  (Constantine),  1434 — 
140S,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  the  church-coimcil 
at  Florence ;  of  Aziiaf-Saged  (Claudius),  1540 — 
1559,  during  whose  reign  Cliristoph.  de  Gama  fi-oiii 
Portugal  lived  in  Ethiopia,  and  made  common 
cause  with  him  against  his  enemies.  This  king  also 
wrote  a  confession  of  faith,  in  which  he  defended 
liis  church  both  against  Jesuits  and  the  charge  of 
leaning  towards  .ludaism.  Socinios  (1G05 — 1632) 
openly  professed  Roman  views ;  but  his  sou 
Facihdes  soon  expelled  the  Jesuits  and  their  friends 
from  the  country,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Roman 
influence.  Among  these  friends  was  also  Abba 
Gregorins,  later  the  friend  of  the  great  Ethiopolo- 
gist  Ludolf,  who,  having  made  his  acquaintance 
at  Rome,  induced  him  to  migrate  to  Gotlia,  where 
ho  also  remained  imtil  his  death.  Under  Joas 
(1753 — 1769),  the  Gall.as,  a  nomad  tribe,  hitherto 
the  mightiest  aud  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the 
Ethiopians,  not  only  gained  admission  to  all  tho 
offices  in  the  state,  but  acquired  almost  absolute 
power.  One  of  them  (Susul  Michael),  holding  tlie 
jilace  of  R.lsh,  or  prime-minister  and  chief-com- 
mander of  the  troops,  proved  a  very  gi-eat  friend  to 
Brace,  to  whom  ho  also  intnisted  the  government 
of  a  province.  Since  Salt's  visit,  the  coimtry 
remains  convulsed  \vith  intenial  revolutions,  sedi- 
fcons,  &e.,  there  being  several  pretendera  iu  tlie 
field.  The  taxes  of  the  country  are  mostly  i>aid  in 
kind — raw  material,  metal,  horses,  &e.  I'lie  king 
resides  but  rarely  in  the  city,  and  for  the  most  part 
remains  with  his  soldiers  in  tho  camp.  His  official 
name  is  Negus,  or,  in  fidl,  Negus  Nagass  Za-itjopja, 
King  of   the  Kiugs   of   Ethioiiia— allmling  to  the 


ETHIOPIA— ETHIOPS. 


chiefs  of  the  towns  and  provinces.  The  soldiers 
receive  no  pay,  but  rely  on  plunder ;  and  are  said  to 
be  very  valorous. 

Emigrants,  as  were  beyond  doubt  the  earliest 
settlers  in  Ethiopia,  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Aral)ian  isthmus,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  structure 
of  their  Language,  as  well  as  that  of  their  own 
bodies,  should  bear  traces  of  their  Shemitic  origin. 
The  reason  of  this  emigration  is  contained  in  the 
very  name  of  tliis  langiiage,  which  is  called  Geez — 
tree,  affording  a  most  striking  p.arallel  to  the  desig- 
nation Frinic — French.  Free  jilaces  of  habitation 
were  what  they  came  in  search  of.  The  name 
Ktliiupian,  or,  as  they  call  it,  Ithiopjawan,  they 
adopted  from  the  Greeks  at  a  very  late  period.  This 
their  oldest  language,  Leshana  Oecz,  was  supjiressed 
l)y  a  njyal  decree  of  Ikon-Amlak,  in  the  14tli  c,  and 
the  Aniharic  adopted  as  the  court  language.  Ever 
since,  it  has,  with  exception  of  the  province  of 
Tigre,  where  it  is  still  spoken  (v.-ith  slight  idiomatic 
changes),  remained  the  Lesluina  Mazlmf,  the  lan- 
guage of  books  and  of  the  church.  It  is  exclusively 
u.sed  in  writing,  even  of  ordinary  letters,  and  the 
educated  alone  imderstand  it.  Its  general  structure 
comes  as  close  to  that  of  the  Arabic  as  a  dialect  can 
and  must.  A  gre.at  many  of  its  words  are  still 
classical  Arabic ;  others  resemble  more  the  Hebrew 
and  its  two  Chaldee  dialects,  the  Aramaic  and 
SjTiac ;  others,  again,  belong  to  African  di.alects ;  and 
many,  as  the  names  of  the  months,  are  Greek.  It 
has  20  letters,  22  of  wliich  bear  the  ancient  Shemitic 
stamji,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  likeness  to  the 
riiceniciau,  the  common  origin.al  ali>habet ;  and 
seven  vowels,  including  a  very  short  e,  which  sounds 
precisely  like  the  Hebrew  SchCwa.  These  vowels 
are  represented  by  little  honks,  and  remain  insepar- 
ably attached  to  their  respective  letters  ;  and  as 
the  Geez,  unlike  all  its  sister-languages,  is  never 
\^■ritten  without  vowels,  the  alphabet  becomes  a 
syllabary  -Kith.  182  characters.  Another  difference 
exists  in  its  being  written  from  left  to  right — a 
circumstance  from  which  some  have  concluded  that 
the  Greeks  introduced  writing  in  Ethiopia ;  for- 
getting, in  the  first  place,  that  Greek  itself  was 
Ireciuently  written  from  right  to  left,  and  that 
Zend,  certain  cuneiforms,  hieroglj-jihs,  &c.,  are  like- 
wise written  from  left  to  right.  We  cannot  enter 
here  into  the  gi'ammatical  minutiae  of  the  language  ; 
we  will  only  mention  that  out  of  the  ten  conjuga- 
tions, eight  are  Arabic ;  that  there  is  a  double 
intinitive,  but  no  participle  and  no  dual ;  that  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  i)lur,al,  and  of  declension 
generally,  point  to  that  very  remote  period  when 
the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  made  use  of  the  same  gram- 
m.atical  processes.  There  are  no  diacritical  marks 
employed  in  \vriting ;  the  letters  are  not  combined, 
and  the  words  are  separated  by  two  dots. 

Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  existence 
of  a  rich  literature  in  a  nourishing  country  Uke 
Ethiopia  anterior  to  Christ,  still,  owing  both  to 
frci|uent  internal  con\ndsion3,  and  the  misguided 
zeal  of  the  early  Christian  missionaries,  who  here 
and  elsewhere  considered  it  their  first  duty  to 
destroy  all  the  ancient  records  of  which  they  could 
get  hold,  nothing  but  a  few  half-erased  inscrijitions 
have  surv-ived.  The  earliest  existing  document  of 
post-Christian  literature  is  a  complete  translation  of 
tlie  Bible,  probably  by  Frmnentius.  See  Frumentius. 
The  Old  Testament,  probably  a  translation  from  the 
Alexandrine  version  of  the  LXX.,  consists  of  four 
parts :  1,  the  Law  or  Octateuchos  (five  books  of 
Moses,  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth) ;  2,  Kings  ;  3,  Solo- 
mon ;  4,  Prophets,  and  two  books  of  the  Maccabees. 
The  New  Testament  consists  of — 1,  Gospels  ;  2, 
Acts  ;  .%  Paulns  ;  4,  Apostolus.  A  very  peculiar 
book,  Henoch,  belongs  also  to  the  literature  of  the 


Old  Testament.  See  Enoch.  The  New  Testament 
comprises  likewise  another  book,  Senodas,  contain- 
ing the  pseudo-Clementine  or  apostolical  constitu- 
tions. Tlie  Ethiopians  have  a  liturgy  (Kanon 
Kedaso — Holy  Kanon)  and  a  symbolico-dogmatical 
work  (Habnanota  Abau — BeUef  of  the  Fathers),  con- 
taining jjortions  of  homilies  of  the  Greek  Fathers, 
Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great,  Chrj'sostom,  CjTil, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Nazianzen.  Besides  these, 
they  have  martjTologaes,  called  Synaxar.  They 
employ  in  tliis  their  sacred  literature  a  pecidiar 
kind  of  rhythm  without  a  distinct  metre.  Any 
number  of  rhjining  lines  forms  a  stanza,  ^vithout 
reference  to  the  number  of  words  constituting 
the  verse,  or  of  verses  constituting  the  stanza.  They 
also  use  certain  phrases  as  a  refram — not  imliko 
the  manner  of  the  medieval  Hebrew  Pizmon.  See 
Jewtsh  Liturgy.  As  to  general  Uteniture,  they 
have  neither  a  written  book  of  laws,  nor  a  gram- 
mar of  their  own  language,  nor,  in  fact,  auy- 
tliing  worth  mentioninir,  except  a  Chronicle  of 
Axam  and  CUron'idiis  of  Ahtjitsinia.  They  are  very 
fond,  however,  of  riddles,  •n-ise  saws,  an<l  the  like, 
so  fascinating  to  the  Eastern  mind.  They  have 
a  Dictionary,  but  most  of  its  explanations  and 
translations  are  utterly  wrong.  No  wonder  the 
learned  in  Europe  should  have  been  sorely  puzzled 
by  such  a  language,  and  that  they  shuuhl,  after 
long  consideration,  have  pronounced  it  to  be  cither 
'  Chaldee '  or  '  Indian,'  wliile  Bruce  held  it  to  be 
the  language  of  Ad.am  and  Eve.  Potgen,  a  Cologne 
church-provost,  happening  to  be  at  Rome  at  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  c,  there  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  native  Ethiopians,  and  became  the  first  to 
eidighten  the  world  on  the  nature  of  this  occult 
language.  After  him  came  the  Carmelite  Jacoli 
Marianus  Victorius  from  Reate,  who  wrote  Instilu- 
tiones  Lbigum  Chaldace  S.  jElMop.  (Rome,  1548), 
an  entirely  worthless  book  ;  then  Wemmers,  who  in 
1GS3  published  an  Ethiopian  gi-ammar  and  diction- 
ary. The  principal  investigator,  however,  is  Hiob 
Ludolf  froniGotha,  who,  aided  by  the  Abba  Gregorius 
before  mentioned,  and  supported  by  his  own  extra- 
ordinary linguistic  talents  and  indomitable  energj', 
acquired  such  a  power  over  this  language,  that  not- 
withstanding the  number  of  eminent  Orientalists, 
such  as  Piatt,  Lawrence,  Dorn,  Hupfeld,  Uoflhiann, 
Eoediger,  Ewald,  Isenberg,  Blumenbach,  &c.,  who 
have  since  his  time  bestowed  much  attention  upon 
it,  liis  books  still  hold  the  first  jilace.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  the  Ethiopian  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  indispensable  languages 
to  the  Shemitic  scholar,  containing  as  it  does  a 
great  many  words  and  fonns  of  a  date  anterior 
to  the  separation  of  the  different  Shemitic  (h.alects. 
Among  the  most  important  Ethiopian  books  printed 
in  Europe  are  the  Psalms,  edited  with  a  Latin 
translation  by  LudoLf  (Frankfort,  1701) ;  the  New 
Testament,  in  two  voliunes  (Rome,  1548) ;  the 
book  of  Henoch  (Lond.  1840)  ;  Ascemio  Isake  Vatis, 
with  a  Latin  translation  l.iy  Lawrence  (Oxford, 
ISl'J);  Z>iifa.so(!/ja,  or  apostolical  constitution  of  the 
Abyssinian  Church,  with  an  EngUsh  translation  by 
Piatt  (Lond.  18;i4,  &c.). — Ludolf's  works  are — Gram- 
matiai  JClhiopia  (Lond.  IGOl);  Lexicon  ^Ethiopicum 
(Frankfort,  1699);  Ilisloria  JClliiopica  (Frankfort, 
1681).  See  also  Heeren,  Historical  Eeseardies  ; 
Cailliau,  Voyage  d  Meroii ;  Salt,  Bruce,  RuppcU, 
&c..  Travels. 

E'THIOPS,  or  .E'THIOPS  (Gr.  aithd,  I  bum,  and 
ops,  countenance  ;  being  of  a  black  or  burned  comi- 
tenance),  is  a  term  apyilied  by  the  ancient  chemists 
to  certain  oxides  and  sulphides  of  the  metals  which 
possessed  a  didl,  dingy,  or  black  appearance.  Thus, 
Kthiops  Marllalis  was  the  mixture  of  protoxide  and 
peroxide  of  iron,  kno«-n  as  the  black  o.xide ;  Ethiops 

143 


ETHMOID  BONE-ETHNOLOGY. 


Minnrtlf  or  E/fiiops  J^arcoticiis,  tlie  black  gray 
sulphiirct  of  mercury  jirocured  by  tiiturating  in  a 
mortar  a  mixture  of  mercury  and  sulphur ;  and 
Eth'iops  prrse,  was  obtained  by  asitating  commercial 
mercury  for  weeks  or  mouths,  when  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  slowly  formed  the  black  oxide  of  mercury. 

ETHMOID  BONE,  Thk  (so  called  from  fthmos, 
a  sieve),  is  one  of  the  eight  bones  which  collectively 
form  the  cavity  of  the  cranium.  It  is  of  a  some- 
what cubical  form,  and  is  situated  between  the  two 
orbits  of  the  eye,  at  the  root  of  the  nose.  Its  upper 
surface  is  perforated  by  a  number  of  small  openings 
(whence  its  name),  through  which  the  filaments  of 
the  olfactory  nerve  pass  downwards  from  the  inte- 
rior of  the  skull  to  the  seat  of  the  sense  of  smell, 
in  the  upper  part  of  tlie  nose.  It  consists  of  a 
pcrpendicidar  central  plate  or  lamella,  which  articu- 
lates with  the  vomer  and  with  tlie  central  libro- 
cartilage,  and  thus  assists  in  forming  the  septum  or 
partition  between  the  two  nostrils.  The  lateral 
masses  present  a  very  complicated  arrangement,  and 
arc  so  planned  as  to  give  in  a  small  space  a  very 
large  amount  of  surface,  on  which  the  lilaments  of 
the  olfactory  nerve  are  spread.  In  comparative 
anatomy,  we  find  a  dii'ect  ratio  between  the  develop- 
ment of  these  masses  and  the  acuteness  of  the  sense 
of  smell.    See  Smell,  Okgan  and  Physiology  of. 

ETHNO'LOGY  (Gr.  ethiios,  nation  or  race,  and 
loijos,  discourse)  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the 
varieties  in  the  human  race ;  their  most  marked 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  characteristics,  when 
compared  one  with  the  other  ;  their  present  geo- 
gi'aphical  distribution  on  the  globe  ;  their  history 
traced  backwanls,  with  the  aid  of  written  documents 
and  natur.al  or  monumental  remains,  to  the  earliest 
.attainable  point;  and  finally,  the  langu.ages  of  the 
various  nations  and  tribes  of  mankind,  whether  stdl 
spoken  or  extinct,  classified  and  comp.ared,  with  the 
view,  by  their  means,  of  detei-mining  the  chief  points 
of  resemblance  or  dissimil.arity  among  the  nations 
of  the  e;)rth.  According  to  this  definition,  framed 
after  the  latest  and  best  authorities,  it  is  a  science 
that  involves  in  its  study  that  of  comparative 
physiology,  also  of  geography,  history  and  archa;- 
ology,  and  comparative  philology.  It  is  therefore  a 
mixed  or  composite  science,  embracing  a  variety  of 
subjects  formerly  not  thought  to  belong  to  it,  but 
now  deemed  necessary  for  its  successfid  cultivation. 
It  has  been  often  confounded  with  elhnorjrapliij,  in 
which  is  implied  a  simple  description  of  the  nations 
of  the  earth  ;  but  ethnology  t.akes  a  wider  range, 
and  while  it  comprehends  the  former,  embraces 
much  besides  ;  indeed,  in  its  widest  sense,  it  is  now 
understood  as  involving  a  discussion  of  the  import- 
ant questions  :  'What  is  species?'  and  'What  is 
v.ariety?'  also,  of  the  doctrine  of  hybridity,  and  of 
the  diflicult  problem  concerning  the  origin  of  man- 
kind ;  that  is  to  s.ay,  a  sifting  of  the  evidence  for  or 
ag.ainst  the  absolute  unity  of  the  human  race. 

Ethnology,  however,  is  a  science  still  compara- 
tively in  its  infancy ;  and  although  it  has  made  con- 
siilcrable  jirogress  since  the  researches  of  Camper 
and  Blumenljach,  especially  in  this  coimtry,  owing 
to  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  DrPrichard,  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that,  as  in  the  case  of  other  sciences — 
geology,  for  instance,  and  comparative  philology — 
also  of  modern  growth,  when  it  comes  to  be  better 
understood,  and  more  widely  cidtiv.ated,  ap.art  from 
jirejudice  of  whatever  kind,  its  limits  will  be  more 
accurately  defined,  and  the  study  of  it  narrowed  to 
a  more  reasonable  area  than  it  at  present  occupies. 

As  it  is,  tliere  is  no  alterjiative  but  to  treat  of  the 
subject    according    to   the   definition   given    above, 
wliiih   our   space   obliges   \is    to   do   as    briefly  as 
ixissiiile. 
HI 


No  one  can  look  at  an  Englishman,  a  Ked  Indi.an, 
and  a  Negro,  without  at  once  noticing  the  dilTer- 
ences  between  the  three,  not  only  as  reganls  the 
colour  of  their  skin,  but  the  shape  of  the  skidl,  the 
te.xture  of  the  hair,  and  the  cliaracter  of  the  several 
features,  as  eyes,  lips,  nose,  and  dieek-bones.  What 
strikes  the  ordinary  obsen-er  chiefiy  is,  of  course, 
the  difference  of  com])k>xion  ;  but  the  an.atomist  is 
fully  as  much  interested  in  the  shape  of  the  skuU. 
The  first  thoroughly  scientilic  writer  who  endea- 
voured to  hay  down  a  method  of  distinguishing 
between  the  difierent  races  of  mankind  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  shape  and  size  of  the  skull  was 
Peter  Camper,  a  distinguislied  Dutcli  anatomist  of 
last  century.  He  laid  down  a  technical  rule  for 
ascertaining  the  facial  line,  and  determining  the 
amount  of  the  facial  anijle,  which  he  has  thus 
described :  '  The  basis  on  which  the  distinction  of 
nations  is  founded  may  be  disphayed  by  two  straight 
Imes,  one  of  which  is  to  be  drawn  through  the 
meatus  auditorium  to  the  base  of  the  nose,  and  the 
other  toucliing  the  prominent  centre  of  the  forehead, 
and  falhng  thence  on  the  most  advancing  part  of 
the  upper  jaw-bone,  the  head  being  viewed  in 
profile.  In  the  angle  produced  by  these  two  lines 
may  be  said  to  consist  not  only  the  distinctions 
between  the  skulls  of  the  sever.al  species  of  animals, 
but  also  those  which  are  found  to  exist  between 
ditlerent  nations  ;  and  it  might  be  concluded  that 
nature  has  availed  herself,  at  the  same  time,  of  this 
angle  to  mark  out  the  diversities  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, and  to  cstabhsh  a  sort  of  scale  from  the  inferior 
tribes  up  to  the  most  beautiful  forma  which  are 
found  in  the  hiunan  species.  Thus,  it  will  be  fomid 
that  the  heads  of  birds  display  the  smallest  angle, 
and  that  it  always  becomes  of  greater  extent  in 
proportion  as  the  animal  approaches  more  nearly 
to  the  human  figure.  Thus,  tliere  is  one  species  of 
the  ape  tribe  in  which  the  head  has  a  facial  angle  of 
42  degrees  ;  in  another  anim.al  of  the  same  family, 
which  is  one  of  those  Simi;u  most  approximating  in 
figure  to  mankind,  the  facial  angle  contains  exactly 
50  degrees.  Next  to  this  is  the  head  of  the  ^Vfrican 
Negro,  which,  as  well  as  th.at  of  the  Kalmuk,  forms 
an  angle  of  70  degrees ;  while  the  angle  discovered  in 
the  heails  of  Europeans  contains  SO  degrees.  On 
this  difference  of  10  degrees  in  the  facial  .angle  the 
superior  beauty  of  the  European  depenils ;  while 
that  high  character  of  sublime  beauty  which  is  so 
striking  in  some  works  of  ancient  statuary,  as  in  the 
head  of  Apollo,  and  in  the  Medusa  of  Sisocles,  is 
given  by  an  angle  which  amounts  to  100  degi'ees.' 

Camper's  method,  however,  although  ingenious, 
was  foimd  practically  to  be  of  little  use,  and  was 
soon  abandoned  for  the  vertical  method,  or  norma 
rerlicalis,  of  viewing  the  human  skull,  invented  by 
Blumcnbach.  The  object  sought  in  comparing  and 
arranging  skulls  being  to  collect  in  one  survey  the 
greatest  number  of  characteristic  pecuUarities — '  The 
best  way,'  s.ays  Blumcnbach,  '  of  obtaining  this  end 
is  to  place  a  series  of  skidls  with  the  cheek-bones  on 
the  same  horizontal  line  resting  on  the  lower  jaws  ; 
and  then  viewing  tliem  from  behind,  and  fixing  the 
eye  on  the  vertex  of  each,  to  mark  all  the  varieties 
in  the  shape  of  parts  that  contribute  most  to  the 
n.ation.al  character,  whether  they  consist  in  the 
tUrection  of  the  maxillary  and  malar  bones,  in  the 
breadth  or  narrowness  of  the  oval  ligui'e  presented 
by  the  vertex,  or  in  the  U.atteued  or  vaulted  form 
of  the  frontal  bone.'  Foimding  upon  this  mode  of 
admeasurement  applied  to  a  large  collection  of 
.skulls  of  different  nations,  accumulated  by  himself, 
Blumcnbach  classified  the  human  family  into  the 
following  five  varieties — viz.,  the  C.aucasi.an,  Mon- 
golian, I^thiopian,  Malay,  and  American.  In  the  first 
of  these — which  ho  made  to  include  the  Caucasians 


KTHXOLOGY. 


or  Circassians  Proper,  the  Celts,  the  Teutons,  the 

Sliomites,  the  Libyan  family,  the  Nilotic  family,  and 
the  Hiiidustuuic  family — the  skull  i.s  lar»ie  ami  oval, 
tile  foreiieatl  cxpanilud,  the  nasal  bones  arched,  the 
chin  full,  and  tlie  teeth  vertical.  lu  the  second — 
which  embraces  the  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese,  the 
natives  of  the  polar  rc^nons,  the  Mongol  Tartars, 
and  the  Turks — the  skull  is  obhrng,  but  flattened  at 
the  sides,  the  forcliead  low  and  reccdiuL;,  the  nose 
broad  and  short,  and  the  cheek-bones  broad  and  Hat, 
\vith  salient  zygomatic  arches.  In  the  third — embrac- 
ing the  Negroes,  Kafirs,  Hottentots,  Australians, 
Alf  orians  and  Oceanic  Negroes — the  skidl  is  long  and 
narrow,  the  forehead  low,  the  nose  broad  and  flat, 
the  cheek-bones  prominent,  the  jaws  projecting  like 
a  muzzle,  the  lips  thick,  and  the  chin  small.  In 
tile  fourth — embracing  the  Malaj's  and  Polynesians 
generally — the  skidl  is  high  and  square,  the  forehead 
low,  the  nose  short  and  Ijroad,  and  the  jaws  j>ro- 
jecting.  In  the  fifth — embracing  the  American 
family  and  the  Toltican  family — the  skidl  is  small, 
with  the  ape.x  high,  and  the  back  part  flat,  the 
foreliead  receding,  the  cheek-bones  high,  the  nose 
aquihne,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  lips  timiid. 

This  classification  of  the  human  family,  with  the 
added  characteristics  mider  each  class,  of  complexion, 
hair,  and  eyes,  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  popidai-, 
Blumenbaeh    ha^-ing   taken   considerable    pains    to 
elaborate  it,  and  present  it  to  the  world  in  a  form 
accejitable  to  scientific  inquirers.     Later  researches, 
however,  have  proved   it  to  be   not  quite  tenable.  ' 
Thus,  Cuvier  reduced  the  five  classes  of  Bhunenbach 
to    three — viz.,    the     Caucasian,    Mongolian,     and 
Ethiopian,   treating   the   Malay   and   American   as 
subdivisions  of  the  Mongolian.     Jacqiiinot  does  the 
same.      Dr   Prichard,   who   brought   to   the    study 
of  ethnology  not  only  a  large   acquaintance   with 
physiology,  but  a  considerable    knowledge  of   lan- 
guages, admits  a  greater  niunbcr  of  varieties  than  . 
Blumenbaeh,  but  divides  his  Caucasian   class  into 
two  independent  groups,  which  Tie  calls  the  Syro- 
Arabian    or    Semitic,  and  the  Aryan  or  Indo-Ger-  I 
manic.     Moreover,  he  objects  to  the  term  Caucasian, 
as  representing  the  notion  that  mankind  had  their 
origin  on  moimtain  heights.     For  himself,  Prichard 
holds   with   the   view   that   it   was   rather   on   the 
banks  of  large  rivers  and  their  estuaries  that  the 
primitive     nations    developed    themselves.      '  The 
cradles  or  nm-series  of  the  first  nations,  of   those 
at   least   who   became   populous,   aiul   have   left   a 
name   celebrated    in    later   times,    appear   to    liave  ' 
been    extensive    jilains    or    valleys,    traversed   by 
uavigalile  eliannels,  and  in-ig.ated  by  perennial  and 
fertilising  streams.     Three   such   regions  were  the 
scenes   of   the   earliest   civilisation   of   the    human 
race,    of    the    first    foundation    of    cities,    of    the  ■ 
earliest  political  institutions,  and  of  the  invention 
of  the  arts  which  embellish  human  life.     In   oue 
of    these,    the    Semitic    or    Syro-Ar.abian    nations 
exchanged   tlie   simjile   habits  of   wandering  slieji- 
herds   for  the   splendour  and   luxury   of    Nineveh 
and   Babylon.      In   a   second,   the    Indo-European 
or  Japetio   people   brought  to  perfection  the   most 
elaborate  of  human  dialects,  destined  to  become  in  I 
after-times,  and   under  different  modifications,  the  ' 
mother-tongiu>  of  the  nations  of  Euroiie.     In  a  third,  | 
the  land  of  Ham.  watered  by  the  Nile,  were  invented  i 
hierogl)-])hical    literature,   and    the   arts   in  which  I 
Egypt  f.ar  surpassed  .all  the  rest  of  the  world  in  ' 
tlie  earlier  ages   of  history.'      Dr  Prichard,  iu  his 
well-known  S'ntiiral  Histonj  of  Man,  commences 
with  a  description  of  these  three  divisions  of  the  I 
human    race,   not   as   discriminated   one    from   the 
other  by  the  form  of  the  skull,  but  as  comprisiug 
nearly  all    the   civiUsed   commimities,   and   indeed  I 
most  of  the  tribes  of  people  known    to   antiquity.  | 


'  They  were  neither  nomades  nor  savages,  nor  do 

they  display  in  their  crania  either  of  the  forms 
I)rincii>ally  belonging  to  races  in  those  diflferent 
{  states  of  existence.  They  had  all  heads  of  an 
j  oval  or  ellijitico-spherical  form,  which  are  observed 
to  prevail  cliiefly  among  nations  who  have  their 
facidties  developed  by  civilisation.'  As  they  can- 
not, however,  by  any  means  be  made  to  compre- 
hend all  the  t3-pes  of  man,  after  the  Egyptians,  he 
describes  the  great  body  of  the  nations  of  Africa, 
emljracing  tribes  sunk  in  the  lowest  state  of  degra- 
(  dation  ;  and  after  the  Aryans,  or  Indo-Europeans, 
the  people  of  High  Asia,  chiefly  nomades,  inha- 
biting vast  steppes,  and  never  rising  in  the  scale 
'  of  civilisation  beyond  the  condition  of  wandering 
shejiherds,  though  in  this  capacity  possessing  some 
wealth,  and  acquainted  with  the  use  of  clothing, 
tents,  and.  wagons.  '  These  classes  of  nations,' 
he  observes,  '  have  different  physical  characters. 
Among  the  African  savages  we  find  the  prognatltoiis 
iorm  of  the  head  and  all  its  accompaniments  ;  and 
these  traits  display  themselves  in  projiortion  to  the 
moral  and  phj'sical  degradation  of  the  race.  In 
Northern  Asia,  most  of  the  inhal>itants  have  the 
p>Tamidal  and  broad-faced  skulls.'  Iieferring  our 
readers  to  the  articles  Akyan  Pi.^ce,  Egypt,  and 
Semitic  K.\ce  respectively,  for  more  detailed  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  of  these  three  grand  divi- 
sions of  mankind,  we  shall  here  only  notice  Dr 
Prichard's  subdivisions  of  one  of  them,  namely,  the 
!  Aryan  race. 

The  great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race,  which 
extends  itself  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  the 
British  Islands  and  the  northern  extremities  of 
Scandinavia,  di\'ides  itself,  according  to  Prichard, 
into  two  branches — viz.,  the  parent  stock  iu  Asia, 
and  the  colonics  that  it  successively  sent  forth  into 
Europe.  The  Asian  branch  comprises  :  1.  Hindus; 
,  2.  Pei-sians ;  3.  Afghans ;  4.  Baluchi  and  Braliui  ; 
'  i).  Kurds  ;  6.  Armenians  ;  and  7.  Ossetines.  The 
collective  body  of  the  European  nations  are  now 
generally  regarded  as  a  series  of  colonies  from  Asia. 
The  proof  turns  mainly  on  a  compai'ison  of  languages ; 
tlie  ancient  Sanscrit  being  regarded  by  the  most 
competent  judges  as  the  parent  not  only  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages,  but  of  the  Teutonic, 
with  its  several  ramifications  of  the  Slavonic,  Lettish, 
Lithuanian,  and  even  Celtic.  Dr  Prichard  himself 
was  the  first  to  point  out  the  affinity  of  the  Celtic 
with  the  Sanscrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic,  in  a 
memoir  published  by  him  in  1S31,  on  the  Eastern 
Or'njin  of  the  Celtic  yatiom.  Later  plulologcrs  have 
confirmed  the  view  taken  by  liim,  and  he  is  perhaps 
correct  also  in  the  conclusion,  that  they  were  the 
first  great  immigration  of  the  Aryans  into  Europe, 
who  were  afterwards  conquered,  and  their  numbers 
considerably  reduced  by  fresh  advancing  colonies 
from  the  same  p.arent  hive.  But  there  are  other 
nations  or  tribes  of  Europe  which  no  efforts  of  the 
philologists  have  succeeded  in  tracing  to  the  Aryan 
stock  ;  such  are  the  Lapps,  Finns,  Tschudes,  and 
Ugrians  of  the  North,  and  the  Euskaldimes,  now 
principally  represented  by  the  Basques  in  the  West. 
To  these,  Dr  Prichard  has  given  the  ajipeUation  of 
Allophylian  (Gr.  alios,  another,  and  jihtile,  tribe), 
thereby  signifying  their  independence  of  the  Aryan 
stock.  The  progenitors  of  these  tribes  were  proliably 
the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  prior  to  the  first  Aryan 
iinmigi'ation. 

After  these  several  races,  Dr  Prichard  treats  of 
the  native  tribes  of  the  austral  seas  and  the  great 
Southern  Ocean,  and  finally,  of  the  native  inha- 
bitauts  of  Americx  In  every  case,  he  carefully 
describes  the  pliysical  apjiearance  or  structure,  the 
geographical  habitat,  history,  and  migrations  (if  any), 
the  language,  and  the  moral  and  psychical  attributes 

146 


ETHNOLOGY. 


of  the  nation  or  tribe  immediately  brought  imdcr 
notice.  His  information  has  generally  been  obtained 
from  the  best  sources,  and  hence  his  works  may  be 
re.sardod  as  a  stoi-ehouse  of  knowledge  upon  the 
subject  of  ethnology. 

But  both  before  and  since  Blumcnbach  and 
Prichard,  there  have  been  several  classifications  of 
the  human  race  proposed,  the  sim])lest  of  which 
is  perhaps  that  of  Dr  Latliam,  into  1.  Mongolid;e  ; 
2.  Atlantidje ;  3.  Japetida>.  This  writer  is  properly 
regarded  as  the  chief  living  exponent  of  the 
science  of  ethnology  in  this  country.  Following 
in  the  track  of  Prichard,  and  possessing,  like 
him,  a  considerable  acquaintance  with  physiology 
and  history,  he  distances  him  .altogether  in  the 
department  of  comparative  pbilologj-.  His  contri- 
butions to  the  science  of  ethnology,  borrowed  from 
this  particiUar  branch  of  study,  are  consequently  of 
the  highest  value.  But  there  is  one  important 
question,  with  respect  to  which  the  sult'rages  of 
the  best  philologers  are  rather  with  Prichard  than 
with  Latham — \'iz.,  the  origin  of  the  Arj'aii  or  Indo- 
European  r.ace.  Prichard,  as  we  have  seen,  refers  it 
to  Asia,  while  Latham  claims  it  for  Europe. 

Other  classifications  might  be  mentioned;  but 
these  we  shall  leave,  especially  as  the  best  autho- 
rities, even  those  of  rival  schools,  do  not  at  present 
much  insist  on  classification;  probably  from  a  con- 
viction of  the  hopelessness  of  laj-ing  do^^^l  any 
definite  scheme  in  which  aU  could  be  brought  to 
agree,  in  the  existing  state  of  the  science.  That 
a  classification  vnh  at  last  come,  when  more  facts 
shall  have  been  accumulated,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  ;  but  this  will  scarcely  happen  before 
one  great  question  at  least  shall  h.ave  been  set  at 
rest,  which  now  divides  the  cultivators  of  ethnology 
into  two  hostile  camps. 

This  question  is  the  all  important  one :  '  What 
is  species  ? '  Men  may  go  on  classif j-ing,  but  what 
do  they  classify?  Is  it  species,  or  is  it  varieties? 
Prichard  and  Latham  in  this  coimtry,  with  a  large 
band  of  followers,  maintain  that  the  numerous  tribes 
of  men  upon  the  eai-tii  constitute  essentially  but  one 
species ;  that  they  have  all  sprung  fi-om  a  single 
jiair ;  and  that  the  differences  observable  among 
them,  even  in  the  extreme  cases  of  the  European 
and  the  Negro,  may  all  be  accounted  for  by  the 
inlluences  of  clmiate,  food,  and  other  circumstances 
operating  through  a  long  series  of  ages,  and  which 
thus  produce  the  peculiar  characteristics  that  no 
one  can  fail  to  notice  in  a  comparison  of  one  with 
the  other.  It  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  in  respect 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  generally, 
that  although  by  the  "union  of  two  species  hybrid 
animals  and  hybrid  plants  may  be  produced, 
especially  in  the  domestic  state,  still  there  is  no 
power  of  reproduction  among  the  hybrids  them- 
selves ;  in  mules,  for  instance,  and  the  offspring  of 
tlie  dog  and  the  wolf,  also  in  various  tribes  of  birds ; 
natiu-e  appearing  to  h.ave  set  her  ban  upon  any 
permanent  ijivaswn  of  her  law  with  respect  to  the 
distinctness  of  species.  With  the  races  of  man, 
Ixiwever,  tliis  is  not  the  case.  The  European  and 
the  Negro  intermarry,  likemse  the  Spaniard  and  the 
Indian'of  South  America;  both  have  offspring,  and 
that  offspring  is  quite  as  capable  of  reproduction  as 
individuals  of  the  same  parent  n.ation.  Whence 
it  is  arjjued,  that  all  nations  and  tril,ies  of  men  are 
originally  of  the  same  species.  The  diversities  among 
them,  say  Prichard  and  his  school,  are  not  greater 
than  we  continually  see  among  the  different  ureeds 
of  dogs,  horses,  sheep,  and  oxen,  which  are  never- 
theless universally  regarded  as  nothing  more  than 
varieties;  Indeed,  within  the  historical  ]ieriod,  and 
BO  late  even  as  since  tlie  discovery  of  America  in 
the  15th  c,  such  marked  changes  have  taken  place 
146 


in  the  animals  transi>orted  to  that  continent  from 
E\irope,  thst  they  would  scarcely  seem  to  have 
descended  from  the  6.amo  stock.  And  if  this  has 
been  the  ease  among  the  lower  animals  within 
such  a  limited  period  as  that  mentioned,  is  nothing 
to  be  allowed  for  the  inlluence  of  climate  and 
other  agencies  in  modifying  the  nsi)ect  of  man, 
and  producing  those  varieties  observable  in  him 
after  a  long  lapse  of  ages?  Man,  although  a 
cosmopolite,  and  subduing  all  things  to  himself, 
'capable  of  living  imder  every  clime,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Icy  Sea,  where  the  frozen  soil  never 
softens  under  his  feet,  to  the  burning  sands  of  equa- 
torial plains,  where  even  reptiles  jierish  from  heat 
and  drought,'  is  nevertheless  himself  to  a  certain 
extent  the  creature  of  the  circmnstances  liy  which 
he  is  surrounded.  '  He  modifies  the  agencies  of  the 
elements  upon  himself ;  but  do  not  these  agencies  also 
modify  him  ?  Have  they  not  rendered  him  in  his 
very  organisation  different  in  different  regions,  and 
imder  various  modes  of  existc*nce  imposed  by  jihysi- 
cal  and  moral  conditions  ?  How  different  a  being  is 
the  Esquimaux,  who,  in  his  Iiurrow  amid  northern 
ices,  gorges  himself  with  tlie  bluljber  of  whales,  from 
the  lean  and  hungi-y  Nimiidian,  who  pursues  the  hon 
imder  a  vertical  sun  !  And  haw  ditl'erent,  whether 
compared  with  the  skin-chad  and  oily  fisher  of  the 
icebergs,  or  -irith  the  naked  hunter  of  the  Sahara, 
are  the  luxurious  inm.ates  of  eastern  harems,  or  the 
energetic  and  intellectual  inhabitants  of  the  cities 
of  Europe  ! '  Notmthstanding  all  these  differences, 
however,  inasmuch  as  no  impediment  whatever 
exists  to  the  perpetuation  of  mankind  when  the 
most  dissimilar  varieties  are  blended  together,  '  wo 
hence  derive  a  conclusive  i)roof,  unless  thei-e  be  in 
the  instance  of  himian  races  an  exception  to  the 
universally  prevalent  law  of  organised  nature,  that 
all  the  tribes  of  men  are  of  one  family.'  This 
conclusion  of  Prichard,  based  upon  physiological 
grounds,  is  strongly  supported  by  Dr  Latham  with 
arguments  drawn  from  philology.  Dr  Latham, 
taldng  it  as  a  matter  of  fact  that  all  the  languages 
of  mankind  have  had  a  common  origin,  argues  from 
it  in  favour  of  an  original  unity  of  race.  This 
common  origin  of  languages,  however,  is  a  thing  by 
no  means  proved;  for  although  Klaproth,  Piii'st, 
and  Delitzsch  have  taken  great  ])ain3  to  establish 
an  affinity  Vietween  the  Sanscrit  and  the  Hebrew, 
M.  Renan  and  other  excellent  authorities  regard  the 
attempt  as  unsuccessfid,  and,  even  were  it  other- 
wise, '  the  Chinese,'  says  a  late  writer  (Farrar, 
Essay  on  the  Orirjm  of  Language),  'must  alw.ays 
remain  a  stumbling-block  in  the  w.ay  of  all  theories 
respecting  a  primitive  language.  Radical  as  is  the 
dissimilarity  between  Aryan  and  Semitic  langu.ages, 
and  wide  as  is  the  abyss  between  their  gramiuatical 
systems,  yet  they  almost  a|ipear  like  sisters  when 
compared  with  the  Chinese,  which  has  nothing  like 
the  organic  principle  of  grammar  at  all.  Indeed, 
so  -wide  is  the  difference  between  Chinese  and 
Sanscrit,  that  the  richness  of  human  intelligence  in 
the  formation  of  language  receives  no  more  striking 
illustration  than  the  fact,  that  these  languages  have 
absolutely  nothing  in  common  except  the  end  at 
which  they  aim.  This  end  is  in  both  cases  the 
exjiression  of  thought,  and  it  is  attained  as  well 
in  Chinese  as  in  tlie  giammatical  languages,  although 
the  means  are  wholly  difierent.' 

Having  thus  m.ade  the  reader  in  some  degree 
acquainted  with  the  views  of  Drs  Pilchard  and 
Latham  on  tlie  subject  of  ethnology,  we  now  pro- 
ceed to  inform  him  of  the  totally  different  views  and 
conclusions  of  tlie  American  school  of  ethnology. 
Tliis  school  was  founded  by  the  late  Dr  Morton 
of  Philadeli>liia,  an  erudite  and  active  man  of 
science,  who  laboured  for  many  years  in  forming 


ETHNOLOGY. 


a  collection  of  hiunan  crania  of  all  nations,  and  of 
ancient  as  well  as  modem  a_"e3,  with  tlie  design  of 
still  further  earrjonc;  out  Blumenbach's  researches 
into  the  varieties  of  mankind  by  a  comparison  of 
crania,  aocordinj;  to  the  method  he  had  proposed. 
This  collection  of  crania  was  bef,im  in  IS.'iO,  and  at 
the  time  of  Morton's  death  in  1801,  amounted  to  the 
large  number  of  918  human  crania,  to  which  were 
afterwards  added  51 ;  and  it,  besides,  included  278 
crania  of  mamm.als,  271  of  birds,  and  SS  of  reptiles — 
in  all,  IGOC  skulls,  being  the  largest  collection  of  the 
kind  ever  formed,  and  which,  fortunately  for  the 
purposes  of  science,  is  now  deposited  in  the  JIuseum 
of  the  Academy  of  N.atmal  Sciences  at  Philadelphia. 
SimiJtaneously  with  tliis  accumulation  of  crania, 
Dr  Morton  carried  on  his  researches  in  ethnolo^-, 
not,  however,  in  the  restricted  sense  in  which  lie 
began,  following  Blumenbach's  classification,  but 
availing  himself  of  the  latest  discoveries  of  Prichard, 
and  the  other  EngUsh  and  continental  writers.  One 
of  the  results  of  his  labours  was  the  publication, 
in  1839,  of  a  handsome  work,  entitled  Crania  A  mei'i- 
cana,  which  was  followed  in  1844  by  the  Crania 
^gijptiaca,  in  the  collection  of  which  he  had  been 
much  aided  by  Mr  G.  E.  Cihddon.  '  In  this  work,' 
says  his  biographer,  Dr  Patterson,  '  Morton  found 
himself  compelled  to  differ  in  opinion  from  the 
majority  of  scholars,  in  regard  to  certain  points  of 
primary  importance.'  The  great  question  of  the 
unity  or  diversity  of  mankind  in  their  origin  was 
one  that  early  forced  itself  upon  his  attention,  and 
the  conclusion  at  which  he  arrived,  after  much 
patient  investigation,  was  in  favom-  of  the  latter 
\-iew.  He  was  slow  to  publish  any  opinion  on  the 
subject,  jirobably  reserving  it  for  a  work  upon 
which  he  w.as  engaged,  to  be  entitled  the  Elemenls 
nf  Ethnology.  His  opinion,  however,  was  well  known 
to  his  friends.  In  a  note  to  a  paper  in  SiUimarCs 
Journal  for  1847,  he  says :  '  I  may  here  observe 
that  whenever  I  have  ventured  an  opinion  on  this 
question,  it  has  been  in  favour  of  the  doctrine 
of  primeval  diversities  among  men  ;  an  original 
adaptation  of  the  several  races  to  those  varied 
circumstances  of  climate  and  locality  which,  while 
congenial  to  the  one,  are  destructive  to  the  other ; 
and  subsequent  investigations  have  confirmed  me 
in  these  views.'  In  a  letter  to  Dr  Nott,  dated 
January  1850,  he  lays  down  the  follo^ving  proposi- 
tion :  '  That  our  siiecies  had  its  origin,  not  in  one, 
but  in  several  or  in  many  creations,  and  that  these 
diverging  from  their  primitive  centres,  met  and 
amalgamated  in  the  progress  of  time,  and  have  thus 
given  rise  to  those  intermediate  links  of  organisation 
which  now  connect  the  extremes  together.  Here 
is  the  truth  divested  of  mystery;  a  system  that 
ex[)lains  the  otherwise  unintelligible  phenomena  so 
remarkably  stamped  on  the  races  of  men.'  His 
latest  utterance  upon  the  subject  is  contained  in  a 
letter  wi-itten  to  ilr  G.  E,  Gliddon,  in  April  1851, 
only  a  fortnight  before  the  \vriter's  decease,  which 
conclutles  as  follows :  '  The  doctrine  of  the  original 
diversity  of  mankind  unfolds  itself  to  me  more  and 
more  with  the  distinctness  of  revelation.'  His 
views  upon  this  and  other  points  of  dispute  among 
ethnologists  have  been  since  embodied  in  a  remark- 
able work,  entitled  Types  of  Mankind;  or.  Ethno- 
logical Jicsearchen  based  upon  the  Ancient  MonumenU, 
Paintings,  Sculptures,  and  Crania  o/Itaccs,  and  upon 
their  ^'atural.  Geographical,  Philological,  and  Bibli- 
cal History:  illustratal  by  Selections  from  tlie  incdited 
Papers  of  S.  G.  Morton,  M.D.,  and  by  additional  Con- 
tributions from  Professor  L.  Agassiz,  W.  Uslier,M.D., 
arid  Professor  II.  S.  Patterson.  By  J.  C.  Nott,  M.D., 
and  G.  R.  Gliddon  (Philadeli)hi.a,  1854).  In  this  com- 
posite work,  perhaps  the  most  rem.arkable  feature  is 
the  paper  contributed  by  the  celebrated  naturalist, 


Professor  Agassiz,  in  support  of  Dr  Morton's  theory 
as  to  the  original  diversity  of  the  human  races. 

The  paper  by  Agassis  is  entitled,  Sketc/i  of  the 
Jfaturai  Provinces  of  tlie  Animal  World,  and  tlieir 
Belation  to  the  DiJ'erent  Types  of  Man.  It  was 
di'awu  up  by  the  writer  from  a  conviction  that 
much  might  be  gained  in  the  study  of  ethnography 
by  obserWng  the  natural  relations  between  the 
different  races  of  man  and  the  plants  and  animals 
inhabiting  the  same  regions.  The  sketch  given  by 
him  is  intended  to  shew,  that  'the  boundaries 
within  which  the  different  natural  combinations  of 
animals  are  known  to  be  circumscribed  upon  the 
surface  of  our  earth  coincide  with  the  natural  range 
of  distinct  types  of  man.  Such  natural  combinations 
of  animals  circumscribed  within  definite  boundaries 
are  called  Fauna,  whatever  be  then-  home — land, 
sea,  or  water.'  There  are  eight  regions  of  the 
earth,  according  to  Agassiz,  each  containing  its 
own  fauna;,  and  its  own  pecuUar  type  of  man ;  and 
his  main  conclusion  from  a  consideration  of  these 
several  faunse  is  as  follows :  '  That  the  diversity 
among  animals  is  a  fact  determined  by  the  fl-iU 
of  the  Creator,  and  their  geographical  distribution 
part  of  the  general  plan  which  unites  all  organised 
beings  into  one  great  organic  conception ;  whence  it 
follows  that  what  are  called  human  races,  do'.vu  to 
then-  specialisation  .is  nations,  are  distinct  primor- 
dial forms  of  the  type  of  man.'  Messrs  Nott  and 
Gliddon,  in  their  work  quoted,  appe.il  triumphantly 
to  this  theory  of  Agassiz  in  support  of  their  view 
as  to  the  primitive  cUversity  of  the  races  of  man- 
kind ;  and  in  a  subsequent  work.  Indigenous  Races 
of  the  Earth  (Philadelphia,  1857),  have  inserted  a 
further  communication  from  the  writer,  in  which, 
while  he  reiterates  his  formerly  ex]>ressed  opinion, 
that  the  races  of  man,  so  far  as  concerns  their 
geographical  distribution,  are  subject  to  the  same 
circumscription  as  the  other  members  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  he  observes :  '  Even  if  this  fact  stood 
isolated,  it  woidd  shew  how  intimately  the  plan 
of  the  animal  creation  is  linked  with  that  of 
mankind.  But  this  is  not  aU.  There  are  other 
featiu-es,  occiuring  among  animals,  which  require 
the  most  careful  consideration,  inasmuch  as  they  i 
bear  precisely  upon  the  question  at  issue,  whether 
mankind  originated  from  one  stock  or  from  several 
stocks,  or  by  nations.  These  features,  well  known 
to  every  zoologist,  have  led  to  as  conflicting  views 
respecting  the  unity  or  plurality  of  certain  types  of 
animals  as  are  prevailing  respecting  the  unity  or 
plurahty  of  the  origin  of  the  hiunan  races.  The 
controversy  which  has  been  carried  on  among 
zoologists  upon  this  point,  shews  that  the  diffi- 
culties respecting  the  races  of  men  are  not  peculiar 
to  the  question  of  man,  but  involve  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  whole  animal  Icingdom — though, 
strange  as  it  may  ajjpear,  they  have  always  been 
considered  without  the  least  reference  to  one 
another.' 

This  theory  of  Agassiz,  it  must  be  stated,  has  been 
much  controverted,  as  likewise  the  opinions  gener- 
ally of  Dr  Morton  and  the  American  school  of 
ethnology,  partly  on  biblical,  and  partly  on  scien- 
tific groimds.  Indeed,  from  the  conflict  of  opinions 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  if  the  solution 
of  this  question  were  the  sole  object  of  ethnology, 
the  science  might  be  said  to  be  in  a  very  unsatis- 
factory state.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
question  at  issue  is  one  that  may  well  be  left  in 
abeyance  for  the  present.  Without  it,  the  field  of 
inquiry  is  sufficiently  wide,  and  is  well  cultivated 
by  skilled  labourers,  who  continuaUy  bring  the 
product  of  their  researches  in  physiology,  geo- 
graphy, archsologj',  and  comparative  philology  to 
enrich  and  fructify  the  newly  tumed-up  soil. 

U7 


LTHYL-ETIEXKE. 


Subjoined  is  a  tabular  view  of  the  different  races 
of  mankind,  according  to  the  classilication  of 
Dr  Latliain  : 

I.  moscomd.t;. 

Physical  Cliaracteristics. — Faje  broad  and  flat ; 
frontal  profile  retiring  or  de]>resseil ;  maxillary 
profile  moderately  prognathic  or  prujecting,  rarely 
orthognatic  ;  eyes  often  oblique  ;  skin  rarely  a  true 
white,  rarely  a  jet-black  ;  irides  "encnUly  dark  ; 
hair  straight,  and  lank,  and  black,  raivly  light- 
coloured,  sometimes  ciu-ly,  rarely  woolly.  Lan- 
'juarfes — aptotic  and  agglutinate,  rarely  with  a  true 
amalgamate  inflection.  See  L.\N<;rAGK.  Dixlribu- 
Hqh — Asia,  Polynesia,  America.  Jnjiuence  vjmn  the 
higlorij  of  the  icortd,  material  mther  than  moral. 

A.  Altaic  Mongoud.!:. — 1.  Serifonn  stock,  em- 
bracing Chinese,  Tibetans,  Anamese,  Siamese,  Kam- 
bojians,  Burmese,  the  iI6n,  and  numerous  unplaced 
tribes.  2.  Turanian  stock,  embracing  the  Jlongo- 
lian  branch,  the  Tungusian  branch,  the  Turk  branch, 
and  the  Ugrian  branch. 

B.  DiosciTiTAX  JIongoudj:. — 1.  Oeorgians.  2. 
Lesgians.     3.  Mizjeji.    4.  Ii-on.     5.  Circassians. 

C.  OcEiVXic  MoxGOLiD.E. — 1.  Aviphinesian  slock, 
embracing  Protonesians,  Polynesians,  Maleg.-isi  (?). 
•J.  Kelcenonesian  stock,  embracing  the  natives  of 
Xew  Guinea,  New  Ireland,  Solomon's  Isles,  Louisade, 
>'ew  Caledonia,  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 

D.  HYPERBORE.VN  MoxGOUD-i:. — 1.  Samoeids. 
2.  Yeniseians.     3.  Yiikahiri. 

E.  PexinsuLjVT.  Moxgolidj;. — 1.  Koreans.  2. 
.Tajjauese.  .3.  The  Aino.  4.  Koriaks.  5.  Kamska- 
dales. 

F.  AilEKiCAX  MoNGOLrD.B. — Embracing  the  vari- 
ous native  ti'ibes  of  North  and  South  America. 

O.  Indian  JIoxgolid-e. — 1.  Tamid.  2.  I'lUinda. 
.3.  Brahui.  4.  Indo-Gangetic.  5.  Pm-butti.  0.  Cash- 
miriau.     7.  Cingalese.     8.  Maldivian. 

II.  ATI-ASTin.E. 

Physical  Characteristics. — JIaxillary  profile  pro- 
jecting ;  nas.-il,  generally  flat ;  frontal,  retiring ; 
cranium,  dolikhokephalic ;  the  parietal  diameter 
being  generally  narrow  ;  eyes  rarely  oblique ;  skin 
often  jet-black,  very  rarely  approaching  a  pure 
white ;  hair  crisp,  woolly,  rarely  straight,  still  more 
rarely  light-coloured.  Lamjuaijes,  with  an  agglutin- 
ate, rarel}'  an  amalgamate  inflection.  DiMriljutlon, 
Africa.  Influence  on  the  history  of  the  world,  incon- 
siderable. 

A.  Negro  Atlastid.!:.— Embracing 
tribes. 

B.  Kaffre  Atlaxtid-e. — Kaffre  tribes,  &c. 

C.  HOTIENTOT    AXLANTlDiE. 1.    HottentotS. 

Saabs.     3.  Dammaras. 

D.  Nilotic  Atlaxtid.e. — 1.  Gallas. 
and  Falash.a.    3.  Nubians.    4.  Bishari. 
&c. 

E.  Ajiaztrgh  Atla^ttd-e. 

F.  Egyptian-  Atlaxtid.e. 

G.  Semitic  Atl^vktid.}:. — 1.  S\Tiau.s. 
rians.     .3.  Baliylonians.     4.  Beni  Terah  (Edomites, 
.Tews,  Sam.aritans,  &c.).     5.  jVrabs.     6.  Etliiopians. 
7.  Canaanites,  &c. 

III.  jAPcxip.t:. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Maxillary  profile  but 
little  projecting ;  nasal  often  prominent ;  frontal 
sometimes  nearly  vertical ;  face  rarely  very  flat, 
moderately  broad  ;  skull  generally  dolikhokephalic  ; 
eyes  rarely  oblique  ;  skin  white  or  branettc  ;  hail- 
never  woolly,  often  light-coloured ;  iridcs  black, 
blue,  gray.  Lanrfuarjcs,  with  amalgamate  inflections, 
or  else  anaptotic  ;  rarely  agglutinate,  never  aptotic. 
JJislribulioii,  Em-ope.  Influence  on  the  history  uf  the 
world,  gieater  than  that  of  either  the  Mougolida? 
or  the  Atlautidic,  moral  .as  well  as  material. 
118 


;  various  negro 


2.  Agows 
M'Kuafi, 


Assy- 


A.  Occidental  Japehd-e. — Kelts. 

B.  1ndoGer.manic  JAPETrD.:E. — 1.  Euroiiean 
class,  embracing  Goths,  Teutons  (Moeso-Goths, 
High  and  Low  Germans,  Franks),  Scandinavians, 
.Sarmatians,  Slavonians  (Russians,  .Servians,  lllyrians, 
Bohemians,  Poles,  .Serbs),  MeJiterr.anean  Indo- 
Germans  (Uellenic  branch,  Italian  branch).  2. 
Iranian  clasf,  embracing  Pereiaus,  Kurds,  Beluchi, 
Patans  (Afghans),  Tajiks,  Siaposh,  Lugmani, 
Dardoh,  Wokhan.  3.  Vnplaceil  stocks,  Armenians, 
Iberians,  Albanians.  4.  Extinct  stocks,  Pelasgi, 
Etrusc;uis,  populations  of  .:Vsia  Minor. 

ETHYL  (symbol,  C^HJ  is  the  starting-point  of 
the  family  group,  of  which  oixlinary  ether  and 
alcohol  are  members. 

Etln-1,        C,ns. 

r.thir,        C,lIsO,  Oxide  of  Kthvl. 

Alcohol,     C,lIjO,Uo,  llydrauii  Oxide  of  Ethyl. 

It  m.ay  be  prep.ared  by  acting  upon  iodide  of  ctliyl 
by  granulated  zinc,  when  the  ethyl  is  liberated,  and 
may  be  obtained  as  a  colourless,  infl.ammablc  gas, 
of  an  agreeable  odour,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol. 

ETHY'LAIMINE  is  a  substance  strongly  resem- 
bling ordin.ary  ammonia  or  hartshorn  in  odour  and 
other  properties.  It  is  fouud  in  coal-tar,  in  the  oil 
obtained  diu^ing  the  destructive  ilistillation  of  bones, 
in  the  gases  evolved  during  putrefaction,  and  m.ay 
be  produced  by  certain  complicated  chemical  pro- 
cesses. Ethylamine  is  a  moliUe  liquid  of  s])ecilic 
gr.avity  G96  (water  =  lOOU),  and  boils  at  CG'  F.  It 
hiis  a  strong  .amiuoniacal  odour,  has  an  alkaline 
action  with  colouring  m.atters,  forms  white  fumes 
■with  strong  acids,  and  in  composition  is  analogovis 
to  g.aseous  ammonia  (NH3  or  NHHH),  with  one  of 
the  atoms  of  hydrogen  replaced  by  ethyl  (C,HjO 
or  Ae),  and  is  represented  by  the  sjnnbol  NHHAo 
or  NHoAe. 

ETIENNE,  St,  an  imjiortant  mimufacturing 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Loire,  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Fureus,  an  aflluent 
of  the  Loire,  in  the  centre  of  a  valuable  and  exten- 
sive coal-field,  30  miles  south-south-west  of  Lyon  by 
rail,  and  about  2SS  miles  south-south-c.ist  of  Paris. 
It  is  surrounded  by  coal-mines,  is  seated  upon 
coal-deposits,  and  h.as  galleries  driven  even  beneath 
its  streets.  The  stream  on  which  the  town  is 
buUt  furnishes  invialuable  water-power  to  move  its 
machinery,  and  its  waters  are  also  of  great  use  for 
tempering  iron  and  steel.  The  old  town  of  St  E.  is 
badly  built,  and  the  new  town,  which  has  sprung  up 
very  quickly,  is  destitute  of  architectur.al  harmony. 
The  newer  houses  are  built  of  a  fine  white  sand- 
stone, and  are  frequently  live  and  six  stories  in 
height ;  but  they  rapidly  become  tarnished  and 
begrimed  by  the  perpetu.al  cloud  of  coal-smoUe 
which  hangs  over  tlie  town.  The  most  note- 
worthy building  is  the  Hotel-de-Ville,  which  con- 
tains the  JlusCe  Indu.ilriel,  with  specimens  of  the 
manufactures  of  the  town,  .and  of  the  minerals 
and  fossils  of  the  neighboiirhoocL  St  E.  is  famous 
for  its  manufactures  of  rilibons  and  firearms.  The 
ribbon -manufactories  contain  30,000  looms,  and  the 
annual  value  of  their  produce  is  cstimatt'd  at 
00,000,000  fnancs  (£2,37.i,000)  in  value.  They  are 
unrivalled  in  elegance  of  design,  and  in  richness 
ami  ilelicacy  of  colour,  and  are  exporteil  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  There  arc  extensive  private 
manufactories  of  firearms,  besides  an  imperial  fire- 
arms manufactory,  which  supi)lies  most  of  the 
uuiskcts  of  the  French  army.  St  E.  has  also 
extensive  manufactures  of  ba^'onets,  scythes,  nails, 
saw-blades,  foils,  anvils,  vices,  files,  and  also  of 
silks,    velvets,    lace,    embroidery,    muslins,    gloss, 


ETIQUETTE— ETNA. 


leather,  and  pnpor.  From  tlie  coal-fiold  on  which 
St  E.  is  sitii:ite(l,  about  GOO.OOO  tons  of  coal  are 
raised  animally.  On  tlie  1st  Jamiary  ISoG,  St  E. 
was  constituted  the  capital  of  the  department,  in 
])lace  of  the  town  of  Montbrisou.  ,St  E.  arose 
orijjinally  from  a  castle  luiilt  in  the  lOth  c.  by  the 
Counts  of  Forez.  It  increased  gi-eatly  in  the  loth 
e.,  and  in  1771  it  had  20,000  inhabitants  ;  in  18.")1, 
49,014;  in  185G,  99,G77 ;  and  in  ISGl,  110,000 
inhabitants. 

ETIQUE'TTE  (Fr.  a  ticket,  supposed  to  be  from 
the  Celtic  loi-yii,  a  little  piece  or  sli]) — a  token). 
Urijfinally,  etiquette  signified  a  little  piece  of  paper 
aifixcd  to  a  bai;  or  other  object  to  signify  its 
contents.  The  word  came  jirobably  to  possess  the 
secondary  meaning  which  we  now"  attach  to  it,  of 
the  forms  or  decorums  obsen'cd  in  the  intercourse 
of  life,  more  partieiUarly  on  state  occasions,  from  its 
having  been  customary  to  deliver  such  tickets, 
instructing  each  person  who  was  to  take  part  in  the 
ceremony  as  to  the  part  which  he  was  expected  to 
I>lay.  The  canls  which  are  still  delivered  to  the 
mourners  at  funerals,  and  those  on  which  the  oi'der 
of  tlie  dances  is  set  forth  at  lialls  and  cvcnino- 
jiarties,  are  of  this  nature.  Pojiular  publications  are 
constantly  issuing  from  tlie  jues?  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  etiquette,  or  the  rules  of  behaviour  in  good 
Society.  They  will,  for  the  most  jiart,  be  found  f;u 
less  trustworthy  than  the  ]n-omptings  of  nature, 
where  the  iiidi\-idual  possesses  a  reasonable  amount 
of  reverence  for  othei-s,  and  respect  for  himself.  Yet 
there  are  certain  conventionalities  which  can  only 
be  learned  by  instruction  of  some  kind,  or  by 
observation,  and  the  olwervation  may  be  attended 
with  impleasaut  circumstances. 

E'TIVE,  a  sea-loch  in  the  north  of  Argyleshire, 
ninning  inland  from  the  Firth  of  Lorn,  20  miles 
east  and  north-east,  with  a  breadth  of  a  quarter 
to  three  miles.  It  is  bordered  by  gi-anite  in  its  upper 
]iart,  and  by  trap  in  its  lower.  Near  its  mouth, 
tliere  is  mica-slate  on  the  north  side,  and  Permian 
strata  on  the  south.  The  river  Awe,  the  outlet  of 
Ivoch  Awe,  fidls  into  the  loch  at  the  bend,  where 
also  is  the  ferry  of  Bunawe,  and  the  small  river 
Etive  falls  into  it  at  its  north-east  end.  The  loch 
abounds  in  seals,  salmon,  jiorpoiscs,  and  cod.  The 
scenery  around  the  upper  half  of  the  loch  is  gi-aud 
and  romantic.  To  the  east  rise  Ben  Cmachan,  3G70 
feet,  and  Ben  Starive,  2500  feet,  and  to  the  north 
Ben  Mahrgage.  The  loch  ailmits  small  coasting- 
vessels.  Ardchattau  Priory,  founded  in  the  13t"h 
c.,  on  the  site  of  a  monastery  of  the  6th  or  7th  c, 
is  now  in  ruins.  Connel  Ferry,  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  loch,  ami  near  a  vitrilied  fort,  is  only  GSO  feet 
broad,  and  is  a  very  turbulent  catar.act,  three  or  four 
feet  high  at  half-tide,  caused  by  a  sunken  reef  of 
rocks,  partly  bare  at  low  water.  At  the  south  side 
of  the  moutli  of  Loch  E.,  tliree  miles  north  of  Oban, 
on  a  jirojecting  conglomerate  rock  10  to  .30  feet  high| 
are  the  ruins  of  Dunstaffn.age  Castle,  the  ancient 
stronghold  ipf  the  JIacdougals,  a  building  in  what  is 
called  the  Edwardian  style  of  the  end  of  the  l.'ith 
or  beginning  of  the  14t"h  c,  irith  walls  400  feet  in 
circumference,  30  to  50  feet  high,  and  10  feet  thick, 
and  with  three  round  towers.  "DunstafTnage  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  the  seat  of  the  Dalriadio 
Scottish  monarchy  (see  Dalriad.i),  and  from  this 
jilace  the  famous  slab  or  Stone  of  Destiny  (Lia  Fail), 
now  in  the  coronation-chair,  Westminster  Abbey] 
i.s  said  to  have  been  taken  in  S4o  by  Kenneth 
jVIacalpine  to  Scone,  whence  Edward  I.  removed  it 
to  London, 


ofT  from  the  chain  of  mountains  which  run  parallel 
with  the  northern  shore  of  the  island,  by  a  small 
valley,  through  which  flows  the  Alcantara,  and  from 
the  southern  chain  by  a  larger  valley,  which  forms 
the  basin  of  the  Giaretta.  Its  eastern  side  rises 
directly  from  the  Mediterranean,  thirty  miles  of 
coast  being  formed  by  the  streams  of  its  "lavas.  Its 
base  is  almost  90  miles  in  cii-cumference,  and 
from  this  it  rises  like  an  immense  cone  to  the  height 
of  10,874  feet. 

The  history  of  E.  does  not  carry  us  far  back 
geologically  ;  an  active  volcano  in  the  later  jiortion 
of  the  Tertiary  period,  it  continues  still  to  jiour 
forth  materials ;  and  the  ejected  ashes,  dust,  and 
lapilli,  together  with  the  streams  of  molten  lava, 
have,  in  the  course  of  untold  ages,  built  up  this 
immense  mountain.  (Ine  centr.al  crater  has  been 
the.prevaihng  outlet  for  these  materials,  and  they 
have  consequently  arranged  themselves  into  one 
central  and  dominant  mound — the  cone-shaped  E. ; 
but  innumerable  secondary  and  suiTounding  craters, 
each  forming,  by  its  ejected  matter,  an  external 
smaller  cone,  exist  on  Etna.  Many  of  these,  in  the 
progress  of  the  frron-th  of  the  mountain,  have  been 
covered  and  hid  by  the  more  recent  eruptions. 
Eighty  of  them  may  be  counted  surrounding  the 
upper  portion  of  E„  many  being  lidls  of  considerablo 
altitude,  but  all  of  them  appearing  only  as  triHing 


instant  Viuwof  Etna. 


ETNA,  or  .-ETNA  (now  Monte  Gibello),  is  the 
largest  volcano  in  Europe.  It  is  an  isolated  moun- 
tain, sitiuted  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicil.v.  and  cut 


irregularities  when  viewed  at  a  distance  as  subor- 
dinate points  of  so  imposing  and  colossal  a  mountain. 
Seen  from  the  summit,  they  present  a  beautiful 
aspect ;  some  bare  and  ban-en,  others  covered  with 
the  dark  and  sombre  pine,  or  witli  the  gayer  and 
more  varied  foliage  of  the  oak,  the  beech,  "and  the 
hawthora,  and  all  arranged  in  picturesque  gi-oups 
of  various  heights  and  sizes.  But  the  most  remark- 
able feature  in  E.  is  the  Val  del  Bove,  an  immense 
gully  excavating  the  eastern  flank  of  the  mountain, 
live  miles  across,  and  surrounded  by  nearly  vertical 
precipices  from  1000  to  5000  feet  high,  on  which  are 
shewn  sections  of  innmnerable  lava-streams  and 
beds  of  scoria;,  traversed  by  Iiighly  inchned  dikes. 
It  has  a  singularly  dreary  and  blasted  ajipearance. 

The  summit  of  E.  rises  consiilerably  above  the 
line  of  vegetation,  and  consequently  presents,  except 
where  covered  with  snow,  a  dreary  waste  of  black 
lava,  scori:e,  and  ashes,  in  the  centre  of  which,  in  a 
desolate  ])lain,  rises  the  crater-bearing  cone.  This 
is  called  the  Desert  region.  It  is  followed  by  six  or 
seven  miles  of  the  Woody  region,  in  which  luxuriant 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  beech,  poplar,  and  hawthorn 
abound,  together  with  rich  piisturage  for  herds  and 
flocks.  A  varying  breadth  of  from  two  to  eleven 
miles  of  cultivated  region  surrounds  the  base  of 
Etna.  Its  great  products  ai-e  corn,  oil,  wine,  fruit, 
and  aromatic  herbs. 

119 


ETOLLV— ETRUEIA. 


The  first  recorded  eruption  of  E.  took  place  47G 
B.  c.  The  most  remarkable  that  have  occiirreil 
since  are  the  foUowini:; :  1169  A.  D.,  when  Catania 
and  IS.OOO  of  its  inhabitants  were  destroyed;  1527, 
in  which  two  -i-illagcs  and  many  human  beings 
perished  ;  the  eruption  which  continued  at  intervals 
from  1664  to  1673,  and  destroyed  many  villages 
with  their  inhabitants.  Numerous  chasms  were 
formed  at  this  time  ;  from  one  several  miles  long 
and  four  or  five  feet  %vide  were  emitted  a  bright 
li"ht  and  strong  sulphurous  vapour ;  from  another, 
black  smoke  and  quantities  of  stones  were  given 
out ;  and  from  others,  streams  of  lava.  In  1673, 
an  immense  volume  of  salt  (?)  water  rushed  down 
the  mountain  :  by  some,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
ejected  from  the  crater,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  arose  from  the  sudden  melting  of  the  snows  which 
covered  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  The  last 
great  eruption  took  place  in  1S52.  Immense  clotids 
of  ash-gray  dust  were  ejected,  covering  the  whole  of 
the  surrounding  country.  From  two  new  mouths 
on  the  eastern  flank  there  issued  vast  torrents  of 
lava,  one  taking  the  direction  of  Zaffarana,  the 
other  flowing  towards  Giarra.  The  one  stream 
was  two  miles  broad,  and  at  one  time  as  much  as 
170  feet  deep.  It  moved  at  the  rate  of  about  600 
feet  in  the  hour ;  but  when  it  descended  abrupt 
clilis  on  the  mountain  side,  it  was  jjrecipitated  like 
a  torrent  in  fiery  cascades. 

The  minerals  peculiar  to  volcanic  rocks  occur  at 
E.,  such  as  chrysoUte,  zeohte,  selenite,  alum,  nitre, 
vitriol,  copper,  mercury,  and  spicular  iron. 

ETOLIA.     See  ^toll4. 

E'TON,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Buckinghamshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  42  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Buckingham,  and  22  miles  west-south- 
west of  London,  near  the  Slough  station  of  the  Great 
Western  Eailway.  It  lies  opposite  to  Windsor,  in 
Berkshire,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge 
over  the  Thames.  Though  in  separate  coimties, 
these  two  towns  really  form  one.  E.  chiefly  con- 
sists of  one  long  well-paved  street,  and  is  mainly 
dependent  on  the  college.  Pop.  (1861)  3122,  exclusive 
of  the  Eton  boys. 

ETON  COLLEGE  is  one  amon^  the  most 
famous  educational  establishments  in  England.  It 
was  foimded  in  1440  by  Henry  VI.,  under  the 
title  of  '  The  College  of  the  Blessed  Maiy  of  Eton 
beside  Windsor.'  The  original  foundation  consisted 
of  a  provost,  10  priests,  4  clerks,  6  choristers,  25 
poor  grammar-scholara,  a  master,  and  25  poor  infinn 
men.  The  king  pro\aded  for  the  establishment  out 
of  his  own  demesne  lands  and  the  estates  of  certain 
aUen  priories.  A  supplementary  charter  was  granted 
in  1441,  in  which  year  also  the  College  buildings 
were  commenced.  Henry  was  very  solicitous  that 
the  work  should  be  of  a  durable  kind.  Some  of  the 
buildings  were  finished  in  1443,  and  were  handed 
over  by  the  royal  commissioners  to  the  provost, 
clerk,  and  scholars.  Pohtical  troubles  of  various 
kinds  retarded  the  completion  of  the  buildings 
till  1523.  Bishop  Waynfleete  was  the  first  head- 
master, and  afterwards  a  munificent  supporter  of 
the  College.  The  institution  passed  thi-ough  much 
peril  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  again  in  the 
time  of  the  Commonwealth  ;  but  it  surmoimted  the 
dangers,  and  the  increasing  value  of  its  estates 
brought  in  a  large  income. 

The  present  fotmdation  consists  of  a  provost,  7- 
fellows  (one  of  whom  is  vice-provost),  3  conducts, 
7  clerks,  10  lay-clerks,  70  scholars,  and  10  choristers, 
besides  officers  and  servants.  Most  of  the  scholars 
are,  at  the  age  of  17,  elected  to  valuable  scholar- 
ships at  King's  College,  Cambridge  ;  several  smaller 
scholarships  at  other  colleges,  both  at  Oxford  and 


Cambridge,  together  with  sunib-y  exhibitions  and 
prizes,  are  also  open  to  them.  Amour;  these  is  a 
jirize  for  the  French  language,  given  by  the  late 
Trinco  Consort.  The  scholars  are  lodged  within  the 
College  walls. 

The  main  portion  of  the  establishment,  however, 
numbering  nearly  900,  consists  of  the  opp'ula)i3, 
students  who  live  out  of  the  college,  and  whose 
friends  pay  liberally  for  their  education.  The 
tuition  is  the  same  for  them  as  for  the  colleijers  or 
scholars.  There  are  an  upper  and  a  lower  school, 
managed  by  a  head-master  and  lower  master,  n-ith 
a  large  staff  of  assistants.  Considerable  discussion 
has  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years  concerning 
the  kind  of  education  received  at  Eton,  the  cost  at 
which  it  is  obtained,  and  the  enormous  incomes 
derived  by  some  of  the  oflici.als.  The  course  of 
education  has  not  imdergone  much  change,  e.xccpt 
that  the  study  of  mathematics  has  been  recently 
(1848)  made  a  necessary  jiart  of  the  school  business; 
it  is  still  of  the  medieval  character,  which  regards 
Greek  and  Latin  as  the  basis  of  all  good  education ; 
and  does  not  bestow  much  attention  on  modern 
science.  There  is,  however,  great  jirestige  connecteil 
mth  the  College ;  and  the  Etonians,  in  their  after- 
career,  generally  look  back  with  aflection  upon  it. 

The  chief  buildings  of  the  College  consist  of  the 
chapel,  the  hall,  the  library,  the  schools,  the 
provost's  and  master's  apartments,  and  the  lodg- 
ings of  the  fellows,  surrounding  two  quadrangles  ; 
together  with  the  boys'  library  and  sleeping  apart- 
ments, in  a  cluster  called  the  New  Buildings, 
attached  to  the  northern  side  of  the  older  group. 
The  chapel  is  mostly  of  stone,  the  other  buildings 
of  brick  ;  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  very  pictur- 
esque, as  seen  from  the  terrace  of  Windsor  Castle, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Thames.  The  chapel  is 
an  especially  beautiful  object.  The  houses  of  the 
masters  are  generally  fitted  up  for  the  reception  of 
ojipidans  as  boarders. 

ETRtJ'RIA,  TYRKHE'NIA,  TU'SCIA,  desig- 
nated, at  a  period  anterior  to  the  foundation  of 
Kome,  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy,  together  with 
some  of  its  most  important  western  islands.  Its 
northern  part,  from  the  Alps  to  the  Apennines,  was 
known  under  the  name  of  Etruria  Circumpadana ; 
its  southern,  from  the  Tiber  down  to  the  Gulf  of 
Piostum,  or,  according  to  some,  to  the  Sicilian  Se.a, 
under  that  of  Etrmia  C.ampaniana ;  while  the  central 
portion,  boxmded  on  the  N.  by  the  Apennines  and 
the  river  Macra,  S.  and  E.  by  the  Tiber,  and  W.  1  ly 
the  TyiThenian  Sea,  was  called  Etruria  Propria. 
The  two  first,  however,  did  not  long  remain  Etrus- 
can territory,  but  were  either  reconquered  by  t)ie 
surroimding  tribes  to  whom  they  had  originally 
belonged,  or  fell  into  the  hands  of  new  immi- 
grants. No  historical  records  of  that  brief  period 
of  any  moment  h.aving  yet  come  to  fight,  they 
do  not  claim  our  attention  ;  wliile  Etniria  Proper, 
scanty  though  our  infonnation  about  it  stiU  be, 
deserves  om-  interest  in  the  liighest  degree.  For  its 
])liysical  features,  we  refer  the  reader  to  Tuscany, 
Lucca,  and  the  Transtiberine  portion  of  the  present 
Papal  Dominions;  and  have  only  to  remark,  that 
vast  expanses  of  th.at  country,  which  now  are  either 
covered  with  dee])  forest,  or  are  sliunncd  on  account 
of  the  malaria,  were  in  tliose  times  fruitful,  densely 
peopled  regions.  For  jiolitical,  or  rather  adminis- 
trative piu-poses,  Etruria  Proper  was  divided  into 
twelve  sovereign  cities,  or  rather  cantons,  among 
which  the  most  imjiortant  were  Tarquiiiii  (Corneto), 
the  cradle  of  the  royal  family  of  the  Tarquins,  who 
at  one  time  wieldeil  the  sceptre  of  Home  ;  Cicre 
(Agylla,  Cervetri),  which,  during  the  war  of  Home 
with  tlie  Gauls,  offered  a  refuse  to  the  llonian 
Flameu   Quirinalis  and  Vestal  virgins;  Vcii,  tho 


ETRURIA. 


greatest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Etruria,  \rith 
100,000  inhabitants,  -wliich  carried  on  seven  wars 
with  Rome  ;  Clusiiun  {Kamars,  Chiusi),  the  chief 
of  which,  Porsena,  as  ])rincipal  commander  of  the 
Etruscan  troops,  dictated  a  humiliating  peace  to 
Rome  after  she  had  expelled  the  Tarqiiins  ;  Perusia 
(Peru"ia),  destroyed  in  the  Perusiau  civil  war  (40)  ; 
AiTetium  (Arezzo),  birthplace  of  Ma-cenas.  Of  other 
not  sovereign  places  may  be  mentioned  Luca  (Lucca), 
Pisce  (Pisa),  on  the  Arnus,  with  the  Portus  Pijsanus, 
now  Leghorn,  and  Florentia  (Firenze,  Florence),  on 
the  Arnus. 

To  what  nation  the  inhabitants — called  Etruscans 
( =  Exteri,  strangers)  or  Tuscans  in  the  Roman, 
TjTrheni  or  Tyrseni  {Turrenoi,  Tursenai)  in  the 
Greek,  and  Rasena  (Tesne  Rasue)  iu  their  own  lan- 
guage— originally  belonged,  and  what  coimtry  they 
came  from,  is  a  question  which  was  debated  many 
hundred  years  before  Christ,  and  is  not  settled  yet. 
All  the  most  ancient  writers,  save  one  of  the  most 
trustworthy,  Dionj-siua  of  Halicamassus,  implicitly 
follow  Herodotus,  who — confoimding  them,  jierhaps, 
as  is  his  wont,  with  the  Lydian  Turrenoi,  or  inha- 
bitants of  the  city  of  Tyrrha — jjronounces  them 
to  bo  Lydians,  although  there  is  not  the  slightest 
similarity  between  these  two  nations,  and  although 
Xauthus,  the  Lydian  historian,  knows  nothing  what- 
ever about  a  fabled  famine  of  eighteen  years'  dura- 
tion in  Lydia,  followed  by  an  emigration  to  Italy 
under  a  Prince  TjTrhenus.  Dionysius  himself  offers 
no  opinion  ;  he  calls  them  an  indigenous  race — 
which  means  nothing ;  and  it  is  surprising  that  some 
modem  investigators  shoiUd,  despairing  of  a  rational 
solution  of  the  old  riddle,  have  fallen  back  upon 
this  evasive  theory  of  '  autochthons.'  Thucydides, 
in  first  mixing  up  the  Torrhebian  pirates  with 
the  I'elasgian  lUlibusters,  gave  rise  to  the  most 
hopeless  confusion  about  their  very  name.  As  to 
the  innumerable  theories  and  hypotheses  that  have 
been  put  forward  since  his  day,  we  will  only  men- 
tion that  while  Ciampi  and  Collar  hold  them  to  be 
of  Slavonic  origin,  Freret  calls  them  Celts  ;  Micali, 
Albanese  ;  Lami,  Pfitzmaier,  and  Stickcl,  Semitics  ; 
and  others  variously  make  them  Goths,  Scandi- 
navians, Basques,  AssjTrians,  Phcenicians,  Egj-ptians, 
and  Annenians.  The  most  rational  and  generally 
accepted  opinion  is  that  of  Niebidir — moditied  more 
or  less  by  Ottfried  Miiller,  Lanzi,  Lepsius,  Steub — 
of  their  being,  when  they  first  appear  in  historj', 
a  mixture  of  an  eastern  tribe,  which  had  settled  for 
a  while  in  the  Rhi-etian  .Vlps  (the  Tyrol  of  to-day), 
and  Pelasgians,  whom  they  had  found  in  their  new 
Italian  seats ;  these  latter  having,  iu  their  turn,  since 
their  immigration,  mixed  with  the  Umbrians,  the 
oldest  historical  inhabitants  of  those  parts.  But,  as 
we  said  before,  this  is  only  the  most  rational  opinion 
that  rose  out  of  an  ocean  of  wild  speculation  :  so  far 
from  any  authentic  ])roof3  h-aWug  been  brought 
forward  in  its  support,  the  question  stands  to-day 
precisely  where  it  stood  when  Dionysius  ■HTote  : — 
'  The  Etruscans  do  not  resemble  any  people  in 
language  and  manners.' 

Inunense  as  was  their  influence  on  Roman,  and, 
in  fact,  on  European  ci\'ilisation,  very  little  is  known 
with  respect  to  their  political  history.  Chiefly 
cultivating  the  arts  of  ]ieace,  they  still  seem,  long 
after  their  heroic  period,  to  have  been  powerful 
enough  to  scare  away  any  inv.ader,  and  this  prob- 
ably is  the  reason  why  historians  have  so  little  to 
record  of  them ;  but  their  decline  may  be  said  to 
stand  in  an  inverted  ratio  to  the  rise  of  Rome.  The 
7tli  and  earlier  h;df  of  the  6th  c.  B.  c.  had  been  the 
most  powerfid  and  flourishing  epoch  of  the  Etruscan 
state  iu  its  widest  sense — which  then  probably 
had  been  in  existence  for  four  or  live  hundred  years. 
Whether  they  had  put  theii'  Tarquinii  as  governors 


over  conquered  Rome,  or  whether,  on  the  contrary, 
the  reign  of  this  Etruscan  family  would  denote 
the  subjugation  of  .Southern  Etruria  by  Rome  her- 
self, is  not  quite  clear  ;  but  the  expiUsion  of  the  last 
Roman  king,  Tarquiuius  (Tarchon),  called  Superbus, 
was  followed,  about  507  n.  c,  by  a  war  between 
the  Etruscans,  under  Porsena  of  Clusium,  and  the 
Romans,  which,  although  ending  in  a  most  igno- 
minious peace,  dictated  within  tlie  walls  of  Rome, 
did  not  bring  about  the  restoration  of  the  Tar- 
quinian  dynasty.  From  the  wars  between  Veil 
and  Rome,  which  began  in  4S6,  and  ended — inter- 
rupted only  by  an  occasional  armistice — 395  E.  c, 
with  the  destruction  of  Veil,  dates  the  gradual  but 
sure  extinction  of  Etruria  as  an  independent  state. 
The  Gaids  advancing  from  the  north,  the  Etruscans 
were  forced  to  conclude  a  forty  years'  truce  with 
their  adversaries  at  any  price ;  but  these  over,  and 
the  Romans  being  engaged  with  the  Samnites,  the 
Etruscans  recommenced  the  hostilities  more  fiercely 
than  ever.  In  the  coui-se  of  this  last  war,  tho 
Romans  succeeded,  ."509  B.C.,  under  Q.  Fabius 
ilaximus,  in  twice  defeating  them,  and  Fabius 
crossed  the  Cimiuian  forest — the  frontier  sacred 
from  time  immemorial;  and  when,  2S3  B.C.,  P. 
Cornelius  Dolabella  had  beaten  both  them  and 
their  Gallic  auxiharies  iu  a  decisive  and  sanguinary 
battle  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  Etruria  became  a 
Roman  pro\-ince ;  and  about  two  hundred  years 
later,  the  Lex  Jidia  conferred  upon  her  inhabitants, 
as  a  reward  for  their  fidelity,  the  right  of  citizen- 
ship. Up  to  that  time,  they  had  succeeded  in  keep- 
ing up  theii-  own  singularly  distinct  creed,  customs, 
traditions,  language — their  nationality,  in  fact; 
when  SuUa,  82  B.  c,  infuriated  by  the  part  they 
had  taken  against  him,  liberally  bestowed  great 
portions  of  their  land  upon  his  veterans  ;  and  some 
fifty  years  later,  Octaviauus  planted  his  military 
colomes  there.  This  wrought  and  completed  the 
transformation  of  that  mysterious  conglomeration 
of  heterogeneous  races  and  tribes,  hitherto  called 
Etrurians,  into  Romans.  Once  more,  well-nigh 
2000  years  after  its  extinction,  the  kingdom  of 
Etruria  (Hetruria)  rose  before  the  eyes  of  the 
world.  'The  peace  of  Luneville  re-created  it,  and 
conferred  it  on  the  hereditary  prince,  Louis  of 
Parma ;  after  whose  death,  his  widow,  the  Infanta 
Loiusa  of  Spain,  administered  the  government  for 
their  son,  Charles  Louis,  up  to  1807,  when  it  became 
a  French  province.  From  1809,  it  again  bore  tho 
name  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany;  and  to 
TuscvNY — which  in  our  days  forms  a  province 
of  the  Italian  kingdom,  as  it  did  of  yore — and  to 
Italy,  we  refer  for  its  modern  history. 

We  have  spoken  above  of  twelve  cities  as  forming 
the  confederacy  of  Etrmia  Proper.  Sirail.ar  con- 
federacies of  twelve  cities  were  established,  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  in  the  two  other  Etnirias. 
The  cities  themselves,  however,  cannot  be  fixed 
now  in  all  cases.  From  the  fact  of  more  than 
twelve  autonomous  ones  being  recorded  in  Etruria 
Pi'oper,  it  would  appear  that  some  among  these 
twelve  confederates,  or  populi,  possessed  more  than 
one  capital  city,  each  populus,  however,  being 
limited  to  one  representative  vote  in  the  general 
coimcQ.  The  members  of  the  confederacy  were 
bound  to  appear  regidarly  at  an  annual  religious 
assembly  near  the  temple  of  Voltumna,  a  locality 
which  we  are  as  yet  unable  to  point  out.  Here 
great  fairs  were  held  for  the  ])eople  ;  common  opera- 
tions of  war  being  discussed  by  the  priiicipci,  and  a 
general-in-chief  for  the  ensuing  year  elected  from 
their  nimiber.  Each  city  or  canton,  in  the  earlier 
times  at  least,  had  a  king  (Lucumo,  Lauchrae  = 
Inspired),  chosen  for  life,  whoat  the  same  time  acted 
as  high-priest ;  and  a  hereditary  nobility,  which  alone 

151 


ETKURIA. 


was  eligible  to  the  liiglier  offices  of  state,  ^ext 
to  them,  ill  the  j)olitic;U  and  social  scale,  came  the 
iwople,  iiixiiKTlv  9o  calleil— free,  not  subject  verson- 
ally  to  the  uubUitv :  lowest  stoo.1  a  great  number 
of  clients  or  bonanieu,  probably  the  descendants  of 
8ubjccte<l  orif^inal  inhabitants.  On  the  whole,  the 
feileral  iutenlependence  between  tlie  cities  w.-xs  far 
from  close.  Single  cities  carried  on  wars  m  which 
the  others  took  no  mrt ;  and  when  the  confederacy 
resolve.!  on  general  action,  there  were  always  some 
members  which,  for  some  reason  or  other,  stood 
aloof.  It  appears  from  this  that  the  Ktniscan  con- 
stitution Wiis  analogous  to  the  tlieck  and  Ivoman 
in  their  earliest  stages  :  the  community  develops 
itself  into  a  jiolis  or  eitv,  chooses  a  head,  or  rather 
high-priest,  and  enters  into  a  more  or  less  intimate 
alSance  with  its  neighbouring  cities ;  but,  beside 
that  king  of  its  own,  recognises  a  common  chiet 
only  in  time  of  war.  ,1     i.i 

The  Etruscans  were,  as  a  people,  less  warlike  than 
any  of  their  neighbours,  especiaUy  the  Homans,  and 
eonspicuous  is  their  waut  of  anj-thing  Uke  cavalrj-. 
Theirs  was  also  the  un-Italic  custom  of  hiring 
soldiers,  and  their  energies  seem  princip.aUy  to  have 
been  directed  to  the  more  profitable  occupations  ot 
trade  and  agricidture.  One  of  the  chief  articles  of 
their  commerce  was  amber,  which  Germans  brought 
from  the  Baltic  to  Etruria  Circumpadana,  whence 
it  was  convcved  to  Greece  by  sea.  In  the  western 
p.art3  of  the  Mediterranean,  they  were  formidable  as 
pirates ;  while  they  were  welcomed  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  the  Greeks  of  il.igiia  Gra;eia,  as  im- 
l)orters  of  indigenous  products  of  nature  and  art, 
which  they  exchanged  for  the  wealth  of  the  East 
and  South.  That  their  commerce  within  Italy  must 
have  been  very  e.xtensive,  appears  from  the  fact,  that 
all  the  states  of  Ccntnal  Italy  adopted  their  system 
of  coinage,  based,  like  their  tables  of  weights  and 
measures',  and  many  of  their  political  institutions, 
on  the  duodecimal  system. 

The  striking  contrast  between  the  Etruscans  and 
their  Italic  anil  Greek  neighboim;,  which  appears  in 
the  short  thickset  frames,  the  large  heads  and 
bulky  extremities  of  the  former,  and  the  slender 
limbs  and  gracefiU  harmony  in  the  whole  structure 
of  the  latter,  and  which  runs  with  equal  lUstinctness 
through  the  intellectual  lives  of  the  three  nations, 
manifests  itself  nowhere  with  greater  power  than  in 
their  religions.  Equally  distant  from  the  abstract, 
clear  rationalism  of  the  Latins,  and  the  plastic  joy- 
fulness  of  Hellenic  image-worship,  the  Etruscans 
were,  as  far  as  their  dumb  fragments  shew — for 
what  we  find  on  them  of  human  words  we  do  not 
understand— chained  in  a  dark  and  dotard  mysti- 
cism, such  as  a  blending  of  a  half-forgotten  Eastern 
symbol-service  with  barbarous  religious  practices 
of  northern  savages,  grafted  upon  archaic  Greek 
notions,  might  produce.  In  their  Pantheon,  the 
predominance    belongs    to     the    evil,    mischievous 

fods  ;  their  prisoners  are  welcome  sacrillees  to  the 
eavcniv  powers ;  tlicy  have  no  silent  depths  where 
the  '  good  spirits'  of  their  dejiarted  dwell,  but  a  hell 
of  the  most  hideous  description,  and  a  heaven  where 
permanent  intoxication  is  the  bliss  that  awaits  the 
^•irtuous.  They  di\-ide  their  gods  into  two  classes, 
and  they  place  them  in  the  most  northern,  and  there- 
fore most  iinmovalile  point  of  the  worUl,  whence 
they  can  best  overlook  it.  The  ujjper  section  is 
formed  by  shrouded,  hidden  gods  ( Involuti),  of  uncer- 
tain number,  who  act  awfully  and  mysteriously,  and 
twelve  lower  gods  of  both  sexes,  called  Consentcs, 
CompUces.  Tiuia  (Zeus,  Jupiter)  is  the  chief  of  these 
latter,  and  stands  between  the  two  divisions  of  the 
gods,  receiving  orders  for  destruction  from  the  upper 
ones,  while  the  lower  ones  form  his  ordinary  council, 
and  oljey  his  behests.  Nine  of  these  (Novensiles) 
Hi 


hurl  li'ditnings  at  various  times  and  with  pecidiar 
etlects."  The  three  of  these  deities  which  seem  to 
have   been    the   principal   objects    of  worship  were 
Tinia    himself,    anned    with    three   difl'crcut   kinds 
of   li<'htning,    Cupra   (Hera  or  Juno)   and   Menrfa 
(Minerva,   Pallas  Athene).      V.ixU  most  peculiarly 
Etruscan  are  Vcjovis,  an  evil  Jupiter,  whose  thun- 
derbolts have  the  power  to  deafen,  and  Nortia,  the 
goddess  of  Fate,  also  called  Lasa  Mean.      Besides 
these,  they  put  a  host  of  demons  over  the  diflerent 
iH.rtions  of   the  creation :— the  heavens,  the  earth, 
and  tlie  lower  regions  (Peiuatcs,  Lares,  and  Manes). 
Their  deities  have  gener.ally  wings  ;  and  before  the 
Assman  bulls  had  come  to  light,  some  antiquaries 
esta\)lished  from  this  a  connection  with  the  Hebrew 
winded   cherubim.      Characteristic   in   the   highest 
degree  is  their  '  disciplina '  or    art  of   '  divination. 
This   had   been  revealed  by  Tages,  a  grandson   of 
Jupiter,  who  was   dug   out"  near  Tarquinii,  in  the 
shape  of  a  chikUike  dwarf  witli  p-ay  hair— a  most 
striking  caricature  of  these  botli  childish  and  senile 
practices— and  who  died  immedi.ately  after  having 
communicated  these  mysteries.     They  were  at  fii-st 
the  property   of  the   noble    f.amilies ;   but    m    *»« 
course  of  time,  as  others  were  initiated,  and  schools 
for  priests  were  founded,  these  mystical  and  awe- 
striking  teachings  came  to  be  written  down.     It  is 
saddentng  to  observe  here  again  in  what  monstrous 
insanities  the  spirit  of  man  occasionally  revels,  and 
that,  too,  in  the  province  of  what  is  noblest  and 
highest— religion.     The  'disciplina'   w.as  developed 
into  au  exact  science,  fully  .as  minutely  and  casmsti- 
c.ally  sharpening  its  points  and  splitting  its  hairs  as 
Hindu  or  Mohammedan  theolog)'  would.     It  taught 
what  gods  buried  the  different  kinds  of  lightning ; 
how  by  the  colour  and  the  peculiar  quarter  of  the 
skv   the  author  of  the  bolt  might  be  recognised  ; 
whether  the  evil  denoted  was  a  lasting  or  a  p.assmg 
one  •  whether  the  decree  was  irrevocable  or  could 
be  postponed  ;  how  the  lichtniiig  was  to  be  coaxed 
down,  and  how  it  was  to  be  buried.     This  was  the 
speciality  of  the  Fulgurales.     The  Haruspices  had  as 
their  share  the  explanation  of  jiortents,  prodigies, 
monsters,  the  flight  and  cries  of  birds,  the  entrails 
of  sacrificial  anim.als ;  while  others  ministered  in  the 
holy  rites  at  the  foundation  of  cities,  the  buildmj; 
of   gates,   houses,   &c      Their  ceremonies   (a   word 
derived  from  their  town   Ca^re)  were  endless   and 
silly    but  the   show   and   pomp  with  which  their 
priests  knew  how  to  surround  these  juggleries,  and 
from   which   the   Romans  largely  boiTowed,  made 
them   acceptable   in    the   eyes   of    the   herd;    and 
although  Home  herself,  with  all  her  augurs,  caUed 
Etruria  'the  mother  of   superstition,'  there  was   a 
certain  odour  of  tithes  and  fees  about  these  rites 
which  made  many  anxious  to  '  preserve  rehgion  m 
its  ijrimeval  purity.'  ^ 

In  the  entire  absence  of  anything  like  a  genuine 
Etruscan  account,  even  the  outlines  of  the  rel.atioii 
between  their  religion  and  th.at  of  the  Greeks  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  Romans  011  the  other,  are 
cxccedin<'ly  difficult  to  trace  ;  so  much,  however,  is 
certain,  that  they  adopted  and  assimilated  many 
iioiuts  of  archaic  Greek  theology,  and  clothed  them 
in  a  .'arb  of  their  own,  and  that  this  process  w.as 
cone  ^through  and  repeated  still  more  completely 
by  the  Romans,  in  their  turn,  with  respect  to  the 
reUgious  notions  of  the  Etruscans.  The  articles 
on  Greek  and  Roman  religion  will  furnish  further 
infoi-mation  on  this  point. 

The  high  degree  of  civilisation  which  the  Etrus- 
cans possessed  long  liefore  Rome  was  heard  of,  is 
testilii-d  by  innunie'r.able  works  of  masonry  and  art. 
The  Etruscans  were  of  an  eminently  practical  turn 
of  mind,  and  domestic,  like  the  north.  Trusting  to 
their  jiriests  for  reconciliation  with  the  gods,  who 


ETRURIA. 


always  seemed  irate,  but  whose  angry  decrees  could 
easily  be  foreseen  and  averted,  they  set  to  work  in 
developing  the  inner  resources  of  the  country,  antl 
in  making  the  best  use  of  their  intercourse  with 
foreign  countries.  They  thus  became  eminent  in 
agriculture,  navigation,  military  tactics,  medicine, 
astronomy,  and  the  like ;  and  in  all  these,  iis  well 
as  in  some  of  the  very  minuti;o  of  their  dress 
and  furniture,  the  Romans  liecame  their  reatly 
disciples  and  imitatoi-s.  The  di\nsion  of  the  year 
into  twelve  months,  of  the  m<»uths  into  kalends 
and  nones  and  ides,  the  designation  of  the  nimierals, 
were  Ktruscau  ;  from  the  same  source  were  derived 
the  torja  pratexta  as  well  as  the  pomp  of  triumphs, 
the  liclors  and  apixirilors,  down  to  the  ivory 
eiu'ule  chairs.  The  towns  of  the  Etruscans  were 
clean  aud  healthy,  owing  to  their  perfect  system  of 
ilrainage  and  sewerage  ;  they  tunnelled  and  exca- 
vated, they  embanked  and  irrigated,  they  turned 
swamps  into  cities,  changed  the  course  of  streams, 
and  excelled  in  all  kinds  of  useful  jiublic  and 
private  works.  Their  ideal  was  not  the  beautifid 
or  the  spiritual,  but  a  comfortable,  and,  if  possible, 
luxurious  existence.  As  a  special  proof  of  their  love 
for  their  own  hearth,  a  quality  probably  imported 
from  the  north,  we  might  adduce  their  invention 
of  the  atriim],  the  common  sitting-room  of  the 
family,  where  the  master  of  the  house  sat  sur- 
rounded by  his  penates  and  the  figures  of  his 
ancestors,  while  the  ivife  and  her  handmaidens  plied 
the  labours  of  the  loom  or  the  distaff.  As  in  the 
Germanic  nations,  woman  stood  in  high  estimation. 
She  was  the  companion,  not  the  slave  of  the  hus- 
band, and  thiui  had  certainly  not  a  little  share  in 
the  softening  of  their  primitive  wildness,  and  in 
counteracting  the  sombrcness  of  theii-  creed.  That 
we  find  them  even  in  their  tomb-paintings  engaged 
in  conviWal  carousings,  dancing,  races,  athletic 
games,  and  that  they  liked  their  very  worship 
accompanied  liy  the  sounil  of  ilutcs,  horns,  aud 
trumpets,  only  shews  that  that  glorious  sky  of  theirs, 
their  intercourse  with  the  nations,  theii-  wealth  and 
culture,  had  gradually  caused  their  antique  and 
gloomy  austerity  to  wear  off,  even  as  it  wore  off 
with  the  Romans  aud  other  peoples ;  for  to  assume 
with  some  that  the  boisterous  scenes  to  M'hich  wc 
allnde  were  caused  more  or  less  by  the  despair 
arising  from  the  loss  of  their  independence,  would  be 
going  somewhat  too  far.  I>icentiousness  is  the  sure 
forerunner  of  the  fall  of  a  nation,  but  a  whole  people 
does  not  take  refuge  in  enjoyment  when  their  all  is 
lost.  We  know  little  of  Etruscan  literature  ;  it 
seems  to  have  consisted  mostly  of  rituals,  religious 
hymns,  and  some  histoi-ical  works.  \\Tiether  tiie 
Fescennines,  certain  mocking-songs,  sung  in  alternate 
verses,  with  mnsical  accompaniment,  at  nuptials, 
originated  with  them  or  not,  is  not  decided. 

We  have  alliided  to  the  high  proficiency  of  this 
people  in  architecture ;  they  were,  in  fact,  so 
renowned  in  tliis  craft  throughout  the  antique 
workl,  that,  as  .Solomon  called  I'hceniciaus  to  Jeni- 
saleni  to  budd  his  temple,  so  the  Romans  sought 
in  Etruria  the  framers  of  their  grandest  masonic 
structures,  such  as  the  Cloaka  Maxima,  the  Temjile 
of  Ju])iter  on  the  Capitol,  &c.  The  peculiarly 
fantastic,  and,  withal,  powerful  mind  which  speaks 
in  all  their  institutions,  equally  pervatles  their 
architectm'al  productions :  but,  at  tlie  same  time, 
everything  they  built,  they  liuilt  either  for  practical 
or  pious  purposes.  We  cannot  here  enter  into  a 
discussion  of  their  manner  as  it  ajipears  in  various 
epochs,  but  it  never  reached  anything  like  a  distinct 
natiomd  completeness,  their  eagerness  to  profit  by 
foreign  examijics  not  allowing  them  to  develop  it 
to  the  full  unalloyed.  Of  their  walls  aud  gates, 
temples  aud  porticoes,  theatres  aud  amphitheatres, 


bridges  and  sewers,  gigantic,  aud,  in  the  eailiest 
times,  Cyclopean — evidently  erected,  in  Eastern 
fashion,  by  hosts  of  slaves — very  little  is  extant 
in  so  complete  a  fonn  as  to  give  us  an  exact  insight 
into  their  mode  of  construction  ;  and  were  it  not  for 
their  tomlis,  our  knowledge  woidd  be  exceedingly 
limited.  These  ftn*m  one  of  the  most  peculiar  fea- 
tures in  Etruscan  antiquities.  Hewn  in  rocks,  either 
below  the  groimd  or  in  the  face  of  a  cliff,  they  were 
adorned  outside  with  a  somewhat  EgA'])tian  fa^'ade 
of  a  temple  or  a  house,  which  the  insides  themselves 
most  exactly  reproduce,  with  all  then-  internal 
decorations,  furniture,  and  utensUs.  Of  the  paintings 
which  run  round  the  %\all3,  and  which  are  our 
safest  an<l  most  complete  guides  to  the  inner  life 
of  this  nation,  wc  will  say  more  prcscutly.  We 
must  iiot,  in  conclusion,  omit  to  mention  that 
their  temples  bore  in  primitive  times,  and  always 
retained,  in  some  measure,  so  far  as  we  can  judge, 
the  luifinished  character  of  the  wood-buildings 
of  northern  moimtain  tribes — a  square,  half-house, 
half-fortification,  overloaded  with  quaiut  ornamen- 
tation. 

In  their  jilastic  and  pictorial  arts,  Winckelmanu 
has  tstabhshed  three  distinct  styles — to  which 
Dennis  has  added  a  fourth — viz.,  the  Egj-ptian,  with 
Babylonian  analogies,  the  Etru.scan  or  Tyrrhene 
jjroper,  the  Hellenic,  aud  that  of  the  decadence. 
Characteristic  of  the  first  style  are  the  prevalence 
of  straight  lines,  right  angles,  faces  of  an  oblong, 
contracted  oval,  with  a  jiointed  chin,  eyes  mostly 
drawn  upwards,  the  arms  hanging  close  to  the  side, 
the  legs  close  together,  the  drapery  long,  in  straight 
parallel  lines,  the  hair  disposed  in  tiers  of  curls. 
In  this  style,  the  attitude  is  constrained,  the  action 
stiff  aud  cramped.  The  progress  shewn  by  the 
second  style  is  the  greater  attention  bestowed  on 
the  delineation  of  the  muscles,  which  swell  out  in 
disproportionate  jiromineuces  on  the  now  almost 
entirely  nude  body.  The  two  remaining  styles 
explain  themselves.  Their  statuary,  as  it  appears 
chiefly  on  sarcophagi  and  cinerary  urns,  suggests 
likewise  an  Egj'ptiau  origin.  The  figures  are  those 
of  their  own  mystical  aud  awful  Hades,  instead  of 
the  Bacchic  processions  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
grouping  follows  rather  a  pictorial  than  a  pl.astic 
principle  ;  the  motion  is  hasty  and  forced  ;  but  the 
featiu-cs  of  the  deceased,  hewn  on  the  lid,  have  all 
the  rude  accuracy  of  a  spiritless  portrait.  Statues 
of  deities  in  wood  and  stone  have  indeed  been 
found,  but  very  rarely.  Of  high  renown  were  their 
ornaments  and  utensils  in  baked  clay  (terra  cotta), 
in  the  manufacture  of  which  objects  the  Veientes 
were  especially  famous.  Rome,  at  a  very  early 
period,  j)Ossessed  of  this  material  a  quadriga  and 
the  statue  of  Sunmianus,  made  by  Etruscans.  Of 
the  art  of  working  in  bronze,  the  Etruscans  were 
supposed  to  be  the  inventoi's  :  that  they  brought 
it  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection,  is  evident 
from  the  examjilcs  M'hich  rcmahi  to  us.  Statues 
and  utensils  were  manufactured  and  exported  in 
immense  (juautilies,  not  only  to  Rome,  but  to 
every  part  of  the  known  world.  Of  figures  on 
a  large  scale  still  extant,  we  may  mention  the 
renowned  She-wolf  of  the  Capitol,  the  ChimaT.a  in 
the  JIuseum  of  Florence,  the  Warrior  of  Todi  iii  the 
Etruscan  Museum  of  the  Vatican  ;  a  portrait-statue 
of  an  Orator,  with  the  inscription  Aule  MeteU,  in 
Florence  ;  anil  the  Boy  %vith  the  Goose  at  Leyden. 
The  various  olijects  of  ornament  and  use,  foimd 
in  great  numbers  in  tombs,  such  as  candelabra, 
cups,  tripods,  chaldrons,  couches,  discs ;  articles 
of  armoiu',  .as  helmets,  cuirasses,  &c. ;  musical  instru- 
ments, fans,  cists  or  caskets,  are  most  of  them 
models  of  exquisite  finish  and  artistic  skill.  Their 
gems  are  as  mmierous  .as  those  of  Egypt,  and,  like 


ETRURLA.. 


them,  cut  into  the  form  of  the  scarahceus  or  beetle. 
They  were  exclusively  intaglios,  and  of  cornelian, 
eardonyx,  ami  agate.  On  these  the  Etniscan 
artiste  represent  groups  from  the  Greek  mythology, 
or  the  heroic  cycle,  bereft,  as  they  eecui  to  have 
been,  of  heroic  legends  of  their  own.  They 
are  most  frequently  found  .at  Chinsi  aud  Vulci, 
and  were  worn  as  charms  and  amulets.  Special 
mention  should  be  m.ade  of  the  metal  specula, 
or  mirrors,  with  ligures  scratched  upon  the  concave 


or    convex    side    being    highly 
range<l   over    all   the   phases   of 


side,    the    front 
polisheiL      ITiese 

Etruscan  art,  and  are  especially  and  peculiarly 
Etruscan.  None  but  Etruscan  mscrii>tion3  have 
ever  been  found  upon  them.  They  will,  no  doubt, 
prove  eventually  of  the  highest  importance,  not  only 
by  enabling  us  to  follow  the  gradations  of  artistic 
development  step  by  step,  but  by  furnishing  us 
with  lists  of  names  of  gods  and  persons,  and,  it 
may  be,  of  objects. 


Etruscan  Mirror  from  Vulci,  with  Phuplduns  (Bacchus),  Scuila  (Semelo),  and  ApiUu  (Apollo). 
Half  5i7,e.    After  a  tirawing  by  Mr  George  Scharf. 


Of  the  vases  and  urns  which  are  found  in  innu- 
merable quantities  in  Etruscan  tombs,  we  cannot 
treat  here,  as  they  are  admitted  on  all  hands  to  be, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  Greek,  both  in  design 
and  workmanship  ;  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the 
special  article  on  V,isES  ;  but  a  few  words  m.ay  be 
added  on  the  before-mentioned  tomb-paintings.  They 
.are  found  chiefly  in  the  cemeteries  of  Tarquinii  .and 
Clusium  ;  and  they  are  all  the  more  important,  as 
they  le.vl  us  with  minute  accur.acy  from  the  very 
cnitUe  of  the  individual,  tlirough  the  various  scenes  of 
his  entire  life,  to  its  close ;  and  this  throughout  the 
existence  of  the  nation  itself,  beginning  before  the 
foundation  of  Home,  and  ending  in  the  Empire; 
wliile  we  follow  the  style  in  its  gradu.al  development 
from  the  Egyptian  to  Gr.'eco-Roman  perfection. 
One  of  the  annexed  specimens,  taken  from  a  tomb 
at  Corneto,  represents  a  death-bed  scene ;  but  most 
of  the  other  paintings,  especially  at  Tarquinii,  are  of 
a  very  different  description,  as  the  other  specimens 


shew.  Life  in  its  merriest  aspects  gleams  in  the 
most  vivid  of  colours  all  round — dancing,  feasting, 
loving,  hunting.  The  Etruscans  of  later  times  had 
learned  in  the  school  of  the  Hellenes  to  dread  death 
less,  and  to  think  of  the  other  world  .as  one  of 
continued  ioyfuhiess. 

We  concluile  with  the  Etruscan  Language.  Brevity 
on  that  point  will  be  the  more  p-ardonabje,  as  our 
real  knowledge  of  it  is  next  to  none.  Scarce  as 
the  inscriptions  themselves  are,  still  one  might 
have  supposed  that  our  days,  which  have  seen  the 
riddle  of  the  cimeiform  character  solved,  might 
have  decided  ere  now  whether  the  Etruscan  bo 
'  aboriginal '  or  Celtic,  Slavonic  or  Albauese,  Greek 
or  Rhaitian,  Latin  or  Semitic,  Turanic  or  Armenian, 
hieroglyphs,  or  any  other  of  the  languages  which 
the  different  snvatiji  have  pronounced  it  to  be.  Our 
present  inform,ation  with  respect  to  this  jieculiar 
idiom  consists  in  the  following  items:— It  has 
twenty-one   letters,  like   the   ancient   Greek,  and 


ETEURiA. 


re.-iils  from  right  to  left.  In  transcribing;  words 
from  other  lanffitages,  it  softens  its  gutturals  and 
aspirates,  and  interchanges  cognate  letters,  most 
frequently  transforming  d  into  t — for  instance, 
Odysseus  =  TJtago  ;  Polydeukes  =  Pultuke  ;  Ailria= 
Ilatri.  The  most  frequent  termination  is  c:  Pcleus 
bccoTnes  Pole  ;  Tydeus,  Tyde.  '  Ailil '  and  '  A vil  ril ' 
probably  mean  '  he  hved,'  or  '  he  Uved  years,'  since 
wo  find  these  words  always  followed  by  numerals. 
This  question  of  their  language  is  naturally  identical 


with  that  of  their  origin,  and  they  will  both  have  to 
be  settled  finally  together.  In  the  meantime  we 
may,  without  prejudice,  say  that  there  is  something 
very  seductive  about  Stickel's  Semitic  exjilanation 
of  some  of  these  inscriptions.  We  subjoin,  in  order 
to  give  the  reader  an  opportimity  of  judging  of  the 
character  itself,  and  also  for  the  sake  of  curiosity, 
the  first  and  part  of  the  second  hne  of  a  large 
inscription  found  in  1S2'2,  at  Perugia, 'ivith  a  Hebrew 
transcrii)t,   and   Stickel's   Semitic   translation.     He 


Crater. 


Amphora.  Cylix. 


supposes  the  whole  to  be  a  manifesto  or  solemn 
acoisation  of  some  expelled  Easena  against  the 
Clensi  (Clusii). 

am       TinS    -in 

tanna  I'at      ha 

'  This  we  have  put  up  as  a  sign  for  the  land  and  the 
peoples  therein.' 

Of  the  very  numerous  wi-itcrs  who  have  treated 


bah     ul'amme 


I'arets 


on  Etruria  and  Etruscans,  we  will  mention 
Diodorus,  Strabo,  Dionysius,  Athen^us,  Cincius  in 
his  Annals,  Cato  in  Orirfines,  Varro  in  De  Lingua 
Lntina.  Aulus  C.-ectna's  De  Ktrusca  Disciplina,  as 
well  as  the  Emperor  Claudius'  twenty  books  of 
T>-rrheni.in  history,  are  lost,  but  some  portions  o£ 
them  have  survived,  embodied  in  contemporaneous 
and  later  works.  In  modern  times,  we  have 
Dempster,  EIritria  Uegalis  (Florence,  IVS-V- 1724) ; 
Gori,  Museum  Elruscum  (Florence,  1737 — 1773) ; 
Inghirami,  Monummti  L'trusdd  (1S'21— 182G) ;  Micali, 
Storia  dc'di  anlidiipopoli  lialiani;  Ottfried  MUller, 

155 


ETSCH— ETri'. 


Die  h'truxLer  (Breslau,  18-28)  ;  Micali,  Monumenii 
tnetli'ti,  ic.  (Kome  ami  Paris);  Dennis,  Cilir^t  (mil 
Crmr(erie/i  of  Etruria  (Lonilon,  1849);  Abeken, 
Kusler,  Lenoir,  Hittorf,  Aniaduzzi,  Mommsen, 
IJunsen,  (ierharil,  Ac,  and  tlie  Transactions  of  the 
many  archa;ological  societies  ami  institutes. 

ETSCH.    See  Anicfi. 

ETSHMIA'DZIN,  a  remarkable  Armenian  con- 
vent iu  Ei'ivau,  a  Transeancasian  jirovince  of  I'aissia, 
ami  abont  IG  miles  west  of  tlie  town  of  Erivaii.  It 
is  of  "ireat  extont,  is  snn-ouncU'J  by  a  wall  .'iO  feet  in 
height,  and  14  mile  in  circuit,  'i'his  wall  encloses 
several  distinct  churches,  each  of  which  is  presided 
over  by  a  bishoji,  is  cruciform  in  shape,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  kind  of  cupola  crowned  by  a  low 
spire.  For  many  centuries,  this  has  been  the  seat 
of  the  Cathoheos  (the  head  or  )iatriarcli  of  the 
Armeni.an  Church).  This  patriarch  presides  at  the 
synodical  meetinjrs,  but  cannot  pass  a  decree  without 
its  havim;  the  apjiroval  of  the  moderator,  an  official 
api>ointed  by  the  Ilussiau  emjicror.  iu  whose  hands 
the  control  of  the  convent  virtually  rests.  In  the 
convent  library  there  are  (i;j.j  manuscripts,  4G2  of 
which  are  in  the  Armenian  language. 

ETTMULLEK,  Enx.sr  Moritz  LuDwao,  an  able 
writer  on  German  antiijuities,  w.asborn  5th  October 
1S02,  at  Gersdorf,  near  Lobau,  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
and  studied  medicine  at  Leipsic  from  1823  to  1826, 
but  subsequently  the  langu,-i{;e  and  history  of  his 
native  country.  In  1830,  havin"  taken  his  degree 
of  Ph.I>.  at  Jena,  he  began  to  deliver  lectures  there 
on  the  Gennan  poets  of  the  middle  ages ;  but  in  IS.S.") 
he  was  called  to  the  Ziirich  Academy  as  teacher  of 
the  (iemian  language  and  literature.  E.'s  literary 
activity  has  been  exhibited  chiefly  iu  the  editing  of 
the  liter.ary  remains  of  the  Middle  High-German, 
and  older  Low-Germau  dialects.  To  the  former 
belong  his  A'a)i(0.s«'nWt'.<ieifn  (Ziirich,  1835);  Hade- 
hiihai  LicJer  und  S/n-iiche  (Ziirich,  1840);  Hcin rich's 
^o/^  Mt-iiseii  des  I-'rouH'cnlolx-i  Lialer,  Leiche,  \aul 
Sprilclie  (Quedlinb.  1843) ;  Frawen  llddien  Siine 
(Ziirich,  184G);  Heinridts  Von  Vddtcke  Eiieide 
(Zurich,  1852).  Of  poems  composed  in  Low  German 
he  i)ubhshed,  among  others,  fheopliUus  (Quedlinb. 
1849);  aud  Wizhlwcs  IV.,  den  Filrstm  Von  J!iirji-ii, 
LiediT  und  Spriidie  (Quedlinb.  1852).  Iu  1850 
ajjpeared,  under  his  editorehip,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
clirestomathy,  entitled  Biiffla  aiul  Seaxna  ScSpns 
mid  bOceras  ;  and  in  the  following  year  his  Lexicon 
Angh-Saxoniaim,  which  supplied  a  want  long  felt 
in  Germany.  At  an  earlier  period  in  his  literary 
career,  E.  paid  great  attention  to  the  old  Xorse 
literature,  and  in  this  ilepartment  we  have  from  him 
an  edition  of  the  Viilu.yxl,  &c.  E.  has  also  ^vl•ittou 
poetry,  as  well  as  eilited  it.  His  Deutsche  Stamm- 
l:uni;/e  ap])eared  at  Zurich  in  1844,  his  Kaiser  Karl 
</.  Gr.  und  das  Frdnkisdie  Jundfrauenheer  iu  1847, 
aud  his  Karl  d.  Or.  und  der  Ihiliije  Goar  in  1852. 

E'TTRICK,  a  pastoral  vale  in  the  south  of 
Selkirkshii-e,  watered  by  the  Ettrick  river,  which 
rises  amid  bleak  hills  in  the  south-west  corner 
of  this  county  near  Ettrick  Pen,  225S  feet  high, 
and  runs  28  miles  north-east,  and  iaUs  into  the 
Tweed.  Its  chief  affluent  is  the  Yarrow,  which 
nuis  25  miles  from  the  west,  through  one  of  the 
loveliest  of  Scotch  vales,  and  the  scene  of  many 
a  plaintive  song.  Ettrick  Forest,  a  royal  hunting 
tract,  swarming  with  deer  till  the  time  of  .Tames  V., 
included  Selkirkshire  and  some  tracts  to  the 
north.  In  Ettrick  V.ale,  at  Tusliiclaw,  dwelt  the 
celelirated  freeljooter  or  king  of  the  Border,  Adam 
Scot,  who  was  summarily  executed  by  James  V. 
The  district  derives  some  note  from  two  persons  in 
modoru  tiroes— Thomas  Boston  (q.  v.),  a  Scottish 
divine,  who  was  minister  of  the  parish  of  Ettrick  ; 
ISC 


and  .Tames  Hogg,  the  Scottish  poet,  who,  having  been 
originally  a  shepherd  in  this  ])art  of  the  coimtry, 
became  known  as  '  the  Ettrick  Shepherd.' 

ETTY,  Wii.Li.^M,  K.A.  This  distinguished  .artist 
was  liorn  at  York,  March  10,  1787.  His  father  was 
a  miller  and  spice-maker.  Before  he  was  twelve 
years  of  age,  he  w.as  a]>prenticcd  to  .a  ])rinter,  and 
served  out  his  dreary  term  of  seven  ye.ais,  the 
irksome  drudgery  of  which  he  liimself  often  after- 
wanls  was  in  the  habit  of  narrating,  occasionally 
soothed  by  dreams  of,  on  some  future  day,  being 
an  artist.  Freed  at  last,  and  assisted  by  Bome 
relatives,  iu  1805,  at  the  age  of  18,  he  entered  on 
the  stvuly  of  art,  and,  after  a  year's  prob.ation,  was 
admitted  as  a  Roy.il  Academy  student.  His  career 
is  very  interesting  and  instructive.  It  exhibits  one 
gifted  with  enthusiasm  for  art,  high  resolutions,  .and 
great  industry  and  perseverance,  for  a  series  of 
years  invariably  siu'passed  by  many  of  his  fellow- 
students,  and,  as  has  been  recorded.  '  looked  on 
bj'  his  companions  as  a  worthy  ])lodding  person, 
with  no  chance  of  ever  beconiing  a  good  painter.' 
Neither  jirizcs  nor  medals  fell  to  his  share  as  a 
student ;  aud  for  several  yeara  his  pictures  were 
rejected  .at  the  Koyal  Academy  and  British  Insti- 
tution Exhibitions.  It  was  only  after  six  years 
of  hard  study  that  he  olitained  a  ])lace  for  a 
picture  in  the  Exhibition  of  the  Koyal  Academy; 
aud  his  works  oidy  began  to  attract  notice  iu 
1820,  wheu  the  artist  was  33  years  of  age,  and 
as  he  himself  h.as  said,  '  h.aviug  exhibited  nine 
years  to  no  piirjjose.'  But  the  circumstance  of 
E.'s  genius  being  so  long  una])preciated,  did  not 
so  much  arise  from  his  works  evincing  no  talent, 
as  from  his  class  of  subjects,  and  those  technical 
qualities  for  which  his  works  are  rem.arkable,  not 
being  appreciated  .at  the  time ;  for  long  before  his 
pictures  were  saleable,  his  powers  were  highly 
appreciated  by  his  ]n-ofessional  brethren.  On  his 
return  from  Italy  in  1822,  where  he  had  been 
studying  the  gi'cat  Venetian  colourists,  he  was 
elected  an  Associate  o£  the  Ac.idemy.  In  1824,  his 
chef-d'oeuvre.  '  The  Comb.at — Woman  pleading  for 
the  Vanquished,'  w.os  purchiised  by  an  artist,  Jolm 
Martin.  In  1828,  he  was  elected  Academician  by 
the  members  of  the  Koy.al  Academy  :  while  in  the 
same  year  the  Koyal  Scottish  Academy  testified 
its  high  .aj>preciation  of  his  t.alents  by  jiurchasing 
the  most  important  of  his  efforts,  the  historical 
work  illustrating  tlie  history  of  Judith  and  Holo- 
fcrnes.  Testimonials  so  high  soon  h.ad  their  effect ; 
E.'s  pictures  came  into  great  request,  .and  brought 
large  ])rices,  aud  he  was  enabled  amply  to  rejiay 
those  who,  tiaisting  to  his  energies,  had  assisted 
him  when  he  entered  on  the  contest,  in  which, 
after  so  arduous  ,a  struggle,  he  gained  so  much 
honour.  He  always  cherished  a  love  and  rever- 
ence for  York,  his  native  city,  and  had  retireil 
there  some  time  previous  to  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  November  30,  1849. 

E.  had  an  exquisite  feeling  for  colour,  which  he 
most  assiduously  cultivated  by  studying  the  works 
of  the  great  Veiu'tiau  masters,  and  constantly 
painting  from  the  life  ;  and  though,  in  his  dr.awiiig, 
carelessness  and  incoirectness  m.ay  often  beobserveil, 
it  is  never  \'ulgar,  and  often  possesses  much  eleva- 
tion aud  Largeness  of  style.  He  generally  chose 
subjects  that  aff'orded  scojic  for  colour,  in  which  the 
nude  aud  rich  di'ajieries  were  displayed.  He  executed 
nine  )iictures  on  a  very  large  scale,  viz.  :  '  The 
C'omljat  ;'  series  of  three  iiictures  illustrating  the 
delivery  of  Bethulia  by  Jmlitli :  '  Benaiah  sl.aying 
two  Lion-like  Jlen  of  Moab' — these  five,  which  are 
the  best  of  his  large  works,  were  jiurchased  by  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  are  now  in  the  Scot- 
tish  National    Gallery — '  The  Syrens,'  now  iu  the 


ETYMOLOGY— EUCALYPTUS. 


M,anchester  Institution ;  and  three  pictures  illustrat- 
iiic  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc.  His  smaller  works 
arc  niuut-rous.  Besifles  his  large  works  above  referred 
to,  he  sent  for  exhibition  to  the  Eoyal  Academy 
and  British  Institntion,  between  1811  and  1S49 
inclusive,  no  less  than  S.SO  picture?,  many  of  them 
composed  of  numerous  ligures,  and  all  remarkable 
for  exquisite  colour.  The  following  may  be  parti- 
cularly noted:  'The  Coral-tinders;'  'Venus  and 
her  youthful  Satellites  arriWng  at  the  Isle  of 
Pajjlios  ; '  '  Cleopatr.1'3  An-ival  iu  Cilicia  ; '  a  com- 
position from  the  eleventh  book  of  Paradise  Lost 
('  Bevy  of  Fair  Women ') ;  '  The  Storm  ; '  '  Sabriua ; ' 
'  The  Warrior  Arming  ; '  '  Youth  at  the  Prow,  and 
Pleasure  at  the  Helm  : '  '  The  Dance,'  from  Homers 
description  of  Achilles's  Shield  ;  '  Britomart  redeems 
Fair  Amoret;'  "Dance  on  the  .Sanis,  and  yet  no 
Footing  seen  ; '  '  Amoret  Chained.' — C'ompare  E.'s 
Life  by  Gilchi-ist  (Bogue,  Loudon,  1S55). 

ETYJIO'LOGY  (Gr.)  is  that  p.art  of  .gramm.ar 
that  ti'eats  of  the  derivation  of  words.  It  embraces 
the  consideration  of  the  elements  of  worils,  or  letters 
and  sj-Uables,  the  different  kinds  of  words,  their 
forms,  and  the  notions  they  convey ;  and  lastly,  the 
modes  of  their  formation  by  derivation  and  com- 
position. EtjTiiological  inquiries  have  formed  a 
favourite  pursuit  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the 
book  of  Genesis,  nimierous  indications  are  given  of 
the  derivation  of  proper  names.  Homer  also  attempts 
etjnuologies  of  the  names  of  gods  and  men,  which, 
however,  can  only  be  looked  nj^on  as  more  or  less 
ingenious  fancies.  The  grammarians  of  Alexandria 
and  Varro  among  the  Romans  tried  to  base  their 
etvmologies  on  something  like  priiiciple  ;  but  the 
wildest  conjectures  continued  to  be  indulged  in, 
and  the  results  were  little  better  than  guess-work 
down  to  a  very  recent  period.  As  philology  extended 
its  sphere,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  languages 
and  grammarians  of  the  East,  who  far  excelled  those 
of  the  West  in  this  particular,  etjnnology  took  on  a 
new  form.  It  no  longer  sought  the  relations  of  the 
words  of  a  single  language  exclusively  within  itself, 
but  extended  its  view  to  a  whole  group,  e.  g.,  the 
Teutonic,  or  wider  still,  to  a  whole  family,  as  the 
Indo-European,  or  Aryan  (q.  v.),  and  became  a  new 
science  under  the  name  of  Comparative  Grammar. 
See  PillLOLOOV. 

KUimoloriicum.  Mapmim  is  the  name  of  a  Greek 
le.xicou,  the  oldest  of  the  kind,  professing  to  give 
the  roots  of  the  words.  It  appears  to  belong  to  the 
loth  c.  ;  the  authors  name  is  unknown.  The 
et\'uiologies  are  mere  giiesses,  sometimes  right,  often 
wildly  absurd  ;  but  the  book  is  valuable,  as  con- 
taining many  traditions  and  notices  of  the  meanings 
of  ol<r  and  imusual  words.  There  is  an  edition  by 
SchUfer  (Leip.  1S16) ;  one  by  .Sturz,  called  Elijmu- 
lo>iicum  Gtnliamim  (Leip.  ISIS) ;  and  another  by 
Gaisford  (Oxf.  1840). 

EU,  a  toleraUy  well-built  town  of  France,  iu 
the  di'))artment  of  the  Lower  Seiue,  in  Xormandy, 
situated  near  the  month  of  the  Bresle,  93  miles 
north-north-west  of  Paris.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
line  Gothic  church,  and  for  the  Chateau  d'Eu,  a 
low  building  of  red  brick,  with  high  tent-shai)ed 
roofs  of  slate.  E.  has  manuf.actures  of  sail-cloth, 
ropes,  soap,  lace,  and  silk.  Pop.  4019.  In  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries,  E.  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
counts  of  the  same  name,  a  collateral  branch  of  the 
Xorman  royal  family.  After  various  licissitudes, 
it  w.as  purchased  by  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier 
in  1  OT.j,  whose  fanciful  taste  has  perjietuated  itself 
in  the  architecture  and  decoration  of  the  chilteau. 
At  a  later  period,  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Maine,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the 
Duke  of   Pcnthi&vre,  the  matern.al  grandfather   of 


Louis  Philippe,  who  succeeded  to  it  in  I82I.  Louis 
I'Mippe  expended  large  sums  on  the  embellishment 
of  the  chftteau,  and  especially  on  its  magniticent 
park  and  the  unique  portrait-gallery.  It  hasrecently 
acquired  a  new  historical  association  through  the 
visits  of  the  queen  of  England  in  184.3  and  184.5. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Nemours  (bom  29th 
April  1S42)  received  from  his  royal  gran<lfather  the 
title  of  Coimt  d'EiL  Comp<are  Vatout,  Le  ChAhnii 
dCEu,  Xoticcs  Hldori'iues  (.5  vols.,  Paris,  IS.'Jf)),  his 
lUmdaices  Hwjalcs  (Paris,  1839). 

EUBOE'A  (ancient,  i'uAom  ;  Turkish,  £J7npo;  Ital. 
I  JVegrojjOnle),  the  largest  island  in  the  .i-Egean  Sea, 
)  forms  a  portion  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Greece. 
',  Until    recently,   it   was    called    Xegropont.      It  is 
!  bounded   on   the   ]Sr.   by  the  Trikeri  Channel,  and 
on   the  W.  by  those   of   Talauta   and   Egripo.     It 
I  extends  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  mainland  ;  is 
105   English   statute   miles  long,  and   30  miles   in 
extreme  breadth,  .although  in  one  part  its  breadth 
is  scarcely  four  miles.      At  the  narrowest  part,  it 
j  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bridge.     The 
'  island   is    intersected   by   a    chain    of    mountains, 
running  north-west   and  south-east,   and   attaining 
j  in  the  centre,  in  the  range  of  Momit   Delphi,  an 
elevation    of  about  4500  feet.      Copper   and   other 
j  metals    are    obtained    iu    the    island,    which    also 
I  cont.ains  numerous  hot  springs.     The  pastures  are 
I  excellent,   and    the    declivities    of   the    mountains 
j  covered  with   forests   of   fir-trees.     The   climate  is 
salubrious,  the  valleys  well  watered  and  very  fertile, 
1  but  Uttle  cidtivatcd.     The  chief  products  are  cotton, 
I  oil,  wine,  wheat,  fruit,  and  honey.     The  inhabitants 
are  chietly  engaged  in  the  breeding  of  cattle ;  they 
I  export  wool,  hides,  and  cheese,  as  well  as  oil  and 
grain.     The  cliief  towns  are  Chalcis  (q.  v.)  on  the 
:  north,  aud  Carvstos  on  the  south  coast,  the  latter 
I  having  a  popidatiou  of  3000.     E.  was  peopled  in  the 
early  historic   times  chiefly  by  louic  Greeks,  and 
afterwards  by  colonists  from  Athens,  who  formed  a 
number  of  independent  cities  or  states.     These  were 
j  at  first  monarchical  in  their  constitution,  Imt  at  a 
{  later  period  demoer.atic.     The5'  soon  rose  to  power 
and  prosperity.     After  the  Persian  wars,  however, 
E.  was  subjugated  by  the  Athenians,  imder  whose 
rule  it  continued  till  they,  iu  their  turn,  were  sub- 
dued by  Philip  of  JIacedon.     By  the  Romans,  it  was 
finally  imited  with   the  province  of  Achaia  under 
Vespasian.     In  1204,  it  came  into  the  i)ossession  of 
the  Venetians,  and  received  the  name  of  Negroponte. 
In  the  year  1470,  the  island  was  taken  by  the  Turks, 
in  whose   hands    it  remained  till   1821,  when   the 
inhabitants  rose  to  vindicate  their  independence  at 
the  call  of  the  beautiful  Modeua  Maurogenia.      It 
now  forms  a  portion   of   the   modem  kingdom   of 
Greece,  and  has  a  popidation  of  68,813. 

EUCALYPTUS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Myrtacea;  sub-order  Leptospermen;  containing 
a  large  numlier  of  species,  mostly  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  which,  along  with  trees  of  nearly  allied 
genera,  form  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features 
of  the  vegetation  of  that  part  of  the  world.  The 
genus  occurs  also,  although  much  more  sparingly,  in 
the  JIalayan  Archipelago.  The  trees  of  this  genus 
have  entii-e  and  leathery  leaves,  in  which  a  notable 
quantity  of  a  volatile  aromatic  oil  is  usually  present. 
The  leaves,  instead  of  having  one  of  their  surfaces 
towards  the  sky,  and  the  other  towards  the  earth, 
are  often  placed  with  their  edges  in  these  directions, 
so  that  each  side  is  equally  exposed  to  the  light. 
Many  of  the  species  abound  in  resinous  secretions, 
and  are  therefore  called  Gfm-trees  in  Australia. 
Some  of  them  .attain  a  great  size ;  some  are  found 
with  trunks  from  eight  to  sixteen  feet  in  diameter ; 
a   plank   148  feet   in  length  was  exhibited  at  the 

157 


EUCHAKIST— EUDOCIA- 


Great  Ejchibition  of  1S51.    They  are  of  very  rapiil 
prowth ;  and  their  timlier,  when  green,  is  soft,  so 
that  they  are  easily  felled,  split,  or  sawn  ui) ;  but 
when  drj',  it  becomes  very  hard.     It  is  used  for  a 
great  variety  of  jmrjwses,  amongst  which  may  he 
"mentioned  ship-buildiug.     The  bark  ot  many  of  the 
species  abounds  in  tannin,  and  has  become  to  some 
extent  an  article  of  commerce.     Some  kinds  of  it 
are  said  to  be  twice  as  strong  as  oak-bark.     The  | 
bark  of  some  is  remarkable  for  its  hardness  :  whilst  ^ 
some   throw   off   their  outer  bark   in   longitudinal  : 
strips  or  ribbons,  which,  hanging  down  from  their  j 
stems  and  branches,  have  a  very  singidar  appear-  j 
auce. — Among  the  resinous  secretions  of  this  genus  ' 
is  the  substance  called  Botasy  Bay  Kixo,  which  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for  Kino  (q.  v.).     It  j 
is  the  produce  of  /.'.  resini/era,  a  species  with  ovato-  j 
lanceolate  leaves,  known  in  Australia  as  the  Ked  ] 
Gi-M  Tree  and  Ikon  Bakk  Tkee,  a  very  lofty  tree, 
attaining   a  height   of   l.-)0— 200  feet.      When  the 
bark  is  wounded,  a  red  juice  flows  very  freely,  and  1 
hanlcns  in  the  air  into  masses  ot  irregular  form,  [ 
inodorous,  transparent,  almost  black  when  large,  but  j 
of  a  bea\itifiJ  ruby  red  hi  sm^dl  and  thin  fragments.  I 
Botany  Bay   Kino  is  said  to  consist  chiefly  of   a 
]ieculiar  ])rinciple   called  £ucal>!plin,   analogous   to 
tannin.     About  sixty  gallons  of  juice  may  sometimes 
be  obtained  from  a  single  tree,  or,  in  the  course  of 
a  vear,  as  much  as  live  hundred  pounds  of  kiuo. — i,'. 
rubusta,  Strisgy  Bark  Tree,  also  a  lofty  tree,  yields 
a  most  beautiful  red  gum,  which  is  found   tilling 
large  cavities  in  its  stem,  between  the    concentric 
circles  of  wood. — E.  mnnni/era  j-ields,  from  its  leaves, 
an  exudation  resembUng  manna,  less  nauseous,  and 
of    similar    medicinal    properties.      It    contains    a 
saccharine  substance,  different  from  7nan7iile,  from 
glucose,  and  from  all  jireriously  known  kinds  of  sugar. 
Another  similar  exudation,   from   the  leaves  of  E. 
dumusa,  is  sometimes  .seen  spread  over  large  districts 
like  snow,  and  used  by  the  natives  as  food.     Other 
species  also  jield  exudations  of  this  kind,  which  are 
described  as  sometimes  drojiping  from  the  leaves  in 
coagxJated  tears  as  large  as  an  almond. — E.  Gioinii, 
when  woimdcd,  yields  a  copious  supply  of  a  refresh- 
ing and  slightly  aperient  Uquid,  which  ferments  and 
forms  a  kind  of  beer.     The  tree  grows  in  Tasmania. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  Eucalypti  of 
tlie  hif  her  parts  of  Tasmania  may  be  foimd  hardy 
enough  for  the   climate  of  the  south  of  England, 
where,  indeed,  some  of  them  may  already  occasionally 
be  seen  in  the  open  air. 

EUCHARIST.     See  Lord's  Sopper. 

EUCHLO'RINE  is  a  very  explosive  green- 
coloured  gas,  jiossessing  bleaching  properties,  and  is 
jirepared  by  heating  gently  a  mixture  of  2  parts 
hydrochloric  acid,  2  of  water,  and  1  of  chlorate  of 
potash.  It  explodes  when  merely  touched  with  a 
hot  wire,  and  is  most  likely  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  cldorochloric  acid  (iClOjjClOj). 

EU'CLID,  sometimes  called  the  f.ather  of  mathe- 
matics, was  bom  at  Alexandria,  about  ■'jOO  B.  c.  We 
know  little  more  of  his  history  than  that  he  belonged 
to  the  Platonic  school  of  philosophy,  and  taught 
mathematics  in  the  famous  school  of  Alexandria, 
duruig  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter.  Though  he  did 
not  create  the  science  of  m.athematies,  as  is  some- 
times rei]resented,  he  made  prodigious  advances, 
especially  by  his  ri";orou3  method  and  arrangement. 
In  tills  respect  he  h<as  perhaps  never  been  excelled, 
and  his  Elementu  of  Geometr;/  continue  to  the  present 
<l.ay  to  hold  their  place  as  a  text-book  of  that 
science.  Besides  the  Elementi,  there  are  extant 
treatises  on  music,  optics,  d.ata,  &e.,  .ascribed  to  li., 
the  aiitlienticity  of  some  of  which  is  doubtful.  The 
beat  editions  of  the  whole  reputed  works  of  E.  arc 
Ui 


those  of  David  Gregory  (Oxf.  1703)  and  Peyrard 
(3  vols'..  Par.  1S14— 1818).  The  oldest  Greek  edition 
of  the  Elements  appeared  at  Basel,  1533 ;  the  best 
is  th.it  of  August  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1820).  Of  English 
editions  of  IC's  Elements,  those  of  Simpson  and 
Plaj-fair  are  considered  the  best.  There  is  a  full 
accoimt  of  everything  connected  with  E.  and  liis 
works  in  Smith's  Diclionari/  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Bioiji-aphy. 

EUCLID,  of  Megano,  a  Greek  philosopher,  ha."! 
often  been  confounded  with  the  mathem.atician  of 
the  same  name.  He  w.as  one  of  the  earhest  disciples 
of  Socrates.  Although  Jlcgara  lay  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  Athens,  and  all  Jlegarians  were  for- 
bidden to  enter  the  Athenian  territories  under  pain 
of  death,  E.  came  into  the  city  in  the  evening  in 
female  disguise,  to  enjoy  the  instruction  of  Socrates. 
After  the  de.ath  of  his  master,  he  established  a  school 
of  his  own,  which  received  the  name  of  the  Megario 
School.  His  death  took  place  about  42'1  B.  c.  The 
basis  of  his  system  was  the  Eleatio  dogma  of  a  one, 
only,  universal,  substance  or  existence.  Blending 
with  this  the  Socratio  idea  of  the  predominance  of 
the  moral  element,  E.  held  this  one  real  existence  to 
be  the  good,  though  it  receives  various  names  under 
its  special  manifestations. 

EUDIO'IMETER  (Gr.  cudios,  good,  and  melron, 
measurer)  is  .an  instrument  originally  introduced  as 
a  measurer  of  the  goodness  of  air  in  any  locality,  but 
which  is  now  emjiloyed  generally  ill  the  analysis  of 
gases  for  the  det<-'rmination  of  the  nature  and  pro- 
portions of  the  constituents  of  any  gaseous  mixture. 
The  instrument  is  now  made  of  gl.ass  in  the  form 
of  a  tube,  which  is  hermeticidly  scaled  at  one  end, 
and  open  at  the  other.  The  tube  may  be  straight, 
or  bent  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  U.  In  either 
cose,  the  tube  is  graduated  or  marked  off  in  equ.al- 
sized  divisions  from  the  closed  end  onwards,  so  as 
to  admit  of  the  volume  of  gas  placed  within  being 
accurately  measured ;  and  two  ]>latiuum  wires  .are 
inserted  through  the  glass  near  the  shut  end  of  the 
tube,  and  closely  appro.ach,  but  do  not  touch,  each 
other.  These  wires  are  intended  for  the  conveyance 
of  electric  sparks  through  any  mixture  of  gases,  so 
.as  to  cause  the  combustion  of  certain  of  them.  For 
the  modes  of  manipulating  with  the  eudiometer,  see 
Gas,  Analysis  of. 

EUDO'CIA,  the  name  of  several  Byzantine  prin- 
cesses, of  whom  the  most  import.ant  is  the  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.  She  was  the  d.aughter 
of  the  sophist  Leontius  or  Leon,  and  w.as  educated 
by  her  father,  who  instructed  her  in  the  literature 
of  Greece  and  Home,  in  rhetoric,  geometry,  arith- 
metic, and  astronomy.  Her  accomi)lisliments  and 
her  singular  beauty  were  reckoned  by  Leontius  a 
sufficient  fortune,  for  .at  his  death  he  left  all  his 
property  to  her  two  brothers.  E.  ajipcaled  to  the 
crajieror  at  Constantinople.  Pulchcria,  the  sister  of 
Theodosius,  was  interested  in  the  maiden,  and 
thought  she  woiUd  make  a  suitable  wife  for  the 
emperor.  But  as  li  (or,  more  properly,  Athcnais,  for 
this  was  her  name  until  her  baptism)  h.ad  been 
brought  up  a  p.agan,  it  was  necessary  fiKt  to  con- 
vert her.  This  was  easily  accomplished.  E.  Wivs 
married  to  the  emperor  in  421  a.d.  For  many 
years,  however,  Pulchcria  ruled  in  the  imperial 
household  and  councils,  K.,  according  to  Nicephorus, 
'  submitting  to  her  as  mother  and  Augusta  ; '  but  in 
447.  a  quarrel  broke  out  between  thcni  in  regard  to 
the  Eutychian  heresy,  of  which  E.  had  become  asup- 
l)orter.  At  first,  E.  w.as  triimi])hant,  and  Pulchcria 
was  banished ;  but  in  a  short  time  the  emperor  was 
reconciled  to  his  sister,  and  treated  E.  so  sharjily 
that  she  retired  to  Jerusalem,  where  she  died  4(iO— 
401  A.  D,    Her  latter  days  were  speat  in  works  of 


ETJDOXUS— EUGENIA. 


piety  and  chanty.  She  enricheil  chiirches,  rebuilt  the 
■walls  of  the  Holy  City,  and  founded  many  monas- 
teries and  hospitals.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
famous  SjTncou  Stilitcs,  she  was  induced  to  renounce 
Eiitychianism,  and  become  an  orthodox  Catholic 
Christian.  E.  was  a  jioetess  of  considerable  merit. 
She  wrote  a  poem  in  heroic  verse  on  the  victory 
obtained  by  the  troops  of  Theodosius  over  the  Per- 
sians, 421  or  422  A.  D. ;  a  paraphrase  of  ei^ht  books 
of  Scripture,  a  para|>hrase  of  l)aniel  and  Zechariah, 
and  a  poem  in  three  books  on  the  history  and 
martyrdom  of  Cj^jrian  and  Justina.  The  authorship 
of  Homero-Centone^  has  also  (but  without  sufficient 
reason)  beeu  attributed  to  her.  This  is  a  work  com- 
posed of  verses  taken  from  Homer,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  appear  a  history  of  the  faU  of  man  and  of  his 
redemj>tion  by  Christ.     It  has  beeu  often  pubHshed. 

EUDO'XUS,  of  Cnidus,  called  by  Cicero  the  prince 
of  astronomei-s,  floimshed  about  30(5  D.c.  He  studied 
under  Plato  for  some  time,  and  afterwards  went  to 
Egyi't,  where  he  resided  for  thirteen  years,  and  had 
much  intercourse  with  the  Egj^itian  priesthood, 
from  whom  he  is  gnjiposed  to  have  derived  his  supe- 
rior Icnowledge.  His  last  years  are  said  to  have  beeu 
spent  on  the  simmiit  of  a  high  hill,  that  he  might 
have  the  starry  heavens  ever  before  his  eyes.  There 
ia  little  reason  for  believing  that  E.  deserves  any 
p*eat  .admiration  for  his  attainments  in  astronomy. 
He  probably  introduced  the  sjthere  into  Greece,  aud 
m.ay  have  corrected  the  length  of  the  year,  upon 
Egj-jjtian  information,  but  he  appeal's  to  have  been 
but  an  indifferent  observer  of  heavenly  phenomena, 
and  Delambre  considers  that  he  was  ignorant  of 
geometiy.  E.'s  works  are  entii'cly  lost,  and  om- 
only  reliable  sources  of  information  regarding  him 
are  the  poem  of  Ai-atus  and  the  commentaiy  of 
Hippaiehus. 

EUGENE,  Francois  (le  Prince  Francois-Eugene 
de  Savoie-Carignan),  better  known  as  Prince  Eugene, 
equally  distinguished  as  a  general  and  as  a  states- 
man, was  born  at  Paris,  ISth  October  16G.3.  He 
was  the  son  of  Eugene  Maurice,  Count  of  Soissons, 
and  of  01ymi)ia  ilaneini,  a  niece  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin.  He  was  intended  for  the  chm-ch ;  but 
the  banishment  of  his  mother  to  the  Low  Coun- 
ti'ies,  by  the  orders  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  so  deeply 
resented  by  him,  that  he  indignantly  renounced  his 
country,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold  as  a  volunteer  against  the  Turks.  Subse- 
nueiitly,  the  French  government  made  him  the  most 
flattering  ofl'ers,  but  he  never  returned  to  the  service 
of  his  native  coimtry.  He  displayed  extraordinary 
military  talent  in  the  Turkish  war,  esjiecially  at  the 
famous  siege  of  Vienna  in  IG83,  and  soon  rose  to  a 
high  ])Osition  in  the  army.  In  the  Coalition  War 
against  Louis  \TV.  in  Italy,  he  took  an  active  part  ; 
aud  in  1691,  he  was  raised  to  the  command  of  the 
imperial  anny  in  Piedmont.  On  his  return  to 
Vienna,  he  was  jilaced  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
Hungary,  aud  defeated  the  Tmks,  with  immense 
slaugiitor,  in  the  famous  battle  of  Zenta,  September 
11,  1097.  The  booty  obtained  was  almost  incredible, 
amoimting  to  sevcr.al  millions  sterling.  In  1701 
broke  out  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession.  E.  for 
two  years  commanded  the  army  of  Italy,  but  his 
forces  were  too  small  for  him  to  accomphsh  anj'thing 
of  importance.  In  the  ye.ir  170.3,  being  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  war,  he  became  thence- 
forth the  prime  mover  of  every  undertaking.  He 
flrst  took  the  command  of  the  imperial  army  in 
(iermany,  and  along  with  Marlborough  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  at  the  battle  of  Bleidieim,  13th 
August  1704,  when  the  two  commandei-s  defeated 
the  French  and  P>avarian  army.  E.  afterwards  saved 
Turin,  and  expelled  the  French  from  Italy  in  the 


year  1706.  He  shared,  too,  with  Marlborough  the 
glorj-  of  the  flelds  of  Ouden.arde  (in  170S)  and  Mal- 
plaquet  (in  1709) ;  but  being  crippled  in  his  resources 
by  the  retirement  of  Holland  and  England  from  the 
contest,  he  was  unable  to  withstand  the  enemy  ou 
the  Pihine,  and  his  defeat  by  Villars  at  Donain, 
24th  July  1712,  was  followed  by  other  disasters, 
imtil  the  peace  of  Pastadt  put  an  end  to  the  war. 
In  1716,  on  the  recommencement  of  the  war  against 
the  Turks,  E.  defeated  an  army  of  180,000  men  at 
Petorvvardein,  took  Temcswar,  and  in  the  year  1717, 
after  a  bloody  battle,  gained  possession  of  Belgi-ade. 
After  the  peace  of  Passarowicz,  which  was  con- 
cluded in  the  follo\ving  year,  he  returned  covered 
with  glory  to  Vienna,  where,  during  the  succeeding 
years  of  peace,  he  laboured  with  imwearied  energy 
in  the  cabinet.  When  the  question  of  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  of  Poland  brought  on  a  new  war 
with  France,  E.  appeared  again  on  the  Ilhine ; ' 
but  being  now  advanced  in  years,  and  destitute  of 
sufficient  resources,  he  was  unable  to  accomplish 
anj'thing  of  importance.  After  the  peace,  ho 
returned  to  Vienna,  where  he  died,  21st  April  1736. 
E.  was  small  in  stature,  with  thin  face,  and  long  nose ; 
he  was  simple  in  dress  and  manner,  and  indulged 
profusely  in  snuff.  An  enthusiast  in  his  profession, 
and  a  strict  disciplinarian,  he  was  also  kind-hearted 
and  sympathetic,  and  always  carefully  attended  to 
the  wants  of  his  men.  He  introduced  no  new 
tactics  in  the  art  of  war,  and  was  deficient  in  the 
guidance  aud  command  of  masses ;  but  by  his  r.apidity 
of  perception  and  decision,  and  faculty  for  making 
the  best  of  existing  circumstances,  which  was  his 
forte,  he  raised  the  prestige  of  the  Austrian  anns  to 
an  eminence  unequalled  before  or  since  his  time. 
He  successively  served  imder  three  emperors,  of 
whom  he  was  wont  to  say,  that  in  Leopold  I.  he 
had  a  father,  in  Joseph  I.  a  brother,  and  in  Charles 
VI.  a  master.  E.'s  political  ^vritings,  pubUshed  by 
Sartori,  are  important  for  the  light  they  throw  upon 
the  history  and  manners  of  the  time.  Compare 
Dumont,  Hktoire  Militaire  du  Prince  Eugene  ;  Fer- 
rari, De  Rebus  Gestis  Eurjenii  (Rome,  1747) ;  Kausler, 
Lehen  drs  Priiizeii  JCugen  von  Savoyeti,  &c. ;  and 
Campbell's  MUitarij  History  of  Prince  Eugene  and 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

EUGE'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Mtjrlaceai,  nearly  allied  to  MyHus  (see  MiTiTLE), 
and  differing  only  in  ha\dng  a  4-parted  instead  of 
a  5-cleft  calyx,  four  instead  of  five  petals,  and  a 
1 — 2-celled  berry,  \Wth  one  seed  in  each  cell.  The 
species  are  trees  and  shrubs,  n.atives  chiefly  of 
tropical  .and  sub-tropical  countries.  The  dried 
fruit  of  E.  Pimento  and  E.  acris  forms  the  sjjice 
well  known  as  allspice,  Jamaica  jjepper,  or  PnrEXio 
(q.  v.).  The  seeds  of  E.  Tabasco  ai'e  .also  used  as  a 
condiment.  Other  species  yield  some  of  the  finest 
fruits  of  tropical  regions,  remarkaUe  for  their  deli- 
cious bals.amic  odours.  Among  these  is  the  Mauiy 
Ari'LE  {E.  Malaccensis),  a  native  of  the  Malayan 
ai'chipelago  and  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  a  low 
tree,  with  ov.ate-oblong  smooth  leatherj'  leaves,  and 
fruit  in  size  aud  shape  resembling  a  small  apple,  of  a 
beautifid  red  coloiur,  and  with  a  white  juicy  pidp. 
Tliis  fniit  has  an  agreeable  odour,  hke  that  of  the 
rose,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  Rose  Apple  ;  a 
name  which,  on  the  same  account,  is  often  extended 
to  the  fruits  of  allied  species,  .as  E.  aquea,  and  which 
is  very  often  given  to  the  jAjntos  or  J.iiieosade 
(E.  Jambos  or  Jambosa  vulgaris),  an  E.ast  Indian 
fruit,  now  cijtivated  in  all  tropical  coimtries.  This 
fruit  is  pear-shaped,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  e"g, 
white  or  rei  The  tree  is  about  20  or  30  feet  hi"h, 
nuich  branched,  with  leaves  somewhat  like  those  of 
tlie  peach,  and  greenish-yellow  flowers  in  terminal 
bunches.   E.  cautijlora,  a  Brazilian  species,  cultivated 

169 


EIGENIE- MARIE  DE  GUZMAX-ErLElU 


in  most  of  thu  gni-dens  of  the  dinniond  and  gold 
dUtricta  of  the  south  of  Brazil,  yields  a  very  line 
fniit  of  a  black  colour,  about  the  size  of  a  grei  iis.ti;e 
plain,  called  the  Jaiuticada  or  Jaboticabikos. 
Similar  fruits  .ire  |iro<lm;ed  by  other  Br.iziliau 
species,  particularly  A',  dystnliriat,  E.  inomrpu,  anil 
£.  BniziliemU.  The  Bast.ujd  Guava  (A',  pseiulo- 
/'sidiiim)  and  the  Oavexxe  Chei'.ry  (it',  culuiiijolia 


Cayenne  Chen-y  (Eugenia  Mkhelii). 

and  E.  ilidielli)  produce  fruits  which  are  held  in 
cousideraV>le  esteem  in  the  West  Indies.  One 
species  only,  the  Ugxi  [E.  U<pu),  a  native  of  Chili, 
ap])ears  to  be  sufficiently  hardy  for  the  climate  of 
Britain  ;  it  endures  at  leatit  that  of  tlie  south  of 
England  :  it  h;vs  been  recently  introduced,  and  much 
extolled  as  a  fruit  shrub.  Its  flowers  are  very  fra- 
Srant,  and  its  fruit  pleasant.  It  is  much  cultivated 
in  Chili,  .and  a  very  refreshinc  bever,a<;p,  with  au 
asrrceable  bals.imic  odour,  is  made  of  the  expressed 
juice  mixed  with  water.  The  fniit  is  of  the  size 
of  a  black  cun-ant,  somewhat  flattened,  and  of  a 
brownish-red  colour. — The  bark  of  many  species 
of  E.  is  very  rich  in  tannin.  Some  produce  good 
timber. 

EUGEXIE-MAEIE  BE  GUZlIAIf,  empress 
of  the  French,  w.as  boru  at  Granada,  iu  Spain, 
."ith  May  1S26,  and  is  the  second  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Montijo  and  of  M.arie  Manucla  Kirk- 
]),atrick.  She  is  descended,  on  the  f.athcr's  side, 
from  an  old  and  noble  Spanish  family,  which,  by 
mairiages  at  various  times,  accpiired  the  right  to 
.assmne  the  n.ames  of  Guzman,  Fernandez,  Cordova, 
La  Cerda,  and  Levi.a,  and  contnacted  alliances  with 
the  noble  families  of  Teba,  Banos,  and  Mor.a.  By 
her  mother— also  bom  iu  Spain,  and  the  daughter 
of  Mr  Kirkpatrick,  who  was  for  some  time  English 
consid  at  the  Spanish  seaport  of  Malaga — she  is 
connected  with  an  ancient  Scottish  family — the 
Kirkpatricks  of  Closebnm — which  still  exists,  but  no 
longer  in  possession  of  their  original  property.  She 
w,-is  educated  princip.ally  at  Madrid,  and  si>ent  a 
great  portion  of  her  youth  in  travelling  with  her 
mother,  under  the  name  of  the  Countess  de  Teba. 
In  1851,  she  appeared  at  the  fCes  (VEhjsCe  in 
P.aris,  where  her  be.auty  and  "r.aceful  demeanour 
attracted  the  notice  and  excited  the  admiration  of 
the  emjierur  of  the  French,  who  m.arried  her  on 
the  3()th  .January  185,3,  at  Notre  Dame.  On  that 
occasion  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  4.'fl2  political 
prisoners.  The  Prince  Imi)erial,  the  heir  to  the 
French  throne,  was  boni  IGth  March  1856.  In  the 
.absence  of  the  emperor  during  the  Italian  war  of 
1850,  she  exercised  the  office  of  regent  with  the 
assistance  of  a  coimcil. 

ELGE'XIt'S  is  the  name  of  four  popes,  of  whom 
the   last  is    the   most    important.     Eugenius    IV., 


originally  called  Gabrielc  Condulmcro,  w.as  a  native 
of  Venice,  and  waa  elevated  to  the  ])ontificate  in 
il.arch  1431.     The  great  event  in  his  career  w-as  the 

j  schism  created  in  the  church  by  the  proceedings  of 
the  Council  of  Basel,  which  hail  been  convokeil  by 
i;.'3  predecessor,   Martin  V.,  and  h.ad   exhibited  a. 

I  strong  tendency  to  ecclesiastical  reform,  and  to  limit 
the  iKip.al  authority.  E.  w.as  kept  in  ])erpetual 
trouble  by  this  council,  and  at  last,  h.aving  been 
compelled  to  llee  from  Rome,  opened  a  new  council 
at  I'errara  in  1438,  and  issued  a  bull  of  excom- 
munication ag,ainst  the  bishops  assembled  at  Bitscl, 
whom  he  pronounced  to  be  '  a  sat-anic  conclave, 
which  was  spre;uling  the  abomination  of  desolation 
into  the  bosom  of  the  chinch.'  The  result  was, 
th.at  the  council  of  Basel  formally  deposed  him  from 
his  pontifical  ofliec  in  14.'!'J,  and  elected  in  his  stead 
Am,adcus  VIII.,  Duke  of  .Savoy,  under  the  title  of 
Felix  V.  The  conduct  of  France  and  Germany 
seemed  to  warrant  this  bold  stej),  for  Charles 
VII.  had  introduced  into  the  former  country  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  with  some  modi- 
fications, through  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (1438), 
and  the  same  thing  hai>|)cned  in  (Jermany  by 
means  of  the  Deed  of  Accept,ince  (1430).  At  the 
Council  of  Fen-ara,  John  Paleologus  II.,  emperor 
of  Constantinoi>lc,  and  upwards  of  twenty  Greek 
bishops,  presented  themselves,  and  a  union  between 
the  two  gre.at  divisions  of  Christendom — the  Greek 
and  Latin  Church — was  for  a  moment  effected  in 
.Tidy  1439.  Discorti,  however,  hi-oke  out  almost 
immediately,  and  the  two  have  ever  since  remained 
sep.ar,ate.  E.'s  rival,  Felix,  did  not  obtain  much 
recognition,  and  after  the  de.ath  of  the  former  at 
Bome,  iu  1447,  he  had  to  give  way  iu  favour 
of  Nicholas  V.  E.'s  pontificate  was  stormy  and 
unhappy,  and  in  his  old  age  he  is  said  to  have' 
regretted  that  he  ever  left  his  monastery. 

EU'GUBINE  TABLES  (Lat.  Tabulae  Eio/u- 
bincr),  the  name  given  to  seven  bronze  tablets,  the 
inscriptions  on  which  present  a  comprehensive  and 
very  remarkable  memorial  of  the  Umbrian  language. 
They  were  discovered  in  1444  at  Gubbio  (the  ancient 
Iguvium  or  Eugubium),  where  they  .are  still  pre- 
served. The  ch.ar.acters  on  four  of  the  tablets  are 
Umbrian,  on  two  Latin,  and  on  one  i>artly  Latin 
and  partly  Umbrian.  The  lan'jmige  employed,  how- 
ever, is  in  all  cases  the  Siame,  and  diti'ers  both  from 
Etniscan  and  Latin,  but  resembles  somcwh.at  the 
older  forms  of  the  Latter,  and  also  the  Oscan  dialects, 
so  far  as  we  know  them.  The  subjects  of  the 
inscriptions  are  directions  concerning  sacrificial 
usages  and  forms  of  pr.ayer,  and  they  seem  to  have 
been  inscribed  three  or  four  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  Philip  Bonarota  first  ]iublished  them 
in  a  complete  form  in  Dempstei^s  Etruria  lieijali-i 
(•2  vols.,  Florence,  1723—1724).  The  first  really 
judicious  attempt  at  interprct,ation  was  that  of 
Lanzi,  in  his  Sa(i<iio  di  Linijiia  Einisca  (3  vols., 
Home,  1780),  who  ])oints  out  the  important  fact  that 
they  related  to  sacritiei.al  usaire-s  &c.  His  views 
have  been  earned  out  by  Ottfried  Miillcr  in  his 
■work  Die  Elrueker ;  Lepsius, />e  TabiUis  EurrublnU, 
&c.  The  most  .accurate  copy  of  the  inscrij>tions  is 
that  given  by  Lcpsius  in  his  1  nscripliones  Umbricfe 
cl  Okcb  (Leip.  1841);  the  best  and  most  complete 
work  on  the  language  and  contents  of  the  fcaulets 
is  that  of  Aufrecht  and  Kirchhoft'.  entitled  Die 
Umln-iselieii  S}jracli.  Denhimlcr  (2  vols.,  Berhn,  1849 
—1851). 

EU'LER,  Leonard,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
mathematicians,  was  born  at  B.asel,  AprU  15,  1707, 
and  received  liis  lirst  instructions  iu  the  science, 
for  which  he  afterwards  did  so  much,  from  hia 
Lather,  who  w.as  piistor  of  the  neighbouring  village 


EUMENroES— EUNUCH. 


of  Riechen.  At  tbe  university  of  Basel,  he  studied 
under  John  Bcrnouilli,  and  was  the  friend  of  Daniel 
and  Nicholas  BiTiiouilli.  At  the  age  of  10,  he 
was  second  in  the  contest  for  a  prize  offered  by 
the  Academy  of  Paris  for  the  best  treatise  on  the 
masting  of  shijis.  His  friends,  the  Eernouillis,  had 
been  called  to  St  Petersburg  by  (_'athariiie  I.,  wlien 
she  founded  the  Academy,  and  they  now  induced 
E.  to  settle  in  that  cajiital,  in  1730,  as  Professor 
of  Physics.  Three  years  later,  he  exchanged  his 
Iirofcssorshii)  for  a  place  in  the  Acadeiny.  From 
that  time,  he  continued  to  labour  in  the  field  of 
mathematics  with  an  ardour  really  astonishing. 
More  than  half  the  mathematical  treatises  in  the 
40  quarto  volumes  published  by  the  St  Petersburg 
Academy  from  17-7  to  17S3  are  by  E.,  and  at  his 
de.ath  he  left  more  than  200  treatises  in  MS.,  which 
were  afterwards  published  by  the  Academy.  The 
Paris  Academy  of  Science  awarded  him  the  jirize  on 
ten  several  occasions,  one  of  which  was  his  treatise 
on  Tides,  17'10.  In  1741,  he  accepted  the  invitation 
of  Frederick  the  Great  to  Berlin.  He  afterwards, 
1706,  returned  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  was 
made  dii'ector  of  the  mathematical  department  of 
the  Academy,  and  died  September  7,  178.3.  The 
last  years  of  his  life  were  sjient  in  total  blindness. 

E.  was  of  an  amiable  and  religious  character, 
always  cheerful  and  good  humoured ;  in  society, 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  agreeable  wit.  It 
was  doubtless  his  residence  in  St  Petersburg  that 
led  him  to  the  application  of  mathematics  to  the 
budding  and  management  of  ships,  as  embodied 
in  his  Tlimrle  de  la  Construction  ct  de  la  Manmuire 
dcs  ]'aisseaiix  (Petersb.  177.3).  The  great  problems 
left  by  Ne\\'ton  to  his  successors  were  the  objects 
of  his  unceasin"  research.  On  physical  subjects, 
E.  often  adopted  extremely  untenatile  hypotheses. 
He  occu])ied  himself  also  with  jihilosophy  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word.  He  undertook  to 
prove  the  immateriality  of  the  soxd,  and  to  defend 
revelation  against  freethinkers.  In  his  Lettres  d 
line  PrinccS'se  d Alhniafjne  sur  quclques  i^ujds  de 
Pfi)/sifpie  et  de  Philosuphle  (3  vols.,  Berl.  17GS ; 
new  ed..  Par.  1812 ;  and  which  have  also  been 
translated  into  English),  he  attacked  Leibnitz's 
system  of  monads  and  of  a  pre-established  har- 
mony. But  this  was  not  the  field  in  which  he  was 
liest  calculated  to  shine ;  his  proper  domain  was 
tlie  abstruser  parts  of  pure  mathematics.  His 
most  important  works  of  this  class  are  his  Tlimry 
of  Planetary  Motion,  Introduction  to  tlie  Analysis  of 
Iiijinites,  Institutions  of  the  Differential  and  of  the 
Integral  Calculus,  and  Dioptrics,  which  are  all,  as 
well  as  his  Opuscuta  Ancdytlca,  in  Latin.  His 
Introduction  to  Algebra  is  well  known. 

EUME'NIDES  (literally,  the  wcU-minded  or 
benign  goddesses)  was  the  euphemistic  name  of 
certain  fearful  beings,  whose  true  name  of  Erinnyes 
(from  erino,  I  hunt  up,  or  erinuo,  I  am  angrj')  it  ^^•as 
considered  unla\rfiU  to  utter.  Their  Latin  name 
was  Furim  or  Dine.  We  lind  them  mentioned  by 
the  earliest  poets,  and  they  pl.ay  a  jirominent  part 
in  the  writings  of  the  trageilians,  where  their  sphere 
of  action  is  ranch  extended.  In  the  earUest  times. 
Homer  and  Hesiod  rejiresent  them  as  avenging  and 
punishing  perjirry  and  murder,  as  also  the  violation 
of  filial  duty  and  of  the  rite  of  hospitality ;  they 
were  also  regarded  as  goddesses  of  Fate  (like  the 
Parca;),  and  had  a  share  in  the  gi-im  Providence 
which  led  the  doomed  ones  into  the  "vway  of  calamity. 
A  part  of  their  function  was  also  to  hinder  man 
from  acquiring  too  much  knowledge  of  the  future. 
In  these  poets,  their  number  is  sometimes  imdefined ; 
sometimes  they  ai)pear  as  one.  The  limitation  to 
the  number  three,  as  well  as  their  names  Alecto, 
Megtera,  and  Tisiphone,  is  of  a  later  jieriod,  a  whole 
1G7 


chorus  of  Erinnyes  appearing  in  the  writings  of 
^schylus.  According  to  Homer,  they  dwelt  in 
Erebus,  and  with  this  the  duration  after  death  of 
the  punishments  which  they  inflict  is  connected. 
Hesiod  calls  them  the  daughters  of  Ge  and  Uranus. 
/Eschylus  describes  them  as  having  the  features 
of  gorgons  and  harpies,  their  bodies  covered  with 
black,  serpents  twined  in  their  hair,  and  blood 
dripping  from  their  eyes.  The  later  poets  and 
sculptors  represented  them  in  the  more  pleasing 
form  of  winged  virgins,  attired  in  the  garb  of 
huntresses,  bearing  torches  in  their  hancls,  and 
with  a  wreath  of  serpents  round  their  heads. 
Gradually,  they  came  to  be  considered  goddesses 
of  the  infernal  regions,  who  pimished  crimes  after 
death,  but  seldom  appeared  on  earth.  In  Athens, 
their  worship,  which,  like  that  of  the  other  infernal 
deities,  was  conducted  in  silence,  was  held  in  great 
honour.  The  sacriKces  offered  to  them  were  black 
sheep  and  libations  of  nephalia — i.  e.,  honey  mixed 
■nith  water.  The  turtle-dove  and  the  narcissus 
were  sacred  to  them.  They  had  a  sanctuary  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Areopagus,  and  one  at  Colonus. 

EUMO'LPUS  (the  'sweet  singer')  was,  in  the 
later  mythology  of  Greece,  the  son  of  Poseidon  and 
Chione.  He  was  brought  up  in  Ethiopia,  whence 
he  went  to  Thrace,  and  afterwards  passed  into 
Attica,  at  the  head  of  a  Ijody  of  Thracians,  to 
assist  the  Eleusinians  in  their  war  against  Erech- 
theus,  king  of  Athens.  E.  and  his  sons  are  said 
to  have  been  slain  in  battle.  He  is  spoken  of  as 
the  founder  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  A  dis- 
tinction is  made  by  some  of  the  ancient  writers 
between  this  E.  ancl  a  son  of  Musoeus  bearing  the 
same  name.  The  latter  is  represented  as  a  scholar 
of  Orpheus,  and  the  instructor  of  Hercules ;  but 
E.'s  history,  V\ke  aU  mythological  stories,  is  involved 
in  great  obscurity  and  confusion.  The  name  of  E. 
is  one  of  the  series  of  those  old  priestly  singers  who, 
by  the  institution  of  religious  ceremonies,  spread 
culture  and  morality  among  the  rude  inhabitants 
of  HeUas.  An  Uliistrious  Athenian  family,  the 
E}Lmolpida2,  derived  their  descent  from  E.,  and  held 
the  office  of  priests  of  Demeter  in  Eleusis. 

EUNO'MIUS,  the  founder  of  the  Arian  sect  of 
Eunomians,  was  born  in  the  village  of  Dacora,  in 
Cappadocia,  and  was  first  a  lawyer,  then  a  soldier, 
and  ultimately  took  holy  orders.  In  360,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Cyzicum.  In  the  great  con- 
troversy regarding  the  nature  of  the  Trinity  which 
raged  during  the  4th  c,  E.  was  conspicuous  by  his 
advocacy  of  the  view  that  the  Father  alone  was 
eternal  and  supreme  ;  that  the  Son  was  generated 
of  Him ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  again,  of  the  Son.  His 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  sometimes  called  the 
Anomoian  ('dissimilar'),  to  distinguish  it,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  the  Homoiousian  (' similar'),  held 
by  the  semi-.\rians,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the 
Honwousian  ('  identical '),  held  by  the  Athauasian 
or  Trinitarian  party.  It  was  thus  the  extreme  of 
Arianism.  In  defence  of  his  peculiar  views,  E.  is 
said  to  have  shewn  superior  abUity,  although  his 
opponents  also  accuse  him  of  being  verbose  and 
inflated  in  his  stj'le.  His  life  was  much  chequered. 
He  was  banished  from  one  place  to  another,  until 
at  length  he  obtained  permission  to  retire  to  his 
native  \-iUage,  where  he  died  in  394.  His  writings 
have  entirely  perished,  with  the  exception  of  a 
fragment  here  and  there  preserved  in  the  writings 
of  his  adversaries. 

EU'NUCH.  The  original  signification  of  this 
word  (Gr.  eunuchos,  one  who  has  charge  of  a  bed) 
points  to  the  office  that  this  class  of  persons  fid- 
fiUed,  and  still  fulfil  in  the  East — that,  namely,  of 
takmg  charge  of  the  women's  apartments  or  harems. 


EUOMPHALUS— EUPEN. 


The  barbarous  practice  of  employing  castrated  males 
as  yiianlians  of  tlie  other  sex,  is  au  accompaniment 
of  polygamy,  and  is  therefore  chiefly  met  with  in 
the  East  and  in  North  Africa.  If  it  haa  appeared 
in  coimtries  where  monogamy  was  the  law,  it  was 
ill  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  Oriental  luxury, 
as  was  the  case  vmder  the  Koniau  emperors.  The 
practice  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  seems  to  have 
originated  in  Libya,  and  from  that  to  have  spread 
to  Egypt  and  the  East.  Syria  and  Asia  Minor 
were  the  most  notorious  in  this  respect.  In  Greece, 
it  never  obtained  any  great  footing ;  for  although 
Greek  women  were  kept  in  seclusion,  polygamy 
itself  never  prevailed.  The  later  Komans  kept 
eunuchs,  but  they  wore  mostly  im])0i-ted.  In  the 
Byzantine  emjiire,  on  the  contrary,  cistration  and 
keeping  of  eunuchs  were  very  prevalent.  This  class 
played  a  jirominent  part  in  the  court  of  the  Eastern 
Emjiire,  and  the  word  eunuch  came  to  be  the  title 
of  an  oflice  similar  to  that  of  chamberlain.  In 
modem  times,  the  practice  is  mostly  coutined  to 
Mohammedan  countries,  and  the  eimuchs  are  chiefly 
brought  as  slaves  from  the  interior  of  Africa. 

EUO'MPHALUS,  a'large  genus  of  fossil  gastero- 
podous  shells,  characterised  by  its  depressed  and 
discoidal  shell,  with  angled  or  coronated  whorls, 
five-sided  mouth,  and  very  large  umbilicus.  The 
operculiun  was  shelly,  round,  and  umlti-sjiiral.  The 
genus  seems  related  to  Trochus.     It  ajjpears  among 


Euomphalus  Discors. 


the  earliest  tenants  of  the  globe,  and  keeps  its  place 
till  the  Triassic  period.  No  less  than  eighty  species 
have  been  described.  Our  figure  represents  one 
from  the  Wenlock  limestone. 

EUONYMUS.     See  Spindle  Tree. 

EUPATO'RIA  (formerly  Koslov),  a  thriving 
maintime  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Taurida,  is  situated  on  a  bay  in  the  west  coast  of 
the  Crimea,  15  miles  north-west  of  Old  Fort,  and 
3S  miles  north-west  of  Simferopol.  The  town 
stanils  on  the  border  of  a  monotonous  pastoral 
steppe,  and  is  surrounded  by  low  hills.  Seen  from 
the  sea,  it  presents,  Tiith  its  occasional  minarets 
and  its  houses  roofed  with  red  tiles,  a  somewhat 
picturesque  appearance.  The  princip.il  building  is 
the  Tartar  mosque,  built  by  Devlet-Ghiri  Khan  in 
1552,  and  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  Crimea.  E. 
exports  corn,  wool,  and  salt.  Its  harbour  is  shallow, 
and  is  sheltered  only  from  the  north  and  north- 
cast  winds.  Pop.  13,340,  mostly  Crim-Tartars  ami 
Jews,  who  are  engaged  chiefly  as  farmers  and  shcj)- 
herds,  and  possess  an  immense  nmuber  of  oxen  and 
sheep,  and  a  large  area  of  badly  cultivated  land. 

On  the  14th  September  1S54,  a  portion  of  the 
An^lo-French  invailing  army  landed  here,  and  occu- 
pied and  fortified  the  town.  It  was  also  the  scene 
of  a  battle  between  the  Kussians  and  Turks,  17th 
February  1855,  in  wliich  the  latter  were  victorious. 

EUPATO'RIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natiiral  order  Comjiosikv,  sub-order  Conj7nli/cr<r, 
having  small  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  in  corymbs, 
florets  all  tubular  and  hermaphrodite,  club-sliaiied 
stigmas,  imbricated  bracts,  a  naked  receptacle,  and 


a  hairy  pappus.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  American.  One  only  is  British,  the  common 
UemI'Aokimonv(£.  c«n7iaWnu»i),  a  slightly  aromatic 
perennial  jilaut,  growing  mostly  in  marshy  jilaces, 
and  on  the  banks  of  streams.  The  root  was  for- 
merly employed  as  a  purgative,  and  the  plant  was 


Hemp  Agrimony  {Eupatorium  cannabinuni). 
0,  a  fiortt. 


also  nsed  as  a  diuretic  and  as  a  vulnerary. — 
TuORoucn-wORT  {E.  per/oliatum),  a  species  ha\-ing 
the  opposite  leaves  joined  at  the  base,  is  very 
common  in  low  grounds  in  North  America,  and  is 
a  pojiular  medicine,  much  esteemed  and  used  in 
that  country.  It  is  often  atbninistered  in  inter- 
mittent fevers.  It  acts  powerfully  as  a  sudorific, 
and  is  often  very  beneficial  in  catarrh  and  influenza. 
It  is  also  emetic  and  purgative,  and,  in  small  doses, 
tonic.  The  whole  plant  is  very  bitter. — Other 
North  American  species  possess  similar  properties, 
and  the  root  of  one,  known  as  Gravel-uoot  (A'. 
]mrp>ireum),  is  employed  as  a  cUuretic  for  relief  of 
the  disease  from  which  it  derives  its  name. — The 
AVArAX.v  (A'.  Aynpana),  a  half-shrubby  species, 
native  of  the  north  of  Brazil,  has  a  high  reputation 
in  that  country  as  a  cure  for  snake-bites,  and  has 
been  introtluced  into  the  East  Indies.  It  is  a  very 
powerfiU  su<lorific,  and  is  also  diuretic. — The  famous 
Peruvian  vulnerary,  Matico,  has  been  referred,  but 
uncertainly,  to  a  shruliby  species  of  this  genus,  A'. 
(jluiinosum. — GuACO  or  Hdaco,  much  valued  in  Peru 
as  a  cure  for  snake-bites,  is  sujiposed  to  belong  to 
the  allied  genus  Mikania. 

EU'PEN,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  is  situated  in  a  beaiitiful  valley 
on  the  Weeze,  witliin  2  miles  of  the  Belgian 
frontier,  and  9  miles  south-south-west  of  Aix-l.a- 
ChaiieUe.  It  is  well  liuilt  and  open,  including 
within  its  limits  several  gardens  and  meadows.  E. 
has  the  most  flourishing  woollen  manufactures  of 
any  town  in  Prussia — containing  no  less  than  14 
woollen  mills,  working  nearly  1111)1)  looms,  and 
giving  emplovmcut  to  between  301)0  and  41)1)0 
jiersons.      E.  has  also  dye-works,  maehiue-malung, 


EUPHEMISM— EUPHIIASIA. 


and  other  raamifactui-es.  It  otves  the  prosperity 
of  its  manufactures  chiefly  to  a  number  of  French 
refugees,  who  settled  here  after  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville.     Pop.  12,781). 

EU'PHEMISM  (Gr.  eu,  well,  and  phemi,  I 
speak)  is  a  ligure  of  rhetoric  by  which  an  unpleasant 
or  ofl'ensive  matter  is  designated  in  indirect  and 
milder  terms.  Thus,  instead  of  directly  calling  up  an 
luipleasaut  image  by  the  word  died,  we  say,  'he  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers.'  The  ancients  used  a  midti- 
tudo  of  eujihemisms,  to  avoid  words  that  were 
thouglit  to  be  ominous  of  evil,  or  offensive  to  the 
unseen  powers.  They  sjioke,  for  example,  of  the 
Eumeuide.i,  or  'benign  goddesses,'  instead  of  the 
Furies  ;  just  as  the  elves  and  fairies  of  modern 
suiier-stitiou  are  spoken  of  as  '  good  neighboiu-s.' 

EU'PHON,  or  EU'PHOKON,  a  musical  instru- 
ment invented  by  Chladni  in  1790.  It  is  similar  in 
tone  to  the  harmonica,  and,  like  it,  the  tone  is  pro- 
duced from  the  sounding  body  by  the  finger  direct, 
without  mechanism,  ami  is  regulated  in  quality  and 
effect  by  the  taste  and  feelings  of  the  performer, 
who  can  produce  tones  from  the  most  delicate  pian- 
issimo to  fortissimo.  In  1822,  Chladni  exhibited 
an  improved  euphon,  of  which  a  detailed  description 
is  given  by  himself  in  the  Leipsio  Musik-zeiiun(j  of 
that  year,  page  805. 

EUPHO'RBIA,  Oil  of,  or   OIL  OF  CAPER 

SPUKGE,  an  extremely  acrid  fixed  oil,  obtained  by 
expression,  or  by  the  aid  of  alcohol  or  ether,  from 
ths  seeda  of  the  Cai)er  Spurge  {Euphorbia  Lathyris], 


Caper  Spurge  {EuplMfbia  Lalltyris). 

a  plant  common  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
n.aturaliscd  in  some  [ilaces  m  Uritain.  See  Si'UIiGE. 
Oil  of  euphorbia  has  much  resemblance  to  croton  oil 
in  its  properties,  although  less  powerfiU,  and  is  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  it,  in  doses  of  from 
thrcH!  to  ten  drops.  It  is  good  for  use  only  when 
recently  extractecL 

EUPHORBIA'CE^,  a  very  extensive  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  uinvarils  of  2500 
known  species — trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants. 
They  abound  chiefly  in  warm  countries,  and  most  of 
all  m  tropical  America.  The  few  species  foimd  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world  are  all  hcrbaceoiui.  The 
common  Box  reaches  a  mcire  northern  Ujnit  than 
any  other  shrubby  species.  The  other  British  species 
are  different  kinds  of  Spurge  (Euplwrtiia)  and  Do"'s 
Jlercury  (Mirciti-ialis).  Tlic  E.  usually  abound  In 
an  acrid  .and  poisonous  milkv  juice  ;  although  there 
arc  species  of  which  the  juice  is  bland  or  becomes 


bland  through  the  api)lication  of  heat,  so  that  their 
leaves  may  be  used   as   food.      The   leaves  in   this 
order  ejchibit  great  diversities.     The  inflorescence  is 
also  various.     Amongst  those  most  remarkable  for 
the   acridity   of  their   juice    are   the  M/VNChi.xeel 
(q.  V.)  and  Exccecaria  wjallochu,  an  East  Indian  tree 
— foi-merly  supposed  to  yield  one  of  the  kuids  of 
aloes-wood — the  smoke  from  the  burning  of  which 
is    extremely   dangerous   to   the   eyes.      The   juice 
of  many  of  the  spurges  is  also  very  acrid.     Many 
of  the  E.  are  valued  for  their  medicinal  properties, 
different  parts  of  the  plant  being  in  some  instances 
employed,  and  in  some  the  resins  and  oils  which 
they  yield.     Thus  the  juice  of  some  of  the  spurges, 
the  roots  or  bark  of  the  roots  of  others,  the  bark  of 
different  species  of  Croton  (Cascarilla  Bark,  Coiialche 
Bark),  &c.,  are  used  in  medicine ;  and  to  plants  of 
this  order  we  are  indebted  for  euphorbium,  oil  of 
euphorbia,  castor  oil,  croton  oil,  &c.      A  few  of  the 
E.  yield  balsamic  products  of   exquisite   fragrance 
(see    Croton)  ;    a   few,    although    their    juice    is 
]ioisonous,  yield  a  wholesome  starch  in  considerable 
aljundance   (see  i\LuJloc) ;  a  few  are  cidtivated  and 
used  as  pot-herbs,  particularly  species  of  Plukenetia 
in   the  East  Indies;    a   few   yield  wholesome   and 
agreeable  sub-acid  fruits,  as  Cicca  disticha  and   C. 
racenwsa  in  the  East  Indies;   the   seeds   of    some 
are  eatable,  as  those  of   the  Candle-nut  (q.  v.),  of 
Omphalea  diandra,  a  Jamaica  tree,  and  of  Conccvelha 
Ouianensis,  the  latter  being  esteemed  particularly 
delicious  ;  the  oil  of  the  seeds  is  also  in  some  cases 
used  for  food,   like  other  bland  oils  (see  Candle- 
Nxrr) ;  but  more  frequently  it  is  used  for  burnin", 
as  castor  oil,  candle-nut   oil,  the    oil  of  Elctococca 
verrucosa  in  Japan  and  Mamitius,  and  the  concrete 
oil  of  Stilliitgia  sebi/era,  which  is  used  in  China  for 
making  candles,   and  in  methcal  preparations  as  a 
substitute  for  lard. — The  dye-stuff  called  Tuknsole 
(q.  V.)  is  obtaiued  from  a  plant  of  this  order ;  and  a 
bright  red   is   imparted    to    silk   by   the    roots   of 
JioUlera  thidoria,  a  native  of  Circassia,  and  by  a  red 
powder  with  which  its  seed-vessels  are  covered.  The 
timber  of  some  of  the  E.  is  valuable.     African  Teak 
(q.  V.)  belongs  to  this  order.     The  red-coloured  wood 
of  Slylodiscus  Iri/oliatus  is  used  in  Java  for  making 
masts.      Some   of   the   E.  are    often   cidtivated   in 
gardens   and  hothouses,  more  frequently  for  their 
curious  appearance  than  for  their  beauty ;  but  the 
large  deep  crimson  bracts  of  Poinseitia  pulclterrima, 
a  native  of  JIadagascar,  make  it  a  very  attractive 
plant. 

EUPHO'KBIUM,  an  extremely  acrid  gum 
resin,  obtained  from  several  species  of  Eupltorbia  or 
SPtJBGB  (q.  v.),  as  E.  ojHcinarum  and  E.  antiquorum, 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  Arabia,  and  the  East 
Indies,  and  E.  Catiariensis  in  the  Canary  Islands. 
It  is  obtained  by  incisions  in  the  branches,  whence 
issues  a  corrosive  milky  juice,  which  dries  in  the 
sun,  and  becomes  a  j-ellowish-gray  waxy  gum  resin. 
The  persons  who  collect  it  are  obhged  to  defend 
their  mouths  and  nostrils  by  a  cloth,  as  its  particles 
jiroduce  incessant  sneezing,  violent  inilammation  of 
the  nostrUs,  and  a  very  jiainfid  bm-ning  sensation  in 
the  mouth.  On  account  of  its  excessive  acridity, 
it  is  now  less  used  in  medicine  than  formerly ; 
although  it  is  still  occasionally  mixed  with  Bur- 
gundy i>itch  or  other  substances  to  make  rubifacient 
jilasters  for  chronic  affections  of  the  joints ;  its 
alcohoho  tincture  is  used  as  a  caustic  in  carious 
ulcers,  and  its  jiowder,  mixed  with  much  starch  or 
Hour,  as  an  errliine  in  chronic  all'ections  of  the  eyes, 
ears,  or  brain.  It  was  formerly  administered  as  an 
emetic  and  drastic  purgative,  but  is  dangerously 
violent  m  its  action. 

EUPHRASIA.     See  Eyebrigut. 


EUPH  RATES— EURE-ET-LOn? . 


EUPHRA'TES  (in  the  Oriental  langnages,  Fral, 
Phrat,  or  Forat)  is  the  largest  river  in  Western 
Asia,  anil,  with  the  Tigris,  forms  the  most  important 
river-system  of  that  quarter  of  the  worlil.  It  has  its 
source  in  the  heart  of  -Vrmenia  in  two  branches — 
the  Kara  Su  anil  the  Murad,  of  which  tlie  former 
rises  25  miles  north-e.ast  of  the  town  of  Krzerum, 
and  tlows  south-west  to  a  point  10  miles  north  of 
Kebau'  Ma' den,  where  it  is  n\et  by  the  Murad. 
which  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of  Alii  Ta^h,  and 
flows  west-south-west  to  the  point  of  confluence. 
From  Kelian'  Ma'den,  the  E.  Hows  in  a  general 
southern  direction,  with  a  tendency,  however,  to 
struggle  westwiird  towards  the  ilediterranean.  In 
this  part  of  its  course,  it  breaks  through  the  Taurus, 
and  tlows  .among  the  mountains  for  45  miles, 
emerging  .at  Sumeis.at,  whence  it  continues  navi- 
gable to  the  sea— a  distance  of  1105  miles— and 
jKissing  Bir,  .at  which  point  it  is  62S  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Jleditenane.-m,  and  100  miles  distant 
from  its  nearest  shore.  After  passing  .Samosta,  it 
changes  its  direction,  and  Jlomng  south,  separates 
for  a  considerable  distance  Mesopotamia  from  Syria 
and  the  deserts  of  Sj-rian  Arabia.  Om-\-ing  to  the 
south-east,  it  flows  on  without  receiving  .almost  any 
tributaries  for  .about  700  miles,  until  it  is  joined 
at  Kurnah  or  Koruah  by  the  w.ater3  of  the  Tigris. 
From  Kurnah,  the  river,  taking  the  name  of  the 
.Sh.att-el-Arab,  continues  to  flow  in  a  south-east  direc- 
tion, until,  after  being  united  by  a  can.al  with  the 
Karun  from  the  mountains  of  Persia,  it  empties 
itself,  by  several  arms,  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  90 
miles  below  Kurnah.  The  tot.al  length  of  the  E.  is 
1600  miles  ;  the  area  drained  by  .all  the  w.atera 
whicli  enter  the  Persian  Gulf  by  the  Shatt-el-Arab, 
is  108,000  miles ;  and  the  volume  of  water  discharged 
by  it  is  401,010  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  72,910 
cubic  feet  more  than  tli.at  discharged  by  the  Danube 
in  the  same  time.  The  aver.age  width  of  the  Shatt- 
el-Arab  is  upwards  of  COO  feet ;  it  is  navig.able  in 
mid-stre.am  for  vessels  of  500  tons. 

The  water  of  the  E.,  although  muddy,  is  not 
unwholesome.  Its  inundations,  caused  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows,  take  place  chiefly  from  the  begin- 
ning of  March  till  the  end  of  M.ay  ;  and  in  ancient 
times,  wlien  can.ols  and  embankments  regulated 
these  inund.ations,  exercised  the  same  benefici.al 
cfTect  on  the  country  as  those  of  the  Nile  on  Egj'j)t. 
See  B^iBYLONLi. 

EUPHROSYNE  (i.  e.,  the  joyous  one),  one  of 
the  Graces  (<\.  v.). 

EU'PHUISM  (Gr.  euplnies,  of  vigorous  gi-owth ; 
eloquent),  a  term  used  in  English  liter.ature  to 
denote  an  afTected  and  bomb.astic  style  of  language, 
fashionable  for  a  short  jn-riod  at  the  court  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  word  w;is  formed  from  the  title  of 
the  book  which  brought  the  style  into  vogue,  the 
Kuphucs  of  John  Lyly  (q.  v.). 

EU'PIONE  (Gr.  ph,  good,  and  pion,  oil)  is  an 
extremely  mobile  oil,  obtained  from  the  lighter 
portions  of  the  liquid  jiroducts  of  the  destructive 
ilistUlation  of  wood  (wood-tar),  coal  (coal-tar),  and 
animal  matter,  and  in  the  fUstillation  of  rape-seed 
oil.  It  may  be  obtained  in  a  sufficient  st.ate  of 
purity  by  acting  upon  the  crude  tars  and  oils  by 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  sidjihuric 
acid  and  nitre,  which  removes  the  m.ajority  of  the 
other  ingredients  ;  and  on  the  distillation  of  the 
portion  which  resisted  the  action  of  the  acid,  the 
lirst  part  which  passes  over  is  the  eupione.  When 
pure,  it  has  the  composition  C^H,,  and  is  therefore 
a  hydro-carbon.  It  is  the  lightest  liquid  known, 
having  the  density  of  Goo  (water  =  1000),  and  is 
thin,  colourless,  and  tasteless,  whilst  it  posses.sc3  a 
pleasant  aromatic  odour.     It  boils  at  110°  F.,  and 


I  distils  readily  ;  whilst,  when  set  fire  to,  it  is  very 
inflammable,  bm-ning  with  a  white  flame  of  con- 
'  siderable  luminosity  and  penetrating  power.  It 
makes  a  gre.asy  stain  on  paper,  is  insoluble  in 
water,  very  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily 
misciblc  with  ethei-s  and  oils  in  genenal. 

EU'PODA,  a  f.amily  of  coleopterous  insects  of  the 
tetr.amerous  section  of  the  order,  deriving  their 
name  (Gr.  well-footed)  from  the  great  size  of  the 
hinder  thighs  of  many  of  the  species.  They  feed 
on  the  stems  .and  leaves  of  j)lauts,  some  of  them 
on  .aquatic  plants,  the  roots  of  which  afford  food  to 
their  larvse.  The  body  is  oblong ;  the  antenna: 
filiform.  Some  of  the  eupoda  are  among  the  most 
splendid  of  tropical  insects.  Britain  produces  a 
number  of  small  si)ecies. 

EURE,  a  department  in  the  north-west  of  France, 
immediately  south  of  the  department  of  Seine 
luferieure,  contains  an  .area  of  2202  square  miles, 
and  404,065  inhabitants.  Its  surface  is  unusually 
level,  as  the  highest  eminences  in  the  department 
are  not  more  than  300  feet  in  height.  The  princiji.al 
river  is  the  Seine,  which  entering  the  department 
from  the  south-east,  flows  through  it  iji  a  north- 
west direction  to  Pont  de  I'Arche,  below  which  the 
course  of  this  river  is  in  the  department  of  Seine 
Infcrieure.  The  Eure,  from  which  this  dep.artment 
derives  its  name,  and  the  Kille,  both  affluents 
to  the  Seine,  .are  the  only  other  imjiortant  rivers. 
The  climate  is  mild,  moist,  .and  foggy.  tJreat  part 
of  the  level  coimtry  is  covered  with  a  Icamy  .alluvial 
soil  upon  a  str.atum  of  limestone  ;  while  the  remain- 
der is  composed  of  ch.alk,  flint,  and  tuf.a.  Along 
the  Seine,  the  soil  is  in  some  parts  sandy,  stony, 
and  barren,  but  the  greater  part  is  very  fertile. 
The  chief  natural  products  are  coi-n,  hemp,  flax, 
vegetables,  and  fruit,  particiUarly  a]>plcs  and  peiu's, 
from  which  large  quantities  of  eider  and  perry  are 
made.  The  breeding  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep,  is 
favoured  bj'  extensive  meadows  and  pasture-lauds. 
Iron  is  found  in  considerable  qiiautities.  There  are 
extensive  iron  and  cojiper  works  and  pin  manuf.ac- 
tories.  Cotton  goods,  cloth,  linen,  paper,  gkass  and 
stoneware  are  likenise  manufactiu'ed.  The  depart- 
ment of  Eure  is  divided  into  live  arrondissements 
— Evreux,  Louviers,  Lcs  Andelys,  Bernay,  and  Pout- 
Audemer.     The  capital  is  Evreu.\  (q.  v.). 

EURE,  a  river  of  the  north-west  of  France,  and 
a  tributary  of  the  Seine,  rises  in  the  dei)artment  i>f 
Orne,  flows  first  south-east  ijito  the  centre  of  the 
dep.artment  of  Eure-et-Loir,  then  north  and  north- 
west through  the  departments  of  Eure-et-Loii-  and 
Eure,  and  joins  the  Seine  on  the  left  above  Pont-de- 
I'Arche,  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles.  Only 
th.at  portion  of  the  E.  which  is  in  the  dep.artment 
of  Eure  is  naWgable. 

EURE-ET-LOIR,  a  department  of  France, 
formed  chiefly  from  the  province  of  Orleann.ais, 
extends  between  lat.  47°  57' — 48°  55'  N.,  and  long. 
0°  47' — 2°  E.  Area,  22-18  square  miles.  Pop. 
291,074.  It  is  watered  mainly  by  the  Eure  in  the 
north,  and  the  Loir  in  the  south,  the  two  rivers 
from  which  it  takes  its  name.  This  dei)artment 
lies  on  the  water-shed  between  the  B.ay  of  Bisc;iy 
and  the  English  Channel.  It  is  in  gener.al  level, 
the  east  and  soiith  being  occupied  by  high  and 
extensive  flats ;  while  in  the  west,  the  scenery  is 
finely  varied  by  hill  and  valley.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and,  especially  tow.ard  the  cost  and  south, 
is  admirably  adapted  for  wheat.  Hops  grow 
spontaneously  in  some  quarters.  In  the  forests,  the 
oak  and  birch  are  the  prevailing  trees.  The  rivers, 
none  of  which  are  navigable  in  this  dejiaitment, 
furnish  valuable  water-jujwer  for  the  numerous  mills 
of  various  kinds  that  iire  situ.atcd  on  their  banks. 


EUEIPIDAS— EUROPR 


Iron  is  the  only  mineral  found  and  worked  to  any 
great  extent ;  but  tlie  chief  articles  of  trade  are 
corn,  flour,  and  wool.  The  department  is  diNdded 
into  the  four  arrondiasemeuts  of  Chartres,  ChSlteau- 
Dun.  Dreux,  and  Nn^eut-le-llotrou,  with  the  town 
of  Chartres  for  capit;il. 

EURI  PIDES,  the  latest  of  the  three  great  Greek 
tra*;edians,  was  born  at  Salamis,  480  B.C.,  on  the 
very  day  ('23d  September),  it  is  said,  of  the  glorious 
victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians 
near  that  island.  The  Aruudel  Marble,  however, 
gives  as  the  date  of  his  birth  485  B.C.,  whde  Miiller, 
foHowTng  Eratosthenes,  makes  it  four  years  later. 
His  education  was  very  good.  At  first,  he  was 
trained  to  gymnastic  exercises  (in  consequence  of  the 
preiliction  of  an  oracle  that  he  should  be  crowned 
WTith  '  sacred  garlands');  he  ne.xt  turned  his  attention 
to  painting ;  then  studied  philosophy  under  Anax- 
agoras,  and  rhetoric  under  Prodicu,s,  and  formed  a 
lasting  friendship  with  Socrates.  The  first  l)lay  of 
E.'s  which  was  performed  was  the  Pelkules  (456  E.  c). 
In  441  B.  c,  he  gained  the  first  prize  for  tragedy, 
and  continued  to  write  for  the  Athenian  stage  until 
408  B.  c,  when  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  the 
court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia.  Scandal 
has  invented  other  reasons  for  E.'s  leaving  Athens, 
but  they  are  unworthy  of  notice.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  killed  (4(lG  B.C.)  by  dogs,  which  were  set 
upon  him  by  two  brother-poets  who  envied  him  his 
reputation.  In  E.'s  time,  Greek  tragedy  had  been 
brought  to  its  highest  perfection  by  Sojihocles,  who 
was  fifteen  years  older  than  Euripides.  The  latter, 
however,  was  the  second  favourite  author  of  his 
time  ;  nay,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  his  tragedies 
were  jjreferred  to  those  of  Sophocles  ;  but  his  liberal 
and  even  neologistio  tendencies  in  regard  to  religion, 
excited  the  hostility  of  that  witty  but  scurrilous 
champion  of  Greek  orthodoxy  Aristophanes,  who 
frequently  ridiculed  E.  in  cutting  parodies.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  E.  was  systematically  abused 
by  the  Athenian  Tory  party,  of  whom  Aristophanes 
was  the  Uterary  chief,  and  to  whose  unscrupulous 
opposition  it  was  owing  that  he  gained  the  prize 
only  five  times  out  of  75  competitions.  But  against 
the  censiu'e  of  Aristophanes,  may  be  set  the  praise 
of  two  much  greater  men— Aristotle  and  John 
Milton.  E.'3  plays  are  reckoned  by  some  to  have 
amounted  to  75,  by  others  to  92.  Only  18  have 
come  down  to  us.  ITiese  are — AlceMls  (4.'iS  B.C.), 
Medea  (431  B.C.),  Hijipoli/liis  (4'28  B.C.),  Ilecuha 
(424  B.C.),  Hei-acleidcc  (421  B. c.?),  Siipplkes  (421 
B.  c.  ?),  J(j7i  (date  not  ascertainable),  IJerculea 
Fttrens  (date  not  ascertainable),  Andromache  (420 
— tl7  B.C.),  Troudes  (415  B.C.),  Electra  (415 — 
413  B.  c),  Jlelma  (412  B.  c),  Iphiijeneia  in  Tauris 
(date  uncertain),  Orestes  (408  E.  c),  IVtanissco 
(probably  same  year),  Bacchce  (probably  written  in 
JIacedonia),  Iphiijeneia  in  Aulis  (posthumously 
represented  in  Athens) ;  and  finally,  (hjclops  (uncer- 
tain), lihesus,  attributed  to  E.,  is  probably  not 
genuine.  Concerning  E.,  and  his  tragedies,  A.  W. 
Schlegel  remarks  :  '  Of  few  authors  can  so  much 
good  and  evil  be  preiUcated  with  equal  truth.  He 
was  a  man  of  infinite  talent,  skilled  in  the  most 
varied  intellectual  arts ;  but  although  abounding 
in  brilliant  and  amiable  qualities,  he  wanted  the 
subhme  earnestness  and  artistic  skdl  which  we 
admire  in  .-Eschylus  and  Sophocles.  He  aspires 
oidy  to  please,  no  matter  by  what  means.  For  this 
reason,  he  is  so  frequently  unequal  to  himself ; 
j)roducing  at  times  passages  of  exquisite  beauty, 
and  frequently  sinking  into  positive  viUgarity.' 
The  main  object  of  E.  was  to  excite  emotion,  and 
his  works  laid  ojien  a  totally  new  world  (in  liter- 
ature), that  of  the  heart,  which,  beyond  dispute, 
contributed  much  to  their  popularity.     On  the  other 


hand,  his  inartistic  and  careless  plots  compelliug 
him  to  a  constant  use  of  the  JJeus  ex  machind 
solution  of  ditficulties,  and  occasionally  even  the 
subjects  of  his  art  themselves,  leave  ample  room 
for  criticism.  Archelaus  refused  to  allow  his  bones 
to  be  removed  to  Athens,  and  erected  a  splendid 
monument  to  him  in  Pella,  with  the  inscription : 
'  Never,  0  Euripides,  will  thy  memory  be  forgotten  !' 
Still  more  honourable  was  the  inscrijition  on  the 
cenotajih  erected  to  him  by  the  Athenians  on  the 
way  to  the  Pineus :  '  All  Greece  is  the  monument  of 
Euripides ;  Macedonian  earth  covers  but  his  bones.' 
Sophocles,  who  survived  him,  publicly  lamented  his 
loss  ;  and  the  orator  Lycurgus  afterwards  erected 
a  statue  to  him  in  the  theatre  at  Athens.  The 
editiu  l^'x^^ps  <jf  £■  appeared,  it  is  thought,  at 
Florence,  toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 
The  best  modem  editions  are  those  of  Beck  (Leip. 
1778—1788),  Matthiae  (Leip.  1813—1829),  and  the 
Glasgow  edition  of  1821.  An  EngUsh  translation 
in  verse,  by  Potter,  appeared  at  0.vford  in  1814 

EU'ROPE,  the  smallest,  but  also  the  most  highly 
civilised  and  most  populous  of  the  three  great  divi- 
sions of  the  old  contment.  It  is  separated  from 
America  on  the  west  and  north-west  by  the  Atlantic ; 
from  Africa  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean;  and 
from  Asia  by  the  Arclupelago,  Sea  of  Marmora, 
Black  Sea,  Caucasian  ridge,  Caspian  Sea,  Ural  River 
and  Jlountains,  and  the  Kara  River.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  huge  peninsida,  projecting  from  the 
north-west  of  Asia.  Its  extent  from  Cape  St  Vincent 
on  the  south-west  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  River 
on  the  north-east  is  3400  mUes  ;  and  from  Cape 
Nordkun,  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  Scandi- 
navian mainland,  to  Cape  JIatapan,  the  southmost 
point  of  Greece,  2400  miles.  The  continent  of  E., 
irrespective  of  islands,  hes  mthin  lat.  36^  1' — 71°  6' 
>f.,  and  long.  9°  30'  W.— 68°  30'  E.  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  rather  more  than  3,720,000  square 
miles ;  and  its  coast-line,  more  extensive  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size  than  that  of  any  other  great  natural 
division  of  the  globe,  is  estimated  at  19,500  miles; 
giving  a  proportion  of  1  linear  mile  of  coast  for  every 
lllll  scpiare  miles  of  surface.  It  has  a  jiojjulation  of 
29'.t.0OO,O(l0,  which  gives  an  average  of  about  SO  for 
every  square  mile. 

The  body  of  the  Em'opean  continent  diWdea 
itself  naturally  into  two  great  portions — the  great 
plain  in  the  north-east,  and  the  Highlands  in  the 
south-west,  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Scandi- 
navia, lying,  as  it  were,  apart  from  either,  being 
to  some  extent  exceptional.  The  plain  occupies 
about  two-thii'ds  (2,500,000  square  mUes)  of  the 
entire  extent  of  the  continent.  It  reaches  from 
the  eastern  boimdary  of  E.,  north  to  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  south  to  ilount  Caucasus  and 
the  Black  Sea,  and  westward  over  the  whole  extent 
of  the  continent ;  gradually,  however,  becoming 
narrower  in  its  progi-ess  west.  In  shape,  this  jilaiu 
resembles  a  triangle;  its  base  rests  on  the  eastern 
boimdary,  and  it  may  be  said  to  reach  its  apex  on 
the  shores  of  Holland.  It  separates  the  two  moun- 
tain sj'stems  of  E. — the  Scandinavian  system  (see 
DoFRmES,  SCASpiNAViA)  on  the  north,  aud  on  the 
south  the  system  of  Southern  Europe.  See  Alps, 
Apennines,  Balkan,  Carpathian  Mountains, 
Cevennes,  Pyrenees,  &c. 

Jutting  out  in  numerous  peninsulas,  and  indented 
by  extensive  bays  and  gulfs,  E.  has  no  town  at  a 
nuich  greater  distance  from  the  sea  than  400  miles, 
save  those  in  the  centre  of  the  eastern  plain  ;  but 
even  here,  by  means  of  numberless  rivers  and  the 
canals,  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  country,  are 
easily  constructed  and  maintained,  a  splendid  system 
of  conununication  by  water  now  exists.  See  Voloa, 
UiiNA,  Dnieper,  Nie.men,  &c.  ;  also  Kussla. 

iSj 


EUROPE. 


As  the  details  of  the  geography  of  R  are  triven 
umlLT  the  names  of  its  several  puUtical  divisions, 
and  of  it3  lakes,  rivers.  &c.,  little  falls  to  l^e  said 
uuder  the  present  head.     Appended,  however,  is  a 


table  of  the  countries  of  E.,  with  their  extent,  &c. 
!  The  ltffui*es  are  tiikeu  from  tlie  Almanack  de  Gotfta 
I  for  IN73.     See  Germany,  in  Supp, 

Gwlogy. — The  geology  of  E.  is  most  conveniently 


Andorra, 
Anhalt    (Dessau, 

Bornburg),    . 
Austria, 
Iludon, 
B:ivaria, 
Uelgtum,  . 

Bremen, 


Kothcn, 


and) 


Britain,  Great,  and  Ireland, 

Brunsnick,  .... 

Denmark, 

France,        .... 

(.» recce,      .... 

Uamburg 

Hesse 

HoUund,       .        .        .        . 
Italy,        .... 

Liechtenstein,      . 
Lippe-Dctmold, 

Lubeck,       .... 


Mecklenbarg-Schwerin, 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 

Monaco,    . 

Montenegro,         .        . 

Oldenburg, 

Portugal,     • 

Prus&ia,    . 

Ueuss 


Russia  (in  Europe), . 
San  Marino, 

.SasonT,     .... 
Saxe-Altenburg,  . 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 

Saxe-Meiningen, .        .        . 
Saxc-Wcimar-Eifienach,  . 
Scbaumburg-Lippe, 
ScUwurzburg-Kudolstadt, 
Schwarzburg-Souderitiausen, 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway,  . 

Swlt2erland,     . 

Turkey      (including      Moldavia,) 

Wuhtcbia,  and  Servia,      ,        .JT 

Waldeok 

Wiirtembcrg,       .... 


Form  of  GoYcnimeot. 


Republic,  with  a  sovereign  council, 

Ducby,  limited  sovereignty,        .... 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers, 
Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereignly,  two  chambers. 
Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers,        .        ,        . 
Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers,   .... 
Free  ILinseatic  town,  senate  and  burgher  as- 
sembly  

Liriiitcd  monarchy,  two  houses  of  parliament. 
Duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber,        . 
Limited  monarchy,  two  chauibers,        ,        ,        , 
Republic,  at  present  (1873),  one  chamber,          . 
Limited  monarchy,  one  chamber, 
Tree  Hanseatic  town,  senate  and  burgher    as- 
sembly,          

Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereitrnty,  two  ehambcT'', 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chamber-*. 

Limited  monarcliy,  two  chambers,    ,        •        . 

Principality,  one  chambi'r 

Principality,  Uniiied  sovereisnty,  one  chamber. 
Free  Hanfieatic  town,  senutc  and    burgher    as- 
sembly,      

Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  two  chiimbcrs, 
Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  two  chambL-rs, 

Principality, 

Principality,  limited  sovereignty. 

Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber, 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chamber;^,         .        .         . 

Principality,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber, 

Absolute  monarchy, 

Republic,  sovereign  council,       .... 
Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers,         .        .        . 
Duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber. 
Duchy,  limited  sovereignly,  one  chamber  for  each 

duchy, 

Duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber,    .        . 
Grand  duchy,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber. 
Principality,  limitpd  sovereignty,  one  cliamber, 
Principality,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber, 
Principality,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber, 

Republic  (August  1873), 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers  for  each  country. 
Republican  confederation,  federal  diet, 

Absolute  sovereignty, 

principality,  limited  sovereignty,  one  chamber,  . 

Limited  monarchy,  two  chambers,    . 

Total.     . 


Extent 

in  KuKlbti 
•q.  m. 


896 

240,338 
5,0U 
29,391 
11,373 

99 

121,115 
1,425 

H,74S 
201,589 

19,a52 

158 

2,9C3 

12,079 

114,290 

ei 

433 


[■  110 

6,137 

1,052 

6 

1,709 

2,470 

35.811 

134,382 

42G 

2,059,143 

22 

5,779 

SIO 

[•  760 

95G 

1,403 

171 

373 

332 

195,766 

29-',861 

15,991 

197,514 

433 
7,632 


203,354 

35,904,435 
1,461,423 
4,861,403 
6,087,105 

123,088 
31,817,000 

311,819 

1,784,741 

36,102,021 

457,894 

338,974 

852,843 

3,618,016 

26,716.809 

8,320 

111,153 

62,158 

657.897 

86.9S2 

3,127 

120,000 

316,6411 

4,360,974 

24,693,066 

134,120 

71,195,394 

7,303 

2,556,244 

141,122 

174,339 

187,884 

236  183 

32.051 

75,523 

67,191 

16,641,980 

6.957,177 

2,609,147 

16,035,000 

56.213 
1,818,541 


3,727,628     299,109,669 


No.  nf 
Inltab.  ppr 
Eng.  aq.  m. 


77 

227 

149 
247 

165 
4J8 

1,243 

262 
313 
l-.'l 

179 
76 

2,145 

261 
2S5 
233 
136 
253 


108 

90 

625 

;o 

128 
121 
183 
314 
34 
332 
442 
276 

229 

196 
204 
187 
203 
202 
85 
20 
166 


139 
241 


considered  under  tlie  different  countries.     See  also 
Alps,  Pyrkxkes,  &c. 

Natural  Historij. — The  natural  Hstory  of  E.  very 
much  agrees  with  that  of  the  corresponding  latitudes 
of  Asi.-i.  As  the  mountain  systems  and  the  plains 
of  the  one  continent  extend  into  the  other,  so  al.'<o 
do  their  floras  and  faunas.  The  natural  history  of 
the  European  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  Syria  and  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
n.atural  hi.^torj'  of  the  more  northern  regions  of  E. 
rescnililes  that  of  the  jjri'at  plains  of  Central  Asia 
and  Siberi.a.  The  moat  northern  regions  have  the 
etrictly  arctic  flora  and  fauna  common  in  a  great 
meivsure  to  aU  the  arctic  and  subarctic  regions, 
European,  Asiatic,  and  American  ;  whilst  the  natural 
history  of  the  most  southern  countries  assumes  a 
subtropical  character.  The  European  countries  near 
the  Mediterranean  produce  fewer  of  the  shnibby  and 
odoriferous  Lali'mltn  than  the  Caucasus  and  adjoin- 
ing regions,  whilst  the  Cariiophylkveee  are  more 
abundant.  The  extreme  abundance  of  Cintacece  m.ay 
be  mentioned  as  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  flora  of 
Spain  and  Portugal.  The  PrinudacecB  are  parti- 
166 


cularly  plentiful  in  all  the  Alpine  regions  of  the 
south  of  E.,  but  this  characteristic  is  in  some  measure 
shared  by  the  Himalaya.  A  great  abundance  of 
umbelliferous  and  cniciferous  plants  is  a  character- 
istic of  all  Eurojie.  In  no  other  part  of  the  world 
do  they  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  flora. 

The  temperature  of  the  western  and  northern 
parts  of  E.  being  raised  by  the  Gulf-stream  and 
the  winds  from  the  gre.it  mass  of  dry  and  desert 
l.ind  in  Africa  above  what  is  elsewhere  found  in 
similar  latitudes,  the  flora  and  fauna  exhibit  a 
corresponding  character,  affected,  however,  by  the 
great  amoimt  of  moisture  derived  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ;  and  also  to  a  still  greater  degree  by  tlic 
comjiar.ative  \inifonnity  of  temperature  which  the 
proximity  of  the  ocean  produces.  The  effect  of  the 
last-mentioned  causes  is  so  great,  that  the  northern 
limit  of  some  plants  is  sooner  reached  on  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  th.au  in  the  more  central  p.ai-ta  of 
E.,  where  the  winters  are  much  colder,  and  the 
average  temjierature  of  the  year  is  lower.  Of  this 
the  vine  is  a  notable  ex.ample,  and  maize  may  l)e 
mentioned  as  another.     Plants  which  require  a  mild 


V  S  n  CHAMSEDS,  LOHOOfl  ft   EOlNaURCIL 


H 


EUP.YALE-EUSEIilUS. 


winter  will  not  grow  in  the  north — and  scarcely 
even  in  the  centre  of  E. — but  they  advance  along  the 
western  coast  under  the  influence  of  the  maritime 
climate.  Thus  the  myrtle — although  not  indi- 
genous— grows  even  in  the  south  o£  England. 

Amongst  plants,  the  date  palm,  and  amongst 
animals  a  species  of  ape,  are  found  in  the  south  of 
E.  (the  ape  only  on  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar) ;  whilst 
some  strictly  African  birds  are  frequent  visitants, 
and  many  birds — as  the  cuckoo,  swallow,  &c. — are 
common  to  E.  and  Africa,  inhabitants  in  sufnmer 
even  of  very  northern  regions,  and  returning  in 
winter  to  the  warm  south. 

Of  the  plants  now  most  commonly  associated  in 
our  thoughts  with  the  southoru  countries  of  E., 
many  have  ]>robably  been  introduced  from  Africa, 
or  from  the  East.  This  has  probably  been  the  case 
even  with  the  myrtle,  and  certainly  has  been  the 
case  \vitli  the  vine,  the  olive,  the  orange,  lemon, 
&c.,  the  fig,  the  peach,  the  almond,  the  apricot,  &c. 
Some  of  the  most  extensively  cidtivated  fruits  are 
certahdy  indigenous  to  E.,  as  tlie  apple,  pear,  plum, 
and  cherry,  although  even  of  these  the  first  improved 
varieties  may  have  been  introd\iced  from  the  earlier 
seats  of  civilisation  in  the  East.  Among  the  \\-ild 
animals  of  E.  at  the  present  day,  the  aurochs  or 
bison  is  still  reckoned ;  and  the  ox  existed  at  no 
very  remote  period  in  a  truly  wild  state.  The  rein- 
deer inhabits  the  extreme  north  of  E. ;  the  elk,  the 
stag,  the  fallow-deer,  and  the  roebuck,  are  found 
iu  more  southern  regions ;  the  ibex  or  bouquetin 
exists  on  the  high  central  mountains  ;  two  species 
of  antelope — the  chamois  of  the  Alps,  and  the 
saiga  of  the  Russian  jilains — connect  the  European 
fauna  with  the  Asiatic  and  African.  Of  carnivorou-? 
animals,  tlie  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  fox,  and  the  lyn.x. 

The  abiuulauce  of  lakes  and  streams  in  the 
northern  parts  of  E.  is  accompanied  with  a  corre- 
sponding abimdance  of  water-fowl  {Anatida')  and  of 
lish.  Of  the  latter,  the  SalmoniiUe  are  the  most 
valuable,  and  the  CyprinidiE  next  to  them.  The 
European  seas  afford  valuable  fisheries,  particularly 
of  herring  and  of  cod  in  the  north,  and  of  tunny, 
anchovy,  &c.,  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  conmion  hive  bee  and  the  Ligurian  bee  may 
probably  be  reg.arded  as  natives  of  Europe.  The 
silk-worm  was  introduced  from  the  East.  Another 
valualile  insect,  the  cochineal  insect,  was  introduced 
from  America;  but  the  Cant/iaris,  or  Blistering  Fly, 
is  truly  Indigenous  to  the  south  of  Europe. 

EUIvY'ALE,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  JS'i/miihccacecp,  or  Water-lilies,  closely  allied  to 
ViCTOKiA  (q.  v.),  although  of  very  different  appear- 
ance. A',  fcrox  is  a  water-lily  with  small  red  or 
violet-coloured  flowers,  leaves  about  a  foot  in 
diameter,  the  leaf-stalks  and  calyces  covered  with 
stiff  prickles ;  a  native  of  India  and  China.  The 
fruit  is  round,  soft,  pulpy,  and  of  the  size  of  a 
small  orange,  com]>osed  of  a  number  of  carpels, 
and  containing  round  black  seeds  as  large  as  peas, 
which  are  full  of  a  nutritious  agreeable  farina,  and 
are  eaten  roasted.  The  root-stock  also  contains 
starch,  whicli  may  be  separated  and  used  for  food  ; 
and  the  root  itself  is  eaten.  The  plant  is  said  to 
have  been  in  cultivation  in  China  for  upwards  of 
3000  years. 

ETJSE'BIUS,  of  Cffisarea,  the  father  of  ecclesias- 
tical history,  was  bom  in  Palestine  about  264  A.  D. 
He  took  the  surname  of  Pamphili  from  his  friend 
I'amphilus,  Bishop  of  Cffisarea,  whom  he  faithfully 
attended  for  the  two  years  (.307—300)  in  which  he 
Buffered  imprisonment  diu'ing  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian.  He  then  went  to  Tyre,  and  afterwards 
to  Egyiit,  where  he  himself  was  thrown  into  prison 


on  account  of  his  reHgion.     In  315,  he  succeeded 
Agapius   as  Bishop   of   Cffisarea,  took  a  prominent 
part    at    the    Council    of    Nice   in    327,   and   died 
aljout  3-10. — E.  was  the  head  of  the  senii-Arian  or 
moderate    party    in    the   Covmcil    of    Nice.      That 
party  were  averse  to  discussing  the  nature  of  the 
Trinity,   and   woidd   have   preferred  the  simpilicity 
of  Hcripture  language  in  speaking  about  the  God- 
head  to   the    metaphysical   distinctions    of    either 
siile.     They   regarded   Triiiitarianism,   on  the   one 
hand,  as   logacally  indefensible,   but,  on  the  other, 
they  recognised  the  fact,  that  Scripture  sometimes 
sjioke  of  the  Son  in  terms  not  compatible  with  the 
views  of  Arius,  and  therefore  they  wished  each  man 
to  enjoy  the  utmost  freedom   in  his  interpretation 
of  Scri]>ture  on  this    point.      E.  thought  that   the 
great  thing  was    to  lay  to    heart    the   truth,  that 
'  God    so   loved   the  worlil  that   he  gave  his   only 
begotten    Son,  tiuat   whosoever  believeth  on    him 
should  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life.'     The 
promise  is   to   him   that  believeth  on  liim,  not,  he 
argues,  to  him  that  kiioim  how  lie  is  generalcd  from 
the  Father.     He  was  very  reluctant  to  accept  the 
term  homoouslos  (of  the   same   substance),  devised 
by  Athanasius  to  describe  the  equality  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father,  and  retained  the  kindliest  feelings 
towards  Arius   after  the  views  of   the  latter  were 
condemned.      His   moderation  and   other  excellent 
quaUties   pi-ocured  him  the  favour   of  Constantine, 
who  declared  that  he  was  fit  to  be  the  bishop  of 
almost  the  whole  world.     E.  has  the  reputation  of 
being  the  most  learned  Father  of  the  church  after 
Origen.      His  chief  works   are — 1.    The   C/ironicon, 
a  history  of  the  world  down  to  the  celebration  of 
Constantine's  Vicennalia  at  Nicomedeia  and   Rome, 
327   and   32S   A.  D.      It   is    valual)le   as   containing 
extracts   from  such  writers  as   Berosus,  Sanchouia- 
thon,  I'olyhibtor,  Cephalion,  and  Manetho.     It  was 
first   published   in    a   complete   state   by   Mai   and 
Zolirab,    at    Milan,    in    1818,   from    an    Armenian 
MS.  version  discovered  at  Constantinople.     2.  The 
Prceparatio    Uvanijelica,  in   15   books,   a    collection 
of    such    statements    in    old    heathen    autliors    as 
were  fitted  to  make  the  mind  regard  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  in  a  favourable  light.     It  was  trans- 
lated inlo  Latin,  and  apjiearcd  at  Treviso  in   I4S0. 
The   Greek   text   was   first   published   at    Paris   in 
1544.       3.   Demonstratio  Evangdim,  in  20  books,  a 
work  intended  to  convince  the  Jews  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity  from  the  evidence  of  their  own  Scrip- 
tures.    A  Latin  version  of  tliis  was  printed  as  early 
as  1498;  the  Greek  original  did  not  appear  till  1544, 
when  it  was  published  along  witli  tlie  Prixjniralio 
at   Paris,    by    K.   Stephens.      4.  The   Ecclexlastienl 
Historii,  in  ten  books.     This   relates   the  princip.al 
occuiTcnces    which    took    ]>lace    in    the    Christian 
Church  till  the  year  ;}24,  and  contains  the  results  of 
liis  studies  iu  nvimerous  libraries,  and  even  iu  the 
imperial  archives,  the  Enijieror  Constantine  having 
ordered,  at  E.'s  request,  an  examination  of  aU  docu- 
ments  relative   to   the   history   of   martjn-s.      One 
drawback  of  the  work  is,  that  E.,  on  i>rinciple,  with- 
holds all  account  of  the  wickedness  and  dissensions 
of  Christians,  inasmuch  as  he  did  not  consider  such 
stories  for  the  edification  of  the  church.     A  Latin 
transl.ation  of  the  work  by  Rufinus  was  published 
at  Rome  in  1474 ;  the  Greek  text  at  Paris  in  1549, 
and  at  Geneva  in  1G12.      Among  the  more  recent 
editions    are   those    of  Heinichen  (Leip.   1827)   and 
Burton  (Oxford,   1838).      The  Ecclesiastical  HiMory 
has  been  translated  into  Enghsh,  German,  French, 
&c.      Besides   the   foregoing  works,   may   be   men- 
tioned the  £>!'  Martyrlbus  Palestince,  a  book  ag.ainst 
Hierocles  ;  another  agamst  Marcellus ;  and  a  Life 
of  Constantine.     The  Mrst  edition  of  all  E.'s  works 
appeared  at  Basel  in  1542. 

167 


EUSEBIUS-EUTERPE. 


EUSE'BIUS,  of  Emisa,  was  born  at  Eilessa, 
stiulieil  at  Alexandria,  and  was  the  pupil  of  Eusebiiis 
Paniphill,  and  the  friend  of  Eusebins  of  Nicoinedia. 
Avei-se  to  all  theological  controveraies,  he  declined 
the  bishopric  of  Alexandria,  vacant  by  the  deposi- 
tion of  Athanasius.  He  was  afterwards,  liowevcr, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Eiuisa,  but  during  liis  ordination, 
a  Christian  mob,  accusing  him  of  '  mathematics ' 
and  magic,  created  a  tumult,  and  obliged  liim  to 
ilee  for  his  life.  Subsequently,  he  returned  to  Eniisa, 
where  he  was  '  tolerated,'  in  spite  of  his  dangerous 
knowledge  !  He  died  at  Antiooli  in  JiOlt.  Tlie 
Emperor  Constantius  w.is  much  attached  to  E.,  and 
used  to  take  him  with  him  on  his  military  expedi- 
tions. E.  was  accused  of  Sabcliianisni  (q.  v.),  and 
Jerome  calls  him  'the  ringleader  of  the  Ariun  party.' 
Jerome,  however,  was  r.ash  in  liis  epithets,  and  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  belonged  to  the  party  of  his 
namesake  of  Ciesarea,  the  Semi-Arians,  or  peace- 
party,  who  wished  the  doctrine  of  the  Godhead 
expressed  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  and  not  of 
theolog)'.  The  homilies  extant  imder  his  name 
liave  been  published  by  August!  (Elberf.  1829). 
The  genuine  ones  display  great  eloquence.  Other 
writings  by  him,  as,  for  example,  the  Qutrstiones  XX. 
Evangelicir,  and  part  of  the  Commentarius  in  Lticavi, 
were  "published  by  Mai,  in  the  Scriptorum  Veternrn 
Kova  Collectio  (vol.  i.  Home,  1825).  See  Thilo, 
C/eber  die  Sc/iri/ten  des  E.  von  Emisa  (Halle,  1832). 

EUSE'BIUS,  of  Nicomedia,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, born  towards  the  cud  of  the  3d  c,  was 
lirst  tutor  to  the  Emperor  Julian,  to  whom  he  w.is 
related  by  the  mother's  side  ;  then  Bishop  of  Bcrj'ta 
(BejTTout),  in  SjTia,  and  afterwards  of  Kicomcdia. 
In  order  to  secure  his  position,  he  appeared  as  the 
defender  of  Arius  at  the  Councd  of  Nice,  and  after- 
wards placed  himself  at  the  head  of  tlie  Arian 
party.  Under  the  Emperor  Oonstantine,  whom  lie 
bajrtized  in  337,  he  became  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. He  died  in  the  year  342,  after  having,  in 
the  ju'evious  year,  held  an  assembly  of  the  church 
for  the  establishment  of  Arianisni  at  Antioch.  It  is 
not  easy  to  get  at  his  real  character.  We  have 
no  ecclesiastical  works  by  Arian  \^Titei's,  our  only 
sources  of  information  as  regards  the  character  and 
opinions  of  that  party  being  their  enemies — the 
orthodox  party ;  yet,  maldng  the  ordinary  allow- 
ance for  partisanship,  there  would  seem  to  be 
suiiicient  reason  for  concluding  that  E.  was  cunning 
■ind  double-tongued  when  occasion  required,  and 
imperious  and  violent  wlien  he  had  jiower  in  his 
hands.  Athanasius  considered  him  not  the  disciple, 
but  rather  the  teacher  of  Arius.  From  him  the 
Arians  are  sometimes  styled  Eusebians.  See 
Neander,  K'lrchengeschichte,  vol.  ii.  p.  773,  &c. 

EUSTACHIAN   TUBE.     See  Eak. 

EUSTACHIAN  VALVE.     See  FasTPS. 

EUSTA'CHIUS,  Baetolcmjieo,  an  Italian 
anatomist,  who  was  born  in  the  early  ])art  of  tlie 
Kith  c,  and  died  in  1574.  Few  jiarticulars  arc 
known  regartling  liis  life,  but  we  learn  from  the 
introduction  to  one  of  his  works,  that  in  15G2  he 
was  professor  of  medicine  in  the  CoUegio  delha 
S.apienza  at  Home.  His  name  is  indelibly  associated 
with  anatomical  science,  through  his  discoveries  of 
the  tube  in  the  auditory  apjiaratus,  .and  the  valvular 
structure  in  the  heart,  which  have  been  called  after 
him.  He  was  the  first  to  give  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  the  thoracic  duct,  and  was  probalily  tlie 
first  to  notice  and  describe  the  stajies  (one  of  the 
chain  of  small  bones  crossing  the  tympanic  cavity 
of  the  e.ar),  a  discovery  which,  however,  Fallopius 
assigns  to  Ingrassias.  He  likewise  contributed 
materially  to  the  diffusion  of  more  accurate  know- 
ledge rcg.arding  the  devclopnieut  and  evolution  of 
ictt 


the  teetli,  and  the  stnicture  of  the  kidney.  Tliese 
discoveries  are  recorded  in  liis  Opnscula  Annlomka, 
published  at  Venice  in  15()3.  He  was  the  lirst 
anatomical  writer  who  illustrated  his  works  with 
good  engravings  on  copjier.  The  TabuUp  Aiiatojtiicir, 
whieli  he  was  probably  unable  to  ]>ublish  in  con- 
sequence of  the  poverty  of  which  he  comjiKains  in 
the  introduction  to  whidi  we  have  already  refcrrcil, 
did  not  a]>pear  until  1714,  when  they  were  edited, 
with  explanatory  remarks,  by  Lancisi.  Their  value 
is  sufficiently  e\'idenced  by  the  fact,  that  Alliiuus 
published  a  new  edition,  with  an  excellent  Latin 
commentary,  in  1743,  at  Leyden;  that  Bonn  pub- 
lished a  Dutch  eilition  in  17IIS  at  Amsterdam  ;  and 
that  a  (ierman  edition  appeared  in  1800.  Lauth,  in 
his  JUMorij  of  Anatomicid  DUcovenj,  remarks  that  if 
the  Tahuhe  had  ajipeared  in  E.'s  lifetime,  anatomy 
would  have  attained  the  perfection  of  the  18th  c., 
nearly  200  years  earlier.  E.,  Vesalius,  and  Fallopius 
may  be  regarded  as  the  three  great  founders  of 
modern  anatomy. 

EUSTA'THIUS,  the  celebrated  Greek  commen- 
tator on  Homer  and  the  geographer  Dionysius,  w:i3 
born  at  Constantinople.  He  was  at  first  a  monk, 
then  a  deacon  and  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  his  native 
city,  and,  in  the  year  1155,  was  ajipoiuted  Arch- 
bishop of  Thessalonica,  where  he  died  in  1198.  E. 
was  profoundly  versed  in  the  ancient  classic  authors, 
and  a  man  of  prodigious  acquirements,  as  is  proved 
by  his  commentaries.  The  number  of  authors  whom 
he  quotes  is  ahuost  incredible,  and  the  value  of  his 
quotations  is  heightened  by  the  consideration,  that 
most  of  the  works  from  which  he  extracts  are  no 
longer  extant.  His  most  important  work  is  liis 
Conimentarij  on  the  Iliad  and  Odi/sin^;/  of  Homer. 
The  first  edition  appeared  at  Eonie  1542 — 1551) ; 
the  last  at  Leip.  1825 — 1829.  The  work  is  ojien 
to  objection  on  the  score  of  method,  and  is  difVnse 
and  digi-essive,  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  vast  mine  of 
knowledge  for  students  of  Homer.  Of  a  similar 
character  is  E.'s  Commcntanj  on  Dionysius,  first 
printed  by  Stephens  (Paris,  1547),  and  lastly  in 
Bernhardy's  edition  of  Dionysius  (Leip.  1S2S).  Of 
his  commentary  on  the  hymns  of  Pindar,  otdy  the 
Procemium  has  come  down  to  us.  It  w,as  first  pnb- 
lishcd  by  Tafel  in  IS32,  along  with  E.'s  theologicjil 
treatises  and  letters. 

EUSTA'TIUS,  St,  one  of  the  Dutch  AVcst  India 
Islands,  lies  near  the  north-east  liend  of  the  great 
arch  of  the  Antilles,  about  twelve  miles  to  th« 
north-west  of  ,St  Christoplier.  Lat.  17°  31'  N.,  and 
long.  63°  5'  W.  Area,  190  square  miles.  St  E.  is 
a  pyramidal  rock  of  volcanic  formation,  shewing 
two  extinct  craters,  and  being  still  subject  to 
earthquakes.  Hurricanes  also  of  intense  severity 
occur,  more  particularly  in  August  and  Septemlier. 
Along  its  entire  circuit  of  29  miles,  St  E.  has  only 
one  landing-place,  wliich,  besides  being  diliicult  of 
access,  is  strongly  fortified.  The  whole  mountain  is 
fertile,  producing  iu  abundance  not  merely  com- 
mercial crops,  such  as  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco, 
but  also  provisifuis  of  various  kinds,  such  as  maize, 
hogs,  goats,  and  poultry.     I'op.  about  2000. 

EUTE'KPE  (i.  e.,  she  who  delights),  one  of  the 
nine  Muses,  was  the  daugliter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne. 
She  was  the  muse  of  lyric  poetry,  and  is  represented 
in  ancient  works  of  art  with  a  flute  in  her  hand. 
See  Musk. 

EUTE'RPE,  a  genus  of  p.alms,  having  m.ale  and 
female  flowers  intermingled  on  the  same  sjiadix,  the 
sjiadiccs  springing  from  beneath  the  leaves ;  the 
sjiatho  entire,  membranaceous,  and  deciduous.  They 
are  very  elegant  palms  ;  with  lofty,  slender,  smooth, 
faintly  ringed  stems  ;  and  pinnate  leaves,  forming  a 
gracef  id  f eatheiy  plume ;  the  bases  of  the  leaf-stalke 


EUTROPIUS— EVANGELICAL. 


sheathing  far  down  the  stem,  and  so  forming  a 
thick  column  of  several  feet  in  length  at  its  summit. 
To  this  genus  the  cabbage  palm  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  Assai  palm  of  tlie  baiiks  of  the  Amazon,  are 
often  referred.     See  Ar.EC.l.  and  Assai. 

EUTRO'PIUS,  a  L.atin  historian,  concerning 
■whom  we  only  know  that  he  filled  the  office  of 
secretary  to  the  Emperor  Constantiue,  fought 
against  the  Persians  under  Julian,  and  was  stiU  alive 
in  the  reign  of  Valens.  The  ]ieriod  of  his  death  is 
unknown.  His  Brevlarum  HistoruK  liomamv,  giving 
a  short  narrative  of  Roman  histoiy  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city  to  the  time  of  the  Enijieror 
Valens,  is  written  in  an  extremely  simple  and  pure 
stj'le,  and  appears  to  have  been  originally  intended 
for  the  use  of  schools.  It  became  very  popular  as 
the  taste  for  original  investigation  declined,  in  that 
dark  period  between  the  death  of  the  old  world  and 
the  birth  of  the  new  ;  and  is  either  copied  or 
followed  by  the  early  monkish  annalists.  An  edition 
with  enlargements,  however,  was  published  by  Paul, 
son  of  Warnefrid  ud  Theodolinda,  generally  known 
as  Paulus  Diaconus.  Others  continued  it  down  to 
the  year  813.  The  History  existed  in  three  distinct 
forms  at  the  revival  of  letters  :  there  was  first 
the  genuine  work  of  E.  in  ten  books ;  second, 
the  expanded  editions  of  Paid  ;  and  third,  a  very 
complete,  but  also  largely  interpolated  copy  con- 
tained in  the  Hisloria  Mixcella.  The  edilio  primvjts, 
printed  at  Rome  in  1471,  was  from  the  impure 
text  of  Paid.  The  best  editions  in  modern  times 
are  those  of  Tzschucke  (Leip.  1790,  improved  1804), 
and  of  Grosse  (Halle,  1813;  Leip.  IS^o). 

EU'TYCHES,  a  Byzantine  ecclesiastic  of  the 
5th  c,  and  a  zealous  but  unskilful  rejjresentative 
of  the  dogmatic  opinions  of  CjTil  of  Alexaudi'ia. 
In  opposing  the  doctrines  of  Xestorius,  he  fell 
into  the  opposite  extreme,  and  taught  that  after 
the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ,  the 
human  nature  was  absorbed  in  the  di\'ine;  an 
opinion  wliicli  spread  extensively  thi-ough  the  Alex- 
andrian Church.  E.  was  in  consequence  summoned 
before  a  synod  at  Constantinople  in  the  year  44S, 
and  deposed  by  Flavianus,  patriarch  of  that  city; 
but  his  cause  was  warmly  espoused  by  the  eunuch 
(.'hrysai)hiu3,  chief  minister  of  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II.,  and  Uioscurus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
who  were  both  opposed  to  Flavianus.  Chrysajihius 
induced  the  emperor  to  call  a  general  council  at 
Ephesus  in  the  following  year,  under  the  presidency 
of  DioscuruB.  ileasiu'es  were  taken  beforehand  to 
•■secure  a  triumph  over  the  anti-Eutychians.  Soldiers 
were  admitted  to  the  deliberations  of  the  council, 
to  overawe  the  party  of  Flarianus  ;  while  a  crowd 
of  fierce  Egj'ptian  monks,  devotetUy  attached  to 
whatever  was  popular  in  Alexantlria,  or  had  been 
countenanced  by  their  old  pupil  CjTil,  drowned 
by  their  fan.atical  outcries  the  voices  of  thoce 
who  ventured  to  speak  against  Eutyches.  The 
residt  was  that  the  judgment  of  the  previoiis 
coimcil  was  reversed ;  Flavianus  and  his  adliercnts 
were  deposed,  and  the  doctrine  of  E.  affirmed 
to  be  orthodox,  and  in  accordance  vnth  the  Nicene 
creed.  His  triumiih,  however,  lasted  only  two 
years  ;  in  451,  Eutychianism  was  jironounced  heresy 
at  the  Council  of  Chalcedou,  attended  by  CoO 
bishops ;  and  in  ojijtosition  to  his  views,  it  was 
declared  that  in  Cbrist  the  two  natures  were 
united  without  confusion  or  conversion  of  substance. 
Nothing  further  is  known  concerning  E.,  except 
that  Leo  wrote  to  the  Emperor  JIarcian  to  banish 
him  from  the  capital.  The  sect  of  Eutychians, 
however,  under  the  name  of  Monophysites,  con- 
tinued to  exist  quietly  for  a  century  after  his  death, 
iu  the  Armenian,  Ethiopian,  and  Coptic  churches, 


when  it  awoke  to  new  life  under  the  auspices  of 
Jacob  Baradreus,  who  died  Bishop  of  Edessa,  588 
A.  D.  His  followers  were  called  Jacobites,  and 
have  perpetuated  the  Monophysite  doctrine  iu  the 
Armenian  and  Coptic  ehurehes  to  the  ]ircsent  day. 
See  Neauder,  Kirdicngesdiichte,  vol.  iii.  p.  1079,  &c. 

EU'XINE  (Gr.  Euxinos,  hospitable)  is  the  n.ame 
applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  Black  Sea  (q.  v.). 
Before  receiving  this  name  it  was  called  Axenoa 
Pantos,  the  inhospitable  sea,  because  of  the  black 
and  turbulent  weather  so  frequently  ascribed  to 
it  by  the  ancient  jioets,  and  the  reported  canni- 
balism of  the  Scythian  tribes  who  lined  its  northern 
shores.  It  seems  to  have  been  called  the  Etixiite, 
or  hospitable  sea,  after  the  establishment  of  Greek 
colonies  on  its  borders,  and  when  its  waters  were 
thrown  open  to  Greek  commerce. 

EVA'NDER,  a  semi-mythical  Grecian  hero  of 
antiquity,  was,  according  to  Roman  traditions,  the 
son  of  Hermes,  by  Carmenta  or  Tiburtis.  About 
60  years  before  the  Trojan  war,  he  is  said  to  have 
led  a  Pelasgiau  colony  from  Pallantiuni,  in  Arcadia, 
to  It.ily,  and  to  have  landed  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tiber,  and  near  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill.  Here 
he  built  a  town,  naming  it  PaUantiura,  after  the  one 
in  Arcadia.  At  a  later  period,  it  was  incorporated 
with  Rome,  and  is  affirmed  to  have  originated 
the  names  Palatinus  and  Palatium.  Tradition 
represented  E.  as  having  done  much  to  introduce 
the  habits  of  social  life  among  his  neighbours ; 
he  prescribed  for  them  milder  laws,  and  taught 
them,  among  other  arts,  those  of  music  and  writing. 
To  him  is  also  ascribed  the  introduction  of  the 
worship  of  the  Lycffian  Pan,  with  that  of  Demeter, 
Poseidon,  and  other  deities.  Virgil  represents  him 
as  being  still  alive  when  ^Eneas  arrived  in  Latium 
after  the  sack  of  Troy.  E.  was  worshipped  both  at 
PaUantium,  in  Arcadi;v,  and  at  Rome. 

EVANGE'LICAL  is  an  adjective  derived  from 
the  Gr.  euanriijelion,  'good  news,'  or  'the  Gospel,' 
and  is  applied  in  general  to  anything  which  is 
marked  by  the  sjiirit  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  an  evangelical  sermon,  of  evan- 
gelical iiiety,  evangelical  views,  &c.,  though  it  is 
but  right  to  mention  that  the  term  '  evangelical' 
in  such  a  connection  is  used  by  a  poition  of  the 
religious  community  to  denote,  not  so  much  a  spirit 
or  sentiment  resembling  that  of  the  Saviour,  but 
certain  peculiar  theological  opinions,  which  are  held 
to  constitute  the  oiUy  true  and  comj)lete  expression 
of  Christian  beUef.  In  England  and  Scotland,  dis- 
senters have  generally  laid  claim  to  be  considered 
more  'evangeheal'  than  the  national  ehurehes — i.e., 
they  conceive  that  they  have  borne,  and  still  bear, 
more  decided  testimony  than  their  bretliren  of  the 
Establishment  to  the  truth  of  such  doctrines  as  the 
total  depravity  of  human  nature,  the  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin  to  his  posterity,  the  expiatory  character 
of  Christ's  suff'erings,  justification  by  faith  in  the 
atoning  efficacy  of  these  sufferings,  &c.  In  the 
Anglican  Chtu'ch,  however,  the  rise  of  the  Puseyite 
or  Tractarian  party  has  brought  into  prominence 
an  antagonistic  i>arty,  resembhng  dissenters  very 
much  in  their  theological  tenets.  This  party  calls 
itself, ^)ar  erceWcHce,  'Evangelical.' — In  Prussia,  the 
term  Evangeheal  has  been  employed  by  the  govern- 
ment since  1817  to  designate  the  national  Protestant 
Church,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Reformed  or 
Cal\-inistic  and  the  Lutheran  Churches,  a  union 
imhappUy  too  much  enforced  by  severe  and  even 
coercive  measures,  and  which,  partly  on  that  account, 
and  partly  from  the  invincible  rejmgnance  of  the 
more  extreme  or  High  Church  Lutherans,  has  not 
been  so  perfectly  accomplished  as  the  government 
wished.     See  Prcssia. 

169 


EVANGELICAL  ALLL\NCE— EVANS. 


EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  an  association 
of  '  evangelical  Christians  belonging  to  various 
churches  and  countries,'  formed  in  1S45,  'to  asso- 
ciate and  concentrate  the  strength  of  an  enlightened 
Protestantism  against  the  cnci-oachments  of  Popery 
and  Pusej-ism,  and  to  promote  the  interests  of  a 
scriptural  Christianity.'  Its  origin  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  a  deep  sense  of  the  evil  of  the  divisions  existing 
among  Protest;ints,  who  nevertheless  agree  in  hold- 
ing the  essential  principles  of  the  Keforniation. 
A  number  of  circumst;iuces  concurred  to  direct 
the  attention  of  Christians  both  in  England  and 
Scotland  very  strongly  to  this  subject;  and  a 
requisition,  signed  by  ministei-s  and  others  Ijelong- 
ing  to  various  denominations  in  Scotland,  was 
addressed  to  '  the  evangtlic.il  churches  of  England, 
Wales,  .and  Ireland.'  convening  a  meeting  to  be 
held  at  Liverpool  in  October  1845.  To  this  requi- 
sition a  conlial  response  was  given ;  the  meet- 
ing w.-is  nmuerously  attended  by  persons  of  great 
influence,  both  in  the  established  and  dissenting 
churches ;  great  harmony  prevailed  ;  and  the  E.  A. 
was  then  organised.  It  now  has  branches  in  the 
most  inqiortant  cities  and  towns  of  Britain,  and  of 
many  other  parts  of  the  world  ;  it  b.as  contributed 
to  the  jiromotion  of  Christian  union,  fellowship,  and 
brotherly  co-operation,  and  at  least  as  evidently  on 
the  continent  of  Eiu-ope  as  in  Britain  ;  aflfonling 
at  the  same  time  much  encouragement  to  those  who 
in  \'ariou3  comitries  of  the  continent  were  struggling 
in  the  feebleness  of  isolation  .against  all  the  forms 
of  opinion  most  adverse  to  the  principles  of  the 
Keformation,  but  to  whose  support  the  strength 
of  British  Protestantism  has  been  in  some  measure 
brought.  The  E.  A.  seeks,  by  various  menus,  to 
promote  the  cause  of  'Evangelical  Protestantism,' 
and  to  oppose  '  Infidelity,  Popery,  and  other  forms 
of  snpei'stition,  error,  and  profaneness,  especially  the 
profanation  of  the  Lord's  Day.'  It  has  also  ven- 
tured to  remonstrate  against  the  persecution  still 
practised  in  some  Protestant  countries  of  the  north 
of  Eurojie  both  ag.ainst  Protestant  dissenters  .ind 
Iloman  Catholics,  and  thus  has  sought  to  extend 
the  influence  of  the  principles  of  toleration.  The 
meetings  which  have  been  held  imder  its  auspices 
in  continental  cities  have  also  led  to  much  tem- 
perate and  friendly  discussion  on  various  important 
questions.  Gre.at  meetings  of  the  E.  A.  were 
held  at  Paris  in  1855,  at  Berlin  in  1857,  and  at 
Geneva  in  1861. 

The  E.  A.  adopted  as  its  basis  a  brief  statement 
of  the  points  of  doctrine  on  which  its  members  must 
hold  '  what  are  usu.ally  imderstood  to  be  evangelical 
'^•iews.'  This  gave  rise  to  objections  against  it  on  the 
part  of  some  who  woiUd  gladly  have  joined  it,  but 
tor  an  apprehension  of  com]iromisiug  principles  to 
which  they  did  not  think  due  jilace  was  given. 
The  llitih  Church  party  in  the  Church  of  England, 
and  in  the  churches  of  Gennany,  Sweden,  &c.,  h.ave 
been  consistent  ojiponents  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
It  is  of  course  equally  oi)posed,  on  other  groimds,  by 
rationalists. 

Its  basis  excludes  those  who,  although  otherwise 
holding  evangelical  doctrines,  deny  'the  divine 
institution  of  the  Christian  ministry,  and  the 
authority  and  perpetuity  of  the  ortlinances  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.'  Few  Americans 
arc  connected  with  the  E.  A.,  owing  to  dilliculties 
arising  out  of  the  (piestiou  of  slavery. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  a  religious 
body  which  w.as  organised  in  ISO.'i  .among  Germans 
in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  aiul  h.as 
consideriibly  extended  itself  both  in  that  country 
and  in  Canada,  being  no  longer  chiefly  confined, 
as  it  was  at  first,  to  German  inniiigrants  and 
their  descendants  using  the  German  language.     Its 


doctrines    are   a    modified    Calvinism ;   its   church 
government  a  modifieti  episcopacy. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION,  the  name  assumed 
by  a  religious  body  constituted  in  .Scotland  in  1843 
by  the  Kev.  J.ames  Morison  of  Kilmarnock  and 
other  ministers  whose  doctrinal  views  had  been 
eondenmcd  in  the  United  Secession  Church,  to 
which  they  jireviously  belonged,  and  the  congrc- 
giitions  adhering  to  them.  They  were  soon  after- 
wards joined  by  a  number  of  ministers  and  con- 
gregations of  similar  ^'iews,  previously  connected 
\vith  the  Congregational  Union  or  Independents  of 
Scotland,  and  have  since  extended  themselves  con- 
siderably in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England. 
Their  doctrin.al  views  are  those  which,  froni  the 
name  of  filr  Morison,  have  now  become  known  in 
.Scotland  as  ilurlsonian.  See  Morisom.vmis.m. 
Their  church-government  is  Independent,  but  in 
some  of  the  congreijations  originally  Presbyterian, 
the  office  of  the  eluershi])  is  retained.  A  notable 
practice  of  this  denomination  is  the  very  frequent 
advertising  of  sermons  and  their  subjects. 

EVA'NGELIST,  literally,  a  bringer  of  good 
tidings.  It  design.ates,  in  the  New  Testament,  a 
person  apjwinted  by  an  apostle  to  itinerate  among 
the  heathen,  and  so  prepare  the  way  for  resident 
instructors.  The  evangelist,  therefore,  liad  no 
jiarticidar  flock  assigned  to  him,  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished both  from  bishops  and  ordinary  pastors. 
L.ater  in  the  history  of  the  early  church,  the  evan- 
gelist figures,  according  to  Eusebius,  as  '  a  deliverer 
of  the  WTitteu  gospels  to  those  who  were  ignorant 
of  the  faith.'  This  may  possibly  imply  that  ho 
acted  as  a  colporteur,  by  distributing  copies  of  the 
gospels,  or  that  he  read  them  to  the  heathen,  and 
so  m.ade  them  familiar  with  their  contents. — The 
word  evangelist  is  also  used  to  denote  the  four 
writers  of  the  life  and  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ, 
these  being  evangelists  ('  bnngera  of  good  tidings ') 
par  excellence, 

E'VANS,  LIEUTE.VAUT-GENERAL  SlB  De  LACT, 
G.C.B.,  bom  at  Moig,  in  Ireland,  1787  ;  entered 
the  .army  as  ensign  in  1S07  ;  in  1812,  joined  the 
3d  Light  Dragoons,  with  whom  he  saw  much 
Peninsidar  ser%-ice.  In  1814,  he  w.as  i)reseut  as 
brevet  lieutenant-colonel  of  an  infantry  regiment 
.at  the  captiire  of  Washington,  the  attack  on  Bal- 
timore, and  the  operations  before  New  Orleans. 
He  was  next  at  Waterloo.  In  1830—1831,  he  sat 
for  Rye,  and  in  1833  was  elected  on  the  Liberal 
interest  for  Westminster,  which  he  rejiresented 
imtil  1841.  The  cause  of  the  young  queen  of 
Spain  was  believed  by  the  English  ministry  to  be 
identified  with  that  of  freedom  ami  constitutional 
government,  and  an  order  in  council  was  issued  in 
1835,  authorising  the  raising  of  10,000  men  for 
ser%'ice  in  Spain,  and  expressing  the  king's  desii-o 
that  his  subjects  should  take  part  with  the  queen  of 
S|>ain,  his  ally,  by  entering  the  new  corjis.  The  com- 
mand of  the  British  auxiliary  legion  was  olTered  to 
E.,  .and  he  was  allowed  by  his  constituents  to  .aoee))t 
it  without  vacating  his  seat  for  Westminster.  E.'s 
principal  military  exploits  at  the  head  of  the  British 
Legion  were  the  storm  and  capture  of  the  Carlist 
lines  of  Ayetta,  near  St  Sebastian,  in  1836  ;  the  stonn 
and  capture  of  Irun  ;  and  the  capture  of  Oyarzun 
and  Fontarabia.  For  these  services,  he  received  the 
grand  crosses  of  St  Ferdinand  and  Charles  III.  At 
the  general  election  for  1841,  E.  was  defeated  for 
Westiuinstor,  but  was  re-elected  in  1846,  and  con- 
tinued to  hold  his  seat,  by  iindisputed  tenure,  till 
1SU5.  He  was  ]>romoted  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general  of  the  British  army  in  1816,  and  obtained 
the  colonelcy  of  the  21st  Foot  in  1853.  On  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Kussia,  he  was  appointed 


EVAKSVILLE— EVAPORATION. 


to  command  the  second  division  of  the  army  sent 
out  to  the  Crimea,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
generaL  His  division  was  hotly  engaged  in  the 
battle  of  the  Alma,  and  E.  received  a  severe  con- 
tusion of  the  shoulder.  On  the  26th  October,  during 
the  siege  of  Sebastojiol,  his  division  was  attacked  by 
a  force  of  6000  Russians.  E.  met  the  enemy  with 
f^-eat  gallantry,  and  drove  them  back  into  the  towTi. 
In  Febraary  1855,  E.  attended  in  his  place,  and 
received  the  pubhc  thanks  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, through  the  Speaker,  for  his  services  in  the 
Crimea.  He  was  rewarded  by  the  crown  with  the 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath,  and  by  the  Emperor  of 
the  French  ^vith  the  Grand  Cordon  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour.  He  also  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
from  the  university  of  O.xford.  He  took  a  frequent 
part  in  debates  on  matters  of  army  administration. 
In  politics,  he  always  belonged  to  the  party  of 
'  advanced  Liberals.'     He  died  January  9,  1870. 

E'VAJSSVILLE,  a  flourishing  city  of  Indiana, 
in  the  United  States,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ohio,  aljout  ISO  miles  Suuth-west  of  luiliana- 
polis.  It  is  very  advantageously  situated  for  trade. 
From  E.  do^vnwards,  the  navigation  is  seldom 
interrupted  either  by  drought  or  by  ice ;  and  here 
terminates  the  WaV)ash  and  Erie  Canal,  the  Icftigest 
work  of  the  kind  in  the  American  republic.  Thus, 
the  place  connects  the  Lower  Ohio  at  once  with  the 
inland  lakes  and  vnth  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Coal 
and  iron  ore  abound  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  in  IS70, 
21,830. 

EVA'PORATION,  the  conversion  of  a  fluid  or 
solid  into  vapour.  Steam,  vapours  of  alcohol,  cam- 
phor, iodine,  &c.,  are  familiar  instances.  All  fluids 
are  surrounded  by  vapoiu"  at  common  temperatm'es ; 
but  for  every  substance  there  is  a  limiting  tem- 
l>erature,  below  which  no  evaporation  takes  place. 
The  pressiu'e,  or  tension,  of  a  va])Our  depends  mainly 
upon  the  nature  of  the  substance  evaporated,  and 
the  temperature  to  which  it  is  raised.  The  full 
amount  of  vapour,  however,  is  not  produced 
instantaneously,  and  therefore,  in  general,  time  is  an 
element  in  the  question  as  well  as  temperature. 
See  DiFFUSTOK. 

The  Boiling-point  (q.  v.)  is  the  temperature  at 
which  vapour  is  freely  given  off — i.  e.,  at  which  the 
tension  of  the  vapour  of  a  substance  is  equal  to  the 
atmospheric  presstire.  Dalton  gave  an  empirical 
law,  which,  however,  is  only  at  all  approximate  for 
temperatures  near  the  boiling-point :  '  The  tension 
of  the  vapour  of  a  substance  rises  in  geometric,  as  the 
temperature  rises  in  arithmetic,  progression.'  It  is 
sulBcient  for  our  present  purpose  to  notice,  that  the 
tension  increases  very  rapidly  with  the  tempera- 
ture. Some  curious  consequences  resiUt  from  this. 
Thus,  water  boils  at  212°  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  30 
inches,  or  at  that  temperature  the  tension  of  its 
vapour  is  one  atmosphere.  At  102°  F.,  or  50°  below 
its  boiling-point,  its  vapour  has  a  tension  of  10  inches 
of  mercury,  and  it  will  therefore  boil,  if  jilaced  in 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  as  soon  as  two-thirds  of 
the  air  h.ave  been  extracted. 

If  a  Uttle  water  be  boiled  in  an  open  flask  till  the 
steam  has  displaced  a  great  part  of  the  contained  air, 
and  the  flask  be  then  tightly  corked,  the  water  will 
gradually  cool.  If  the  flask  be  now  dipped  in  cold 
water,  boiling  recommences,  the  cold  water  having 
condensed  some  of  the  vapour,  and  so  diminished  the 
pressiire  on  the  contained  liquid.  Dip  the  flask 
in  Iwt  w,ater,  and  the  boiling  ceases.  These  appear- 
ances may  be  obtained  several  times  in  succession. 

A  fluid  cannot  be  heated  above  its  boiling-point, 
at  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmospliere  ;  but 
if  it  be  he.itetl  in  a  closed  vessel,  the  tension  of 
the  vapour  produced  is  to  be  taken  in  addition  to  the 


former  pressure,  and  the  boiling-point  rises  with  it. 
Thus,  when  the  pressure  is  equivalent  to  2  atmo- 
si)heres,  the  boiling-point  of  water  is  raised  40°  F. 
At  such  temperatures,  its  sol  vent  powers  are  greatly 
increased.  Many  minerals  which  are  foimd  in  tine 
crystals  are  supposed  to  have  been  deposited  from 
water  which  Imd  dissolved  them  in  large  quan- 
tities, under  the  combined  influences  of  pressure  and 
temi)erature.  Papin's  Digester  (q.  v.)  depends  upon 
this  principle. 

The  amount  of  evaporation  from  a  fluid  depends 
upon  many  circumstances.  As,  excejit  in  the  case 
of  actual  boihng,  it  takes  place  only  at  the  surface, 
the  amount  of  surface  exposed  is  an  important 
consideration  where  rapid  and  copious  evaporation  is 
required,  as  in  steam-boilers,  salt-pans,  &c.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  desirable  to  prevent  evaporation 
as  much  as  possible,  a  layer  of  oil,  preventing  direct 
contact  with  the  air,  is  of  great  use.  The  rate  of 
evaporation  depends  also  on  the  pressure,  and  varies, 
according  to  DanieU,  nearly  inversely  as  the  latter. 
His  experiments,  which  appear  tnistworthj',  were 
made  in  an  exhausted  receiver,  and  the  vapour  was 
removed  as  it  was  formed. 

In  the  conversion  of  a  fluid  into  vapour,  a  quantity 
of  heat  disappears  ;  i.  e.,  is  required  to  produce  and 
maintain  the  gaseous  state.  Thus,  the  temperature 
of  steam  at  30  inches  is  the  same  (to  the  ther- 
mometer) as  that  of  the  boiling  water  from  which 
it  comes  off;  but  the  heat  necessary  to  convert  a 
pound  of  water  at  212°  into  steam  at  212°,  woidd 
raise  nearly  1000  pounds  of  water  from  60°  to  fil°. 
See  Heat,  Latent.  When,  therefore,  a  fluid 
evaporates,  the  vapour  carries  off  heat  from  the  fluid, 
and  thus  evaporation  produces  cold.  This,  of  course, 
is  matter  of  dady  observation.  Porous  earthenware 
jara  are  employed  to  cool  water  in  summer  in  this 
climate ;  and  in  India,  ice  is  prociu-ed  by  exposing 
water  in  shallow  pans,  laid  on  straw,  to  the  com- 
bined effects  of  evaporation  and  radiation  at  night. 

On  the  same  princijile  depends  Sir  John  Leslie's 
method  of  freezing  water.  The  water  is  placed  in 
a  flat  porous  dish,  over  a  large  surface  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  whole  covered  with  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump.  WTien  a  good  vacuum 
has  been  produced,  there  is,  of  course,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  a  rapid  evaporation,  and  the  acid 
eagerly  absorbing  the  vapour  as  it  is  formed,  the  pro- 
cess goes  on  without  further  working  of  the  piunp, 
till  the  residual  water  has  become  a  solid  cake  of 
ice.  A  most  extraordinary  exami>le  of  this  produc- 
tion of  cold  is  afforded  by  the  freezing  of  water  on 
a  white  hot  plate — by  no  means  a  difficult  experi- 
ment. A  platinum  capside  is  heated  nearly  to 
whiteness  by  a  lamp  placed  underneath ;  a  little 
water,  mixed  with  sulphurous  acid,  which  is  an 
extremely  volatile  liquid  (indeed  it  is  gaseous  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  pressures),  is  poiu'ed  upon 
the  plate.  The  acid  instantly  evaporates,  and  the  cold 
produced  freezes  the  water,  which  can  be  dropped 
from  the  hot  plate  on  the  hand  as  a  liunp  of  ice. 

Another  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurs  in  the 
formation  of  soUd  carbonic  acid.  The  liquid  acid  is 
forced  by  the  pressure  of  its  own  vapour  in  a  fine 
stream  into  the  air  from  a  nozzle  in  the  strong  iron 
vessel  in  which  it  is  contained.  It  evaporates  so 
rapidly  in  air  that  a  portion  of  the  stream  is  frozen, 
and  the  delicate  snowlike  m.iss  can  be  collected  by 
projier  apjjaratus. 

Having  thus  briefly  examined  some  of  the  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  evaporation,  we  may 
proceed  to  mention  some  of  its  important  bearings 
on  meteorology.  In  this  respect,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  of  all  the  gigantic  processes  that  are 
continually  going  on  around  us.  Watery  vapour  is 
i  continually  rising  in\-isible  in  the  air ;  meeting  with 

171 


EVE— EVENING  SCHOOLS. 


a  collier  stratum  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  cold 
riilgc  of  a  mountaiu,  it  becomes  condenseil  into 
mists  or  cloiuls  :  the  tine  particles  of  these  unite 
into  larger  j;rou|)S,  and  fall  as  rain,  hail,  or  snow — to 
be  again  evaporated  by  heat  from  the  moist  gronnd, 
or  from  rivers,  lakes,  and  se,is.  Even  when  otlier- 
wise  invisible,  its  presence  may  be  detected  by  its 
deposition  as  Dew  (q.  v.),  and,  according  to  Clausius, 
in  the  blue  of  the  sky,  and  the  gorgeous  tints  of  sun- 
rise and  sunset  There  is  little  doubt  of  its  being 
also  intim.ately  connected  with  the  scintillation  of 
the  fixed  stars.  See  SciSTILL^VTION.  Atmosiiheric 
electricity  is  largely  due  to  evapor.ation  directly  as 
Well  as  indirectly,  on  account  of  the  amounts  of 
vapoiu-  contained  in  different  currents  of  air.  It  is 
matter  of  everyd.ay  observation  how  much  the 
drying  of  the  ground,  or  evaporation  generally,  is 
promoted  by  a  brisk  wind.  This  finds  its  explanation 
in  the  constant  removal  of  the  vapom-  as  it  is  formed, 
the  diffusion  of  the  vapour  taking  place  into  com- 
paratively dry  air  instead  of  the  moist  atmosphere 
into  which  it  woiJd  take  place  in  a  calm.  See  Kain 
and  Electricity,  Atmospheric. 

EVE  (Hob.  Chavvah,  i.  e.,  the  living),  the  name, 
according  to  the  Hebrew  narrative,  of  the  wife  of 
the  first  man,  and  so  the  mother  of  the  human  race. 
See  Adam  and  Eve. 

EVE'CTION,  a  lunar  inequality  resulting  from 
the  combined  effect  of  the  irregidarity  of  the  motion 
of  the  perigee,  and  alternate  increase  and  decrease 
of  the  eccentricity  of  the  moon's  orbit.  See  Lunak 
TUEOKY. 

EVELYN,  John,  a  well-known  writer  of  the  17th 
c,  was  born  October  .31,  1020,  at  Wotton,  the  seat 
of  the  Evelyn  family,  in  Surrey.  He  was  educated 
at  the  free  school  of  Lewes,  and  subsequently  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1640,  he  entered  the 
Middle  Temjile,  and  in  the  following  year,  prompted 
by  the  ominous  appearance  of  public  affairs,  and 
after  having  witnessed  the  trial  of  Strafford,  he  set 
out  for  the  continent,  returning,  however,  in  the 
autumn  of  the  s.ame  year.  In  1642,  upon  offering 
his  services  to  Charles  I.,  he  was  accepted  as  a 
volunteer  in  Prince  Rupert's  troop,  but  m  164.3  he 
again  went  to  the  continent,  where  he  mainly  lived 
during  the  following  eight  years.  After  1G52  he 
settled  in  England,  where  he  lived  studiously  and 
in  private  till  the  Restoration,  after  which  he  was 
much  employed  by  the  government.  On  the  organi- 
sation of  the  Royal  Society,  he  became  one  of 
the  first  members,  and  was  an  industrious  contri- 
butor to  its  Transactions.  He  succeeded  in  1609 
to  the  family  estate  at  Wotton,  and  there,  after  a 
long,  studious,  and  highly  useful  life,  he  died  27th 
February  1706. 

His  lien  seems  to  have  been  constantly  employed, 
and  that  upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Art, 
architecture,  gardening,  commerce,  &c.,  were  all 
treated  of  by  E.,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pro- 
duce the  most  beneficial  results  on  his  own  time. 
His  principal  works  are — Sculplura,  or  the  Hhlory 
and  A rt  of  Chalcography  and  Engraving  on  Copper, 
I(i{)2;  iSUva,  or  a  Discourse  of  Forest  Trees,  d-c, 
1001;  and  his  Menwirs  (first  pubUshed  in  1818). 
It  is  to  the  last  of  these  works  E.  owes  the  celebrity 
he  now  enjoys.  The  Memoirs  are  WTitten  in  the 
form  of  a  diary,  by  one  who  had  accustomed  himself 
to  habits  of  close  observatif)n,  and  continued  during 
a  period  of  about  70  years — and  these  the  most 
dramatic  in  the  recent  history  of  England.  They 
are  of  inestimable  value.  Sir  Walter  Scott  said 
that  'he  had  never  seen  a  mine  so  rich.'  A  new 
edition  was  published  in  1850,  and  another  in  1854. 


EVENING  PRIMROSE. 

IVi 


See  OJnothera. 


EVENING  SCHOOLS  m.ay  be  divided  into  two 
classes :  1.  Those  which,  either  in  the  form  of 
lectures  or  lessons,  carry  further  the  education 
received  at  school ;  2.  Those  which  exist  to  supple- 
ment the  defects  of  early  training,  or,  it  may  be,  to 
give  the  simplest  rudiments  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion to  adults  who  are  under  the  disadv,antage  of 
being  pupils  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives.  The 
former  are  found  chiefly  in  connection  with  mecha- 
nics' institutes*  (which  are  now  very  numerous  in 
Great  Britain,  and  form  one  of  the  most  important 
educational  agencies  we  have),  existing  day  schools, 
and  congi'eg.ational  organisations ;  the  latter  more 
frequently  fall  under  the  head  of  parochial  mis- 
sionary work,  or  arc  comiected  with  factories. 
These  Latter  constitute  the  class  of  evening  schools 
which  engage  the  largest  share  of  interest  in  the 
present  condition  of  England,  and  which  present 
the  greatest  difficulties  in  working. 

The  total  nimiber  of  evening  schools  of  this 
humbler  class  at  present  in  operation  in  England 
and  Wales  is  20,36  ;  of  these,  1547  are  conducted 
by  the  Church  of  England,  125  are  Congregational, 
108  British,  96  Roman  CathoUc,  73  Baptist,  37 
Unitarian,  21  Wesleyan,  6  .lewish,  9  Non-sectarian, 
and  14  Ragged.  The  tot.al  number  of  scholars  in 
attendance  is  80,966,  of  whom  54,511  are  male.  In 
Scotland,  primary  evening  schools  are  not  so  usual 
as  in  England  ;  and  this  is  no  doubt  to  be  greatly 
attributed  to  the  more  general  diffusion  of  education 
among  children  of  the  poorer  classes. 

Considering  the  large  proportion  of  the  present 
adult  population  un.able  to  re.ad  or  write,  the  numlier 
of  evening  schools  is  miserably  inadequate.  But 
the  necessity  for  their  institution  has  not  yet  been 
sufficiently  felt  by  the  country,  to  lead  to  their 
taking  a  much  more  important  place  in  the 
educational  machinery  of  the  nation  than  they 
have  hitherto  done.  Her  Majesty's  inspectors,  tlie 
Roy.al  Commissioners  (1861),  and  the  clergy  of  all 
denominations,  strongly  recommend  their  greater 
extension.  '  If  the  education  of  the  coimtry  were 
in  a  good  state,'  say  the  commissioners,  '  evening 
schools  woidd  be  nearly  universal,  and  would  serve 
to  compensate  the  scantiness  of  the  instruction 
given  in  day  schools,  by  giving  more  advanced 
instruction  to  an  older  class  of  scholars.' 

SUttc  Aid,  and  Voluntary  and  Paid  Teachers. — 
Many  educationists  have  come  to  the  conclusion, 
that  the  hope  of  retaining  children  in  school 
imtil  they  have  obtained  as  much  instruction  as 
is  requisite  for  their  guid.ance  in  life,  is  a  vain 
one,  and  consequently  look  to  evening  schools  as 
an  indispensable  part  of  a  national  system  of 
education,  and  consider  them  entitled  to  look  to 
the  state  for  encouragement  and  support  to  au 
equal  extent  with  day  schools.  Bishop  Hinds  was 
the  first  publicly  to  suggest  that  evening  schools 
faii'ly  come  within  the  sphere  of  st.ate  action,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr  Senior,  printed  in  18;i9.  The  recent 
inquiries  have  brought  out  th.at  the  m.ajority  of 
those  who  frequent  existing  evening  schools  have 
never  received  any  elementary  instruction,  or  have 
forgotten  what  they  once  knew,  and  that  a  large 
proportion  are  either  adults  or  adolescent  young 
men  and  women.  They  attend  for  the  purpose  of 
learning  to  read,  write,  and  cipher.  Though  in  many 
instances,  esjiecially  where  no  fee  is  charged,  the 
irregidarity  and  unpimctuality  of  the  attendance 
are  great,  yet  in  the  m.ajority  of  cases  there  is  an 
earnest  desire  on  the  part  of  the  puiiils  to  benefit 
by  the  instruction  they  receive.  It  is  a  question 
of  some  national  importance  how  far  schools  of  this 

*  The  Working-Man's  Collepo  in  London,  and  the 
Scliool  of  Aria  in  Edinburgh,  both  belong  to  this  class. 


EVENING  SCHOOLS— EVERETT. 


supplementary  class  shoulil  bo  left  to  the  action  of 
private  philanthropy.  It  is  also  a  question,  to  some 
extent  implied  in  the  other,  whether  the  peculiarly 
delicate  work  required  in  evenini;  schools  is  not 
more  efficiently  discharged  by  voluntary  than  by 
paid  laboiu'ers. 

1.  As  to  the  first  question,  it  may  be  safely 
said,  that  all  would  desire  to  see  those  wholesome 
channels  of  benevolence  which  connect  the  poor 
and  the  rich  free  from  government  interference ; 
but  if,  in  om-  devotion  to  a  theory,  we  neglect 
the  work,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  state  to 
see  to  it,  to  the  extent  of  encouragement  at  least, 
if  not  of  direction.  Since  Bishop  Hinds'  letter, 
to  which  we  have  referred  above,  the  education 
committee  of  the  privy  council  have  recognised  this 
duty,  and  have  given  aid  to  a  small  extent  to  all 
evening  schools  complying  with  certain  conditions, 
and  in  connection  with  day  schools.  By  the 
revised  code  recently  issued  by  the  privy  council, 
evening  schools  of  this  class  are  allowed  to  claim 
from  the  parliamentary  grant  Id.  for  every  attend- 
ance of  a  pupil  above  twelve  attendances.  The 
schools  must  be  taught  by  certificated  masters,  and 
lay  persons  are  alone  recognised.  To  all  those 
schools  frequented  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  or 
extending  pre^^ous  knowledge,  this  new  code  wHl 
be  of  gi'eat  assistance,  as  there  is  a  tendency  to 
engage  trained  teachers  for  such  schools ;  to  those 
which  are  chiefly  frequented  by  adults  wholly  igno- 
rant of  the  simplest  elements,  and  chiefly  conducted 
by  voluntary  teachers,  it  will  afl'ord  little  or  no 
advantage,  because  the  conductors  will  not  be  able 
to  claim  so  large  a  sum  as  woidd  sulfice  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  certificated  masters.  Nor,  perhajjs,  is  it 
desirable  to  interfere  with  this  particular  class  of 
evening  schools ;  it  is  of  more  importance,  so  far 
as  state  aid  is  concerned,  that  the  education  of  the 
primary  school  should  be  confirmed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  evening  schools  for  boi;s  and  girls.  There 
is  active  benevolence  enough  abroad  to  overtake 
the  ignorance  of  the  adult  population,  if  properly 
stimulated  by  the  various  religious  bodies. 

The  jjroposed  new  arrangements  as  to  paj-ment 
may  also  lead  to  the  gieater  separation  of  such 
scliools  into  schools  for  lioys  and  girls  above  1.3 
and  imder  18,  and  schools  for  adults.  It  is  foimd 
that  boys  and  men,  girls  and  women,  do  not  work 
well  together. 

2.  As  to  the  second  question  :  in  those  evening 
schools  which  are  only  a  continuation  of  the  day 
school,  the  same  method  will  generally  be  found 
to  suit  as  in  the  prim.ary  schools ;  and  therefore  it 
seems  advisable  that  they  should  be  conducted  by 
paid  certificated  teachers,  acting  \mder  managers  (as 
in  the  case  of  ordinary  day  schools),  and  claiming 
grants  from  the  privy  council.  Those  schools,  again, 
which  are  frequented  by  adidts,  who  come  to  receive 
the  elements  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic 
for  the  first  time,  require  more  delicate  handling, 
and  A  greater  consideration  of  individual  character 
and  wants  than  are  requisite  in  a  school  attended 
by  boys  and  girls.  In  such  cases,  voluntary  effort 
under  the  influence  of  religious  or  merely  philan- 
thropic motives  a])pears  to  be  the  best  agency.  The 
ignorance  of  method  displaye<l  by  such  teachers,  | 
and  the  irregular  manner  in  which  many  of  them 
hang  to  their  work,  are  no  doubt  serious  difficulties ; 
but  they  may  be  overcome  by  the  institution  of 
diocesan  or  other  unions,  in  imitation  of  the  East 
Lancashire  Union  of  evening  schools  under  the 
presidency  of  Sir  J.  P.  K.  Shuttleworth,  with  each  of 
which  might  be  connected  an  organising  master, 
who  should  itinerate  among  the  schools,  giving  the 
benefit  of  his  sui>erior  knowledge  of  method. 

iiulijccti  and  Slct/wd. — As  to  subjects  to  be  taught, 


we  have  little  to  say  to  that  class  of  evening  schools 
which  continue  the  work  of  the  day  schooL  It  is  to 
be  presmned  that  practical  instruction  (and  what 
else  should  be  aimed  at  in  such  schools  ?)  will 
embrace  the  elements  of  those  sciences  which  bear 
most  directly  on  life.  We  refer  to  social  economy 
and  the  laws  of  health.  Evening  schools  of  the 
humbler  and  more  urgent  sort  will  necessarily  con- 
fine themselves  to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
inventing  such  methods  of  teaching  those  subjects 
as  will  most  directly  touch  the  intelligence  and 
engage  the  interest.  The  short  period  of  attendance 
requires  that  much  be  done  rather  than  many  things. 
Through  a  weU-coustructed  course  of  reading-books 
(imfortimately,  there  is  no  reading  series  for  adults 
worthy  of  mention),  all  the  general  culture  and 
specific  information  attainable  will  best  be  given. 
If  such  reading-books  do  not  furnish  adequate 
information  on  social  economy  in  its  domestic  and 
its  wider  social  relations,  and  on  the  laws  of 
health,  they  sadly  misunderstand  their  position  in 
educational  literature.  Instruction  in  writing  and 
arithmetic  should  be  given  in  such  a  way  as  vrill 
naturally  connect  itself  with  the  lives  and  daily 
necessities  of  the  learners.  But  this  is  not  the 
place  to  treat  of  the  subject  of  method. 

IRstortj. — Although  we  have  directed  attention 
to  the  fact,  that  Bishop  Hinds  was  the  first  in  tliis 
country  to  advocate  state  recognition  for  evening 
schools,  he  was  by  no  means  the  first  to  feel  the 
necessity  that  existed  for  them.  The  first  school 
established  exclusively  for  adults  was  at  Bala,  in 
Merionethshire,  in  1811,  by  the  Kev.  T.  Charles.  In 
181'2,  a  similar  school  was  set  on  foot  in  Bristol  by 
William  Smith  and  Stephen  Prout,  a  school  which 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  '  Bristol  Institution 
for  instructing  adidts  to  read  the  Holy  .Scriptures.' 
In  181.3,  ■\\Titiug  was  included  m  the  school  pro- 
gTamme ;  and  in  1816,  a  society  of  the  same  kind 
was  foimded  in  London.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  thirty  towns  possessed  similar  schools.  The 
first  evening  school  proper  for  instructing  boys  and 
girls  who  had  to  work  all  day  for  a  livelihood,  was 
founded  in  1806  at  Bristol,  by  the  'Benevolent 
Evening  Schools'  Society.'  The  present  statistics  of 
evening  schools  have  been  already  given. 

In  other  coimtries  of  Europe,  evening  schools, 
where  they  exist,  have  mainly  in  view  the  continu- 
ance of  the  education  already  received  in  primary 
schools.  In  France,  however,.the  wants  of  >mtaught 
adidts  have  been  jiroWded  for  by  the  establishment 
by  law  of  evening  schools  suited  to  them.  In  all 
the  states  of  Germany,  pro\-ision  is  made  more  or 
less  in  the  coimtry  districts,  and  always  in  the 
large  towns,  for  continuing  the  instruction  given 
in  the  primary  schools.  Schools  for  those  who 
wish  to  learn  reading  and  writing  for  the  first  time 
seem  scarcely  to  exist,  probably  because  they  are 
not  needed.  The  schools  which  do  exist  have  a 
greater  affinity  to  our  Mechanics'  Institutes  than 
to  any  other  kind  of  institution  in  this  country. 
The  instruction  is  given  on  Sundaj's  and  holidays, 
and  in  many  places  also  on  one  or  two  evenin<;s  in 
the  week.  But  Sunday  instruction  seems  alone  to 
have  been  originally  contemplated.  The  subjects 
taught  are  the  ordinary  branches,  with  geography, 
free-hand  and  geometrical  drawing,  geometry,  and 
in  some  cases  the  elements  of  natural  science  and 
the  laws  of  health.  These  institutions  are  supported 
by  the  funds  of  the  commime  or  district ;  in  some 
cases  supi)lemented  by  the  state. 

E'VERETT,  ALE.XAKDER  Hill,  an  American 
diplomatist  and  author,  was  born  at  Boston,  in 
Massachusetts,  19th  March  1792,  and  entered 
Harvard  College  in  1802.  In  1806,  althou;;h  the 
yoimgest   of    the   alumni,    he  graduated  ■nith   the 

173 


EVERETT— EVERSLEY. 


highest  honours.  After  practising  for  some  time 
as  a  Liwyer,  he  was  ajipoiutod  Uuitt'd  States 
anihassaUor  at  the  Ila'^ie  in  1S18 ;  and  went  in 
tlie  s.ime  capacity  to  Spain  in  1825.  Four  years 
afterwards,  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
wliere  he  becime  i>roprietor  and  editor  of  The 
North  American  Heview  (1830—1835),  and  also 
occupied  a  seat  in  the  legislature  of  Mass.iehusetts. 
In  the  -winter  of  1840,  ho  resided,  as  a  contideutial 
a<;cnt  of  the  United  States  government,  in  the 
island  of  Cuba.  He  sailed  for  China  as  minister- 
jilenipotentiary  for  that  empire  in  1845,  and  died 
at  Canton,  June  28,  1847.  E.  w.i3  a  man  of  great 
versatility  of  talent  and  of  extensive  erudition. 
Politics  and  belles-lettres,  poUtical  economy  and 
poetry,  statistics  and  aisthetics,  alternately  engaged 
his  thoughts  and  pen.  His  writings  axe— Europe, 
or  a  General  Survey  of  the  Political  Situation  of 
the  Principal  Powers,  &c.  (London  and  Boston, 
1822);  New  Ideas  on  Population,  &c  (London  and 
Boston,  1822) ;  America,  or  a  General  Survey  of 
tlie  Political  Situation  of  the  sevei-al  Powers  of  the 
Western  Continent,  &c.  "(Phila.  1S27),  in  which  he 
labours  to  shew  that  Russia  and  the  United  States 
must  iu  the  long-run  share  the  continent  between 
tbem  ;  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays  (two  series, 
Boston,  1845  and  1847).  These  are  on  a  vast  variety 
of  subjects,  and  are  probably  the  most  interesting 
]iroductions  of  his  pen.  E.  also  pubUshed  a  volimie 
of  poems  in  1845. 

EVERETT,  Edward,  a  yoimger  brother  of  the 
precetling,  w.as  bom  iu  1794  at  Dorchester,  near 
IJoston,  Slassachusetts,  entered  Harvard  College  in 
1S07,  and  took  his  degree  in  1811.  He  was  for 
some  time  a  Unitarian  clergyman  in  the  tovni  of 
Cambridge,  and  iu  this  capacity  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  pathetic 
preachers  in  the  United  States.  In  1815,  he  was 
elected  professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Litera- 
ture in  Harvard  College ;  and  to  qualify  himself 
more  thorouglJy  for  his  work,  he  \'isited  Europe, 
where  he  resided  for  four  years,  and  had  a  distin- 
piished  circle  of  acquaintance,  including  Scott, 
Byron,  Jeffrey,  Romilly,  Davy,  &c.  M.  Cousin, 
the  French  philosopher  and  translator  of  Plato, 
pronoimced  him  'one  of  the  best  Grecians  he  ever 
luiew.'  In  1820,  E.  became  editor  of  The  Korth 
American  lieview ;  and  in  1824,  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Congress,  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  for  ten  j-ears.  In  1835,  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts  ;  and  in  1841, 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  coiu't  of  St  James's. 
While  in  England,  he  received  from  the  universities 
of  O.xford,  Cambridge,  and  Dublin  the  degree  of 
D.C.L.  On  his  retiu-n  to  America  in  1845,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College ;  on  the  decease 
of  Daniel  Webster,  he  became  secretary  of  state ; 
and  in  1853,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  chose 
hiin  as  a  member  of  the  senate  of  the  United 
States.     He  died  J;ui.  1SG5. 

E.'s  principal  works  are  :  A  Defence  of  Christianity 
(1814);  Orations  and  Spceclics  on  Various  Occasions 
from  1825  to  183G  (1836) ;  and  Orations  and  SpeecJtes 
on  Various  Occasions  from  1825  to  1850.  This 
includes  all  the  previous  orations.  These  Orations, 
aa  they  are  called,  are  njion  all  subjects,  and,  like 
tlie  wTitings  of  his  brother,  indicate  a  varied,  wgorous, 
and  flexible  genius. 

E'VERGREENS  are  those  trees  and  shrubs  of 
■which  the  leaves  do  not  fall  off  in  autumn,  but 
retain  their  freshness  and  verdure  throughout  the 
winter,  and  perfonn  their  functions  during  more 
tliaii  ime  season.  Evergreen  leaves  are  generally  of 
thicker  ami  lii-mer  texture  than  the  leaves  of  deci- 
duous trees  and  shrubs.     They  have  also  fewer  pores 


or  Stomata  (q.  v.),  and  these  confined  to  their  under 
surface.  Evergreen  leaves  ar»  sometimes  very  small, 
as  in  firs  anil  heaths ;  sometimes  pretty  large,  as  in 
rhododendrons,  laurels,  magnolias,  &c.  E.,  both 
trees  and  shrubs,  have  always  been  much  sought 
after  by  the  landscape  gardener,  and  for  jiurposes  of 
ornament  and  shelter.  Some  orders  of  pLauts  consist 
exclusively,  or  nearly  so,  of  E.,  whilst  in  others 
they  exist  only  as  exceptional  sjiecies.  Most  of  the 
Conifene  are  E. ;  and  the  sombre  green  of  ]>incs, 
firs,  cj-presses,  &c.,  is  a  ]>revalent  enaractcristic  of 
northern  scenery  both  in  summer  and  winter; 
whilst  the  undiminislied  thickness  of  the  foUage 
atl'6rds  winter  shelter  to  animals  wliich  could  not 
so  well  exist  in  forests  composed  merely  of  decidu- 
ous trees.  Holly  and  ivy  are  amongst  the  llnest 
British  E. ;  the  box,  privet,  and  dili'erent  kinds 
of  bay  and  laurel,  rhododendron,  jihyllirea,  mjTtlo, 
&c.,  are  also  familiar  to  every  one.  As  instances 
of  genera  in  which  some  species  are  evergreen 
and  others  deciduous,  may  be  mentioned  barberry 
and  cytisus.  Many  tine  new  ornamental  E.  have 
recently  been  introduced.  As  suitable  for  imparting 
a  lively  appearance,  boughs  of  E.  are  largely 
emidoyed  in  Great  Britain  to  decorate  the  walls  of 
pubhc  places  of  assemblage,  triumphal  arches,  &c., 
on  festive  occasions. 

EVERLA'STING  FLOWER,  the  popular  name 
of  certain  jilants,  the  flowers  of  which  EiifTer  little 
change  of  appearance  in  drying,  and  may  be  kept 
for  years  without  much  diminution  of  beauty.  They 
are  plants  of  the  order  Composita;  haWng  their 
flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  surrounded  with  an  invo- 
lucre ;  the  scales  of  which  resemble  the  petals  of 
a  corolla,  but  are  rigid,  membranous,  and  contain 
little  moisture.  Some  species  of  Cudweed  (q.  v.) 
{G'naphalium)  are  often  called  E.  F.,  and  the  other 
plants  which  bear  the  name  belong  to  nearly  aUied 
genera,  but  i)artieularly  to  the  genus  Jlelichrysum, 
which  contains  a  great  number  of  species,  mostly 
n.atives  of  Africa.  H.  arenarium  is  frequent  ou 
dry  sandy  soils  iu  many  p.arts  of  Europe  and  the 
central  latitudes  of  Asia.  It  is  covered  with  a  gr.ay 
felted  down,  and  has  yellow  flowers,  which,  wheu 
rubbed,  emit  a  faint  arom.atio  odour.  It  is  often 
worn  ou  the  continent  of  Europe  as  an  oniament 
in  the  hat,  particularly  by  wagoners.  II.  angnsli- 
folium  and  JI.  Stcechas — shnibby  species,  natives  of 
the  south  of  Europe — have  larger  yellow  flowei-s. 
Some  of  the  species  have  a  powerful  and  pleasant 
aromatic  odour.  No  species  of  Jlelichrysum  is  a 
native  of  Britain.  Several  kinds  of  E  F.  are  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  in  our  gardens,  others  in  green- 
houses. The  French  call  them  Immortelles,  and  in 
France  they  are  often  woven  mto  circular  WTcaths, 
and  placed  beside  recent  graves,  as  emblems  of 
immortaUtj'. 

E'VERSLEY,  Viscount,  ex-Speaker  of  the  Houso 
of  Commons.  Chakles  Suaw  Lefevke,  born  iu 
1794,  is  descended  maternally  from  the  LefevTCS, 
who  came  to  England  from  Rouen  on  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1819,  entered 
jiarliamcnt  iu  1830  .as  nieinl>cr  for  Downton,  and 
represented  Hants  from  1831  to  1857.  In  1839  he 
was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
.and  re-elected  in  the  ]iarliaments  of  1841,  1847,  and 
1852.  He  retireil  from  the  olGce  in  1S57,  with  a 
pcer.age  and  a  pension  of  £4000  a  year.  During  the 
eighteen  years  of  his  Speakership,  he  suggested  and 
carried  out  many  improvements  in  the  forms  and 
])rocedme  of  the  Lower  House,  tending  to  the 
ilispateh  of  business.  T.all,  and  dignilied  in  person, 
affable  and  accessible  to  the  younger  members,  to 


EVESHAM— EVIDENCE. 


whom  he  was  ever  ready  to  impart  the  results  of 
his  knowledge  and  experience,  profoimdly  versed 
in  the  laws  of  debate  and  practice  of  the  House, 
he  was  aiknirably  qualified,  by  natiu-e  and  training, 
to  enjoy  the  distinction  of  '  first  commoner  of  Eng- 
land,' and  to  preside  over  the  greatest  deUberative 
assembly  in  the  workL  His  impartiality  was  never 
questioned,  and  his  retirement  from  the  Lo%ver 
House  was  universally  regretted.  He  was  a]ipointed 
governor  and  captain  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, .  and 
governor  of  Carisbrooke  Castle  in  October  18u7. 

E'VESHASI,  oripnally  EovEsn.ur,  a  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  iu  the  south-east  of 
Worcestershire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  navigable 
Avon,  15  miles  south-east  of  Worcester.  It  lies 
in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  vale,  in  which  are  m.Tjiy 
market-gaixlens  and  orchards.  It  has  some  manu- 
factures of  amcultural  implements.  Pop.  (1861) 
4G80.  It  sends  two  members  to  parliament.  An 
abbey  was  foimded  here  about  700;  and  there  still 
exists  a  bell-tower,  28  feet  square  at  the  base,  and 
110  feet  high,  erected  by  Bishop  Lichfield  immeili- 
ately  before  the  Reformation.  Here  Prince  Edward, 
afterwards  Edward  I.,  defeated  Simon  lloutfort, 
Earl  of  Leicester,  in  1265. 

EVI'CTION,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the 
dispossessing  one  of  property,  wJiether  in  land 
or  movables,  in  virtue  of  a  [ireferable  title  in  the 
person  of  him  by  whom  the  e\-iction  is  made.  The 
same  exjiression  is  used  in  England  as  to  property 
iu  land ;  but  whei'o  the  tenant  is  merely  deprived  of 
possession,  it  is  called  Ouster. 

E'VIDENCE,  Legai,.  Evidence  is  either  parole 
or  \^Titten,  the  former  consisting  of  the  statements 
of  'witnesses  appearing  personallj-  in  coiu^,  and  which 
statements  must  be  attested  by  an  oath  or  solemn 
declaration ;  the  latter  consisting  of  records,  deeds, 
and  other  ATitings. 

The  tendency,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  of 
late  years,  has  been  to  abolish  all  restrictions  on  the 
admissibility  of  witnesses,  and  to  bring  the  rule 
practically  to  what  Blackstono  stated  it  to  be  in 
theory,  viz.,  '  all  ■witnesses  that  have  the  i;se  of 
their  reason  are  to  be  received  and  examined.'  The 
ground  on  which  witnesses  were  formerly  excluded 
was  uutrustworthiness,  arising  either  from  the 
character  of  the  witnesses  or  their  interest  in  the 
suit.  Under  the  former  head  fell  those  who  were 
legally  Infamous  (q.  v.) ;  whilst  the  latter  included, 
first,  the  party  to  the  suit  himself,  and  then  all  who 
were  connected  with  him  by  the  ties  of  family,  or 
even  of  business,  in  any  appreciable  degree.  Gradu- 
ally, however,  it  came  to  be  seen  that,  though 
witnesses  subject  to  these  objections  were  less 
valuable  than  nthers  to  the  party  adducing  them,  it 
by  no  means  followed  that  their  testimony  was  of 
no  value  at  all,  and  that  the  safer  course  in  all  cases 
was  to  examine  them,  and  then  to  allow  their  testi- 
mony to  be  invalidated  by  proof  of  their  interest  in 
the  cause  direct  or  indirect,  or  of  their  having  been 
couWcted  of  such  crimes  as  to  render  it  unlikely 
that  they  should  speak  the  truth.  The  objections 
have  thus  become  objcLtions  not  to  the  admis- 
sibility or  competency,  but  to  the'  credibility  of 
witnesses.  The  first  of  the  very  important  statutes 
by  which  these  changes  were  effected  was  9  Geo. 
IV.  0.  .S2,  which  permitted  Quakers  and  Moravians 
to  substitute  a  solemn  affirmation  for  an  oath ; 
admitted  the  jiarty  whose  name  had  been  forged 
as  a  'witness  in  prosecutions  for  forgery ;  and  pro- 
vided that  no  misdemeanour  (except  perjury)  shall 
render  a  party  an  incomi)etent  witness  after  he 
has  undergone  the  punishment.  Then  came  the 
Scotch  Act  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  59,  afterwards  referred 
to,  and  the  English  Act  G  and  7  Vict.  c.  85,  which 


provided  that  no  person  ofifered  as  a  witness  shall 
hereafter  be  excluded,  by  reason  of  incapacity 
from  crime  or  interest,  from  giving  evidence  eitlicr 
in  person  or  by  deposition  on  any  issue  or  inquiry 
civil  or  criminal,  but  shall  be  admitted  notwith- 
standing he  may  have  an  interest  in  the  matter 
in  question,  or  in  the  event  of  the  trial  or  pro- 
ceeding, and  notwithstanding  that  he  may  have 
been  previously  convicted  of  any  crime  or  offence. 
The  same  principle  was  extended  by  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  99  to  the  parties  to  a  cause,  who  are  not 
oidy  competent,  but  compellable  to  give  evidence 
on  behalf  of  either  or  any  of  the  parties — subject 
only  to  exception  where  the  question  tends  to  crimi- 
nate the  person  examined,  or  where  it  is  put  in 
any  action  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  or  any 
action  or  proceeding  instituted  in  consequence  of 
adidtery.  By  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  83,  the  former 
Stat.  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  99,  was  amended  to  the 
effect,  that  the  husband  or  vvife  of  the  party 
shall  be  in  the  same  position  with  the  J>arty  him- 
seh' — subject  only  to  these  exceptions,  first,  that 
the  husband  or  wife  cauuot  give  evidence  for  or 
against  each  other  in  criminal  proceedings,  or 
proceedings  in  consequence  of  adultery,  and  that 
they  cannot  be  compelled  to  disclose  matters  which 
they  have  learned  by  communications  from  each 
other  dm-ing  the  marriage.  The  statutes  by  which 
the  corresponding  changes  were  effected  iu  Scotland 
were  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  59,  15  and  IG  Vict,  c  27,  and 
16  and  17  Vict.  c.  20. 

The  Oath  (q.  v.)  to  'speak  the  tnith,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,'  is  administered 
to  'witnesses  in  England  on  the  New  Testament, 
in  Scotland,  holding  up  the  right  hand.  Q\iaker3 
and  membei-s  of  other  denominations  who  object 
to  the  use  of  an  oath,  as  formerly  observed,  emit 
a  solemn  Aflii-mation  (q.  v.) ;  and  persons  who  are 
not  Christians  are  sworn,  or  otherwise  bound  over 
to  speak  the  truth  by  such  forms  as  are  conceived 
to  be  appropriate  to  their  respective  creeds.  The 
test  of  the  amount  of  religious  belief  which  'vvill 
suffice  to  render  a  witness  admissible,  has  been 
generally  considered  to  be  a  belief  in  future  rewards 
and  pimishments  ;  but  there  is  no  decision  which 
fixes  the  point,  and  in  England,  behef  in  a  God 
whose  rewards  and  punishments  extend  only  to  this 
life  is  considered  sufficient  (Starkie,  4th  ed.  p.  116; 
Dickson,  p.  849).  There  seems  reason  to  think,  how- 
ever, that  this  restriction  is  removed  by  1  and  2 
Vict.  c.  105,  which  provides  that  all  persons  shall  bo 
bound  by  the  oath  administered  in  the  form  and 
with  such  ceremonies  as  such  persons  shall  declare 
to  be  binding. 

It  is  a  general  rule  of  the  law  of  evidence,  that  a 
witness  is  not  bound  to  criminate  himself,  and  he 
may  consequently  decline  to  answer  any  question 
that  tends  to  exjiose  him  to  punishment  as  a 
criminal,  or  to  penal  liabdity,  or  to  forfeitme  of  any 
kind.  If  the  effect  of  the  question  be  merely  to 
establish  that  he  owes  a  debt,  or  is  otherwise 
subject  to  a  civil  suit,  the  exception  wiU  not  hold, 
and  he  will  be  bound  to  .answer  it  (46  Geo.  111. 
c.  37).  The  rule  in  England  is,  that  a  counsel, 
attorney,  or  solicitor  is  not  boimd,  or  even  entitled,  to 
diviUge  the  secrets  of  the  cause  with  which  he  Las 
been  intrusted ;  and  the  recent  Scottish  Act  15  and  16 
Vict.  c.  27,  3.  1,  preserves  the  same  exception  'nith 
reference  to  agents  who  shall  at  the  time  when  so 
adduced  be  acting  iu  that  capacity.  Neither  can 
official  persons  be  called  upon  to  disclose  mattera  of 
state,  the  publication  of  which  might  be  jirejudicial 
to  the  community.  All  other  professional  pers<ms, 
however— lawj'ers  not  engaged  in  the  cause,  physi- 
cians, surgeons,  and  divines,  must  divulge  all  secrets 
relevant  to  the  issue  with  which  they  Uave  become 

175 


EVroEXCE-EVri.. 


acf[uainto<l,  even  in  the  strictest  ]>rofessinnal  con- 
fidence. Sec  CoN'FESsioNAL.  Neither  will  a  servant 
nor  private  friend  be  allowed  to  withhold  a  relevant 
act,  thouch  of  the  most  delicate  nature.  | 

One  witness  in  England  is  sufficient  in  law,  if  the 
jnrj'  arc  willing;  to  .accept  a  fact  on  liia  testimony, 
ami  in  long  chains  of  evidence  it  is  often  impossible 
that  more  than  one  witness  should  be  adduced  to 
make  out  some  of  the  links  of  it.  In  gener-ol, 
however,  there  will  be  some  fact  or  circumstance 
which  will  .act  as  a  supplementary  adminicle,  if  the 
testimony  be  reliable  ;  and  it  is  this  fact  wliich  has 
rendered  the  jiractical  eft'ect  of  the  opposite  rule,  j 
which  demands  two  witnesses,  in  Scotland,  not  very  i 
difl'erent.  The  w.ant  of  a  second  witness  is  usu.ally 
supplied  by  a  witness  to  circimistancos  which  are 
corroborative  of  the  evidence  of  the  first ;  and  where 
the  one  witness  is  not  so  corroborated  in  England,  he 
will  rarely  be  believed.  It  is  a  rule  that  none  but 
the  best  evidence  shall  be  adduced,  which  means  I 
that  secondary  shall  not  be  substituted  for  prim.ary 
evidence  where  the  latter  is  accessible ;  a  riUe  , 
founded  on  the  presumption  th.at  such  a  substitution  j 
is  probably  prompted  by  a  sinister  motive.  This 
rule  applies  to  \vritten  as  well  as  oral  testimony, 
and  excludes  copies  of  documents,  just  as  it 
excludes  the '  hearsay '  of  witnesses.  See  0.\th,  Jury, 
Witness,  Deed,  Testing,  &c.  The  best  works  on 
eWdence  in  English  are  Starkie  (English),  Grcenleaf 
(American),  and  Dickson  (Scotch). 

E'VIL  may  be  generally  defined  as  that  which 
is  opposed  to  the  di\nne  order  of  the  universe.  It 
requires  onlj'  a  superfici.al  observation  to  perceive, 
that  there  are  many  apparent  exceptions  to  the 
jiervading  harmony  and  happiness  of  creation : 
there  are  convidsions  in  the  physical  world ;  there 
are  suffering,  decay,  and  death  throughout  the  whole 
range  of  organic  existence ;  and  the  appell,ation  of  evd 
is  conimoiuy  applied  to  such  phenomena.  In  the 
face  of  the  human  consciousness,  such  phenomena 
appeal'  to  be  infractions  of  the  gener.al  order  and 
good,  and  it  pronoimces  them  evil.  How  far  the 
internal  feeling  of  wrong  h.as  been  quickened  and 
educated  by  such  outward  facts,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say,  but,  beyond  doubt,  they  have  exer- 
cised upon  it  a  powerful  influence.  Every  form  of 
religion  testifies  to  the  recognition  of  e\Tl  in  the 
external  world,  and  superstition  in  all  its  shapes 
mainly  rests  upon  it. 

But  it  is  in  the  sphere  of  moral  life  alone  that  the 
concei>tion  of  evU  can  be  said  to  hold  good.  After 
the  light  of  science  h.as  explored  the  secrets  of  nature, 
and  she«Ti  how  aU  its  .apparent  anom.alies  .are 
merely  manifestations  of  a  comprehensive  harmony, 
the  idea  of  e\nl  is  dispelled  from  the  material  and 
merely  organic  creation.  '  ^\'^latever  is,  is  best,'  is 
seen  to  be  everJ^vhere  the  law  of  this  creation. 
There  remains,  however,  the  ineradicable  feeling  of 
evil  in  human  life  and  manners  and  historj-.  There  | 
is  in  the  moral  consciousness  of  man  a  sense  of  \ 
viol.ated  order,  of  transgression  of  divine  law,  or  ; 
what  is  called  sin,  which  is  einl  in  its  essential  form. 
This  fact  of  evil  is  everj-where  apjiealed  to  by  the 
•  -'hristian  religion;  it  is  the  aim  of  this  religion  to 
deliver  men  from  its  power  and  misery.  Every 
ethical  and  judicial  code  is  based  upon  its  recog- 
nition, and  is  designed  to  protect  human  society 
from  its  injurious  consequences.  It  cannot  be 
better  or  more  clearly  defined  than  in  the  language 
already  given,  viz.,  the  transgression  of  the  iliviue 
law  revealed  in  conscience  and  in  Scripture, 

Tlic  qiiestion  of  the  orirjiii  of  evil  h.a3  been  greatly 
discussed,  and  received  various  answers.  Tlie  sim- 
l)lest  and  most  direct  of  these  answers  is  that  which 
maintains  a  double  origin  of  thing.s,  or  a  system  of 
dualism.    This  conception  lies  at  the  bases  of  many 


forms  of  religion;  it  may  be  said  to  l>e  the  funda- 
mental conception  of  .all  mere  nature -religions. 
Interpreting  the  i^bvious  appearances  of  nature, 
they  embody  in  divine  personalities  its  contending 
manifestations  of  light  and  d.arkncss,  benignity  and 
terror.  The  opirosition  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman 
in  the  old  /Coro.astrian  faith  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous exam]ilc3  of  this  religious  dualism.  Mani- 
cheism,  which  spretwl  so  widely  in  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries,  and  the  Syrian  gnosticism  from  which  it 
sprimg,  arc  also  historical  illustrations  of  the  same 
principle. 

The  dualistic  theory  of  the  origin  of  evil,  how- 
ever, could  not  obviously  maintain  itself  with  the 
advance  of  speculation  and  the  sjiread  of  Christian 
truth.  It  wjis  no  less  clearly  a  postulate  of  the 
cultivated  reason  than  a  dictate  of  divine  revela- 
tion, that  the  world  proceeded  from  One  absolutely 
Dirine  Creator,  holy  and  good,  of  whom,  ami 
thi-ough  whom,  and  to  whom  are  .all  things.  It 
was  necessary,  therefore,  to  reconcile  the  appearance 
of  evil  with  this  fundameut.al  admission. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Fall,  especially  in  the  Later 
form  of  development  which  connects  it  with  the 
existence  of  a  devil  or  evil  spirit,  tempting  man 
in  the  shape  of  the  serpent,  was  supposed  to 
explain  the  appearance  of  evil  in  human  history. 
Being  tempted  of  the  devil,  man  sinned,  and  so 
fell  from  his  obedience  to  the  diWne  law.  This  is 
the  doctrine  of  orthodox  Christian  theologj',  and 
the  answer  which  it  gives  to  the  inquiry,  how 
sin  came  into  the  world?  And  many  minds  never 
think  of  carrj-ing  the  inquiry  further.  It  is  clear, 
however,  ,that  this  explanation  of  the  historical 
origin  of  e\-il  leaves  the  question  of  its  real  and 
.absolute  origin  unsettled.  The  devil  being  assumed 
as  the  cause  of  m.an's  sin,  the  further  question 
arises,  whence  the  devU?  Is  he  .an  absolute  per- 
sonality? in  which  case  we  are  landed  in  the 
old  theory  of  du,alism ;  or  is  he,  according  to  the 
traditionary  Christian  conception,  a  fallen  augel  ?  iu 
which  case  the  question  just  returns,  whence  the 
spring  of  e\'il  in  him  ?  There  is  no  real  explanation 
gained  by  this  remov.al  of  the  question ;  it  is  still 
the  same  difficulty — whence  the  origin  of  evil  iu  the 
creation  of  an  all-perfect  being,  almighty  as  well 
as  all- wise  and  good  ? 

Speculation  may  jilcase  itself  \vith  ingenious 
answers  to  this  question,  but  in  truth  it  admits 
of  no  satisfactory  solution.  Some,  for  example, 
have  argued  that  evil,  like  darkness  or  cold,  is  an 
indispensable  element  of  alternation  or  contrast  in 
himjan  life.  All  indiNadu.al  reality  is  only  the  pro- 
duct of  opposite  forces  working  together.  Ch.aractcr 
could  only  arise  from  the  interaction  of  opposing 
ethical  influences  of  good  and  evil.  In  nature,  wo 
have  attraction  and  repulsion,  rest  and  motion, 
])Ositive  and  neg.ative  electricity ;  why  shoidd  it  be 
different  in  the  sphere  of  morals  ?  Here,  too,  there 
must  be  pol.ority.  Good  can  only  exist  in  contra- 
distinction to  evil ;  the  one  no  less  than  the  other 
is  necessary  to  constitute  the  drama  of  human 
life  and  history.  Others,  again,  have  argued,  that 
evil  is  the  result  of  wliiit  is  called  met.aphysical 
imperfection.  God  .alone  can  be  perfectly  good.  The 
creature,  in  its  very  nature,  is  limited,  defective ; 
and  eril  is  nothing  else  than  the  evidence  of  this 
limitation  in  m.an.  It  is  not  something  real  or 
positive,  but  only  a  privation.  It  is  in  morals  wh.at  < 
cold  and  darkness  are  in  physics,  a  jnire  neg.ation. 
Thus  have  argued  such  profoimd  thinkers  as 
Augustine  and  Leibnitz.  But  it  requires  but  little 
jienetration  to  see  that  such  arguments,  however 
ingenious,  and  so  far  well  founded,  do  not  meet  the 
essential  difficulty  of  the  problem.  If  evil  be,  .accord- 
ing to  such  views,  a  nccessaiy  element  of  human  life, 


EVIL— EVOLUTE  AND  INVOLUTE. 


in  the  one  case,  in  onler  to  develop  its  actirity, 
in  the  other  case,  as  chnging  to  its  creaturely  limi- 
tations, then  plainly  it  is  not,  in  the  orthodox 
sense  of  the  word,  evil.  It  is  not,  and  cannot  be  a 
contradiction  of  the  true  idea  of  human  life,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  necessary  element  of  it.  Whatever 
necessarily  hclongs  to  life,  must  help  its  true  develo}>- 
ment,  and  not  injure  and  destroy  it ;  must  be  <jood, 
in  short,  and  not  evil.  Such  theories,  therefore,  only 
solve  the  prol)leni  by  eliminatmg  the  fact.  The 
origin  of  evil  must  remain  for  ever  inscrutable  ;  nor 
is  it  wonderful  that  it  shoidd.  It  is  only  in  its 
ultimate  sense  conceivable  as  a  qu.ality  of  moral 
freedom,  and  moral  freedom  in  man  or  any  created 
being  is  a  profoimd  mystery.  It  is  something  which 
'  we  apprehend,  but  which  we  can  neither  comprehend 
uor  commuuicate.' 

EVIL,  King's.     See  Kino's  Evil. 

EVIL  EYE.  Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
the  belief  tliat  some  persons  have  the  power  of 
injuring  others  by  looking  upon  them,  has  been 
widely  difFused.  The  Greeks  frequently  speak  of 
the  Ophtludmos  Baskanos  (or  evU  eye),  which  they 
conceived  to  be  S])ecially  dangerous  to  children  ;  and 
the  Komans  used  the  vevhj'a.'iciimre  to  express  the 
same  fact.  Pliny  speaks — not  on  his  ovm  authority, 
however — of  '  those  among  the  Triballiaus  and 
Illyrians,  who  with  their  very  eyesight  can  witch 
[fffaxcbiciil],  yea,  and  kill  those  v.'hom  they  look 
wistly  upon  any  long  time ; '  and  Plutarch  states,  on 
tlie  authority  of  Philaretus,  that  '  the  Thybiens  who 
iuhaliited  Pontus  were  deadly,  not  only  to  babes, 
but  to  men  gi-own,  and  th.at  whomsoever  their  eye, 
speech,  or  breath  woidd  reach,  were  sure  to  fall  sick, 
and  pine  away.'  Menalcas,  in  Virgil  {Ed.  iii.  102), 
also  complains  that  some  evi  eye  has  fascinated  his 
yoiing  lambs — 

Nescio  quis  tencros  oculus  niihi  fascinat  a^ios. 

The  principal  amulet  used  by  the  ancients  was  the 
jj/talltis  or  fascinum,  as  the  Romans  called  it,  which 
was  hung  round  the  neck  of  children.  Of  course, 
this  superstition,  like  all  others,  flourished  in  Europe 
during  the  micUUe  ages.  See  Reginald  Scot's  Dis- 
corery  of  Wddici-afi;  the  Opusculum  dc  Fascino  of 
.lolm  Lazarus  Gutierrez,  a  Spanish  physician,  pub- 
lished in  1653  ;  and  the  TracUitus  de  Fascinatiotte  of 
John  Christian  Frommanu,  a  physician  of  Sa.ve- 
Coburg,  pubUshed  in  1075.  In  the  British  Isles,  also, 
tile  belief  in  the  power  of  the  evil  eye  is  of  old 
date,  and  is  liy  no  means  dead,  at  least  in  Ireland 
and  tile  Highlands  of  Scotland.  In  these  countries 
(:is  elsewhere),  it  was  once  a  very  common  su[>er- 
stition  that  cattle  were  subject  to  injury  in  this 
way.  Witches  had  the  power  to  a  malignant  degree  ; 
and  various  charms,  such  as  twining  momitain-ash 
among  the  hair  of  the  cow's  tail,  were  used  to  avert 
or  tlestroy  theii-  noxious  influence.  In  the  East 
it  was  and  is  no  less  jirevalent.  The  Persians  have 
various  methods  of  discovering  the  special  kind 
of  fascination  by  which  a  person  is  afilicted  ;  and 
D.allaw.ty,  in  his  Account  of  Constantinople  (Lend. 
1797),  artirms  that  '  nothing  can  exceed  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  Turks  respecting  the  evil  eye  of  an  enemy 
or  inlidel.  Passages  from  the  Koran  are  painted  on 
the  outside  of  the  houses,  globes  of  glass  are  sus- 
)iended  from  the  ceiling,  and  a  part  of  the  suiier- 
liuous  caparison  of  tlieir  horses  is  designed  to  attract 
attention,  and  divert  a  sinister  inlluence.'  Hobhouse, 
in  his  Travels,  bears  equally  conclusive  testimony  to 
the  prevalence  of  this  superstition  in  the  Turkish 
empire,  not  among  Moh.inunedans  only,  but  also 
among  Christians  ;  while  Lane,  in  his  Modern  £(/yp- 
tian.i  (1S36),  gives  an  accoimt  of  the  precautious 
taken  by  the  Egyptians  to  avoid  the  influence  of 
evil  eye.     The  American  Indians  partake  of  the 

168 


Bame  belief ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  if  the 
matter  were  stiU  more  profoundly  investigated,  it 
woiUd  be  found  that  every  nation  that  exists  or  has 
existed,  with  anything  like  a  developed  system  of 
superstition,  beheves  or  has  believed  in  the  reality 
of  fascination  in  some  form  or  other. 

The  univei-sality  of  this  superstition  goes  far  to 
prove  that  it  has  what  may  be  called  a  natural 
origin  ;  and,  indeed,  when  we  consider  that  the  ei/e 
is  the  most  expressive  organ  of  the  soul  or  mind 
of  man,  that  through  it  are  shot  forth,  as  it  were, 
into  the  ^^sible  world  of  the  senses,  the  hidden 
passions,  emotions,  and  desires  of  our  natiu'e,  we  will 
not  wonder  that  in  the  '  times  of  ignorance,'  when 
men  eoidd  give  no  rational  or  scicntiKc  account  of 
almost  any  physiological  phenomena,  if  connected 
with  psychology,  the  eye  shoidd  have  been  super- 
stitiously  imagined  to  be  a  centre  of  malignant 
iofluence.  The  eye  is,  in  point  of  fact,  as  potent  as 
superstition  dreams  :  the  error  lay  not  in  the  recog- 
nition of  its  power,  but  in  explaining  the  mode  of  its 
operation.  I'he  person  who  felt  himself  under  the 
sijell  of  a  powerfid  gaze,  was  too  agitated  to  calmly 
consider  the  cause  of  his  terrors,  and  attributed  to 
another  results  for  which  he  himself  was  mainly 
responsible.  It  was  really  he  that  gave  to  the  eye 
of  his  fellow-creatui'e  its  baleful  influence  ;  and  he 
quailed  less  before  the  force  of  character  which  it 
indicated,  than  before  the  fearfid  fancies  with  which 
his  own  timidity  had  invested  it.  For  this  disease, 
wherever  it  has  existed,  or  does  yet  exist,  there  is 
no  cure  but  that  soUd  culture  of  the  understanding 
from  which  comes  a  true  strength  of  will  and  brain. 
See  Fascination  in  Serpents. 

E'VOLUTE  AND  I'N VOLUTE.  See  Cukv.iture 
and  Osculating  Circle.  The  evolute  of  any  curve 
is  the  locus  of  the  centre  of  its  osculating  circle, 
and  relative  to  its  evolute,  the  curve  is  called 
the  involute.  This  is  the  simplest  definition  that 
can  be  given  of  an  evolute  and  involute,  which  are 
relative  terms.  There  is  another,  however,  which 
may  represent  the  relation  of  the  curves  more 
clearly  to  those  who  are  not  mathematicians.  If 
on  any  curve  a  struig  be  closely  wTapjied,  and  if  the 
string  be  fastened  at  one  of  its  ends,  .and  free  at  the 
other ;  and  then  if  we  unwind  the  string  from  the 
curve,  keeping  it  constantly  stretched,  the  curve 
which  would  be  traced  out  by  a  pencil  fixed  to  the 
free  end  of  the  string,  is  called  the  involute  of  that 
from  which  the  string  is  unwound,  and  relative  to 
it,  the  latter  is  called  the  evolute.  It  is  clear  that 
the  involute  might  otherwise  be  described  by  fasten- 
ing a  string  at  one  extremity  of  the  evolute,  and 
wrapping  it  thereupon,  keeping  it  always  stretched. 
From  cither  definition,  it  is  clear  that  a  normal  to 
the  involute  at  any  point  is  a  tangent  to  the 
evolute,  and  that  the  diflerence  in  length  between 
any  two  radii  of  curvature  to  the  involute  is  equal 
to  the  length  of  the  arc  of  the  evolute  intercepted 
between  them.  The  nature  of  evolutes  was  first 
considered  by  Huyghens,  who  shewed  that  the 
evolute  to  a  common  cycloid  is  another  equal 
cycloid,  a  property  of  that  curve  which  he  employed 
in  making  a  pendidiun  vibrate  in  a  cycloid.  To 
describe  the  involute  of  a  circle,  proceed  as  f oUows : 
Let  a  be  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  b  the  extremity 
of  the  string  to  be  unwound  from  its  circum- 
ference. Divide  the  circle,  or  part  of  the  circle, 
according  to  the  length  of  curve  required,  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  as  c,  d,  e,  &c. ;  through  these, 
from  o,  draw  ra<Iial  lines  ;  from  the  points  where 
these  touch  the  circle,  draw,  at  right  angles  to  the 
lines  ac,  ad,  &c.,  other  Unes,  as  in  tlie  diagi-am. 
With  the  distance  cb  as  radius,  from  the  point  c, 
describe  an  arc  b\,  cutting  the  line  cl  in  1.  From 
the  point  </,  with  rfl,  describe  an  arc  I  2,  cutting  the 


EVOLUTION  AND  INVOLUTION— EVREUX. 


line  d'2  in  2.     From  e,  ■mth  e2,  describe  an  arc  2  3, 
cutting  the  line  e3  in  3.     With  radius  /3,  from  /, 


describe  an  arc  3  4,  cutting  /4  in  the  point  4.  Pro- 
ceed in  this  wa}',  describing  arcs  which  pass  through 
the  points  5,  6,  7,  S,  and  9.  The  involute  will  thus 
be  formed. 

EVOLU'TION  AND  INVOLU'TION,  algebraical 
terms,  the  former  signifjang  the  extraction  of  roots, 
and  the  latter  the  raisinr]  to  powers.  AVhen  any 
number  is  multiplied  by  itself,  the  product  is  called 
its  square,  or  second  power.  If  we  midtiply  the 
square  by  the  number  again,  we  get  the  cube,  or 
third  power;  and  so  on.  This  process  is  called 
involution.  Evolution  is  the  inverse  process,  by 
which  a  nimiber  being  presented,  we  may  ascertain 
a  pai-ticular  root  of  it,  say  the  fourth ;  or  that  number 
which,  being  midtiplied  into  unity  a  particular 
nvunljer  of  times,  say  foiu'  times,  the  product  will 
be  the  number  presented.  Both  subjects  \vill  be 
found  treated  in  all  algebraical  text-books.  Evolu- 
tiou  is  more  particidarly  considered  under  the  head 
EXTKACTION  or  KooTS. 

EVOLU'TIONS,  in  military  matters,  are  the 
movements  of  troops  in  order  to  change  position. 
The  object  may  be  to  maintain  or  sustain  a  post, 
to  occupy  a  new  post,  to  improve  an  attack,  or  to 
improve  a  defence.  All  such  movements  as  march- 
ing, counter-marching,  route-marching,  changing 
front,  forming  Une,  facing,  wheeling,  making  coliunu 
or  line,  making  echelon  or  square,  defiling,  deploy- 
ing, &c.,  come  under  the  general  heading  of  evolu- 
tions. More  minute  descriptions  of  these  and  other 
motions  will  be  given  imder  Tactics,  Military 
ANTJ  Naval.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  best 
evolutions  are  those  whicn  occupy  least  time  and 
least  space.  The  word  evolution  equally  applies  to 
the  movement  of  ships  in  a  fleet. 

E'VOBA  (ancient  Ebora),  a  city  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  and,  after 
Coimbra,  and  perhaps  Thomar,  the  most  interest- 
ing city  in  the  country,  is  beautifully  situated  on 
a  fertile  and  elevated  plain,  48  miles  west-south- 
west of  Badajoz,  and  about  80  miles  east  of  Lisbon. 
It  was  once  a  place  of  considerable  strength ;  but  its 
r.amparts,  and  the  towers  which  flanked  them,  its 
citadel,  its  forts,  and  its  watch-towers,  are  now  in  a 
hopelessly  ruinous  condition.  The  town  itself  is  not 
well  built,  its  streets  are  narrow  and  Avinding,  and 
its  houses  old  and  badly  jjlanned.  It  has  a  cathe- 
ilral,  a  large  Gothic  edifice,  founded  in  1186,  the 
choir  of  which,  rebuUt  in  1721,  is  in  the  Italian 
style,  and  is  richly  adorned  witli  marbles  of  various 
colours.  E.  has  been  the  see  of  an  archbishop 
since  l.')41 ;  has  an  archiei)iscopal  library,  containing 
upwards  of  .lOjOOO  vohunes  ;  and  sever.al  pictures  of 
great  merit,  attributed  to  Gran  Vasco.  It  has 
manufactiu"C3  of  ironware  and  leather,  and  a  well- 
attended  annual  fair.  Pop.  about  12,000. 
Ks 


E.  is  a  very  ancient  city.  Quintus  Sertorius  took 
it  in  80  B.C.  It  was  also  conquered  by  the  Moors  in 
712,  but  recovered  from  them  in  IIGG.  The  Ilomau 
antiq\iities  of  E.  are  unrivalled  in  the  Peninsula. 
Among  these,  the  temple  of  Diana,  used  as  a  slaughter- 
house for  some  time  previous  to  the  year  1834, 
exhibits  in  its  fine  Corinthian  cohunns  admiraljle 
proportion  and  delicacy  of  sculpture.  There  is  also 
an  aqueduct,  1200  paces  in  length,  erected  by  Quintus 
Sertorius ;  but  the  most  beautiful  Roman  relic,  and 
one  of  the  most  iierfect  pieces  of  ancient  arcliitectm-e 
in  existence,  is  the  tower  wluch  rises  in  the  city  at 
the  extremity  of  the  aqueduct.  It  is  12  feet  G  inches 
in  diameter,  and  is  surromided  by  eight  cohunns 
of  the  Ionic  order.  Ionic  pilasters  decorate  the 
second  story,  and  the  top  is  crowned  ^^^th  a  hemi- 
spherical 4ome.  It  is  wlioUy  constructed  of  brick, 
and  covered  ^vith  cement  of  such  a  durable  nature, 
that,  although  this  deUcate  structure  has  existed 
since  70  B.C.,  few  parts  of  it  seem  to  have  been 
impaired  by  time. 

EVREMOND,  Charles  Maegotelle  de  St 
Denis,  Seigneur  de  St,  an  author  and  wit  of  the 
17th  c,  was  born  at  St  Denis-le-Guast,  in  Nor- 
mandy, April  1,  1013.  He  entered  the  army  about 
the  age  of  15,  became  an  ensign  in  less  than  a  year, 
and  in  1637  had  the  command  of  a  company  of  foot. 
About  this  time,  he  gained  the  favour  and  friendship 
of  Turenne,  Grammont,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and 
others  of  high  rank,  all  of  whom  were  dehghted 
with  the  'wit  and  cheerfidness  of  his  conversation. 
Ha\Tng  talked  himself  into  the  esteem  of  these 
men,  it  was  not  long,  however,  imtd,  by  the  same 
means,  he  brought  himself  under  their  displeasiire. 
In  1661  his  unbridled  indulgence  in  raillery  com- 
peUed  him  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Many 
attempts  were  made  at  the  French  court  to  induce 
Louis  XIV.  to  recall  St  E.,  whose  accomplishments, 
gaiety,  and  wit  rendered  him  the  dehght  of  all 
who  had  not  smarted  from  his  sarcasm,  but  Louis 
remained  immovable,  until  1689,  when  he  granted 
the  exile  permission  to  return.  It  was  now,  how- 
ever, too  late.  St  E.  had  by  this  time  suiToimded 
himself  with  an  admu-ing  circle  of  the  wits  ami 
beauties  of  the  English  court,  and  resolved  to 
remain  where  he  was.  He  died  in  his  9l3t  year,  in 
September  1703. 

St  E.'s  works,  comprising  comedies,  classical 
essays,  &c.,  were  first  correctly  pubhshed  by  Des 
Maizeaux,  with  a  life  of  the  author  (Lend.  1705). 
The  works  are  also  translated  into  EugUsh  by  the 
same  editor. 

EVREUX  (anciently  Mediolanum,  and  more 
recently  Eburovices),  an  episcopal  city  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Eure,  of  which  it  is  the  cajiital, 
is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  valley  on  the  Iton,  a 
feeder  of  the  Eure,  60  miles  west-north-west  of 
Paris.  It  is  well  built,  its  streets  regular,  and  the 
environs  prettily  laid  out  in  promenades,  gardens, 
and  vineyards.  The  principal  building  of  E.  is 
the  cathedral,  which  dates  from  the  11th  centuiy. 
The  otlier  buildings  of  note  are  the  abbey  church 
of  St  Thaurin,  originally  built  over  the  tomb  of  St 
Thaurin,  the  first  bishop  of  E.,  and  having  a  shrine 
executed  in  the  13th  c,  which  once  contained 
his  relics ;  the  Bishoji's  P.ilace,  built  in  1484 ;  and 
the  Tour  de  Vllorloije  of  the  same  century.  E. 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  bed-ticking,  woollen 
stufls,  cotton-yarn,  leather,  vinegar,  and  a  trade 
in  its  manufactures,  and  in  gram,  seeds,  timber, 
and  liqueurs.     Pop.  12,877. 

E.  is  remarkable  for  the  niunerous  sieges  which  it 
has  sustained.  It  was  taken  by  Clovis  from  the 
Romans ;  w.os  sacked  and  plundered  in  892  by  the 
Northmen,  imder  Hollo ;  was  burned  l>y  Henry  I.  of 


EVREUX— EWALD. 


England  in  1119;  and  in  1194  and  1199  it  was  twice 
captured  by  Philippe  Auguste,  king  of  France,  into 
whose  hands,  after  a  short  time,  it  permanently 
came.  It  was  frequently  taken  and  recovered  in 
the  wars  between  France  and  England  during  the 
reigns  of  Henry  V.  and  Henry  VI.  of  the  latter 
country. 

ViElL  EvREUX  [Old  Evreux),  a  village  near  E., 
and  the  supposed  site  of  the  ancient  Mediolanum, 
has  some  ancient  remains  of  a  theatre,  an  aqueduct, 
and  fortifications. 

EWALB,  Georg  Hedtrich  AucrsT  von,  one  of 
tlio  greatest  hving  Orientalists,  was  born  16th 
November  180.3,  at  Gottingen,  and  exhiliited  a  pre- 
dilection for  Oriental  literature  even  in  his  school- 
days. He  studied  at  the  imiversity  of  his  native 
place,  and  while  still  a  student,  wrote  a  work  on  the 
Composition  of  Genesis  {Dil^  Composilion  der  Genesis, 
Braunschw.  1823).  In  182,3,  he  became  a  teacher  at 
theAVolfenbiittel  gymnasium ;  in  1827,  extraordinary, 
and  in  1831,  ordinary,  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Gottingen ;  and  in  1835,  was  appointed  nominal 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages.  Travels  in 
search  of  Oriental  MSS.  led  him,  in  1826,  1829,  and 
1836,  to  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Italy.  After  the  death 
of  Eichhorn,  the  ciitieal  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  included  in  his  duties  as  professor  of  the 
Oriental  tongues.  The  first,  and  perhaps  the  most 
important  fruit  of  his  new  labours,  was  his  Critical 
Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  {Kritische  Gram- 
matik  dcr  Ilebr.  Sprache,  Leip.  1827),  an  abridgment 
of  which  was  published  at  Leipsic  in  1835,  imder  the 
title  of  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Langmage  {Oram- 
matik  der  Hehr.  Spracfte ;  5th  edit.  1844);  and  a  still 
simpler  epitome  in  1842,  entitled  Hebrew  Grammar 
for  Beginners  [Ilebr.  Sprachlehre  fur  Anfanger). 
Before  this,  however,  E.  had  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation by  his  work  on  Canticles  (Ilohe  Lied  lialomo^s, 
Gijtt.  1826);  his  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  (Com- 
mentarins  in  Apocalypsin,  Leip.  1828) ;  his  Poetical 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  4  vols.  (Die  Poeti- 
echen  BUclier  des  Alien  Bundes,  GiJtt.  18.35 — 1837) ; 
and  his  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  2  vols. 
(Die  Prophiten  des  Allen  Bunde.i,  2  Bde.  Sttitt. 
1840).  Between  the  years  1843—1850,  E.  published 
at  Giittinren  an  important  work  in  4  vols.,  on  the 
History  ot  the  People  of  Israel  until  the  Time  of 
Christ  [Gesc/iiclUe  des  Volkes  Israel  his  auf  Cliristtis), 
and  a  subsidiary  volume  on  the  Antiquities  of  the 
People  of  lsr.ael  (Die  Aiterthiimer  des  Volkes  Israel). 
The  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  together  with  its 
two  continuations.  The  History  of  Christ  and  his 
Time  (GeschielUe  Christus  und  seiner  Zeil,  1857),  and 
The  History  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  &c.  (GeschielUe 
des  Apostoliselun  Zeitalters  bis  zur  ZersWrunrj  Jeru- 
salems,  1858),  is  regarded  as  E.'s  greatest  work. 
But  Jewish  history  and  literature  did  not  limit 
the  S])here  of  E.'s  wonderful  activity.  His  lectures 
at  Gottingen  embraced  the  Hterature  of  the  Arabic, 
Persian,  Aramaic,  and  Sanscrit  tongues,  and  gave 
birth  to  such  works  as  that  on  the  Metres  of 
the  Ar,abian  Songs  (De  Melris  Carminum  Arabic- 
orum,  Leip.  1825);  on  Some  of  the  Older  Sanscrit 
Metres  (Uelier  einige  iiltere  Sanscril-Metra,  Giitt. 
1S27),  an  epitome  of  the  Arabic  author  Wakidi's 
work  on  Mesopotamia  (De  Mesopotamice  expuijnatce 
Ilistoria,  Gbtt.  1827),  and  a  Grammar  of  Arabic, 
entitled  Qrammatica  Critica  Linguce  Arabica  cum 
brevi  Metrorum  Doctrina,  2  Bde.  (Leip.  1831—1833). 
In  1832,  E.  published  at  Gottingen  several  very 
important  Dissertations  on  Oriental  and  Biblical 
Literature  (Abhandlumjen  zur  orient,  und  biblitcAen 
Literaiur),  and  planned  the  well-known  periodical, 
.Tournal  for  the  Knowledge  of  the  East  (Zeitschrifi 
fiir  die  Kunde  des  Morgeidands).  E.,  however,  is 
not  only  a  scholar  and  philologist,  but  a  man  of 


strong  political  convictions.  Having,  along  with 
six  of  his  colleagues  (the  others  were  the  brothers 
Grimm,  Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Weber,  and  Albrecht), 
protested  against  the  abohtion  of  constitutional 
law  and  hberty  in  Hanover  by  the  new  sovereign, 
Ernest  Augustus  (previously  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land), he  was  dismissed  from  his  situation,  12th 
December  1837,  and  went  to  England  to  investi- 
gate its  public  libraries,  whence  he  was  called  to 
Tubingen  in  1838,  as  professor  of  theology.  Here 
he  remained  for  ten  years,  and,  partly  on  account  of 
the  cathoUcity  of  his  views,  and  the  imperiousness 
of  his  temper,  was  involved  in  many  strifes.  In 
1841,  he  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of  Wiirtemburg. 
In  1 848,  E.  returned  to  Gottingen,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  Year-book  of  Biblical  Science  (Jahrbuch  der 
bihlisclien  Wissenschaft),  in  which,  as  well  as  in  his 
work  on  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (Die  drci  ersten, 
livangelien,  Gott.  1850),  and  works  on  the  Epistles 
of  Paul  (Die  Sendschreiben  des  Apostels  Paulus 
iiberselzt  und  erkldrl,  Gott.  1857),  he  has  striven  to 
give  a  lirmer  basis  to  New  Testament  criticism  and 
exegesis.  Recently,  also,  E.  has  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  Ethiopic  Uterature,  a  result  of  which  is  his 
valual)le  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Enoch  (Uber 
des  jElhiopischen  Buches  Henoch  Entstehiing,  &c., 
GiJtt.  1856).  The  distinguishing  peculiarity  of 
E.  as  a  theologian  and  critic,  is  his  love  for  the 
concrete  forms  in  which  divine  truths  are  revealed 
in  history,  and  his  dishke  of  the  abstractions  into 
which  they  are  refined  away  by  over-speculative 
theologians.  He  regards  it  as  the  especial  glory  of 
the  Jewish  people,  that  they  never  lost  sight  of  the 
concrete,  as  the  Persians  and  Hindus,  for  example, 
did,  with  whom  the  reahties  of  religion  vanished 
into  the  most  intangible  dreams,  but  kept  it  ever 
before  them  imtil,  in  the  fulness  of  times,  there 
was  bom  in  their  midst  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the 
Perfect  and  Only  One,  in  whom  humanity  reached 
its  spiritual  consiunmation.  E.'s  position  in  the 
variegated  field  of  German  theology  is  not  easy  to 
define.  He  refuses  to  class  himself  or  to  be  classed 
with  any  party.  He  is  equally  opposed  to  the 
extreme  left  represented  in  Tubingen,  and  to  the 
extreme  right  represented  in  the  modem  Lutheran 
movement  headed  by  Hengstenberg.  It  cannot  be 
expected  that  E.  could  form  a  party,  when  he  at 
times  denoimces,  with  an  eloquence  unequalled  in 
any  theological  chair  in  Germany,  the  '  heathenism ' 
of  Lutherans,  Romanists,  and  Rationalists. 

EWALD,  Johannes,  one  of  the  best  lyric  poets 
of  Denmark,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  on  the  18th 
November  1743,  and  died  in  the  same  city  in  1781, 
after  a  life  of  checkered  adventure,  trouble,  and 
privation.  At  the  age  of  11,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  E.  was  admitted  into  the  Slesvig  College.  In 
his  16th  year,  when  his  friends  were  about  to  send 
him  to  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  the  restless 
impatience  of  restraint  which  had  always  character- 
ised him,  led  him  to  make  his  escape  to  Germany, 
where  he  entered  as  a  i)rivate  soldier  in  the  army 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  from  which  he 
soon  deserted  to  the  Austrians.  His  bravery  having 
attracted  the  notice  of  his  siiperiors,  he  was  offered 
a  commission,  but  this  he  refused  to  accept,  as 
it  wojdd  have  obliged  him  to  become  a  Catholic  ; 
and  having  induced  his  friends  to  purchase  his 
discharge,  he  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  1760,  after 
having  taken  part  in  the  great  campaigns  of  1759 
— 1760.  He  now  began  the  study  of  theology,  but 
a  disappointment  in  love  drove  him  to  abandon 
it,  and  give  his  attention  solely  to  poetry.  The 
first  production  of  E.  which  attracted  general  notice, 
was  the  funeral  ode  which  he  wrote  on  the  death 
of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  in  1767,  and  which 
exhibited  so  much  original  genius,  that  it  at  once 

179 


EXAMINATION  OF  A  BANKRUPT— EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  SERVICE. 


raised  tlie  young  poet  to  the  rank  of  one  of  tlic 
liest  writers  of  his  country.  'J'his  successful  attempt 
was  rapidly  followed  by  the  apiwarance  of  numerous 
tragcities,  operas,  and  songs,  wliiih  are  reinarkalilo 
for  great  lyrical  lieaiity.  In  1770,  a]>pearcd  the 
prose  tragedy  of  Rolf  Krrtijr,  which  gives  evidence 
of  a  careful  study  of  Shakspearo  and  the  Kng- 
lish  dramatists  of  the  I'^lizahcthan  age.  Although 
Btihlrra  Donl  (177.3),  which  breathes  the  heroic 
spirit  of  the  ancient  bards  of  the  north,  and  exhibits 
the  specially  national  tendency  of  E.'8  genius,  is 
regarded  by  some  critics  .as  his  chef-d'miive, 
F'tskfrne,  'The  Fishermen'  (17811),  ]>robably  deserves 
to  rank  equally  high,  when  considered  as  a  mere 
lyrical  production.  His  habits  of  dissipation,  and 
the  decided  opinions  which  he  expressed  in  refer- 
ence to  politics,  brought  him  into  difficulties  of 
every  kind,  while  his  infirmities  of  temper,  and 
irregul.arities  of  conduct,  estranged  the  affection  of 
his  nearest  rel.ativcs,  and  in  the  Latter  years  of  his 
unhappy  life  he  w-as  often  indebted  to  the  charity  of 
strangers  for  the  means  of  subsistence.  .Some  of  his 
nautical  songs  have  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
national  odes,  and  many  of  his  occasion.al  pieces  rank 
among  the  sweetest  poems  of  his  country.  He  was 
engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  compiling  tvn 
antobiogra]ihy,  and  in  bringing  out  the  complete 
edition  of  liis  writings,  which  finally  appeared  in 
1702.  His  works  have  also  been  edited  by  F.  L. 
Liebenberg  (Copen.  18.50— IS."),";) ;  and  a  life  of  E., 
com|)iled  from  hitherto  \inpublishcd  materials,  has 
recently  appeared  from  the  pen  of  V.  C.  Olsen,  of 
Copenhagen. 
EXAMINATION   OF  A  BANKRUPT.     See 

B.VXKKUPTCY. 

EXAMINATION  OF  A  PRISONER,  in  Scot- 
land.    See  Dei'LvVkation. 

EXAMINATION     OF    A    WITNESS.      See 

EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC 
SERVICE.  Tp  to  the  year  18.'),'),  all  the  junior 
appointments  in  the  sever.al  brandies  of  the  Civil 
Service  were  .made  upon  a  sj-stem  which  was 
practically  one  of  simple  and  unchecked  nomination. 
Ex.aminations  nominally  existed  in  a  few  of  the 
departments,  but  they  had  degenerated  into  an 
tmmeaning  form.  The  dejiartnK^ntal  examiners, 
■who  were  taken  from  other  duties  for  this  temporary 
pnri)ose,  and  were  closely  connccteil  witli  the 
partic\dar  dep.artment,  were  too  much  afraid  of  the 
clamour  of  individuals  to  be  very  stringent  in  their 
requirements,  and  keep  up  tlie  st.andard  of  ex.amiiia- 
tion.  In  one  important  board,  not  a  single  candidate 
had  been  rejected  for  twelve  years.  The  consequence 
was,  th.at  persons  were  often  a])pointcd  who  W'cre 
obji'ctionalile  on  accomit  of  age,  broken  state  of 
liealth,  and  l)ad  character,  as  well  as  from  want  of 
projier  intellectual  qualifications. 

Changes  in  the  Civil  Service  liave  been  made 
sometimes  by  the  legislature,  sometimes  by  the 
executive,  but  chiefly,  as  in  the  present  instance,  by 
tlie  latter.  Some  years  .ago,  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  consider  jilaiis  for  its  entire  reorgan- 
isation. This  commission,  which  included  the 
names  of  Sir  Charles  Trevclyan  and  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote,  made  its  report  in  1853,  and  strongly 
recommended  competitive  examinations,  .as  the 
mode  of  m.aking  the  ajipointnients  in  the  first 
instance.  In  tlie  following  year,  a  jilan  for  imjirov- 
ing  the  system  w.as  jiromiscd  in  the  (,>ueen's 
speech,  but  nothing  further  was  done.  In  M.ay 
18.').'),  an  order  in  council  was  issued,  ap])ointing  the 
present  Civil  .Serv'ice  Commissioners,  and  defining 
their  duties.  This  order  is  still  in  force,  and  directs 
the  commissioners  to  examine  into  and  certify  the  | 
190 


qualifications  of  young  men  nomin.ated  to  junior 
situations  in  the  Civil  Service,  llefore  grantini;  t)io 
certificate,  they  are  to  ascertain  tlie  four  folhiwing 
things:  the  age,  health,  char.acter,  .and  the  know- 
ledge and  ability  of  the  candidates.  All  the  details 
as  to  each  of  these  points — such  as  limits  of  age, 
and  the  subjects  of  examination — are  settleil  at  the 
discretion  of  the  heads  of  the  several  departments  ; 
while  the  decision,  on  indi\'idual  cases,  rests  solely 
with  the  commissioners. 

As  tlie  nature  of  the  requirements  expected  from 
the  canilidates  depends  on  the  heads  of  the  several 
departments,  considerable  variety  m.ay  be  expected 
in  the  diftcrent  branches  of  the  service.  As  the 
system  has  not  yet  reached  a  settled  state,  the  ex.act 
details  of  the  examination  for  the  various  oflices 
must  be  sought  from  time  to  time  in  the  latest  of  the 
annual  rejiorts  of  the  Civil  Ser\-ice  Commissioners  ; 
but  the  following  general  .account  of  its  present 
st.ate  may  be  given  here.  Leaving  out  of  account 
l.abourers  and  artisans,  the  persons  employed  in  the 
public  service  m.ay  be  divided  into  two  great  cKosses  : 
the  first  including  all  those  who  m.ay  be  eaUetl  by 
the  general  name  of  clerks,  and  whose  occupation  is 
mainly  of  a  sedentary,  and  more  or  less  of  an  intel- 
lectu.al  character ;  the  other  embracing  all  the 
inferior  appointments — such  as  excise  officers,  tide- 
waiters,  and  letter-carriers,  whose  employments 
require  in  a  special  degree  jihysical  strength  and 
activity.  For  the  latter  class,  the  ex.amination  is 
of  a  purely  elementary  character,  and  is  for  the 
most  jiart  confined  to  reaiUng,  wTiting,  spelling,  and 
arithmetic.  The  jirinciple  of  competitive  examin- 
ations li.as  not  been  ajiplied,  anil  is  not  intended 
to  be  ainilied,  to  this  class  of  public  scrv.ants,  )iut 
their  health  and  moral  quaJilications  are  strictly 
investigated. 

As  to  the  first  class,  the  system  is  still  in  a  state 
of  transition.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  order  of 
1855  directs  the  commissioners  to  ex.amine  young 
men  who  have  been  numinatcd.  Under  this  order, 
three  varieties  of  ex.amination  are  now  in  ojicration. 
The  first  is  a  simple  test  examination.  When  a 
vacancy  occurs,  a  single  person  is  nominated  by  the 
head  of  the  department  or  other  jirojicr  authority, 
and  this  jierson  is  afterwards  submitted  to  ex.amina- 
tion. The  second  is  a  system  of  limited  competition. 
When  a  vacancy  occurs,  several  persons  are  nomi- 
nated, and  lieing  submitted  to  examination,  the 
appointment  is  obt.ained  by  the  best  of  this  limited 
number.  The  third  is  the  system  of  open  coraiieti- 
tion,  which  has  been  employed  in  the  eases  where 
the  right  of  nomination  has  been  wholly  surrendered. 
A  simjile  test  examination  seems  to  have  been  all 
that  was  contemplated  in  the  order  of  1855.  but 
since  that  time  there  has  been  a  steady  advance 
towards  com]ietitive  examinations.  Resolutions  have 
p.assed  the  House  of  t'ommons  recognising  the  advan- 
tages of  competition,  and  a  parliament.ary  committee, 
appointed  in  1859,  has  reported  in  favour  of  pro- 
ceeding further  in  that  direction.  At  jiresent,  the 
prineij)le  of  open  eomjietition  prevails  in  the  Indian 
Civil  Service,  in  the  Medical  Service  and  rublio 
Works  Dep.artment  in  Indi.a,  and  in  the  scicnliiic 
branches  of  the  Military  Service.  The  principle  of 
limited  comjietition  prevads  in  about  three-fourths 
of  the  higher  dcjiartments,  while  in  the  remainder 
of  these,  and  in  all  the  lower  grades  of  the  service, 
from  tide-waiters  downwards,  there  is  a  simple  tesli 
examination. 

The  number  of  nominations  to  which  the  order  in 
council  has  been  ai)plied  from  1855  to  the  end  of 
18G0  is  13,401.  Of  these,  9002  were  nominations  of 
one  oidy,  to  whom,  therefore,  .as  exiilained  above,  a 
simple  test  examination  w:us  applieil.  The  commis- 
sioners  rejected  2289.     Out  of  these  2289,  all  but 


EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  SERVICE. 


220  failed  citlier  in  arithmetic  or  spelliiif; ;  some,  of 
course,  in  other  sul)jccts  also.  It  may  therefore 
be  said  tli.at  more  than  2U0O  jiersons  deliciont  in  the 
ordinary  rudiments  of  a  pooil  education  have  been 
nominated  to  the  Civil  Service  in  six  years,  and 
excluded  by  tlie  examination.  During  the  same 
period,  about  GOO  of  those  nominated  were  ineli<^ible 
on  account  of  age,  licalth,  or  character.  In  compar- 
iug  the  number  of  certiticates  granted  with  the 
number  of  rejections  in  each  year,  it  ajipears  that 
the  proportion  of  the  latter  has  diminished  in  the 
latter  years. 

Uj)  to  1859,  the  far  greater  proportion  of  all 
apiwintments  made  under  the  new  system  lias  been 
made  by  nomination  i>f  a  single  person  followed  by 
a  test  examination.  But  the  exjierieuce  had  in  the 
working  of  the  system  has  convinced  the  commis- 
sioners and  the  parliamentary  committee  of  the 
wisdom  of  advancmg  in  the  direction  of  competition. 
The  miuinuim  standard  is  dillicult  to  maintain.  It 
causes  ilelay  and  inconvenience  by  the  rejection  of 
candidates,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  others. 
The  rejections  throw  unpleasant  discredit  on  the 
patron,  and  if  frequent,  it  is  ascribed  not  to  the  unfit- 
ness of  the  candidates,  but  to  the  standard  being 
lixed  too  higli.  Tile  candidate  is  aggrieved  at  the 
loss  of  an  a|ipointment  which  he  had  looked  on  as  his 
own,  and  the  patron  is  likely  to  share  the  feeling. 
In  the  competitive  system,  these  evils  do  not  exist. 
The  number  of  com|)etitoi-3  will  itself  keep  up  the 
standard  ;  the  candidate  is  not  rejected  iis  imlit, 
but  only  gives  w.ay  to  one  litter  ;  and  the  stand;ird 
cannot  be  said  to  be  fixed  too  high,  for  the  fact  of 
candidates  coming  for\\'ard  shews  that  the  prize  is 
worth  the  trouble  of  attainment.  On  these  grounds, 
tile  conmiissioners  recommend  the  gradual  introduc- 
tion of  open  competitive  examinations  into  all  the 
departments  of  the  service,  but  in  the  meantime 
think  it  a  safer  course  to  continue  and  extend  the 
system  of  limited  com]ietition.  Experience,  however, 
li.as  shewn  that  the  latter  is  often  a  system  of  com- 
I)etition  more  in  name  than  in  reality,  and  that 
some  conditions  are  requisite  to  make  it  effective. 
In  ISoO,  1107  persons  were  nominated  to  compete 
for  258  situations  ;  of  these,  only  397  were  com- 
jietent,  the  remaining  710  being  wholly  unfit  fi>r 
any  aijpointment.  The  real  competition  took  place 
between  .'{97  persons.  The  experience  of  18G0  con- 
iirms  this  view.  In  a  competition  for  42  clerkshijjs 
at  the  A<lniiralty,  of  GG  candidates,  only  24  were 
competent,  being  less  than  the  number  of  situations; 
so  that  competition  in  that  case  would  have  given 
worse  results  than  a  simple  test  examination.  With 
the  \-iew  of  rendering  it  more  effective,  the  parlia- 
mentary committee  of  1859  h.-ive  recommendeil  some 
modilications  in  the  system,  which  tlie  commissioners 
intend  to  carry  out.  In  future,  no  candidate  will 
be  admitted  to  enter  into  the  competition  who  has 
not  previously  passed  the  test  of  fitness  ;  and  the 
competition  for  each  vacancy  will  take  place  among 
at  least  five  of  such  qualified  persons.  The  test 
examin.ation  will  be  mainly  confined  to  writing, 
spelling,  arithmetic,  and  making  a  jirMs  of  a  given 
set  of  ))apers.  It  is  at  the  same  time  further  recom- 
mended that  tlie  experiment  of  ojien  competition, 
as  tried  in  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  be  from  time  to 
time  repeated  in  other  departments. 

The  mode  of  m.aking  the  ap)iointments  to  the 
Civd  Service  has  of  l.-vte  years  been  much  discussed, 
and  the  permanent  n.ature  of  the  appointments 
makes  the  question  one  of  much  importance.  The 
members  of  this  service  remaining  in  office  through 
all  political  changes,  and  aiding  each  minister  in 
turn  by  their  knowledge  of  business  and  of  official 
details,  form,  in  fact,  a  class  of  ]>rofessional  public 
servants,  entering  their  profession  as  others  do  while 


young,  in  the  hope  of  rising  gradually  to  its  higher 
grades.  It  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  these 
persons  should  not  be  liable  to  be  turned  out  and 
thus  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  their  previous 
service,  except  for  positive  misconduct ;  and  since 
there  is  no  way  of  getting  rid  of  them  exce[)t  by 
making  them  pensioners  on  tlie  ]ml)lic  purse,  it  is 
clearly  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  appoint- 
ments should  be  well  made  in  the  first  instance. 

It  is  said  on  the  one  hand,  that,  a])art  from  an 
examination,  there  is  no  imaginable  plan  that  can 
enable  the  head  of  a  de))artnient,  overworked  .as  he 
often  is,  to  acijuire  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
character,  habits,  and  abilities  of  successive  genera- 
tions of  young  men  ;  that  even  with  this  knowledge, 
and  much  more  in  its  absence,  there  is  much  to  be 
feared  from  partiality  and  private  or  political 
interest.  The  minister  must  depend  on  the  recom- 
mendations (jf  others,  and  will  be  obliged  to  comjily 
with  the  jm]>ortunitiea  of  friends  and  political 
supporters.  These  will  naturally  desire  to  serve 
their  friends  rather  than  the  public,  .and  their 
friends  are  best  served  by  the  advancement  of  their 
least  competent  children.  Hence,  there  is  good 
reason  for  supposing  that  the  choice  would  be 
somewhat  worse  than  if  made  blindfold  from  a 
ballot-box. 

Though  the  new  system  h.as  not  yet  been  long 
enough  in  operation  to  give  sufficient  grounds  from 
experience  for  pronouncing  a  strong  opinion,  the 
commissioners  do  not  hesitate  to  declare  in  their 
latest  reiiort  that  competitive  examinations,  com- 
bined with  jiropcr  conditions  as  to  age,  health, 
and  character,  and  with  the  check  of  a  period 
of  probation,  and  with  i>romotion  liy  merit  from 
class  to  class,  is  the  best  mode  of  providing  for  the 
public  service. 

The  objections  which  have  been  urged  on  the 
other  hand  are  mainly  reducible  to  the  two  which 
follow.  It  is  said,  in  the  first  place,  that  in  com- 
petitive examinations  too  much  credit  is  given  to 
scholastic  requirements  which  are  not  required  for 
the  service.  To  this  it  is  replied,  that  persons  being 
appointed  in  early  life,  not  as  having  learned,  but  in 
order  to  learn,  their  profession,  the  only  thing  by 
which  the  best  candidates  can  be  discriminated  is 
their  proficiency  in  the  ordinary  branches  of  a  liberal 
education  ;  further,  that  due  weight  is  always  given 
to  acquirements  that  are  strictly  practical — WTiting, 
arithmetic,  spelUng,  English  composition,  and  the 
])ower  of  framing  a  precis  of  a  given  set  of  papers, 
so  that  whatever  be  the  scholastic  requirements  of 
the  successful  candidate,  there  is  enough  of  the 
practical  to  qualify  him  for  his  office  ;  and  lastly, 
that  examinations  in  langu.age,  literature,  and  science 
are  extremely  useful  in  ascertaining  the  relative 
ability,  industry,  and  cultivation  of  the  candidates, 
and  that  it  is  as  affording  evidence  of  these  that 
they  are  jirincipally  regarded. 

It  is  contended,  in  the  second  place,  that  there 
are  very  important  moral  qualities  which  are  not 
t.aken  into  account  in  a  competitive  examination. 
This  must  be  at  once  admitteil,  for  although  such 
qu.alities  as  perseverance  and  energy  may  to  some 
extent  be  indicated  by  superiority  of  acquirements, 
there  are  others,  such  .as  judgment,  discretion, 
fidelity,  strength  of  will,  regarding  which  no 
certain  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  It  has,  however, 
been  justly  observed,  that  this  class  of  qusdities 
can  be  shewn  only  by  conduct,  and  that  the 
early  age  at  which  the  appointments  are  m.atle 
will  have  rarely  afforded  sufficient  opportunities 
for  giving  proof  of  them ;  to  which  it  may  be 
addetl,  that  the  previous  conduct  and  disiiosition 
of  candidates  is  rarely  known  to  the  heatl  of  the 
dcp.artment    or    other  authority  who    makes    the 


EXANTHEMATA— EXCHANGE. 


appointment.  If  these  qualities  are  not  tested  by 
competitive  examinations,  neither  were  they  tested 
under  the  system  previously  in  existence ;  and  the 
objection,  therefore,  apparently  amounts  to  tins, 
that  having  the  means  of  testing  the  intellectual 
qualities  and  acquirements  of  the  candid.-xte,  we 
ought  to  abandon  it  because  it  does  not  mcludc  all 
the  moral  quahties,  while  at  the  same  time  there  is 
no  satisfactory  mode  of  testing  tlie  latter. 

It  is  obvious  that  whenever  several  persons  apply 
for  the  same  thing,  there  must  be  competition  m 
one  way  or  other :  it  wiU  bo  either  in  the  way  of 
influence— in  which  case  a  person  is  selected  not 
because  he  is  the  fitter  man,  but  to  gratify  some  one 
else— or  by  testimonials,  which  is  not  altogether 
s.atisfactory.  The  remaining  plan  is  competition  by 
examination.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  besides 
its  other  advantages,  the  latter  gives  an  uiipetus  to 
education  through  the  whole  country,  stimiUates 
exertion,  and  encour.ages  habits  of  industry— habits 
which,  once  acquired,  remain,  and  become  applicable 
to  the  pubUc  service. 

EXANTHE'aiATA  (£i-om  a  Greek  verb,  to 
efiloresoe,  or  come  out  in  a  rash),  a  class  of  febrile 
tliseases  (see  Fevek)  attended  by  distinctive  erup- 
tions on  the  skin,  appearing  at  a  definite  period, 
and  running  a  recognisable  course.  To  this  class 
belong  small-pox,  chicken-pox,  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  plague,  tyjihus, 
eiysipelas,  &c. 

E'XAKCH    was    the    title    first    conferred    by 
Justinian  on  his  commander-in-chief  and  vicegerent 
in  Italy.     The  conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Goths  in  the 
early  part  of  the  6th  c.  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Byzantine  pride ;  and  Justinian  determined  to  wipe 
out  the  disgrace,  and  recover  the  imperial  territories. 
The  execution  of  this  project  was  intrusted  at  first 
to  Belisarius  (q.v.),  and  afterwards  to  Narses  (q.v.), 
by   whom  the   reconquest   of    Italy  was    effected. 
The  latter  was  the  first  who  bore  the  title  of  exarch ; 
and  the  district  over  which  he  ruled  was  called  the 
EmrchaU.     The  seat  of  the  exarchs  was  Kavenna, 
the    different  towns   and  territories    belonging   to 
them  being  governed  by  subordinate  nders,  styled 
Duces  or  Dukes.     The  extent  of  the  exarchate,  how- 
ever, was  gradually  diminished,  until  it  embraced 
only    the    country    about    Itavcnna,    the    present 
Komagna,  and  the  coasts  of  Rimini  as  far  as  Ancona. 
This  was  brought  about  partly  by  the  conquests  of 
the  Longobards,  partly  by  the  dukes  of  Venice  and 
Naples   making   themselves  independent.      In   the 
year  728,  even  this  small  portion  fell,  for  a  short 
time,  into  the  hands  of  the  Longobards.     In  752, 
Astulf,  or  Astolphus,  king  of  the  Longobards,  put 
an  end  to  the  Byzantine  rule  at  Ravenna ;  but  m 
755,  he  was  compelled  to  resign  the  exarchate  to 
Pepm  the  Less,  king  of  the  Franks,  who  gave  it 
over  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  Stei>hann3  II. — In  the 
Christian  Church,  exarch  was  originally  a  title  of 
the  bishops,  afterwards  of   a  bishop  who  jjresided 
over  several  others— a  primate.     It  was  borne  by  the 
bishops  of  Alexantlria,  Antioch,  Ephesiis,  Cffisarea, 
and  Constantinople,  tiU  it  was  finally  exchanged  for 
the  title  of    Patriarch.      A   superior   over   several 
monasteries   was  also    called   in   ancient   times   an 
exarch.    The  same  title  is  also  borne,  in  the  modern 
Greek  Church,  by  the  person  who  '  visits '  oflicially, 
as  a  sort  of  legate  of  the  patriarch,  the  clergy  and 
churches  in  a  province. 

EXCA'MBION,  in  Scotland,  is  the  legal  name 
for  an  exchange  of  lands.  Heirs  possessing  under 
deeds  of  entail  are  empowered  by  the  so-called 
Montgomery  Act  (10  Geo.  III.  c.  51)  to  exchange 
or  excamb  certain  portions  of  the  entailed  lands. 
The   portions    exchanged    must    not    include    the 


principal  mansion-house  or  offices,  or  the  garden,  p,ark, 
home-farm,  or  policy,  or  more  than  one-fourth  in 
value  of  the  estate.  As  to  the  conditions  under 
which,  and  the  proceedings  by  which,  excambions 
of  entailed  lands  are  effected,  see  Bell's  Laio 
Dictionary. 


EXCELLENCE,  or  EXCELLENCY,  a  title 
now  given  to  ambassadors,  as  representing  not  the 
affairs  alone,  but  the  persons  of  sovereign  princes, 
to  whom  it  was  formerly  applied.  The  privilege 
of  being  addressed  as  '  Your  Excellence,  and  of 
demanding  a  private  interview  with  the  prince  to 
whom  he  is  accredited,  are  the  cliief  distinctions 
between  the  ]irivileges  of  an  ambassador,  and  an 
envoy  or  minister  plenipotentiary.  See  Ambassadoe, 
Embassv. 

EXCHA'NGE,  a  term  applied  to  buildings  or 
places  of  resort  for  merchants.  The  name  Bourse 
(Purse)  is  appUcd  in  France  and  Belgium  to  a  resort 
of  this  kind;  and  in  Hamburg,  and  some  other 
German  cities,  there  is  the  equivalent  word  Biirse. 
Exchanges  have  usually  comprehended  an  open 
quadrangle,  surrounded '  by  an  arcade,  free  to  all 
persons  ;  but  in  some  cases  large  reading-rooms 
now  constitute  resorts  of  this  kind,  and  these  are 
open  only  to  a  body  of  subscribers,  and  visitors 
whom  they  introduce.  Of  this  description  are  the 
Exchanges  of  Manchester  and  Glasgow. 

Exchanges  originated  m  the  commercial  cities  of 
Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  from  which 
last-named  country  they  were  copied  by  England. 
The  merit  of  introducing  them  is  due  to  Sir  Thomas 
Greshara,  who,  having  resided  as  British  agent  at 
Antweri)  in  1550,  chose  the  Bourse  of  that  city  as  a 
model  for  the  Royal  Exchange  of  London.  Their 
institution  in  England  is  therefore  coincident  with 
the  rise  of  commercial  prosperity  at  the  middle  of 
the  IGth  century.  The  first  stone  of  Grcsh.am  s 
Burse,  for  so  it  was  originally  called,  was  laid  June 
6,  1500,  a  site  being  foimd  for  it  Ijy  removing  eighty 
houses  in  ComhUl,  and  it  was  finished  in  November 
1567.  It  consisted  of  a  qu.aihangle  with  an  arcade  ; 
above  was  a  corridor  -n-ith  stalls,  for  the  sale  of 
wares.  This  corridor  was  called  the  ;)ai™— believed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  6o/i;i— Gcr.  for  path  or  walk. 
Outside  were  shops.  On  January  23,  1570—1571, 
the  Burse  was  ceremoniously  opened  by  Queen 
Eliz.abeth  immediately  after  dining  at  the  house  of 
Sir  Thomas  Grcsham  m  Bishopsgate  Street.  Having 
viewed  the  whole  Burse,  the  queen,  by  herahl  and 
trumjiot,  caused  it  to  be  proclaimed  'The  Poyal 
Exchange.'  This  first  Exchange  of  London  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  gre.at  fire  of  1006. 
A  new  Exchange  was  forthwith  erected  on  the  spot, 
and  opened  September  28,  1069.  This  second  Roy-al 
Exchanne  h.ad  the  same  fate  ;  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  January  10,  1838.  The  found.ation-stone  of 
the'  third  Excliango  was  laid  by  Prince  Albert. 
January  17,  1812.  Comiiletcd  ill  three  years,  at  a 
cost  of  £151),000,  from  the  designs  of  W.  Tite,  it 
was  opened  January  1,  18-15,  by  Queen  Victoria, 
who  declared  it '  to  be  her  royal  wiU  and  i^leasiu-e 
that  this  building  be  hereafter  called  The  Royal 
Exchange.'  in 

The  terra  Exch.ange  seems  to  have  been  naturally 
adopted  from  the  circumstance  that  Inlying  and 
exchanging  of  merchandise,  and  also  exchanging  and 
paj-ing  away  of  money,  formed  the  chief  object  of 
concourse.  In  the  present  day,  eariy  mtelligence 
in  matters  affecting  commerce  and  pulilic  finance 
forms  a  principal  attraction  of  this  kind  of  re-sort. 
Although  open  daily,  there  are  usually  certain  days 
and  lioiirs  of  meeting  when  the  throng  is  consider- 
able. The  meeting  is  famUiarly  caUed  '  Ch.ange  ; 
as,  for  example,  '  Change  commences  at  1  o  clock, 


EXCHANGE. 


and  it  is  worth  while  seein"  the  crowd  that  comes 
throngin<;  at  that  hoiir. — Murray's  Handbook, 
article  '  Hamburg.'  The  two  great  days  of  meeting 
at  the  Royal  E.xehange,  London,  are  Tuesdays  and 
Fridays,  and  the  busiest  time  is  from  3  to  4  o'clock. 
.Vt  this  time  are  seen  the  greatest  people  on 
Change  ;  some  of  whom,  such  as  the  Rothschilds, 
occupy  a  well-known  spot. 

In  London,  there  are  several  other  Exchanges, 
but  for  special  purjioses ;  among  these  are  the 
Corn  Exchange  in  Mark  Lane,  and  the  Coal 
Exchange  in  Lower  Thames  Street.  Exeter  Change, 
which  was  a  sort  of  bazaar,  vrtXh  a  menagerie  of 
wild  beasts,  stood  in  the  Strand,  upon  or  near 
the  site  of  the  house  of  the  Earl  of  Exeter;  the 
building,  as  an  interruption  to  the  thoroughfare, 
was  removed  in  1829.  The  Bourse  at  Paris  and 
at  Marseille,  also  the  Merchants'  Exchange  in  Wall 
Street,  New  York,  may  be  mentioned  as  buildings 
of  great  extent  and  elegance.  Lately,  some  hand- 
some and  commodious  Corn  Exchanges,  as  resorts 
for  grain-dealers,  have  been  erected  in  various 
towns  in  Great  Britain. 

EXCHANGE,  in  Pohtical  Economy,  is  sometimes 
appHed  to  the  conversion  of  the  money  of  one 
coimtry  into  its  equivalent  in  the  money  of  another 
— as  by  stating  the  relation  which  French  napoleons 
and  francs  bear  to  British  pounds.  The  technical 
meaning  of  the  word  has  now,  however,  come  to 
be  the  difference  between  the  actual  value  of  money, 
taken  by  the  standard  of  bidlion,  in  any  two  places 
with  relation  to  each  other.  If,  in  London,  it  costs 
more  than  £100  to  pay  £100  in  St  Petersburg,  the 
rate  of  exchange  is  against  the  former  town,  and 
in  favour  of  the  latter ;  an  inhabitant  of  which  will 
be  able  to  pay  a  debt  of  £100  in  London  with  less 
than  £100  worth  of  bullion  in  St  Petersburg.  The 
process  will  be  best  explained  by  analysing  it 
through  means  of  simple  examples.  If  Thomson 
&  Co.  of  London  buy  £100  worth  of  wine  from  De 
la  Rue  of  Pari.?,  and  De  la  Rue,  on  the  other 
hand,  buy  £100  worth  of  cotton  goods  from 
Thomson  &  Co.  of  London,  the  two  debts,  were 
tliere  no  others  between  the  mercliant;  of  the  same 
lo!cn.t,  would  extinguish  each  other,  and  there 
would  be  no  necessity  cither  for  transmitting  money 
or  drawing  bills  of  exchange.  Suppose,  however, 
that  it  is  not  De  la  Rue,  but  his  neighbour 
Bonchamp  who  has  bought  the  £100  worth  of  cotton 
goods  from  Thomson  &  Co.,  then  the  debts  of  all 
will  be  settled  by  Bonchamp  paying  £100  to  De  la 
Hue  on  Thomson  &  Co.'s  accoimt.  Suppose,  next,  the 
case  of  De  la  Rue  being  due  nothing  to  Thomson 
&  Co.,  and  Bonchamp  being  due  them  only  £50,  a 
like  sum  has  to  be  otherwise  foimd.  Van  Pradt  of 
Amsterdam  is  due  precisely  this  sum  to  Thomson 
&  Co.,  while  either  De  la  Rue  or  Bonchamp  is  due 
the  same  amount  to  Van  Pradt  for  a  purchase  of 
Gouda  cheeses ;  then  it  is  clear  that  the  several 
debts  can  be  adjusted  among  them  -n-ithout  the 
transmission  of  bullion.  It  will  cost  some  trouble 
to  adjust  the  payments,  however,  and  this  trouble 
will  have  to  be  jiaid  for.  As  in  paying  Thomson  & 
Co.  their  debt  of  £100,  De  la  Rue  will  have  to  pay 
for  this  trouble,  the  rate  of  exchange  will  be  against 
him.  If  the  debt,  or  any  part  of  it,  cannot  be  met 
bj'  such  an  adjustment  out  of  cross  debts  and  credits, 
it  will  be  necessarj'  for  the  debtor  to  send  bullion 
to  his  creditor ;  and  this  being  an  expensive  process, 
it  throws  the  rate  of  exchange  against  the  debtor 
■who  so  pays.  For  instance,  rf  the  sum  due  by  the 
Frenchmen  to  Van  Pradt  was  only  £25  instead  of 
£50,  then  De  la  Rue  would  have  had  to  be  at  the 
expense  of  sending  £25  to  London  in  bidhon.  No 
such  actual  transactions  take  place  in  the  existing 
mercantile  world,  because  the  accoimts  in  debtor 


and  creditor  connected  with  the  three  towns  above 
referred  to  are  to  be  counted  in  thousands,  and 
ramify  into  other  towns  ;  but  the  above  examples 
may  be  held  to  represent  the  groups  of  debtors  and 
creditors,  as  algebraic  signs  represent  quantities. 
The  indiWdual  merchants  in  one  trading  town  have 
no  idea  how  the  sm-plus  of  debit  or  credit  may  lie 
between  them,  far  less  can  they  tell  how  it  may  be 
adjusted  by  debits  and  credits  in  other  towns  ;  but 
through  the  agency  of  bankers,  bill-discounters,  and 
other  persons  who  deal  in  money,  the  relations 
of  all  trading-places  towards  each  other  are  in  a 
constant  state  of  shifting  and  adjustment ;  and  any 
one  who  has  to  pay  a  debt  in  any  trading-place  can 
find  out  how  much  he  has  to  give  to  get  that  debt 
paid,  and  can  pay  it  accordingly.  When,  through 
the  operation  of  these  comi)licated  transactions,  you 
require  to  give  more  than  £100  in  Loudon  to  get 
th.at  amount  paid  in  Paris,  then  the  rate  of  exchange 
is  against  London,  and  is  in  favour  of  Paris,  whera 
less  than  £100  in  cash  will  pay  a  debt  of  £100  in 
London.  The  difference  will  generally  depend  ou 
the  difficulty  of  adjusting  questions  of  debt  and 
credit  throughout  the  field  of  European  commerce, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  get  the  debt  paid.  If  it 
cannot  be  paid  by  adjustment,  then  bullion  must 
be  sent ;  and  thus  it  is  generally  said,  that  the  rato 
of  exchange  against  any  place  is  limited  by  the 
charge  of  transmitting  bullion  to  it.  The  rate  of 
exchange  is  liable  to  be  brought  to  a  level  also 
by  commercial  exportation  and  importation,  since, 
whenever  it  is  expensive  to  get  money  sent  to  a 
country,  there  is  a  temptation  to  send  goods  to  that 
country,  to  compensate  the  debt.  In  the  general 
circle  of  transactions  of  this  kind,  the  state  or  town 
which  has  the  largest  amoimt  of  transactions  will 
have  the  largest  niunber  of  debtors  and  of  creditors, 
and  will  thus  afford  the  chief  facility  for  each 
compensating  the  other.  It  is  thus  that  London  is 
the  centre  of  the  money-market,  where  all  the  debts 
and  credits  in  the  world  may  be  said  to  meet  and 
extinguish  each  other.  ^TiOe  the  old  notions 
about  the  Balance  of  Trade  (q.  v.)  existed,  it  was 
supposed  that  the  nation  which  the  exchange  was 
against  was  going  to  ruin  ;  while  that  which  it  was 
in  favour  of  was  prospering  through  the  other's  loss. 
At  present,  it  is  inconvenient  and  expensive  to  a 
country  to  have  the  exchange  against  it.  An 
adverse  exchange  generally  indicates  a  sort  of  break 
in  the  circle  of  trade,  which  it  would  be  advanta- 
geous to  fill  up,  and  viay  be  caused  by  the  commerce 
of  a  country  decreasing ;  on  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  imports  for  which  a  country  p.ays  in  cash 
or  in  expensive  bills,  may  be  the  same  as  a  highly 
advantageous  traffic.  Gold-producing  countries 
find  bullion  their  most  advantageous  export,  and 
the  same  is  the  case  with  countries  into  which  gold 
has  flowed  in  excess. 

EXCHANGE,  Deep  of,  in  English  law,  a  common 
law  assiirance,  whereby  persons  severally  seised  of 
lands,  mutually  grant  them  in  exchange,  each  his 
own  land  for  that  of  the  other.  In  order  to  a  valid 
exchange,  five  things  are  necessary:  1.  The  two  sub- 
jects must  be  of  the  same  nature,  as  lands  for  lands, 
chattels  for  chattels,  but  not  real  for  personal  estate. 

2.  The  parties  must  take  an  equal  estate  ;  thus,  an 
estate  in  fee  cannot  be  exchanged  for  an  est.ite  tail. 

3.  The  word  'exchange'  must  be  used.  4.  There 
must  be  entry,  and  if  either  party  die  before  entrj', 
his  heir  may  avoid  the  exchange.  5.  Since  the 
statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car.  II.  c.  3),  if  the  interest  be 
larger  than  a  term  for  three  years,  the  exchange 
must  be  in  writing.  A  mutual  warranty  and  right 
of  entry  was  formerly  implied  in  an  exchauge.  Tliis 
effect  of  the  deed  has  been  taken  away  by  S  and 
9  Vict.  c.  106,  s.  4.    By  the  S  and  9  Vict.  c.  118, 

1S3 


EXCHANGES-EXCHEQUER. 


B.  92,  called  the  Common  Enclosure  Act,  the 
coniniissionors  are  empowered  to  make  exchanges 
for  the  better  carryini;  ojit  of  the  purposes  of  the 
act.  A  deed  of  exchange  closely  resembles  in  its 
particulars  an  Excambion  (q.  v.)  in  Scothuid. 

EXCHA'NGES,  Military,  are  certain  arrange- 
ments made  between  olficere  (if  the  English  army. 
An  officer  may  exchange,  or  cliange  jilaces,  in  the 
Guards,  or  l^ine,  with  .another  of  eijual  rank  in  any 
regiment  of  the  .above  corps,  by  mutual  consent,  and 
on  p.ajTnent  of  such  a  sum  as  sliall  represent  the 
ditl'erence  of  value  between  the  commission  vacated 
anil  that  assumed.  As  each  of  tlie  exclianging 
officers  enters  his  new  corps  at  the  bottom  of  his 
rank,  exchange  benelits  officers,  especially  those 
unable  to  purchase  promotion,  who  remain  in  their 
original  regiment,  by  advancing  them  towards  the 
top  of  the  list,  .and  therefore  nearer  to  promotion  on 
a  non-purchase  vacancy  occurring.  An  officer  on 
full-]iay  m.ay  exchange  with  another  on  half-pay, 
provided  a  )-ounger  life  be  not  thereby  added  to 
the  Lalf-]iay  list,  and  subject  .always  to  the  con- 
sent of  the  Secretary  for  War.  If  the  rank  be 
one  of  those  which  are  purch.osable  (see  Coirais- 
siONS,  AitMY),  a  p.aymcnt  of  money  from  one  officer 
to  another  is  necessary  to  complete  an  exchange 
between  full-pay  and  half-pay ;  the  amoiuit  having 
rehation  legally  to  the  regul.ated,  actually  to  the 
market  v.alue  of  each  kind  of  commission,  as  noticed 
in  the  article  just  cited.  Exchanges  are  ordinarily 
arr.anged  by  the  army  agents. 

EXCHE'QUER,  Chan'CELLOK  of  the.  The  office 
of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in  modern  times, 
will  be  accurately  described  when  we  say  that  he 
is  the  first  finance  minister  of  the  Crown.  Strictly 
speaking,  he  is  the  uuder-treasurer,  the  office  of 
Lord  High  Treasurer  being  now  vested  in  the  Lords 
Commissioners  of  the  Treasm-y.  AVhen  the  Pi-ime 
Minister  is  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
he  sometimes  holds  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  The  judicial  functions  of  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  may  now  be  considered 
matter  of  history.  See  Exchequer,  Court  of. 
AVhen  the  chief  baron  and  the  barons  are  equally 
divided  in  opinion,  he  may  be  required  to  rehear 
the  cause  with  the  barons,  and  to  give  his  opinion. 
But  tile  last  instance  in  which  this  was  done  was 
in  17.3.5;  and  though  the  decision  which  Sir  Kobert 
Walpole  gave  is  said  to  have  given  great  satisfac- 
tion, the  custom  is  not  likely  to  be  reverted  to. 

EXCHEQUER,  Court  of,  one  of  the  supreme 
courts  of  common  haw  in  England.  The  Court 
of  Exchequer  was  originally  the  court  wherein 
all  matters  rcl.ating  to  the  royal  revenues  were 
adjudicated  upon.  It  is  said  (Madox,  Hid.  of  Ex. 
I  177)  that  as  early  as  the  reign  of  William  the 
Conqueror  a  Court  of  Exchequer  was  in  existence. 
This  was  ]>robably  nothing  more  than  a  branch  of 
the  A  Ilia  Jieijia,  or  great  councd  of  the  nation  ;  but 
on  the  subdivision  of  that  court  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  the  Court  of  Exchequer  .acquired  a 
separ.ate  and  independent  position.  The  special 
duty  then  assigned  to  the  court  w.as  to  order  the 
revenues  of  the  crown,  and  to  recover  the  king's 
debts  and  duties.  Tlie  court  was  then  denomin.ated 
tlie  iSaiccarium,  a  word  derived,  it  is  said,  from 
ecaccus  or  ieaccum,  a  chess-board ;  and  it  w.as  so  called 
because  a  checkered  cloth  w-as  anciently  wont  to  be 
laid  upon  the  table  of  the  court  (Madox,  Jlist.  of 
Ex.),  a  practice  which,  imtil  the  late  act,  ]>rcvailcd 
in  the  Court  of  Exchequer  in  Scotland.  The  court 
formerly  consisted  of  two  divisions,  an  equity,  and 
a  common  law  or  ])loa  side.  Lord  Coke  (lust.  iv. 
IIS)  .appears  to  doubt  wliether  the  equitable  juris- 
diction of  the  court  can  be  traced  back  further  than 
184 


the  statute  3,3  Henry  VIII.  c.  39.  This  ccputablo 
juristUction  of  the  Exchequer  was  abolished  by 
,')  Vict.  c.  .5,  and  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
On  the  first  institution  of  tlie  court,  the  busines.s 
was  chielly  confine<l  to  matters  connected  with  the 
royal  reveiuie,  but  a  privilege  was  cnnceded  to  all 
tlie  king's  debtors  and  farmers,  and  all  accountants 
of  the  Excliequer,  to  sue  and  implead  all  manner  of 
])crson3.  This  jirivilege  was  exercised  by  means  of 
a  writ  of  quo  minus  (now  abolished  by  '1  Will.  I\^ 
c.  39),  wherein  it  w.as  act  forth  that  the  plaintilf 
being  a  debtor  of  tlie  king,  w.as,  by  reason  of  tlio 
wrong  done  to  him  by  the  defendant,  deprived  of 
the  means  of  disch.arging  his  ilebt  to  the  crown 
(quo  minus  sufficient  exislit).  The  lienefit  of  this 
writ  was  by  degrees  extended  to  all  the  lieges,  on 
the  fiction  that  tliey  were  crown  delitors.  By  this 
means  the  Court  of  Exchequer  acquired  a  concurrent 
jurisdiction  witli  the  other  courts  of  common  law. 
The  judges  of  the  Exchecpier  consisted  originally  of 
the  lord  treasurer,  the  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
and  three  puisnC'  judges ;  these  last  were  called  liarons 
of  the  Exchequer.  The  title  of  baron  is  said  liy  Mr 
Selden  (Til.  of  Hon.  2,  5,  16)  to  have  been  given  to 
the  judges  in  the  E.xcheijuer  because  tliey  were 
anciently  made  of  such  as  were  barons  of  the  king- 
dom. The  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  sat  only  on 
the  equity  side  of  the  coiu't.  The  last  occasion  on 
which  he  was  called  upon  to  exercise  his  judicial 
functions  was  in  the  case  of  Naish  v.  the  E.ast  India 
Company,  when  tlie  judges  were  equally  divided  in 
opinion.  This  case  occurred  in  Michaehuas  term 
1735,  when  Sir  Robert  Walpole  was  chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  and  his  judgment  is  said  to  have 
given  general  satisfaction.  The  court  now  consists 
of  five  judges — viz.,  the  chief  baron,  and  four  barons 
of  Exchequer.  From  this  court  an  ajipeal  lies  in 
Error  (q.  v.)  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  t'h.amber. 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  was  originally  a 
coiu-t  of  all  the  judges  in  England  aosembled  f<ir 
decision  of  m.atters  of  law  (Coke,  Inst.  iv.  HO,  119). 
Lord  Cani])bell  states,  th.at  the  lord  cliancellor  was 
in  the  habit  of  .adjourning  cases  of  extraordinary 
importance  into  the  Exchequer,  that  he  might  have 
tlie  opinion  of  the  twelve  judges  (Lire.^  of  the  Chan- 
cellors, i.  10).  But  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  is  .as  a  court  of  error, 
in  which  capacity  it  reviews  the  judgments  of  the 
three  courts  of  common  law.  This  court  was  estab- 
lished by  31  Edw.  I.  c.  12,  for  the  purpose  of 
reviewing  the  decisions  of  the  common  law  side  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer,  and  was  comjiosed  of  tho 
judges  of  the  other  two  courts — viz.,  the  Queen's 
Bench  and  the  Common  Pleas.  By  27  Eliz.  c.  8,  it 
was  enacted  th.at  the  judges  of  the  Common  Pleas 
and  Exchequer  should  form  a  second  Court  of 
Exchequer  Chamber,  for  review  of  certain  eases  in 
the  Queen's  Bench.  And  now,  by  II  (!eo.  IV.,  and 
I  Will.  IV.  c.  70,  the  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber 
is  constituted  the  court  of  review  for  all  proceedings 
in  Error  (q.  v.)  from  the  courts  of  coninion  law,  tho 
judges  of  two  of  the  courts  alw.ays  forming  the  court 
of  appeal  for  the  proceedings  of  the  tliird.  Tlio 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  is  also,  Ijy  1  Will.  IV. 
c.  70,  constituted  the  court  of  review  for  criminal 
cases  on  writ  of  error  from  the  Queen's  Bench. 

In  Scotland,  before  the  ITnion,  the  Exchequer  w.as 
the  king's  revenue  court.  It  consisted  of  the  trea- 
surer, tile  treasurer-depute,  and  as  many  of  t)ie  lords 
of  Exchequer  as  the  king  was  jileased  to  .ajijioint 
(Ersk.  i.  ,3,  .30).  The  Scottisli  Cuurt  of  Exchequer 
was  continued  by  the  19th  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Union,  until  a  new  court  should  be  established, 
which  was  effected  by  6  Anne,  c.  2G.  A  privative 
jurisdiction  was  conferred  on  the  court  as  to  ques- 
tions rclatinrj  to  revenues  and  customs  of  excise,  and 


EXCHEQUER  BILLS— EXCISE. 


as  to  all  honours  and  estates  real  and  personal,  and 
forfeitures  and  penalties  arising  to  the  crown  within 
Scotlanrl.  But  questions  of  title  to  lands,  honours, 
&c.,  were  reserved  to  the  Court  of  Session.  The 
judges  of  the  court  were,  the  high  treasurer  of  Great 
Britain,  the  chief  baron,  and  four  other  barons, 
and  English  barristers  as  well  as  Scotch  advocates 
were  allowed  to  practise  in  the  court.  In  cases  of 
difficidty,  and  where  there  was  a  coUision  of  juris- 
dictions, it  was  fonnerly  nr)t  unusual  to  hold  confer- 
ences with  the  barons ;  and  the  form  of  desiring  the 
conference  was  to  send  the  lord  advocate,  and,  in 
his  .absence,  the  solicitor-gener.al,  to  re(juest  a  meet- 
ing, though  it  has  been  doubted  whether  they  were 
bound  to  carry  the  message  (Shand's  Practice,  27). 
By  2  Will.  IV.  c.  54,  it  was  provided  that  successors 
shoulil  not  be  a]>pointed  to  such  of  the  barons  as 
should  retire  or  die,  and  tluat  the  duties  of  the  court 
should  be  discharged  liy  a  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Session.  And  now,  by  IS)  and  20  Vict.  c.  56,  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  is  abolished,  and  the  jurisdiction 
transfen-ed  entirely  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  Court  of  L'xrhequer  Chamlier  in  Ireland  was 
established  by  40  Geo.  III.  c.  39.  It  consists  of 
the  chief  justices,  chief  baron,  and  the  rest  of  the 
justices  and  barons,  or  any  nine  of  them. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS,  bills  issued  at  the 
Exchequer  under  the  authority  of  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, as  security  for  money  advanced  to  the 
government.  They  contain  an  engagement  on  the 
part  of  the  government  for  the  jiajanent  of  the 
principal  sums  advanced  with  interest.  These  bills 
form  the  chief  part  of  the  unfunded  debt  of  the 
country.  They  were  first  issued  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  in  the  year  1G96,  and  were  drawn 
for  various  amounts  from  £100  to  £5.  At  that 
time  they  bore  interest  at  the  rate  of  threepence 
per  day  on  a  hundred  poimds  (Macaiday,  Histonj  of 
Eufjhutd,  iv.  700).  The  interest  was  reduced  to  2f/. 
during  the  reign  of  Anne.  During  the  war  1793 — 
1814,  the  rate  of  interest  was  usually  ZUl.  At 
present,  it  is  generally  from  l.W.  to  Ibl.  per  £100 
per  iliem.  Holders  of  these  biUs  are  exempt  from 
all  risk,  except  that  arising  from  the  amount  of 
premium  or  discount  they  may  liave  given  for 
them.  The  bills  pass  from  hand  to  hand  as  money, 
and  are  payable  at  the  Treasury  at  par.  They 
may  also  be  ]>aid  to  government  in  tUscharge  for 
taxes.  When  it  is  intended  to  pay  off  outstanding 
Excliequer  bills,  ])ublic  notice  is  given  by  advertise- 
ment. The  advances  of  money  to  the  government 
by  the  Bank  of  England  are  made  on  E.xcheqner 
bills.  These  bills  are  a  convenient  means  whereby 
the  government  can  meet  a  sudden  demand  for 
unusual  expenditure.  Thus  (as  wiU  be  seen  below) 
during  the  pressure  of  the  Indian  mutiny  (1856 — 
1858),  the  amount  due  on  Exchequer  bills  greatly 
exceeded  that  of  the  years  which  immediately  pre- 
ceded and  followed.  Amoimt  of  Exchequer  bills 
improrided  for  1855  to  1860:  1S5.3,  £17,151,400; 
1856,  £21,182,700  ;  1857,  £20,989,000  ;  1858, 
£20,911,500;  1859,  £13,277,400;  1860,  £13,228,300. 

EXCI'PIENT  (Lat.  exxipio,  I  receive),  an  inert 
or  slightly  active  substance,  introduced  into  a  medi- 
cal prescription  as  a  vehicle,  or  mediiun  of  adminis- 
tration for  the  strictly  medicinal  ingredients.  Thus, 
conserve  of  red  roses,  or  bread-crumb,  is  used  to 
make  up  pills  ;  sulphate  of  potass,  or  white  sugar, 
in  medicinal  powders ;  water,  mucilage,  white  of 
egg,  and  many  other  substances  in  lluid  mixtures. 

EXCI'SE,  the  name  of  a  tax  on  commodities,  from 
the  Latin  tU"ci'*-»5,  cut  off,  as  being  a  portion  of  the 
value  of  the  commodity  cut  off"  and  set  apart  for 
the  revenue  before  the  commodity  is  sold.  This  is 
not  its  actual  nature,  however,  for  the   maniifac- 


tm-er  who  looks  to  a  profit  on  his  outlay  docs  not 
give  i)art  of  the  value  to  the  revenue  ;  he  merely 
counts  the  tax  as  j>art  of  his  expenditure,  which  he 
intends  to  get  back  with  a  profit,  so  that  it  con- 
stitutes an  addition  to  the  \dtimate  ])rice  which  the 
purchaser  or  consumer  has  to  pay.  A  tax  on  com- 
modities sold  and  bought  is  a  very  obvious  one, 
adopted  in  almost  every  country  where  taxes  have 
been  raised  otherwise  than  on  the  land  or  by  the 
head ;  but  it  has  generally  appeared  in  the  simple 
shape  of  a  toll  ou  goods  brought  to  market,  and  the 
complicated  arrangements  for  oflieially  watching 
the  jirocess  of  a  manufacture  through  all  its  stages, 
for  the  purpose  of  seeing  that  none  of  the  dues  of 
the  revenue  are  evaded,  is  of  comparatively  modern 
origin.  It  had  been  for  some  time  successfully 
practised  in  Holland,  when  the  Long  Parliament, 
who  were  looking  about  for  a  fniitful  source  of 
revenue,  observing  how  productive  it  had  been 
there,  estabUshed  an  excise  ou  Uquors  in  England 
in  1643.  It  was  continued  at  the  Kestoration  by 
the  same  statute  which  abolished  aids,  escuages, 
and  the  other  feudal  exactions,  along  with  the 
Court  of  Wards  established  for  enforcing  them, 
and  the  royal  prerogatives  of  purveyance  and  pre- 
emption. The  excise  may  thus  be  considered  the 
price  paid  for  the  abolition  of  the  bm'dens  of  the 
feudiil  system.  Though  alwaj's  unpopijar,  the 
excise  in  some  form  or  other  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued to  be  a  material  element  in  the  taxation 
and  revenue  of  Britain.  In  the  earlier  p.art  of 
last  century,  Sir  Robert  Walpole  entertained  the 
notion  of  enlarging  its  productiveness  while  miti- 
gating its  proportional  pressure,  liy  the  bonding 
system,  which  suspends  the  exaction  of  the  duty 
until  the  goods  are  sold,  and  thus  leaves  the  manu- 
facturer all  his  capital  to  be  devoted  to  produc- 
tion. See  Warehousing  Svste.m.  But  the  rumour 
of  an  enlargement  of  the  unpopiUar  excise  duty 
created  a  general  excitement,  and  the  memorable 
cry  of  '  Liberty,  Property,  and  no  Excise '  compelled 
Walpole  to  abandon  his  project. 

An  excise,  when  compared  with  other  taxes,  has 
its  good  and  its  bad  features :  it  is  a  method  of 
extracting  money  for  national  purposes  from  per- 
sonal expenditiire  on  luxuries,  and  is  especially 
ser\-iceable  when  fed  from  those  luxuries  the  use 
of  which  in  excess  becomes  a  vice.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  renders  necessary  a  system  of  inquisitorial 
inspection  not  only  very  offensive  to  all  free  peojile, 
but  very  oj)en  to  abuse  and  fi-aud ;  while  at  the 
same  time  excessively  high  duties,  and  duties  on 
commodities  strictly  of  domestic  manufacture,  lead 
to  smuggling  and  all  its  demoralising  consequences. 
The  evils  of  an  excise  were  formerly  aggravated  by 
the  practice  of  farming  the  duties — that  is,  by 
letting  them  to  the  highest  bidder,  whose  interest  it 
became,  like  any  other  contractor,  to  make  the 
greatest  possible  profit  by  his  speculation,  and  con- 
sequently to  exact  the  duties  in  the  most  rigorous 
manner.  In  every  well-regulated  revenue  system, 
it  is  of  coiu'se  only  fair  to  all  parties  that  the  duty 
as  the  law  lays  it  on  should  be  fully  exacted ;  but 
in  the  age  of  famnng,  the  arrangements  were  all 
slovenly,  and  there  was  much  latitude  of  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  farmers.  The  farming  sj'stem 
became  very  oppressive  in  France,  especially  in  the 
(lahelle  or  excise  on  that  necessary  of  life,  salt.  It 
is  a  curious  fact,  however,  that  when  the  farming  of 
the  excise  was  abolished  in  Scotland  by  the  Union, 
the  people  gnmibled,  saying  they  were  easier  under 
the  farmers,  their  own  neighbours,  who  acted  f)n 
the  principle  of  'live  and  let  live,'  than  under  the 
officers  sent  down  from  England,  who  rigidly 
collected  the  impost. 

An  excise  works  most  easily  when  it  is  laid  on 


EXCITANTS— EXCOMMUNICATION. 


some  commodity  banished  from  domestic  production 
and  created  by  manufacturers  on  a  larjjc  scale.  In 
a  great  distillery,  the  excise  ofGccr  is  almost  a  por- 
tion of  the  establishment,  who  has  an  eye  on  every 
step  of  the  process,  with  the  view  of  seeing  that 
the  commodity  does  not  get  into  the  market  with- 
out government  obtaining  its  proper  share — some- 
times far  the  greater  part— of  the  market  price. 
The  social  influence  of  such  an  arrangement  is  very 
different  from  that  of  the  old  candle  and  salt  duties, 
which  made  it  the  fimction  of  the  exciseman  to 
pounce  on  a  farmer's  family  melting  the  surplus 
tallow  of  tho  last  killed  sheep,  or  of  a  fisherman 
boiling  sea-water  to  procure  salt  for  his  potatoes. 
The  manufacturer,  however,  though  he  lias  the 
benefit  of  the  bonding  system,  feels'the  excise  ref- 
lations to  be  a  pci-jietuai  drag  and  hinderance  in  his 
operations,  since  there  are  multitudes  of  minute 
operations  which  he  cannot  perform  without  sending 
special  notice  to  the  excise  department,  or  having 
an  ofBcer  actually  present.  This  renders  it  neces- 
sary, too,  that  all  the  steps  of  the  process  should 
not  merely  be  defined  as  between  the  manufacturer 
and  the  officer,  but  should  be  set  forth  in  an  act  of 
parliament ;  and  hence  deviations  for  the  purpose  of 
economy,  or  by  way  of  erjieriment,  become  difficult, 
and  sometimes  impracticable.  As  difficulties  with 
which  the  producer  has  to  contend,  these  things 
require  him  to  lay  on  the  selling  price  of  the  com- 
modity a  larger  addition,  by  reason  of  the  excise, 
than  the  actual  amount  of  the  duty. 

No  method  of  taxation  requires  a  nicer  adjust- 
ment to  the  social  condition  of  a  country  than  au 
excise.  Thus,  in  England,  in  the  year  174G,  a  duty 
of  20s.  a  gallon  was  laid  ou  spirits,  with  the  view  of 
suppressing  the  vice  of  dninkenness,  which,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  greatly  increased,  for  the  law  became 
a  dead  letter,  and  the  smuggler  fully  supplied  the 
market,  although  within  the  two  years  in  which  the 
law  was  in  force,  no  fewer  than  12,000  persons  were, 
according  to  Tindal's  History,  conWctcd  of  ofTences 
against  the  act.  In  Scotland,  the  duty,  which  was 
5s.  6d.  a  gallon,  had  to  be  reduced  in  1823  to  2s.,  on 
account  of  the  prevalence  of  smuggling— half  the 
consum])tion  of  the  country,  in  fact,  paying  no  duty. 
The  duty  has  since  then  been  gradually  raised,  until 
it  now  amoimts  to  lOn.  a  gallon,  forming  a  vast 
source  of  revenue.  The  whole  excise  revenue  of  the 
United  Kingdom  for  1860  amounted  to  £20,361,000, 
of  which  nearly  four-fiftlis  were  supplied  from  the 
consumption  of  liquor — -s-iz.,  £10,000,191  from  spirits, 
and  £6,852,458  from  malt ;  and  there  were  besides 
the  hop-duty,  producing  £46,281,  and  the  licence- 
duties  for  selling  liquors.  The  productiveness  of 
this  great  source  of  revenue,  and  the  eijiense  and 
annoyance  connected  with  the  levjnng  of  a  duty  on 
<jther  miscellaneous  commodities,  h.as  led  to  the 
gradual  removal  of  many  excise  duties,  as,  for 
instance,  on  salt,  candles,  leather,  glass,  soap,  and 
lastly,  on  paper,  which  was  relieved  on  the  Ist  of 
October  1801. 

There  was  formerly  a  separate  department  with  a 
very  complex  machinery  for  the  administration  of 
the  excise.  It  is  now  sujierintendcd  by  the  com- 
missioners of  inland  revenue  ;  and  for  the  purposes 
of  local  collection  and  inspection,  the  countiy  is 
divided  into  districts,  in  each  of  which  there  is 
generally  a  collector  and  a  certain  number  of 
supervisors. 

Certain  taxes  which  are  not  properly  of  the 
nature  of  excise,  but  rather  of  licence  duties  for 
following  particular  pursuits,  are  collected  in  the 
excise  department,  as,  for  instance,  the  duties 
payable  by  auctioneers,  by  letters  of  horses  and 
carriages,  tobacco-dealers,  and  so.ap-m.akers.  The 
only   article   jjropcrly   excisable  besides   liquors   is 


chicory,    which    was    excised    for    the  purpose   of 

obviating  the  adulteration  of  coffee. 

E'XCITANTS,  or  STI'MULANTS,  are  those 
pharmaceutical  j)rcparations  wliich,  acting  through 
the  nervous  system,  tend  to  increase  the  action  of 
the  heart  and  other  organs.  They  all  possess  moro 
or  less  of  a  pungent  and  acrid  taste,  and  give  rise 
to  a  sensation  of  warmth  when  placed  on  a  tender 
jiart  of  the  skin.  The  cl.ass  is  a  very  numerous 
one,  and  the  application  of  excitants  or  stimulants 
to  the  human  suliject  should  always  be  under  the 
supervision  of  a  qualified  medical  practitioner. 

EXCLU'SION  BILL,  a  proposed  measure  for 
excluding  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II., 
from  the  succession  to  the  throne,  on  account  of  his 
avowed  Catholicism.  A  bill  to  this  effect  passed 
the  Commons  in  1679,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the 
Upper  House.  As  the  new  parliament  summoned 
in  1681  seemed  determined  to  revert  to  this  measure, 
it  was  dissolved,  and  Charles  nded  henceforth 
without  control.    See  Chakles  II.,  Jajues  II. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION  is  exclusion  from  the 
fellowship  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  ancient 
Komans  had  something  analogous  in  the  exclusion 
of  persons  from  the  temples  aud  from  participation 
of  the  sacrifices,  which  persons  were  also  given  over 
with  awfid  ceremonies  to  the  Furies.  The  Mosaic 
Law  decreed  excommunication  in  case  of  certain 
offences  ;  and  the  intimate  connection  of  things  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  imder  the  Jewish  poUty,  rendered 
it  terrible  even  as  a  temporal  punishment.  The 
Jews,  in  practice,  had  three  degrees  of  excommuni- 
catiou.  The  first,  Niddui,  was  an  exclusion  from 
the  synagogue  for  thirty  days,  that  the  offender 
might  be  ashamed.  The  second,  Cherem,  was  also 
for  thirty  days,  but  beside  exclusion  from  the 
synagogue,  carried  with  it  a  prohibition  to  all  other 
Jews  of  any  intercourse  with  the  individual,  and 
was  often  proclaimed  with  soimd  of  trumpet.  The 
third,  Shiunmatha  or  Anathema  Maranalha  (see 
1  Cor.  xvi.  22),  was  exclusion  from  the  synagogue 
and  privileges  of  the  Jewish  Church  for  life,  mth 
loss  of  ci\Tl  rights,  aud  was  accompanied  with 
terrible  curses,  in  which  the  offender  was  given  over 
to  the  judgment  of  God.  In  the  Christian  Church, 
excommumcation  has  in  all  ages  been  practised, 
as  indeed  every  society  must  necessarily  have  the 
power  of  excluding  unworthy  members  and  those 
who  refuse  to  comply  with  its  rules,  and  the  New 
Testament  plainly  recognises  and  estabUshcs  this 
right  in  the  church.  But  two  different  degrees  of 
excommunication  were  soon  distinguished — the  fii*st 
or  lesser,  a  mere  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  Table 
and  from  other  pri\'ileges  of  members  of  the  church  ; 
the  second  or  greater,  pronounced  upon  obstinate 
offenders  and  persons  who  departed  from  orthodox 
doctrine,  more  solemn  and  awful,  and  not  so  easily 
c.ajiable  of  being  revoked.  Penances  and  public 
professions  of  repentance  were  required ;  and  in 
Africa  and  Spain,  the  absolution  of  lapsed  jjorsons 
(i.  e.,  those  who  in  time  of  persecution  had  yielded 
to  the  force  of  temptation,  and  fallen  away  from 
their  Christian  profession  by  the  crime  of  actual 
sacrifice  to  idols)  was  forbidden,  except  at  the  hour 
of  death,  or  in  cases  where  martyrs  interceded  for 
them.  But  for  a  long  time,  no  civil  consequences 
were  connected  with  excommunication.  Afterwards, 
the  greater  excommunication  was  accom|)anied  with 
loss  of  political  rights,  aud  exclusion  from  public 
offices.  The  power  of  excommunication  also,  which 
had  been  oX  first  in  tho  church  as  a  body,  gr.adually 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  and  more 
especially  of  the  popes,  who  did  not  scruple  to 
exercise  it  against  entire  communities  .at  once. 
Tho  capitularies  of  Pepin  the  Less,  in  the  Sth  c., 


EXCRETION— EXE. 


ordained  that  the  greater  excommunication  shoidd 
be  followed  by  banishment  from  the  country.  The 
Koman  Catholic  Church  pronounces  the  sentence 
of  excommunication  with  many  circumstances  of 
terrible  solemnity,  and  it  contains  a  prohibition  to 
all  Christian  persons  of  all  intercourse  with  the 
person  excommunicated,  and  of  extending  to  him 
even  the  most  ordinary  social  offices.  The  latest 
'  examples '  made  by  the  pope  were  Napoleon  I. 
in  1809,  and  Victor  Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy, 
in  1860 ;  neither  of  whom,  however,  was  excom- 
municated by  name,  the  pope  ha^-ing  confined 
himself  to  a  solemn  and  reiterated  publication 
of  the  penalties  decreed  by  his  predecessors 
against  those  who  unjustly  invaded  the  territories 
of  the  Holy  See,  usiUTied  or  violated  its  rights, 
or  violently  impeded  their  free  exercise.  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  in  the  Lateran  Council  (1215), 
declared  that  excommunication  put  an  end  to  all 
ci\Tl  rights  and  dignities,  and  to  the  possession  of 
any  property.  The  excommunication  of  a  sovereign 
was  regarded  as  freeing  subjects  from  their  alle- 
giance, and  in  the  year  1102,  tliis  sentence  was 
pronoimced  against  the  Emperor  Henry  IV., 
an  example  which  subsequent  popes  likewise 
ventiu'ed  to  follow.  But  the  fearful  weapons  with 
which  the  popes  armed  themselves  in  this  power 
of  excommunication,  were  rendered  much  less 
effective  through  theii-  incautious  employment,  the 
evident  worldly  motives  by  which  it  was  sometimes 
governed,  and  the  excommunications  which  rival 
popes  hm'led  against  each  other  during  the  time 
of  the  great  papal  schism.  The  Greek  Chiu'ch 
also  makes  use  of  excommunication,  and  every  year 
at  Constantinople,  on  a  certain  Sunday,  the  gTeater 
ban  is  pronounced  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. — The  Reformers  retained  only  that  power 
of  excommimication  which  appeared  to  them  to  be 
inherent  in  the  constitution  of  the  Christian  society, 
and  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  Word  of  God ;  nor 
have  any  civil  consequences  been  generally  con- 
nected with  it  in  Protestant  countries.  To  connect 
such  consequences  with  excommimication  in  any 
measure  whatever,  is  certainly  inconsistent  with 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Nevertheless,  in 
England,  until  the  53d  of  Geo.  III.  c.  127,  and  in 
Ireland,  untU  the  54th,  c.  GS,  persons  excommimi- 
cated  were  debarred  from  bringing  or  maintaining 
actions,  from  serving  as  jurjinen,  from  appearing  as 
witnesses  in  any  cause,  and  from  practising  as 
attorneys  in  any  of  the  courts  of  the  realm.  All 
these  disabilities  were  removed  by  the  statutes 
above  named ;  and  the  excommunicated  were 
declared  no  longer  hable  to  any  penalty,  except 
'such  imprisonment,  not  exceeding  six  months,  as 
the  court  pronoimcing  or  declaring  such  person 
excommunicate  shall  direct.' 

In  the  Roman  CathoUc  Church,  the  power  of 
excommunicating  is  held  to  reside,  not  in  the  con- 
gregation, but  in  the  bishop ;  and  this  is  believed 
to  be  in  exact  accordance  with  the  remarkable  pro- 
ceeding commemorated  in  tlie  First  Epistle  of  St 
Paul  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  v.  3-5),  and  with  all 
the  earliest  recorded  examples  of  its  exercise.  Like 
all  the  other  powers  of  the  episcopate,  it  is  held  to 
belong,  in  an  especial  and  eminent  degree,  to  the 
Roman  bishop,  as  primate  of  the  church ;  but  it  is 
by  no  means  believed  to  belong  to  him  exclusively, 
nor  has  such  exclusive  right  ever  been  claimed  by  the 
bishops  of  Rome.  On  the  contrary,  bishops  within 
their  sees,  archbishops  while  exercising  visitatorial 
jurisdiction,  heads  of  religious  orders  'within  their 
own  communities,  all  possess  the  power  to  issue 
excommunication,  not  only  by  the  ancient  law  of 
the  church,  but  also  by  the  most  modern  discipline. 
As  to  the  prohibition  of  intercoiu'se  with  the  excom- 


municated, a  wide  distinction  is  made  between  those 
who  are  called  '  tolerated '  and  those  who  are  '  not 
tolerated.'  Only  in  the  case  of  the  latter  (a  case 
extremely  rare,  and  coniined  to  heresiarchs,  and 
other  signal  offenders  against  the  faith  or  public 
order  of  the  church)  is  the  ancient  and  scrip- 
tural prohibition  of  intercourse  enforced.  With  the 
'  tolerated,'  since  the  celebrated  decree  of  Pope 
Martin  V.  in  the  Council  of  Constance,  the  faithful 
are  permitted  to  maintain  the  ordinary  intercourse. 
It  is  a  mistake,  likewise,  to  ascribe  to  Catholics  the 
doctrine, '  that  excommunication  may  be  pronounced 
against  the  dead.'  The  contrary  is  expressly  laid 
down  by  all  canonists  (Liguori,  T/ieologia  Morally, 
lib.  vii.  n.  13,  1).  In  the  cases  in  which  this  is  said 
to  have  been  done,  the  supposed  '  excommunica- 
tion of  the  dead'  was  merely  a  declaration  that  the 
deceased  indi\'idual  had,  while  living,  been  guilty  of 
some  crime  to  which  excommunication  is  a/tndicd 
l»j  the  church  laws.  Catholic  ■writers,  moreover, 
explain  that  the  civil  effects  of  excommunication 
in  the  medieval  period — such  as  incapacity  to 
exercise  political  rights,  and  even  forfeiture  of  the 
allegiance  of  subjects — were  aunexed  theremito  by 
the  cIntI  law  itself,  or  at  least  by  a  common  inter- 
national understanding  in  that  age.  Examples  are 
alleged  in  the  law  of  Spain,  as  laid  dowii  in  the 
Si.xth  Council  of  Toledo — a  mixed  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical congress — (638) ;  in  the  law  of  France,  as 
admitted  by  Charles  le  Chauve  (859) ;  in  the  Saxon 
and  in  the  Swabian  codes  ;  and  even  in  the  English 
laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor ;  all  which,  and  many 
similar  laws,  proceed  on  the  gTcat  general  princijjle 
of  these  medieval  monarchies,  viz.,  that  orthodoxy 
and  commimion  with  the  Holy  See  were  a  necessary 
condition  of  the  tenure  of  supreme  civil  power;  just 
as  by  the  1  Will,  and  Mary,  s.  2,  c.  2,  profession  of 
Protestantism  is  made  the  condition  of  succession 
to  the  throne  of  England.  Hence,  it  is  argued,  the 
medieval  popes,  in  excommunicating  sovereigns,  and 
declaring  then'  subjects  released  from  allegiance, 
did  but  declare  what  was,  by  the  public  law  of  the 
period,  the  civil  effect  of  the  exercise  of  what  in  them 
was  a  spiritual  authority. 

By  the  discipline  of  the  Rom.an  Cathohe  Church, 
kings  or  queens,  and  their  children,  are  not  included 
in  any  general  sentence  of  excommunication,  unless 
they  be  specially  named. 

EXCRETION.     See  Secretiox. 

EXCXJLPA'TION,  Letters  of,  in  the  law  of 

Scotland,  are  the  warrants  granted  to  the  accused 
party,  or  panel  as  he  is  called,  in  a  criminal  prose- 
cution, to  enal)le  him  to  cite  and  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  such  witnesses  as  he  may  judge  necessary 
for  his  defence.  These  letters  are  issued  as  a  matter 
of  course,  on  application  at  the  Justiciary  Office,  if 
the  prosecution  be  in  the  High  Court,  or  to  the 
sheriif  clerk  in  cases  of  Sheriff  Court  libels.  If  there 
be  any  special  defence,  such  as  alihi,  a  written 
statement  of  its  nature  along  irith  the  articles  to  be 
foimded  on,  and  a  list  of  the  witnesses  to  be  called, 
must  lie  lodged  with  the  clerk  of  court  the  day 
before  the  trial. 

EXE,  a  river  of  the  south-west  of  England,  rises 
in  Exmoor,  in  the  west  of  Somersetshire,  and  flows 
19  miles  south-east  to  the  borders  of  Devonshire, 
and  then  35  miles  south  through  the  east  part  of 
that  cotmty  into  the  Enghsh  Cliaimel  at  Exmoutb. 
The  lower  five  miles  form  a  tideway  a  mile  broad 
at  higli  water,  with  wooded  and  picturesque  shores, 
and  navigal)le  for  large  vessels.  The  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Barle,  24  miles  long,  Batham,  Loman,  Culm, 
Dart,  Creedy,  and  Clist.  The  E.  passes  Dulverton, 
Brompton,  Exeter,  and  Topsham.  It  has  a  clear  and 
merry  current  through  wooded  and  romantic  vales. 

187 


EXECUTION— EXECUTION  OF  CRIMINALS. 


EXECUTION,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  signifies 
the  attestation  by  a  Mcssenger-at-anus  (q.  v. ),  or  other 
officer  of  the  law,  that  he  has  given  a  citation,  or 
carried  through  a  Diligence  (q.  v.),  in  terms  of  the 
warrant  of  the  judge.  It  corresponds  to  an  affidavit 
of  service  of  writ  or  summons  in  the  eommou  law 
courts,  and  of  a  biU  or  claim  in  Chancery.  E.\ecii- 
tions  must  be  subscribed  by  the  messenger  or  other 
executor,  and  by  one  or  two  witnesses ;  and  where 
the  execution  consists  of  more  pages  than  one,  each 
page,  or  at  least  each  leaf,  must  be  so  attested.  The 
witnesses  are  witnesses  to  the  fact  of  service,  not 
merely  to  the  subseri|ition  of  the  messenger;  and 
the  execution  ought  strictly  to  bear  that  they  are 
witnesses  to  the  premises.  Till  the  p.assing  of  recent 
acts  (1  and  2  Vict.  c.  114,  &c.  ;  sec  E\'il>ESCE),  two 
witnesses  were  necessary  to  all  executions,  but  one 
is  now  sufficient,  except  in  cases  of  poinding,  where 
two  are  still  required.  (Bell's  Law  Dklionarij,  and 
authorities  cited.) 

EXECUTION,  Cbooxal.    See  Capital  Pp.nish- 

MENT. 

EXECUTION,  Military  and  Naval,  tisually 
takes  place  by  hanging  or  shooting,  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  offender  and  the  nature  of  the 
oflence.  In  some  rare  instances,  blowing  from  the 
mouth  of  a  gun  has  been  resorted  to.  For  parti- 
culars of  the  acts  for  which  death  is  awarded,  see 
Pux:.snMENTS,  MiLiT^iKV  AND  Naval,  and  MunxY 
Act. 

EXECUTION  OF  CRIMINALS.  See  CAPrr.iL 
Pi.TiiSH.MExr.  Executions  take  place  pubUcly  in  the 
United  Kini;dom,  and,  as  far  as  kuowni,  all  other 
countries,  with  the  exception  of  the  United  States, 
Bavaria,  and  the  colony  of  Victoria,  where  tliey  take 
place  within  the  precincts  of  the  prison,  in  the  sight 
of  certain  officials  and  others  who  are  invited  to 
be  present.  As  one  of  the  main  objects  of  capital 
inmishments  is  to  strike  terror  by  example,  this 
method  of  private  executions,  as  it  may  be  called, 
necessarily  fails  in  an  essential  feature  ;  but  this 
defect  is  held  to  be  more  than  compensated  by  tlie 
prevention  of  what  is  in  reality  a  brutalising  public 
spectacle.  In  London,  executions  took  place  for 
the  most  part  at  Tybnrn  until  1783,  when  a  scaffold 
erected  in  front  of  Newgate  prison  became  the 
common  place  of  execution.  '  The  gallows  was  built 
%nth  three  cross-beams  for  as  many  rows  of  sufferers ; 
and  between  February  and  December  178.5,  ninety- 
six  ])ersons  suffered  by  the  "  new  drop,"  substituted 
for  the  cart.  About  1786,  here  was  the  last  execu- 
tion followed  by  burning  the  Ijody  ;  when  a  woman 
w.as  hung  on  a  low  gibbet,  and  life  being  extinct, 
fagots  were  i)iled  around  her  and  over  her  head, 
tire  was  set  to  the  pile,  and  the  corpse  Iturned  to 
ashes.  On  one  occasion  the  old  mode  of  execution 
w,as  renewed  :  a  trianguLar  gallows  was  sot  up  in  the 
road  opposite  Green-Arbom-  Court,  and  the  cart  w.as 
drawn  from  under  the  criminal's  feet.' — Timbs's 
Curiosities  of  Loudon.  To  render  executions  more 
impressive,  they  were  in  some  cases  ordered  to  take 
l>laee  ne.ar  the  scene  of  guilt ;  but  this  is  now 
seldom  practised.  As  in  London,  the  ordinary'  place 
of  execution  in  most  towns  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  is  outside  tlie  prison.  At  Eilinburgh,  execu- 
tions took  jilace  chiefly  in  the  Grassmarket,  untU 
1784,  when  they  were  transferred  to  a  platform 
at  the  west  end  of  the  Tolbooth  or  ancient  prison, 
a  building  removed  in  1817.  Kxecutious  now  take 
place  on  a  scaffold  erected  in  the  open  street,  near 
the  site  of  the  old  ])rison.  The  iuter\'al  between 
eentence  and  execution  is  now  in  most  places  about 
three  weeks,  the  nature  of  the  crime  not  making 
any  difference  in  this  respect.  In  .all  parts  of  tlic 
British  Empire,  the  convict  imder  sentence  of  death 

1!>8 


is  allowed  to  make  choice  of  the  spiritual  adviser 
who  shall  attend  on  him  ;  and  generally,  everj-thing 
that  humauitv  cau  suggest  is  done  to  assuage  the 
bitterness  of  Ills  fate.  At  one  time,  the  bodies  of 
murderers  after  execution  were,  in  terms  of  their 
sentence,  delivered  to  jirofessors  of  an.atomy  for 
dissection ;  and  it  would  api)car  that  In  some 
instances  the  mangled  corpse  was  made  a  kind  of 
pubUc  show.  Such  took  jjlace  on  the  execution  of 
liarl  Ferrers,  17G0.  The  body  having  been  con- 
veyed from  Tyburn  in  his  lordsliip's  landau-aud-slx 
to  Surgeon's  H.all,  was,  after  being  disembowelled 
and  laid  open  in  the  neck  and  bre.ost,  exposed  to 
iniblic  view  in  a  tirst-Moor  room.  A  print  of  the 
time  depicts  this  odious  exhibition.  The  ordering 
of  the  bodies  to  be  tlissected,  ha\'ing  led  to  great 
abuse,  was  abolished  in  1832  ;  since  this  period,  the 
bodies  of  executed  murderers  are  buried  wlthiu  the 
l)recincts  of  the  prison,  and  the  bodies  of  other  m.ale- 
factoi-s  are  given  to  their  friends.  See  An.\tomy  (in 
L.aw).  It  was  also  at  one  time  customary  to  hang  the 
bodies  of  certain  malcfactoi's  in  chains  after  execu- 
tion— as,  for  example,  the  bodies  of  ])ir.ates  were  so 
hung  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames — but  this  usjige, 
revolting  to  public  feeUng,  is  likewise  abandoned. 
From  the  improved  st.ate  of  the  criminal  law,  death- 
sentences  are  now  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence, 
and  still  more  rarely  .are  such  sentences  executed, 
for,  except  in  cases  of  deliberate  and  aggravated 
miu'der,  the  extreme  sentence  of  the  law  is  now 
usually  commuted  by  the  crown  into  penal  servi- 
tude for  life.  The  secretary  of  state,  however,  to 
whom  practically  belongs  the  attribute  of  mercy, 
exercises  his  power  in  this  respect  with  ob\*iously 
much  care  and  discretu>n.  (By  an  act  passed  in 
18G8,  aU  executions  now  take  place  within  the 
prison  precincts.) 

In  the  progress  of  mannei-s,  a  great  change  has 
t.aken  pkoce  in  the  public  atteud.ance  at  executions. 
Formerly,  persons  belonging  to  the  higher  and 
middle  ranks  were  habitually  present  at  these  dismal 
exhibitions  ;  many  hiring  windows  at  a  consider- 
able sum  for  the  occasion.  Literature  furnishes 
us  with  various  instances  of  persons  of  cultivated 
mind  atteniUng  reg<d.arly  from  a  morbid  love  of 
the  spectacle.  George  Selwj'n  was  fond  of  seeing 
executions.  His  friend  Gilly  Wilhams,  writing  to 
him  of  the  condemnation  of  John  Wesket  (January 
9,  170.3)  for  robbing  the  house  of  his  master,  the 
Earl  of  Harrington,  says  :  '  Harrington's  jiorter 
was  condemned  yesterday.  Cadogan  and  I  have 
already  bespoke  places  at  the  Brazier's.  1  ])resume 
we  shall  h.ave  your  honour's  company,  if  your 
stomach  is  not  too  squeamish  for  a  single  swim.' 
— Sel«-yn's  Correspondence,  vol.  i.  p.  323.  The  Earl 
of  Carlisle,  -nTiting  to  Selwyn,  sjicaks  of  having 
attended  the  execution  of  Hackman,  a  murderer, 
April  19,  1779. — Ibid.  vol.  iv.  ]>.  35.  James  Boswell, 
the  biographer  of  Johnson,  had  a  p.assiou  for  seeing 
executions,  and  even  for  accompanying  crimin.als  to 
the  gallows.  He  was  indulged  with  a  seat  in  the 
mourning  coach  to  Tyburn,  along  with  the  above- 
named  Haclunan,  the  ordinary  of  Newgate,  and 
sheriff's  officer.  Visiting  Johnson  on  the  23il  of 
June  1784,  he  mentions  that  he  h;is  just  come  from 
the  shocking  sight  of  fifteen  men  hanged  .at  Newgate. 
Boswell's  Johnson,  vol.  viil.  ji.  331,  t'roker's  edition. 
At  executions,  there  .are  stUl  considerable  crowds, 
liut  they  consist  chiefly  of  the  lowest  and  most 
depraved  of  the  popidation.  During  the  excesses  of 
the  French  Revolution,  the  executions  in  P.aris  were 
enjoyed  as  a  spect.aclc  by  crowds  of  female  Jacobins. 
From  the  circumstance  of  these  furies  omplojing 
themselves  with  knitting  needles  wlille  attending 
daily  at  the  scaffiild,  they  became  familiarly  known  ;i3 
the  Tricoteuses  (Knitters).   Some  fiu-ther  iufonnatiou 


EXECUTION  OF  DEED— EXECUTIONER. 


concerning  executions  Mnll  be  found  in  the  articles 
Drowning,  Gallows,  Guillotine,  Hanoino  in 
Cii.UNS,  Maiden,  Newgate,  Pakkicide,  Pirate, 
Pkessing  to  Dkvtii,  and  Tvbuhn. 

EXECUTION  OF  DEED,  the  perfonnance  of 
the  ceremonies  required  by  law  in  order  to  make  a 
ileed  binding  and  effectual.  These  ceremonies  in 
England  consist  in  signing,  sealing,  and  delivering. 
.According  to  the  ancient  common  law  of  England, 
signature  was  not  necessary  to  a  deed.  By  29 
Car.  II.  c.  .'i  (statute  of  Frauds),  signing  was  required 
for  almost  all  deeds.  But  it  is  still  a  question  which 
has  not  been  [lositivcly  decided  whether,  when  a 
seal  is  used,  it  is  necessary  that  the  jiarties  should 
sign.  Wlien  a  party,  from  any  cause,  is  unable  to 
MTite,  it  is  usual  for  him  to  place  his  mark  in  the 
place  of  signature.  But  a  mark  is  unnecessarj*,  and 
signature  by  another,  at  request  of  the  party,  is 
enough.  Seahng  is  the  most  ancient  fonn  of  aut'lion- 
tication  of  deeds.    In  England,  deeds  are  technically 


EXECUTION   ON   CIVIL   PROCESS  is  tho 

method  whereby  a  court  of  justice  enforces  its 
judgment  on  the  person  or  estate  of  those  against 
whom  judgment  has  been  given.  The  common  law 
of  Englaiul  allows  four  different  %mts  to  issue 
agamst  refractory  debtors— viz.,  a_fieri  frin'as  (called 
commonly  a  /.  fa.),  a  capias  ad  satixfaciemh(m  {ca. 
.««.),  levari  facias,  and  eUijii.  These  writs  issue  from 
the  court  where  the  record  is  on  which  the  proceed- 
ings are  grounded,  and  are  ad.lressed  to  the  sheriff 
of  the  coimty.  By  a  /.  fn.  the  goods  and  chattels 
of  a  debtor  may  be  attached.  This  writ  lies  against 
prn-ileged  persons,  peers,  &c.  A  WTit  of  cai'sa.  is 
cUrected  against  the  person  of  a  debtor.  It  does  not 
lie  against  privileged  persons.  Under  this  writ,  the 
sheriff  m.ay  imprison  a  debtor,  and  detain  him  until 
the  debt  has  been  satisfied.  A  writ  so  stringent  in 
its  effect  is  regarded  by  the  law  as  the  last  remedy ; 
hence,  when  a  ca.  sa.  has  been  issued,  no  other  writ 
can  proceed  against  the  debtor.     But  if  a  /.  fa.  has 


known  as  deeds  imder  seal.     A  seal  is  absolutclv  I  'j''<^n  f'^^  issued  for  a  part  of  the  debt,  a  ca.  'sa.  wiU 
essential  to  the  validity  of  an  Enghsh  deed,  but  any    -'-'"'"     '      ■'  •    •         -     - 

species  of  seal  is  sufficient,  and  in  practice  a  common 
wafer  is  usually  apjiended.      Delivery  is  the  third 


requisite  to  authenticate  a  deeiL  Delivery  m.ay  be 
made  either  to  the  grantee  or  to  another  jierson  for 
him.  In  the  former  case,  the  deed  becomes  absobite ; 
iu  the  latter,  it  is  called  an  Escrow,  and  does 
not  acquire  its  fuU  effect  till  the  conditions  are 
fulfilled.  Witnesses  are  not  absolutely  required  to 
a  deed  in  England,  but  in  practice  it  is  usual  that 
one  or  more  witnesses  should  sign.  As  a  nde,  a 
deed  must  be  read,  if  required,  by  a  party  to  it ;  and 
if  not  read,  it  is  void  as  to  the  party  requesting. 
Where  a  person  is  ordered  in  Chancery  to  executeli 
deed  or  other  instrument,  and  is  in  prison  for  failure 
to  comply  with  the  order,  the  court  may  make  an 
order  that  the  instrument  be  executed  by  the 
officer  of  the  court ;  and  the  execution  having  been 
so  made,  the  instnunent  is  equally  valid  as  if 
signed  by  the  party.  The  execution  of  viils  in 
England  is  regulated  by  7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict, 
c.  2().  By  tills  statute  it  is  required  that  every  wdl 
shall  be  signed  at  the  foot  or  end  by  the  testator  in 
presence  of  two  witnesses.     See  AVill. 

In  Scotland,  sealing  was  formerly  an  essential 
requisite  for  execution ;  but  that  practice  was  by  1584 
c.  4  dispensed  with  m  regard  to  registered  deeds, 
and  has  long  fallen  into  disuse.     The  solemnities  of 

execution  are  now  regidated  by  the  old  acts  1540  1        _  „  . , 

c.  1 17.  and  16S1  c.  5.  By  the  former  of  these  acts,  the  t^"®  ^^^^  c^  which  the  diligence  proceeds  must  be 
sign.Tture  of  the  maker  of  the  deed  is  required,  and  {  '^"'y  constituted  by  a  liquid  document,  or  by  a 
by  the  latter,  the  presence  f)f  two  witnesses  is  made  I  'decree,  or  by  an  action  in  which  decree  is  sought, 
essential.  In  order  to  a  valid  execution  of  a  deed  !  ^^  ^^^^  latter  case,  the  law  in  peculiar  ciroimstanccs 
or  Avill  in  Scotl.and,  it  is  necessary  that  the  maker  ,'  allows  diligence  on  the  depcndance,  in  order  that  a 
should  sign  in  the  presence  of  two  -ndtnesses,  or  V^'^Y  ™ay  »ot  be  deprived  of  his  remedy  during  the 
shoidd  in  their  presence  acknowledge  his  signature,  |  currency  of  the  action,  but  such  diligence  depends 
and  that  the  witnesses  should  then  sign  their  own  j  f*""  '*'S  effect  upon  the  judgment  in  the  cause.  In 
names,  writing  after  them  the  word  '  witness.'  In  j  *''^  "^ase  of  bonds  and  other  instruments  registered 
case  the  maker  of  the  deed  cannot  write,  tho  deed  I  ^"''  execution  (see  Regi.stk.\tion),  the  law  allows 
is  signed  in  his  presence  by  two  notaries,  in  presence  ;  summary  diligence  to  proceed  ;  that  is  to  say,  exccu- 
of  four  witnesses.  But  in  case  of  a  will,  one  notary  t'on  may  proceed  without  the  need  of  further  appli- 
and   two   witnesses   are   sufficient.      A   deed    thus  |  patjon   to   the   court.      Diligence   against    heritage 


till  he  for  the  remainder.  By  7  and  S  Vict.  c.  96, 
s.  58,  a  ca.  sa.  cannot  be  issued  for  a  debt  under  £20, 
unless  it  appear  that  the  debt  has  been  fraudulently 
incurred.  A  tor/W/oc/ns  is  now  seldom  used.  It  is 
directed  against  a  man's  goods  and  the  profits  of  his 
lands.  The  writ  of  eleifit  is  of  very  ancient  date.  It 
is  directed  against  the  lands  "themselves.  See 
Elegit. 

Ill  Chartceiij,  execution  against  the  estate  is  effected 
by  ^mt  of  fieri  facias,  or  writ  of  eleriit.  Execution 
agamst  the  person  is  by  -m-it  of  attachment.  Should 
this  latter  MTit  be  returned  non  est  inventus,  the 
partj-  prosecuting  has  it  in  his  option  to  take  out  a 
wi-it  of  sequestration,  which  issues  of  course,  or  to 
obtain  an  order  for  the  serjeant-at-arms.  An  attach- 
ment does  not  he  against  a  peer  or  other  pri-(-ileged 
person,  but  an  order  called  a  sequestration  nisi  is 
issued.  In  cases  of  contempt,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
has  also  power  to  order  personal  commitment. 
Prerious  to  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  110,  and  the  orders  of 
court  consequent  thereon,  the  performance  of  a 
decree  in  Chancery  could  only  be  enforced  by  process 
against  the  person. 

E.Tecution  for  debt  in  Scotland,  or,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically expressed,  diligence  in  execution,  is  either 
real  or  personal :  by  the  former,  the  debtor's  lands 
may  be  attached  ;  by  the  latter,  his  person  and  his 
movables.  In  order  to  entitle  a  creditor  to  use 
dihgcnce  against  the  person  or  estate  of  his  debtor, 

+1...    ^l„l,j. 1.;    L    j.i_  _      1-1-  .  .     .    ' 


witnessed  is  received  as  conclusive  proof  of  the  facts 
which  it  sets  forth.  Subscription  by  initials  has 
been  permitted  in  Scotland.  But  this  mode  of 
execution  is  irregular,  and  where  it  has  been 
adopted,  proof  has  been  required  that  de  facto  the 
signature  was  so  made.  There  is  one  exception  to  the 
rule  that  witnesses  must  attest  the  signature — viz., 
that  of  a  deed  or  other  instrument  the  whole  or  the 
cssenti.al  parts  of  which  are  holograph  of  the  tes- 
tator.    This  instrument  is  vaUd  without  ^vitnesscs. 


includes     Inhleitio-n,     Adjudication,     Ran-king 

AND    S.4.LE,   il.ULS    AND    DuTIE-S,    POINDING    OF   THE 

Ground.  Personal  diligence  is  by  Horning 
AND  Caption,  Arrestment,  Forthcojiing,  and 
Personal  Poin-bing.     See  these  several  heads. 

EXECUTIONER,  the  official  who  inflicts  capital 
punishment.  In  England,  it  is  the  pro\-ince  of  the 
sheriff  to  perform  this  as  well  as  every  other  minis- 
terial duty  enjoined  by  the  criminal  courts,  but  pr.ac- 
tically  he  acts  by  his  sers-ants  or  officers,  and  he  only 


Bills   and   promissory-notes,   receipts   and   mercan-    attends  to  see  the  law  properly  carried  out    In  royal 
tde   accounts,  do   not   require  to  be  holograph  or    burghs  in  Scotland,  this  duty  is  imposed  on  the  ciWo 


attested. 


magistracy,  one  of  whom  attends  for  the  purpose.  Iu 

183 


EXECUTIONER. 


times  happily  bygone,  so  numerous  were  the  pubhc 
executions,  that  almost  every  county  and  town  had 
its  executioner,  as  an  acknowledged  officer  o£  justice, 
with  a  salary  for  his  subsistence.  Yet,  we  le.arn  that 
on  certain  occasions,  so  odious  and  so  onerous  w;is 
the  duty  to  be  performed,  that  a  special  executioner 
was  employed.  Such  was  the  case  at  the  execution 
of  Charles  I.  The  task  of  putting  this  unfortunate 
monarch  to  death  is  well  known  to  have  been  per- 
formed by  two  men,  who,  from  a  dread  probably  of 
the  vengeance  of  the  lloyalists,  had  concealed  their 
faces  imder  visors.  In  consequence  of  the  mystery 
thus  assumed,  public  curiosity  was  much  excited, 
and  several  persons  fell  imder  the  suspicion  of 
having  been  concerned  in  the  bloody  deed  ;  rumour 
even  went  so  far  as  to  decide  who  was  the  wielder 
of  the  axe,  and  who  held  up  the  head.  It  cannot  be 
said,  however,  that  any  certainty  was  ever  arrived 
at  on  the  subject.  See  Chambers's  £d'mburg!i 
Journal,  first  series,  vol.  iv.  p.  317. 

Like  many  other  offices,  that  of  executioner  seems  to 
have  been  at  one  time  hereditary  in  England.  Shak- 
si>eare,  in  Coriolanus  (act  ii.  scene  1),  makes  Menenius, 
one  of  the  characters  in  the  play,  speak  of  '  hereditary 
hangmen.'  In  several  German  states,  the  office  of 
Headsman  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  have  been  also  heredi- 
tary; cert.ain  families  being  thus,  as  it  were,  con- 
demned to  perpetual  infamy.  The  last  headsman  of 
the  Tower  of  London  died  in  1861.  The  office  was 
latterly  a  mere  sinecure,  and  has  not  been  filled  up. 
In  some  parts  of  England,  the  oflice  was  annexed  to 
other  posts ;  for  instance,  the  porter  of  the  city  of 
Canterbiuy  was  executioner  for  the  county  of  Kent, 
in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  and  Henry  III.,  for  which 
he  had  an  allowance  of  20s.  per  annum  from  the 
sherifif,  who  was  reimbursed  by  the  Exchequer.  The 
sum  of  thirteenpence-halfpenny  was  long  popularly 
spoken  of  as  '  hangman's  wages  ; '  such  sum,  equal 
to  a  merk  Scots,  being  the  fee  at  one  time  paid  to 
the  executioner  when  he  officiated.  In  the  17th  c, 
this  sum,  small  as  it  now  apjiears,  was  considerably 
above  the  wages  of  a  skilled  mechanic. 

From  Gregory  Brandon,  the  London  executioner 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the  name  Gregory  was 
employed  as  a  familiar  designation  for  executioners 
for  a  considerable  period.  Brandon  had  the  address 
to  procure  a  coat-armorial  from  the  College  of 
Heralds,  and  became  an  esquire  by  ■\'irtue  of  his 
office.  One  of  his  successors  was  named  Dim,  or 
'  Squire  Dun,'  as  he  was  called.  Dun  is  referred  to 
in  Bntler's  Ghost,  published  in  1682  : 

For  you  yourself  to  act '  Squire  Dun,' 
Such  ignominy  ne'er  saw  the  sim. 

He  was  succeeded  about  the  above  year  by  John 
or  Jack  Ketch,  commemorated  by  Dryden  (Epilogue 
to  Uie  Duke  o/Guite),  and  his  name  has  since  been 
synonymous  veith  hangman. — Cunningham's  Hand- 
book of  London,  article  Tyburn. 

Executioners  have,  in  some  instances,  come  to 
trouble.  John  Price,  the  London  executioner,  was 
executed  31st  May  1718  for  murder.  In  the  account 
of  him,  it  is  stated  that  one  day,  on  returning  from 
Tyburn,  he  was  arrested  for  a  debt,  which  he  dis- 
charged by  a  small  sum  in  his  pocket,  along  mth 
the  proceeds  of  the  clothes  of  three  felons  he 
had  just  executed. — Old  Bailey  Chronicle,  i.  p.  147. 
If  this  work  can  be  credited,  the  executioner  was 
about  the  same  time  arrested  while  accompanying 
John  Meff,  a  criminal,  to  Tyburn.  This  arrest,  whicli 
is  amusingly  depicted  in  an  engra\-ing,  stayed  the 
execution  of  Meff;  being  conducted  back  to  New- 
gate, his  sentence  was  commuted  to  transportation 
for  seven  years,  but  having  returned  to  England 
before  the  period  expired,  ho  was  taken  and  exe- 
cuted. On  the  24th  May  1736,  the  executioner,  on 
190 


returning  from  Tyburn,  after  executing  five  felons, 
picked  the  pocket  of  a  woman  of  3s.  6(/.  (Hone's 
EvenjrDaii  Book,  ii.  p.  695),  but  what  was  his 
punishment  is  not  related.  In  16S2,  Alexander 
Cockburn,  hangman  of  Edinburgh,  was  executed 
for  the  murder  of  a  Bedesman,  or  privileged 
mendicant.  Early  in  the  ISth  c,  the  executioner 
of  Edinburgh  was  John  Dalgliesh,  who  acted  at 
the  exeoition  of  Wilson  the  smutrgler  in  1736,  and 
is  alluded  to  in  the  Heart  of  Mid-Lothian.  It 
was  he  who  .also  officiated  at  the  execution  of  the 
celebrated  Maggie  Dickson,  a  woman  condemned 
in  1738  for  infanticide,  but  who  came  to  life  again 
after  enduring  the  sentence  of  the  law,  and  bved 
unmolested  for  years  afterw.ards,  as  a  hawker  of 
salt  in  the  streets  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  said  of 
Dalghesh,  th.at,  in  whijiping  a  criminal,  he  made 
a  point  of  laj'ing  on  the  lash  'according  to  his 
conscience,'  which  shewed  him  to  have  been  a  most 
considerate  executioner.  John  High,  or  Heich, 
accepted  the  office  of  Edinburgh  executioner  in  1784, 
in  order  to  escape  punishment  for  stealing  poultry  ; 
he  died  in  1817.  See  Traditions  of  JCdinhurrjh,  by 
Ii.  Chambers.  The  emoluments  of  the  Eiiinburgh 
executioner  at  one  time  comprehended  a  recompense 
in  kind  in  the  markets  of  the  city — viz.,  a  lock 
or  handful,  and  a  gowpen  or  double  handful,  of 
meal  from  each  sack ;  hence  he  received  the  desig- 
nation of  Lockman.  These  emoluments  were  latterly 
commuted  into  a  regular  salary  of  12«.  per  week, 
besides  a  free  house,  and  a  special  fee  of  £1,  \\s.  Gd. 
at  each  execution  ;  from  the  Exchequer  the  execu- 
tioner also  received  a  small  annual  allowance  as 
Deemster  (q.  v.).  The  last  of  the  Edinburgh  execu- 
tioners was  John  Scott,  whom  it  was  customary  to 
confine  in  jail  for  eight  days  previous  to  an  execu- 
tion, in  order  to  insure  his  attendance ;  the  ex-penses 
incurred  by  him  during  one  of  these  periods  of 
seclusion  being,  as  we  find,  £1,  2s.  6d.,  which  sum 
was  discharged  by  the  citj-.  Scott  was  killed  by 
a  maUcious  assault  in  1^7.  Since  this  period, 
Edinburgh  has  had  no  regular  hangman,  but,  like 
all  other  places  in  Great  Britain,  depends  on  the 
services  of  the  London  executioner,  who  is  hired 
for  the  occasion.  This  personage  is  the  well-known 
William  Calcraft.  For  .in  execution  at  Edinburgh 
in  1854,  Calcraft's  fee  and  expenses  amounted  to 
£33,  14s.  ;  his  assistant  received  £5,  5«. ;  and  for 
taking  charge  of  both,  the  city  criminal  officers 
were  paid  £1,  Is. :  total  expenses  for  the  execution, 
£40,  independently  of  the  cost  of  erecting  the 
scaffold.  In  1815,  the  maristrates  of  Glasgow 
entered  into  an  arrangement  by  stamped  indenture 
with  Thomas  Young,  who  engaged  to  act  as  execu- 
tioner at  a  recompense  of  £1  per  week,  a  free  house, 
with  co.al  and  caudles,  a  pair  of  shoes  and  stockings 
once  a  year,  and  a  fee  of  a  guinea  at  each  execu- 
tion. At  Young's  death  in  1837,  his  successor,  John 
Murdoch,  was  recompensed  difl"erently.  He  was 
paid  £1  per  month,  by  way  of  retainer,  and  the  sum 
of  £10  for  an  execution.  Since  his  death,  Calcraft 
has  officiated.  Besides  the  usual  emoluments  or  fees 
derived  by  executioners,  they  have  from  early  times 
claimed  the  clothes  of  those  who  suffer  at  their 
hands  as  a  perquisite  of  office.     See  Perquisite. 

The  most  noted  executioner  of  Paris  w-as  the 
late  M.  Sanson,  who  officiated  at  the  moumfid 
death-scene  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed acquirements  and  feelings  not  to  be  expected 
from  one  of  his  degrading  profession.  He  was 
latterly  assisted  by  his  son,  M.  Henri  Sanson.  The 
Parisian  executioner  is  familiarly  styled  '  Monsieur 
de  Paris.' 

No  professional  executioner  is  employed  at  capital 
punishments  in  the  United  States.  There  the  sen- 
tence is  executed  by  the  sheriff,  with  the  assistance 


EXECUTIVE— EXEGESIS. 


of  an  under-jailer ;  this  last  official  performing 
the  fatal  toilet  of  the  criminal,  while  the  sheriff,  by 
a  movement  affecting  the  drop,  puts  him  to  death  in 
\nrtue  of  the  sentence  and  the  law  of  the  state. 
This  seems  an  advance  on  the  practice  in  England, 
where,  however,  it  could  not  be  introduced,  for  the 
simple  reason,  that  no  one  fit  for  the  rank  of  sheriff 
or  magistrate  woidd  accept  of  oiEoe  with  an  obliga- 
tion to  ])erfonn  the  duty  of  executioner  in  person. 
The  military  executioner  attached  to  an  anny  is 
styled  Provost-marshal  (q.  v.). 

EXECUTIVE.     See  Govebnmext. 

EXE'CUTOR,  DJ"  Englakb,  the  person  to  whom 
the  execution  of  a  last  will  and  testament  of  personal 
estate  is  by  testamentary  appointment  confided 
(Williams  on  Executors,  19").  The  mere  nomination 
of  an  executor,  without  gi\nng  any  legacy  or  appomt- 
ing  anj-thing  to  be  done  by  him,  is  sufficient  to  make 
a  win.  The  appointment  of  an  executor  can  only  be 
by  a  will,  the  person  who  takes  charge  of  the  estate 
of  an  intestate  being  called  an  Administrator  (q.  v.). 
The  appointment  may  be  either  express  or  con- 
structive, i.  e.,  gathered  from  the  general  terms  of 
the  win.  The  first  duty  of  an  executor  is  to  take 
Probate  (q.  v.)  of  the  will.  He  derives  his  title 
solely  from  the  will ;  the  estate  vests  in  him  from 
the  death  of  the  testator,  at  which  time  his  respon- 
sibility begins,  and  from  which  time  he  may  enter 
upon  all  the  duties  of  managing  the  estate.  But 
liis  position  ^\■ill  not  be  recognised  as  suitor  in  any 
court  until  he  has  taken  probate.  The  whole 
personal  estate  vests  in  the  executor;  and  if  the 
testator  has  made  no  disposition  of  the  residue, 
it  devolves,  by  common  law  and  equity,  upon  the 
executor.  But  equity  will  endeavour  so  far  to 
cany  out  the  inteutions  of  the  testator  as  not  to 
give  the  beneficial  interest  to  the  executor,  where 
there  appears  from  the  will  a  necessary  impUcatiou 
that  he  should  not  receive  it.  By  21  Henrj-  VIII. 
c.  5,  an  executor  is  bound  to  prepare  an  inventory 
of  the  personal  estate.  In  practice,  this  is  not 
usually  done  imless  required  ;  but  if  required,  it 
must  be  produced.  An  executor  may  raise  actions 
in  respect  to  the  estate  in  his  charge  ;  and  genendly 
it  may  be  said  that  his  powers,  duties,  and  Uabdities 
are  commensurate  with  those  of  the  deceased.  He 
may  enter  the  house  of  the  heir  in  order  to  remove 
the  personal  property.  The  first  claims  to  be 
discharged  are  those  of  the  fimeral  and  the  expenses 
of  probate.  He  must  then  pay  the  debts  ;  and  he 
is  responsible  for  paying  them  in  due  order,  so 
that  those  ha\-ing  a  legal  preference  shaU  first  be 
discharged.  An  executor  is  not  boimd  to  accept  the 
office ;  but  if  he  adniinister,  he  cannot  then  renoimce 
the  executorship  without  cause.  On  the  death  of 
an  executor  the  office  does  not  pass  to  his  executor. 

An  executor  to  a  will  in  Scotland  is  called  a 
testamentary  executor,  to  distinguish  him  from  the 
next  of  kin,  who  are  styled  executors.  The  term 
executor  is  given  to  all  who  m.anage  the  estate  of 
a  deceased,  whether  appointed  by  '\vill  or  by  autho- 
rity of  the  court.  The  former  are  called  executors 
nominaxe ;  the  latter,  executors  dative.  All  executors 
must,  before  entering  upon  their  duties,  obtain 
Confirmation  (q.  v.)  &om  the  Commissary  Court. 
This  is  equivalent  to  probate  in  England.  But  in 
Scotland,  no  right  vests  in  the  executor  until  after 
confirmation,  except  a  title  to  sue,  being  exactly  the 
reverse  of  the  English  ride.  An  executor  acting 
without  confirmation  is  called  a  Vitious  Intromitter 
(q.  v.).  Executors  must,  on  entering  upon  their 
office,  exhibit  a  full  inventory  of  the  whole  movable 
estate  of  the  deceased.  An  executor  is  only  liable  to 
the  extent  of  the  inventory.  He  is  not  bound  to 
p.ay  interest  on  the  funds  in  his  hands  imless  they 


bore  interest  before  confirmation,  or  imless  he  is 
guilty  of  undue  delay  in  administering  the  estate. 
He  is  not  bound  to  pay  the  debts  for  six  months  after 
the  death  of  the  deceased.  But,  as  in  England,  the 
expenses  of  the  funeral  and  confirmation  are  entitled 
to  immediate  jiayment.  Servants'  wages  and  a 
year's  house-rent  have  also  a  preferable  claim.  An 
executor  is  entitled  to  claim  one-third  of  the  Dead's 
Part  (q.  v.),  after  deducting  debts.  But  shoidd  he 
receive  a  legacy,  he  is  bound  to  impute  that  towards 
payment  of  his  claim. 

EXE'CUTORS,  in  Scotland,  the  heirs  in 
mobilibus  of  a  person  deceased.  They  are  the  whole 
next  of  kin  in  the  nearest  degree  in  blood ;  but 
where  the  heir  to  the  heritage  is  one  of  the  nearest 
of  kin  (e.  g.,  the  oldest  son),  he  is  not  entitled  to 
share  in  the  movables  -without  coUation  (q.  v.). 
The  order  of  succession  among  executors  is  first 
descendants ;  then  collaterals,  or  orothers  and  sisters, 
and  their  children ;  and  lastly,  ascendants,  i.  e., 
the  father  and  those  claiming  through  him.  But 
the  mother  and  her  family,  till  recently,  were  not 
allowed  to  succeed  to  her  own  child  ab  intestato. 
This  harsh  rule  was  so  strictly  carried  out,  that 
where  there  were  no  relations  by  the  father,  the 
crown  succeeded  as  ultimus  hceres,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  mother. 

By  18  Vict.  c.  23,  the  law  of  succession  to 
movables  has  been  in  some  degree  altered.  On 
the  death  of  an  intestate  leaving  no  issue,  his  father, 
if  he  sunave,  is  entitled  to  take  one-half  of  the 
movable  estate,  in  preference  to  brothers  and  sisters. 
If  the  father  be  dead,  the  mother  takes  a  third. 
No  further  pro\-ision,  however,  is  made  for  the 
mother  in  case  she  is  the  only  surx-iving  relative. 
It  is  to  be  presumed,  therefore,  that  the  other  two- 
thirds  woidd  still  go  to  the  crown.  See  SuccEasiox, 
Movable. 

EXE'CUTORY  DEVISE,  in  English  Law,  is 
such  a  limitation  of  a  future  estate  or  interest  in 
lands  or  chattels  (though,  in  the  case  of  chattels,  it 
is  more  properly  a  bequest)  as  the  law  admits  in  the 
case  of  a  will,  though  contrary  to  the  ndes  of  limi- 
tation in  conveyances  at  common  law  (Blackstone, 
Comm.  ii.  334).  By  common  law,  a  freehold  cannot 
be  limited  on  a  freehold,  as  an  estate  to  A  and  his 
heirs ;  but  if  he  die  before  he  attain  the  age  of  21, 
then  to  B  and  his  heirs.  Kor  can  an  estate  be  given 
to  commence  at  a  time  uncertain,  as  to  A  when  he 
returns  from  Eome.  But  though  these  limitations 
woiUd  be  void  in  a  deed,  common  law  will  sustain 
them  as  executory  devises.  This  form  of  limitation 
is  restrained  by  the  law  against  Perpetuities  (q.  v.), 
which  requires  that  the  estate  must  take  effect 
within  a  life  or  lives  in  being  and  twenty-one 
years  after.  The  law  will  not  inteqiret  a  limita- 
tion as  an  executory  devise,  if  it  can  be  othero-ise 
sustained.  Whenever,  therefore,  a  future  interest 
in  land  is  so  devised  as  to  fall  within  the  rules  laid 
down  for  the  hmitation  of  contingent  remainders, 
such  devise  will  be  construed  as  a  contingent 
remainder,  and  not  as  an  executory  devise  (Cruise, 
Digest,  vi.  369).  An  executory  devise,  unhke  a 
remainder,  cannot  be  defeated  by  any  act  of  the 
first  taker  or  devisee ;  when,  therefore,  an  absolute 
power  of  disposition  is  in  the  first  taker,  the  limita- 
tion over  is  not  an  executory  devise.  Within 
the  period  allowed  for  these  estates,  an  executory 
devise  constitutes  a  species  of  estate  tail ;  and 
for  this  purpose,  it  is  frequently  used  in  America. 

EXEGE'SIS  (from  Gr.  eks,  out  of,  and  egeomai, 
I  lead)  properly  signifies  the  exposition  or  inter- 
pretation of  any  writing,  but  is  almost  exclusively 
employed  in  connection  with  the  interpretation  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  to  which,  therefore,  the  subjoined 

191 


KXEGESIS— KXELJIANS. 


remarks  specially  apply.  The  expositor  or  inter- 
preter is  called  an  cenjcte.  To  interpret  a  writing, 
means  to  ascertain  thoroughly  and  fumlamcntally 
what  are  the  conceptions  and  thoughts  which  the 
author  tlcsigns  to  express  by  the  words  he  has  used. 
For  this  piir)>ose,  it  is  necessary,  in  regard  to  hooks 
written  in  a  foreipi  language,  that  the  cxegete  should 
know  well,  lirst,  the  precise  signification  of  the 
words  and  idioms  employed  by  the  writer.  This 
is  termed  ijrammatico-pUUologkal  exegesis.  In  the 
next  place,  he  must  be  acquainted  with  the  things 
denoted  by  these  words,  and  also  with  the  history, 
antiquities,  and  modes  of  thought  of  the  nation. 
This  is  termed  historko-antiiiuarkm  exegesis.  Both 
together  constitute  r/rammalico-ltislorkal  exegesis. 
When  only  an  exposition  of  the  system  of  thought 
contained  in  a  WTiting  is  sought  after,  this  is  termed 
iloctrhial  or  doijmalic  exegesis  ;  while  the  investiga- 
tion of  a  secret  sense,  other  than  that  literally  con- 
veyed by  the  words  of  a  writing,  is  termed  allcjorkal 
exegesis.  But  if  a  writing  is  regarded  from  a  prac- 
tice point  of  view,  and  in  reference  to  its  be;irin"; 
upon  life  and  manners,  the  exposition  is  tenued 
moral  exegesis.  The  complete  and  coherent  exegesis 
of  a  «Titing  forms  what  is  called  a  commentary,  but,  if 
restricted  to  certain  difficult  words  or  knotty  points, 
the  elucidations  are  termed  scholia.  The  scientihc 
e.xhibition  of  the  rules  and  means  of  exegesis  is  called 
Hermeneutks  (q.  t.).  In  the  earhest  ages  of  the 
Christian  Church,  the  allegorical  method  of  exegesis 
jirevailed.  By  the  Alexandrian  school  in  particidar, 
it  was  greatly  abused.  Origen,  however,  the  greatest 
of  this  school,  deserves  high  credit  for  endeavouring 
to  secure  a  basis  for  grammatical  exegesis,  by  a  sharp 
separation  of  the  literal,  the  moral,  and  the  mystical 
sense  of  Scripture.  Besides  the  Alexandrian  school, 
the  Syrian  historico-cxegetic  school  had  many  adher- 
ents in  the  East.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
CjTil  of  Jerusalem,  Epliraim  Synis,  John  C'hry- 
sostom,  and  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia.  First, towards 
the  end  of  the  4th,  and  during  the  5th  centuries,  a 
narrow-ing  of  the  principle  of  the  free  interpretation 
of  Scripture  begins  to  be  obseri-able,  through  the 
rapid  development  of  monkerj'  and  the  hierarchical 
system  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  importance 
of  the  classic,  \vriters  was  undervalued,  and  the 
study  of  them  xiltimately  abandoned  in  the  Western 
Church,  while  a  feeling  of  superstitious  reverence, 
wholly  unintelligent  and  iinscriptural,  grew  up 
for  the  letter  of  the  'Word,'  and  exegesis,  if 
employed  at  all,  was  emploj-ed  simply  to  bolster 
up  preconceived  views.  By  and  liy,  independent 
exegesis  was  supplanted  by  the  well-known  Cakiur, 
consisting  of  expositions  of  books  of  Scriptm'e 
stnm"  together  from  the  writings  of  the  older 
church  Fathers.  In  the  East,  the  first  of  these 
was  got  up  by  Procopius,  520  A.  D.;  in  the  West, 
by  Primasius,  550  A.  D.  Although  much  was  done 
for  the  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament  by  eminent 
Jewish  scholars,  such  as  Solomon  Jarchi,  Aben- 
Esra,  and  David  Kimchi,  Christian  theologians 
for  the  most  part,  knowing  only  the  text  of  the 
Vulgate,  stuck,  during  the  dark  ages,  to  the  inter- 
pretations of  the  Fathers.  First  in  the  r2th,  l.'Sth, 
and  14th  centuries,  efTorts  were  made  bj^  indivi- 
dual scholastics,  especially  by  Abelard,  St  Bernard 
of  Clain-aux,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Nicholas  of 
Lyra,  to  re-introduce  something  like  a  grammatico- 
historical  exegesis  of  Scripture.  But  it  was  mainly 
to  the  great  revival  of  letters  in  the  15th  c, 
anil  the  humanistic  scholai-s  whom  it  produced, 
such  as  Laurentius  ^'alla,  Erasmus,  &e.,  that  an 
advance  in  exegesis  was  owing.  The  Complutensian 
Polyglott  also  exercised  a  gr?at  and  beneficial 
inlluence.  Shortly  after,  the  Reformation  gave  an 
impulse  to   exegesis,  so   powcrfiJ,   that    it    is  felt 


at  the  present  day ;  and,  indeed,  its  effect  is  far 
nH>rc  visible  in  the  recent  biblical  criticism  of 
licrniany  than  it  w;is  in  the  days  of-  Luther  himself. 
The  desire  for  the  imfettered  exegesis  of  Scripture 
strongly  animated  the  reformers,  but,  in  fact,  the  lone 
black  night  of  ignorance — known  as  the  dark  and 
middle  ages — has  intluencod  them  too,  and  disquali- 
fied them  for  framing  at  once  a  comprehensive 
exegetical  science.  It  required  a  couple  of  centuries  to 
recover  from  tlie  effects  of  medieval  ignorance.  The 
more  important  Lutheran  exegctes  are :  Luther, 
Melancthon,  Brenz,  Joach.  Camcrarius,  Strigel, 
Chemnitz,  &c. ;  of  the  Reformed  or  Cahnnistic 
school  may  be  mentioned  Calvin,  Zwingli,  fficolom- 
padius,  Bucer,  Boza,  BuUingcr,  Crotius,  Clericus, 
&c.;  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  especially  Paul 
Sarpi.  During  the  17th  c.,  the  exegesis  of  Scripture 
w;vs  for  the  mo.'st  ]>art  at  a  stand  still,  but  about  the 
midtUe  of  the  ISth  c.  it  suddenly  revived.  This 
revival  is  due  principally  to  Job.  Aug.  Ernesti  (q.v.), 
and  J.  Sal.  Sender  (q.  v.),  who  estabUshed  new 
principles  of  criticism  and  hcrraeneutics,  through 
which  grammatico-historic.al  exegesis  once  more 
began  to  make  its  appearance.  The  labours  of 
Wetstein  and  Kennieott  in  regard  to  liiblical  MSS. 
were  of  immense  service.  Since  their  day,  on  to  the 
present,  criticism  has  been  constantly  at  work  on 
the  -oTitings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  Cognate 
Languages  have  been  more  and  more  profoundly 
stuilied;  the  antiquities  of  the  E,ast,  of  Egji)t, 
Assyria,  Arabia,  and  other  countries,  have  been 
investigated,  and  brought  to  bear  on  the  subject ; 
the  mauners  and  customs  which  jirevail  in  these 
lands,  and  which,  in  some  of  them,  have  prevailed 
from  time  immemorial ;  the  laws  that  determine  the 
gro^rth  of  civilisation  in  nations,  and  enable  us  to 
enter  into  and  comprehend  the  condition  of  mind 
peculiar  to  races  in  a  primitive  staize  of  dcveloiiment, 
and  to  appreciate  their  modes  of  thought,  and  to 
weigh  the  value  of  their  literary  and  religious 
records — all  these  have  received,  and  are  still  receiving 
careful  attention  at  the  hands  of  niunerous  scholars, 
so  that  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  are  at  the 
present  day  better  fitted — so  far  as  outward  helps 
go — to  understand  the  real  meaning  of  Scripture, 
than  those  who  have  lived  at  any  other  period 
subsequent  to  its  composition.  Among  the  eminent 
names  in  the  recent  development  of  biblical  exegesis 
are  F.  A.  Wolf,  J.  Dav.  Mich.aclis,  Eiehhorn,  Gesenius, 
Wahl,  Bretschueider,  Winer,  Kosenmiiller,  Hitzig, 
Hirzel,  Ewald,  L'mbreit,  De  Wette,  Knobcl,  Llicke, 
Paulus,  Meyer,  Olshausen,  Hengstenberg,  &c.  The 
infiuence  of  the  grammalko-crllkal,  and  critko- 
hiMorkal  exegesis  of  modern  (iermany,  is  only 
beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  tliis  country.  The 
most  important  contributions  to  the  science  recently 
made  by  British  scholars,  are  those  by  Conybeare 
and  Howson,  Alford,  A.  P.  Stanley,  Jowett,  &c. 

EXELMANS,  Remy  .TosErii  Isidork,  Comtk,  a 
distinguished  French  general,  was  bom  at  Bar-le-duc, 
13th  November  177.5.  He  entered  the  army  in  1791, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  capt,ain  iji  1700,  ser^•ed 
with  distinction  in  the  e.imjiaign  of  Naples  under 
Macdon.ald  and  Championnet,  and  in  I  SOI  was 
attached  as  aiiic-de-eamp  to  the  staff  of  Murat.  In 
1S08,  while  with  Mm'at  in  Spain,  he  was  arrested, 
and  sent  to  England,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner 
for  three  years.  He  was  with  Na])oleon  in  the 
Russian  campaign  in  1812,  for  his  brilliant  conduct 
in  which,  the  Emperor  created  him  general  of  divi- 
sion, September  Sth  of  the  same  year.  E.  seems  to 
liave  been  equally  esteemed  imder  every  successive 
government.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  was  for 
some  time  banished  from  France,  but  was  ])ermitted 
to  return  in  1819.  In  1831  Louis  Philijipe  restored 
his  titles  and  rank.     Loius  Napoleon  named  him 


EXERCISE— EXHIBITION. 


Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  on 
March  11, 18.51,  raised  him  to  the  dit;iiitvof  J/oj-cc^f)/ 
t/e  France.  On  the  21st  July  1852,"E.  had  a  bad  fall 
from  his  horse,  from  the  effects  of  'which  he  expired 
on  the  following  night. 

E'XERCI.SE,  a  very  important  element  of  medical 
regimen,  both  iu  the  jjreservation  of  health  and  in 
the  cure  of  disease.  To  preserve  all  the  functions 
of  the  body  in  healthy  action,  it  is  necessary  to 
seciu-e  their  due  and  regular  action  or  exercise  ;  to 
allow  of  complete  inaction  of  any  pai-t  or  fimction,  is 
to  initiate  disease,  and  probably  even  structural 
change,  or  atrophy.  Hence  the  development  of  the 
muscular  system,  of  the  secretions,  and  even  of  the 
mind  and  its  organ,  the  Ijrain,  require  the  more  or 
less  regular  use  of  exercise,  either  in  the  form  of 
jiroductive  and  usefid  -n-ork,  or  by  means  of  arti- 
ticiaUy  deWsed  methods  calculated  to  sers-e  a  like 
pui-jjose  in  regard  to  the  economj-.  Thus,  scholastic 
education  is  exercise  for  the  mind ;  GjTnnastics  {q.  v.), 
for  the  body.  Both  these  means  enter  largely  into 
enlightened  medical  practice,  though  they  are  often 
too  much  neglected.  Exercise,  to  be  beneficial,  must 
be  attended  'n-ith  rest,  to  allow  the  tissues  which 
are  worn  away  during  vital  action  to  be  restored ; 
but  rest  of  one  paii;  or  organ  is  often  best  secured  by 
bringing  others  into  actiWty ;  so  that,  except  during 
sleep,  there  is  rarel}-  a  necessity  for  a  complete  and 
simultaneous  disuse  of  aU  the  faculties,  or  even  of 
those  most  immediately  under  our  controL  The 
best  regidated  life  is  that  which  secures  due  and 
proportionate  exorcise  at  interv.-ils  for  aU  the 
functions,  mental  as  well  as  botlilj-. 

E'XETER  (the  Car-Isc  of  the  Britons,  the  Isca 
Damnoniorum  of  the  Romans,  Exancester  of  the 
Saxons),  a  city,  episcopal  see,  separate  county,  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough,  and  river-port,  in 
the  south-east  of  Devonshire,  and  the  capital  of 
that  count}'.  It  lies  on  an  acclivity  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Exe,  10  mOes  north-west  of  its  mouth, 
170  miles  west-south-west  of  London,  and  73  miles 
south-west  of  Bristol.  It  is  on  the  whole  weU  built 
and  clean,  and  has  two  main  lines  of  street  meeting 
near  the  centre.  There  are  some  fine  squares  and 
terraces.  The  GuUdhaU  has  a  singular  portico, 
added  in  1503,  and  projecting  into  the  street.  Exeter 
cathedral,  a  cniciform  structure,  magnificent  in  its 
ornamentation,  was  erected  1 1 12 — 1478.  It  measures 
408  by  140  feet,  and  has  a  nave  175  feet  long,  with 
two  aisles,  a  transept  ending  in  two  Nonnan  towers 
145  feet  high,  a  choir,  13  chapels,  and  a  consistory 
court.  The  west  front  has  a  profusion  of  niches 
and  carved  figures,  and  the  west  ■window  has  beau- 
tiful tracery.  In  the  choir  is  a  dark  array  of  oaken 
stalls  and  canopies,  besides  the  bishop's  throne — an 
exquisite  airy  fabric  towering  52  feet  to  the  roof  of 
the  choir.  In  one  of  the  towers  is  the  great  Tom  of 
Exeter  or  Peter's  Bell,  12,500  lbs.  weight,  and  a  large 
curious  anticjue  clock.  E.  has  a  large  flo.iting  ship- 
basin,  917  feet  long,  00  to  110  feet  broad,  and  18 
feet  deep ;  and  a  ship-canal,  15  feet  deep  and  30  feet 
broad.  This  canal  extends  5  miles,  and  terminates 
at  Turf,  about  2  miles  from  the  head  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Exe.  E.  has  magnificent  nurseries, 
and  exports  dairy,  farm,  and  orchard  produce  from 
a  neighbourhood  rich  in  siich  products.  Pop.  (1861), 
including  St  Thomas,  which  is  sep.arated  from  the 
citj'by  the  river,  about  41,000.  The  town  sends  two 
members  to  parUament.  In  ISCO,  789  vessels,  of  78,227 
tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  E.  was  anciently 
the  chief  residence  of  the  West  Saxon  kings.  Exeter 
bishopric,  fixed  here  in  1050  by  E<lward  the  Con- 
fessor, includes  Devon  and  Cornwall,  23  deaneries 
and  588  benefices.  The  city  was  formerly  sur- 
rounded with  walls  and  stroncly  fortified.  On  a 
1G3 


height  to  the  north  of  E.  are  the  ruins  of  Rouge- 
mont  Castle,  built  by  William  I.,  on  the  site  of  one 
said  to  be  as  old  as  Ca>sar's  time.  Many  Roman 
and  Greek  coins  have  been  found  in  E.,  besides 
tesselated  pavements,  fragments  of  cohmins,  and 
small  bronze  statues.     (1871 — pop.  44,248.) 

EXETER  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  This  coUege 
was  founded  in  1315,  by  Walter  de  Stapledon, 
Bishop  of  Exeter,  who  removed  from  Hart  Hall  to 
the  present  site  of  Exeter  College,  a  rector  and 
twelve  fellows.  In  1404,  Eihnund  Stafford,  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  added  two  fellowships,  and  gave  the 
college  its  present  name.  Sir  M^dliam  Petre,  iu 
1.565,  founded  eight  more ;  and  in  1636,  Charles 
I.  annexed  one  more  for  the  islands  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey.  In  1770,  Mrs  Sheers  left  certain 
rents  for  the  establishment  of  two  fellowships.  All 
these  fellowships  were  originally  apj)ropriated  to 
various  archdeaconries  or  counties,  especially  in  the 
west  of  England.  A  peculiarity  in  this  college  was, 
that  the  above  foimdations,  though  generally  called 
fellowships,  were,  strictly  speaking,  only  scholar- 
ships. Important  changes  were  introduced  by  the 
rector  and  fellows,  under  the  authority  of  17  and  IS 
Vict.  c.  81,  and  approved  of  by  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  carrj'  out  that  act.  The  nmnber  of 
fellowships  was  reduced  to  15 — all  open  without  any 
restriction  as  to  place  of  birth.  The  revenues  of 
two  fellowships  were  diWded  among  the  rectorship 
and  the  15  fellowships.  The  remaining  8  fellowships 
were  devoted  to  the  foundation  of  22  scholarships; 
ten  open  without  restriction ;  ten  limited  to  persons 
born,  or  for  three  years  educated  in  the  diocese  of 
Exeter ;  and  two  limited  to  persons  bom  iu  any  of 
the  Channel  Islands.  Several  exhibitions  also  are 
attached  to  the  college ;  and  there  are  about  16 
benefices  in  the  gift  of  the  Society.  The  number  of 
names  on  the  books  in  1861  was  about  540. 


EXETER     or     EXON     DOMESDAY.       See 

Domesday  Book. 

EXETER  HALL,  a  large  proprietory  building, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Strand,  London,  is  131 
feet  long,  76  feet  \vide,  and  45  feet  high.  It  was 
completed  in  1831,  and  contains  upwards  of  3000 
persons.  It  is  let  chiefly  for  religious  assemblies, 
and  is  in  great  request  during  the  '  May  Meeting's ' 
of  the  several  religious  societies.  It  is  also  let  as  a 
concert-room,  and  has  been  the  scene  of  many  great 
musical  fetes. 

EXHAU'STIONS,  Method  of,  is  a  mode 
of  pro^^ng  mathematical  propositions  regarding 
quantities  by  continually  taking  away  parts  of 
them.  The  method  was  frequently  emploj'ed  by 
the  ancient  geometers  ;  its  fundamental  maxim,  as 
stated  by  Euclid,  being  that  those  quantities  are 
equal  whose  difference  is  less  than  any  assignable 
quantity.  Euclid  employs  the  method  in  Book  x. 
Prop.  1 ;  and  it  was  used  by  Archimedes  to  prove 
that  the  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  that  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  whose  one  leg  adjoining  the 
right  angle  is  the  radius,  and  the  other  the  circum- 
ference. In  this  ancient  method  we  may  see  the 
rudimentary  form  of  the  modem  transcendental 
analysis. 

EXHIBITIOX,  Akt.     See  Art  Exhebitioxs. 

EXHIBI'TIOX,  Industrial  (Fr.,  Exposition  de 
V Industrie).  Exhibitions  of  this  kind  originated  in 
France,  where  the  first  took  place  in  1798,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  Marquis  d'Avfeze.  It  was  held 
in  the  Maison  d'Orsay  and  its  gi-ounds ;  but  it 
appears  to  have  been  rather  a  collection  of  such 
objects  of  French  art-manufacture  as  could  be 
borrowed  from  their  owners,  than  an  assemblin" 
together   of    competing   artists   and   manufacturers 

193 


EXHIBITION. 


with  their  respectivo  works.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
interesting  as  a  historical  fact,  having  been  the 
first  of  these  clisplays  of  which  we  have  any  clear 
and  authentic  record  ;  and  its  more  iuipoi-tant  elToct 
was  to  familiarise  the  French  mind  with  national 
exhiljitious. 

In  the  same  year,  another  exhibition  was  held  in 
Paris,  on  a  giander  scale,  and  with  considerable 
success.  It  embraced  all  kinds  of  manufactures; 
whereas  that  at  the  Maison  d'Orsay  was  chiefly 
devoted  to  those  of  artistic  merit ;  hence  the  credit 
has  been  clauned  for  the  latter  one  of  being  the 
commencement  of  industrial  exliibitions,  certainly, 
however,  without  justice  or  truth. 

In  consequence  of  the  obvious  utility  of  the  exhi- 
bitions of  179S,  another  was  held  in  1S02,  under 
the  considate  of  Najioleon,  with  equal  success,  and 
thus  led  to  the  csfciblishment  of  triennial  exhibi- 
tions, which  were,  with  occasional  interruptions  from 
political  causes,  held  until  the  novel  idea  was 
originated  in  this  country,  in  1S50,  by  His  Eoyal 
Higlmess  the  Pi-ince  Consort,  of  holding  a  universal 
exhibition  open  to  all  comers. 

That  was  not,  however,  the  first  industrial 
exhibition  held  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
Eoyal  Dublin  Society,  possibly  from  the  French 
sympathies  of  Ireland  during  the  Revolution,  as 
early  as  1829  adopted  the  plan  of  triennial  exlii- 
bitions, which  was  several  years  before  any  other 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  they  took  place  in 
the  Society's  rooms  in  Dublin.  Like  the  French, 
however,  they  at  lii-st  comprised  only  specimens  of 
native  industry. 

In  England,  the  first  well-organised  exhibitions 
were  those  of  the  Cornish  Polytechnic  Society,  in 
which  were  illustrated  the  miner.al  wealth  of  the 
county,  and  its  mechanical  appliances  for  mining 
purposes,  &c.  These  wore  continued  annually  without 
mtermission  until  1850.  Manchester,  Biruiingham, 
and  Liverpool  :ilso  held  local  exhil)ition3 ;  tliat  of 
the  second  town  was  by  far  the  most  important, 
and  is  fairly  entitled  to  be  considered  the  proto- 
type of  the  1851  exhibition  ;  indeed,  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  both  did  not  arise  from  the  same 
cause — the  agitation  in  favour  of  a  great  national 
exhibition,  commenced  by  His  Koyal  Highness  the 
Prince  Consort  and  the  Society  of  Arts  as  early  as 
1848.  The  Birmingham  exhil>ition  was  held  in  1840. 
The  Manchester  exhibitions  were  the  earliest 
held  in  the  great  English  industrial  towns,  but 
they,  like  those  which  were  held  in  the  Mechanics' 
Institutes  of  Livei-pool  and  Leeds,  and  subse- 
quently in  the  Collegiate  Institution  of  Liverpool, 
had  a  mixed  character,  the  illustrations  of  art 
anil  manufactures  being  pretty  well  mingled  with 
objects  of  natural  history  and  various  other  curi- 
osities, for  the  amusement  of  the  visitors.  That 
of  Birmingham,  however,  was  much  more  com- 
pletely devoted  to  the  true  objects  of  industrial 
exhibitions  ;  it  was  held  in  the  spacious  apartments 
of  Bingley  Hall,  and  was  a  gi'eat  success,  espoci- 
.ally  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  carried 
out  solely  by  private  enterprise.  The  multitud- 
inous m.-vnufactures  of  that  wonderful  place  were 
amply  iUustr.ated,  and  a  most  carefiU  attention 
was  paid  to  the  e.>:hibition  of  those  objects  of  art 
which  were  best  calculated  to  foster  the  taste  of 
designers,  and  others,  whose  duty  it  was  to  give 
refinement  to  the  masses,  by  gradually  improving 
those  objects  of  necessity  and  ornament  in  everyday 
use.  The  success  of  the  Bingley  Hall  Exhibition 
DO  doubt  acted  most  beneficially  upon  that  of  1S.11 
which  was  approaching,  for  it  gave  an  unmiatakaljle 
impetus  to  the  industrial  ])m'suit3  of  the  people  of 
Birmingham,  and  through  them  acted  widely  upon 
others. 


The  firet  mctropoUtan  movement  in  favour  of 
hokUng  a  nationsU  exhibition  in  this  country  was 
immediately  after  the  French  Exi)osition  of  1844,  tho 
results  of  which  were  so  bcueliciiil,  that  several 
applications  were  made  to  the  government  request- 
ing that  the  matter  shoidd  be  officially  taken  up. 
The  goverument,  however,  as  usual,  proved  itself  to 
be  simi)ly  executive,  and  did  nothing. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Society  of  Arts  tried  tho 
experiment  of  holding  exhibitions  annually  in  their 
own  buikling  in  the  Adelphi ;  but  these,  though 
eminently  successful,  were  not  sufficient  to  satisfy 
those  with  whom  a  n.ational  exhibition  had  become 
a  fixed  idea.  In  1849,  His  Koyal  Highness  devoted 
himself  thoroughly  to  this  object,  and  made  the 
happy  suggestion  of  throwing  open  the  exliibitiou 
to  all  nations.  The  plans,  too,  were  suggested  for 
raising  the  necessary  f  unils  and  other  essential  points, 
■and  the  scheme  soon  took  a  tangible  form;  and  it 
was  fuially  determined  by  the  government  to  issue  a 
royal  commission,  which  was  gazetted  January  3, 
1850.  From  thla  moment  the  Great  Exhibition  was 
fairly  launched.  In  order  to  enable  the  commis- 
sionei-3  to  enter  into  contracts,  and  otherwise  incur 
obligations,  it  was  necessary  to  prociu-e  subscrip- 
tions to  a  guarantee  fund.  The  subscription-li.st 
was  opened  by  the  Queen  for  £1000.  The  exliibi- 
tiou took  place  in  a  vast  structm-e  of  iron  and  glass, 
c.illed  the  Ciystal  P.alace,  in  Hyde  Park,  London. 
The  edifice,  planned  by  Joseph  Paxton  (q.  v.),  w.as 
opened  by  Her  Majesty,  M.ay  1,  1851.  It  w.as  1851 
feet  long  by  456  feet  broad,  .and  66  feet  high  ;  tlie 
entu'e  area  covered  being  13  acres.  On  the  ground 
floor  and  galleries  there  were  8  miles  of  tables.  The 
glass  em])loyed  iu  the  structure  weighed  upw.ards 
of  400  tons.  The  number  of  exhibitora  exceeded 
17,000.  The  exhibition  was  open  144  days,  being 
closed  October  11.  The  entire  number  of  visitors 
was  6,170,000,  averaging  43,536  per  day.  The 
largest  number  .at  one  time  in  the  building  was 
109,760,  on  October  8.  The  entire  money  drawn 
for  tickets  of  admission  amounted  to  £505,107 ; 
and  after  all  expenses  were  defrayed,  a  balance  of 
£150,000  w.as  left  over;  so  that  there  was  no 
call  on  those  who  subscribed  the  guarantee  fund. 
Popularly,  this  great  exhibition  was  jiroperly  enough 
called  the  World's  Fair,  for  it  attracted  visitors  from 
nil  p.art3  of  the  world.  AATien  the  exhibition  was 
over,  the  building  was  cleared  .away. 

The  importance  of  this  celebrated  exhibition  w.a3 
so  obvious,  th,at  other  coimtries  became  aiDcious  to 
have  something  of  the  same  kind.  An  exhibition 
was  held  in  Cork  in  1852 ;  although  not  of  an 
international  character,  it  was  the  first  for  which 
any  speci.al  stnicture  was  erected  iu  Irehond,  and 
deservedly  gave  great  satisfaction.  The  home  manu- 
factures of  Ireland  were  .admii'ably  disjil.ayed  in 
conjimction  mth  those  of  other  p,arts  of  the  kingdom. 
Dublin  got  up  an  intem,atioual  exhibition  in  1853, 
and  by  the  jirincely  munilicence  of  Mr  Dargau, 
was  en.abled  to  make  an  admirable  display,  in  » 
building  of  great  beauty.  The  Dublin  Society 
added  a  new  feature — hijjli  art  was  associated  ivith 
industrial  art,  and  a  gallery  of  pictures,  the  finest 
ever  brought  together  hi  this  kingdom  before,  was 
there  exhibited  with  great  success.  In  tho  same 
ye.ar,  a  smiUar  exhibition  took  place  in  a  crystal 
pal.ace  in  New  York.  France,  in  1855,  repeated 
the  same  experiment  with  immense  success  ;  both 
the  industrial  and  the  art  collections  were  such  as 
tho  world  h,ad  never  seen  before.  Though  wanting 
the  imposuig  magnitude  of  the  Hyde  I'ark  build- 
ing, the  contents  of  the  Palais  do  I'lndustrie,  with 
its  detached  Picture-gallery  and  its  Anntxe,  were  of 
the  choicest  description,  and  reflected  the  highest 
credit  on  French  taste  and  skill     Several  other 


EXMOOR  FOREST— EXODUS. 


continental  nations  followed  with  various  success.  In 
Europe,  it  has  now  taken  root,  and  every  country 
looks  upon  an  exliibition  of  its  industrial  resources 
and  productions,  from  time  to  time,  as  a  grand 
necessity  which  must  be  met.  In  1861,  there  was 
an  exhibition  at  Haarlem,  in  which  a  vast  assem- 
blage of  admirably  arranged  specimens  illustrated 
every  industry  followed  by  the  most  industrious 
and  philosophical  people  of  Europe.  In  Belgium, 
also,  a  small  industrial  exliibition  was  held  in  1861 
at  Brussels,  consisting  chiefly,  however,  of  articles 
of  use,  in  which  tasteful  design  was  the  chief 
consideration. 

Such  is  a  very  brief  outline  of  the  history  of  these 
exhibitions,  which  now  form  a  prominent  feature  in 
this  era  of  the  history  of  civilisation.  The  fulness  of 
their  effects  is  still  to  be  seen,  but,  juds^ong  of  the 
beneficial  effects  they  have  alre.ady  jiroiluced,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say,  that  they  appear  destined  to 
help  most  Largely  in  tliffusing  a  love  of  industry, 
and  a  peacefiil  emulation  over  the  whole  globe. 
Commerce  may  have  its  weak  points,  even  its 
meannesses,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  few  of  the 
occupations  of  mau  are  more  humanising,  or  tend 
more  to  teach  the  value  of  peace  and  good- will  ; 
and  if  this  be  conceded,  certainly  nothing  can  more 
assist  it  than  these  great  gatherings,  in  which  each 
nation  shews  its  own  specialities,  and  gives  to 
others  the  ideas  which  it  has  accumulated  through 
its  centuries  of  progress  in  industrial  art.  Like 
the  social  interchange  of  thought,  this  interchange 
of  inventive  genius  brings  out  new  taleuts;  and 
succeeding  generations  wdl  reap  a  rich  harvest  of 
results  from  our  industrial  exhibitions.  To  mark 
the  advance  in  the  arts  since  1851,  and  promote 
manufacturing  and  commercial  activity,  an  exhibi- 
tion, the  greatest  yet  achieved,  is  to  take  place  at 
Kensington,  London,  in  1862 ;  and  in  wliich  are  to 
be  comprehended  paintings  in  a  hiyh  style  of  art 
from  all  countries.  Some  notice  ^^'ill  be  taken  of 
this  expected  magnificent  display  in  our  Supplement. 
See  Official,  Descriptive,  and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of 
the  Qreat  Exhibition  of  1851  (3  vols.) ;  also  Reports  hy 
the  Juries  (2  vols.) ;  and  likewise  the  magnificent 
set  of  works  printed  for  the  commissioners  (13  vols, 
folio).     See  Exhibitions,  in  Supplement. 

E'XMOOR  FOREST,  a  moory,  mostly  uncidti- 
vated  waste,  consisting  of  dark  ranges  of  hills  and 
lonely  valleys,  14  square  miles  in  area,  in  the  west  of 
Somersetshire  and  north-east  of  Devonshire.  It  is 
bordered  by  deep  wooded  glens.  The  hiUs  rise  in 
Dunkery  Beacon  to  1608  feet,  in  Chapman  Barrow  to 
154(t,  and  in  Span  Head  to  1510.  Devonian  slates, 
^vith  some  new  red  sandstone  in  the  north,  form  the 
substratum.  It  is  covered  with  heath,  interspersed 
with  juniper,  cranberry,  and  whortleberry,  with 
much  meadow-laud.  Throughout  this  tract  there 
is  a  native  breed  of  ponies,  known  as  Exmoor 
ponies,  reputed  to  be  stout  and  hardy.  Since  1851, 
E.  hcis  become  an  iron-mining  district.  The  river 
Exe,  and  its  tributary  the  Barle,  rise  in  Exmoor. 
It  is  subject  to  ■n-inds  and  mists. 

E'XIMOUTH,  a  town  in  the  east  of  Devonshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  10 
miles  south-east  of  Exeter.  It  stands  at  the  base 
and  on  the  slope  and  top  of  a  hill  rising  from 
the  sandy  estuary  of  the  Exe.  It  is  noted  for  its 
mild  climate.  From  about  1700,  it  was  the  chief 
watering-place  on  the  Devon  coast,  till  the  rise 
of  Torquay.  There  is  a  fine  promen.ade  on  a  sea- 
wall IS  feet  high.  The  Haldon  ridge  of  hills  on 
the  east,  800  feet  high,  protects  it  from  the  east 
^vind8.  Here  Sueno  the  Dane  landed  in  1003.  It 
was  taken  by  the  royalists  in  1640.  Pop.  (1801) 
0025. 


EXMOUTH,    Edwaed    Pellew,  ViscotrNT,    a 
famous  naval  commander,  was  born  at  Dover,  A]iril 
19,    1757.      He   entered   the   na^-y   when   13   years 
of   age,  and  first  attracted   notice   by   his   gallant 
conduct  in  the  battle  on  Lake  Champlain,  October  1 1, 
1776.    In  1782,  he  attained  the  rank  of  post-captain. 
In   1793,   having   been   appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Nymphe,  a  frigate  of  30  guns,  he  encoun- 
tered, and,  aiter  a  hard-fought  Ixattle,  captured  La 
Cleopatre,  a  French  frigate,  which  carried  the  same 
number  of  gims.    For  this  victory,  he  was  knighted. 
In  1799,  he  received  the  command  of  the  Impitueux, 
78  gims,  and  was  sent  to  the  French  coast,  where 
many  of  his  most  brilliant  actions  took  place.     In 
1804,  Sir  E.  Pellew  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
Rear-admiral  of  the  Red;  in  1808,  to  th.at  of  Vice- 
admiral  of  the  Blue ;  and  in  1814,  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Exmouth  of 
Canonteigu,  Devonshire,  with  a  pension  of  £2000 
a  year.     In  1816,  he  was  sent  to  Algiers,  to  enforce 
the  terms  of   a   treaty  regarding  the   aboUtion  of 
Christian   slavery,   which  the  Dey  of  VUgiers  had 
violated.     With  a  combined  fleet  of  25  English  and 
Dutch   vessels,  he   bombarded   the   city   for  seven 
hours,  and  intiictcd  such  immense  damage,  destioy- 
ing  aU  the  Algerine  fleet  and  many  of  the  public 
buildings,  that  the  Dey  consented  to  every  demand. 
E.,  who  had  been  woimded  in  the  leg  and  cheek  in 
this  action,  received   on  his  return  to  England  the 
thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  .ind  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  viscount,  10th  December  1816. 
In  1821,  he  retired  from  pubhc  serWce,  loaded  with 
honours.     He  died  23d  January  1833. 

EXOCETUS.     See  FLYTNG-Fisn. 

E'XODUS  ('  the  departure '),  the  name  given  to 
the  second  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  composed  of  two  jjarts — the  first 
historical,  and  the  second  legislative.  The  historical 
extends  to  the  end  of  the  ISth  chapter.  It  embraces 
a  narrative  of  the  various  preparations,  natural  and 
supernatural,  made  imder  the  providence  of  God 
for  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  their 
bondage  in  Egj'pt,  and  also  describes  the  accom- 
plishment of  their  deUverauce,  and  the  journeyings 
of  the  people  in  the  wilderness  as  far  as  Mount 
Sinai.  The  legislative  is  devoted  to  a  minute  and 
elaborate  account  of  the  institution  of  the  theocracy. 
The  book  presents  us  with  three  aspects  of  Hebrew 
history.  We  have,  first,  a  picture  of  a  peoplo 
enslaved ;  second,  of  a  people  redeemed  from  bond- 
age ;  and  thh-d,  of  a  people  sanctified  and  set  apart 
to  the  service  of  God.  The  period  embraced  by  the 
history  of  the  book  is  usually  reckoned  at  142  or 
145  years,  which  number  is  obtained  as  foUows: 
From  the  death  of  Joseph  to  the  birth  of  Moses, 
60  or  63  years;  from  the  birth  of  Moses  to  the 
departure  from  Egypt,  80  years;  and  from  the 
departure  out  of  Egj'iit  to  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle,  1  year,  ft  cannot  be  denied,  however, 
without  wildly  violating  all  the  ordinary  l.aws  of 
the  increase  of  population,  that  this  is  much  too 
short  a  period  to  account  for  the  existence  of  such 
a  mmiber  of  Hebrews  as  left  Egypt — viz.,  600,000, 
exclusive  of  women  and  children — i.  e.,  in  all,  at 
least  2,500,000.  Those  who  went  down  into  Egypt 
with  Jacob  were  '  threescore  and  ten  souls,'  and  m 
215  years,  these,  though  prohibited  from  intermarry- 
ing with  the  Egypti.ans,  had  amoimted  to  between 
two  and  three  millions.  The  writer  of  Exodus, 
indeed,  says  (chapter  xii.,  verse  40)  that  '  the  sojourn- 
ing of  the  childien  of  Israel,  who  dwelt  in  Egypt, 
was  4.'?0  years,'  adding  that  they  left  the  land 
'even  the  selfsame  day  on  Avhich  they  had  entered 
it.  This  statement,  however,  does  not  seem  to 
harmonise  with   the    author's  previous   narrative, 

193 


EXODUS— EXOGENOUS  PLANTS. 


and  is  certainly  inconsistent  yrith  the  langnagc  of 
the  Ai>ostlc  Paul,  who  says  (Gal.  iii.  17)  that  the 
law  W.13  given  430  years  after  the  coven.int  Avith 
Abraham,  which  took  place  about  215  years  before 
Jacob  and  his  sons  went  down  into  Egypt,  so 
that,  aeconling  to  this  view,  the  Israelites  could 
only  have  been  in  Egypt  215  years.  This  is  the 
muiiber  coiumouly  accepted ;  but  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  some  writers  should  affirm,  that  'it 
woiUd  be  more  satisfactory  if  we  could  allow  430 
years  for  the  increase  of  the  nation  in  Egypt  rather 
than  any  shorter  period.'  A  still  longer  period 
would  undoubtedly  aflord  addition,il  satisfaction ; 
and  Bimsen,  in  his  J-'.gypten's  Slelle  in  der  Welt- 
geschkhte,  endeavoure  to  shew  that  the  Israelites 
were  in  Egypt  for  fourteen  centuries  instead  of  two, 
and  that  the  number  215  only  indicates  the  period 
of  oppression,  the  time  when  they  were  '  evilly 
entreated.'  This  conclusion  is,  of  coui-se,  arrived  at 
by  the  application  of  principles  of  criticism  not  gene- 
rally recognised  in  the  schools  of  British  theologj' ; 
but  there  seems  no  avoiding  the  conclusion,  that  the 
usual  chronology  is  hopelessly  wrong. 

May  it  not  "be  th.at  the  interval  which  elapsed 
between  the  death  of  '  Joseph  and  .ill  his  brethren, 
and  all  that  generation '  (Exod\is  i.  6),  and  the  period 
when  there  aro.'se  up  a  new  king  over  Egj-pt  wliieh 
knew  not  Joseph  (E.xodus  i.  S),  w.is  much  longer 
than  we  suppose?  The  passage  itself  in  Exodus 
seems  to  favour  this  idea;  for  the  intervening 
verse  (Exodiis  i.  7)  speaks  of  the  children  of  Israel 
'  increasing  and  multiplying,  and  waxing  exceeding 
mighty,  and  filling  the  land,"  without  any  reference 
at  all  to  the  time  occupied  in  this  process ;  and  such 
words  are  certainly  more  .applicable  to  a  series  of 
centuries  than  of  j-e.ars,  while  centuries,  besides, 
woiild  harmonise  better  than  years  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  Egyptian  king  knew  not  (i.  e.,  had 
forgotten  .all  .about)  Joseph.  The  only  grave  objec- 
tion to  this  otherwise  extremely  probable  hj-jio- 
thesis,  is  its  incomp.atibility  Avith  the  statement 
of  St  Paul ;  an  objection,  however,  which  Luther 
woidd  not  h.ave  found  insurmountable,  for  in  an 
exactly  similar  case  he  said  of  the  inspired  Stephen 
that  'he  was  no  historian,  and  did  not  trouble 
himself  .about  particulars.' — Zu.  Aposldijesch,  vii. 
Ed.  1,  1160. 

In  explanation  of  the  chronological  difficulty, 
the  confusion  resulting  from  the  use  of  klters  as 
niunerals  in  Hebrew  MSS.  has  been  urged;  and 
this  is  notoriouslj-  a  fertile  source  of  error  and 
contradiction,  which  rationalistic  critics  have  not 
sufficiently  kept  in  mind.  To  adduce  such  a  reason, 
however,  would  be  imav.ailing  in  the  present  case ; 
for  if  it  could  be  proved  that  the  period  stated 
in  Exodus  may  have  been  abbrcAnated  through  the 
negligence  of  some  careless  transcriber,  or  otherwise, 
and  thus  an  approximation  be  made  to  the  four- 
teen centiu-ies  of  Buusen,  this  would  only  place  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch  in  more  \-isible  antagonism 
with  St  Paul  himself.  The  d.ate  of  the  exodus  is  fixed 
by  Usher  at  1491  B.C.  ;  by  the  Septuagiut,  at  1G14 
E.  c.  ;  by  Hales,  at  1648  B.  c. ;  by  Wilkinson,  about 
1495  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Tliothmes  III.;  and  by 
Bunsen,  as  late  as  1.320  or  1314  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of 
Menephthah,  in  the  latter  of  which  years  Manetho 
gives  what  appears  to  be  the  Egyi>tian  version  of 
the  event.  The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  book  of  E.  have  been  shaqJy  criticised  in 
modei-n  times ;  but  in  fact,  as  early  .as  the  time  of 
Josephus  (Anl.  ii.  16),  there  were  Jews  who  looked 
upon  the  mir.acle  of  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea, 
&c.,  as  falnUous.  Among  the  theologians  who  h.ave 
questioned  the  integrity  of  E.,  .oi-e  V'ou  Lengerke, 
StiiheUn,  De  Wctte,  and  Knobel,  all  of  whom 
find  traces  of  an  older  and  a  later  author,  the 

19G 


former  of  whom  they  call  Elohistio,  and  the  hatter 
Jehovistic.  Their  objections  have  been  replied  to 
by  Hengstenberg,  Hiivernick,  &c.,  who  endeavour 
to  shew  that  the  distinction  is  artificial,  and  the 
attem]>t  to  follow  it  out  in  detail  a  failure.  See 
Pentateuch. 

EXOGENOUS  PLANT.S,  or  EXOGENS  (Gr. 
ftro,  outwards ;  gennao,  to  proiluce),  are  those  iu 
which  the  woody  substance  of  stem  increases  by 
bunilles  of  v.oscular  tissue  added  externally.  The 
exogenous  stem  contains  .a  centr.al  Pith  (q.  v.),  from 
which  medullary  rai/s  proceed  to  the  Bark  (q.  v.), 
and  the  bark  is  very  distinct  from  the  tibro-vascular 
or  woody  p.art  wliich  it  surrounds.  The  exogenous 
is  thus  very  different  in  structure  and  manner  of 
growth  from  the  endogenous  or  the  acrogenous 
stem.  Amidst  the  cellular  substance  of  the  young 
stem,  when  it  has  developed  itself  from  the  seed, 
woody  cords  are  seen  connecting  the  cotyledons, 
and  aftenvards  the  leaves,  when  tliese  appear,  with 
the  root,  in  the  centi-al  axis  of  which  they  join.  A 
section  of  the  stem  exhibits  the  celhJar  substance 
traversed  by  v.ascular  bundles  (woody  fibre),  which 
in  the  section  are  more  or  less  wedge-sh.aped,  radi- 
ating from  the  centre,  but  yet  not  prolonged  into 
the  centre  itself,  which,  even  to  the  greatest  age  of 
the  stem,  remains  occupied  by  the  cellular  pith. 
Additional  bimiUes  are  interposed,  as  growth 
proceeds,  diminishing  the  proportion  of  celluLar 
substance  in  the  stem,  yet  without  these  bundles  ever 
becoming  so  compacted  together  as  to  cut  off  the 
conuuimication  between  the  cellular  centre  of  the 
stem  .and  its  bark,  which  is  maint.aiued  by  means  of 
the  medullary  rays,  often,  indeed,  imperceptible  to 
the  naked  eye,  but  always  present  even  in  the 
hardest  and  most  close-grained  wood.  The  woody 
layers  which  are  formed  in  successive  years,  as 
new  leaves  and  branches  are  developed,  are  formed 
amidst  the  Cambium  (q.  v.),  into  which  the  woody 
fibres  of  the  new  leaves  descend,  between  the  bark 
and  the  former  wood.  Thus  the  concentric  circles  are 
formed,  usu.aUy  one  for  each  year's  gi-owth,  distin- 
guishable even  iu  the  most  matured  timber,  and  by 
which  the  age  of  tiees  is  very  commonly  computed. 
The  beginning  of  each  new  layer  is  generally  marked 
by  a  greater  abundance  of  porous  vessels,  the  open- 
ings of  which  .are  conspicuous  in  the  transverse 
section.  In  pines,  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
layers  is  marked  by  gi-eater  density  of  texture,  and 
often  by  deeper  colour.  The  age  of  trees  cannot, 
however,  be  calcuhated  with  perfect  certainty  from 
the  concentric  circles  of  the  stem,  as  any  circum- 
stance which  temporarily  arrests  the  gi-owth  in  any 
summer,  may  produce  an  effect  similar  to  that  ordi- 
narily produced  by  the  change  of  se.asons  ;  whilst  in 
the  trees  of  tropical  countries,  at  least  where  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons  are  not  very  marked,  concentric 
circles  are  often  not  to  be  discovered. 

The  structure  of  the  branch  of  .an  exogenous  tree 
perfectly  corresponds  with  th.at  of  the  stem.  The 
vascid.ar  bimdles  of  the  .stem  or  branch  form  a  loop 
where  a  leaf  begins,  and  those  of  the  lc;if  and  its 
axillary  bud  spring  from  the  loop.  The  roots  of 
exogenous  ])lants  have  not  a  centr.al  pith  like  the 
stem,  but  iu  a  few  trees,  as  the  horse-chestnut,  the 
pith  is  prolonged  to  some  extent  into  the  root. 

AnomaUes  are  not  imfrequently  to  be  met  with 
in  the  structure  of  exogenous  stems,  .and  ]).articu- 
larly  among  the  twining  woody  plants  of  tropical 
countries.  "There  are  also  very  m.any  herbaceous 
plants,  in  which,  although  the  structure  agrees  with 
th.at  of  an  exogenous  tree  in  its  fir.st  year,  no  further 
development  is  ever  att.ained  ;  whilst  in  many,  even 
this  is  very  imperfectly  reached ;  but  yet  these  are  on 
other  accounts  unhesitatingly  classed  with  exogenous 
plants.     The  exogenous   stem  and  dicotyleilonoua 


EXORCISM— EXPENSES  OF  A  LAWSmx. 


seed  are  so  constantly  found  together,  that  the 
designation  exogenous  plants  is  often  applied  to 
that  great  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  which 
is  also  called  dicotyledonous.  Sre  Botany.  Exog- 
enous plants  are  al-so  characterised  by  a  particidar 
mode  of  germination,  with  reference  to  which  they 
are  called  pxorhhnl  (Gr.  exo,  outwards;  rhiza,  a  root), 
the  radicle  simply  lengthening,  and  not  ha\'ing  to 
break  through  the  coat  of  the  embryo.  The  leaves 
of  exogenous  plants  generally  exhibit  a  net-work  of 
veins,  instead  of  the  parallel  veins  ch.aracteristic  of 
endogens,  and  a  greater  proportional  breadth  of  leaf 
usually  accompanies  this  reticulated  venation. 

Exogenous  plants  are  far  more  numerous  than 
endogens.  All  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Britain,  and 
those  of  temperate  and  cold  climates  generally,  are 
exogenous,  as  well  as  very  many  herbaceous  plants 
of  these  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  trees,  shi-ubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants  of  the  tropics.  Almost  all 
trees,  except  palms  and  a  few  Liliacew,  Pandaitacece, 
and  tree-ferns,  are  exogenous. 

E'XORCISM  (from  exorkizo,  to  conjure),  i.  e., 
conjiu'ation  in  the  name  of  the  gods,  the  term 
used  by  the  Fathers  of  the  chnrch  to  denote  the 
act  of  conjuring  e\-il  spirits,  in  the  name  of  God  or 
Christ,  to  depart  out  of  the  person  possessed.  The 
first  Christians  adjured  evil  spirits  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  had  conquered  the  de^'il ;  but  as 
the  opinion  was  at  the  same  time  entertained,  that 
all  idolaters  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Satan — who 
suft'cred  himself  to  be  worshipped  under  the  form  of 
idols — it  was  customary  to  exorcise  heathens  pre- 
vious to  their  receiving  Christian  baptism.  After 
Augustine's  theory  of  original  sin  had  found  accept- 
ance m  the  5th  c,  and  all  infants  were  regarded  as 
belonging    to    Satan's    kingdom,   exorcism   became 

feneral  at  the  baptism  even  of  Christian  chiklren. 
'oUowing  the  practice  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  Luther  retained  exorcism,  but  it  was  laid 
aside  by  the  Reformed  Chiu'ch.  Although  aban- 
doned by  illustrious  and  orthodox  Protestant  theolo- 
gians, such  as  Chemnitz  and  Gerhard,  or  deemed 
unessential,  and  in  modern  times  done  away  with 
by  the  'Protestant' Church,  the  practice  has  been 
recently  revived  by  the  Old  Lutheran  or  High- 
Church  party. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  the  function  of  exorcism 
liclongs  peculiarly  to  one  of  the  so-called  'minor 
orders.'  See  Ordf.us.  Our  Lord  having  not  only 
himself  in  person  (Matt.  ix.  32,  Mark  i.  25,  Luke  iv. 
35,  viii.  29)  cast  out  devils,  but  ha\'ing  also  given 
the  same  power  to  his  disciples,  it  is  beUeved  to  be 
permanent  in  the  church.  Of  its  exercise  in  the 
early  church,  both  in  relation  to  '  euergumens,'  or 
persons  possessed,  and  in  the  administration  of 
baptism,  there  are  numerous  examples.  Tertullian 
and  Origen  speak  of  it  as  of  ordinary  occurrence, 
and  the  council  of  Carthage,  in  255,  alludes  to  its 
Tise  in  baptism.  The  rite  of  exorcism  is  used  by  the 
modern  church  in  three  different  cases  :  in  the  case 
of  actual  or  supposed  demoniacal  possession,  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  and  in  the  blessing  of 
the  chrism  or  holy  oil,  and  of  holy  water.  Its  use 
in  cases  of  possession  is  now  extremely  rare,  and  in 
many  diseases  is  prohibited,  unless  with  the  sjieci.al 
permission  of  the  bishop.  In  baptism  it  precedes 
the  ceremony  of  applying  the  water  and  the  bap- 
tismal form.  It  is  use<l  equally  in  infant  and  in 
adult  baptism,  and  Catholic  flTiters  appeal  to  the 
earUest  examples  of  the  administration  of  the 
sacrament  as  evidence  of  the  use  of  exorcism  in 
both  alike.  The  rite  of  baptismal  exorcism  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  follows  closely  the  Scrip- 
tural model  in  JIark  Wii.  33.  The  exorcisms  in  the 
blessing  of  the  oil  and  water  resemble  very  closely 
the  baptismal  form,  but  are  more  difi'usc. 


EXOSMOSE.     See  E.n-dosmose. 

EXOSTEMMA,  a  genus  of  American  trees  and 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Oinc/ionacete,  nearly 
allied  to  Cinchona.  Several  species  yield  febri- 
fugal barks,  which,  however,  do  not  contain  the 
cinchona  alkaloids.  The  most  valued  of  these 
barks  are  Caribbee  Bark  (q.  v.)  and  Saint  Lucia 
Bark,  the  latter  of  which  is  the  produce  of  A'. 
llon'hiinda,  a  native  of  the  more  moimtaiuous 
parts  of  the  West  Indies. 

EXOTE'EIC.     See  Esoteric. 

EXO'TIC  PLANTS,  or  EXOTICS  (Gr.  coming 
from  abroad),  cidtivated  plants  originally  derived 
from  foreign  countries.  The  term  is  most  frequently 
applied  to  those  of  which  the  native  coimtry  dillers 
so  much  in  soil  or  climate  from  that  into  which 
they  have  been  conveyed,  that  their  cultivation  is 
attended  with  difficulty,  requii-ing  artificial  heat  or 
other  means  different  from  those  requisite  in  the  case 
of  iudigenous  plants.  The  cultivation  of  many  such 
exotics  is  carried  on  with  gi-eat  success  in  our  green- 
houses and  hothouses  ;  but  there  are  a  few  which, 
notwithstanding  all  the  care  of  the  gardener,  can 
almost  never  be  made  to  flower,  and  others  which, 
although  they  flower,  seldom  produce  I'ipe  fruits  ami 
seeds.  Nor  are  tlifficidties  of  this  kind  experienced 
only  in  the  cultivation  of  those  which  belong  to 
warmer  climates  than  om-  own,  but  sometimes  even 
with  the  natives  of  colder  regions;  thus,  the  deli- 
cious fruit  of  the  Hubiis  arcticus,  abundant  in  the 
most  northern  parts  of  Europe,  is  scarcely  ever  to 
be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  Britain,  although  the 
plant  grows  with  sufficient  luxm'iance. 

EXPANSION.     See  Heat. 

EXPECTA'TION  (Lat.  expertnfio,  a  waiting,  or 
looking  out),  i.  e.,  the  treatment  of  disease  without 
active  remedies,  by  simply  obser\nng  its  progiess 
and  averting  its  consequences  through  physiological 
means  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  a  Fracture  (q.  v.)  is 
treated  by  keeping  the  ends  of  the  broken  bone  in 
their  proper  place,  imtil  the  natural  processes  of 
repair  are  completed.  Expectation  is  in  this  and 
other  cases  obHously  a  qiute  different  thing  from 
inaction,  or  the  systematic  doing  of  nothing,  with 
which  it  has  been  sometimes  confounded. 

EXPECTATION  OF  LIFE.    Sec  Probabilitv. 

EXPECTATION  WEEK  is  the  name  given  to 
the  period  elapsing  between  Ascension  Day  and 
Whitsunday,  because  diu-ing  this  time  the  apostles 
continued  praying  in  earnest  expectation  of  the 
Comforter. 

EXPE'CTORANTS  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  and  pectus, 
the  bre.ast),  medicines  given  to  carry  off  the  secre- 
tions of  the  air-tubes.  See  Bronchi,  Bron'chitis. 
The  principal  expectorants  are  antimony,  squill, 
ipecacuanha,  senega,  balsam  of  tolu,  lobelia,  gum 
ammoniac,  asafcetida,  galbanum,  &c. 

EXPECTORA'TION  (see  Expectorants),  the 
mucus  or  other  secretion  discharged  from  the  air- 
passages.  The  examination  of  expectoration  is  of 
the  utmost  value  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the 
chest,  as  will  be  seen  in  their  separate  description. 
See  Chest,  Diseases  of;  BKO^'CH^rIS;  Pneumonia; 
Consumption,  &c. 

EXPENSES  or  CO.STS  OF  A  LAWSUIT. 
The  arrangements  adopted  in  Ejigland  with  refer- 
ence to  charges  exigible  from  the  parties  to  lawsuits 
are  stated  under  Costs.  In  Scotland,  these  charges 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  expenses,  and  in  the 
present  article  we  shall,  consequently,  confine 
ourselves  to  the  Scottish  practice.  In  addition 
to  demanding  payment  of  the  siun  claimed,  or 
performance  of  the  alleged  obligation  where  it  has  no 
reference  to  a  pecuniary  transaction,  the  pursuer  of 

107 


EXPERmENT-EXTENSION. 


an  action  at  law  in  Scotland  almost  always  asUs 
the  court  to   pronounce   decree  in   Ins   favour   lor 
Z  ex^nse  of  the  proceedings  which  he  has  found 
it,  or  mav  find  it,  necessary  to  mstitutc.     On  t  e  , 
other    hand,   the    defender    usuaUy    demands    the 
expense  attending  his  defence  ;  and  the  general  r.Ue 
S^that  the  party  fo.md  ultimately  to  he  m  the 
■wron"  has  decree  pronounced  against  him  tor  tno 
expense  which  he  has  occasioned  to  his  opponent 
as  weU  as  for  the  subject-matter  of  the  suit.     As  it 
is  quite  usual  for  a  party  to  succeed  m  one  branch 
of  his  action,  and  to  fail  in  another :  or  to  occasion 
^eceisarv   expense   by  the   unskU.ul  or   car^<^B 
mode  in  which  he  conducts  some  portion  of  it,  oven 
thou.'h   on   the   whole    he   be    in   the   right ,    the 
adjustment  of  the  amounts  incm-red  by  the  parties 
respectively  often  involves   not  only  •""'^'^  ,'"«^ty 
of   calcidation,  but  questions  "^ J^'-^  ^''"f^^^^f  ^"f 
legal  dilficulty.     In   so   far  as  the   adjustment  of 
elenses  is  a  matter  of  calculation,  it   ^ff^ 
bv  the  auditor  of  the  Court  of  bession,  or  of  the 
inferior  courts.    See  Auditor,  Sheriff  Cotot^  ^ 
so  far  as  it  mvolves  questions  of  law,  these,  if  not 
previously  decided  by  the  judge,  must  be  carried 
Lck   to   him   from   the   auditor.      « ,  "t^^"-,  .'m  hv 
means  to  object  to  the  amoimt  awarded  to  h  m  by 
the  auditor  in  his  report,  he  must  lodge  with  the 
clerk  of  the  process  a  short  note  of  his  objections 
without  argument.     A  copy  of  this  note  must  be 
furnished  to  the  agent  for  the  opposite  party,  and 
the  court,  or  the  £ord  Ordinary,  before  whom  the 
action  depended,  may  direct  the  objections   to  be 
answered  either  vivd  voce  or  m  writing.     Should  the 
objector  fail  to  make  good  his  objection  the  expense 
of  discussmg  it  ^vill  be  laid  on  hnu.     If  the  objection 
has  been  stated  to  the  auditor,  aud  he  has  reported 
it  to  the  court,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  expense  of 
discussing  it  wiU  be  laid  wholly  on  the  obvector 
even  if  uSsuccessfiU.    Where  an  appeal  to  the  House 
of  Lords  has  been  actually  presented,  and  service 
of  an  order  thereon  has  taken  place,  a  motion  tor 
expenses  is  incompetent,  but  a  mere  intimation  of  an 
appeal  is  not  enough  to  prevent  decree  for  exi.enses 
bcin"  pronoimced.     If  the  agent  who  has  conducted 
the  tiuse  ^^■ish  it,  the  decree  for  exTcuses  will  be 
pronounced  in  his   favour  ;    and   the   party  found 
liable  will  not  be  allowed  to  plead  a  counter-claim 
arrainst   the    client,   as   by   that   means   he    might 
prevent  the  agent   from  recovering  what   he  very 
probably  has  dVsbm-sed.    The  taxation  of  expenses  is 
said  to  be  between  party  aud  parlu,  aud  not  between 
a-rent  and  client;  that  is  to  say,  the  losmg  party 
hSs  to  pay  only  the  expenses  which  have  been  neces- 
sarily incurred  in  discussing  the  question  between 
the  parties  judiciaUy,  not  the  imnecessary  expenses 
which  the  overanxiety  of  the  succcssfid  party  may 
have  led  him  to  mcur  to  his  own  agent.    Practically, 
there   are   very  few  cases   in   which  the   expenses 
recovered  do  cover  all  the  bond-fide  clamis  of  the 
aaent  against  his  cheut,  which  is  the  cluef  reason 
w^y  litigation  is  always  attended  with  expense, 
even  to  the  wimiing  party. 

EXPE'RIMENT  and  observation  are  the  means 
hv  which  we  extend  and  confirm  our  knowledge  of 
nature.  An  experiment  is  properly  a  prooeedma 
bv  which  the  inquirer  interferes  mth  the  usual 
course  of  a  phenomenon,  and  makes  the  powers  of 
nature  act  under  con(Utious  that,  ^\^thout  his  inter- 
ference, would  never,  jierhaps,  have  i)resented  them- 
selves aU  together.  The  introduction  of  experiment 
distinguishel  the  modern  method  o  investigating 
naturlfrom  that  of  ancient  times  and  of  the  midtUe 
ages.  It  is  by  this  means  that  physics  and  chemistry 
htve  made  such  rapid  strides  within  the  last  two 
centuries.  Through  experiment,  the  investigator 
becomes  master  of  the  phenomena  he  is  considering  ; 
193 


for  he  can  contrive  to  set  aside  the  imessential 
circumstances  that  so  often  conceal  the  real  rela- 
tions and  conditions  of  things,  and  make  these  come 
out  into  the  liiiht.  Experiments  exlubited  dunuj;  a 
lecture  on  any  branch  of  science  are  made,  not  with 
a  view  to  the  discovery  of  truth,  but  to  aid  in  the 
exposition  of  truths  already  discovered ;  they  are 
sometimes  called  demonstrative  experiments. 

EXPE'KT  (Lat.  expertu.%  from  ex  and  pcritus, 
specially  skilled),  a  man  of  special  practical  expe- 
rience or  education  in  regard  to  a  particular  subject 
_a  word  commonly  applied  (after  the  French)  to 
medical  or  scientific  witnesses  m  a  court  of  jusUce, 
when  selected  on  account  of  special  quahfications, 
as  in  the  case  of  an  analysis  of  the  contente  of  the 
stomach  in  suspected  poisomng  Ihe  term  is 
.MmUarly  applied  to  a  person  professionaUy  skiUed 
in  han(lwriting,  for  detection  of  forgery  of  deeds 
and  signatm-es. 

EXPONENT  AND  EXPONENTIAL.  When 
it  was  wanted  to  express  the  multipUcation  of  unity 
for  any  number  of  successive  times  by  the  same 
number  or  quantity,  e.  g.,  1  x  5  x  5,  or  1  x  a  x  o  x  n, 
it  was  found  a  convenient  abbre\nation  to  i.vTite 
1x5-  and  lxa=,  or  simply,  5"  and  a»;  aud  the 
numbers,  2  and  3,  indicating  how  often  the  ojicration 
of  multiplication  is  repeated,  were  called  exponents 
But  the  theory  of  exponents  gradu.iUy  received 
extensions  not  originally  contemplated  and  has  now 
an  extensive   notation  of  its   own.     Ihus,  a    —  I, 


ai  =  a,  a" 


=  1 ,  ai  =  Va,  ai  =  V",  of  =  Va'>  or  the 

cube  root  of  the  square  of  a.  Also  a-  is  the  xth 
power  of  a,  x  being  any  number  mtegral  or  fractional ; 
Ind,  a  continuing  the  same,  x  may  be  so  chosen 
that  a'  shaU  be  equal  to  any  given  munber.  in  tins 
case,  X  is  caUed  the  logarithm  of  the  munber  repre- 
sented bv  a'.  Considered  by  itself,  a-  is  an  exiio- 
nential.  GeneraUy,  anyquautity  representmg  a  power 
whose  exponent  is  y.ariable,  is  an  exponential^  na 
a',  x;  If,  &c.  E.Ki)onential  equations  are  those  whicn 
involve  exponentials,  such  as  a'  =  6,  x-  =  c. 

EXPOSURE  OF  INFANTS.  See  Ictacticide. 
EXPRESSIO'NE,  Con,  or  ESPRESSIVO, 
Italian  terms  in  music,  meaning  wnth  expression ; 
impassioned,  with  p.athos.  Where  the  word  appears 
at  the  befHnning  of  a  composition,  the  piece  must 
be  executetl  throughout  with  feeling.  '  Lxpressione 
frequently  appears  above  certain  passages  wliica 
alone  are  to  be  performed  so,  while  the  harmony 
in  the  accompaniment  goes  on  quietly. 

EXTE'NSION,  in  Logic,  is  a  word  put  into 
contrast  with  another  term.  Comprehension,  and 
the  two  mutuaUy  explain  each  other.  A  general 
notion  is  said  to  be  e.'ctensive  accordmg  to  the 
extent  of  its  ai.plication,  or  the  number  of  objects 
included  under  it.  Thus,  Figure  is  a  term  of  very 
crreat  extension,  because  it  contains  in  its  compass 
many  varieties,  such  as  roimd,  square,  oblong, 
polygonal,  &c.  In  like  manner,  European  is  more 
extensive  than  German,  man  than  EuroiH;an,  animal 
than  man,  organised  being  than  annual.  Tbe  highest 
.renera  are  formed  by  takmg  in  a  wider  range  of 
Sbjects.  Matter  aud  Mind  are  the  most  extensive 
classes  that  we  can  form.  For,  althougli  a  higher 
.renus  is  sometimes  spoken  of,  viz.,  Existence ;  to 
Sail  this  a  class  is  to  gener.ahse  beyond  real  kriow- 
ledge,  which  does  not  begin  till  we  have  at  leasttwo 
actual  things  to  contrast  with  each  other.  What 
can  be  contrasted  only  with  non-existence,  non- 
entity, or  nothingness,  is  not  genuine  knowleUge : 
no  i.ropcrty  can  ^>e  affirmed  of  it  apart  from  the 
thin.'  itself.  Matter,  in  its  contrast  to  nund,  is  a 
realcognition;  aud  ctcc  vers<J,  mind  in  its  contrast 
to  matter.    These,   then,  are  the  most  extensive 


EXTENT— EXTRACT  OF  MEAT. 


terms  that  have  any  real  knowledge  attached  to 
them.  But  this  property  of  extension  is  gained  by 
dropping  more  and  more  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
included  indivitUials ;  '  organised  being,'  in  order 
to  include  both  plants  and  animals,  must  drop  from 
its  signification  what  is  peculiar  to  each,  and  mean 
oidy  what  is  common  to  both.  In  short,  these  reiy 
extensive  notions  have  a  very  narrow  signification  ; 
it  is  the  less  extensive  that  have  most  meanin>^ 
The  meaning  of  '  Man,'  or  the  number  of  attributes 
implied  in  this  generic  expression,  is  large.  Every- 
thing that  goes  to  a  human  being — the  hiunan  form 
and  organisation,  the  mental  attributes  of  reason, 
speech,  &c. — is  expressed  by  this  term,  which  is  on 
that  account  said  to  be  more  ConiPKEHEXsn'T:  than 
animal  or  organised  being.  Thus  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  greater  the  extension,  the  less  is  the  com- 
prehension ;  and  the  greater  the  comprehension,  the 
less  is  the  extension.  An  individual  ia  the  tei-m 
of  greatest  comprehension,  and  of  least  extension. 
'  Socrates '  comprehends  all  that  is  common  to  men 
and  to  philosophers,  together  with  all  that  is  pecidiar 
to  himself.  On  the  logical  uses  of  this  distinction, 
see  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic,  i.  140. 

EXTE'NT,  in  English  Law,  a  writ  issuing  out  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  to  compel  paj-ment  of  debts 
to  the  crown.  In  order  to  warrant  the  issue  of  this 
writ,  the  debt  must  be  a  debt  of  Record  (q.  v.). 
Extents  are  in  chief  or  in  aid.  The  former  are  issued 
against  the  crown  debtor,  and  under  it  the  body, 
land,  and  goods  may  aU  be  taken  at  once.  An  extent 
in  aid  is  issued  at  the  suit  of  a  crown  debtor  against 
a  person  indebted  to  the  crown  debtor.  On  this  writ, 
the  chattels  only  of  the  person  against  whom  it  is 
issued  can  be  attached.  Writs  of  extent  in  aid 
were  at  one  time  made  the  means  of  gi-eat  abuse ; 
persons  who  were  not  crown  debtors  were  in  the 
practice  of  assigning  debts  to  the  crown,  and  there- 
upon obtaining  a  writ  in  aid.  This  practice  was 
stopped  by  7  James  I.  c.  15,  forbidding  assignments 
to  the  crown.  Persons  then  resorted  to  other 
means,  such  as  taking  the  debt  in  name  of  the 
crown,  or  getting  themselves  appointed  badiffs  for 
the  crown,  and  in  that  character  procuring  the 
issue  of  the  writ.  At  last,  the  practice  was  finally 
stopped  by  57  Geo.  III.  c.  117,  by  which  it  is 
enacted  that  the  amount  of  the  cro%vn  debt  shall 
be  endorsed  on  every  extent  in  aid,  and  that 
any  overplus  beyond  the  crown  debt  shall  be  paid 
into  coui-t  to  be  disposed  of  as  the  covu-t  shall 
direct.  By  the  treaty  of  Union,  extents  were 
introduced  into  Scotland  on  revenue  matters  ;  but 
the  sheriff  is  only  entitled  to  take  the  debtor's 
movables. 

EXTENT  (in  Scotland).  There  were  no  taxes  in 
feudal  times.  The  king  was  supported  by  the  rents 
of  his  projiert}'  lands,  and  by  the  occasional  profits 
of  superiority — ward,  non-entry,  marriage,  escheat, 
and  the  like — which  were  known  by  the  general 
name  of  Casualties  (q.  v.).  Beyond  these,  and  the 
exjienses  which  the  discharge  of  his  ordinary  duties 
to  his  superior  imposed  on  him,  the  vassal  was  not 
liable  to  be  taxed.  But  to  this  rule  there  were 
some  exceptions.  When  it  became  necessary  to 
redeem  the  king  from  captivity,  to  provide  a 
portion  for  his  eldest  daughter,  or  to  defray  the 
expense  of  making  his  eldest  son  a  knight,  a  general 
contribution  w:is  leWed.  One  of  these  occasions 
occiured  when  Alexander  III.  betrothed  his  daughter 
Margaret  to  Eric,  the  young  king  of  Nonvay,  and 
engaged  to  give  her  a  toclier  of  14,000  merks. 
This  sum  was  far  beyond  the  personal  resources 
of  the  king,  and  consequently  fell  to  be  le\-ied  by 
a  land-tax — land  and  its  fniits  bein"  then  the  only 
appreciable  species  of  property.     But  if  the  tax 


was  to  be  levied  fairly  and  equaUj-,  this  could  be 
done  only  by  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  whole 
lands  in  the  kingdom,  as  had  been  done  in  England 
m  the  time  of  Edward  I.  (4  Edw.  I.  i.  anno  i27C). 
Whether  this  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  a 
general  valuation  of  all  the  lands  of  Scotkind  had 
been  made,  as  Lord  Kames  thought  (Law  TracU, 
tract  xiv.),  or  whether  there  had  been  earlier  valua- 
tions of  the  same  kiod,  as  others  have  sup[>osed 
(Cranston  v.  Gibson,  May  16,  1818,  Fac.  ColL),  is 
stiU  a  subject  of  dispute  amongst  antiquaries.  It 
is  certain,  however,  that  the  valuation  here  spoken 
of  was  long  known  as  the  old  extent.  As  such,  it  is 
spoken  of  iu  the  act  or  indenture  of  15th  July  1326, 
by  which  the  parliament  of  Scotland  agreed  to  give 
to  King  Robert  Bruce  the  tenth  penny  of  aU  the 
rents  of  the  laity  during  his  life.  In  this  latter  act 
it  was  provided  that  such  lands  as  had  been  wasted 
by  the  war  shoiUd  be  revalued  liy  an  inquest  before 
the  sheriff,  and  the  retour,  or  formal  verdict,  was  so 
framed  as  to  contain  a  statement  both  of  the  present 
value  of  the  lands,  and  of  what  they  were  worth  '  in 
the  time  of  peaca'  In  ahuost  all  cases,  the  new  was 
considerably  under  the  old  valuation,  a  fact  which 
shews  how  widespread  must  have  been  the  devas- 
tation of  that  terrible  war.  The  same  deplorable 
fact  is  brought  out  by  the  Extent  taken  with  a 
\'iew  to  raise  the  simi  necessary  for  the  ransom  of 
David  II.  On  this  occasion,  the  new  extent  of 
the  temporal  lands  scarcely  amounted  to  £25,000, 
whereas  the  old  extent  exceeded  £50,000  (Cranston 
V.  Gibson,  ut  sup.).  But  this  state  of  matters  was 
reversed  when  James  I.  succeeded  in  restoring  peace 
and  prosperitj-.  Indeed,  even  before  the  inUuence 
of  his  person,al  qualities  coidd  have  been  felt,  the 
condition  of  the  country  must  have  improved, 
because  the  extent  which  was  taken  in  1424,  for  the 
purpose  of  redeeming  bini  from  captivity,  shews  in 
general  an  advance  upon  that  even  of  the  time  of 
Alexander  III.  In  several  later  cases  (1481,  1488, 
1535),  in  which  grants  were  made  to  the  crown,  the 
assessments  were  levied  from  temporal  lands  by  a 
series  of  new  extents,  according  to  present  value. 
During  the  minority  of  Mar}',  the  assessments, 
which  were  heavy  and  numerous,  were  levied 
according  to  an  old  extent,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  was  the  extent  of  Alexander  III.,  or  of 
David  II.,  or  a  later  one  than  either.  The  extents 
of  which  we  have  spoken  did  not  apply  to  church 
lauds.  The  share  of  the  subsidies  appHcable  to 
them  was  levied  according  to  the  value  of  the  bene- 
fices as  settled  by  '  Ba^mont's  Roll,'  which  was 
made  up  in  the  time  of  Alexander  III.  by  Bene- 
nmudus  de  Vicci,  vulgarly  called  Bagimont.  Crom- 
well introduced  a  more  equitable  rule  of  assessment, 
and  fixed  precisely  the  ratio  to  be  laid  upon  each 
comity  ;  and  his  system  was  adhered  to,  with  little 
variation,  after  the  Restoration  (Act  of  Conven- 
tion, 23d  January  1667).  The  rent  fixed  by  these 
v.aluations,  commonly  called  the  valued  rent,  was 
that  according  to  which  the  land-tax  and  most  of 
the  other  pubho  and  parochial  assessments  were 
imposed  till  the  passing  of  the  recent  Valuation 
Acts,  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  91,  1854,  and  20  and  21 
Vict.  c.  58,  1857.     See  Valuation. 

E'XTRACT  OF  MEAT  is  obtained  by  acting 
upon  choiiped  meat  by  cold  water,  and  gradually 
heating,  when  about  one-eighth  of  the  weight  of 
the  meat  dissolves  out,  leaving  an  almost  tasteless 
insoluble  fibrine.  The  extract  of  meat  contains  the 
savoury  constituents  of  the  meat,  and  is  a  light 
nutritious  article  of  food.  See  Beef-tea  and  Bkoth. 
It  may  be  concentrated  into  small  bulk,  and  when 
desired,  may  be  afterwards  treated  with  water,  and 
being  heated,  forms  an  agreeable,  light,  and  nutritive 
soup. 

19D 


EXTRACTION  OF  KOOTS-KXTKAVASATXOX. 


EXTRA'CTIOX  OF  ROUTS.  See  Evolution. 
The  roots  which  have  in  i)nictice  to  be  most  fre- 
quently extraeteJ  are  the  sijiiare  and  cube  roots.  It 
is  ^troposeJ  to  e-xphiin  the  rule  for  their  extraction 
as  it  is  given  in  books  of  arithmetic.  Ami  first  of 
the  sqnare  root.  The  square  of  a  +  6  is  a' + 
2<i6  +  6',  and  we  may  olitain  the  rule  by  oljscrving 
how  <(  4-  b  may  be  deduced  from  it.  Arranging  the 
expression  according  to  powers  of  some  letter  «,  we 
observe  that  the  square  root  of  the  first  term  is  a. 
a-  +  2a6  +  b\a  +  b 


2a +  b) 


2ab+b- 
2ab+b^ 


Subtract  its  square  from  the  expression,  and  the 
remainder  is  '2ab  +  b".  Divide  '2ab  by  '2a,  and  the 
residt  is  b,  the  other  term  in  the  root.  Multijjly 
2a  +  6  by  b,  and  subtract  the  jiroduct  from  the 
remainder.  If  the  operation  does  not  terminate,  it 
shews  that  there  is  another  term  in  the  root.  In 
this  case,  we  may  consider  the  two  terms  a  +  b 
ah'eadj'  found  as  one,  and  as  corresponding  to  the 
term  a  in  the  preceding  operation  ;  and  the  square 
of  this  quantity  haWng  been  l>j'  the  preceding  process 
subtracted  from  the  given  expression,  we  may 
divide  the  remainder  by  2{a  +  b)  for  the  next  term 
in  the  root,  and  for  a  new  subtrahend  midtiply 
2{a  +  b)  +  the  new  term,  liy  the  new  tei-m  ;  and 
the  process  may  be  rejieated  till  there  is  no  remain- 
der. The  inile  for  extracting  the  square  root  of  a 
nimiber  is  an  adajitation  of  this  algebraical  ride,  in 
fact,  if  the  number  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  radix 
of  its  scale,  it  is  seen  to  be  a  concealed  algebraical 
expression  of  the  order  we  have  been  considering. 
Thus,  N  =  or"  +  &)•""•  +  .  .  .  +  rj.  ■  The  number 
576  in  the  denary  scale  may  be  written  5  x  10"  -)- 
7  X  10  -t-  G  ;  and  treating  it  as  an  algebraical  expres- 
sion, we  should  find  its  root  to  be  2  x  10  -I-  4,  or  24 
The  only  part  of  the  arithmetical  rule  now  requiring 
explanation  is  the  rule  of  pointing.  As  every 
number  of  one  figure  is  less  than  10,  its  square  must 
be  less  than  10" ;  generally,  every  nmnlier  of  n  tigm-es 
is  less  than  10"  (which  is  1  followed  by  n  ciphers)  ; 
but  also  every  niimber  of  n  figures  is  not  less  than 
10""',  and  therefore  its  square  is  not  less  than 
10"""- — which  is  the  smallest  nmuber  of  2n  —  1 
figures.  Also,  10""  is  the  smallest  number  of  2n  -(-  1 
figures.  It  follows  that  the  square  of  a  number  of  n 
figiu-es  has  either  '2n  or  2»  —  1  tigiu'es.  If,  then, 
we  put  a  point  over  the  units  place  of  a  number  of 
which  the  root  is  to  be  extracted,  and  jioint  every 
second  figiu'e  from  right  to  left,  the  number  of 
points  will  alwaj's  equal  that  of  the  figiu-cs  in  the 
root.  If  the  number  of  figures  be  even,  the  number 
will  be  divided  into  groups  of  two  each ;  if  odd,  the 
last  group  will  contain  only  a  single  figure. 

The  rule  for  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root  of  a 
nimiber  is  deduced  from  that  for  the  extraction  of 
the  cube  root  of  an  algebraical  expression  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  square  root.  The 
cube  of  (a  -I-  b)  is 

a»  -I-  Za%  -^  3aV  -)-  h\a  -f  b 

a? 


Za^) 


Zarb  4-  Zal?  +  b' 
3a%  +  3ab'  +  b' 


Hence  the  rule  in  algebra.  Ai-range  the  exjiression 
according  to  descending  powers  of  a,  the  cube  root 
of  the  first  term  a}  is  «,  the  first  terra  of  the  root. 
Subtract  its  cube  from  the  expression,  and  bring 
doivn  the  remainder.  Divide  the  first  term  by  Sii", 
and  the  cpiotient  is  4,  the  second  term  of  the  root. 
Subtract  the  (piantity  3a'i  -I-  3ab-  +  b\  If  there 
is  no  remainder,  the  root  is  extracted.     If  there 

200 


is,  proceed  as  before,  regaixUng  a  +  b  as  one  terra, 
corresponding  to  a  in  the  first  operation.  Let,  for 
exarajde,  a  +  b  =  a',  then  3a^  '  is  the  new  trial 
divisor.  If  c  be  the  new  term  or  third  figure  of 
the  root,  then  the  quantity  to  be  subtracted  to  get 
the  next  remainder  is  3rt'  -c  +  3a'c'  +  c',  and  so 
on  till  there  is  no  remainder.  Tlie  rule  of  jjointing 
in  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root  may  be  proved, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  square  root,  by  shewing  that 
the  cube  of  a  number  of  n  fifjures  contains  3«, 
3«  —  1,  or  3»  —  2  figures  ;  and,  uierefore,  if  we  put 
a  point  over  the  units  place,  and  on  each  third 
figme,  we  shall  have  as  many  periods  as  there  are 
figures  in  the  root. 

It  may  be  obseiTed  that  a  rule  for  the  extraction 
of  any  root  of  a  number  may  be  got  from  considering 
how,  from  the  expansion  of  a  -I-  i  to  the  nth  power, 
or  a"  +  na"~'b  +,  &e.,  the  root  a  +  b  ia  to  he 
obtained.     See  Evolution  and  Involution. 

EXTRA'CTIVE  JIATTER  is  the  term  applied 
to  certain  organic  matters  rcsemljling  liumine,  found 
in  soils  durmg  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  and 
which  are  preciijitated  dm-ing  the  concentration  of 
water  solutions. 

E'XTRACTS,  in  a  technical  sense,  are  medicinal 
preparations  of  vegetable  principles,  got  either  by 
jiuttlng  the  plants  in  a  solvent  or  meustnium,  and 
then  evaporating  the  liquid  down  to  about  the 
consistency  of  honey,  or  by  e.xpressing  the  juice  of 
the  plants  and  evaporating  ;  this  last  is  properly 
insplssaled  juke.  Extracts,  therefore,  contain  only 
those  vegetable  principles  that  are  either  held  in 
solution  in  the  juices  of  the  jJauts  themselves,  or 
are  soluble  in  the  liquid  employed  in  extracting 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  are  not  so  volatile  as 
to  be  lost  during  evaporation.  Now,  as  many 
extractive  matters  are  more  or  less  volatUe,  it 
makes  a  great  tUflerence  whether  the  operation  is 
conducted  at  a  low  or  at  a  high  temperature. 
Extracts  are  called  watery  or  uhultolic  according 
as  the  menstruum  employed  is  water  or  spirits. 
Ether  is  also  used  in  extracting.  Different  )ilants  of 
course  afford  ditferent  extracts,  some  being  of  the 
nature  of  bitters,  others  being  used  as  pigments, 
tamiin,  &c.  Extracts  are  liable  to  great  uncertainty 
in  point  of  strength  and  composition,  ami  require  to 
be  prepared  with  great  care.  Evaporation  in  vacuo 
is  foimd  to  be  a  great  improvement. 

EXTRADI'TION,  the  giving  up.  by  authority 
of  law,  a  person  accused  of  a  crime,  to  the  foreign 
jurisdiction  within  which  it  was  committed,  in  order 
that  he  may  be  tried  there.  Extradition  is  usually 
the  subject  of  international  treaty.  A  treaty  or 
convention  for  this  purpose  was  entered  into 
between  this  country  and  France  in  1S43,  and 
between  this  country  and  the  United  States  of 
America  the  same  year.  Cases  have  frequently 
occurred  where  warrants  have  been  granted,  and 
their  execution  by  the  criminal  officer  .aided  by 
the  authorities  of  countries  with  which  we  have  no 
such  convention.  The  authorities  at  Hamburg  and 
Antwerp,  and  in  Russia,  have  given  English  offenders 
over  to  the  custody  of  the  oflicer,  or  placed  them  on 
board  a  British  vessel.  On  other  occasions,  they 
have  convicted  them,  and  punished  them  there, 
receiving  a  certified  copy  of  the  depositions  .as 
evidence  of  the  crime  committed  in  tliis  countiy 
(Oke's  Magisterial  Sijnnpfiis,  p.  724 ;  and  Okc's  Matjix- 
terinl  Formalist,  where  the  forms  of  warrants  will 
be  found  for  the  guidance  of  justices). 

EXTRAVASA'TION  is  tlie  escape  of  any  of  the 
fliiiils  of  the  living  body  from  their  jiroper  vessels 
{ran)  through  a  rupture  or  injury  in  tlieir  walls. 
Excrementitious  matter  thus  sometimes  escapes  into 
the  abdomen  through  a  wound  or  idceratiou  of  tho 


EXTREME  UNCTION— EYCK. 


bowels.  But  the  term  is  oftenest  used  in  speaking 
of  tlie  escape  of  bluocl  from  injured  blood-vessels. 
Extravasation  i.s  distinguished  from  exudation  by 
this,  that  in  tlie  last  the  vessels  remain  entire,  and 
the  effusion  takes  plaee  by  filtration  through  their 
walls  ;  nor  does  more  than  a  part  of  the  blood  so 
escape,  the  blood  globules  being  retained,  while  in 
extravasation  i)erfect  blood  is  effused.  Many  kinds 
of  extravasation  are  immediately  fatal,  such  as  that 
of  urine  or  of  gall  into  the  abdomen,  or  of  blood  from 
the  vessels  of  the  brain  in  many  cases  of  apoplexy. 
The  dark  colour  resiUting  from  a  bruise  is  owing  to 
extra vasated  Ijlood  from  ruptured  capillary  vessels. 

EXTREME  TJNCTIOX,  a  sacrament  of  the 
Roman  Cathohc  ('hurch,  Mhich,  as  the  other  sacra- 
ments siipply  spiritual  aid  in  the  various  circum- 
stances of  life,  is  believed  to  impart  to  the  Cliristian 
in  death  grace  and  strength  to  encounter  the 
struggle,  as  well  spiritual  as  bodily,  of  the  djnng 
hour.  The  rite  of  unction  in  different  forms  is 
common  to  several  of  the  sacraments ;  the  name 
'  extreme '  is  given  to  that  of  the  present  sacra- 
ment, because  it  is  reserved  for  the  last  act  of  the 
Cliristian  career.  The  coimcil  of  Trent  declares 
this  sacrament,  althout'h  'promtUgated'  in  the  well- 
known  passage  of  St  James  v.  14,  15  (which  Protes- 
tants regard  as  haring  more  to  do  with  the  general 
belief  in  the  sanative  projierties  of  oil),  to  have 
been  '  instituted'  bj^  Christ.  The  Fathers  frequently 
allude  to  the  rite  of  unction,  and  although  many  of 
these  allusions  certainly  refer  to  the  unctions  of 
baptism  and  confirmation,  yet  CathoUcs  rely  on 
several  passages  of  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Ciesarius 
of  Aries,  and  Pope  Innocent  I.,  as  decisive  regard- 
ing the  unction  of  the  dj-ing,  as  also  upon  the  fact 
that  in  the  various  separated  churches  of  Oriental 
Christians — Greek,  Coptic,  Armenian,  and  Nestorian 
— the  rite  is  found,  although  with  many  ceremonial 
variations.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
sacrament  is  administered  by  the  priest,  who, 
'  dipping  his  thumb  in  the  holy  oU,  anoints  the  sick 
person,  in  the  form  of  the  cross,  upon  the  eyes,  ears, 
nose,  mouth,  hands,  and  feet ;  at  each  anointing 
making  use  of  this  forai  of  ]>raj'er :  "  Through  this 
holy  unction,  and  his  most  tender  mercy,  may  the 
Lord  pardon  thee  whatever  sins  thou  hast  com- 
mitted by  thy  sight.  Amen."  And  so  of  the  hear- 
ing and  the  rest,  adapting  the  form  to  the  several 
senses.' — Challoner's  Cathulic  Cliristifin  Instructed. 
E.xtremc  \mction  is  reputed  by  Catholics  one  of  the 
sacraments  'of  the  li\nng;'  that  is,  it  ordinarily 
requires  that  the  recipient  shoidd  have  previously 
obtained  remission  of  his  sins  by  absolution  or  by 
perfect  contrition  ;  but  it  is  held  to  remit,  indi- 
rectly, actual  sins  not  prc%'iously  remitted,  and 
also  (althoxigh  not  inf.allibly,  but  according  to  the 
merciful  designs  of  I'rovidence)  to  alleviate,  and 
even  to  dispel,  the  pains  of  bodily  disease.  The  holy 
oil  which  forms  the  '  matter '  of  this  sacram.cnt 
must  be  blessed  by  the  bishop — a  ceremony  which 
is  performed  with  great  solemnity  once  each  year 
by  the  bishop,  attended  by  a  number  of  priests,  on 
Maundy-Thuxsday.  The  oil  so  blessed  is  reserved 
for  use  during  the  year.  In  the  Greek  Church,  the 
sacrament  is  administered  by  several  priests  con- 
jointly. In  its  most  solemn  form,  seven  priests 
unite  in  its  administration ;  in  ordinary  circimi- 
stances,  it  is  conferred  by  two.  The  Greek  form  of 
words  also  differs,  although  not  substantially,  from 
that  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  Greeks  call  this 
sacrament  •  The  Holy  Oil,'  and  sometimes  '  The  OU 
of  Prayer.' 

EXTRE3IITY.     See  Skeleton. 

EXUMAS,    comprising     Great     Exuma,    Little 
Exuma,   and  the  Exuma  Keys,  form   part  of  the 


group  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  They  contain  about 
2000  inhabitants,  who  are  emjiloyed  jiartly  in  agri- 
culture, including  at  one  time  the  gromng  of  cotton, 
but  chiefly  in  salt-making.  In  the  last-named 
business,  the  E.  rank  second  among  all  the  sub- 
divisions of  the  group,  havuig  exported,  in  1851, 
115,350  bushels  of  salt.  Next  to  Nassau  in  New 
Providence,  Little  Exuma  is  the  most  considerable 
port  of  entry  in  the  Bahamas. 

EXU'VI^'E,  a  term  applied  to  organic  remains, 
now  seldom  employed,  but  frequently  used  by  the 
older  geologists. 

EYALET  is,  next  to  a  province,  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  the  cUvisions  of  the  "Turkish 
emjiire,  which  contains  in  all  .36  eyalets.  These  are 
again  divided  into  Urns  or  sanjaks,  the  livas  into 
cuzas  or  districts,  and  the  cazas  into  nahiijes  or 
commimes,  containing  \Tllage3  or  hamlets.  Each 
eyalet  or  general  government,  as  it  may  be  called,  is 
atlministered  by  a  pasha,  who  is  governor,  and  the 
general  name  for  whom  is  vali  or  viceroy.  The 
governors  of  the  eyalets  belong  to  the  Dignities  of 
the  Sword,  and  are  pashas  of  two  tails ;  and  when 
they  are  raised  to  the  rank  of  vizier,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  they  become  pashas  of  three  tails. 

EYCK,  Hubert  and  Jam  yxy,  two  illustrious 
painters  of  the  old  Flemish  school.  Much  dis- 
cussion has  arisen  as  to  the  time  of  the  birth  and 
death  of  these  brothers,  and  the  various  dates 
assigned  range  from  1350  to  1400.  Some  maintain 
that  Hubert  was  born  in  1366,  and  Jan  in  1370  ; 
while  Kugler — in  general  a  good  authority  on 
ancient  art— states  the  dates  to  be  13G6  and  1400, 
making  Hubert  34  years  older  than  Jan.  Their 
birthplace  was  Maas-Eyek,  and  they  chiefly  resided 
at  Bruges  and  Ghent,  and  became  the  founders  of 
the  Flemish  school  of  painting.  The  honour  of 
being  the  inventors  of  oil-painting  is  claimed  for 
them,  though  sufficient  evidence  has  been  adduced 
to  shew  that  it  was  practised  previously.  Before 
their  time,  the  custom,  however,  particularly  in 
Italy,  was  to  paint  with  gums  or  other  substances 
of  an  adhesive  nature  dissolved  in  water ;  and  if  not 
the  inventors,  they  were  at  least  the  first  who 
brought  into  notice  and  perfected  the  mode  of 
mixing  colours  with  oil  or  some  mediimi  of  which 
oil  was  the  chief  ingredient ;  while,  for  transparent 
and  briUiant  colouring  and  minute  finish,  their 
works  have  never  been  surpassed.  Till  the  death 
of  Jan,  the  brothers  generally  painted  in  con- 
junction :  one  of  their  most  important  works  was 
an  altar-piece  mth  folding-doors,  representing  the 
Elders  adoring  the  Lamb — a  subject  taken  from  the 
Apocalypse — painted  {nrjodocus  Tyfc,  who  presented 
it  to  the  cathedral  of  St  Bavon,  in  Ghent.  The 
two  central  dirisions  of  this  picture  are  all  that 
now  remain  in  the  church  at  Ghent.  Some  of  the 
wings  are  iu  the  Gallery  at  Berlin.  The  master- 
pieces of  the  brothers  are  for  the  most  part  in  the 
cities  of  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Berhn,  Munich, 
and  Paris.  In  the  National  Gallery,  London,  there 
are  three  pictures  of  Jan  van  E.,  which,  though 
small,  well  exemplify  the  high  qualities  of  his  works. 
These  are  portraits  of  a  Flemish  merchant  and  his 
wife,  standing  in  the  middle  of  an  apartment,  with 
their  hands  joined— signed  and  dated  1434 :  of  the 
portr.ait  of  a  man  in  a  cloak  and  fur-coUar,  with  a 
red  handkerchief  twisted  round  the  head  as  a 
turban — painted,  according  to  an  uiscription  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  frame,  October  21,  1433 :  and 
portrait  of  a  man  with  a  dark-red  dress,  with  a 
.green  head-covering— signed  and  dated  10th  Octo- 
ber 1432.  Hubcrtdied  in  1426,  and  Jan  in  1441. 
C'onqiare  AVa.agen,  Uber  Hub.  niul  Jan  van  Euck 
(Breslau,  1822). 

201 


EYE. 


EYE,  Akatomy  and  Physiology  of  the.  In 
this  article  we  shall  consider  :  1.  The  structure  of 
the  hiuiian  eyeball,  and  of  certain  accessory  parts 
or  apiHindages  which  serve  to  protect  that  organ, 
and  are  essential  to  the  due  performance  of  its 
functions.  2.  The  most  striking  modifications  which 
this  organ  presents  in  some  ot  the  lower  animals. 
3.  The  special  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  the  eye 
considered  as  an  optical  instrument ;  and  4.  The 
action  of  the  retina. 

1.  The  globe  of  Vie  eye  is  placed  in  the  anterior 
part  of  the  cavity  of  the  Orbit  (i\.  v.),  in  which  it  is 
held  in  position  by  its  connection  with  the  optic  nerve 
posteriorly,  and  with  the  muscles  which  surroimd 
it,  and  by  the  eyelids  in  front.  It  is  fiirthcr  sup- 
ported behind  and  on  the  sides  by  a  quantity  of 
loose  fat,  which  tills  up  all  the  interstices  of  the 
orbit,  and  facUitates  the  various  movements  of  which 
the  eye  is  capable. 

The  form  of  the  eyeball  is  nearly  spherical ;  biit 
on  viewing  the  organ  in  profile,  we  see  that  it  is 
composed  of  segments  of  two  spheres  of  different 
diameters.  Of  these,  the  anterior,  formed  by  the 
transparent  cornea,  has  the  smaller  diameter,  and 
is  therefore  the  most  prominent ;  and  hence  the 
antero-posterior  slightly  exceeds  (by  about  a  line) 
the  transverse  diameter.  The  radius  of  the  posterior 
or  sclerotic  segment  is  about  Vst'^i  ^^'^  that  of  the 
anterior  segment  about  ^ths  of  an  inch. 

When  the  eyes  are  in  a  state  of  repose,  their 
antero-posterior  axes  are  parallel ;  the  optic  nerves, 
on  the  other  hand,  diverge  considerably  from  their 
commissure  within  the  cavity  of  the  skull  to  the 
point  where  they  enter  the  globe ;  consequently, 
their  direction  does  not  coincide  with  that  of  the 
eye.  Each  ner\'e  enters  the  back  of  the  globe  at  a 
distance  of  about  ^th  of  an  inch  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  antero-posterior  axis  of  the  eye. 

The  eyeball  is  composed  of  several  investing 
membranes,  and  of  certain  transparent  structures, 
which  are  enclosed  witliin  them,  and  which,  together 
with  the  cornea  (one  of  the  membranes),  act  as 


Fig.  L 

A  longitudinal  Bection  of  the  coats  of  the  ere. 
I,  the  sclerotic,  thicker  hehind  than  in  front ;  2.  tlio  cornea  ; 
3,  the  choroid ;  6,  the  iris ;  7,  the  pupil ;  8.  the  retina ; 
10,  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye;  11,  the  posterior 
chamber;  12,  the  crvstalUne  lens,  enclosed  in  its  capsule; 
13,  the  vitreous  humour,  enclosed  in  the  hyaloid  membrane, 
and  in  cells  formed  in  its  interior  by  that  membrane;  15, 
the  sheath ;  and  16,  the  interior  of  the  optic  nerve,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  small  artery.  (The  other  numbers  in 
the  figure  refer  to  parts  not  noticed  in  this  article.) 

refractive  media  of  various  densities  upon  the  rays 
of  light  which  enter  the  eye. 

The  outermost  coat  of  the  eye  is  the  sclerotic 
(from  skleros,  hard).  It  is  a  strong,  dense,  white, 
fibrous  structure,  covering  about  four-fifths  of  the 
eyeball,  and  lea^-ing  a  circular  deficiency  anteriorly, 
which  is  occupied  by  the  cornea.     Posteriorly,  it  "is 

S02 


perforated  by  the  optic  nerve,  and  it  is  there  continu- 
ous with  the  slieatli  which  that  nerve  derives  from 
the  dura  mater,  the  fibrous  investment  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord.  Near  the  entrance  of  the  ner\'e,  its 
thickness  is  about  ^ijth  of  an  inch  ;  from  this  it 
diminishes  to  about  ^rjth ;  but  in  front  it  again 
becomes  thicker,  from  the  tendinous  insertions  of  the 
straight  muscles  which  blend  with  it.  This  coat, 
by  its  great  strength  and  compan-itively  unyielding 
structure,  maintains  the  enclosed  i)arts  in  their  proper 
form,  and  serves  to  protect  them  from  external 
injuries. 

The  cornea  (so  called  from  its  homy  appearance)  ia 
a  transjiarent  structure,  filling  up  the  aperture  left  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic.  Its  circumference 
is  overlaid  by  the  free  edge  of  the  sclerotic,  which 
in  some  parts  presents  a  groove,  so  as  to  retain  it 
more  firmly ;  and  the  connection  by  continuity  of 
texture  between  the  two  structures  is  so  close,  that 
they  cannot  be  separated  in  the  dead  body  \vithout 
considerable  maceration. 

The  cornea,  in  consequence  of  its  greater  con- 
vexity, projects  beyond  the  line  of  the  sclerotic  ;  the 
degree  of  convexity,  however,  varies  in  different 
persons,  and  at  different  periods  of  life.  It  is  thicker 
than  any  part  of  the  sclerotic,  and  so  strong  as  to 
be  able  to  resist  a  force  capable  of  rupturing  that 
tunic. 

Although  beautifully  transparent,  and  appearing 
to  be  homogeneous,  it  is  in  reaUty  composed  of  live 
layers,  clearly  distinguishable  from  one  another — 
viz.  (proceeding  from  the  front  backwards)  1.  The 
conjunctival  layer  of  epithelium.  It  is  in  this 
epitheUum  that  particles  of  iron,  stone,  &c.,  forcibly 
driven  against  the  eye,  usually  lodge,  and  it  is  a 
highly  sensitive  membrane.  2.  The  anterior  elastic 
lamina  forming  the  anterior  boundary  of  the  cornea 
proper ;  it  is  not  more  than  a  d'd  nth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness ;  and  its  fvinction  seems  to  be  that 
of  maintaining  the  exact  cur%'ature  of  the  front 
of  the  cornea.  3.  The  cornea  proper,  on  which 
the  thickness  and  strength  of  the  cornea  mainly 
depend.  4.  The  posterior  elastic  lamina,  which  i£ 
an  extremely  thin  membrane,  in  which  no  structure 
can  be  detected.  It  probably  contributes,  like  the 
anterior  lamina,  to  the  exact  maintenance  of  the 
curvature  of  the  cornea,  so  necessary  for  correct 
vision.  5.  The  posterior  epithelium  of  the 
aqueous  humour,  which  is  probably  concerned  in 
the  secretion  of  that  diud. 

For  further  details  reg.^rding  these  different 
layers,  we  must  refer  to  Todd  and  Bomnan's 
Physiological  Anatomy,  voL  iL  pp.  17 — 21. 

The  choroid  coat  is  a  dark-coloured  v.iscular 
membrane,  which  is  brought  into  view  on  the 
removal  of  the  sclerotic.  Its  outer  surface,  which 
is  nearly  black,  is  loosely  connected  with  the 
sclerotic  by  connective  tissue,  in  which  are  con- 
tained certain  nerves  and  vessels — termed  the  ciliary 
nerves  and  vessels — which  go  to  the  iris.  Its  iimer 
surface  is  soft,  ^-iUous,  and  dark-coloured.  In 
front,  it  is  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  vitreous 
humour  (see  fig.  3)  bj-  means  of  the  ciliary  processes, 
which  consist  of  about  sixty  or  seventy  radiating 
folds.  These  are  alternately  long  and  short,  and 
each  of  them  is  tenninated  by  a  small  free  interior 
extremity ;  and  they  are  lodged  in  corresjionding 
folds  in  the  membrane  of  the  Wtreous  humour.  In 
other  parts,  it  is  loosely  connected  with  the  retin.i. 
The  choroid  is  composed  of  minute  ramifications 
of  vessels — especially  of  veins,  which,  from  their 
whirl-like  arrangement,  are  termed  vasa  vortlcoaa 
— of  connective  tissue,  and  of  pigment  cells,  which 
usually  approximate  to  the  hexagonal  fonu,  and  are 
about  fcVtrtl'  of  •■'°  ioc\\  in  diameter.  In  albinos, 
this  jiigment  is  absent,  and  hence  their  eyes  have  a 


EYE. 


pink   appearance,  which  is  due  to  the  unconcealed 
Ijlooil  in  the  capillaries  of  the  choroid  and  iris. 


Fig.  2. 
Choroitl  and  iris,  exposed  by  turning  nsidc  the  sclerotic. 
c,  c,  ciliary  nerves  going  to  be  distributed  in  iris ;  rf,  d,  smnller 
ciliary  nerves ;  e,  e,  veins  known  as  vasa  vorticosa  ;  It,  ciliary 
ligament  and  muscle;  A,  /,  converging  fibres  of  iris;  o,  optic 
nerve. 

The  iris  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  of  the 
choroid,  with  which  it  is  continuous,  although  there 
are  differences  of  structure  in  the  two  membranes. 


X. 


Fig.  3. 

The  irl^  and  adjacent  structures  seen  from  behind. 

2,  the  divided  cd[fe  of  the  three  coat?,  the  choroid  Iteinj?  the 

darli  intermediate  one;  2,  the  pupil;  3,  the  posterior  surface 

of  the  iris  ;  4,  tiic  ciliary  processes  ;  5,  the  scalloped  anterior 

border  of  the  retina. 

It  is  a  thin  flat  membranous  curtain,  hanging  ver- 
tically in  the  aqueous  hnranur  in  front  of  the  lens, 
and  perfor.ited  hy  the  pupil  for  the  transmission  of 
light.  It  divides  the  space  betuveen  the  cornea  and 
the  lens  into  an  anterior  (the  larger)  and  a  posterior 
(the  smaller)  chamber,  these  two  ch.anibers  freely 
communicating  througli  the  p)i|)U  (see  fig.  1).  The 
outer  and  larger  border  is  attached  all  round  to  the 
line  of  junction  of  the  sclerotic  and  cornea,  while 
the  inner  edge  forms  the  boimdary  of  the  pujiil, 
which  is  nearly  circular,  lies  a  little  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  centre  of  the  iris,  and  varies  in  size 
according  to  the  action  of  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  iris,  so  .as  to  athnit  more  or  less  light  into 
the  interior  of  the  eyeball  ;  its  diameter  varj-inii, 
tmder  these  circumstances,  from  about  Jd  to  ^th 
of  an  inch.  It  is  muscular  in  its  structure,  one 
set  of  fibres  being  arranged  circularly  round    the 


pupil,  and,  when  nece.ssarj',  eflfecting  its  contraction, 
while  anotlier  set  Lie  in  a  racbating  direction  from 
within  outwards,  and  by  tlieir  action  dilate  the 
pupil.  These  filjros  are  of  the  imstrijfed  or  invol- 
imtary  variety.  The  nerves  which  are  concerned 
in  these  movements  will  be  presently  noticed. 

The  varieties  of  colour  in  the  eyes  of  different 
individuals,  and  of  different  kinds  of  animals, 
mainly  depend  upon  the  colour  of  the  pigment 
which  is  deposited  in  cells  in  the  substance  of 
the  iris. 

Within  the  choroid  is  the  retina,  which,  although 
continuous  with  the  optic  nerve — of  which  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  a  cuplike  exjiansion — differs 
very  materially  from  it  in  structure.  Before 
noticing  the  elaborate  composition  of  this  part  of 
the  eye,  which  has  only  been  revealed  by  recent 
microscojtical  investigation,  we  shall  briefly  mention 
those  points  regarding  it  which  can  be  established 
by  ordinary  examination.  It  is  a  delicate  semi- 
transparent  sheet  of  nervous  matter,  Ijnng  imme- 
diately behind  the  vitreous  humour,  and  extending 
from  the  optic  nerve  nearly  as  far  as  the  lens.  On 
examining  the  concave  inner  surface  of  the  retina  at 
the  l)ack  of  the  eye,  we  obser\'e,  directly  in  a  line 
with  the  axis  of  the  globe,  a  circidar  yellow  8i)ot 
{limhux  luteux),  of  about  Trjth  of  an  inch  in  (Uameter, 
caUed,  after  its  discoverer,  the  ye.Uuw  spot  of  Siim- 
meriiig.  As  there  has  been  much  discussion  regarding 
the  structiu'e  and  function  of  this  sjjot,  we  may 
observe  that  Dr  Todd 
and  Mr  Bowman,  two  of 
our  most  eminent  Euglisli 
microscopists,  after  seve- 
ral examinations,  regard 
it  as  a  small  mound  or 
projection  of  the  retina 
towards  the  ritreous 
humotir,  with  a  mintite 
apertm'e  in  the  siumnit. 
The  only  mammals  iu 
which  it  exists  are  man 
and  the  moukej'.  Its  use 
is  imknowu,  but  vision 
is  remarkal)ly  perfect  at 
this  spot — a  circumstance 
which,  however,  may  pos- 
sibly be  accotmted  for  by 
the  fact,  that  it  is  singu- 
larly free  from  blood- 
vessels, which  curve 
roimd  it,  and  apparently 
avoid  it. 

The  structure  of  the 
retina,  as  revealed  by 
the  microscope,  is  in  the 
highest  degree  remark- 
able. Although  its  great- 
est thickness  (at  the 
entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve)  is  only  about  TiDtk 
of    an    inch,    and    as    it 

extends  anteriorly,  it  soon  a  vertical  section  of  the  human 
diminishes  to  ii^th  of  an  retina, 

inch,  the  following  layers  1,  the  layer  of  rods  and  cones 
from      without      mwards      (Jaw'b's  membrane) ;  2,  the 


may  be  distinguished  in 

all  parts  of  it.     (1.)  The 

l.iyer  of   rods  and  cones, 

frequently   termed,    from 

its  discoverer,  the  m-m- 

hrane  of  Jacob  ;   (2.)  Tlie 

granul.ar  layer,  including   the    parts    indicated   by 

2,  3,  4,  5,  iu  the  figtu-e  ;  (3.)  The  layer  of  gray  nerve 

substance;  (4.)  The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve; 

and    (5.)  The   limitary  membrane.      These  various 


external  granular  layer ;  3, 
the  intervcninLj layer  between 
2  and  4,  the  internal  granular 
layer  ;  5,  finer  granular  layer; 
6,  layer  of  nerve-cells ;  7, 
fibres  of  the  optic  nerve;  8, 
limitary  membrane. 


EYE. 


structures  arc  shewn  in  fig.  4,  which  is  copied  from 
KoUikor  and  Miiller's  memoir  on  the  structure  of 
the  retin.i.  Details  rei;ariiiuc!  the  nature  of  these 
various  layers  are  given  in  KoUiker's  Mdnttal  of 
Human  llittologij,  and  in  Todd  and  Bowman, 
op.  cit. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  describe  the  transparent 
media  which  occupy  the  interior  of  the  globe,  and 
through  which  the  rays  of  light  nuist  pass  liefore 
they  can  reach  the  retina,  and  form  on  it  the  images 
of  external  objects.  We  sliall  cou.sidcr  them  iu  the 
order  in  which  the  rays  of  light  strike  them. 

Immediately  bchimi  the  transparent  cornea  is  the 
aqueous  humour  which  tills  up  the  anterior  and 
posterior  chambers  which  lie  between  the  cornea 
.and  the  lens.  As  its  n.ame  im]ilics,  it  is  very  nearly 
pure  water,  with  a  mere  trace  of  albumen  and 
chloride  of  sodium.  As  no  (']iithclium  e.vists  in 
front  of  the  iris,  or  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
lens,  it  is  most  prob.ably  secreted  by  the  cells  on 
the  posterior  .surface  of  the  cornea. 

The  crystalline  lens  lies  opposite  to  and  behind 
the  pupil,  almost  close  to  the  iris,  and  its  posterior 
surface  is  received  into  a  corresponding  depres- 
sion on  the  forepart  of  the  ■\'itreous  humour  (see 
tig.  I).  In  form,  it  is  a  double-convex  lens,  with 
surfaces  of  unequal  curvature,  the  posterior  being 
the  most  convex.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  transparent 
capsule,  of  which  the  part  covering  the  anterior 
siu-f.ace  is  nearly  four  times  thicker  than  that  at 
the  posterior  aspect,  in  consequence,  doubtless,  of 
greater  strength  being  required  in  front,  where 
there  is  no  support,  than  behind,  where  the  lens  is 
adherent  to  the  vitreous  memViraue.  The  micros- 
copic examination  of  the  substance  or  body  of  the 
lens  reveals  a  structure  of  wonderful  beauty.  Its 
whole  mass  is  composed  of  extremely  minute  clou- 
gated  ribbon-like  structures,  commonly  called  the 
Jihres  of  the  lens,  which  are  reg.arded  by  KoUiker  as 
thin-uxilled  tithes,  with  clear,  albuminous  contents. 
These  fibres  are  arranged  side  by  side  in  lamelke,  of 
which  many  himdied  exist  in  every  lens,  and  wliich 
are  so  placed  as  to  give  to  the  anterior  and  posterior 
surfaces  the  appearance  of  a  central  star,  with 
meridian  lines. 

The  lens  gradually  increases  in  density,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  in  refracting  power,  towards  the 
centre ;  by  this  means,  the  convergence  of  the 
central  rays  is  incre.ased,  and  they  are  brought  to  the 
same  focus  as  the  rays  passing  through  the  more 
circumferenti.al  portions  of  the  lens.  (According 
to  Brewster,  the  refracting  power  at  the  surface  is 
1-3767,  and  at  the  centre  1-3990.) 

According  to  Berzelius,  the  lens  cont.ains  5S  jier 
cent,  of  water,  36  of  albumen,  with  minute  quan- 
tities of  salts,  membrane,  &c.  In  consequence  of  the 
albumen,  it  becomes  hard  and  op.aque  on  boiling,  as 
we  familiarly  see  iu  the  case  of  the  eyes  of  boiled 
fish.  In  the  adult,  its  long  diameter  ranges  from 
Jd  to  gths,  and  its  antero-posterior  diameter  from 
I  th  to  jth  of  an  inch ;  and  it  weighs  tba-ee  or  four 
grains. 

The  vitreous  humour  lies  in  the  concavity  of  the 
retina,  and  occupies  .about  four-fifths  of  the  eye  pos- 
teriorly. Its  form  is  shewn  in  fig.  1.  It  is  enclosed 
in  the  hyaloid  membrane,  which  sentls  nimierous 
processes  inwards,  so  as  to  divide  the  cavity  into 
a  series  of  compartments,  and  thus  to  equalise  the 
pressure  exerted  by  the  enclosed  soft  gelatinous 
mass.  Between  the  anterior  border  of  the  retina 
and  the  border  of  the  lens,  we  have  a  series  of  ratli- 
ating  folds  or  plaitings  termed  the  cillarii  processes 
of  the  vitreous  bodij,  into  which  the  ciliary  processes  of 
the  choroid  dove-tail.  The  vitreous  humour  contains, 
according  to  Ber/.eliius,  98-4  per  cent,  of  water,  with 
a  trace  of  ,-ilbumen  and  salts,  and  hence,  as  might 
304 


be  expected,  its  refractive  index  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  water. 

The  ai)pendages  of  the  eye  now  claim  our  notice. 
The  most  important  of  these  appendages  are  the 
muscles  tcilhin  the  orbit,  the  eyelids,  the  lachry/ual 
apparatus,  and  the  conjunctiva,  to  which  (althou"U 
less  important)  we  may  add  the  eyebrows. 

The  muscles  by  which  the  eye  is  moved  are  four 
straight  (or  recti)  muscles,  and  two  oblique  (the 
superior  and  inferior).  The  former  arise  from  the 
margin  of  the  optic  foramen  at  the  apex  of  the  orbit, 
and  are  inserted  into  the  sclerotic  near  the  cornea, 
above,  below,  .and  on  either  side.  The  superior 
oblique  arises  \rith  the  straight  muscles ;  but  after 
rimning   to   the   upper   edge   of  the  orbit,  has  its 


Fig.  5. 

The  muscles  of  the  cj-ebaH,  the  view  beinp  lakcn  from  the 
outer  side  of  tlie  riglit  orbit. 

1,  a  small  fragment  of  the  sphenoid  bone  at  the  back  of  the 
orliit,  containinir  the  foramen,  through  wtiich,  2,  the  oplic 
nerve  passes  ;  3,  the  elobe  of  the  eye ;  4,  the  levator  imIpel>nD 
muscle ;  5,  the  .superior  oblique  muscle ;  6,  its  cartiluf;inous 
pulley,  attached  to  tlie  upper  edge  of  the  orbit;  7,  it.s  reflected 
tendon;  8,  the  inferior  oblique  muscle,  the  little  knob  near 
the  figure  8  being  a  detached  fragment  of  the  superior  max- 
iUary   bone,   from  which  it  arises;    9,  the  superior  rectus; 

10,  the  internal  rectus,  partly  concealed  by  the  oplic  nerve; 

11.  1-2,  the  two  ends  of  the  external  rectus,  the  intermediate 
portion  having  been  removed ;  13,  the  inferior  rectus  ;  14, 
the  tunica  albuginca,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  the  tendons 
of  the  four  recti  muscles. 

direction  ch.anged  by  a  pidley,  and  proceeds  back- 
wards, outwards,  and  downwards  (see  tig.  5).  The 
inferior  oblitiue  arises  from  the  lower  p.art  of  the 
orbit,  and  p.isses  b.ackwanls,  outwards,  and  upwards. 
The  .action  of  the  straight  muscles  is  sufKciently 
obvious  from  their  direction  :  when  acting  collec- 
tively, they  fix  and  retract  the  eye ;  and  when 
acting  singly,  they  turn  it  towards  their  resjiective 
sides.  Tlte  oblique  muscles  antagonise  the  recti, 
and  ilr.aw  the  eye  forwards  ;  the  superior,  acting 
above,  directs  the  front  of  the  eye  downwards  and 
outwards,  and  the  infarior  upw.ards  and  inwards. 
By  the  duly  associated  action  of  these  muscles, 
the  eye  is  enabled  to  move  (within  ilcfiuite  limits)  in 
every  direction. 

The  eyelids  .are  two  thin  mov.able  folds  placed  in 
front  of  the  eye,  to  shield  it  from  too  strong  light, 
and  to  protect  its  anterior  sm-f.ace.  They  are  com- 
posed of  ( 1 )  skin ;  ("2)  of  a  thin  ])l.ate  of  fibro-cartil.age, 
termed  the  t.arsal  cai-tilage,  the  inner  surface  of 
which  is  grooved  l)y  tliirty  or  forty  parallel  vertical 
lines,  in  which  the  Meibomian  glands  arc  imbedded  ; 
and  (3)  of  a  layer  of  mucous  membrane,  continuous, 
as  we  sh.all  presently  see,  with  that  which  lines  the 
nostrils,  and  wliich  joins  the  skm  at  the  margin  of 
the  lids,  in  which  the  eyelashes  (cilia)  are  arranged 
in  two  or  more  rows.  The  iipjier  lid  is  much  the 
larger ;  and  to  tlie  posterior  border  of  its  cartil.ige, 
a  si)ecial  muscle  is  attached,  termed  the  levator 
palpehree  superioris,  whose  object  is  to  elevate 
the  lid,  and  thus  open  the  eye ;  while  there  is 
another  muscle,  the  orbicidaris  palpebrarum,  which 
surrounds  the  orbit  and  eyelids,  and  by  its  con- 
traction closes  the  eye.  The  Meibomian  glaiuls 
secrete  a  sebaceous  matter,  wliich  facihtates  the  free 


EYE. 


motion   of  the  lids,   and   jireveuts   their  adhesion. 
The  eyelashes   intercept   the    entrance   of    foreign 


Fig.  6. 
The  appendages  of  the  eye. 
1,  the  cartilape  of  the  upper  eyelid  ;  2,  its  lower  border,  shewing 
the  openings  of  the  Meibomian  glands  :  3,  the  cartilage  of  the 
lower  eycliii,  also  shewing  on  its  border  the  openings  of  the 
Meibomian  glands;  4,  5,  the  lachrymal  gland ;  6,  its  ducts; 
7,  the  plica  semilunaris;  8,  the  cariincula  lachrymalis;  9, 
the  puncta  lachrymalia,  opening  into  the  lachrymal  canals ; 
10,  11,  the  superior  and  inferior  lachrymal  canals;  1^,  the 
lachrymal  sac ;  13,  the  nasal  duct,  terminating  at  11  in  the 
lower  meatus  of  the  nose. 

]iarticles  directed  against  the  eye,  and  assist  in 
shailing  that  organ  from  an  excess  of  light. 

The  lachrymal  apparatus  consists  of  the  lach- 
rymal gland,  by  which  the  tears  are  secreted ;  two 
canals,  into  which  the  tears  are  received  near  the 
inner  angle  of  the  eye  ;  the  sac,  into  which  these 
canals  open  ;  and  the  duct,  through  which  the  tears 
pass  from  the  sac  into  the  nose.  The  gland  is  an 
oblonij  body,  about  the  size  of  a  smaU  almond, 
lying  in  a  depression  in  the  upper  and  outer  part  of 
the  orbit.  The  fluid  secreted  by  it  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  eye  by  seven  or  eight  ducts,  which 
open  on  the  conjunctiva  at  its  upper  and  outer  part. 
The  constant  motion  of  the  upper  eyelid  induces  a 
continuous  gentle  current  of  tears  over  the  surface, 
■which  carry  away  any  foreign  particle  that  may 
have  been  deposited  on  it.  The  fluid  then  passes 
through  two  small  openings,  termed  the  jmncla 
larrymalia  (see  9  in  fig.  6),  into  the  canals ;  whence 
its  further  course  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  nose 
is  sufficiently  ob\-iou3  from  the  figure.  The  conjunc- 
tiva (or  mucous  coat)  which  covers  the  front  of 
the  eyeball,  and  lines  the  inner  surface  of  the  lids, 
j)asses  down  and  lines  the  canals,  sac,  and  duct ; 
and  is  thus  seen  to  be  continuous  with  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane,  of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as 
an  ofl'shoot  or  digital  prolongation.  See  Mucous 
Mkmbuane. 

We  shall  conclude  this  sketch  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  human  eye  by  a  brief  notice  of  the  nerves  going 
to  this  organ  and  its  appendages. 

Into  each  orbit  there  enters  a  nerve  of  special 
sense — viz.,  the  optic  nerve,  a  nerve  of  ordinary 
sensation — viz.,  the  ophthalmic  branch  of  the  fifth 
nerve,  and  certain  nerves  of  motion  going  to  the 
muscular  tissues,  and  regtUating  the  movements  of 
the  various  parts — viz.,  the  third,  foiu-th,  and  sixth 
nerves. 

As  the  optic  tracts  from  which  the  optic  nerves 
originate  are  noticed  in  the  article  Brain,  we 
shall  merely  trace  these  ncrv'es  from  their  cliiasma 
or  commissure  forwards.  This  commissure  results 
from  the  jimctiou  of  the  ojitic  tracts  of  the  two 
sides ;  and  it  is  especially  remarkable  for  the  fact, 
that  it  presents  a  partial  decussation  of  the  nervous 
fibres  ;  the  ccntr.al  fibres  of  each  tract  passing  into 
the  nerve  of  the  opposite  side,  and  crossing  the 
corresponding  fibres  of  the  other  tract,  while  the 
outermost  fibres,  which  are  much  fewer  in  number 


than  the  central  ones,  pass  to  the  optic  nerve  of  the 
same  side.  In  front  of  the  commissure,  the  nerves 
enter  the  optic  foramen  at  the  apex  of  the  orbit, 
receive  a  sheath  or  investment  from  the  dura  mater, 
acquire  increased  firmness,  and  finally  terminate 
in  the  retina. 

The  peculiar  mode  of  termination  of  the  optic 
nerves  in  the  cuplike  expansion  of  the  retina,  the 
impairment  or  loss  of  vision  which  follows  any 
morbid  affection  of  them,  and  the  constant  relation 
iu  size  which  is  observed  in  comparative  anatomy 
between  them  and  the  organs  of  vision,  afford  suffi- 
cient e\-idence  that  they  are  the  proper  conductors 
of  visual  impressions  to  the  sensoriimi. 

The  first  or  ophthalmic  division  of  the  fifth  or 
trifacial  ner\-e  sends  branches  to  the  skin  of  the 
eyeUds  and  to  the  conjimctiva.  That  it  is  the 
nerve  of  ordinary  sensation  of  the  ej'e,  is  sufficiently 
obvious  from  the  following  facts:  (1)  That  in 
disease  of  this  nerve  iu  the  human  subject,  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  the  eyeball  totally  insensible 
to  every  kind  of  stimulus  (p;u-ticles  of  dust,  ptmgent 
vapours,  &c.) ;  and  (2)  that  if  the  nerve  be  divided 
in  the  cranium  (iji  one  of  the  lower  animals),  similar 
insensibihty  results. 

The  most  important  of  the  nerves  of  motion  of  the 
eye  is  the  third  nerve,  or  motor  oculi.  It  suppUes 
with  motor  power  the  elevator  of  the  upper  eye- 
lid, and  all  the  muscles  of  the  globe,  except  the 
superior  obhque  and  the  external  straight  muscle, 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  it  sends  filaments  to  the 
ii'is  and  other  muscular  fibres  within  the  eye.  The 
application  of  an  ii-ritant  (in  vivisection  experi- 
ments) to  its  trunk  induces  convulsive  contraction 
of  the  principal  muscles  of  the  baU  and  of  the  iiis  ; 
while  division  of  the  trunk  occasions  an  external 
squint,  with  palsy  of  the  upper  eyeUd  and  fixed 
dilatation  of  the  pujiil.  The  squint  is  caused  by 
the  action  of  the  external  straight  and  the  superior 
oblique  muscles,  while  the  other  muscles  are  para- 
lysed by  the  operation.  The  normal  motor  action 
of  the  nerve  upon  the  iris,  iu  causing  contraction  of 
the  pupU,  is  excited  thi-ough  the  optic  nerve,  and 
affords  a  good  illustration  of  Reflex  Action  (q. v.); 
the  stimulus  of  light  falling  upon  the  retina,  and, 
through  it,  exciting  that  portion  of  the  brain  from 
which  the  third  ner\-e  takes  its  origin.  This  nerve 
clearl}'  exerts  a  double  influence  in  relation  to  vision : 
(1)  it  mainly  controls  the  movements  of  the  eyeball 
and  the  upper  eyelid;  and  (2)  from  its  connection 
with  the  muscular  structures  in  the  interior,  it 
regidates  the  amount  of  light  that  can  enter  the 
pupd,  and  probably  takes  part  in  the  adjusting 
power  of  the  eye  to  various  distances. 

The  fourth  nerve  supplies  the  superior  oblique 
muscle  with  motor  power,  while  the  sixth  nerve 
similarly  regulates  the  movements  of  the  external 
straight  muscle — the  only  two  muscles  in  the  orbit 
whicn  ai-e  not  supjilied  by  the  third  ])air. 

Although  not  entitled  to  be  termed  a  nen-e  of  the 
orbit,  the  facial  nerve  deserves  mention  as  sending  a 
motor  branch  to  the  orbicularis  muscle,  by  which  the 
eye  is  closed. 

2.  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Oie  Eye.— In  mammals, 
the  structure  of  the  eye  is  usually  almost  identical 
with  that  of  man.  The  organ  is,  however,  occa- 
sionally modified,  so  as  to  meet  the  peculiar  wants 
of  the  amm-ah  Thus,  in  the  Cetacea,  and  in  the 
amphibious  Caruivora  that  catch  their  prey  in  the 
water,  the  shape  of  the  lens  is  nearly  spherical,  as  in 
fishes,  and  there  is  a  similar  thickening  of  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  sclerotic,  so  as  to  thrust  the  retina 
sufficiently  forward  to  receive  the  image  formed  by 
such  a  lens.  (See  the  subsequent  remarks  on  the  eyes 
of  fishes.)  Again,  instead  of  the  dark-brown  or  black 
pigment  which  lines  the  himiau  choroid,  a  pigment 

2U3 


EYE. 


of  a  brilliant  metallic  lusti-e  is  secreted  iu  many  of 
the  carnivora,  forming  the  so-called  lapetum  luc'ulum 
at  the  bottom  of  the  eyeball,  which  seems  (according 
to  Bo^vman)  to  act  as  a  concave  reflector,  causing  the 
rays  of  light  to  traverse  the  retina  a  second  time, 
and  thus  probably  increasing  the  vLsuiU  power, 
particularly  where  only  a  feeble  light  is  admitted  to 
the  eye.  The  juipU,  moreover,  varies  in  f(»rm,  being 
ti-ansversely  oblong  in  the  Kuminants  and  many 
other  Herbivora,  and  vertically  oblong  in  the  smaller 
genera  of  Cats.  These  shapes  arc  apparently  con- 
nected with  the  positions  in  which  the  dill'ereut 
animals  look  for  their  food.  Lastly,  in  some  mam- 
mals (for  example,  the  horse),  there  is  a  rudimentary 
third  eyelid,  corresponding  to  the membraiia  nictitaiis 
of  birds. 

In  birds,  the  eye,  though  presenting  the  same 
general  composition  as  in  m.in,  ditiers  from  the  mam- 
malian eye  m  several  important  points.  From  our 
Icuowledge  of  the  habits  of  biids  (us]iecially  birds  of 
prey),  we  should  naturally  expect  that  from  their 
rapid  movements  they  should  be  able  readily  to  alter 
the  focus  between  the  extremes  of  long  and  short 
sighted  vision,  and  the  moditications  we  shall  now 
proceed  to  notice  clearly  have  this  object  in  view. 

In  reference    to   the   Cg\ire,   which    represents   a 


^ 


Fig.  7.— Eye  of  Bird. 

section  of  the  eye  of  the  owl,  we  see  (1)  that  the  shape 
of  the  organ  is  not  spherical,  as  in  mammals,  nor 
llattened  anteriorly,  as  in  lishes  and  aquatic  reptiles, 
but  that  the  cornea  is  very  ])romiueut,  and  the 
autero-posterior  diameter  lengthened ;  the  conse- 
quence of  this  arrangement  being  to  allow  room  for 
a  large  quantity  of  aqueous  humour,  and  to  increase 
the  distance  between  the  lens  and  the  posterior  part 
of  the  retina,  and  thus  to  produce  a  greater  conver- 
gence of  the  rays  of  light,  by  which  the  animal  is 
enabled  to  discern  near  objects,  and  to  see  with  a 
faint  light.  In  order  to  retain  this  elongated  form, 
we  find  a  series  of  bony  plates,  forming  a  broad  zone, 
extending  backwards  from  the  margin  of  the  cornea, 
and  lying  embedded  in  the  sclerotic.  The  edges  of 
the  pieces  forming  this  bony  zone  overlap  each  other, 
and  are  slightly  movable,  and  hence,  when  they  arc 
compressed  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  ball, 
there  is  protrusion  of  the  aqueous  himiour  and  of 
the  cornea,  adapting  the  eye  for  near  vision ;  while 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  induces  a  corresponding 
recession  of  the  humoiu'  and  flattening  of  the  cornea, 
and  fits  the  eye  for  distant  vision.  The  focal  distance 
is  further  regulated  by  a  highly  vascular  organ  called 
the  mnrsupium,  or  pectcn,  which  is  lodged  in  the 
posterior  part  of  the  vitreous  himiour  (fig.  7,  a).  It 
13  attached  to  the  optic  neire  at  the  point  where  it 
expands  into  the  retina,  and  seems  to  be  endowed  with 
a  power  of  dilatation  and  contraction ;  as  it  enlarges, 
from  distension  of  its  blood-vessels,  it  causes  the 
vitreous  humour  to  push  the  lens  fonvards,  while,  as 
it  collajises,  the  lens  falls  backwards  again  towards 
the  retuia. 
306 


In  adilition  to  an  ujiper  and  lower  eyeUd,  birds 
have  an  elastic  fold  of  conjunctiva,  which,  in  a  state 
of  repose,  Ues  in  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but  is 
movable  by  two  distinct  muscles,  which  draw  it  over 
the  cornea.  It  is  ternied  the  viembrana  nictitans;  it 
is  to  a  certain  degree  transparent,  for  (according  to 
CuWcr)  birds  sometimes  look  through  it,  as,  for 
exanii)Ie,  the  eagle  when  looking  at  the  sun.  The 
l.tchrjnual  gland  is  situated  as  in  mammals,  but 
there  is  here  a  second  gland,  the  glandula  Harden, 
which  yields  a  lubricating  secretion. 

There  aie  no  very  special  peculiarities  in  the  eyes 
of  reptiles,  and  we  therefore  proceed  to  notice  the 
most  remarkable  points  presented  by  the  eye  in 
fshcs.     From  the  compaiatively  great  density  of 


'  Fig.  S.— Eye  of  Fish. 

the  medium  (water)  through  which  the  rays  of  light 
pass  before  they  impinge  upon  the  transparent  struc- 
ture of  the  eye  of  the  fish,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
organ  must  act  as  a  very  powerful  refractive  app.a- 
ratus.  The  main  peculiarity  in  the  eye  of  the  fish  is 
the  size,  extreme  density,  and  spherical  shape  of  the 
lens,  which  give  it  such  an  extraordinary  magnifying 
power  that  it  has  been  employed  as  a  simple  micro- 
scope. See  Brewster's  Treatise  on  t/ie  Microscope, 
p.  31.  But  its  focus  being  shortened  in  proportion 
as  its  power  is  increased,  it  is  necess.iry  that  the 
retina  should  be  brought  near  its  posterior  surface. 
For  this  purpose,  the  eyeball  is  flattened  by  diminish- 
ing the  quantity  of  vitreous  humour,  which,  being  of 
nearly  the  same  density  as  the  external  water,  exerts 
no  perceptible  power  in  bringing  the  rays  of  light 
towards  a  focus ;  and  this  flattened  form  is  main- 
tained by  the  existence  of  two  cartilaginous  plates 
in  the  tissue  of  the  sclerotic,  which  in  some  of  the 
l.irger  fishes  is  actually  converted  into  a  bony  cup. 
The  aqueous  humour  having  here  no  refractive  jiower, 
is  barely  sufficient  to  allow  the  free  suspension  of  the 
iris.  The  pupil  is  very  large,  so  as  to  take  in  as 
much  light  as  possible,  but  is  generally  motionless. 
Their  eyes  being  constantly  washed  by  the  water  in 
which  they  live,  no  lachrymal  apparatus  is  necessary, 
nor  does  any  exist ;  and  the  same  rem.ork  applies  to 
the  cetacea  amongst  the  mammals.  We  thus  see  that 
throughout  the  sub-kingdom  of  the  vertArata  the 
eye  is  constructed  according  to  one  general  scheme, 
with  modifications  to  suit  the  mode  of  life  of  indi- 
\'idual  classes. 

In  all  the  above  cases,  the  structure  of  the  eye  is 
essentially  the  same  ;  that  is  to  say,  we  have  certain 
dio])tric  media  for  collecting  the  divergent  rays  to 
their  proper  focus  on  the  retina,  and  we  have  the 
means  of  adjusting  the  eye  for  different  distances. 
But  if  we  examine  the  eyes  of  insects,  we  find  that 
they  are  constructed  on  difTerent  ])rinciples. 

In  these  animals,  we  have  simple  .and  compound  eyes 
usually  associated  in  the  same  indiWduah  The  simjilo 
eyes  resemble  in  many  resjiects  the  correspondmg 


EYE. 


organs  in  higher  animals,  but  the  compound  eyes 
are  extremely  elaborate  and  complex  in  their 
structure.  They  are  two  in  number,  appearing  as 
hemispherical  masses  on  the  sides  of  the  hea<L  When 
examined  with  the  microscope,  their  surface  is  seen 
to  be  divided  into  an  enormous  number  of  hexagonal 
facets,  which  are  in  fact  corner.  In  the  ant,  there 
are  only  50  of  these  facets  in  e;ich  eye ;  in  the  common 
house-fly,  4000;  in  butterflies,  upwards  of  17,000; 
and  in  some  of  the  beetles  more  than  25,000.  Each 
cornea  is  found  to  belong  to  a  distinct  eye,  prorided 
vrith  a  nervous  apparatus,  and  exhibiting  a  lens,  iris, 
and  pupil.  Strauss  Diuxjkheim,  who  has  carefully 
studied  these  structures  in  the  cockchafer,  suggests 
that,  the  eyes  of  insects  being  fixed,  nature  has  made 
up  for  their  want  of  mobiUty  by  their  number,  and 
by  tui-ning  them  in  all  directions ;  so  that  it  might 
be  said  that  these  little  animals  have  a  distinct  eye 
for  every  object. 

Compound  eyes  of  similar  structure  occur  in  many 
of  the  crustaceans. 

3.  Having  now  described  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  eye  in  man  and  certain  of  the  lower  animals, 
we  are  able  to  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the 
uses  of  the  various  parts  of  this  organ.  Assuming  a 
general  tuowledge  of  the  ordinary  laws  of  geometrical 
optics  (see  Dioptrics,  Lens,  &c.),  we  wdl  trace  the 
course  of  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  any 
luminous  body  through  the  different  media  on  which 
they  impinge.  If  a  luminous  object,  as,  fur  example, 
a  lighted  candle,  be  placed  at  about  the  ordinary 
distance  of  distinct  vision  {about  ten  inches)  from 
the  front  of  the  eye,  some  rays  fall  on  the  sclerotic, 
and  being  reflected,  t,ake  no  part  in  ™ion ;  the 
more  central  ones  fall  upon  the  cornea,  and  of  these 
some  also  are  reflected,  giving  to  the  surface  of  the 
eye  its  beautifid  glistening  appearance ;  while  others 
pass  through  it,  are  converged  by  it,  and  enter  the 
aqueous  humour,  which  probably  exerts  no  percep- 
tible effect  on  their  direction.  Those  which  fall  on 
and  pass  through  the  outer  or  circumferential  part 
of  the  cornea  are  stopped  by  the  iris,  and  are  either 
reflected  or  absorbed  by  it ;  whUe  those  wliich  faU 
upon  its  more  central  part  pass  through  the  pupd, 
and  are  concerned  in  vision.  In  consequence  of  its 
refractive  power,  the  rays  passing  through  a  com- 
paratively large  surface  of  the  cornea  are  converged 
so  as  to  pass  through  the  relatively  small  pupil  and 
impinge  upon  the  lens,  which,  by  the  convexity  of 
its  surface,  and  by  its  greater  density  towards  the 
centre,  very  much  increases  the  convergence  of  the 
rays  passing  through  it.  They  then  traverse  the 
vitreous  humour,  whose  princip;d  use  appears  to  be 
to  aBbrd  support  to  the  exi)anded  retina,  and  are 
brought  to  a  focus  upon  that  tonic,  forming  there  an 
exact  but  inverted  image  of  the  object. 

This  inversion  of  the  image  may  be  cosily  exhi- 
bited in  the  eye  of  a  white  rabbit  or  other  albino 
animal,  after  removmg  the  mxiscles,  &c.,  from  the 
back  part  of  the  globe.  The  flame  of  a  candle  held 
before  the  cornea  may  be  seen  inverted  at  the 
back  of  the  eye,  increasing  in  size  as  the  candle  is 
brought  near,  diminishing  as  it  retires,  and  always 
moving  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  flame. 

The  adaptation  of  the  eye  to  distinct  vision  at 
every  distance  beyond  that  of  a  few  inches,  is 
extremely  remarkable,  and  numerous  attempts  have 
been  made  to  explain  the  mechanism  by  which  its 
focal  length  admits  of  alteration  luider  the  influ- 
ence of  the  wiU.  One  view  that  h.is  met  with 
much  support  is,  that  the  focal  length  is  modified 
by  a  slight  movement  of  the  lens.  In  the  eye 
of  the  bird  there  is  a  structure  termed  the  ciliary 
mwicle,  which  obviously  approximates  the  lens  to  the 
cornea  when  a  short  field  of  view  is  required,  and 
although  the  corresponding  structure  is  only  shghtly 


developed  in  man  and  mammals,  it  is  probably 
sufficiently  strong  to  produce  the  sUght  action 
required ;  while  for  the  vision  of  distant  objects 
the  lens  is  carried  back  towards  the  retina  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  connecting  tissues.  It  woidd  appear, 
however,  from  the  recent  researches  of  Cramer, 
Helmholtz,  Allen  Thomson,  and  others,  that  the 
accommodation  is  effected  rather  by  a  change  in  the 
form  than  in  the  position  of  the  lens.  It  has  been 
experimentally  proved,  that  when  the  eye  is  turned 
from  a  distant  to  a  near  object,  the  autero-posterior 
diameter  of  the  lens  becomes  elongated,  and  the 
anterior  surface  becomes  more  convex,  while  the 
opposite  changes  take  place  in  turning  the  eye  from 
a  near  to  a  distant  object.  According  to  Helmholtz, 
the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
lens  diminishes  on  turning  the  eye  to  a  near  object 
from  ten  to  six  millimetres  (from  about  0'4  to  0'24  of 
an  inch),  while  the  most  projecting  point  of  the  same 
surface  is  brought  forward  about  0'2  of  an  inch. 

\Miichever  view  be  adopted,  the  cUiary  muscle 
takes  an  active  part  in  the  process.  According  to 
the  observations  of  Hueck,  the  focal  distance  may 
be  changed  about  three  times  in  a  second.  The 
accommodation  from  a  near  to  a  distant  object  is 
effected  much  more  rapidly  than  the  converse 
process. 

There  are  two  well-known  forms  of  defective 
\nsion  in  which  this  power  of  adaptation  is  very 
much  limited — viz.,  short-sightedness  or  myopia, 
and  long-sightedness  or  presbyopia.  The  limitation, 
however,  is  not  due  to  a  defect  in  the  muscular 
apparatus  to  which  we  have  referred,  but  to  au 
abnormaHty  either  in  the  curves  or  in  the  density 
of  the  refracting  media.  In  short-sightedness  from 
too  great  a  refractive  power  from  either  cause,  the 
rays  from  objects  at  the  ordinary  range  of  distinct 
vision  are  brought  too  soon  to  a  focus,  so  as  to  cross 
one  another,  and  begin  to  diverge  before  they  fall 
on  the  retina ;  the  eye  in  this  case  being  able  to 
bring  to  the  proper  focus  on  the  retina  only  those 
rays  which  were  previously  diverging  at  a  large 
angle  from  a  very  near  object.  The  correction  for 
this  deficiency  is  accomplished  by  inteiposing 
between  the  ej'e  and  indlstinctly-seeu  objects  a 
concave  lens,  with  a  curvature  just  sufficient  to 
throw  the  images  of  external  objects  at  the  ordinary 
distance  of  distinct  vision  backwards  upon  the 
retina.  In  lowj-sighledness,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  an  abnormal  diminution  of  the  refractive  power 
from  too  flat  a  cornea,  a  deficient  aqueous  hiunoiu*, 
or  a  flattening  of  the  lens,  so  that  the  focus  is 
behind  the  retina.  This  defect  is  corrected  by 
convex  lenses,  which  increase  the  convergence  of  the 
rays  of  li^ht.  Long-sightedness,  as  its  name  pres- 
byopia indicates,  usually  comes  on  at  a  comparatively 
advanced  period  of  life,  while  short-sightedness  is 
most  commonly  met  with  in  young  persons ;  but 
both  these  rules  present  occasional  exceptions ;  and 
the  common  belief  that  the  latter  affection  natur- 
ally disappears  after  the  middle  period  of  life,  is 
altogether  erroneous. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  most  essential  use  of 
the  iris — viz.,  its  power,  under  the  influence  of 
light  upon  the  retina,  of  modifying  the  size  of  the 
pupil,  so  as  to  regulate  the  amount  of  light  entering 
the  eye.  But  this  is  not  its  only  use ;  one  of  its 
offices  being  to  jjrevent  the  passage  of  rays  through 
the  circumferential  part  of  the  lens,  and  thus  to 
obviate  the  indistinctness  of  vision  which  would 
arise  from  spherical  aberration  (the  unequal  refrac- 
tion of  the  rays  passing  through  the  centre  and 
near  the  margin  of  the  lens),  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  diaphragms  employed  by  the  optician.  But 
there  are  additionally  two  other  means  by  wliich 
this  s^iherical  aberration  is  prevented,  which  so  well 

207 


EYE. 


illustrate  the  woudious  mecliauisin  of  the  eye,  that 
we  canuot  omit  to  notice  theui.  They  are  tlescrihed 
by  Professor  Whartou  Jones  as  follows  : 

(1.)  'The  surfaces  of  the  dioptric  parts  of  the  eye  are 
not  spherical,  but  those  of  the  cornea  and  posterior 
surface  of  the  lens  are  hyjierbolical,  ami  that  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  lens  clHptical— conligura- 
tions  found  by  theory  fitted  to  prevent  sj^herical 
aberration.  This  discovery  was  made  at  a  time 
when  it  was  not  known  but  that  the  dioptric  parts 
of  the  eye  had  s|iheric.al  surfaces. 

(2.)  'The  density  of  the  lens  diminishing  [as  we 
have  already  shewn]  from  tlie  centre  to  its  periphci-y, 
the  circumferential  rays  are  less  refracted  tliau 
they  would  have  been  by  a  homogeneous  lens  with 
similar  surfaces.  This  elegantly  simple  contrivance 
has  been  hitherto  inimitable  by  human  art.' — The 
Aclonian  Prize  Treatise,  18.51,  p.  SO. 

C/iromalic  aberration,  which  is  caused  by  the 
unequal  rcfrangibility  of  the  primitive  rays  of  wliich 
white  light  is  composed,  wlien  transmitted  through 
an  ordinary  lens,  whereby  coloured  fringes  are 
])roduced,  is  pradkalhj  corrected  in  the  eye,  although 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  c«<i>-e/// absent.  The  jiro- 
vision,  however,  on  which  the  achromatism  depends 
has  not  been  determined  with  certainty,  probably 
because  we  do  not  yet  know  the  relative  refi-active 
and  dispersive  powers  of  the  cornea  and  himiours 
of  the  eye.  Sir  Da'V'id  Brewster  denies  that  the 
chromatic  aberration  receives  any  correction  in  the 
eye,  and  maintains  that  it  is  imperce])tiljle  only  in 
consequence  of  its  being  extremely  slight. 

4.  We  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  eye  as 
an  optical  instrimient  which  projects  pictures  of 
external  objects  on  the  retina  ;  we  now  come  to 
the  action  of  the  nervous  tunic,  the  retina,  and  its 
adaptation  to  the  jihysical  construction  of  the  eye. 

When  the  retina  or  the  o])tic  nerve  is  stimulated, 
we  have  the  sensation  of  light,  whatever  may  be  the 
nature  of  the  stimidus  employed — as,  for  example,  if 
it  be  a  blow  on  the  eye  in  the  dark,  or  irritation  of 
the  optic  nerve  from  some  morbid  condition.  The 
sensation  of  light,  then,  consists  in  a  recognition  by 
the  mind  of  a  curtain  condition  of  these  nervous 
structures,  and  this  condition  may  be  induced  by  the 
ap2>lic.ation  of  any  stimulus  ;  the  ordinary  stimulus 
obviously  being  the  rays  of  light  which  fall  u]>on  the 
retina.  There  must,  however,  be  a  certain  amomit 
of  liglit  for  the  pm-pose  of  vision.  Every  one  knows 
that  it  is  difficult  and  painful  to  discern  objects  in  a 
veiy  faint  light;  and,  on  tlie  other  hand,  that  on 
suddenly  entering  a  brUliautly  lighted  room  from 
the  dark,  everything  appears  confused  for  one  or  two 
seconds.  There  is,  however,  a  gradual  adajitation 
of  the  retina  to  different  amounts  of  light.  Persons 
long  immured  in  dark  dungeons  acquire  the  power 
of  distinctly  seeing  surrounding  objects  ;  while  tliose 
who  suddenly  encounter  a  strong  light,  are  imalilc 
to  see  distinctly  until  tlie  shock  which  the  retina 
has  experienced  has  sulisided,  and  the  ii-is  has  duly 
contracted.  In  protecting  the  retina  from  the  sudden 
eiTects  of  too  sti'ong  a  light,  the  iris  is  assisted  by 
the  eyelids,  the  orliicular  muscle,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  by  the  eyebrows.  Moreover,  the  dark 
j)igment  of  the  choroid  coat  acts  as  a  permanent 
guard  to  the  retina,  and  where  it  is  deficient,  as  in 
albinos,  an  ordinary  light  becomes  painful,  and  the 
protective  appendages,  csjiccially  the  cycUds,  are  in 
constant  use. 

The  persistence,  during  a  certain  time,  of  impres- 
sions made  on  the  retina,  facilitates  the  exercise  of 
sight.  A  momentary  im]>ression  of  moderate  inten- 
nity  continues  for  a  fraction  of  a  second ;  but  if  the 
impression  be  made  for  a  consider.able  time,  it  euilures 
for  a  longer  ])eriod  after  the  removal  of  the  object. 
Thus,  a  burning  stick,  moved  r.iTndly  in  a  circle 
208 


before  the  eyes,  gives  the  appearance  of  a  continuous 
ribbon  of  light,  because  the  imjiression  made  by  it 
at  any  one  ))oint  of  its  course  remains  on  the  retina 
until  it  again  reaches  that  jioint.  It  ia  owing  to 
this  ])roperty  that  the  rajiid  and  inv(duntary  act  of 
winking  doi*s  nut  interfere  with  the  continuous 
vision  of  surrounding  objects  ;  and,  to  give  another 
illustration  of  its  use,  if  we  did  not  possess  it,  the 
act  of  reading  would  be  a  far  more  diificidt  jierform- 
ance  than  it  now  is,  for  we  shoidd  recjuire  to  keep 
the  eye  fixed  on  each  W'ord  for  a  Irjnger  period, 
otherwise  the  mind  would  fail  fully  to  jierceive  it. 
Again,  in  consequence  of  the  retention  of  sensations 
by  the  retina,  the  image  of  an  object  may  continue 
to  be  seen,  especially  in  certain  morbid  states  of  the 
system,  and  in  twilight,  for  some  seconds  after  the 
eyes  have  been  turned  aw-ay  from  it,  and  this  physi- 
ological phenomenon  has  probably  given  origin  to 
many  stories  of  ghosts  and  visions.  Thus,  if  a  person 
has  unconsciously  fixed  his  eyes,  especially  in  the 
dusk,  on  a  dark  post  or  stump  of  a  tree,  he  may,  on 
looking  towards  the  gr.ay  sky,  see  ])rojected  there  a 
gigantic  white  image  of  the  object,  which  may 
readily  be  mistaken  for  a  supernatural  appearance. 
These  ocular  spectra  are  always  of  the  comple- 
mentary colour  to  that  of  the  object.  Thus,  the 
spectrum  left  by  a  red  spot  is  green ;  by  a  violet 
sjjot,  jX'Uow;  and  by  a  blue  spot,  orange.  However 
great  may  be  the  velocity  of  a  luminous  body,  it  can 
always  be  seen ;  but  if  an  opaque  body  move  with 
such  rapidity  as  to  pass  tlirough  a  space  equ.al  to 
its  own  diameter  in  a  less  time  than  that  of  the 
duration  of  the  retinal  impression,  it  is  altogether 
in'visible  ;  and  hence  it  is,  for  example,  that  we  cannot 
see  bullets,  c&c,  in  the  rapid  p.art  of  their  flight. 

A  small  portion  of  the  retina,  corresponding  to 
the  entrance  of  the  optic  nei-\-e,  is  incapable  of 
exciting  the  sensation  of  vision  when  it  receives 
the  image  of  an  object.  According  to  Volkmann, 
this  small  in™ible  spot  exactly  corresponds  in  size 
with  the  artery  lying  in  the  centre  of  tlie  optic 
nerve.  If  the  '  bhnd  sjiot'  liad  been  situated  in  the 
axis  of  the  eye,  a  blank  space  woidd  always  have 
existed  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  \-ision,  since  the 
axes  of  the  eyes  in  vision  coiTcsponiL  But  as  it  is, 
the  blind  spots  do  not  correspond  when  the  eyes  are 
directed  to  the  same  object ;  and  hence  the  Idank 
which  one  eye  would  jiresent  is  filled  up  by  the 
other  eye.  Mariotte,  early  in  the  last  century,  first 
described  the  existence  of  these  blind  spots.  Any 
one  may  satisfy  himself  of  their  existence  bj'  the 
following  simple  experiment.  Let  two  small  black 
circles  be  made  upon  a  piece  of  paper,  about  four  or 
five  inches  apart,  then  let  the  left  eye  be  closed,  and 
the  right  eye  be  strongly  fixed  iqion  the  left-hand 
circle.  If  the  paper  be  then  moved  Jiackwanls  and 
forwards,  a  point  will  be  found  at  which  the  right- 
hand  circle  is  no  longer  visible,  although  it  reappears 
when  the  paper  is  either  brought  nearer  or  removed 
fiu-ther.  Although  no  other  part  of  the  retina 
jjossesses  the  complete  insensibility  presented  Ijy  the 
blind  spot,  it  is  )>robable  that  its  anterior  portions 
have  very  little  to  do  with  vision.  When  using  only 
one  eye,  we  direct  it  towards  the  object  we  wish  to 
ins|)ect,  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  the  image  to  the 
back  of  the  globe  ;  and  when  the  eye  is  thus  fixed, 
objects  near  the  boundary  of  the  field  of  vision  are 
less  distinctly  seen  than  those  at  its  centre. 

The  extent  of  the  field  of  vision  for  a  single  eye, 
the  head  being  fixed,  has  been  calcidated  by  Dr 
Young.  He  found  that  the  eyeball  was  capable  of 
a  movement  of  53  degrees  in  every  direction,  so  that 
a  single  eye  may  have  perfect  vision  of  any  point 
W"ithiu  a  range  of  110  degrees. 

We  have  not  yet  referred  to  the  longitudinal 
range,  or  greatest  distance  of  human  vision ;  indeed. 


EYE— EYEBRIGHT. 


this  raniii;  varies  so  extremely  that  it  is  difficult  to 
assign  au  arbitrary  limit  to  it.  Jlany  imciviliscd 
races,  as  the  Korth  American  Indians,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  vast  Asiatic  stepj)eg,  possess 
jiowers  of  sight  which  woidd  appear  almost  incredible 
if  they  had  not  been  thorouglily  and  frequently 
corroborated.  Our  information  is  more  definite 
regarding  the  limits  of  human  vision  in  regard  to 
the  minuteness  of  the  olijects  of  which  it  can  take 
cognizance.  Ehrenberg  has  carefiUly  studied  this 
subject,  and  has  arrived  at  the  following  residts. 
The  side  of  the  smallest  square  magnitude  usually 
visible  to  the  naketl  eye— either  of  white  particles 
on  a  black  ground  or  conversely — is  about  xi^^th  of 
au  inch ;  and  with  the  greatest  condensation  of  light 
and  efifort  on  the  part  of  the  observer,  squares  with 
a  side  as  small  as  zhs^^  of  an  inch  may  be  recog- 
nised, but  without  sharpness  or  certainty.  Bodies 
smaller  than  these,  when  observed  singly,  cannot  be 
discerned  by  the  naked  eye,  but  may  oe  seen  when 
placed  in  a  row.  Much  smaller  particles  may,  how- 
ever, be  distinctly  seen,  if  they  powerfully  retlect 
light ;  thus,  gold-dust,  which  in  none  of  its  diameters 
exceeded  ,  i'.;  ^th  of  an  inch,  is  easily  discernible  in 
common  daylight.  The  delicacy  of  vision  is  far 
greater  for  lines  than  for  minute  areas,  since  opaque 
threads  of  TcTnTth  of  an  inch  may  be  discerned  when 
held  towards  the  light. 

Various  topics  which  the  reader  might  perhaps 
have  expected  to  find  noticed,  such,  for  instance,  as 
'  single  %nsiim  with  two  eyes,'  '  the  aiipreciation  of 
solid  forms  by  the  sense  of  vision,'  '  correct  vision 
with  an  inverted  image  on  the  retina,'  &c.,  which 
belong  fully  as  much  to  metaphysics  as  to  physiology, 
will  be  discussed  in  a  future  article  on  Vision.  In 
the  meantime,  we  may  refer  those  who  desire 
information  on  these  points  to  Professor  Bain's 
treatise  on  The  Senses  ami  the  Intellect. 

EYE,  DisE.\SE.s  OF  THE.  The  diseases  of  the  eye 
enumerated  by  the  surgeon  are  very  numerous, 
partly  from  the  variety  of  the  tissues  and  parts  of 
which  it  is  fonned,  partly  because  the  exposed 
situation  and  transparency  of  the  eye  enable 
the  diseases  to  be  seen.  Nearly  all  its  jiarts  are 
liable  to  inflammation  and  its  consequences.  See 
Ol'iiTUAL-iiIA.  The  eyelids  are  liable  to  various 
diseases,  as  growths  of  several  kinds,  most  of  which 
the  siu'geon  may  remove ;  inflammation,  as  blear- 
eye  (o])hthalmia  tarsi) ;  to  be  misdirected  inwards 
or  outwards.  Entropion  and  Ectropion  (q.  v.) ;  and 
the  upper  eyelid  may  fall  do\vn  (ptosis)  from  palsy 
of  the  common  motor  oculi  nerve.  The  eyelashes 
may  grow  in  upon  the  eye  (trichiasis),  and  produce 
serious  results.  When  plucked  out,  they  grow 
again ;  and  if  they  still  gi'ow  in  upon  the  eye  after 
tiiis  palliative  treatment  has  been  tried  several 
times,  the  surgeon  has  to  cut  down  on  their  roots, 
and  destroy  them.  The  duct  which  conveys  away 
the  tears  "to  the  nose  is  liable  to  inflammation  and 
obstruction,  causing  watery  eye.  See  LACHRiJiAL 
Or.GANS,  Diseases  of.  The  cornea  is  liable  to 
opacity  in  various  degrees.  The  mere  nebula  or 
cloudy  condition,  either  limited  or  general,  may  ])as3 
off,  and  leave  the  coniea  again  clear;  but  the  white 
mark,  which  is  the  cicatri.x  or  scar  of  an  ulcer,  is 
jiermanent,  although  it  may  become  smaller  by  the 
disappearance  of  the  siUTOunding  haze.  The  pupil 
may  be  closed  as  the  result  of  iritis,  or  of  operations 
for  cataract,  and  an  artificial  pupil  may  be  made  by 
either  of  the  three  methods — incision,  excision,  or 
separation — but  the  operation  is  seldom  attended 
with  success.  For  ojiacities  of  the  crystalline  lens, 
see  Cataract.  For  an  account  of  diseases  of  the 
nervous  parts  of  the  eye,  see  Amaurosis.  Various 
affections  of  vision  may  arise  from  peculiar  or  altered 
conditions  of  the  refracting  humours  of  the  eye — as 

170 


near-sightedness  (myopia),  far-sightedness  (presby- 
opia), the  appearance  of  bodies  (musca;)  floating  in 
or  before  the  eye ;  and  there  may  be  double  vision 
(diplopia),  with  two  eyes  or  with  one.  See  Visiox, 
Abnormal  Conditions  of.  The  parts  between  the 
eye  and  its  bony  orbit  may  be  the  seat  of  inflamma- 
tion, abscess,  or  tvimour,  making  the  eye  protrude. 
The  movements  of  the  cyelialls  may  bo  affected 
from  palsy  of  the  motor  nerves,  or  from  contraction 
of  the  lateral  recti  muscles,  causing  inward  or  out- 
ward squinting.  See  Str-IBLsmus.  The  eye  may 
lose  all  feeling,  from  i)alsy  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 
The  whole  of  the  same  side  of  the  face,  nostril,  and 
mouth,  vfiW  be  in  the  same  condition,  and  the  eye 
becomes  inflamed  and  disorganised.  Substances 
thrown  against  the  eye  may  injure  it.  Quicklime 
is  rapidly  destructive  to  the  eye,  slaked  lime  and 
mortar  less  so.  When  one  of  these,  or  any  other 
caustic,  has  got  into  the  eye,  sweet  oil  is  the  best 
thing  to  introduce,  until  the  sm'gcon  arrives  to 
remove  them.  If  it  is  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid) 
that  has  been  the  cause  of  the  injury,  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  soda  may  be  used  in  the  first  place  to  neutralise 
the  acid.  In  gimpowder  explosions  near  the  eye, 
besides  the  burn,  the  particles  are  driven  into  the 
surface  of  it,  and  will  cause  permanent  black 
stains  over  the  white  of  the  ej-e,  imless  they  are 
carefully  removed  at  the  time.  When  chips  of  glass, 
stone,  &c.,  are  driven  into  the  interior  of  the  eye, 
there  is  little  hojie  of  it  being  saved  from  destruc- 
tive inflammation.  When  only  pai-tially  simk  into 
the  cornea,  as  is  often  the  case  with  sparks  of  hot 
iron,  or  '  fires,'  as  they  are  called,  the  rubbing  of 
the  projecting  part  on  the  eyelid  causes  great  pain, 
and  the  surgeon  has  not  much  difficulty  in  remo^-ing 
them.  jNIost  commonly  these,  or  other  '  foreign 
bodies,'  as  particles  of  dust,  sand,  seeds,  flies,  &c., 
merely  get  into  the  space  between  the  eyeball  and 
the  lids,  almost  always  concealed  under  the  upper, 
as  it  is  the  larger,  and  sweeps  the  eye.  They  cause 
great  pain,  from  the  finiiness  and  sensitiveness  of 
the  papillary  surface  of  the  lid,  soon  excite  inflam- 
mation, and  their  presence,  as  the  cause,  is  apt  to 
be  overlooked.  The  lid  must  be  turned  round  to 
find  them.  To  do  this,  pull  the  front  or  edge  of  the 
hd  forwards  by  the  eyelashes,  held  with  the  finger 
and  thumb,  and  at  the  same  time  press  down  the 
back  part  of  the  lid  with  a  smaU  pencil  or  key. 
The  lid  will  readily  tiu-n  round,  when  the  body  may 
be  seen  about  its  middle,  and  may  be  removed  with 
the  corner  of  a  handkerchief.  Another  plan,  which 
the  jierson  himself  may  try,  is  to  pull  forward  the 
upper  lid  by  the  eyelashes,  and  push  the  lashes  of 
the  lower  lid  up  behind  it,  when  the  foreign  body 
may  be  brushed  out.  After  the  bodies  arc  removed, 
a  feeling  as  if  they  were  still  there  may  remain  for 
some  time. 

EYE,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  north  of  Suffolk,  near  the  source  of  the 
Waveney,  20  miles  north  of  Ipswich.  Its  streets 
are  rather  narrow  and  irregidar.  Pop.  (1S61)  2430. 
It  sends  one  member  to  ])arliament,  the  parliamen- 
tary borough  including  eleven  parishes.  Ej-e,  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  means  island  ;  the  river  surroimiling 
the  town.  There  was  formerly  a  castle  and  priory 
here.     (1S71— pop.  of  m.  b.,  2;>9G ;  of  p.  b.,  G721.) 

EYEBRIGHT  (Euphrasia],  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scrophnlariacece,  haWng  a  tubiUar 
calyx,  the  upper  lip  of  the  coroUa  divided,  the 
lower  of  three  nearly  equal  lolies,  the  cells  of  the 
anthers  spurred  at  the  base,  a  two-celled  capsule 
and  striated  seeds.  Some  of  the  species  are  root- 
parasite.'!.  The  only  British  species  is  the  Common 
E.  (E.  officinalis),  a  little  plant  of  at  most  six  or 
cii^ht  inches  in  height,  with  ovate  seiTated  leaves, 

°  2ua 


EYE-WECE-EZKA. 


Common  Eycbright 
(Eui>/ira»ia  officinalis). 


and  white  or  reddish  flowers  streaked  vnth  purple, 
appearing  singly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  It  is 
very  abundant  in  many  pastures,  and  even  on  hij^h 
mount-iins.  where — as  in 
very  northern  regions — it 
is  often  to  be  seen  of  only 
an  inch  in  height,  gemming 
the  ground  abundantly 
with  its  bright  little 
flowers.  It  is  a  very 
widely  distributed  plant, 
a  native  of  most  parts  of 
Eiu'ope,  the  north  of  Asia, 
the  Himalaya,  &c.  It  w.as 
once  in  great  repute  as  a 
cure  for  ophthalmia,  and 
is  still  much  used  in  rustic 
practice  for  diseases  of  the 
eye.  A  spot  on  the  corolla, 
something  like  a  pupil, 
gave  it  much  of  its  reputa- 
tion, whilst  the  fanciful 
doctrine  of  signatures  pre- 
v.iiled  in  medicine ;  but  it 
h;v3  been  found  really  effica- 
cious in  catarrhal  inflam- 
mations of  the  eye.  and  in 
other  catarrhal  .alfections. 
"It  is  a  weak  astringent.  It  is  the  Euphrasy  of 
Milton,  with  which  "he  represents  the  archangel 
Michael  as  purging  tlie  visual  nerve  of  Adam. 

EYE-PIECE,  the  name  given  to  the  microscope 
by  means  of  which  the  image  of  the  object  formed 
in  the  focus  of  a  telescope  is  observed.  See 
Telescope. 

EYLATJ,  usually  called  Prussian  Eylau,  a  town 
in  the  government  of  Konigsberg,  and  22  miles 
south  of  the  towni  of  that  name,  contains  about  3000 
inhabitants,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  battle  fought 
there  between  Napoleon  and  the  allies — Russians 
and  Prussians — imder  Benuigsen,  February  8,  1807- 
The  French  force  amounted  to  .about  80,000,  and 
the  allies  numbered  58,000,  but  were  superior  in 
artillery.  The  battle  was  ofwued  soon  after  day- 
bght  by  a  furious  attack  made  by  the  French  left 
on  the  Ilussian  right  and  centre,  which,  however, 

{)rovcd  utterly  unsuccessful,  the  attacking  corps 
jeing  all  but  completely  destroyed.  The  mm-derous 
struggle  was  repe.atedly  renewed,  and  the  promise 
of  victory  alternated  now  to  the  one  side  and  now 
to  the  other.  Night  closed  upon  the  whole  allied 
line  pressing  onward  and  tlriving  the  French  before 
them.  Nevertheless,  the  victory  is  generally  claimed 
by  the  latter,  chiefly  because  the  allied  forces, 
imable  to  recruit  their  strength,  were  ordered  to 
retreat  from  the  field  on  the  night  of  the  battle,  and 
to  retire  upon  Konigsberg.  The  loss  of  the  allies  is 
estimated  at  about  20,000,  while  that  of  the  French 
must  have  been  consider.ably  greater. 

EZE'KIEL  (meaning  '  God  w^iU  strengthen,'  or 
'  strength  of  God '),  one  of  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
was  the  son  of  the  priest  Buzi,  and  along  with 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  was  carried  captive, 
when  still  a  yoimg  man,  to  Mesopotamia,  by  order 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  598  B.  c.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Jewish  community  which  settled  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Cheb.ar,  and  fii-st  appeared 
as  a  prophet  about  the  year  504  B.  c.  His  pro- 
l)hetic  career  extended  over  a  jieriod  of  22  years. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  recorded. — The  book 
of  Ezekiel  consists  of  three  great  parts :  the  fuvi 
(chapters  1 — 24),  composed  before  the  final  conquest 


of  Jenisalem  by  Ncbucha<lnezzar,  .announces  the 
complete  overthrow  of  the  king<lom  of  Judah,  on 
accoimt  of  its  increasing  imfafthfulncss  to  Go<l ; 
the  seroiid  (chapters  25 — 32)  threatens  the  surround- 
ing nations,  which  were  exulting  m.aliciously  over 
the  ruin  of  Juilah,  \vith  <bvine  ]>unisliment ;  and 
the  third  (chapters  33 — 48)  i)roiihesics  the  future 
deliverance  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and  the  rebuild- 
ing of  Jerusalem.  This  last  portion  is  generally 
believed  to  contain  several  Messi.anic  j)redictions, 
three  of  which  are  considered  specially  remarkable 
(chaps.  36—37,  38-39,  and  40— 4S) ;  and  it  is 
beyond  all  question  that  only  under  a  world-\vide 
dispensation  like  the  Christian,  can  the  glorious 
^•isions  of  the  prophet  receive  a  historical  rcausation. 
The  book  is  full  of  magnificent  but  artificial  sjnn- 
bolism,  and  of  allegories  difiicult  to  understand  ; 
whence  Jerome  caUs  it  'a  l.abjTinth  of  the  mysteries 
of  God ; '  but  here  and  there,  as  in  chapters  1st 
and  2d,  it  contains  visions  that  indicate  the  posses- 
sion on  the  part  of  E.  of  a  most  vivid  .and  sublime 
imagination.  E.'s  .aiithorship  of  the  book  has  been 
questioned.  The  Talmud  says,  it  w.as  written  by 
the  Great  SjTiagogue,  of  which  E.  was  not  a 
member ;  and  Ewald,  believing  that  trtices  of  later 
el.aboration  are  quite  ob\nous,  suggests  that  the 
collection  and  combination  of  the  various  prophecies 
into  a  book  may  not  have  been  the  prophet's 
own  doing.  The  opinion  of  most  critics,  nowevcr, 
is,  that  a  prophet  who  was  so  much  of  a  litenary 
artist  as  E.,  was  more  likely  to  have  completed  the 
book  himself  than  to  have  left  such  a  work  to 
others.  The  text  is  fai-  fi-om  being  in  .a  perfect 
condition.  It  is  p.artly  corrupted  by  glosses,  has 
p.artly  been  retouched  by  later  hands,  and  m.ay 
often  be  amended  by  the  Septuagiut  version.  The 
best  commentaries  on  the  book  of  Ezekiel  are 
those  of  Hiivernick  (Erlangen,  1843)  and  Hitzig 
(Leip.  1847). 

E'ZllA.  a  Jewish  Lawgiver  of  the  5th  c.  before 
Christ.  He  was  descended  from  a  distinguished 
priestly  familj-,  and  was  resident  in  B.abylon  in 
the  reign  of  Artaxcrxes  Lougimanus.  With  this 
monarch  he  seems  to  have  been  in  considerable 
favour,  and  in  the  year  478  n.  c.  obtained  pennissiou 
to  return  to  Jerusalem  with  a  band  of  his  country- 
men amounting  to  1754.  His  services  to  the  new 
colony  in  regard  to  their  civil  .and  religious  con- 
dition were  very  important.  He  endeavoured  to 
re-impose  more  strictly  the  law  of  Hoses,  forbidding 
marriages  with  heathen  women,  and  disannidling 
such  ties  where  they  h.ad  been  formed.  He  also 
introduced  into  Jewish  liter.ature  the  square  Ch,aldee 
ch.aractor.  instead  of  the  old  Hebrew  or  Samaritan 
one,  which  had  been  custom.ary  till  then  ;  but  the 
tnadition  that  he  re-wrote  from  memory  the  sacred 
books  burned  .at  the  destruction  of  the  temple, 
deserves  no  regard ;  and  it  is  likewise  a  mere 
tradition  that  .as  president  of  the  so-called  Great 
Synagogue  (an  assemblage  of  Jewish  scholars)  he 
arranged  and  completed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. See  BlTSLii — The  book  called  by  liis  name, 
along  with  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  formed,  among 
the  Jews,  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezr.a.  It 
records  events  which  extended  over  a  i>eriod  of 
nearly  80  years,  and  di\-ides  itself  natiu-aUy  into 
two  parts.  The  first  six  chapters  embrace  a  period 
of  21  years,  and  relate  the  history  of  the  first 
return  from  the  B.abylonish  captivity ;  the  rest  of 
the  book  chronicles  the  second  return  under  Ezra 
the  priest,  in  the  reign  of  Artaxcrxes  Longimanus. 
The  book  is  partly  Avritten  in  Chaldee,  and  is 
probably  the  work  of  various  authors. 


'4 


F 


THE  sixth  letter  in  the  Latin  and 
English  alphabets,  corresjionding  to 
the  Vau  of  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
iJirjamma  {(j.  v.)  of  the  old  Greek 
alphabet.  See  Alphabet.  F  and  v 
are  called  labiodentals,  from  the 
organs  employed  in  producing  them ; 
they  belong  to  the  cLass  of  conson- 
ants called  Aspirates  (q.  v.),  and  bear  the 
same  relation  to  each  other  that  exists  between  the 
unaspirated  labials  />  and  h.  In  Latin,  /  had  a  pecu- 
liar sound,  different  from  that  of  Greek  f,  as  we 
learn  from  CHcero  and  other  Latin  writers.  ^Vhat 
the  sound  was,  we  do  not  exactly  know,  but  it 
approached  to  the  nature  of  a  strongly  breathed  A, 
as  is  inflicated  by  the  fact,  that  in  the  Sabine  dialect 
it  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  h,  as  &a,h.Jircus  = 
Lat.  hircus  (a  he-goat) ;  and  the  Latins  made  use 
both  of  faha,  and  haha  for  '  a  bean.'  Tlus  affinity 
is  also  she^vn  in  modem  Spanish,  where  h  takes  the 
place  of  the  Latin/;  as  Lat. /emino,  Sp.  hemhra;  fi 
becomes,  in  Spanish,  W,  as  Lat.  ^a?;H«<i  =  Sp.  llama. 
F,  in  EngUsh  and  other  Teutonic  ton^^^es,  corres- 
pomls  to  ;>  in  Greek  and  Latin ;  as  Lat.  and  Gr. 
pater  =  Eng.  father;  Gr.  pod-,  Lat.  ped-  =  Eug. 
foot;  Lat.  pise-  =  Eng.  fish ;  Gr.  pur  =  Eng.  fire; 
Lat.  vulp-  =  Eng.  %oolf.  In  some  words,  v  takes  the 
place  in  German  of  /  in  English ;  as  Ger.  vater  = 
Eag.  father;  Ger.  vier  =  Eng.  four.  In  the  Aber- 
deenshire dialect,  /  takes  the  place  of  jc/i,  as  fat 
for  xohat ;  fup  for  whip.  This  seems  to  be  a  relic  of 
the  Teutonic  pronunciation  of  !y  (=  r),  still  to  be 
observed  in  the  Cockney  pronunciation  of  till  for 
will,  ren  for  v:hen;  but  why  the  sharpening  of  the 
labial  into /should  be  confined  to  one  circumscribed 
district  of  Scotland,  and  to  the  case  of  w  followed 
by  /(,  it  is  hard  to  say. 

F  in  Lat.  and  Greek  becomes  6  in  Eng. ;  as  Gr. 
and  Lat.  fer-  =  Eng.  bear;  Lat.  f rater  =  Eng. 
brother.     See  Letter  B. 

Jlore  remarkable  are  the  interchanges  between  / 
and  the  scries  d,  th,  t.  Lat.  foris  =  Gr.  Viura,  Eng. 
door;  Lat. /era  =  Gr.  ther,  Eng.  deer;  Eng.  red. 
Sans,  ruthira,  Gr.  eruthros,  Lat.  rutilus,  riifus,  ruber. 
\a  Russian,  Feodor,  Afanasja  =  Theodor,  Atltanasia. 
In  words  originally  common  to  both  Gieek  and 
Latin,  the  Greek  (p  is  re|>rcsent<-d  in  Lat.  by  //  as 
Gr.  fr,fin  =  Lat. /ama.  But  in  spelling  Greek  words 
■with  Latin  letters,  the  Romans,  after  the  time  of 
Cicero,  were  careful  to  represent  f,  not  by  /,  which 
had  a  somewhat  different  power,  but  by  ph.  This 
mode  of  spelhng  words  derived  from  Greek  is  still 
adhered  to  in  English,  German,  and  French,  although 
the  distinction  in  sound  has  long  been  lost  sight 
of.  The  distinction  began  to  disajjpear  in  the  Latin 
itself  in  the  time  of  the  later  Koman  emperors, 
when  inscriptions  shew  such  spelling  as  Afrodite 
ioT  Aphrodite ;  and  this  simplification  is  followed 
in  modem  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  Fh 
is  sometimes  erroneously  used  in  words  having 
no  connection  with  Greek  ;  as  Adolphus,  for  the 
Teutonic  Adolf  or  Adalolf — i.  e.,  '  noble  wolf.' 


F,  in  Music,  is  the  fourth  note  of  the  natural 
diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  stands  in  proportion  to  C 
as  4  to  3,  and  is  a  perfect  fourth  above  C  as  fimda- 
mental  note.  F  major,  as  a  key,  has  one  flat  at  its 
signature — viz.,  B  flat.  F  minor  has  foiu:  Hats  the 
same  as  A  flat  major,  of  which  it  is  the  relative 
minor. 

FAAM,  or  FAHAM  (Anrjracum  fragrans),  an 
orchid,  native  of  India  and  the  Mascarene  Isles, 
much  priiied  in  the  East  for  the  dehghtful  fragrance 
of  its  leaves,  which  is  owing  to  the  presence  of 
Coumarin  (q.  v.),  and  resembles  that  of  the  Tonka 
Bean  and  of  Vernal  Grass.  In  the  Isle  of  Bourbon, 
an  infusion  of  F.  leaves  is  in  great  repute  as  a  cure 
for  piUmonary  consumption  and  as  a  stomachic. 
In  France,  it  has  been  successfidly  employed,  imder 
the  name  of  Isle  of  Bourbon  Tea,  as  an  expectorant, 
anti-spasmodic  and  stomachic. 

FABACE^E.    See  LEGtrsnxosi 

FA'BER  is  the  name  of  two  artists,  father  and 
son.  John  F.,  the  elder,  was  born  in  Holland, 
where  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
mezzotinto-engra\'ing.  Subsequentlj',  he  came  to 
England,  and  lUed  at  Bristol,  May  1721.  His  works 
do  not  exhibit  much  talent. — The  younger  F.,  also 
called  John,  obtained,  however,  a  high  reputation 
as  an  engi-aver  in  mczzotinto.  His  principal  works 
are  the  portraits  of  the  Ivit-Cat  Club,  and  the 
Beauties  of  Hampton  Court,  several  of  which  are 
executed  with  great  freedom,  vigour,  and  beauty. 
F.  lived  in  London,  where  he  is  beUeved  to  have 
died  in  1756. 

FABER,  Rev.  George  Stanley,  a  learned  and 
volimainous  divine  of  the  Anglican  Church,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Faber,  and  «  as  bom 
25th  October  1773.  He  entered  University  College, 
Oxford,  in  1789,  where  he  achieved  a  brilliant 
academical  reputation.  Before  his  21st  year,  he 
was  elected  FcUow  and  Tiitor  of  Lincoln  College. 
In  1796,  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A. ;  was  Bampton 
Lecturer  for  ISOl,  in  which  capacity  he  delivered 
the  lectures  subsequently  published  under  the  title 
of  Horce  Mosaicce;  and  in  1805  became  \-icar 
of  Stockton-on-Tees,  in  the  coimty  of  Durham. 
After  several  changes,  he  received  fiom  Bishop 
Van  MUdert,  in  1832,  the  mastership  of  Sherbum 
Hospital,  near  the  city  of  Durham,  where  he  died 
27th  January  1854.  F.  Avrote  U|)ward3  of  forty 
works,  several  of  wliich,  esi)ecially  those  upon 
prophecy,  have  enjoyed  a  very  extensive  popiUarity. 
AU  his  writings  are  marked  by  '  sti-ong  ma.sculiue 
sense,  extensive  classical  erudition,  and  a  hearty 
love  of  hjq)othesis.'  The  princijial  are — The  Genius 
and  Object  of  the  Patriarchal,  the  LevUical,  and  the 
Christian  Dispensations  (1S23,  2  vols.);  The  Diffi- 
culties of  Infidelity  (1824);  The  Sacred  Calendar  of 
Prophecy  (1828,  3  vols.) ;  The  Primitive  Doctrine  of 
Election  (183G),  reckoned  by  some  critics  the  most 
valuable  of  all  F.'s  writings;  The  Primiliie  Doc- 
trine of  Justification  (1837);  and  Eight  Diesertationa 

2U 


FABIUS-FABLIAU. 


ti;)0)i  Me  Prophetical  Promues  of  a  Mighty  Deliverer 
(lS4o,  -2  vols.). 

FA'BIUS,  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  ami 
most  illustrious  patrician  families  of  Home.  Three 
brothers  of  this  uame  alternately  held  the  office  of 
consiU  for  seven  years  (-18.")— 179  B.C.).  lu  47'J,  the 
Fahii,  under  K.  Fabius  Vibulauus,  mi^-ated  to  the 
banks  of  the  Cremera,  a  small  stream  that  flows 
into  the  Tiber  a  few  miles  .ibove  Home.  Here, 
two  years  after,  they  were  decoyed  into  .in  ambus- 
cade by  the  Veieutes,  with  whom  they  had  been 
at  war,  and,  with  the  exception  of  one  member, 
who  h.ad  remained  at  Ivome,  and  through  whom 
the  race  was  perpetuated,  the  entire  geiis,  consistmg 
of  306  men,  Avcre  put  to  the  sword.  The  most 
eminent  of  the  Fabii  were  Quiutus  Fabius  Eullianus 

supposed  to  have  been  the  lirst  who  obtained  for 

himself   and  his  family  the   surname  of  Maximus 

and   his    descendant,    Quintus   Fabius   Maximus 

Vemicosus,  named   Cuuctator,   the  Delayer.      The 
former    was    the    most    eminent    of    the    Komau 

fenerals  in  the  second  Samnite  war,  and  was  twice 
ictator.  and  six  times  consul.  The  latter,  who,  in 
the  course  of  his  career,  was  five  times  consul,  and 
twice  censor,  was  elected  dictator  immediately  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Romans  at  TrasLmenus.  The 
peculiar  line  of  tactics  which  he  observed  in  the 
second  Piuiic  war  obtained  for  him  the  surname  by 
which  he  is  best  known  in  history.  Hanging  on 
the  heights  Uke  a  thundercloud,  to  which  Haniiibal 
himself  compared  liim,  and  avoiiUng  a  dii-cct 
engagement,  he  tautaUsed  the  enemy  -svith  his 
caution,  harassed  them  by  marches  and  counter- 
marches, and  cut  off  their  stragglers  and  foragers, 
while  at  the  same  time  his  delay  allowed  Rome  to 
assemble  her  forces  in  greater  strength.  This  policy 
— which  has  become  proverbial  as  'Fabian  pohcy' 
— althoxigh  the  wisest  in  the  circumstances,  was 
neither  appreciated  in  the  camp  nor  at  home ;  and 
shortly  after,  Marcus  Jlinucius  Paif  us,  Master  of  the 
Horse,  was  raised  to  an  equal  share  in  the  dictator- 
ship, a  position,  however,  which  he  occupied  but  for 
a  short  time.  Dui-ing  his  fifth  consulship,  F.abius 
recovered  Tareutum,  which  had  long  been  one  of 
Hannibal's  important  positions.  He  died  in  203 
B.  c.  C.  Fabius,  surnamed  Pictor,  executed  niion 
the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Salus— dedicated  by  the 
dictator  C.  Jiuiius  Brutus  Bubulus  iu  302 — the 
eai-liest  Roman  paintings  of  which  we  have  any 
record  ;  and  his  grandson,  Q.  Fabius  Pictor,  was 
the  first  wTiter  of  a  Roman  history  iu  prose. 

FA'BLE  (Lat.  fahula)  is  a  word  of  twofold 
signification.  Fu-st,  it  is  employed  by  some  writers 
in  a  general  sense  to  denote  any  fictitious  n.arra- 
tive,  as,  for  example,  the  incidents  iu  an  epic  or 
dramatic  poem.  At  one  time  .also,  when  the 
myths  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  thought  to 
be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  regarding  them 
as  conscious  inventions  of  the  ancient  poets  and 
priests,  it  was  customary  to  speak  of  them  as  fahles, 
but  this  application  of  "the  term  is  now  abandoned 
by  scholars.  8ce  Myths.  According  to  the  second 
and  more  frequent  signification  of  tlie  word,  it 
denotes  a  special  kind  of  literary  composition,  cither 
prose  or  verse,  in  which  a  story  of  some  kind  is 
made  the  vehicle  for  conveying  a  universal  tnith. 
It  differs  from  a  p.arable  in  "this  respect,  that  wliile 
the  latter  never  transcends  in  conception  the  bounds 
of  tlie  jjrobable  or  the  possible,  the  former  always 
and  of  necessity  does.  The  story  of  the  '(iocjd 
Samaritan '  imagined  by  the  Saviour,  is  a  parable  ; 
if  it  was  not  true,  it  might  have  been,  for  it  con- 
tains nothing  either  improbalile  or  impossible ;  but 
wlicn  .lotliam  went  up  to  the  top  of  Mount  Gerizini, 
and  spoke  to  the  men  of  Shechem  about  the  trees 
■iii 


coin"  forth  to  anoint  a  king  over  them,  he  made  use 
of  a  fable  proper.      The   peculiarity,  therefore,  of 
the  ntrucliire  of  the  fable  consists  iu  the  transference 
to   inanimate  objects,  or,  more  frequently,  to  the 
lower  auim.als,  of  the  qualities  of  rational  beings. 
By   the    very   novelty   and   utter  impos.sibihty   of 
the  representation,  the   interest   of   the  hearer  or 
reader  is  excited,  and  thus  its  SJ^nbolic  meaning 
and  moral  become  transjiarent  to  him,  at  least  if 
the  fable  is  well  contriveiL     The  ancient  fabulists 
were  simjile,  clear,  and  earnest  in  their  representa- 
tions.    They  seem  to  have  sprimg  up  in  the  Fast. 
Among  the  more  celebrated  are  Bidpai  (q.  v.),  or 
Pilpai.  and  the   .Vrabian  Lokman,  who  is  said  to 
have   hved  in   the  time  of   King  Daind.     Among 
the   Greeks,   the   greatest   name   is   that   of  JEsop 
(q.  v.),  whose   fables,  at   a   much  later  period— the 
precise  time  is  not  exactly  known — were  versified 
by  a  certain  Babrius  (q.  v.).     Among  the  Romans, 
pk-edrus  cleverly  imitated  JEsop,  but  with  consi- 
derable modifications,  thus  giving  a  certain  amount 
of  independent  value  to  his  work.     It  is  perhaps 
worth  mentioning  here,  that  the  well-known  fable 
of  the   Tou-n  Mouse  and  Country  J/oiwp,  told  by 
Horace,  is  of  purely  Roman  origin,  and  is  probably 
the   only  one   in   existence   of  which   that  can  be 
atfirmed.     Leading  the  classical  period,  and  before 
entering  on  the  dark  ages,  we  eneomiter  the  name 
of  Aphthonius,  who  flourished  in  the  early  p.art  of 
the  4th  century,  and  who  wTotc  indifferent  fables  in 
Greek  prose;  and  still  later,  the  name  of  Flavius 
Avianus,   who   composed   forty-two,   no   better,   in 
Latin  elegiacs.     During  the  dark  ages,  the  fable  in 
various  forms  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  in 
the  monasteries,  although  nothing  meritorious  has 
survived ;  but  in  the  niiddle  ages,  it  acquired  fresh 
life  and  vigour.     An  edition  of  the  fables  current  in 
Germany  in  the  time  of  the  Minnesingers  has  been 
published  by  Boibner.     The  oldest  known  (ierman 
fabulist  is  Strieker,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of 
the    13th   c. ;   but    the    famous   meilieval   fable   of 
Beinel-e  Fudis  {q.  v.),  or  the  History  of  Reynard  the 
Fox,  stretches  iu  some  of  its  uiunerous  prunitive 
forms   much   further   b.ack.     In   later  times,   most 
nations  have  cidtivated  the  fable  with  more  or  less 
success.    Vi'e  may  nieutiuu  among  the  English,  Gay; 
among  the   Germans,  Hagcdorn   and   Gellert,   and 
Lessing;  among  the  Italians,  Pignotti;  and   above 
aU,  among  the  French,  La  Font.aine,  whose  fables 
are   rem.arkable  for  their  arch   and  lively  humour, 
their  delicate  sarcasm,  their  sagacity,  and   felicity 
of   expression.     Now,  however,  the   fable  has  gone 
entuely  out  of  fashion,  and  there  seems  little  chance 
of  its  reappearance. 

FABLIAU,  phu-.  FABLIAUX  (from  the  Latiu 
fabulari,  faheltare,  to  si>eak  or  to  tell),  was  the 
"name  given  in  the  old  French  literature  to  a  cl.ass 
of  short  metrical  narratives,  intended  merely  for 
recitation,  and  which  had  for  their  subject-m.atter 
the  talk  and  news  of  the  day  in  the  midiUe  ages. 
The  narrator  of  such  news  was  called  a  j'abkur 
(plur.  fabtlirc),  in  opposition  to  the  cJianleor,  or 
singer  jiroper,  who  composed  poems  not  only  for 
recitation,  but  also  for  singing.  Besides  the 
fabliaux,  the  department  of  tlie  fableor  embraced 
the  J!umans  d'aventure  (in  short  unstrophied 
couplets),  usually  called  mnies,  whence  their 
author  or  reciter  also  bore  the  name  of  content; 
and  the  dits,  or  saj-higs,  the  special  cultivator  of 
which  was  tei-med  a  diseur.  As  the  fabliaux  were 
fundamentally  distinguished  from  the  more  genuine 
forms  of  poetry  by  the  everyday  character  of  their 
subject-matter,  so  the  mode  of  treatment  which 
their  authors  adojited  was  also  more  anecdotical, 
ei)igrammatic,  aud  witty— the  wit  Ijeing  richly 
spiced  with  scandal.  They  appear  to  have  maintained 


FABRETTI— FABRICIUS. 


;i  sort  of  ironical  and  parodistic  antagonism  to 
the  idealism  of  the  epics  of  chivali-y.  lu  these 
fabliaux,  the  essential  character  of  the  French 
people  manifested  itself,  and  that  opposition  of 
the  real  to  the  ideal,  of  the  understanding  to  tlie 
imagination,  which,  after  the  time  of  Francis  I., 
liegau  to  characterise  French  literature  generally. 
Thus  they  lashed  uot  only  the  priesthood  anil  the 
nobility  iu  their  actual  degeneracy,  but  from  the 
very  character  of  their  satire,  they  engendered  a 
contempt  for  the  relijrious-chivalrio  siiirit  itself, 
and  for  all  ecclesiastical  and  knightly  notions  and 
ceremonies.  The  oldest  fabliaux  are  not  of  French 
origin  ;  tliey  are  a  fruit  of  the  Crusades,  and  were 
lirought  to  France  from  the  East,  but  they  received 
a  national  colouring,  and  soon  took  root  in  the 
West.  From  them  sprung  the  drama  of  France. 
One  of  the  most  fecund  fablifere  was  Rutebeuf,  who 
flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  IX.  and  Philippe 
III.,  whose  works  were  published  by  Jubinal  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  IS.'tV).  He  was  a  true  Parisian,  and  the 
prototype  of  Villon,  La  Fontaine,  and  Voltau'e.  The 
liest  collections  of  fabliaux  and  contes  arc  those  of 
Barbazan  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1756),  of  Meon  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1823),  and  of  Jubinal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1839— 
1843). 

FABRE'TTI,  Raffaele,  a  distin^iished  anti- 
quary and  archaaologist,  was  born  at  Urbino  1618, 
and  was  attracted  at  an  early  period  to  anti- 
quarian studies  by  the  great  classical  remains  of 
Rome.  Under  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  he  became  papal 
treasurer,  and  subsequently  was  ai)pointed  chan- 
cellor to  the  papal  embassy  at  Madrid.  A  residence 
of  13  years  iu  Spain  enabled  him  to  explore  all  the 
antiquities  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  carry  his  studies 
to  a  point  which  rendered  indispensable  his  return 
to  Rome,  the  great  p.arent  fount  of  ancient  learning. 
He  was  there  made  judge  ;  and  under  Innocent  XII., 
became  keeper  of  the  papal  arcliives  of  the  castle  of 
St  Angelo,  a  post  which  afforded  the  mdest  scope 
to  his  favoui'ite  pm'suits.  About  this  time,  he  wrote 
his  two  important  works  :  Da  Aquis  et  Aquaduclibxis 
Vetcris  Romm  (4  vols.,  1680,  reprinted  with  notes 
and  additions  in  1788),  and  Sijntarjma  de  Colummt 
Trajani  (Y^orae,  1683).  His  treatise  entitled /««cri^> 
iionum  Antiquarum  ExpUcaiio  (1609)  thi'ows  invalu- 
able light  on  the  discoveries  made  by  himself  in  the 
catacombs  ;  ami  iiis  erutlite  investigations  concerning 
the  reliefs  known  as  the  Iliac  Tables,  and  the  gi'anfl 
subten'ane.an  canals  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  are 
equally  full  of  interest  to  science.  His  rare  collec- 
tion of  inscriptions,  &e.,  is  deposited  in  the  ducal 
palace  of  Urbino.     F.  died  in  1700. 

FABRIA'NO,  a  city  of  It.aly,  in  the  proWuce  of 
Macerata  (formerly  part  of  the  P.apal  States),  is 
situated  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Apeniune  range, 
28  rades  west  of  Macerata.  It  has  a  cathedral,  and 
several  convents,  but  is  chiefly  worthy  of  mention 
on  account  of  its  great  paper  manufactures,  which 
were  established  in  15G4.  F.  has  also  numerous 
tanneries  and  powder-mills,  and  manufactures  of 
hats  and  cloth.     Pop.  7030. 

FAERIANO,  Gentile  da,  an  Italian  p;unter, 
who  flourished  iu  the  early  part  of  the  15th  ceutm-y. 
He  was  born — it  is  not  exactly  known  when — at 
Fabriano,  aiul  received  his  first  instructions  from  his 
father,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior 
ciilture,  as  he  taught  his  son  the  elements  of  physics 
and  mathematics.  F.'s  first  teacher  in  art  was,  it 
is  supposed,  AUcgrette  de  Nuzio.  Subsequently, 
he  went  to  Florence,  and  studied  imder  Fiesole. 
Among  his  earliest  works  of  note  is  a  fresco  of  the 
Madonna  in  the  cathedral  of  Or\-ieto.  In  1423,  he 
painted  an '  Adoration  of  the  Kings'  for  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  iu  Florence.     This  picture  is  one 


of  the  'most  admirable  belonging  to  the  school  of 
Giotto.  To  the  same  jieriod  belongs  a  Matlonua  with 
Saints  (now  in  the  Berlin  Museum).  F.  afterwards 
went  to  Venice,  where  he  greatly  increased  his 
reputation  by  a  picture  of  the  bloody  engagement 
between  the  fleet  of  the  Republic  and  that  of  the 
Emperor  Barbarossa  oS'  the  heights  of  Pirano.  The 
Venetian  senate  was  so  delighted  with  the  piece, 
that  it  conferred  on  the  foi-tuuate  artist  the  dignity 
of  a  patriciau,  and  a  pension  of  a  dueat  }Kr  diem 
for  life.  Unhappily,  this  work  lias  perished.  Pope 
Martin  V.  now  called  F.  to  Rome,  and  employed 
him,  along  with  Vittore  Pisauello,  iu  adorning 
the  church  of  San  Giovanni  Laterano.  As  his 
shai'e  of  the  work,  he  painted  various  incidents  in 
the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  five  prophets,  and 
portraits  of  Pope  Martin  himself  and  ten  cardinals. 
lie  died,  while  engaged  on  this  building,  some  time 
after  1450.  F.'s  pictm-es  indicate  a  cheerfid  and 
joyous  nature.  He  had  quite  a  childlike  love  of 
splendour  and  rich  ornamentation,  but  is  never 
extravagant  or  excessive  iu  his  colouring. 

FABRI'CIUS,  or  FABRI'ZIO,  Gir.oL.uio,  com- 
monly named  fi-om  his  birthplace  F.  ab  Acqua- 
PENBENTE,  a  Celebrated  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  in  1537,  and  died  in  1619.  He  was  the  sou  of 
humble  parents,  who,  notwithstanding  their  jioverty, 
sent  him  to  the  ruiiversity  of  Padua,  where,  in 
addition  to  the  usual  instruction  in  the  classics,  he 
studied  an.atomy  and  surgery  imder  the  celebrated 
Fallopius  \rith  such  success,  that  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1562,  F.  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacant 
professorship.  He  continued  to  hold  this  office  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  during  which  period  his  high 
character  for  eloquence,  general  erudition,  and 
professional  knowledge,  attracted  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  civilised  world  to  the  university  of 
Padua.  Amongst  these  students  was  om-  country- 
man Harvey  (q.  v.),  who  attended  his  prelections  iu 
1598,  and  who,  as  wiU  be  seen  in  our  notice  of  his 
life,  derived  from  F.'s  observations  on  the  valves  of 
the  veins  the  fii-st  clue  to  his  great  discovery.  He 
was  a  most  laborious  investigator  of  nature ;  and 
we  find  him  comparing  and  contrasting  the  same 
organ  in  man,  and  in  several  of  the  lower  animals,  ou 
a  more  methodical  plan  than  had  been  attempted  by 
any  of  his  predecessors.  In  this  way  he  treated  of 
the  eye,  the  larynx,  the  ear,  the  intestinal  canal,  the 
development  of  the  f(etus,  and  many  other  subjects. 
The  improvements  which  his  knowledge  of  anatomy 
enabled  him  to  introduce  into  the  practice  of  sm'gery 
were  very  great ;  and  lus  Opera  Chirurrjica,  which 
embraced  every  complaint  curable  by  manual  opera- 
tion, was  so  higldy  valued,  that  it  passed  through 
seventeen  editions.  He  was  greatly  esteemed  by 
his  fellow-citizens,  for  we  find  that  the  Venetian 
republic  not  oidy  erected  for  hira  a  spacious 
anatomical  amphitheatre,  in  which  his  name  was 
inscribed,  but  at  the  same  time  conferred  upon 
him  an  annual  stipend  of  a  thousand  croM-ns,  and 
created  him  a  knight  of  the  order  of  St  Mark. 
A  few  years  before  his  death,  he  retired,  with  an 
ample  fortune,  from  all  profession.al  duties,  and  died 
(some  believe  he  was  poisoned  by  his  relatives)  at 
the  age  of  82,  in  his  villa  on  the  banks  of  the  Brenta, 
which  still  bears  the  name  of  the  Montaguuola 
d'Acquapendcnte.  Wc  have  not  space  for  a  list 
of  his  numerous  anatomical  and  surgical  works. 
Upwards  nf  a  century  after  his  death  (in  1723),  the 
celebrated  an.atomist  Albinus  collected  and  pub- 
lished a  complete  edition  of  aU  his  anatomical  and 
physiological  works. 

FABRICIUS,  Jon.  Chkistian,  a  Danish  ento- 
mologist, horn  at  Tondern,  January  7,  1745,  ami 
died  at  Kiel  iu  1807.     He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 


FABROXI— FACTOR. 


Edinbiiro;b,  Leyden,  and  Freyberg,  and  finally  went 
to  UpsoJa,  to  attend  the  classes  of  Linna?us.  A 
warm  friendship  was  cemented  between  master  and 
pupil,  and  throughout  his  life,  F.  was  zealously 
employed  in  developing  and  applying  the  ideas 
and  method  of  the  great  Swede.  In  1773,  F.  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Natural  History  at  the 
university  of  Kiel,  and  from  that  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  prosecution  of  his  entomological 
studies,  and  to  the  fuller  development  of  a  system 
of  classification  of  insects,  based  upon  the  struc- 
ture of  the  mouth.  Although  his  system  has  been 
foimd  inapplicable  to  many  families  of  insects,  the 
observations  on  which  it  was  based  have  tended 
materially  to  the  extension  of  this  branch  of  science. 
The  Sijstima  Entomolofjia:  (Copeuh.  1775),  in  which 
P.  expoimdcd  his  views,  constituted  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  entomology,  while  his  Genera  Insect- 
orum  (Kiel,  1776),  Manlisaa  Insectorum  (Copenh. 
17S7),  and  Entomologia  Systfmatka  (Copenh.  1792), 
opened  hitherto  unexplored  fields  of  inquiry  to  the 
entomologist.  F.  was  the  author  of  several  able 
treatises  on  the  policj',  statistics,  and  economy  of 
Denmark,  which  were  prepared  by  him  in  his  capa- 
city of  councillor  of  state  and  Professor  of  Rm-al 
and  Political  Economy  at  Kiel.  F.'s  death  was  said 
to  have  been  hastened  by  the  grief  which  he  expe- 
rienced in  consequence  of  the  political  misfortunes 
of  his  coimtry. 

FABEO'NI,  Angelo,  an  excellent  biographical 
■writer,  was  bom  at  Mai-radi,  in  Tuscany,  7  th 
February  1732,  educated  at  Faenza  and  Rome,  and 
in  1773,  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Leopold, 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  He  died  22d  September 
1803.  His  Vitce  Italomm  Doctrlna  Excellentium  qui 
Sacido  X  VII.  et  X  VIII.  Jloruerunl  (20  vols.,  Pisa, 
1778—1805),  is  one  of  the  best  Italian  works  of  its 
kind,  and  contains  quite  a  treasure  of  information ; 
while  his  Laurentii  Medicei  Vita  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1784), 
and  Vita  Magni  Cosmi  Medicei  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1788 — 
1789),  are  reckoned  model  biographies. 

FA^.4DE  (Fr.),  the  exterior  front  or  face  of  a 
building.  Tliis  term,  although  frequently  restricted 
to  classic  architecture,  may  be  applied  to  the  front 
elevation  of  a  building  in  any  style.  It  is,  however, 
genenally  used  with  reference  to  Ijuildings  of  some 
magnitude  and  pretensions  ;  thus,  we  speak  of  the 
front  of  a  house,  and  the  fatade  of  a  palace.  The 
back  elevation  of  an  important  building  is  called  the 
rear  fa9ade,  in  the  same  way  as  in  England  the 
back  of  a  house  is  called  the  '  back  front.'' 

An  edifice  m.ay  have  any  number  of  fajades  when 
it  shews  a  face  or  front  in  each  direction.  An  eleva- 
tion of  the  side  of  a  building  is  called  the  lateral 
fav.ode.  The  sides  of  a  court  or  cortile  are  also 
called  fa9ades,  and  are  distinguished  as  north,  south, 
&c.  fa9ades. 

FACCIOLA'TI,  Jacopo,  an  Italian  j)hilologist 
and  critic,  was  born  at  ToiTeglia,  not  far  from 
I'a<lua,  in  1682.  He  was  educated  in  the  reUgious 
seminary  at  Padua,  whero  he  became  successively 
Professor  of  Theology,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  and 
Superintendent-gener.al  of  the  classes,  or  rector  of  the 
institution.  F.  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  the 
revival  of  the  study  of  ancient  literature,  and  with 
this  object,  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  the  Lexicon 
Septem  Liiifjuarum,  called,  from  its  original  author, 
the  monk  Ambrosius  of  Calepio,  the  Calepine  Lexicon. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  work  by  his  pupil,  ForceUiiii, 
to  whom  is  mainly  owing  the  conception  of  a  totally 
new  Latin  dictionary ;  an  arduous  undertaking, 
which  F.  continued  tUl  his  death  in  1769,  and  which 
was  afterwards  completed  by  Forcellini  in  1771.  F. 
and  ForcelUni,  assisted  by  several  others,  likemse 
published   a   new  edition   of    Nizoli's    Thesaurus 


CIceronianus.  F.'s  Latin  epistles  and  orations  are 
remarkable  for  the  Ciceronian  elegance  of  tlieir 
style,  and  his  notices  on  several  philosophical 
writings  of  Cicero  for  their  solidity,  clearness,  and 
taste. 

FA'CET,  a  term  employed  to  denote  the  plane 
surfaces  of  crystals,  or  those  artificially  cut  upon 
precious  stones. 

FACIAL  AXGLE.    See  Angle. 

FACI'LITY,  in  the  legal  terminology  of  Scotland, 
is  a  condition  of  mental  weakness  short  of  that 
which  will  justify  Corjnition  (q.  v.),  but  which  calls 
for  the  protection  of  the  law,  which  is  cxereised  by 
means  of  a  process  called  Interdiction  (q.  v.).  The 
object  of  interdiction  is  to  prevent  the  facile  person 
from  gi'anting  deeds  to  liis  own  prejudice,  and  after 
it  has  taken  place,  he  cannot  contract  without 
the  consent  of  his  interdictors.  Even  without 
interdiction,  the  deeds  of  a  facile  person,  if  to  his 
prejudice,  may  be  set  aside,  if  there  be  proof  of 
his  having  been  circumvented  or  imposed  on ;  and 
Erskiue  says  that  '  where  lesion  in  the  deed,  and 
facility  in  the  granter  concur,  the  most  slender 
cu'ciunstances  of  fiaud  or  circumvention  are  suth- 
cient  to  set  a  deed  aside.' — B.  iv.  tit.  1,  s.  27.  See 
Fraud,  Lesion,  Insanity.  There  is  no  corre- 
sponding term  in  English  law,  and  the  remedy 
of  interdiction  is  imknowm,  but  weakness  of  mind 
approaching  to  idiocy  will  of  coiuse  form  an 
important  element  in  proving  fraud. 

FA'CTOR,  in  Mathematics.  The  niunbers  6  and 
4,  multiplied  together,  make  24 ;  hence  6  and  4 
are  called  factors  of  the  product  24.  Most  numbers 
are  products  of  two  or  more  factors ;  thus  10=2  x  5 ; 
12  =  3  X  4,  or  2  X  6,  or  2  X  2  X  3.  Every  product 
can  be  divided  by  any  of  its  factors  without 
remainder;  a  factor,  therefore,  is  often  called  a 
divisor,  or  measure.  2,  3,  4,  6,  8,  12,  are  aU  factors 
or  divisors  of  24.  Niunbei's  that  have  no  factor  or 
divisor  above  unity,  such  as  2,  3,  5,  7, 11,  . . .  23,  &c., 
are  called  Prime  Niimbers  (q.  v.). 

FACTOR,  in  its  most  general  sense,  is  the  term 
applied  to  any  one  who  is  employed  to  do  business 
for  another.  Factory  differs  from  the  mandate  of 
the  Roman  law  in  not  being  gratuitous.  In  mer- 
cantile transactions,  the  sale  of  goods  is  generally 
effected  either  by  factors  or  brokers,  both  of  whom 
are  agents,  remunerated  generally  by  a  commission. 
But  the  powers  of  factors  are  higher  than  those  of 
brokers,  inasmuch  as  the  former  are  intrusted  with 
the  possession  of  the  goods,  and  authorised  to  sell 
them  as  if  they  were  their  own  ;  whereas  the  latter 
h.ive  no  possession  or  ajiparent  ownershij),  but  act 
not  only  reiilly  but  ostensibly  as  agents.  Factora 
frequently  act  on  the  principle  of  the  del  credere 
commission  (q.  v.),  receiWng,  that  is  to  say,  a  higher 
remuneration  in  consideration  of  ujidertakiug  to 
guarantee  the  solvency  of  the  purchasers.  At  com- 
mon law,  a  sale  or  other  transaction  by  a  factor  was 
bad,  if  it  was  not  fully  wanvinted  by  the  nature  of 
the  .authority  which  he  derived  from  his  principal ; 
but  this  dochine  has  been  modified  by  several 
statutes  which  have  been  passed  for  the  protection 
of  strangers  dealing  with  persons  intrusted  with  the 
possession  of  goods,  the  extent  of  whose  authority 
they  had  no  means  of  ascertaining.  By  6  Geo.  IV. 
c.  94,  called  the  Factors'  ."Vet,  it  was  provided  th.at 
any  person  in  possession  of  a  bill  of  lading  is  to  be 
deemed  the  true  owner  of  the  goods  therein  described, 
so  far  as  to  give  validity  to  any  contract  or  agree- 
ment made  with  him  reg.arding  them.  7  and  8 
Geo.  rV.  enacts  that  if  any  factor  shall,  for  his  own 
benefit,  and  in  violation  of  good  faith,  deposit  or 
pledge  any  goods,  or  order  for  their  delivcrj',  he 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour.     In  1842,  the 


FACTOE^FACTOEIES. 


powers  of  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  94  were  defined  and 
extended  by  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  39,  whicli  enacted  that 
hoJuX  fide  advances  to  persons  mtnistod  with  the 
possession  of  goods  or  doounents  of  title,  though 
known  to  be  agents,  should  be  jjrotected  ;  bond  fide 
deposits  in  exchange  were  also  protected,  but  it  was 
provided  that  there  should  be  no  lien  beyond  the 
value  of  tlie  goods  given  up.  The  agent's  respon- 
sibility to  his  principal  is  not  diminished,  but  it  is 
jirovided  that  if  he  shall  make  consignments  contrary 
to  the  instructions  of  his  principal,  he  shall  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour. 

In  Scotland,  the  term  factor  is  applied  to  an  agent 
managing  heritable  estates  for  another,  letting  farms, 
drawing  rents,  and  the  like,  in  which  sense  it  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  the  English  steward,  a  term 
which,  in  Scotland,  again,  is  employed  to  denote  an 
agent  whose  powers  are  of  a  far  more  limited  kind 
than  those  of  a  factor,  and  who  generally  acts  under 
him.  If  a  factor  pay  money  into  a  bank  on  his  own 
account,  he  takes  the  risk  of  the  bank's  failure. 
A  factor  cannot  delegate  his  powers,  but  he  may 
employ  a  third  party  to  aid  him  in  their  discharge. 
He  binds  his  principal  to  any  engagement  which 
he  contracts  within  his  powers.  Factory  may  be 
recalled,  and  falls  by  the  death  of  the  principal ;  but 
actions  already  begim  may  go  on,  and  those  done  in 
ignorance  of  the  revocation  or  death  are  binding. 
Kevocation  is  imphed  in  the  appointment  of  a  new 
agent  to  do  the  same  act.  The  mandate  of  factory 
subsists  not'n'ithstanding  the  supervening  insanity 
of  the  mandant.  Factors  may  be  empowered  to 
grant  leases  and  pursue  remo-\Hngs,  but  for  these 
acts  special  powers  are  required.  Writers  to  the 
Signet  in  Edinburgh,  and  wi-iters  in  country  towns, 
frequently  act  as  factors  for  the  neighbouring 
landed  proprietors.  But  all  the  gi-eat  landowners 
had  formerly,  and  many  of  them  still  have,  factors 
resident  on  their  estates.     See  Agext. 

FA'CTORIES  are  establishments  where  large 
niimbers  of  persons  co-operate  in  the  production  of 
some  article  of  consumption,  the  principle  of  the 
division  of  labour  being  in  all  cases  applied,  and 
generally  machinery  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
The  factory-sj-stem  is  opposed  to  the  practice  of 
intliWdual  labour  at  the  homes  of  the  artisans. 
Every  production  of  art  requires  a  longer  or  shorter 
sci-ies  of  operations,  often  varying  considerably  in 
their  natiire.  The  hand-worker  performs  most  of 
these  himself ;  one  and  the  same  jierson  makes  the 
complete  article.  In  a  factor}',  every  article  goes 
through  as  many  hands  or  machines  as  there  are 
separate  processes  required ;  each  workman  performs 
only  one,  and  that  always  the  same,  process.  The 
chief  advantages  of  this  way  of  proceeding  are  the 
following :  Loss  of  time  is  avoided  in  passing  from 
one  operation  to  another,  a  loss  wliich  is  the  greater, 
the  greater  the  difference  in  the  uatiu-e  of  the  oper- 
ation. The  workman,  confined  to  one  thing,  m 
itself  usually  simple,  not  only  Icarus  it  sooner,  but 
attains  a  quickness  and  skill  that  one  distracted 
with  a  variety  of  operations  can  never  attain ; 
besides,  the  constant  occuiiation  with  one  kind  of 
work  leads  the  workman  to  light  upon  improve- 
ments in  tools  and  machines  so  as  to  increase  their 
rapitlity  of  execution  and  their  precision.  As  only 
few  of  the  processes  are  very  diffiodt,  it  is  possible 
to  turn  t»  some  account  less  skUfid  workmen,  and 
even  chililren,  and  to  assign  to  each  person  that 
kind  of  work  at  which  he  is  most  efl'ective.  ^Vll 
parts  of  the  work,  too,  that  are  quite  uniform  in  the 
case  of  each  article,  can  generally  bo  done  by 
machinery.  Lastly,  in  factories,  there  is  more 
opportimity  of  turning  to  advantage  all  kinds  of 
refuse. 

A  necessary  consequence  of  these  advantages  is, 


that  the  cost  of  production  is  less  on  the  factory- 
system  than  in  the  other  way ;  and  more  than 
I  that,  the  articles  themselves,  when  of  a  nature 
adapted  to  this  mode  of  production,  are  better,  and 
of  a  uniformity  otherwise  unattainable.  Wherever 
a  comparatively  homogeneous  material  has  to  be 
made  into  a  large  number  of  uniform  articles,  there 
the  factory-system  is  in  its  proper  place.  The  best 
examples  are  spirming,  wea\Tng,  cloth-printing,  pin 
and  needle  making,  &c.  But  eveu  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  complex  articles  composed  of  difl'ercnt  kinds 
of  material,  the  factory-system  may  be  pm'sued  ^vith 
.advantage  whenever  the  number  of  the  articles 
requu-ed  is  gi'cat,  and  the  separate  parts  of  such  a 
kind  that  a  great  mmiber  can  be  made  exactly 
ahke.  This  is  the  case  with  watches,  weapons, 
locks,  &c.  Such  a  manufactm'e  divides  itself  into 
'  as  many  separate  employments  as  there  are  parts  in 
each  article,  and  the  putting  together  and  adjust- 
'  ing  forms  another.  The  degree  of  comi>lexity  is 
I  carried  still  further  in  such  cases  as  the  manufactiu'e 
of  carriages,  where  operations  of  the  most  hetero- 
geneous kind  have  to  concur.  In  some  cases, 
factories  do  not  concern  themselves  with  the  put- 
:  ting  together  of  the  parts,  but  merely  produce  them 
for  hand-workers  and  special  professionists,  as  is  the 
case  in  watch-making.  In  making  clothes  and 
I  shoes  and  the  Uke,  where  each  individual  article 
requires  special  adaptation,  factory  work  is  not  so 
suitable.  How  far  it  is  advisable  in  any  case  to 
employ  machinery,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
work,  the  cost  of  the  machinery,  the  scale  on  which 
operations  are  to  be  canied  on,  &c.  Nowhere 
have  the  factory-system  and  the  employment  of 
machinery  been  carried  further  than  in  America. 
In  Cincinnati,  foy  instance,  one  estabhshmeut  in 
1854  produced  200  dozen  chairs  a  week,  another 
1000  bedsteads,  most  of  the  work  being  done  by 
machinery;  and  one  boot  and  shoe  factory  used 
GOO  bushels  of  shoe-pegs.  Even  the  killing  of  pigs 
is  done  on  this  grand  scale,  one  establishment  killing 
and  pickling  12,000  hogs  and  3000  o.xen  in  a  season. 
— Factories  cannot  succeed  in  great  numbers  except 
in  locaUties  where  the  population  is  sufficiently 
dense  to  afford  a  sufficient  choice  of  hands,  and 
also  to  cause  a  comparatively  low  rate  of  wages. 
Other  conditions  of  a  good  locality  for  factory 
production  are  abundance  of  water-power  or  the 
presence  of  coal  for  steam  power,  nearness  to  tho 
raw  material,  and  good  communications. 

While  tho  rise  and  extension  of  the  factorj'-system, 
when  looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  material 
economics,  must  be  pronounced  a  decided  improve- 
ment, it  cannot  be  denied  that,  socially  and  pohtic- 
ally  considered,  it  has  its  dark  side.  The  greater 
the  capital  and  the  training  necessary  for  canying 
on  an  extensive  estabhshmeut,  the  less  prospect  the 
workman  has  of  ever  raising  liimself  to  indepen- 
dence. The  chasm  that  separates  the  mill-owner 
from  his  dependants  is  infinitely  greater  than  that 
which  exists  between  a  master  artisan  and  his 
journeymen.  The  hope  of  gradual  advancement 
afforded  in  the  last  case  supplies  a  powerfid  moral 
sujiport  and  means  of  discipline ;  the  impassable 
gulf  in  the  other  acts  as  a  stimibling-block  and 
temptation.  Factorj'-workers  are  especially  dis- 
posed to  enter  heecUessly  into  marriage,  as  they 
require  to  make  no  provision  for  a  workshop,  tools, 
and  other  outlay  once  necessary  for  entering  life ; 
while  they  have  the  prospect  of  the  wife,  and  soon 
of  the  children,  as  contributors  to  the  support  of  the 
family.  It  may,  at  all  events,  be  affirmed,  that  the 
increase  and  accimiiUatiou  in  masses  of  the  cXa&s 
called  proktaires,  who  have  no  pro\Tsion  for  a  week 
but  the  Labour  of  that  week,  is  favoured  by  the 
factory-system.    Moreover,  the  employment  of  wile 


FACTORY  ACTS— FACULTIES. 


and  child  as  {ellow-laboiirers  endangers  tlie  old  and 
sacred  bonds  of  the  family ;  tlie  father  can  no 
longer  remain,  to  the  extent  that  he  oufjht  to  be, 
master  of  the  house  of  which  he  is  no  longer  the 
sole  support ;  and  how  much  the  family  ali'ection 
is  thus  weakened,  is  painfully  cxliiliited  in  the  ill- 
troatmeut  of  the  younger  children,  wlio  are  ])rema- 
turely  put  to  labour,  and  literally  robbed  of  their 
childhood.  At  the  same  time,  it  cannot  be  allowed 
that  these  evils  are  incapable  of  remedy ;  legislation 
and  public  opinion  can  here  do  much  ;  nor  must  it 
be  forgotten  that  the  c\'il  is  not  peculiar  to  factory 
labour,  but  is  a  feature  of  the  whole  of  our  more 
recent  industrial  economics.  The  greatest  abuses 
of  the  kind  in  England  are  found  in  the  mining  dis- 
tricts, and  among  the  small  domestic  manufacturers. 
The  very  cii-cimistauces  that  give  rise  to  the  evils 
afford  the  means  of  obviating  them,  if  they  were 
only  taken  advantage  of ;  for,  the  larger  the  estab- 
lishment, the  more  good  can  an  owner  do  for 
his  people,  and  the  less  it  is  possible  to  conceal 
.abuses.  It  cannot  with  justice  be  charged  ag.ainst 
factory  labour  that  in  itself  it  has  a  demoralising 
tendeucj'.  Whatever  brings  together  numbers  of 
human  beings  increases,  no  doubt,  opportunities  and 
temptations  to  aberrations,  especially  in  the  inter- 
com-se  of  the  sexes  ;  but  not  more  so  in  the  case  of 
a  factory  than  in  that  of  all  large  towns,  and  even 
less  so  than  in  some  other  cases  of  assemblage,  as 
ai'mies  and  garrisons. 

FACTORY  ACTS.  From  motives  of  humanity, 
several  st.atutes  have  been  passed  in  recent  years  for 
regidating  the  hours  of  work,  jireserving  the  health, 
and  promoting  the  education  of  young  persons 
employed  in  mills  and  factories.  The  leading  act  is 
7  aud  S  Vict.  c.  15 ;  though  much  had  already 
been  done  by  the  old  statute  42  Geo.  III.  c.  73, 
and  by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  103,  commonly  called 
the  Factory  Act,  amended  by  4  WUl.  IV.  c.  1.  By 
these  last-mentioned  acts,  night- work — that  is, 
between  half-p.ast  eight  in  the  evening  and  half-past 
five  in  the  morning — was,  with  some  exceptions,  for- 
bidden in  the  case  of  persons  under  eighteen  years 
of  age ;  whilst  their  hours  of  Labour  were  limited  to 
twelve  in  the  day,  including  one  and  a  half  hours 
for  meals.  The  emplojTnent  of  children  under  nine 
was  prohibited,  except  in  silk-miUs ;  and  under 
thirteen  the  hours  were  restricted  to  eight  a  day, 
or  ten  in  silk-mills.  Holidays  were  allowed,  and 
certificates  of  health  required  from  a  surgeon  or 
physician  prerious  to  the  admission  of  a  child  into  a 
factory,  imder  certain  penalties.  By  3  aud  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  103,  also,  inspectors  of  factories  were  .appointed, 
and  their  powers  and  duties  for  its  enforcement 
defined.  Amongst  the  duties  of  the  inspector  was 
included  that  of  seeing  that  every  child  within  the 
restricted  age  was  placed  at  school ;  and  in  case  of 
the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  child  omitting  to  pro- 
vide for  his  education,  to  order  the  employer  to  pay 
to  him  (the  inspector)  one  penny  in  every  shilling  of 
the  weekly  wages  of  the  child,  to  be  applied  to  that 
l)uri)Ose.  By  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  15,  the  powers  and 
duties  of  inspectors  were  more  accurately  set  forth, 
licgulations  are  laid  down  for  the  protection  of 
eluldren  working  in  web-spinning  flax-mills,  and 
it  is  enacted  that  the  mill-gearing  shall  not  be 
cleaned  while  in  motion,  .and  that  the  machineiy 
sliall  be  guardeil.  A  child  is  defined  to  mean  a 
person  imder  thirteen ;  and  a  young  person,  one 
between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  eighteen.  An 
abstract  of  the  act  .and  rel.ative  notices  must  be 
hung  up  in  every  factory.  As  to  the  time  of  chil- 
dren's work,  it  is  proWdcd  th.at  they  shall  not  be 
employed  more  than  six  hours  and  thirty  minutes 
in  any  one  day,  or  seven  in  silk  f.actories  ;  but  they 
may  l)e  employed  ten  hours  in  one  day  on  three 
215 


'  alternate  days  i>f  the  week,  provided  that  they  be 
not  employed  in  any  manner  in  the  same,  or  any 
I  other  factory,  on  two  successive  days,  or  after  h.alf  • 
past  four  on  a  Saturday.  On  the  vacant  days,  the 
children  are  to  be  sent  to  school  for  five  hours, 
pro\'ided  the  day  be  not  a  Saturday,  Avhcn  no  school 
attendance  of  any  child  shall  be  required.  Women 
above  the  age  of  eighteen  are  to  be  employed  as 
yoimg  persons;  and  work  for  all  children  and  young 
persons  is  to  cease  on  Saturday  .at  half-past  four. 
In  adtlition  to  the  regulations  of  the  former  act,  it 
is  pro%-ided  regarding  mealtimes,  that  the  hours 
allowed  shall  be  between  h.alf-past  seven  in  the 
morning  and  half-past  seven  in  the  evening,  and 
that  one  hour  shall  l>e  before  three  o'clock.  Ko 
child  or  young  person  sh.all  be  employeil  more 
than  five  hours  before  one  o'clock  ^^•ithout  aa 
inten-al  for  meal-time  of  at  least  thirty  minutes. 
All  yoimg  persons  are  to  have  their  me.al-times  .at 
the  s.ame  hour,  and  .are  not  to  be  allowed  to  rem.ain 
in  any  of  the  rooms  used  for  manuf.acturing  jjro- 
cesses.  Eight  h.alf-hoUdays  .are  to  be  given  in  every 
f.actory,  in  addition  to  Good-Friday  and  Christm.as- 
day,  and  the  sacramental  fast-day  in  Scotch  paiishes. 
By  the  subsequent  act,  10  and  17  Vict.  c.  102,  it  is 
required  th.at  no  pei'son  under  thirteen  shall  be 
employed  in  a  f.actory  before  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning  or  after  six  in  the  evenin" ;  or  on  Saturday 
after  two  o'clock;  but  between  September  30  and 
April  1,  children  may  for  one  month  be  employed 
on  any  day  but  Saturd.ay  from  seven  in  the  morning 
till  seven  in  the  evening.  By  S  and  9  Vict.  c.  29, 
the  powers  of  inspectors  and  the  regulations  in 
respect  to  the  employment  of  women  and  children, 
■are  extended  to  calico-works  ;  and  rope-works  are 
expressly  exempted  from  them  by  9  and  10  Vict. 
c.  40.  By  10  Vict.  c.  29,  the  hours  of  Labour  for 
yoimg  persons,  and  women  .above  the  .age  of  eighteen, 
.are  reduced  from  twelve,  which  the  factory  act  had 
fixed,  to  ten  after  1st  M.ay  184S ;  .and  by  13  and  14 
Viet.  c.  37,  it  is  enacted  that  the  s.ame  persons  shall 
not  be  employed  before  sLx  in  the  morning  or  after 
six  in  the  evening,  or  after  two  o'clock  on  a  S.aturday. 
Meal-times  must  be  between  h.alf-p,ast  seven  in  the 
morning  and  sLx  in  the  evening.  There  are  jiartial 
exceptions  to  the  houi-s  specifieil  in  the  acts,  for  the 
recovery  of  lost  time ;  aud  by  1 3  .and  14  Vict.  c.  ,37, 
children  .above  eleven  .are  to  be  viewed  as  j'oung 
persons  when  employed  in  grinding  and  throwing 
silk.  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  3S,  limits  the  provisions  of 
7  aud  8  Vict.  c.  15,  as  to  mill-gearing,  to  those  pai-ts 
with  which  children  and  young  ])er3ons  .and  women 
are  liable  to  come  in  contact.  (See  Factokv  Acts, 
and  Wor.Ksuop  Keoui^vxion  Act,  in  SuppLOUiXT.) 

FA'CUL^iE  (L.at.  facula,  a  torch),  in  Astronomy, 
are  spots,  brighter  th.an  the  rest  of  the  surface,  which 
are  sometimes  seen  on  the  sun's  disc.     See  SUN. 

FA'CXJLTIES,  Court  of,  a  court  esttiblished  by 
25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21,  s.  4,  whereby  authority  is  given 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  his  successors 
to  gi\ant  dispensations,  faculties,  &c.,  by  himself,  or 
his  sufficient  and  substantial  commissary  or  deputy, 
for  any  such  matters  not  being  repugn.ant  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  the  laws  of  God,  whereof  before  such 
dispensations,  &c.,  had  been  .accustomed  to  be  had  .at 
the  see  of  Rome.  Up  to  the  time  of  passing  tliis 
act,  the  pope,  notwithstantling  the  statutes  wliich 
h.ad  been  passed  restraining  his  authority,  continued 
to  exercise  his  ]>owor,  and  to  dr.aw  a  considerable 
revenue  for  indulgences,  &c.  The  chief  officer  of  tho 
court  is  called  inuijiskr  ad  /acidtntes.  The  sittings 
of  the  court  have  .always  been  held  .at  Doctors 
Commons  (q.  v.).  On  its  first  institution,  there 
were  various  matters  in  which  the  dispensiug  power 
was  called  into  exercise — such  as  the  power  to  hold 


FACULTY— FAGGING. 


two  or  more  livings  (see  Plurality),  and  the  per- 
mission to  oat  flesh  in  Lent,  &c.  Bnt  of  late  years 
the  matter  which  has  chiefly  occupied  the  eoui't 
has  been  the  gi-auting  licence  to  marry  without 
publication  o£   banns.      See  LiCEXCE,   SIareiace, 

1)ISI'EXSATI0X. 


See  XJNIVER.SITIE.?. 
a   name    applied    to 


FACULTY. 

FACULTY,  a  name  applied  to  certain  apti' 
tudes  or  powers  of  the  mind,  especially  those  of  the 
intellect.  Keid  considered  that  the  characteristic  of 
a  facidty  was  its  primitive  character,  as  opposed  to 
the  acquired  powers,  or  habits.  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
remarks  on  this  distinction  as  follows  :  '  Powers  are 
active  and  passire,  natural  and  acquired.  Powers 
natural  and  active  are  called  faculties.  Powers 
natm'al  and  passive,  capacities  or  recepticities. 
Powers  acquired  are  habits,  and  habit  is  used 
both  in  an  active  and  passive  sense.' — Reid,  p. 
221.  Hence,  in  disc\i3sing  the  intellect,  ■whatever 
are  considered  its  jirimary  or  fundamental  functions, 
are  its  faculties.  Perception,  Memorj',  lleasoning, 
Imagin.itiou,  are  the  leading  intellectual  faculties, 
according  to  the  older  metajihysicians,  who  followed 
the  popular  classiflcation.  These  would  not  now  be 
considered  as  giving  the  ultimate  analysis  of  the 
intellect.  Conscience,  or  the  moral  sense,  has  some- 
times been  called  the  moral  faculty.    See  Intellect. 

FACULTY,  Grant  of,  by  the  Ordixakv,  an 
order  by  the  bisho]>  of  a  diocese  to  award  some  priri- 
lege  not  permitted  by  common  law.  A  faculty  is 
necessary  in  order  to  efl'ect  any  important  .alteration 
in  a  ehurcli,  such  as  the  erection  of  a  gallery  or  of 
an  organ.  Without  a  facidty,  a  person  is  not  entitled 
to  erect  a  monument  within  the  walls  of  a  church. 
But  a  mommaent  having  been  put  up,  though 
without  a  facidty,  cannot  be  removed  till  a  faculty 
or  order  to  that  effect  has  been  obtained.  By  the 
common  law  of  England,  every  jjarishioncr  is  entitled 
to  a  seat  in  chiu'ch,  but  no  one  has  a  claim  to  any 
particular  seat,  unless  the  right  has  been  given  by  a 
faculty.     See  Pews. 

FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES.   See  Advocates. 

F^'CES,  or  SOLID  EXCREMENTS,  are  the 
niattei-s  which  an  animal  ejects  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  in  gi'eater  part,  consist 
of  those  portions  of  food  which,  on  passing  through 
the  ahmentary  canal,  have  been  rejected  as  com- 
paratively worthless  in  the  oSice  of  nutrition.  In 
the  higher  animals,  the  fteces  generally  contain 
about  three-fourths  of  their  weight  of  water,  the 
remaining  one-fourth  consisting,  in  greater  part,  of 
organic  remains ;  in  the  case  of  the  ox,  sheep,  and 
other  herbivorous  animals,  of  undigested  woody 
filire.  In  the  human  subject,  the  quantity  of  ffeces 
jaelded  daily  by  an  average  healthy  man  is  5  to  6 
ounces ;  the  pecidiar  brown  colour  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  decomposing  biliary  matter,  and  the 
odour  to  partially  changed  nitrogenous  substances 
resembling  casein.  The  following  table  gives  the 
composition  of  human  and  ox  faeces : 


Human. 

Oi. 

Water 73-3 

Water, 

.  7000 

Organic  remains,         .        70 

Woody  abrc,       . 

.      22-5U 

Biliary  acd  uitrogcnous 

Wax,      . 

.    0-76 

matter,          .         .         .  14-9 

Suf;ar, 

3O0 

Albumen,     .        .         .          0  9 

Albumen, 

.    2-00 

Kxtract,            .         .         .27 

Resin  and  Salts, 

.         1-74 

S:ilt3,            ...          1-2 

For  use  as  manure,  these  f£cces  are  of  little  value 
as  conipai'ed  with  guano,  dissolved  bones,  or  supor- 
]>hospliates,  and,  indeed,  the  jirincipal  efiete  matters 
of  importance  to  the  agriculturist  are  resident  in 
the  urine  or  Uquid  excrement  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals. In  the  case,  however,  of  binls  and  reptiles, 
the  urine  and  f ieces  are  voided,  together  more  or  less 
moist,  and  hence  the  richness  of  such  excremeutitious 


matter,  and  its  hiLdi  agricultural  value.  See  Guano. 
The  following  talile  gives  the  composition  of  the 
fseces  of  the  boa  constrictor  : 


Uric  acid 

.  9016 

Ammonia,           .                  .         .         . 

170 

Potash 

.     345 

Sulphate  of  potash,     , 

0-95 

rhosphate  of  lime,  &c., 

.    0-80 

Mucus  and  colouring  matter, . 

2-94 

FAED,  John,  a  popiUar  Scottish  painter,  was 
born  in  1820  at  Burley  Mill,  in  the  stewartry  of 
Kirkcudbright,  where  his  father  was  an  engineer 
and  milhraght.  His  love  of  art  was  manifested  at 
an  early  period,  and  when  h.ardly  entered  on  his 
teens,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  making  tours  through 
the  ^^llage3  of  C;alloway,  painting  miniatures. 
In  1S41,  he  came  to  Ediiil)urgh,  where  his  talents 
ultimately  won  him  a  high  reputation.  The  flrst 
picture  of  F.'s  that  obtained  great  popularity  was 
'  The  Cruel  Sisters,'  the  subject  of  which  was  taken 
fi-om  an  old  Scottish  ballad.  It  was  cxlulnted  in  1851. 
Shice  then,  F.  has  executed,  among  other  works, 
'  Shakspeare  and  his  Contemporaries,' '  Reason  and 
Faith,'  'The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night'  (probably  the 
most  widely  admired  of  all  his"  efforts),  '  Tarn  o' 
Shanter,'  and  '  Tlie  Soldier's  Eetiu-n.' 

FAED,  TnoiiAP,  brother  of  the  prccetling,  was 
born  .at  Burley  Mill  in  1826,  and  has  also  followed 
the  career  of  .an  artist.  One  of  his  earliest  efforts 
was  a  di'awing  (in  water-colours)  from  the  Old  Eng- 
lish Baron.  In  1840,  he  became  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  shortly  after  executed 
a  very  attractive  work,  entitled  'Scott  and  his 
Friends  at  Abbotsford.'  In  1852,  he  removed  to 
London,  where  his  '  Mitherless  Bairn,'  exhibited  in 
1855,  was  declared  by  the  critics  to  be  '  the  picture 
of  the  season.'  Of  his  subsequent  works,  we  need 
only  mention,  '  Home  and  the  Homeless,'  and  '  The 
Fir.st  Break  in  the  Family,'  the  latter  of  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  simple  and  homely  pathos. 

FAE'NZA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  proN-ince  of 
Raveima,  and  20  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Lamone,  in  a  beautifid  and  highly  cultivated  plain. 
It  is  siuTounded  w-ith  walls,  is  well  built,  and  is  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  tUvided  by  four  gi-eat  streets, 
which  meet  in  the  centre.  The  streets  of  F.,  though 
in  general  narrow,  contain  good  buildings,  among 
which  the  chief  are  an  imposing  cathedral,  a  fine 
market-place,  sun-ouiided  vith  arcades  and  adorned 
with  a  fountain,  and  numerous  palaces  and  eccle- 
siastical edifices.  It  is  the  seat  of  considerable 
manufactures  of  glazed  and  coloured  earthenware 
vessels,  which  in  Italy  are  called  '  Majolica,'  and  in 
Franco  '  Faience '  (q.  v.).  Linen  has  a  high  place  iu 
the  products  of  the  town.     Pop.  20,329. 

F.,  the  ancient  Faventia,  was  at  one  period  a  town 
of  the  Boii,  was  aftervvards  a  municipiuni  under 
the  Romans,  and  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  the 
Church  in  the  15th  c.  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  in 
which  condition  it  remained  till  18G0,  when,  with 
the  Emilian  provinces,  it  was  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  imder  Victor  Emmanuel. 

FA'GGING  is  the  name  given  to  a  usage  pecidiar 
to  the  great  puljUc  schools  of  England,  the  nature  of 
which  will  be  presently  described.  The  origin  of 
the  practice  cannot  be  traced.  No  school  statutes 
refer  to  it,  no  school  traditions  speak  of  a  time  when 
it  was  not.  The  statutes  of  Eton  College  rather 
indicate  precautions  against  it,  for  they  ordain  that 
there  be  thirteen  poor  youths  in  the  establishment 
to  work  for  the  college ;  but  in  Edward  IV.'s 
time  the  college  was  much  impoverished  by  royal 
depredations — the  fellowships  were  cut  down  from 


FAGGING. 


ten  to  seven,  and  these  pauperes  jimiores  abolished. 
However,  be  the  origin  what  it  may,  the  institution, 
as  we  have  said,  exists,  and  in  very  nearly  the  same 
form,  in  all  the  public  schools — that  is  to  say,  Eton, 
Harrow,  Westminster,  Winchester,  and  Kugby.  Its 
main  features  are  in  every  case  much  as  follows  : 
In  each  school  there  are  two  limits :  the  upper  limit, 
extending  to  the  bottom  of  the  first  one  or  two 
forms  (the  public  school  designation  of  classes), 
below  which  a  boy  may  not  fag ;  and  the  lower  limit, 
comprising  the  last  four  or  five  of  the  lowest  forms, 
above  which  a  boy  may  not  be  fagged.  The  boys 
between  these  limits,  as  also  those  who,  although 
comprised  withm  the  lower  limit,  have  been  more 
than  a  certain  time  in  the  school,  are  devoid  alike 
of  rights  and  duties  in  connection  \rith  this  iiractice. 
The  serWces  of  a  fag  are  of  two  kinds — the  one  com- 
prising his  duties  to  a  special  master,  to  whom  he  has 
been  assigned  ;  the  other  consisting  of  those  due  to 
the  whole  of  tie  upper  boys.  The  former  comprise 
such  tasks  as  preparing  his  master's  breakfast, 
stoking  his  master's  fire,  carrying  his  master's 
messages,  and  smuggling  into  the  house  little  forbidden 
delicacies  for  his  master's  consimijition,  and  in  this 
instance,  if  detected,  bearing  his  master's  punish- 
ment. Those  ser^-ices  which  a  lower  boy  owes  to 
the  whole  of  the  upper  boys,  consist  of  attendance 
at  the  games.  In  the  cricket  season,  the  fags  perform 
the  functions  of  a  net,  and  stand  behind  the  wiCkets 
to  stop  the  balls  while  their  seniors  are  practising ; 
and  at  aU  seasons  they  are  liable  to  the  drearier 
task  of  waiting  attendance  on  the  racket-players, 
and  retriering  the  balls  which  have  been  '  skyed '  out 
of  the  court.  All  cases  of  difficidty  arising  out  of 
fagging  are  within  the  jm-isdiction  of  the  head-boy 
in  the  house,  or  the  head  of  the  school,  and  are 
settled  by  reference  to  him.  Such  arc  the  main 
features  of  fagging  at  the  present  day — the  idea 
pervading  the  institution  being,  that  no  boy  should 
be  liable  to  the  performance  of  any  duties  really 
menial,  but  only  such  as,  in  the  absence  of  the 
practice,  woiJd  natiu-ally  be  performed  by  each  boy 
for  himself.  Many  of  the  abuses  of  this  practice, 
which  have  fi'om  time  to  time  been  discovered  and 
suppressed,  afford  whimsical  illustrations  of  the 
jjcccant  ingenuity  of  boy-nature.  In  one  school,  a 
senior  boy  once  had  a  study,  but  was  not  studious  ; 
he  might  have  let  it  out  to  a  yoimger  boy  in  want 
of  a  crib  to  read  in  at  a  rent  of  some  five  or  ten 
shillings  a  term,  but  his  mind  soared  beyond  such 
paltry  dealings  ;  he  conceived  vaster  and  grander 
ideas  of  the  management  of  his  jiroperty :  he  set  up 
a  tap.  He  smuggled  into  his  room  a  nine-gallon 
cask,  called  a  '  governor.'  There  was  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  governors,  and  a  brisk  demand  for  beer ; 
so  he  appointed  his  fag,  a  fine  stout  lad,  as  deputy- 
tapster  to  receive  the  coppers.  Tlie  deputy  m'ew 
attached  to  both  his  governors,  and  flourished  long 
and  happily  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties. 
Another  instance  consisted  of  an  equally  whimsical 
and  widely  difl"erent  exercise  of  power.  A  sixth- 
form  boy,  of  High  Ohm'ch  princi]iles,  made  his  faga, 
two  very  nice  well- conditioned  young  scholars,  get 
up  early  .and  come  to  his  room  every  morning  before 
school  for  prayers. 

So  prominent  a  feature  in  the  constitution  of 
English  pubhc  schools  .as  the  institution  of  fagging, 
h;is,  of  course,  received  much  criticism  from  ecfuca- 
tion.al  reformers.  The  well-knowni  author  of  the 
letters  from  Paterfamilias  to  the  Cornhill  Maf/aziiie, 
himself  an  Etonian,  and  one  of  those  rare  instiinces 
of  a  public-school  man  dissatisfied  with  the  recollec- 
tions of  his  school-life,  speiiks  of  the  practice  with 
the  ^eatest  bitterness.  '  Fagging,'  s-ays  he,  '  now 
hajipily  almost  obsolete,  was  also  based  upon  the 
breeches-pocket  question.     I  used  often  to  doubt, 


when  called  off  from  my  studies,  wliilst  a  lower  boy 
at  Harchester,  to  mend  my  master's  tire,  to  prepare 
his  meals,  or  to  brush  his  clothes,  whether  a  system 
which  permitted  and  upheld  such  practices  could 
really  be  beneficial  to  him  or  to  me ;  bnt  I  never 
had  any  doubt  that  it  was  very  benefici;il  to  our 
tutor,  in.asmuch  as  it  si)arcd  hun  the  wages  of  some 
two  or  three  servants,  whose  menial  work  was  per- 
formed by  the  lower  boys.  Of  course,  the  ingenuity 
of  our  m.asters  discovered  plenty  of  excellent  argu- 
ments in  support  of  jiractices  so  convenient  to  them- 
selves ;  our  p.ai-ents  used  to  be  told  that  carrjang 
coals  for  the  upper  boys,  and  toasting  their  niutfins, 
m,ade  us  helpful  and  docile,  and  took  the  nonsense 
out  of  bumptious  l.ads  ;  but  such  arguments  woiJd 
have  .applied  just  as  aptly  towards  establishing  the 
propriety  of  setting  young  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
to  assist  the  scullion,  or  to  sort  out  the  lUrty  linen 
for  the  wash.'  These  are  certainly  sh.arp  words,  but 
doubtless  many  persons  may  be  found  to  sjTupathise 
with  a  great  deal  of  the  censure  contained  in  them. 
They  will  tell  us  that  much  vigilance  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  abuse  of  the  power  of  exacting  casual 
ser'\'ice  on  the  jjart  of  the  senior  boys,  .and  that  the 
rules  of  fagging,  such  as  they  .are,  give  no  adequate 
security  against  serious  vexation  and  w.aste  of  a 
small  boy's  time.  They  say  that  the  f.avourite 
apology,  on  the  groimd  of  its  taking  the  conceit  out 
of  those  who  have  been  spoiled  at  home,  is  falla- 
cious ;  that  football  and  parsing  are  sufficient  cura- 
tives of  this  evil  tone  of  mind;  .and  that  if  the 
necessity  to  render  service  to  a  senior  takes  the 
conceit  out,  the  subsequent  pri%Tlcge  of  the  early 
exercise  of  power  only  too  rapidly  pours  it  in  again. 
They  deny,  also,  the  validity  of  one  very  favourite 
assertion  of  the  upholders  of  the  system,  that  the 
relation  between  master  and  fag  often,  and  indeed 
generally,  gives  rise  to  very  pleasant  intiimacics 
between  the  upper  and  lower  boys,  and  intimacies 
very  beneficial  to  the  latter.  On  the  contrary,  they 
maintain  that  no  case  of  attachment  between  master 
and  fag  can  be  pointed  to  which  would  not  have 
existed  imder  any  cireiimst.ances,  and  that  this 
relation  may  often  be  found  to  have  marred  what 
woidd  otherwise  have  been  a  very  friendly  recollec- 
tion. The  advocates  of  the  system  tell  us,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  .attendant  e^^ls  are  greatly 
exai;ger.ated,  and  in  some  cases  purely  fictitious, 
while  it  is  in  many  respects  of  very  great,  if  not 
essential,  service  to  the  existence  of  a  public  school. 
They  deny  that  it  has  been  origin.ated  and  upheld 
by  the  tutors  from  jnircly  commercial  consider.ations, 
as  asserted  by  Fivtcrfamilias ;  for,  as  has  been  already 
said,  no  really  menial  services  are  exacted  of  any 
boy,  but  only  such  as  each  boy  might  reasonably  be 
expected  to  perform  for  himself,  inasmuch  as,  in 
point  of  fact,  many  men  at  the  university — not 
choosuig  or  not  being  able  to  afl'ord  a  gyi)— do  really 
])repare  their  own  breakfast,  stoke  their  own  fires, 
and  go  on  their  own  errands.  That  while  .abuses  do 
occasionally  occur,  everything  is  against  the  prob- 
.abiUty  of  their  frequency  or  extent,  as  the  utmost 
facihty  exists  on  the  part  of  the  juniors  for  bringing 
their  grievances  before  the  proper  authorities,  ana 
obtaimng  speedy  redress.  Tliey  say  that,  .as  a  fact, 
the  ser\-ices  of  a  fag  arc  so  light  that  he  does  not 
care  or  think  .about  them,  and  they  .appeal  in  support 
of  this  statement  to  the  tone  in  which  the  boys 
themselves  are  in  the  h.abit  of  referring  to  the 
subject.  .See  the  Etonian,  a  periodical  luiblished  by 
some  Eton  boys  30  or  40  years  .ago ;  and  the  Trium- 
virate, a  similar  and  more  modern  periodical  from 
Harrow  School.  But  the  principal  argument  in 
the  defence  of  the  system  must  always  rest,  its 
supporters  tell  us,  upon  the  security  afi'orded  by  it 
against  bullying.     In  public  schools,  where  the  .ages 


FAHRENHEIT— FAIR  ISLE. 


■  if  the  boys  vary  from  ten  to  twenty,  a  much  greater 
liberty  is  given  to  the  boys,  and  much  greater 
confidence  is  reposed  in  them,  than  in  private  schools 
— the  idea  being,  that  their  characters  can  only  be 
truly  formed  by  as  unrestricteil  intercourse  as 
possible  among  themselves,  not  hampered  by  the 
constant  presence  of  a  superior.  This  constant 
jiresence  of  a  master  is,  therefore,  replaced  by  the 
traditions  and  constitution  of  the  school,  in  which 
<'ach  boy  has  his  assigned  position,  and  his  definite 
rights  and  duties ;  a  constitution,  therefore,  vhich 
each  boy  feels  a  personal  interest  in  njiholding. 
Such  a  society  necessarily  requires  a  provision  for 
the  relation  between  older  .and  younger  boys, 
between  the  weaker  and  the  stronger;  for,  in  the 
absence  of  this,  the  ordinary  aspects  of  barbarism 
would  be  presented,  and  brute  force  be  alone  pre- 
dominant. Such  a  provision,  acceptable  and  intel- 
ligible to  the  boj's,  and  reasonable  in  itself,  is  believed 
to  be  found  in  the  fagging  system.  By  this  system, 
it  is  affirmed,  provision  is  made  alike  for  the  claims 
of  age  .and  intellect,  inasmuch  ,as  it  is  scarcely  possible 
that  any  very  stupid  boy  shoidd  f.ag,  while  no  very 
<ild  boy  ever  can  be  fagged. 

These  are  the  cliief  features  of  the  fagging  system 
at  jniblic  schools,  and  the  prmcipal  arguments  for  it 
.and  ag.ainst  it.     See  Pennalism. 

FA'HRENHEIT,  G^usriel  D.\^"iel,  the  improver 
of  the  thermometer,  was  born  at  Danzig  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  c,  and  was  oririn.ally  designed  for 
the  commercial  profession.  His  inclination  for 
natural  philosophy  induced  him  to  qiiit  that  busi- 
ness, and  having  travelled  through  Germany  and 
ICngland  for  the  piirjiose  of  enlarging  his  know- 
ledge, he  settled  in  Holland.  In  1720,  he  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  using  quicksilver  instead  of 
spirits  of  wine  in  the  construction  of  thermometers, 
by  means  of  which  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument 
was  very  much  imjiroved.  See  Thep..mometer.  In 
1724,  F.  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Pioyal  Society 
of  London;  and  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
that  year  contain  several  papers  by  him  on  points 
in  natural  philosophy.     He  died  iu  1740. 

FAIENCE,  or  FAYENCE,  a  gener.al  term  for 
all  soi-ts  of  glazed  earthenware  and  porcelain.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  disputed.  Some  derive  it  from 
Fayence,  a  sm.all  town  of  Provence,  others  from 
Faenza,  a  city  of  It.aly  ;  while  certain  writers  con- 
siiier  that  the  isle  of  Majorca  is  .at  least  the  place 
where  it  w.a3  originally  manufactured,  in  proof  of 
which  they  appeal  to  the  fact,  that  the  It.aUana  still 
call  Faience  Majolica  or  Mayolina. 

FAI-FO,  a  seaport  of  Anam  (q.  v.),  is  one  of  the 
more  considerable  marts  of  the  empire.  It  stands 
on  a  river  near  its  mouth,  communicating  \rith 
Turon,  15  nules  to  the  north,  by  means  of  a  canal. 
It  exi)orts  sugar  .and  cinnamon,  its  principal  trade 
being  with  China.  It  contains  15,000  inhabitants, 
who  are  mostly  Buddhists. 

FAINEANTS  ROIS  (the  ' Do-nothing  Kings'), 
the  sarcastic  designation  of  the  later  Merovingian 
sovereigns  of  France,  imdcr  whose  name  the  famous 
Mayors  of  the  Palace  really  governed  the  coimtry. 
The  first  of  the  Do-nothing  Kings  was  Thierry  III., 
nomin.ally  monarch  of  Bur^indy,  Neustria,  and 
Aiistr.asia  ;  the  others  were  Clo™  Til.,  Childebert 
IIL,  Dagobert  III.,  ChUperic  II.,  Thierry  IV.,  and 
Childfiric  III.  The  last  of  these  was  dethroned  in 
730  .\.  D.,  and  he  being  shut  up  in  a  monastery,  Pepin 
U  Bref,  JIayor  of  the  Palace,  caiised  himself  to  be 
formally  proclaimed  king.  This  was  the  end  of  the 
Mcro\Tngian  dynast}' ;  it  is  curious  that  Louis  V., 
the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  and  a  descendant 
of  Pepin  fe  Bref,  also  received  the  contemptuous 


epithet  of  Faineant^  as  those  monarchs  had  who 
were  dethroned  by  his  ancestors. 

FAI'NTING,  or  SyKCOPE  (Gr.  «./«,  and  kopiC,  I 
fall  down),  is  a  condition  in  which,  from  a  sudden 
mental  or  bodily  impression,  the  circiJ.ation  of 
blood  is  temporarily  arrested  or  very  much  dimi- 
nished in  force  and  volume,  the  respiration  and  the 
functions  of  the  nervous  system  being  likewise  sus- 
pended. The  indications  of  fainting  to  a  bystander 
are  chiefly  a  sudden  pallor,  accompanied  by  loss  of 
power  over  the  limbs,  with  disaj)pearance  of  the  pulse 
and  movements  of  respiration;  the  eyes  are  com- 
monly half  open  or  closed,  the  countenance  blood- 
less, jjut  qmte  at  rest,  and  not  indicative  of  suffering 
or  disturbance  :  the  flaccid,  motionless  condition  of  afl 
the  limbs  also  tends  to  distinguish  simple  fainting 
from  epilepsy,  and  the  other  diseases  attended  with 
spasm  ;  whilst  the  vanishing  of  the  colour,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  pulse,  make  a  marked  distinction 
between  fainting  and  Catalepsy  (q.  v.),  and  other 
foi-ms  of  Hysteria  (q.  v.) ;  with  which  disorders, 
however,  fainting  m.ay  in  some  cases  be  associated. 
The  mode  of  origin  of  fainting,  and  the  study  of  its 
phenomena,  alike  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
primarily  an  impression  upon  the  nervous  system, 
very  much  of  the  same  natm-e  as  the  Collapse, 
or  shock  of  a  severe  bodily  injury  ;  this  reacts,  in 
the  first  instance,  on  the  heart,  and  through  the 
circulation  on  all  the  other  functions  of  the  body. 
Fainting  may  end  in  death,  if  too  prolonged,  or  if 
associated  with  disease  of  the  internal  organs,  and 
especially  of  the  heart ;  hence  a  particular  variety 
of  fainting  has  been  separately  studied,  and  named 
Sgncope  anginosa,  or  other\vise  Angina  pectoris. 
See  Heart,  Disease  of.  Ordin.arily,  a  person  who 
faints  from  mental  emotion,  a  hot  and  close  atmos- 
phere, or  other  transient  cause,  is  readily  restored 
by  being  laid  on  the  batk  with  the  head  low,  and 
surrounded  by  abundance  of  cool  fresh  air.  Any 
tight  articles  of  di'ess  shoiUd  be  loosened,  and  a 
stream  of  cold  air,  or  a  Uttle  cold  water,  should  be 
directed  to  the  face  and  neck,  so  as  to  rouse  the 
respiratory  movements.  It  is  common,  also,  to 
apply  ammonia  or  aromatic  vinegar  to  the  nostrils  ; 
but  a  more  effective  way  of  exciting  the  respiration 
is  to  compress  the  ribs,  and  allow  them  to  expand 
.again  alternately,  so  as  to  imit.ate  the  natural 
movement.  Care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  that 
there  is  no  obstruction  iu  the  throat  or  air-passages, 
as  suffocation  from  mechanical  causes  has  been 
mist.aken  for  fainting,  and  the  real  origin  of  the 
mischief  overlooked,  with  fatal  consequences.  Should 
all  other  means  fail.  Galvanism  (q.  v.)  will  sometimes 
succeed  in  restoring  the  respiration  and  heart's 
action. 

FAIOTJM.    See  Fayitm. 

FAIR.     See  Fairs. 

FAIR  or  BENMORE  HEAD,  a  promontory 
of  the  north  coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  opposite 
Rathlin  Isle,  which  is  four  nules  to  the  north-west. 
It  rises  6.3G  feet  above  the  sea.  The  lower  300 
feet  consists  of  carboniferous  strata,  overlaid  by 
greenstone  columns,  20  to  30  feet  thick,  and  rising 
280  to  300  feet  high.  It  is  perpendicular  to  the  sea, 
but  slopes  to  the  land.  The  table-land  ou  the  top 
is  covered  with  rich  pasture,  and  presents  fine  views 
of  the  neighbouring  coast,  Rathlin  Isle,  and  the 
Argyleshire  Highlands,  16  miles  distant.  On  the 
promontory  are  two  small  lochs,  500  feet  above  the 
sea. 

PAIR  ISLE,  a  solitary  isle  in  the  Atlantic,  25 
miles  south-south-west  of  Fitful  Head,  in  the  south 
of  .Shetland.  It  is  4  by  24  miles  in  extent,  and 
rises  708  feet  above  the  sea,  with  high  rocky  cliffs 
and  promontories,  one  of  which,  the  Sheep  Craig, 

219 


PAIRB  AIRN— FAI K I ES. 


rises  4S0  feot.  The  isle  is  accessible  for  ships  only 
at  one  point  on  the  south-east.  It  affords  copper 
ores,  and  haud-shaped  sponges  called  'trowie  gloves.' 
Pop.  about  300,  chiefly  fishers.  At  .Stromceiler  Creek, 
was  \\Tecked,  in  15S8,  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia, 
admiral  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  He  escaped,  after 
most  of  his  crew  were  murdered. 

FAIRBAIRX,  WiLLUM,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Kelso,  in  Koxburghshire,  in  1789.  Having  learned  a 
little  readins;,  ■writing,  and  arithmetic  at  the  parish 
school  of  iluUochy,  in  Ross-shire,  and  afterwards  got 
some  six  months'  instniction  from  an  imole,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  an  engine-wright  at  Percymain 
Colliery,  North  Shields.  When  his  apprenticeship 
terminated,  F.  wrought  for  two  years  in  Lond.jn, 
and  then  visited  many  places  in  England,  Wales, 
and  Ireland,  working  a  short  time  at  each,  iu  order 
to  observe  the  various  practices  of  ilili'erent  localities. 
Eventually,  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account  in  M.anchester  in  1817.  It  was  a  struggle 
in  which,  without  money  or  connections,  only  great 
abilities  and  perseverance  would  have  succeedecL 
The  first  great  improvement  introduced  by  F.  was 
the  substitution  of  iron  for  wood  in  the  shafting 
of  cotton -mills,  and  the  substitution  of  light  for 
hea\'y  shafting  where  metal  was  already  in  use. 
This  exchange  economised  the  cost  of  machinery,  and 
enabled  the  motion  to  be  speeded  fi'om  40  to  IGO 
revolutions  per  minute.  F.  was  amongst  the  earliest 
of  the  iron  ship-builders,  and  has  origin.ited  various 
improvements  in  their  constiiiction.  The  firm  has 
built  more  than  a  huudi-ed  vessels,  varying  from  the 
smallest  size  up  to  the  war-frigate  of  2600  tons. 

In  1834—1835,  F.  and  Mr'E.  Hodgkiuson  were 
inrited  by  the  British  Association  for  Advancement 
of  Science  to  seek  out  the  cause  of  certain  supposed 
defects  in  the  iron  jirodueed  by  hot-blast  furnaces, 
and  a  very  interesting  report  thereon  appears  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Association.  Nearly  at  the 
same  time,  F.  tested  the  strength  of  the  various 
kinds  of  iron  of  Great  Britain,  the  report  of  which 
appears  in  the  Transacllons  of  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Manchester,  and  contains  much  usefid 
information  for  engineers.  Another  report,  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society, 
gives  the  tenacity  of  boiler-plates  of  vaiioua  thick- 
nesses, and  determines  the  best  mode  of  riveting. 
He  also  made  a  long  series  of  experiments  on  the 
resistance  of  hollow  tubes  or  cylinders  to  collapse 
from  outward  pressure,  leading  to  valuable  practical 
results. 

The  first  idea  of  a  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Men.ai  Strait  is  due  to  Robert  Stephenson,  but  its 
realisation  is  due  to  F.  more  than  to  all  other 
men.     Stephenson's  idea  was  a  circular  tube,  sup- 

Eorted  by  chains;  but  the  Britannia  and  Conway 
ridges  are  rectangidar  structures,  strengthened  by 
a  senes  of  cells  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  without 
chains  or  any  other  support  from  pier  to  pier.  The 
present  form  results  from  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments upon  model  tubes — circular,  egg-shaped,  and 
rectangvilar,  which  were  conducted  entirely  for  a 
long  time  by  F.,  and  latterly,  vrith  the  aid  of  Mr 
E.  Hodgkinson,  as  a  mathematician,  to  deduce  a  law 
from  the  tabulated  results  of  experiments.  F.  h.is 
erected  more  th.in  a  hundred  bridges  upon  this 
principle.  See  Tuncn.AR  BRroaK.  F.  is  a  Fellow 
of  the  Rov.tl  Society;  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Institute  "of  France ;  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh ;  and  was 
President  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  1801 — 1SG2.  His  sou  Thomas 
was  chairman  of  the  Art  Treasures  Exhibition  at 
Manchester,  1857,  and  is  a  Commissioner  for  the  Exhi- 
bition 1SG2.  Father  and  sou  have  each  declined  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  F.  has  published  the  follow- 
ing works:  On  Canal  SUam-navirjalion;  The  Strength 

220 


and  other  Properties  oj Hot  and  Coltl  Blast  Iron;  77/c 
Stremjth  of  Iron  at  Different  Temperatures ;  The 
Strinyth  of  Locomotive  Boilers;  The  Effect  of  Repeated 
Meltings  on  the  Strength  of  Cast  Iron  ;  Tlif  Irons  of 
Great  Britain ;  The  Cohesive  Strength  of  Different 
Qualities  of  Iron  and  Stone ;  The  Strength  of  Iron 
Plates  and  Riveted  Joints ;  The  Cornea;/  and  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridges ;  The  Application  of  Iron  to  Build- 
ing Purposes ;  The  Strength  of  Hollow  Olobes  and 
Cylinders,  when  Exposed  to  Pressure  from  Without; 
Useful  Information  for  Engineers,  lat  and  2d  aeries  ; 
A  Treatise  on  Mills  and  Millwork;  and  several  other 
papers  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  of  other  institutions. 

FAIRFAX,  Edward,  the  translator  of  Tasso's 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  was  a  natui'al  son  of  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax  of  Denton,  in  Yorkshire.  The  year 
of  his  birth  is  not  known.  He  spent  his  life  at 
Fuystone,  in  the  forest  of  Knaresborough,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  many  blessings  which  rarely  befall 
poets — competence,  ease,  rural  scenes,  .and  an  ample 
command  of  the  means  of  study.  F.  was  alive 
in  1631,  but  ho  is  supposed  to  have  died  shortly 
after.  His  celel  )rated  translation  of  Tasso  was  mado 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  it  is 
dedicated.  The  first  edition  bears  the  date  of  1600. 
For  poetical  beauty  and  freedom,  it  has  been  the 
theme  of  imiversal  praise.  Dryden  ranked  F.  with 
Spenser  as  a  master  of  English,  and  Waller  said 
that  he  derived  from  him  the  harmony  of  his 
numbers.  F.  also  wi-ote  a  treatise  on  Demonohgy,  in 
which  he  was  a  believer — a  credulity  which  was 
probably  of  no  little  use  to  him  in  the  tran-slatiou 
of  a  work  fidl  of  the  machinery  of  enchantment. 
Hence  Collins  says  regarding  him — 

Prevailing  poet,  whose  undoubting  mind 
BeUeved  tlie  magic  wonders  which  he  sung. 

Tliis  treatise  is  still  in  manuscript. 

FAIRFAX,  TuojiAS,  Lord,  general  of  the  parUa- 
mentary  troops  in  England  during  the  civil  wars 
under  Charles  I.,  was  the  son  of  FeriUnand,  Lord 
Fairfax,  and  w.as  born  in  1611,  at  Denton,  in  York- 
shire. He  studied  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge^, 
and  afterwards  sen-ed  as  a  volunteer  iu  Holland, 
under  Lord  Vere,  whose  fourth  daughter,  Anne,  ho 
maiTied  shortly  after  his  retm'n  to  England.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1642,  F.  w.armly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  parliament,  and  was 
appointed  cavahy-general  under  his  father,  who 
commanded  the  parliamentary  forces  in  the  north. 
He  distinguished  himself  so  nmch  by  his  valom-, 
prudence,  and  energy,  that  in  1645,  when  the  Earl  of 
Essex  resigned  his  oilice  of  general  of  the  parliamen- 
tary forces,  F.  was  apjiointed  in  his  room.  In  a  short 
time,  Cromwell,  who  had  been  appointed  lieuteu.ant- 
general,  obtained  unboimded  intiuence  over  him ; 
and  from  this  time,  although  nominally  head  of  the 
parliamentary  forces,  he  really  played  a  secondary 
part.  At  last,  in  Juno  1650,  he  refused  to  march 
against  the  Scots,  wlio  had  proclaimed  Charles  II. 
king,  and  Cromwell  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  his  stead.  F.  now  withtlrew  into  private 
life,  and  did  not  come  forward  again  until  after  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  when  he  shewed  a  zeal  for  the 
restoration  of  the  king,  gathered  troops  for  that 
juirpose  to  assist  General  Monk  against  Lambert; 
and  was  appointed  one  of  the  delegates  despatched 
to  the  H.ague  in  1660  to  promote  the  return  of 
Charles  II.  Ho  died  at  Bilburgh,  near  York,  12th 
February  1671.  F.  h.ad  a  slight  turn  for  literary 
pursuits,  and  wrote  several  works,  prose  and  poetic  ; 
among  otliers,  one  entitled  Short  Memorials,  which 
w;is  published  in  1699. 

PAI'RIKS,  ELVES  (Ger.  elbe,  or  elfe;  Sw.  elf; 
Dan.  ellefolk  ;  Old  Norse,  alfr  ;  all  allied  apparently 


FAIRIES. 


to  Lat.  alh[us),  white,  ami  siguifjiiig  a  bright,  benign 
spii-it  ;  Fr.  fie ;  Ital.  fata),  supcTnatiu-al  beings, 
generally  of  diminutive  size,  a  belief  in  whom  has 
been  among  the  superstitions  of  the  greater  portion 
of  the  European  nations.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  fairy  is  doubtful ;  some  derive  it  and  the 
Fr.  fie  from  a  Celtic  word  'faer,  to  charm  or 
bewitch  ;  others  associate  the  Fr.  fee  and  the  Ital. 
fata  (a  friendly  goddess  or  spirit)  with  Lat.  fnlimi, 
fate ;  otliers,  again,  trace  filnj  to  the  peri  of  the 
Persians  (pronounced  feri  by  the  Arabians),  holding 
it  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Crusaders. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Celtic  fees  or  fairies  are 
undoubtetUy  relics  of  those  matres  and  matrome, 
which  appear  on  Gallo-Koman  inscrii)tion3  as 
objects  of  popular  belief.  After  the  transfusion  of 
the  Teutonic  and  southern  nations,  the  northern 
elves  (which  were  originally  of  two  kinds — the 
light  elves,  or  elves  proper,  and  the  dark,  elves, 
or  dwarfs)  became  mi.\ed  uj)  with  their  Celtic ! 
kindled  the  liiiries  in  inextricable  confusion.  , 

It  is  generally  diflicult  to  give  any  scientific 
definition  of  the  natme  of  a  superstition,  because 
its  phenomena  are  continually  varj-ing  according 
to  time,  place,  and  other  conditions.  The  fairy 
superstition  esjiecially  defies  definition,  because  it 
was  the  peculiarity  of  the  creatures  to  whom  it 
referred  that  they  followed  no  regular  law,  human 
or  divine,  but  obeyed  the  impulse  of  their  own 
caj)rice  ;  hence  every  fairy  tale  differs  from  another. 
StUl,  there  are  distinctions  .and  specialities  that 
can  be  made  out  from  the  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  these  narratives.  In  the  first  place,  the 
superstition  ]iecidiarly  lielongs  to  modern  Em-ope.  i 
We  find  nothing  like  it  among  the  idolatries  of  \ 
the  heathen  referred  to  in  Scripture,  nor  does  the 
word  occur  in  the  English  Eible,  or  its  equivalent 
in  the  original  texts.  In  classical  mythology, 
there  is  nothing  nearer  to  it  than  the  nj-mph  of 
the  foimtain  or  grove  among  the  Greeks.  In  the 
next  place,  it  may  be  determined  that  the  varieties 
in  the  superstition  correspond,  in  some  measure,  ! 
with  those  of  the  physical  geography  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  whicli  it  prevails.  In  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  there  are  mountains,  miste,  dangerous 
morasses,  cataracts,  and  stormy  oceans,  all  supersti- 
tions, being  a  behef  in  supernatural  agencies,  are 
naturally  exaggerated,  and,  from  the  dangers  to 
which  the  people  are  liable  from  the  agencies  they 
deem  supernatural,  the  belief  takes  deep  root  in 
their  minds.  Accordingly,  in  flat  and  well  cultivated 
coimtries  like  England,  the  fairy  superstition  is 
simple  and  homely,  connecting  itself  with  matters 
of  domestic  rcjutine,  such  as  the  sweeping  of  the 
dwelling-house,  the  skimming  of  the  milk,  the 
jirescrvation  of  the  butter,  and  the  like ;  while  in 
Scandina^-ia  and  the  Highlands  the  fairy  people 
are  connected  witli  storms  and  convulsions,  betray  j 
people  to  their  death,  fly  away  with  them  into  the  | 
infinite  clouil-land,  or  lead  them  through  endless 
caverns  within  the  earth.  It  has  been  observed,  [ 
as  a  further  distinction,  that  the  fairies  of  the 
German  or  Teutonic  tribes  are  more  harsh,  fierce, 
uncomely,  or  deformed  than  those  of  the  Celtic 
nations,  which  have  a  tendency  ratlier  to  the  aerial 
and  the  graceful.  StUl,  there  is  so  gTeat  an  amount 
of  common  characteristic  in  the  superstition  through- 
out Euroiie,  and  its  peculiarities  have  been  found  so 
much  more  emphatically  displayed  in  Scandinavia 
than  elsewhere,  as  to  liave  suggested  to  some  the 
^■iew,  that  the  superstition  is  a  remnant  of  the  old 
mythology  of  the  northern  nations,  communicated  by 
them  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  the  countries 
over  which  their  vikings  carried  their  ravages.  j 

There  is  a  further   distinction — at  least  in  this  | 
country — between  the  fairies  of  jTOetic  and  heroic 


literature  and  those  of  jiopular  belief— the  former 
being  princes  and  princesses  of  chivalry,  only  dis- 
tinguished from  human  beings  by  their  superhuman 
superiority  in  all  the  qualities  which  elicited  respect 
in  the  age  of  chivalry  ;  while  those  of  popular  belief 
are  small  in  stature,  sometimes  decrepit,  and  endowed 
with  dispositions  generally  more  aUied  to  malig:iity 
than  magnanimity.  It  is  common  to  aU  classes  of 
them  to  be  deemed  under  the  condemnation  of  the 
religion  of  the  gospel,  and  to  be  either  conditionally 
or  unconditionally  excluded  from  the  abodes  of  the 
righteous  in  the  next  world.  In  Ireland  and  the 
Highlands,  they  have  been  spoken  of  as  a  wandering 
remnant  of  the  fallen  angels.  It  is  sometimes  a 
sjTuptonx  of  geniality  and  kindliness  in  a  people 
when  their  fairies  are  supjjosed  to  be  capable  of 
earning  their  own  redemption.  Sometimes  they  are 
supposed  to  be  human  beings,  metamorphosed  or 
disembodied,  and  this  form  of  the  sujierstition  has 
made  fairyland  a  place  of  purgation  for  those  whose 
sins  have  condemned  them  to  it.  The  analogy  is 
canied  out  in  the  belief  that  the  ser^ices  of  the 
li\ing  can  extricate  the  souls  so  situated ;  but  it 
is  rather  through  dexterity  and  courage  than  pure 
piety  that  the  feat  is  achieved,  and  the  rescues 
from  fairyland  form  some  of  the  most  wild  and 
exciting  of  the  elfin  nan-atives — as,  for  instance,  the 
strange,  wild  ballad  of  Tamlane. 

There  is  still  another  Inroad  distinction  into  those 
that  dwell  in  the  upjier  air  and  those  that  dwell 
■within  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  while  a  third  class 
frequent  the  waters.  The  surface  of  the  earth  ou 
which  mankind  reside  is  not  deemed  the  proper 
place  of  any  class  excejit  on  special  occasions. 
The  Scandinavians  called  the  fairy  inhabitants  of 
the  air  white  elves ;  those  of  the  earth,  black. 
Whatever  was  genial,  light,  playfid,  and  benevo- 
lent in  the  superstition,  clustered  round  the 
former;  the  latter  did  aU  the  work  that  was 
dark,  cruel,  and  rapacious,  ^'aturally  enough,  the 
black  or  subterranean  kind  frequented  mining 
districts,  where  they  might  be  seen  extracting  the 
ore  for  themselves,  and  thus  unwittingly  leading 
the  miner  to  rich  veins  of  metal.  They  might  be 
seen  in  an  occasional  peep  through  an  a]ierture  of  a 
hill  in  their  underground  retreats,  in  chambers 
supported  on  jasper  columns,  where  they  were 
stowing  away  their  hampers  of  gold  and  silver — for 
they  were  generally  held  to  be  verj'  affluent.  Some 
of  the  most  exciting  tales  about  the  German  gnome, 
and  the  Irish  leprechaun,  who  was  a  creature  of 
the  same  kind,  are  founded  on  the  efforts  of  adven- 
turous mortals  to  get  possession  of  their  riches. 
There  exists  a  legend,  occurring  in  nearly  identical 
terms  in  several  countries,  which  connects  some 
piece  of  valuable  plate  belouffing  to  a  church  'with 
the  miderground  fairies.  The  story  of  the  horn 
of  Oldenburg  is  a  tj^ie  of  these  narratives.  The 
pictures  of  it  represent  it  as  a  beautiful  drinliing 
vessel,  in  the  shape  of  a  horn,  exquisite!)'  decorated 
with  the  finest  fanciful  silver-work,  in  the  style 
contemporary  with  the  richest  Gothic  arehitectiu-e. 
The  legend  is,  that  one  day,  Otho  of  Oldenburg, 
being  exhausted  with  hunting,  and  very  thirsty, 
exclaimed  :  '  0  God,  would  that  I  had  a  cool  drink!' 
Thereupon  there  appeared  before  him,  as  if  coming 
out  of  the  rock,  a  lovely  maiden,  who  offered  him  a 
drink  in  the  fairy  horn.  He  made  off  ^^ith  it,  and 
saved  himself  from  evil  consequences  by  besto\rin<' 
it  on  the  church.  Hence  these  relics  are  gcner.ally 
in  churches  ;  but  one  of  them  is,  or  lately  was,  in 
the  jiosscssion  of  .an  English  family,  and  .as  their 
prosperity  was  traditionally  believed  to  depend  on 
ret.aming  it,  it  was  called  '  The  Luck  of  Eden  Hall.' 
Puck  and  the  pixies  belong  to  the  same  class 
of  beings.      Of  the   ell-folks    of   Scandinavia,   the 

221 


FAIKIES— FAIRS. 


male  i9  old  and  ill-f.ivoui-e<l,  but  the  e\-il  clement 
in  the  ell-woman  or  ell-maid  consists  in  her  beauty, 
which  enables  her  to  be  very  dangerous  to  fooUsh 
young  gentlemen,  whom  she  waylaj-s  either  by  her 
own  proper  charms,  or  by  personating  the  objects 
of  their  atfections. 

In  Ireland,  and  also  in  the  bonier  country  of 
Scotland,  the  fairy  superstition  has  been  the  theme 
of  innumenible  poetic  legends  and  mystic  traditions. 
T.  Crofton  Croker,  in  his  Fain/  Legends  and  Tradi- 
tions of  the  South  of  Ireland,  3  vols.  1S2S,  presents  a 
fall  and  amusing  .account  of  the  Irish  fairies  or 
elves,  which  he  describes  .ns  '  a  few  inches  high, 
air}',  and  almost  transparent  in  body  ;  so  dehcate  in 
their  form  that  a  dew-drop,  wheu  they  chance  to 
dance  on  it,  trembles  indeed,  but  never  breaks. 
Both  sexes  are  of  extraordinary  beauty,  and  mortal 
beings  cannot  be  compared  wth  them.'  They  do 
not  live  aloue,  or  in  pairs,  but  always  in  large 
societies,  and  are  governed  by  a  (pieen.  The  same 
author  adds:  '  They  are  invisible  to  man,  parti- 
cularly ia  the  day-time,  and  as  they  can  be  jiresent 
and  hear  what  is  said,  the  peasantry  never  spc.ik  of 
them  but  with  caution  and  respect,  terming  thetn 
the  good  people,  or  friends.  They  have  their  dwell- 
ings" in  clefts  of  rocks,  caves,  and  ancient  tumidi. 
Eveiy  part  within  is  decorated  in  the  most  splendid 
and  magnificent  manner ;  and  the  pleasing  music 
which  sometimes  issues  from  thence  in  the  night, 
has  delighted  those  who  have  been  so  fortimate  as 
hear  it.'  There  are  Irish  fairies,  however,  of  more 
special  character.  Among  these  are  the  Banshee, 
or  female  spirit  who  watches  a  particular  family ; 
the  Cluricaune,  an  elf  of  evil  disposition,  who 
usually  appeal's  as  a  wrinkled  old  man,  and  has  a 
knowledge  of  hidden  treasure ;  and  the  Phooka, 
a  spirit  of  diabolical  disposition,  who  sometimes 
appo.aring  as  au  eagle  or  a  black  horse,  hurries  the 
person  he  gets  possession  of  to  destruction.  Of 
similar  varieties  are  the  Scottish  elves :  the  Brownie, 
or  domestic  spirit  nearly  corresponding  to  the  Ban- 
shee ;  the  Kelpy,  a  kind  of  watcr-hoi-se,  being  little 
different  from  the  Phooka  ;  and  the  Cluricaime  being 
as  regards  figure  somewhat  analogous  to  the  being 
sung  l)y  Leydcn  in  his  charming  ballad,  '  The  Court 
of  Keeid,ar'  (ilinMrelsy  of  tlia  ScoUinh  Jlorder)  : 

'  Brown  dwarf,  tliat  o'er  the  muu'land  strays. 
Thy  name  to  Keeldar  tell ! ' 

*  The  BroTi-n  Man  of  the  muirs,  who  stays 
Beneath  the  heather-bell.' 
According  to  Irish  as  wcU  as  Scottish  fairy  super- 
stition, the  elves,  though  in  the  main  hannless,  or 
at  most  trickj%  have  the  bad  reputation  of  stealing 
aw.ay  young  children  from  the  cmdle,  and  substitut- 
ing for  them  a  changeling  who  bears  a  resemblauce 
to  the  stolen  infant,  but  is  an  ugly  little  creature, 
and  never  thrives.  On  this  theft  of  a  female 
infant,  who  is  carried  to  Fairj'land,  but  in  the 
coui-se  of  years  returns  to  her  parents,  James  Hogg 
foimded  his  fine  ballad  of  'Kilmeny'  (Queen's  Wake). 
It  need  hardly  be  added,  that  iu  the  ]irogress  of 
gener.al  intelligence,  the  fairy  superstition  has  dis- 
appeared in  Scotland  as  well  as  in  the  greater  part 
of  Ireland,  and  now  is  as  little  a  matter  of  credence 
as  is  the  belief  in  Kngland  of  that  useful  drudging 
fiend,  Robin  Goodfcllow.  Besides  being  embalmed 
iu  imagin.ative  literature,  the  fairy  h.xs  a  perpetu.al 
memorial  in  the  small  cxtiuisitely  sliaped  arrow- 
heads found  so  abundantly  in  northern  coimtries, 
where  they  were  long  known  .as  elf-arrows,  or  bolts 
•with  which  the  more  malignant  fairies  sometimes 
slew  or  injured  cattle  and  human  beings ;  thus, 
when  a  poor  man's  cow  or  heifer  was  suddenly 
affected  with  some  deadly  and  incomprehensible 
illness,  it  was  s.aid  to  be  '  elf-shot.'    Sec  Ei.F-.\RROW- 

HE-VD-i. 
222 


For  the  most  comprehensive  account  iu  the 
Knglish  langu.age  of  the  various  shapes  assumed  by 
this  superstition,  the  reader  is  refeiTcd  to  The  fairy 
Mytholoijij,  by  Thomas  Keightley. 

FAIRS  (Fr.  foire,  from  Lat.  forum,  a  market 
place,  or  ferice,  holidays),  great  perioilic.al  markets, 
some  of  which  are  chiefiy  devoted  to  one  kind  of 
merchandise,  while  others,  of  a  wider  scope,  afford 
opportunity  for  most  of  the  sales  and  purch.ase3  of 
a  district.  Fairs  have  long  been  regularly  held  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  many  |)arts  of  Asia ; 
but  as  they  belong  rather  to  a  state  of  things  which 
is  passing  away,  than  to  modern  civilis.ation,  they 
have  not  been  est.ablished  or  have  not  acqiureii 
the  same  importance  in  America,  In  Europe,  they 
ap])ear  to  have  originated  in  the  church  festivals, 
which  were  found  to  afford  convenient  opjwr- 
tunities  for  commercial  transactions,  the  coucoiu-so 
of  people  being  such  as  took  place  upon  no  other 
occasion.  This  origin  of  fairs  is  commemorated  in 
their  German  name  Messen,  which  is  derived  from 
the  word  employed  to  denote  the  most  solemn  jiart 
of  the  church  ser\-ice.  See  M.VSS.  Some  festivals, 
from  eircuinstances  of  ])lace  and  season,  speedily 
acquired  a  much  greater  commercial  importance 
than  others,  and  began,  therefore,  to  be  freqnente<l 
by  buyers  and  sellers  even  from  remote  jiarts  of  the 
world.  ^V^leu  the  ordinary  means  of  communication 
Vietween  coimtries  and  of  the  exchange  of  commo- 
dities were  very  limited,  fairs  were  of  great  use. 
Princes  and  the  magistrates  of  free  cities  found  it 
to  their  advantage  to  encourage  them,  and  many 
privileges  were  gr.anted  to  them,  which  in  some 
places  still  subsist.  Coiu-ts  of  saimuiary  jurisdiction 
— commonly  called  pie  poudre,  fi'om  the  dusty  feet 
of  the  suitors — were  established  distinct  from  the 
ordinary  courts  of  the  countj'  or  city,  for  the  deter- 
mination of  questions  which  might  aiise  during  the 
f.air.  In  connection  with  all  this,  the  practice  w;is 
necessarily  adopted  of  publicly  proclaiming  the  com- 
mencement and  duration  of  the  fair,  and  this  still 
subsists  where  scarcely  any  other  vestige  remains 
of  the  old  privileges  of  fairs,  .and  where  they  h.ave 
ceased  to  be  of  any  re.al  use  to  the  community,  and 
might,  perh.aps,  with  advantage  to  all  the  interests 
of  society,  be  now  abolished,  as  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  annual  fairs  still  held  in  the  great  cities  of 
Britain. 

In  Western  Europe,  the  goods  ex])osed  for  sale  at 
fairs  are  chiefly  those  in  respect  of  which  there  is 
a  frequent  change  of  fashion.  Pro\'isions  are  seldom 
an  article  of  merchandise  in  them  ;  and  while  in 
some  parts  of  the  continent  persons  of  all  ranks 
still  wait  for  the  great  yearly  fairs  to  make  their 
principal  ]iurchases  of  clothing  and  of  manufactured 
articles  of  every  description — such  things  as  corn, 
wine,  spirits,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  oil,  &c.,  are 
seldom  seen  in  them.  It  is  otherwise,  however,  in 
places  on  the  outskirts  of  ci\Tlis.ation  ;  and  almost 
all  the  produce  of  great  ]iro\'iiiees  is  sold,  and  all 
th.at  their  inh.aliitants  rcquu'e  is  bought  at  such 
fairs  as  those  of  Kiachta  and  Nishnij -Novgorod. 
The  British  fairs  really  of  much  use  at  the  present 
day  are  chiefly  those  at  which  cattle  .are  e.\])osed  for 
sale :  of  these  some  held  on  the  borders  of  tho 
Scottish  Highlands,  and  elsewhere  in  Scotland,  ai'u 
frequented  by  buyers  and  sellers  from  all  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  and  bring  together  the  breeders  of 
cattle  and  the  graziers,  by  whom  the  animals  arc  to 
be  fed  for  the  butcher.  Such  are  the  fairs  or  trj'sts, 
as  they  are  caUed,  at  Falkirk,  Doune,  Edinburgh, 
&c.  At  other  great  yearly  fairs  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  lambs  ami  wool  are  sold ;  and  fairs  chiefly 
for  the  sale  of  the  annu.al  produce  of  pjistoral  dis- 
tricts are  common  in  almost  .all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  greatest  fairs  in  the  world  are  the  Easter  and 


FAIRY  KINGS— FAITH. 


Michaelmas  fairs  at  Leipsic.  These  are  not  to  be 
confoimded  with  the  Leipsic  Book-fair,  which  is 
chiefly  an  occasion  for  the  settlement  of  accounts 
amont;  booksellers  and  publishers.  Next  to  the 
Leipsio  fairs,  those  of  Frankfurt-on-the-M.aine  are 
the  most  important  in  Germany.  The  fairs  of 
Frankfurt-on-the-Oder,  and  of  Brunswick  in  Ger- 
many, of  Zurzach  in  Switzerland,  Pesth  in  Hungary, 
Sinigaglia  in  Italy,  Bergamo  in  Lombardy,  Beaucaire 
and  Lyon  in  France,  and  Nishnij -Novgorod  in  Paissia, 
are  among  the  most  important  in  Europe.  After 
the  great  fairs  of  Leipsic,  that  called  the  Fair  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Paul  at  Nishnij-Novgorod  is  the 
greatest  in  the  world,  and  is  frequented  by  buyers 
and  sellers  from  different  jiarts  of  Europe,  and  of 
Northern  and  Centi%al  Asia.  The  fairs  of  Tauta  in 
Upper  Egyjit,  of  Kiachta  in  the  south  of  Siberia,  of 
Irbit,  .also  in  Siberia,  of  Mecca  in  Arabia,  and  of 
Hurdwar  in  Western  India,  are  also  of  verj'  great 
importance,  and  are  the  most  considerable  fairs  out 
of  Europe.  That  of  Kiachta  is  a  sort  of  barter- 
market,  where  almost  all  the  commercial  trans- 
actions between  the  Ilussian  and  Chinese  emjiires 
take  place.  The  fairs  in  Britain  have  latterly  sunk 
for  the  most  p.art  to  insignificance,  and  in  man)' 
instances  have  entiiely  dlsappearetL  They  were 
gatherings  adapted  to  a  comparatively  backward 
state  of  society,  when  the  provincial  stores  of  goods 
were  few,  and  the  means  of  communication  defec- 
tive. The  prevalence  of  good  roads,  populous  towns 
with  dealers  in  miscellaneous  wares,  and  other 
tokens  of  advancement,  h.ave  superseded  the  neces- 
sity for  the  ordinary  class  of  fairs,  and  in  conse- 
quence they  have  in  some  cases  degenerated  into 
scenes  of  memment,  such  was  Bartholomew  Fail-, 
London,  now  extinct ;  also  Greenwich  Fail',  Glasgow 
Fair,  and  Donnybrook  Fan-,  near  Dublin ;  this  last 
being  likewise  either  extinct,  or  nearly  so.  The 
boisterous  merriments  at  these  fairs  were  of  old  the 
devices  employed  as  likely  to  attract  a  great  con- 
course of  people ;  hence  each  fair  had  its  spoi-t  or 
drollery — football,  wrestling,  yawning,  cudgel-play- 
ing, tiiowing  at  cocks,  sack-races,  flying  dragons, 
grinning  through  horse-coUars,  mock-gi.auts,  mon- 
strous tishes,  so.aped  pigs,  smoking-matches,  eating 
hot  hasty-pudiUng,  whistling,  wheelbaiTow  races. 
M.  Bottin,  the  author  of  a  statistical  View  of  Uie 
Fairs  of  France,  says  that  on  examining  his  work  it 
will  appear  th.at  they  were  placed  for  the  most  p,art 
on  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  or  on  the  marches 
of  ancient  pro^Tnces  ;  or  at  the  foot  of  high  moun- 
tains, at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  snow-se.ason, 
which  for  months  shuts  up  the  inhabitants  in  their 
vallej's  ;  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  famous  cathe- 
drals or  churches  frequented  by  flocks  of  pilgrims ; 
or  in  the  middle  of  rich  pastures.  A  fair  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  held  in  June,  when  the  nights  are 
very  short,  began  at  simset,  and  ended  an  hour 
after  sunrise  :  it  was  called  '  Sleepy  Mai-ket.' 

FAIRY  RINGS  are  spots  or  circles  in  pastures, 
which  are  either  more  bare  than  the  rest  of  the 
field,  or  more  green  and  luxuriant.  Frequently  a 
bare  ring  appears,  like  a  footpath,  ^vith  green  gr.-iss 
in  the  centre,  and  the  circle  which  the  ring  forms, 
or  of  which  it  might  form  a  part,  is  often  some  yards 
in  diameter.  These  rings  began  to  attract  the 
attention  of  men  of  science  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Last  century,  and  various  hj-jiotheses  were  suggested 
to  account  for  them.  Some  imagined  that  they 
might  be  the  effect  of  lightning.  Dr  Withering 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  ascribe  them  to  the 
growth  of  mushrooms.  Dr  WoUaston  further  inves- 
tigated the  subject,  which  h.as  more  recently  been 
very  fully  investigated  by  Professor  Way ;  and  it  is 
now  perfectly  ascertained  and  universaUy  admitted, 
that  fairy  rings  residt  from  the  centrifugal  develop- 


ment of  certain  kinds  of  fungi,  especially  of 
A'jaricua  oreades,  A.  (jamhosxcs,  A.  coccineus,  and 
A.  personatus.  The  Common  ^lushroom  (.^1.  cam- 
jjcstris)  shews  a  tendency  to  grow  in  the  same 
manner.  Probably  the  spot  where  the  agaric  has 
already  grown  is  imfitted  for  its  continued  nourish- 
ment, and  the  mucelium  (spawn)  extends  outwards 
to  new  soil,  the  fungus  unfitting  the  soil  to  which 
it  extends  for  the  immediate  nourishment  of  grass, 
but  enriching  it  afterwards  by  its  own  decay.  The 
mycelium  of  many  fungi  has  certainly  a  tendency  to 
extend  outwards  from  a  centre ;  and  decayed  fungi, 
containing  not  a  little  of  the  phosphate  of  potash, 
are  a  highly  stimulant  manure  for  gr,asses.  Fairy 
rings  of  large  size  sometimes  occupy  the  s;une  situ- 
ation for  many  years.  The  cii'cle  is  almost  always 
imjierfect,  some  accidental  circumstance  ha\-iug 
aiTested  the  growth  of  the  myccHiun  ou  one  side. 

FAITH  is  used  by  theologians  in  v.arious  senses. 
It  is  sometimes  taken  to  denote  the  mere  assent  of 
the  imderstaniling  to  a  set  of  facts  or  of  propositions 
set  before  it ;  it  is  more  peculiarly  used  to  express 
the  living  reception  by  the  heart  of  the  'truth  as 
it  is  in  Christ.'  Some  ili\'ines  have  enumer.-ited 
no  fewer  than  four  kinds  of  faith :  1.  The  faith 
of  miracles,  or  that  immediate  persuasion  of  the 
Abnighty  presence  and  power  of  their  Master, 
which  enabled  the  early  Christians  to  work  miracles 
— a  persuasion,  ajiparently,  which  might  exist  and 
issue  in  astonishing  residts  without  being  associated 
with  mor.il  excellence.  'ITiough  I  have  all  f.aith,' 
says  St  Paul,  '  so  that  I  coidd  remove  mountains, 
and  have  not  charity,  I  am  nothing.'  2.  Historical 
faith,  or  the  assent  of  the  imderstanding  to  truth 
the  evidence  of  which  is  irresistible,  such  as  we 
have  described  above.  3.  Partial  or  temporary 
faith,  such  as  our  Lord  implies  in  his  exjjosition  of 
the  parable  of  the  Sower,  and  as  appeared  to  ani- 
mate those  who,  after  haN-ing  foUoweff  after  Christ, 
turned  back  and  walked  no  more  with  him ;  and 
4  Saving  faith,  or  the  persuasion  of  Christian  truth 
wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

These  distinctions  are  rather  theological  refine- 
ments than  anything  else ;  the  proper  and  char- 
acteristic meaning  of  the  tenn  faith  in  Scripture  h-as 
little  to  do  'n'ith  any  of  them  except  the  last. 
*  Faith,'  says  the  Mi*iter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
'  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  eridence 
of  things  not  seen.'  It  is  a  «sion,  quality,  or 
capacity  of  soul  whereby  spiritual  tnith  is  appre- 
hended, and  spuitual  life  engendered.  The  distant 
is  brought  near  by  it,  .and  substantially  appropri- 
ated ;  the  unseen  is  felt  to  be  a  reality.  Faith  is 
the  organ  by  which  the  sold  passes  beyond  the 
present  and  the  visible  to  the  eternal  and  the  invisible. 
Still  more  characteristically,  perhaps,  faith  is  the 
living  affection  which  binds  the  Chi-istian  to  Christ 
a3  a  Saciour.  '  Faith  is  a  saving  grace  whereby 
we  receive  and  rest  upon  Christ  alone  for  salvation, 
as  he  is  freely  offered  to  ns  in  the  gospel.'  This  is 
its  highest  and  most  comprehensive  meaning,  out 
of  which  all  the  others  come.  '  What  shall  I  do  to 
be  saved  ? '  asked  the  Phihppian  jailer  of  Paul. 
'  Believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,'  he  rephed,  '  and 
thou  shalt  be  saved.'  And  it  is  remarkable  how 
frequently  it  is  Christ  or  God— a  living  person — 
rather  than  any  mere  truth  or  series  of  truths 
which  is  represented  as  the  proper  object  of  Chris- 
tian faith.  '  Ye  believe  in  God  ;  believe  also  in  me.' 
'  We  believe  in  him  that  raised  up  Jesus  our  Lord 
from  the  dead.'  'Abraham  believed  God,  and  it 
was  accounted  to  him  for  righteousness.'  '  Come 
unto  me  all  ye  that  labour  and  are  heavy  laden,  and 
I  will  give  you  rest.' 

F.aith,  therefore,  in  this  its  highest  view,  is 
nothing  but  trust  in  God  and  in  Christ.     This  is 

223 


FAITIIORXE-FAKIR. 


the  faith  which  '  workcth  by  love,'  aud  '  ovcrcometh 
the  world'— the  faith  of  which  St  Paul  and  St 
John  alike  speak.  The  faith  mcntioneil  l>y  St 
James  in  apparent  conflict  with  works  is  different ; 
it  socms  to  have  been  a  mere  relidous  distinction. 
'  Thou  hast  faith,  and  I  have  works.  One  party  put 
forth  faith  as  their  religious  badge— another  works. 
The  spiritual  or  true  meaning  of  cither  the  one 
or  the  other  W.1S  little  regai\led. 

Faith,  in  the  distinctively  Christian  sense,  can 
only  e-xist  by  the  oper.ation  of  God's  Holy  Spirit. 
'  For  by  grace  .-ire  ye  saved,  through  faith  ;  and  th.at 
not  of  yourselves;  it  is  the  gift  of  God.'  Ortho- 
dox divines  gi-eatly  insist  on  the  necessity  of  this 
operation  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  yet  not  so  as  to 
exclude  the  active  co-operation  of  man.  The  Pelagian 
and  Antinomian  extremes  respectively  thi-ow  out 
—the  former  the  divine,  the  latter  the  human  ele- 
ment. Orthodoxy  combines  the  two,  attributing  to 
God  the  effective  agency,  but  to  man  a  real  and 
voluntary  concurrence.  Some  of  the  principal 
theological  controversies  connected  with  f;uth,  and 
not  here  akcady  mentioned,  will  be  noticed  under 
JrsTiFic.\Tioy. 

FAITHORNE,  William,  a  very  eminent  English 
engraver,  was  born  in  London  in  the  early  part  of 
the  17th  c,  but  the  exact  date  is  not  known.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sii-  Robert)  Peake, 
printer  and  printseller.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
cix-il  war,  he  followed  his  master,  who  had  taken 
up  arms  for  King  Charles.  Both  were  t.akeu 
prisoners  at  Basing-House.  F.  was  sent  to  Loudon, 
and  imprisoned  in  Aldersg.ate,  but  after  some  time 
was  released,  ami  obtained  permission  to  leave  the 
comitry.  He  went  to  Fr.ance,  where  he  increased 
his  protieiency  in  the  art  of  engra\-in<',  and  returning 
to  Eiit'land  .-ibout  1650,  commenced  Imsiuess  as  a 
printseller  ne.ar  Temple  B.ar.  He  also  engraved 
steadily  for  the  booksellers  at  the  same  time. 
About  IGSO,  he  gave  up  his  shop,  but  still  pro- 
secuted his  art,  besides  executing  portraits  in 
crayon,  and  painting  in  miniatm-e.  He  died  in 
May  1G91.  P.'s  engravings  are  for  the  most  part 
portraits.  "Walpole'has  given  a  pretty  full  list  of 
them,  a  few  of  wliich  we  may  mention,  such  as  the 
portraits  of  '  Thomas  Hobbcs,'  aitat  70  ;  '  Hcm-ietta 
Maria;'  'Cromwell;'  'Prince  Paipcrt;'  'Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax;'  and  'John  Milton,'  a'tat  G2.  At  first 
F.  imitated  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  manner  of 
engra\-ing ;  but  his  residence  in  France  appears  to 
have  considerably  modified  his  earlier  style.  F.  is 
also  an  author,  having  published  in  16C2  a  treatise 
on  engrarag,  dedicated  to  his  old  master,  and 
entitled  TIte  Art  of  Oraveing  and  Ekhmg,  wherein 
is  expressed  the  true  Wcq/  of  Graveing  in  Copper. 
Also  the  Manner  and  Method  of  that  famous  Callot 
and  M.  Borse  in  their  several  Ways  of  Etching. 

FAKI'R,  a  word  derived  from  the  .-Vi-abic /ai/jo;- 
(poor),  and  designating  a  member  of  an  order  of 
mendicants  or  penitents,  ehietly  in  India  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  In  Persia  and  Turkey,  the 
word  is  also  used  for  Moslem  priests  and  dervishes 
(see  Dervish).  The  origin  of  Fakirism,  an  institution 
■which  reaches  back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity, 
is  lost  in  mythical  darkness.  The  common  account 
of  the  son  "of  a  mighty  rajah,  who,  exi)elled  from 
his  home  and  country  by  the  cruelty  of  his  father, 
made  a  vow,  half  in  revenge,  and  half  in  contrition, 
henceforth  to  roam  a  beggar  through  the  world,  and 
to  win  proselytes  to  a'life  of  poverty  and  sulf- 
mortification,  as  the  one  most  befitting  in  man,  and 
most  pleasing  to  the  Deity,  can  hardly  be  called 
historical.  The  same  yearning  for  rest,  for  peace, 
and  pious  contemplation,  for  escape  from  the  noise 
and  turliulence  of  the  world,  which  haa  everywhere 
•Hi 


and  always  led  still  and  jieusive  minds  into  seclu- 
sion and   solitude,  must  naturally  have  been  more 
]iowerful  here,  in  a  land  which  yielded  almost  of 
itself,  and  in  abundance,  all  that  was  necess.ary  for 
the  sustenance  of  man — in  a  climate  of  flower  and 
sunshine,  where  a  hermit's  calm  retre.at  might  well 
rise  before  the  wearied  eye  in  all  the  soft  sunset 
hues  which  surround  the  abode  of  the  recluse  in 
the  Ramayana,  or  in  the  Sakoont.ala.     But  constant 
seclusion   and    ceaseless    meditation  here,  as   else- 
where, produced  in  all  but  excejitioual  minds  their 
sad   results.      Piety  is  no  longer  enough;  sanctity 
is  the  goal.     Thus,  .abstinence  becomes   mortifica- 
tion ami  self-torture  ;   mental  repose,  mystic  self- 
absorption,  or  frenzied  exaltation.     This  leaiung  of 
the  Hindus  to  a  life  of  asceticism  was  fostered  by 
their   primev.al    religion,    which     enjoins     various 
exercises   of    penance    and   mortification  upon  the 
three     higher    castes    in    general,     but    upon    the 
Brahmins    in    particular.      These,    having    passed 
tlu-ougli   different    st.ages  of   regeneration,    end   by 
becoming  Sanyassis  ('who  have   left  everythmg'), 
and  are  dead  to  the  law.     The  world  and  its  usages 
have  no  more  any  claim  upon  them;  even  religious 
ceremonies  are  no  longer  necessary  to  the  '  United 
with  God.'   They  go  naked,  or  in  filthy  r.ags,  receive 
the   meanest   food'  only,   and  that   without   either 
demand  or  thanks.     Their  etliieal  code  consists  in 
the  ol)servance  of  truth,  chastity,  internal  purity, 
constant  repentance,  and  contemplation  of   Deity. 
After  these  models  I'.akii-ism  seems  chiefly  to  have 
been  framed,  and  its  adherents  were  not  only  pious 
men,  but  occasionally  saints,  workers  of  miracles,  and 
healers  of  all  UIs,  espeei.ally  epilepsy  and  sterilitj-. 
The  halo  which  from  the  first  surrounded  Fakirism, 
and    the    ready   worship    offered    by    the    people, 
attracted  to  its  ranks,  at  a  very  early  d.ate,  m.any 
whose  motives  were  anything  but  pure,  and  who, 
under  a  garb  of  himiility  and  mendicity,  collected 
fabidous   treasui-es.      Strabo   already   distinguishes 
these  vagabonds  from  the  more  honest  members  of 
their  class,  and  if  we  may  trust  the  travellers  of 
our  ovra.  day,  the  more  re.spect.alile  element  has  now 
altogether  disappeared.     Their  nimiber  is  variously 
stated.     In  the  time  of  Tavernier's  visit,  there  were 
more  than  l,'20(l,000  Hindu,  and  80l),()l)0  Jlohani- 
medan  fakii-s  in  the  East  Indies,  and  their  present 
numl>er  is  s.aid  to  exceed  3,000,000.     Papi  describes 
the   Mohammedans  as  guilty  of  the  greater  follies. 
At  times,  especially  in  their  return  from  distaut 
])ilgrimages,  they  are  even  dangerous,  as  the  killing 
of  "an  unbeliever  is  supposed   to    be   an   infallible 
introduction  to  the  glories  of  paradise.     They  live 
either  separately  as  hermits  or  solitary  mendicants, 
or  unite  in  largo  gangs,  carrying  arms  and  a  banner, 
beating  drums,  and  sounding  horns  as  they  ap|)roach 
a  town  or  village.     Their  appearance  is  disgusting 
in  the  extreme;  they  go  naked,  besmeared  with  the 
dung   of  the  holy  anim.al,  the  cow.     Some  bedeck 
themselves  with  the  skins  of  seriients,  some  with 
human  bones ;  others  array  themselves  in  the  garb 
of  women.     Their  fearfid  shrieks,  and  the  hideous 
rollings  of  their  eyes,  add  to  the  disgust  of  their 
appearance.     Imitating  matlmcn,  they  generally  end 
by  becoming  madmen.     The  height  to  which  self- 
torture    is    frequently    carried    by   these   wretched 
fanatics,  and  of  which  we  meet  with  signs  even  so 
far  back   as   the   llamayana,   where  a  penitent  is 
described  as  porpctu.ally"  sitting  with  ujiraised  arms 
between  four  fires,  the  sun  forming  the  fifth,  is  so 
appalling  that  human  nature  shrinks  from  the  mere 
deserijitlon.      Some  pass  their  whole  lives  in  iron 
cages,  laden  with  heavy  chains ;   some  clench  their 
fists  till  their  nails  gro'w  through  the  hand ;  others 
hold  aloft  both  the'ir  arms  till  they  become   like 
withered  branches;   while  others,  again,  tie  their 


TALAISE— FALCONIU.E. 


hands  and  feet  together,  and  roll  head  over  heels 
for  thousands  of  miles.  Not  tlie  least  sad  feature 
in  all  this  is,  that  tliese  religious  antics  are  not 
confined  to  men,  but  that  youths,  and  even  childi'en 
01  tender  age,  are  occasionally  initiated  therein. 

FAtiAISE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Calvados,  is  situated  on  a  lofty  platform  border- 
ing on  a  precipice,  or  falaise,  whence  its  name.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Ante,  a  feeder  of  the  Dive,  22 
miles  south-south-cast  of  Caen.  It  has  three 
suburbs,  one  of  them,  Guibray,  a  mile  to  the  east, 
rivals  the  town  itself  in  size  and  jjopulation.  The 
buiklings  of  interest  are  the  ecclesiastical  edifices, 
the  hospital,  the  public  library,  and,  more  than  all, 
tlic  old  and  ruined  castle,  once  the  scat  of  the  dukes 
of  Nonnandy,  and  the  bii-thjilace  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  In  the  castle,  the  chamber  in  which 
tlie  Conqueror  was  born  is  still  she\ni,  as  well  as 
a  tower  called  '  Talbot's '  Tower,  whicli  is  supposed 
to  have  been  built  by  Talbot  when  Lord  Warden  of 
the  district,  after  the  capture  of  F.  by  Henry  V.  of 


England.  F.  has  manufactures  of  cottons,  hosiery, 
and  bobbin-net.  At  Guibray,  an  important  annual 
fair  is  held,  at  which  great  nimibers  of  horses  and 
cattle  are  sold.  It  takes  place  between  the  10th 
and  2.3th  of  August.     Pop.  7960. 

FALCHION".    See  Sword. 

FALCON    (Falco),   in   the   Linnn^an   zoology,   a 
genus  of  birds,  including  all  the  diurnal  birds  of 
iirey,  now  known  as  the  family  of  I<\ilcoiiidm ;  but 
in   its  present   use  as  a  generic   name,  limited   to 
nearer  accordance  with  its  jiopidar  use,  as  a  desig- 
nation of  those  species  which,  in  the  language   of 
falconi-y,  were  styled  noUe  birds  of  preij.     The  true 
falcons  are  characterised  by  a  liill  curved  from  the 
base,  the  upper  mandible  hooked  at  the  point,  and 
tlic  cutting  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  furnished 
with    a   strong   jirojecting    notch,    or    t(joth.      The 
claws  are  also  sharp,  curved,  and  strong ;    and  in 
accordance    with  all  this   powerful   armature,   the 
whole  frame  is  very  robust   and  muscular.      The 
legs   are   rather   short,   and    liave   great   power   in 
striking  or  seizing  prey.     The  keel  of  tlio  stiTuum 
(l)reastbone)    is   very  large,    and   adapted   for   the 
attachment   of  powerful  muscles  ;   the  fureula  and 
coracoid  bones  (see  Birds)  are  also  very  strong,  so 
as    to   afford   a   sufficient   resisting  base   for   very 
|iowerful  action  of  the  wings.     The  vnngs  are  long 
and    ]iointed,  the   first  and   thii-d  cjuill-feathers    of 
equal    length,    tlie   second  rather   the  longest,    the 
first  and  sccoml  quill-feathers  einarginated  near  the 
tip.     The  true  falcons  are  lioldcr  in  proportion  to 
their  size  than   any  other  Falconidte — even  eagles. 
Ilieir  acutcness  of  vision   is  wonderful ;  and  tluy 
h.ave  very  great  powers  of  flight     A  F.  is  known 
to   liavc  traverscil  the   distance  between   Fontain- 
blcau  and  Malta,  not  less  than  1350  miles,  in  24 
hours;  and  as  these  birds  do  not  usually  fly  during 
the  night,  its  flight  was  jirobably  at  the  rate  of  70 
or  80  miles  an  hour.      They  soar  to  a  prodig'ious 
height  in  the  air,  always  endeavom-ing  to  outsoar 
any  bird  of  which  they  may  be  in  pui-suit,  and  to 
swoop  down  U]ion  it  from  alaove  ;  although  it  is  far 
more  difficult  for  them  to  rise  vertically  in  a  calm 
atmosphere  than   for  birds  of  short    and  rounded 
wing,  and   they  either   rise    obliquely — fiften    also 
making  their  onward  flight  in  a  series  of  arcs — or 
avail  themselves  of  the  wind,  and  by  tij-ing  against 
it,  are  borne  aloft  as  a  boy's  kite  is.     The  species 
are  pretty  numerous ;    some  of  them  are  of  very 
wide    geogi'aphic    distribution,    whilst    others    are 
peculiar    to   certain   countries    or    climates.       The 
British    species    are   the     Gyki-.vlco.v    (q.  v.),    or 
Jerfalcon    (F.    Gijrfalco),    also    known  —  although, 
perhaps,  mth  difference  of  variety— as  the  Iceland  F. 

171 


and  Greenland  F.  ;  the  Peregkixe  F.  (q.  v.), 
(F.  prregrinus),  of  which  the  female  is  par  exceUewa 
the  F.  of  falconers  (see  F^vlco.nry),  and  the  male  is 
the  Tercel,  Tiercel,  or  Tercelet ;  the  Hoebv  (q.  v.), 
(F.  subhuteo) ;  the  Red-footed  F.,  or  Ked-legged  F. 
(/''.  riifipes),  a  small  species,  much  resembling  the 
Hobby;  the  Merlix  (q.  v.),  (/'.  amlon);  anil  the 
Kestrel  (q.  v.),  or  "Windhover  (F.  timiunculu.f). 
For  the  species  chiefly  used  iu  falconry  see 
Falconkv. 

Very  closely  .allied  to  the  true  falcons  are  the 
species  constituting  the  genus  Hierax,  very  small, 
but  remarkable  for  strength  and  courage,  natives  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  upper  mandible  has  two 
notches.  In  the  Harpw/oiis  (Ilarparjus  or  BUlens) 
of  South  America,  both  mandibles  have  two  notches. 
None  of  these,  liowever,  arc  equal  to  the  true  falcons 
in  length  of  wing. 

For  particulars  regarding  the  Falconida?,  as 
subservient  to  field-sports,  see  Falconry. 

FALCO'NE,  Ajjcillo,  an  eminent  Italian  battle- 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  IGOO.  A  fcllow-stuilent 
of  Salvator  Rosa's  at  Sj)agnoletto's  studio,  he  himself 
subsequently  became  the  founder  of  an  academy  of 
much  resort.  In  accordance  with  his  turbulent 
impulsive  nature,  he  flung  himself  into  the  political 
struggles  of  the  times,  and  during  Masauicllo's 
outbreak,  organised  his  nimierous  scholars  and 
dependants  into  a  secret  band,  which  infiicted 
deadly  retaliation  on  the  Spaniards.  On  the 
suppression  of  the  insurrection,  F.  fled  to  France, 
but  subsequently  returned  to  Naples,  where  he  died 
in  1663.  The  works  of  this  painter,  representing 
chiefly  mflitary  scenes,  are  few  in  number,  anil 
costly  in  jirice ;  they  are  prized  for  their  extreme 
lideUty  to  nature,  as  much  as  for  their  harmony 
and  briUiancy  of  coloiu-,  and  their  variety  of 
expression. 

FA'LCONER,  WiLLiAir,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
in  1732,  and  was  one  of  a  family  of  whom  all, 
excepting  himself,  were  deaf  and  diunb.  He  went 
early  to  sea,  ser\-ing  his  apprenticeship  on  board  a 
merchantman;  and  before  he -was  IS  years  of  age 
ho  was  second  mate,  in  a  vessel  iu  the  Levant  trade, 
which  was  shipnTccked  oft"  Cape  Colonna,  himself 
and  two  others  being  the  only  portion  of  the  crew 
saved.  He  published  The.  Shipwreck  in  1762,  and 
dui'ing  the  next  year  he  entered  the  navy  as  mid- 
shipman in  the  Roijal  Cleorye.  When  iieaco  came, 
he  resided  iu  Lojulon,  where  he  wrote  a  satire  on 
Wilkes,  and  compiled  a  Sautieal  Dictioimrij.  He 
proceeded  to  sea  in  September  1769,  as  purser  in 
the  Aurora  frigate;  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
iu  December;  and  perished  with  his  comi)anions — 
the  Aurora  having  gone  down — in  the  Mozambique 
Ciiannel. 

F.  WTote  several  poems,  but  Thi  Shipii-rcrk  is  the 
one  on  which  his  fame  i-ests.  It  abounds  iu  nautical 
language,  and  has  the  rare  merit  of  being  interesting. 
It  is  not  a  great  poem,  but  it  has  always  had  its 
readers  ami  admirers.  In  the  second  edition,  the 
author  added  the  characters  of  Albert,  Itodmond, 
Palemon,  and  Anna — characters  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  actual  sailors  that  iUexis  anil  Chloe  bear 
to  actual  shepherds  and  shepherdesses— and  to  some 
extent  destroyed  that  singleness  of  impression 
which  was  the  chief  merit  of  his  work. 

FA'LCONET,  a  name  used  in  the  l.jth  and  16th 
centuries  for  the  smallest  class  of  cannon.  The 
ball  weighed  from  1  lb.  to  3  lbs.,  and  the  gun  from 
5  cwt.  to  15  cvrt. 

FALCONI'D/E,  a  family  of  diurnal  birds  of  prey 
(see  AcciriTKE;;),  corresponding  with  the  Linna>aii 
genus  Falco,  and  exhibiting  those  characters  of  mus- 
cular vigour,  armature  of  beak  and  talons,  and  power 

;25 


F^VLCONID.E-FALCONTvY. 


of  flight,  which  are  to  be  found  in  their  highest 
perfection  in  the  true  Falcons  (q.v.),  and  in  a  scarcely 
inferior  degree  in  the  Eagles  (q.  v.).  The  siieeics 
are  u\uncrous ;  the  British  Museum  alone  contains 
Fliecimens  of  almost  200  unquestionably  distinct 
siiecies  ;  but  very  many  supposed  species  have  been 
named  and  described  by  ornithologists,  which,  in  the 
progress  of  science,  have  been  ascertained  to  owe 
theu-  distinctive  characters  merely  to  age  and  se.>L 
The  fenxalo  is  generally  larger  than  the  male;  and 


Head  and  Foot  of  Brazilian  Eagle. 

the  phunage  of  the  young  different  from  that  of  the 
auiilt.  There  are,  in  the  different  groups,  consider- 
able diversities  in  the  ciurature  and  strength  of  the 
bill,  which  also  has  the  cutting;  edges  of  the  man- 
dibles either  notched,  festooned,  or  plain ;  the  lews 
and  toes  also  exhibit  diversities  as  to  length,  strength, 
feathering,  &c. ;  and  in  some  groups,  the  \\-ings  are 
much  longer,  and  at  the  same  time  more  pointed,  than 
in  others.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  true 
falcons,  as  contrasted  with  eagles,  hawks,  buzzards, 
kites,  harriers,  &c.,  and,  in  the  language  of  falconry, 
the  former — having  the  second  quill-feather  longest, 
and  the  first  nearly  equal  to  it— are  caUed  nolle 
birds  of  prey  (see  Falcoxey),  being  those  usually 
domesticated  and  trained  for  the  service  of  man ; 
the  latter — haWng  the  fourth  quill-feather  longest, 
and  the  first  very  short— are  called  ignoble  birds 
of  prey,  even  Eagles  receiWug  this  designation. 
The  F.  are  distributed  over  all  "parts  of  the  world ; 
and  almost  all  kinds  of  vertebrate  animals,  except 
the  largest  quadrupeds,  are  the  prey  of  some  of 
them.  Some  also  devour  insects.  Like  the  Fdida: 
among  ravenous  quadrupeds,  the  F.  do  not  willingly 
feed  on  carrion,  but  generally  seize  aud  kill  their 
own  prey.  As  in  the  FeVida;,  also,  there  is  a  jiro- 
\-isiou  for  the  preservation  of  the  claws  from  being 
blunted  by  imnecessary  contact  «ith  the  ground,  or 
with  any  hard  substance,  the  F.  contracting  the 
toes  so  as  to  elevate  their  claws.  The  F.  generally 
live  in  pairs. 

The  Lammer-gcycr  (q.  v.)  connects  this  family 
with  the  Vultures  ;  the  Secretarj'  (q.  v.),  whilst  in 
many  respects  agreeing  with  the  F.,  is  pecidiar  in 
some  of  its  characters. 

FAXCONRY,  the  term  applied  to  the  art  of 
training  certain  of  the  falcon  tribes  to  the  pursuit 
and  capture,  on  the  -iring,  of  birds  such  .as  the 
heron,  jiartridge,  lark,  rook,  raagi>ie,  wild-duck, 
pigeon,  &c.  In  ancient  times,  this  sport  was  called 
Mawkisg,  a  term  still  preserved  in  many  pkaces, 
and  which,  perhaps,  is  the  more  strictly  correct 
of  the  two.  Now  a  d.ays,  Falconry  is  the  term 
23i; 


applied  to  the  sport  aud  all  that  pertains  to  it ; 
Jlawking  to  its  .actual  practice  iu  the  field.  F. 
is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  has  been  traced 
back,  as  an  E.astern  sport,  to  a  period  anterior 
to  the  Christian  er.a.  In  Brit,-un,  it  seems  to  have 
been  followed  before  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy  ; 
and  in  the  celebrivted  Bayeux  tapestry,  Harold  is 
figured  ^ith  a  hawk  upon  his  hand.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, to  h.ave  been  practised  in  Eastern  countries, 
and  in  Central  Europe,  long  before  it  became 
est.ablished  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  to  such  a  height 
did  the  sport  reach  iu  Germ.any,  that  nobles,  aud 
even  kings,  seem  to  have  devoted  to  it  the  greater 
part  of  their  time.  As  .an  instance  of  this,  the 
Emi)eror  Frederic  II.  of  Germany  w.os  a  passion.ate 
admirer  of  the  sport,  and  is  said  to  have  written 
a  treatise  on  F.,  published  by  J.  G.  Schneider  in 
17SS  (2  vols.  Lcip.).  In  Engkand,  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  F.  seems  to  have  taken  rapid  strides, 
being  much  indidgcd  in  by  kings,  nobles,  and  ladies; 
and  in  those  days  the  rauli  of  the  indi\idual  w.as 
indicated  bj'  the  particular  species  of  hawk  carried 
on  liis  w^ist.  Thus,  an  earl  carried  a  Peregrine 
Falcon.  In  the  17th  c,  the  sport  declined  ;_  in  the 
18th  c.  it  partially  revived,  but  .again  fell  oli"  about 
the  yeiir  1725,  when  the  art  of  shooting  birds  on 
the  wing  came  into  fashion.  In  the  present  d,ay,  an 
attempt  is  being  made  in  several  quarters  in  Engl.and 
to  restore  this  noble  sport,  and  alieady  its  restoration 
is  being  .attended  with  growing  success.  Iu  India, 
Persia,  and  other  Eastern  comitries,  F.  is  stiU 
eagerly  practised,  the  methods  there  followed  being 
for  the  most  part  nearly  similar  to  those  of  Great 
Britain. 

In  F.,  two  distinct  kinds  of  hawks  are  used — 
the  loug--n-inged  or  true  falcons,  and  short-winged. 
The  first  (noble  birds  of  prey)  .are  represented 
chiefly  by  the  GjTfalcon  and  Peregrine ;  the  second 
by  the  Goshawk  and  Sparrow-hawk  ;  and  though 
for  certain  purposes  the  male  is  superior,  as  a  rule 
the  females  of  each  species  are  much  more  higljy 
esteemed  for  sporting  purjioses,  from  their  being 
larger  and  more  i>owerfid.  'Long-winged'  hawks 
m.ay  also,  as  a  rule,  be  distinguished  from  the 
' short-\vinged,'  by  tlieir  having  a  'tooth'  or  notch 
on  the  upper  mandible ;  from  the  second  feather 
of  the  wing  being  either  longer,  or  as  long,  as 
the  third ;  and  from  their  impetuous  '  stoop '  at 
their  prey. 

The  Gyrfalcon  (q.  v.)  is  the  largest  species,  but 
from  its  extreme  rarity  in  the  British  Islands,  is 
seldom  used.  The  Peregrine  Falcon  is  the  bird  in 
greatest  f.avour  with  falconers,  and  if  taken  from  the 
nest,  as  is  usually  the  case,  aud  carefully  trained, 
affords  better  sport  than  any  other  British  species. 
We  shall  therefore  confine  our  remarks,  for  the 
most  p.art,  to  the  sport  as  it  is  practised  with  this 
bud. 

No  hawk  is  fit  for  sporting  puqioses  until  it  has 
imdergone  a  careful  process  of  training.  The  yoimg 
hawk  is  more  easily  trained  than  th.at  which  has 
been  caught  iu  a  ^^^ld  state,  but  iu  cither  case, 
a  nimiber  of  operations  require  to  be  gone  through 
before  the  sportsman  ventures  to  take  his  falcon 
into  the  field.  Taken  from  her  nest  ou  some  high 
and  dangerous  cliff  when  nearly  Hedged,  the  eyess, 
or  yotmg  falcon  (with  her  com|)anion-fledglings, 
usually  two  in  number),  is  carefully  conveyed  to  the 
falcimer's  home  :  there  she  is  kept  iu  an  open  slied 
in  a  nest  of  straw,  and  fed  several  times  a  day  upon 
fresh  beef,  with  an  occasion.al  change  of  birds  or 
rabbits.  At  this  somewhat  critical  period,  she 
shoidd  never  be  handled,  except  to  put  on  the  jesses 
and  bells  (see  fig.  1),  which  afterwanls  become  per- 
manent fixtures.  Her  powers  of  flight,  too,  being 
as  yet  very  limited,  she  depends  upon  her  master  for 


FALCONRY. 


regular  supplies  of  food,  and  soon  learns  to  come 
for  her  meab  at  his  call.     Her  meat  is  usually  fixed 


Fis.  2.— The  Lure. 


Fig.  1. — Leg  and  Foot  of  Hawk,  shewing  the  method  of 

attaching  the  Bells  and  Jesses  : 
cr,  the  end  of  leash  ;  i,  b,  the  jesses ;  c,  the  bell ;  d,  the  bewit ; 

c,   the  varvels  of  silver,  with  owner's  name  and  address 

engraved. 

to  an  apparatus  termed  the  lure  (see  fig.  2),  and 
thus  the  hawk  is  early  accustomed  to  that  import- 
ant iustrument,  the  further  uses  of  wJiich  arc 
explained  below.  By 
degrees  her  powers  of 
flight  are  streagth- 
ciiod,  and  she  is  per- 
mitted to  fly  at  large 
(rctiiroing  to  the  lure 
at  her  master's  ^vill 
to  be  fed,  or  iu  hawk- 
ing language,  to  remain 
at  hack)  for  several 
weeks,  dxu'ing  which 
time  her  meals  arc 
gradually  reduced  to 
one  a  day.  WMle  at 
hack,  she  sometimes 
becomes  wild,  wanders 
far  from  home,  and 
lulls  game  for  her- 
self ;  and  when  this  is 
the  case,  she  is  usually  caught  by  enticing  her  to 
a  bow-net,  close  to  which  a  pigeon  or  some  meat 
is  fastened  to  the  groimd.  .iVfter  being  '  taken  up ' 
from  hack,  she  is  kept  at  the  hhck  (see  fig.  3) — the 
stand  upon  which  she  sits — for  a  few  days  before 
her  regular  training  begins.  At  this  time,  also, 
hawks  require  a  bath  twice  or  thrice  a  week. 

The  first  of  the  principal  operations  iu  training 
is  hoodiii;:,  an  operation  which,  if  successfully-  per- 
formed by  the  trainer  diu-ing  his  earlier  efibrts,  jiaves 
the  way  for  overcoming  many  subsequent  difficulties. 
It  demands  the  greatest  patience  and  the  tenderest 
manipulation.  The  hood  is  a  cap  of  leathqr  (see 
fig.  3),  made  to  fit  the  head  of  the  f.alcon  in  such  a 
manner  as  totally  to  obscure  the  light,  a  single 
a])ertiire  only  being  left,  through  which  the  beak 
protrudes,  and  a  slit  behind,  through  which  are 
jiassed  the  braces  or  ties  that  secure  the  hood  to 
the  head.  By  shutting  out  the  hght,  the  hood  is 
.•■.erviceable  in  tending  to  make  the  hawk  quiet  and 
tr.aotable,  but  to  accustom  the  falcon  to  submit  to 
its  use  requires  mttch  time  and  great  management. 
^^^len,  after  gre.at  perseverance,  this  is  achieved, 
the  hawk  is  said  to  be  *  made  to  thr.  hood,'  during 
wliich  process  she  also  learns  to  sit  balanced  upon 
the  fist.  Besides  tending  to  induce  docihty  by 
hiding  the  light,  the  hood  is  of  further  service  in 
shutting  out  from  \'iew  any  object  which  might 
cause  the  hawk  to  flutter  or  bait  off  the  fist  or 
cadge  on  its  way  to  and  from  the  field,  &c.  Hence 
the  hawk  is  carried  always  hooded — the  short- 
winged  only  being  exempt.  To  the  falcon's  legs 
ai-e  attached  two  small  hollow  globes  of  thin  metal. 


called  bells;  these,  again,  are  fixed  to  their  place 
by  leather  straps  called  bnoitu;  and  both,  together 
with  the  jesses,  become  jicrmanent  fixtiu-es  even 
during  the  bird's  fhghts.  Jesses  are  two  leathern 
straps,  five  or  six  inches  in  length,  attached  to 
each  leg  immediately  below  the  bells ;  the  jesses, 


Fig.  3. — Hooded  Peregrine  Falcon  on  its  block : 
Olio  end  of  the  leash  is  attached  to  the  jesses,  the  other  to  a 
ring  driven  into  the  side  of  the  block  ;  and  thus  the  hawU  is 
prevented  from  escaping. 

.again,  are  themselves  attached  to  another  leathern 
strap,  called  the  leash,  about  four  times  the  thick- 
ness of  a  boot-lace  (seo  fig.  1),  by  two  rings  or 
varvds;  and  the  bird  being  thus  cap,arisoned,  the 
falconer  winds  the  leash  tlu'ough  his  fingers,  and 
so  prevents  the  falcon's  escape  while  on  his  ■mist. 
Instead  of  varvels,  some  falconers  follow  the  Dutch 
jilan  of  using  a  s'nivel;  the 
former  method,  however,  is 
now  considered  the  best.  A 
long  cord,  called  the  creance, 
is  further  attached  to  the 
leash,  and  is  used  for  the 
puriMse  of  giving  the  bird 
greater  freedom  diuing  her 
training  than  that  afforded 
by  the  leash  .alone. 

The  lure  is  a  bunch  of 
feathers  attached  to  a  cord 
and  tassel,  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  feathers  is  usually  a 
piece  of  spliced  wood,  to 
which  a  piece  of  meat  may  bo 
attached.  By  accustoming 
the  hawk  to  feed  oli"  the  lure, 
or  to  come  to  it  .at  a  certain 
caU  or  whistle  to  be  fed  when  Fig.  4._Tabur  fStyoke. 
on  the  wing,  the  lure  becomes 

an  important  adjimct  to  the  falconer's  apparatus, 
as  by  it  he  is  en.abled  to  cnlicc  his  bird  back  aftrr 


FALCONRY. 


an  Hiisuccpsshil  chase.  On  such  occ.isions,  the 
falconer  reclaims  his  bird  by  swinging  the  b.iiteil 
lure  round  and  round  his  head,  accompanying  the 
action  by  some  well-known  call.  Fom-  wings  tied 
together  make  a  good  lure.  The  tahur  eli/cke  and 
(Irairer  were  formerly  used  for  the  same  purpose 
as  tlie  lure,  but  were  made  in  the  form  of  a  stick. 

In  Europe,  hawks  arc  cai-ried  on  the  left  wrist 
(while  in  tlie  East  they  sit  upon  the  right) ;  and  to 
protect  the  falconer's  hand  from  being  injured  by 
the  bird's  claws,  a  glove  of  stout  buckskin  leather 
is  used.  And  here  it  m.ay  be  remarked,  that  tlie 
claws  and  beak  of  wild  caught  or  liai/r/anl  falcons, 
are  usually  pared  or  coped.  If  the  bird  to  be 
trained,  instead  of  being  a  nestling,  happens  to  be 
a  wild  one,  the  ilifficultics  of  training  are  immeasm-- 
ably  increased,  and  can  only  be  overcome  by  days 
and  nights  of  imwearying  exertion.  If  it  proves 
unu.sually  restless  and  difficult  to  tame,  it  is  kept 
on  low  diet,  is  prevented  from  sleeping  for  several 
days  and  nights,  and  has  cold  water  poured  upon 
it  by  means  of  a  sponge,  &c.  By  these  and  other 
means,  the  falcon  gi-adually  loses  much  of  its 
restiveness,  and  submits  with  tolerable  readiness 
to  the  processes  of  training. 

For  training  the  ei/ea.i,  or  young  falcon,  to  the 
hire,  as  preparatory  to  entering  at  game.  Sir  John 
Sebright  says :  '  Take  the  hawk  out  while  very 
hungi-y,  and  let  an  assistant  swing  the  lure  roimd 
his  head  steadily,  and  at  full  length  of  the  cord ; 
upon  this  the  falconer  casts  off  his  hawk  "with 
the  usual  whistle  or  halloo,  still  holding  the  creance, 
and  the  assistant  sutlers  the  lure  to  fall  to  the 
ground,  for  fear  of  injury  to  the  hawk,  by  strik- 
ing it  in  the  air  with  the  two  strings  attached. 
When  this  lesson  is  perfect,  the  assistant,  instead 
of  snffei-ing  the  lure  to  faU,  withdraws  it,  and  dis- 
appoints the  hawk,  which  flies  by  him,  and  then 
returns,  when  he  may  be  suffered  to  strike  the 
lure  and  feed  u])on  it.  In  process  of  time,  the 
creance  may  be  removed,  and  the  hawk  enticed  to 
the  lure  fi-om  a  considerable  cUstancc,  and  may  then 
strike  it  in  the  air  (if  the  lure  is  a  light  one),  whUe 
swinging  round  the  head  of  the  assistant.  After  a 
stUl  greater  time,  the  hawk  becomes  so  perfect  that 
she  will  circle  round  the  head  of  the  falconer, 
waiting  for  the  lure  to  be  thrown,  and  is  then 
said  to  "  jcait  on "  perfectly.  AVhen  the  hawk  is 
feeding  on  the  lure,  the  falconer  shoiUd  encourage 
her,  and  suffer  her  to  finish  without  alarm,  by 
which  she  will  be  shewn  that  she  may  do  so 
witliout  fear,  and  will  readily  suffer  herself  to  be 
taken  after  flying.  She  shoidd  also  be  accustomed 
to  horses,  men,  and  dogs.' 

Having  '  ma<le  the  hawk'  to  the  fiet,  the  hood, 
and  the  lure,  she  is  next  'entered'  at  her  game  (the 
ijitarni).  This  is  done  by  tying  a  long  cord  or  creance 
to  the  varvels  of  the  jesses,  and  flj'ing  the  hawk 
fronr  the  hand  at  a  bird  thrown  out  to  it,  also 
restrained  by  a  cord.  The  hawk  is  next  flown 
several  times  without  a  creance  at  birds  itJtorteved 
in  t/ieir  fli'jht,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  l)e  entered 
at  wild  quarry.  In  case  of  faihu'c,  however,  a  live 
bird,  similar  to  that  at  whicli  she  is  flown,  should 
be  carried  tt)  the  field,  and  thrown  out  to  her  in  a 
creance  by  way  of  cncour.agcment. 

The  heron  is,  and  always  has  been,  a  favourite 
object  of  pursuit  in  British  F.,  the  period  of  the  year 
best  adapted  for  the  sport  being  the  breeding  season. 
Having  jircviously  .ascertained  the  feeding-place  of 
that  bird,  tlie  hawking  party  makes  for  the  sjiot, 
usually  towards  evening,  if  possible  in  a  direction 
ilovm-wind  from  the  heronry,  so  as  to  intercept 
the  bird  in  its  iip-icind  flight  homewards.  Wlien  a 
heron  is  seen  to  pass,  a  couple  (a  cast)  of  hawks  arc 
unhooded  and  'cast  off,'  and  the  chase  commeuces. 
236 


The  heron,  seeing  the  falcons  approach,  disgorges  its 
food,  to  lighten  itself,  and  immediately  a.seends  in 
tlie  air;  the  hawks,  eager  in  pursuit,  and  quicker  of 
wing,  speedily  make  upon  it,  and  strive  to  gain  a 
greater  elevation  liy  a  series  of  beantifid  gyrations. 
When  one  of  the  hawks  succeeds  in  rising  above 
the  heron,  it  sloops,  that  is,  descends  swiftly,  and  in 
a  direct  line,  upon  the  game,  aiming  a  stroke  with 
its  outstretched  legs  and  talons  at  its  body ;  this 
the  heron  almost  always  succeeds  at  iirst  in  eluding, 
by  a  rapid  and  sudden  movement  aside.  Tlie 
second  hawk,  which  by  tliis  time  has  also  soared, 
then  stoops,  wliile  tlio  Iirst  is  regaining  its  fornier 
altitude;  and  so  on  for  m.any  successive  times,  till 
one  hawk  at  length  clutches  the  heron  or  biiid.^, 
upon  which  her  companion  joins  her,  and  the  three, 
buoyant  liy  the  motion  of  tlicir  wings,  descencl 
gently  to  the  earth.  The  falconer's  imperative  duty 
is  now  to  be  up  or  near  the  si>ot  wliere  tlie  three 
birds  are  deseemling,  to  divert  the  attention  of  the 
hawks  before  they  reach  the  ground,  and  entice 
them  fi-om  the  quarry  to  him,  by  means  of  live 
pigeons  as  lures.  This  is  very  necessary,  as  the 
heron  is  extremely  dangerous,  and  has  been  fre- 
quently known  to  injm'e  the  hawks  with  its  sh.arp 
beak  when  on  the  gi'ound,  though  it  is  all  but  per- 
fectly harmless  whUe  in  the  air.  When  the  heron's 
woimds  have  been  dressed — for  this  bii"d  is  rarely 
killed  in  sucli  encounters — a  ring  with  the  captor's 
name  is  usually  affixed  to  its  leg,  after  which  it  is 
set  at  liberty,  and  so  becomes  available  for  future 
sport.  The  falconer's  usual  cry  of  encouragement 
to  liis  hawks  upon  the  springing  of  the  quarry,  is 
'  Hooha-ha-ha-ha ! '  His  cry  when  the  quarry  is 
killed,  is  '  Whoop ! '  A  falcon  takes  its  prey  either 
by  tearing  or  rakinij  it  with  the  hind  claw  of  each 
foot  at  the  instant  of  passing,  or  l)y  clutching  the 
•N-ictim  Arith  its  talons,  and  when  she  thus  succeeds 
in  bintling  to  her  quarry,  she  slowly  descends  with 
it  to  the  ground.  The  snpjiositiou  that  the  hawk 
strikes  its  quarry  with  the  Ijeak  or  breastbone  in 
its  swoop,  is  a  mist,alcen  one. 

Besides  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  the  Merlin  is  trained 
for  F.,  and  is  extremely  bold.  This  bird,  however, 
is  flown  at  small  g.ame,  chiefly  larks.  The  (Jos- 
hawk,  though  it  does  not  so.ar  and  stoop,  flics 
direct  at  its  game :  it  is  used  chiefly  for  iiheasants, 
rabbits,  hares,  &c.,  in  an  enclosed  country.  The 
Sjiarrow-hawk,  from  its  extreme  boldness,  is  a  great 
favourite,  but  is  flown  at  smaller  kinds  of  birds 
only,  such  as  blackbirds  and  thrushes,  &c.  The 
Hobby  is  seldom  or  never  used. 

The  following  are  the  jirincipal  terms  used  in 
falconry.  A  falcon's  legs,  from  the  thigh  to  the  foot, 
ai'o  termed  arni,^ ;  toes,  petty  jiiiifjlcs;  claws,  potuices; 
wings,  sails;  tad,  train;  crop,  (jorf/e;  lower  stomach, 
pannel ;  feathers,  hair,  &c.,  ejected  at  the  month, 
the  ca,dinf;s.  A  young  hawk  from  the  nest  is  an 
ci/ess  or  eyas ;  one  that  can  hop,  but  not  fly  well,  a 
brancher ;  a  nestling  hawk  reared  at  liberty,  is  a 
haclc-hawk ;  a  young  hawk  able  to  take  game,  a 
soar-hawk ;  a  mature  wild  liawk  is  a  hapgard  or  blue 
hawk ;  young  hawks  taken  in  their  migrations,  are 
passage-hawks,  or  red  hoicks — the  term  red  being 
applied  merely  as  a  title  of  distinction  between 
the  young  hawk  and  the  eyess  or  nestling,  the 
colours  of  the  two  being  in  reality  the  same.  The 
training  of  the  passage-hawk  and  h.aggard  is  termed 
rcclaiminri ;  fluttering,  is  baitinij ;  lighting  witli 
each  other,  crabbing ;  sleeping,  joukinti.  The  ])rey 
is  termed  the  quarry.  When  the  hawk  strikes 
her  quarry  in  the  air  and  clings  to  it,  she  binds; 
when  she  flies  off"  with  it,  she  carries;  when 
she  plucks  it,  she  deplumes.  Dead  game  is  the. 
pelt.  Stooping  or  stmoping  is  the  act  of  descending 
with  closed  wings  from  a  height  at  prey.    Dh-ect 


FALEM^— FALKIRK. 


flight,  without  soaring,  is  rakimj  off;  changing  from 
one  bird  to  another,  checkinij.    When  gamo'aiCs  into 
a  hedge,  it  puts  in.     When  the  hawk  is  moulting 
her  feathers,  she  is  meunni/ ;  after  her  first  moult' 
she  IS  inlennewed;  with  complete  plumage,  summed; 
when   in  good   condition,  she   is   enseamed ;   when 
out    of   condition,  seamed.      Jlendiiig   the  feathers 
artificially     (an     operation     frequently     pcrfoi-med 
when  one  has  been  accidentally  broken)  is  termed 
Unpin rj ;  blunting   bill   and   talons,  copinr/.     When 
the   falcon   Ls   obediently  flying  round   in   the  air, 
shp.  waits  on  her  ma.<iler  ;  flying"  long- winged  hawks 
from  the  WTist,  is  termed  Jlifinij  out  of  the  hood;  a 
couple  of  hawks  is  a  auit.    The  cadge  is  a  frame  of 
wood  with   four  legs.     It   is   carried   by  means  of 
straps,  which  ])ass  over  the  bearei-s'  (the  cadgers') 
shoulders,  and  is  used,  when  there  are  several  Ijasts 
of  hawks,  to  lie  taken  to  the  field.     Tlie  llocl:  (see 
fig.  3)  is  a  round  piece  of  wood,  such  as  would  be 
made  by  sawing  a  foot  of  wood  out  of  a  foiled  larch- 
tree  of  some  twenty  years'  growth ;  and  upon  this 
the  hawk  sits  when   out  of  doors.      Through   the 
bottom  of  the  block  runs  an  iron  spike,  whicli  beinc 
di-iven  into  the  ground,   secures  the  Idock    to   its 
place,  and  so  prevents  the  hawk  from  dragging  it 
away.      Falcons   are  very  pugnacious,   amf  °if  'not 
carefully  kept  .separate,  would  soon  kill  each  other. 
The  screen  or  perch  is  a  perch  guarded  by  a  falhng 
piece  of  canvas,  to  supjwrt  the  hawks  "iu  case  of 
their  leaping  dowu ;  upon  this,  the  hawks  are  placed 
at  night  in  an  apartment  called  the  views. 

The  best  works  on  the  subject  are  those  of  Tur- 
ber\-ille  and  Latliam,  respectively,  as  old  treatises ; 
and  that  of  Sir  John  .Sebright,  as  comparatively 
modern.  Of  the  more  recent  treatises.  Falconry 
VI  the  Brit'ish  Isles,  by  Sah=in  and  Brodrick  (Lond. 
18,55),  and  Fakonnj,  its  Claims  ami  Practice,  by 
Freeman  and  Salvin  (Lond.  1859),  are  the  best 
authorities. 

The  village  of  Falconswaerd,  near  Bois-le-Duc,  in 
Holland,  has  for  many  years  fm-nished  falconers  to 
almost  all  Europe.  Sir  John  Sebright  says:  'I 
have  knoMni  many  falconers  in  England,  and  in 
the  service  of  diUereut  princes  on  the  continent, 
but  I  never  met  with  one  of  them  who  was  not  a 
native  of  Falconswaerd.' 

FALE'ME,  one  of  the  most  important  tributaries 
of  the  Senegal  (q.  v.),  into  which  it  falls,  in  lat. 
about  HMO'  N.,  and  long.  W  -IS'  W.  Its  course 
has  not  yet  been  fully  explored. 

FALE'RII,  a  city  of  ancient  Etnu-ia,  was  situated 
west  of  the  Til>er,  and  north  of  Mount  Soracte.  Its 
earliest  historical  appearance  is  in  4.37  Kc,  when, 
according  to  Li\y,  the  inhabitants  (who  were  called 
Falisci)  joined  with  those  of  Veii  in  assisting  the 
Fidenates  against  the  Komaus.  The  Falisci  were 
among  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  Kome,  and 
■\\ere  the  last  of  the  Etnu-iaus  who  submitted  to  its 
jiowcr.  Their  city  w.as  at  l.xst  destroyed  by  the 
Itomans  (-241  B.f.),  and  they  themselves  were  com- 
pelled to  choose  a  new  site  a  few  miles  ofl'.  Here  a 
Koman  colony  was  settled  in  the  time  of  the  trium- 
virs, whence  the  place  took  the  name  of  Colonia 
Junonia  Faliscoruin.  But  this  Roman  F.  does  not 
appear  to  have  ever  acquired  any  imjiortance,  for 
tile  temple  which  anciently  attracted  so  many 
pilgrims,  stood  on  the  site  of  the  older  town. 
During  the  middle  ages,  however,  a  new  city 
sprung  uj)  on  the  ruins  of  the  Etruscan  F.,  which 
fin.ally  obtained  the  name  of  Civila  C'aslellana  (q.  v.). 
lluins  of  the  Koman  or  later  F.,  consistinc  of  a 
part  of  the  ancient  walls,  are  still  visible.        ° 

FALE'RNIAN  WINE,  so  caUed  from  Falamuf 
Aijer,  the  district  in  which  it  was  grown— and 
which  lay  in  the  northern  portion  of  Campania, 


between  the  il.assicaii  HUls  and  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Vulturnus— was  one  of  the  favourite  wines  of 
the  Romans.  It  is  described  by  Horace  as,  in  his 
time,  sun)assing  all  other  wines  then  in  repute,  and 
seems  to  have  been  in  great  favour  with  the  jioet 
himself.  In  the  time  of  Pliny,  however,  as  he  him- 
self infonus  us,  Falernian  wine  had  already,  owinc 
to  a  want  of  care  in  its  cultivation,  begun  to  declme 
ill  quality;  and  the  wine  then  esteemed  the  best 
was  a  variety  grown  in  the  Falernian  neighbourhood, 
and  called  Fauslianum. 

FALIE'RI,  Marlxo,  a  celebrated  Venetian,  was 
boru  about  the  year  1284.     He  was  elected  in  13.54, 
at  the  age  of  70,  Doge  of  Venice,  and  was  the  third 
of  liis  n.ame  called  to  this  supreme  dignity,  but  was 
decapitated  in  the  following  year  for  iSs  daring  con- 
spiracy  against  the   rights  of  the   commonwealth, 
which,  previous  to  his  election,  he  had  zealously 
served  in  the  capacities  of  commander  of  the  forces, 
commander  of  the  fleet,  and  ambass.ador.     At  the 
siege   of   Zara,   in    1340,  he   defeated   an   army  of 
80,000  Hunwariaus,  vigorously  pursuing  at  the  same 
time  extensive  siege-operations,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  war,  having  assumed  the  command  of  the  fleet, 
captured  Capo  d'Istria.     Subsequently,  he  became 
amljassador  of   the  republic  to  Kome   and  Genoa. 
Of    an   imgovernable   and    implacable   temper,   his 
bitter  resentment   seems  to  have  been   roused  by 
a  grossly  off'ensive   libel  on  his  fair  and  youthful 
wile,  the  author  of  which,  a  young  patrician  named 
Michele  Steno,  owed  some  grudge  to  the  doge.     The 
lumishment  awarded  to  the  young  noble  by  a  patri- 
cian tribun.al  seemed   to   F.   wholly  inadequate  to 
the  ofl'ence  by  which  his  ducal  dignity  had  been 
outraged,  and  in  order  to  avenge  this  double  shght, 
he   organised   an   audacious   plot,  with  the  object 
of  overthro-n-ing  the  republic,  and  massacring  the 
he.ads  of   the    aristocracy,  to   be   followed  by  his 
owni  assumption  of  sovereign  rights.     The  conspiracy 
was,  however,  revealed  on" the  "eve  of  its  execution, 
and  F.  was  arrested.     He  suflered  death  by  deca- 
pit.ation   on   the   17th   of  April  1355,  on  the  very 
spot  where,  a   year   pre\'iously,  he   had   been   ten- 
dered universal  hom.age   as  supreme  magistrate  of 
the  state.     In  the  hall  of  the  great  council,  which 
contains  the  jiortraits  of   all   tlie  doges,  the  space 
allotted  to   th.at   of  F.    is   dr.ape<l  with   a   veil    of 
sable,  and  bears  the  follo-ning  inscription :  '  Hie  est 
locus  JIakin-i  Faletko,  decapitati  pro  criminibus.' 
A  ^  faithful   representation  of  the  plot,  and   of   its 
chief  confeder.ates,  is   given  in   Byron's   cb-ama   of 
Marino  Falieri. 


FA'LKIRK,  a  Scottish  parUamentary  burgh,  situ- 
ated on  a  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  a  populous 
mineral  and  manufacturing  district  in  StirUngshire, 
near  the  r.ld  Roman  w.all  of  Antoninus,  wfth  nd 
]>retension  either  to  beauty  of  situation  or  to  archi- 
tectura,l  or  other  elegance.  Pop.  in  ISGl,  9029.  In 
IGOO,  it  was  made  a  burgh  of  b.arony  by  Kin" 
James  VI.,  in  favour  of  Alexander  Lord  Livin'° 
stone,  afterwards  Earl  of  Callander,  in  whose 
favour  -also  it  was  in  1G46  created  a  biu-o-h  of 
regality  by  King  Charles  I.  In  1715,  it  passt-d  to 
the  crown  by  the  forfeiture  of  the  Earl  of  Lmlith- 
gow  and  Callander ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  pass- 
mg  of  the  Reform  BUI  in  1832  that  it  was  made 
a  pariiamentary  burgh,  and  received  a  municipal 
constitution,  with  a  council  of  twelve,  including  a 
provost,  three  bailies,  and  a  treasurer.  It  unites 
with  Airth-ie,  Hamilton,  Lanark,  and  Linlithgow,  in 
sending  a  member  to  parliament.  It  has  nine^yearly 
fau-s,  an  extensive  inland  trade,  v.arious  local  manu- 
factures, and  charitable  institutions.  Its  parish 
church— the  Eglais  Bhree,  Varia  Capella,  or  Specldcd 
Kii-k  of  our  chartularies  and  of  local  tradition— has 


FALKIRK— FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 


one  or  two  momunents  of  some  antiquity,  but  was 
itself  rebuilt  in  the  year  ISIO.  The  church,  church 
l.-inds,  and  barony  belon<;ed  of  old  to  the  Abbey  of  \ 
HohTood.  Near  F.,  in  1298,  Sir  William  Wallace 
made  his  masterly  retreat  from  the  dis;uitrou3  battle 
(see  Falkirk,  Battle  of),  in  which  he  lost  his  brave 
companions  in  arms.  Sir  John  Graham  and  Sir  John 
Stewart,  both  said  to  be  interred  iu  the  parish 
churchyard.  The  inscribed  stone  alleged  to  cover 
the  gr.-vve  of  Sir  John  Graham,  is  app-ai-cutly  more 
modern  than  his  time.  In  17-U>,  the  neighbourhood 
of  F.  was  the  scene  of  another  battle,  iu  which  the 
roy.ll  troops  were  defe.ited  by  those  of  Prince  Ch.arles 
Edward.  It  is  now  chiefly  noted  for  its  well-kuo\\-n 
cattle-trvsts,  at  which  stock  is  yearly  sold  to  the 
amount 'of  about  £1,000,000.  In  the  irauiediate 
vicinity  are  the  Carron  Ironwo^ks,  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal,  and  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and 
Scottish  Central  Railways.     (1S71— pop.  95-17.) 

FALKIRK,  Battlk  of.  Wallace  had  followed  up 
his  victory  over  the  English  near  Stirling  in  1297, 
by  taking  possession  of  some  of  the  more  impm-tant 
fortresses  of  Scotland.  In  the  following  year,  Kiug 
Edward,  ha\'ing  returned  from  Flanders,  summoned 
a.  great  army  to  meet  him  at  York,  and  marched 
northward  to  Roxburgh,  .and  thence  along  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland  and  the  shore  of  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  It  w.as  not  till  the  day  of  the  battle,  the 
22(1  July  129S,  that  Edward  first  saw  the  enemy. 
The  Scottish  infantry,  much  inferior  in  numbers  to 
the  English,  were  arranged  in  four  circular  bodies 
on  a  small  eminence  near  FaUiirk,  .and  M-ere  armed 
with  lances,  and  mth  bows  and  an-ows.  The  cavalry, 
niunbering  only  1000  men,  were  jilaced  in  the  rear. 
Tliis  array  was  charged  by  the  English  cavahy. 
The  Scottish  footmen  bravely  mthstood  the  onset  of 
the  weU-appointod  English  horse ;  but  the  cavah-y, 
dismayed  by  the  preponderating  numbers  of  the 
enemy,  rode  from  the  field  without  strilcing  a  blow. 
Thus"left  without  support,  the  spearmen  and  archers 
were  compelled  to  yield,  and  the  retreat  became 
general.  The  loss  on  the  Scottish  side  is  said  to 
have  amoimted  to  15,000  men.  The  results  of  this 
defeat  were,  that  the  milit.ary  power  of  Scotland, 
such  as  it  was,  was  broken  ;  and  Edward  returned 
to  England  master  of  all  the  important  strongholds 
of  the  south. 

FAXKLAKD,  a  royal  burgh  of  Scotland,  iu  the 
county  of  Fife,  is  situated  at  the  north-e.astern  base 
of  the  Lomoud  Hills,  22  miles  north  of  Edinburgh, 
and  10  miles  south-west  of  Cupar.  The  e.ast 
Lomond  Hill  rises  so  abniptly  behind  the  town  as 
to  intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun  from  it  for  several 
weeks  during  winter.  F.  was  in  early  times  a  manor 
of  the  Earls  of  Fife.  It  passed  from  them  to  the 
crown  in  1425,  and  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by 
James  II.  iu  1458.  AVithin  the  town  are  the  remains 
of  Falkland  Palace — a  large  tower  (in  the  same  style 
as  the  north-western  tower  of  Holyrood)  above  a 
v.anlted  doorway  leading  into  the  courtyard,  built 
.about  1500,  and  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  built 
between  1530  and  1550,  fine  .and  interesting  examples 
of  Scottish  architecture.  The  palace  was  a  favourite 
residence  of  King  James  r\^,  and  after  his  death,  in 
151. 'i,  his  widow,  the  impetuous  sister  of  King  Hemy 
VIII.  of  England,  was  here  kept  in  restraint  for  a 
season.  Hero  her  son.  King  James  V.,  died  in  1542. 
The  last  kmg  -who  occupied  the  palace  was  Charles 
II.,  who  passed  a  few  days  in  it  in  1650.  Of  the 
more  ancient  castle  in  which  Da\-id,  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  was  imprisoned  and  starved  to  death 
by  the  Duke  of  Albany,  in  1402,  no  traces  now 
remain.  F.  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  verses  of 
Sir  David  Lindsay.  Pop.  (18G1)  2938,  who  support 
themselves  mainly  by  handloom  weaving. 

-.230 


FALKLAND,  Lucirs  Caky,  Viscount,  was 
born,  it  is  believed,  at  Biu'ford,  in  Oxfordsliirc,  in 
1010,  and  educated  first  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin 

his  father,  Henry  C.ary,  Viscount  Falkland,  being 

at  that  time  lord-deputy  of  Ireland — and  afterwartls 
•at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Even  during  his 
father's  lifetime,  he  enjoyed  an  ami)le  fortune,  left 
him  by  his  grandfather.  His  earher  years  were 
wholly  devoted  to  study,  and  to  the  conversation 
of  learned  men,  among  whom  he  himself,  by  all 
.accoimts,  must  have  occupied  a  first  place.  His 
residence  (Burford)  was  only  teu  mUcs  from  O.\ford, 
and  here,  according  to  Clarendon,  'he  contracted 
familiarity  and  friendship  with  the  most  polite  and 
acciu-.ate  men  of  that  luiiversity.  The  praise  which 
that  historian  bestows  on  him  is  extraordinary;  but 
F.  is  one  of  those  historical  personages  whose 
chai-acter  and  abiUties  we  nuist  t.ake  on  the  word 
of  friends  and  panegjnists,  if  at  all,  for  his  deeds 
and  writings  are  not  equal  to  his  fame.  In  1633, 
he  w:is  m.ode  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  privy- 
chamber  to  Charles  I.,  and  took  part  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  the  Scots  in  1639.  In  1640,  he  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Newjiort  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  and  was  at  fii-st  distinguished  by  his 
patriotTo  zeal  for  the  laws  and  constitution  of  his 
country.  Against  such  men  as  StrafTord  and  Finch 
he  exhibited  great  severity  of  sjieech,  though  even 
iu  theu-  case  his  almost  finical  love  of  the  forms 
of  legal  procedure  was  manifested.  Shortly  after, 
he  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  assume  quite  a 
ilifferent  political  stand-point,  and  to  oppose  what 
seemed  to  him  the  excesses  and  illegalities  of  the 
popular  party.  On  the  brealdng  out  of  the  ci\-il  war, 
he  consequently  took  part  with  the  king,  though 
mourning  deeply  the  miseries  which  his  country  was 
about  to  suffer.  He  died  a  soldier's  death  at  the 
b.attle  of  Newbmy,  September  20, 1643.  F.  was  quite 
unfitted  to  play  a  practical  part  in  the  saiwuinary 
politics  of  his  time ;  but  his  genuine  love  of  England 
and  of  the  lights  of  the  nation,  wliich  burned  iu 
him  as  strongly  when  a  roy.alist  as  when  attack- 
ing Str.afford  and  the  bishop's,  enables  ns  to  mider- 
stand,  better  than  we  might  otherwise  have  done, 
the  deep  indignation  that  possessed  the  EngUsh 
centlemeu  who  represented  the  Commons,  .at  the 
arrogant  and  unprincipled  policy  of  .  Charles's 
advisers.  F.  wrote  various  treatises,  &c.,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  A  DiscoU7-se  on  the  Infallibility  oj 
the  Churdi,  of  Rome. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  the  only  consider.able 
cluster  in  the  South  Atlantic,  Ue  about  300  miles  to 
the  east-north-ea.'it  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  stretch- 
ing in  S.  lat.  from  51°  to  52°  30',  and  in  W.  long, 
from  57°  40'  to  61°  20'.  After  hnyrag  successively 
belonged  to  France  and  Spain,  they  have,  since  1771, 
formed  part  of  the  British  empire;  and  in  1833  they 
beg.an  to  be  settled,  being,  as  a  whole,  tlie  most 
southerly  of  the  organised  colonies  of  ICngland. 
They  number  .about  200,  presenting  a  total  area  of 
about  13,000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1858)  621.  The 
two  largest  members  of  the  group,  E.ast  Falldand  and 
West  Falkland,  comprise  between  them  more  than 
half  the  surface;  and  of  the  remainder,  the  chief 
ones  are  Great  Swan,  Saimders,  Kep^iel,  Pebble, 
Eagle,  .and  Jason.  This  possession  la  valuable 
m.amly  from  its  position  with  respect  to  the  Southern 
and  Pacific  Oceans,  being  in  this  connection  all  the 
more  valu.able  on  .accoimt  of  its  many  excellent 
harboiu-s.  Both  the  soil  and  the  clim.ate  are  much 
better  adapted  to  pastunage  than  to  cultivation. 
While  the  natural  grass  is  extremely  luxuriant, 
scarcely  anything  but  a  few  vegetables  is  gi-own 
in  the  settlement.  The  coasts  teem  with  lish, 
more  especially  with  cod ;  .and  in  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  penguins  and  seals  are  killed  in  gi'cat 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS— FALL. 


numbers  for  the  sake  of  their  oil.  The  temperature 
13  very  different  from  that  of  the  corresponding 
parallels  in  the  south  of  England,  being  both  lower 
in  summer  and  higher  in  winter.  The  mean  of 
the  former  season  is  about  53"  F.,  and  of  the  latter, 
about  40°.  These  averages  considerably  exceed  the 
vague  estimates  of  early  navigators,  who,  coming 
suddenlj'  down  from  the  tropical  heats,  appear  to 
have  here  felt,  by  comparison,  something  of  hyper- 
borean cold.  Though  there  is  no  timber  worthy 
of  the  name,  yet  peat  abounds  to  the  depth  of  ten 
feet.  In  1S57,  the  revenue  and  expenditure  respec- 
tively were  £.3040  and  £o54G ;  while,  in  the  same 
year,  the  arrivals  from  abroad  shewed  40  vessels 
and  18,415  tons.  In  18.50,  the  imports  amoimted 
to  £11,300,  and  the  exports  to  £11,800. 

According  to  an  official  retui'u  for  1858,  20  acres 
have  been  reclaimed  for  horticulture  in  the  neigh- 
1  )nurhood  of  Stanley,  the  seat  of  government ; 
.ind  the  sheep,  chiefly  Cheviots  and  Southdowns, 
amounted  to  8000 ;  the  wool  commanding  a  good 
]>rice  in  London,  and  the  mutton  finding  a  ready 
market  on  the  spot.  The  peace  of  the  colony,  pre- 
viously guarded  by  a  single  constable  and  casual 
aid,  had  been  secured  by  the  arrival  of  a  small 
garrison  of  embodied  pensioners. 

PALL.  The  doctrine  of  the  Fall  is  the  doctrine  of 
the  historical  introduction  of  evil  into  the  world,  as 
described  in  the  third  chajiter  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
The  statement  of  this  chapter  in  its  natural  and 
obWous  meaning  is  to  this  effect,  that  the  serpent, 
which  '  was  more  subtil  than  any  beast  of  the  field 
which  the  Lord  God  had  made,'  temjited  the  woman 
to  eat  of  the  tree  of  the  luiowledge  of  good  and  evil, 
regarding  which  the  Lord  God  had  said,  'Thou 
shalt  not  cat  of  it :  for  in  the  day  that  thou  eatest 
thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die.'  In  contempt  of  this 
command  and  warning,  '  the  serpent  said  unto  the 
woman  :  "  Ye  shall  not  surely  die  :  for  God  doth 
know  that  in  the  day  ye  eat  thereof,  then  your 
eyes  shall  be  opened,  and  ye  shall  be  as  gods, 
knowing  good  and  e\'il."  And  when  the  woman 
.saw  that  the  tree  was  good  for  food,  and  that  it 
was  pleasant  to  the  eyes,  and  a  tree  to  be  desired 
to  make  one  wise,  she  took  of  the  fruit  thereof, 
and  did  eat,  and  gave  also  imto  her  husband  with 
)ier;  and  he  did  eat.'  The  result  of  this  was, 
that  their  eyes  were  opened,  and  they  linew  that 
tliey  were  naked ;  and  when  they  heard  the  voice 
of  the  Lord  in  the  garden,  they  hid  themselves ; 
and  on  being  summoned,  they  acknowledged  their 
transgression,  and  were  driven  forth  from  Eden. 
So]>ar.ate  pimishments,  also,  as  the  consequence 
I  if  the  transgression,  were  denounced  against  the 
serpent,  the  woman,  and  the  man.  The  first 
w.as  cursed  above  all  cattle,  and  condemned  to  go 
u])on  its  belly,  and  to  eat  dust  all  the  days  of  its 
life.  Enmity  was  to  be  put  between  it  and  the 
woman,  and  between  iU  seed  and  her  seed ;  '  it 
shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bnuse  his  heel.' 
Tlie  woman  was  to  bring  forth  children  in  sorrow, 
and  to  be  subject  to  her  husband,  to  whom  her 
desire  was  to  cleave.  The  ground  was  cursed  for 
the  man's  sake,  and  he  was  to  eat  of  it  in  sorrow  all 
the  days  of  his  life  ;  in  the  sweat  of  his  face  he  was 
to  eat  bread  till  he  returned  to  the  ground. 

Such  is  the  narrative  of  Genesis,  upon  which  the 
doctrine  of  the  Fall  is  based.  The  doctrine  assumes 
varioiis  forms,  according  to  the  interjiretation  which 
tlie  narrative  receives.  Some  theologians  interi>rct 
the  narrative  more  literally — although  none  can  be 
said  to  do  so  quite  literally — and  others  interpret 
it  more  figuratively ;  while  others  reject  it  altogether 
as  a  narrative,  and  look  upon  it  merely  as  a  mj'thical 
story  of  the  early  time — mirroring  the  lapse  from 
a  primitive  golden  age,  or  age  of  innocence. 


1.  Even  the  most  orthodox  theologians  so  far 
spiritualise  the  narrative,  or  regard  it  figuratively. 
The  serpent,  for  example,  is  with  them  the  devil, 
although  the  text  in  Genesis  itself  gives  no  hint  of 
such  an  interpretation.  The  enmity  between  the 
serpent  and  the  woman  is  the  enmity  between  the 
devil  and  marJiind ;  and  the  bruising  of  the  head  and 
the  heel  is  supposed  to  represent  the  victorious  con- 
quest— although  not  without  wounds  and  bruises — 
of  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  Messiah,  over  the  devil.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Fall,  according  to  the  most  common 
mode  of  interpretation,  may  be  stated  in  the  follow- 
ing terms  :  '  Our  fii-st  parents  being  seduced  by  the 
subtlety  and  temptation  of  Satan,  sinned  in  eating 
the  forbidden  fruit.  By  this  sin,  they  fell  from  their 
oririual  righteoiisness,  and  commimion  with  God, 
and  so  became  dead  in  sin,  and  wholly  defiled  in  all 
the  faciUties  and  parts  of  soul  and  bod}'.  They 
being  the  root  of  all  mankind,  the  guilt  of  this  sia 
was  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin  and 
comipted  natiire  conveyed  to  all  their  posterity, 
descending   fi'om  them   by   ordinary  generation.' — 

Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  c.  v\.  The  Fall,  in 
this  view,  is  the  temptation  of  our  first  parents  to 
eat  by  the  devil,  and  the  inheritance  of  this  act  by 
their  natural  descendants.  This  may  be  said  to  be 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Christian  church. 

2.  Other  theologians  consider  the  third  chapter  of 
Genesis  to  be  in  the  main  allegorical — representmg 
a  picture  of  the  %aolence  of  ajipetite  in  our  first 
parents.  In  this  view,  the  serpent  is  a  mere 
imaginary  accessory — the  emblem  of  temptation  ; 
the  supposed  inter%-iew  between  God  and  oui-  first 
parents  is  of  the  same  character — the  emblem  of  the 
voice  of  conscience  following  unlawful  indulgence  ; 
the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  e\'il  repre- 
sents some  form  of  sensual  indulgence.  The  only 
realities  in  the  picture  are  the  moral  realities, 
conscience  and  temptation  in  some  carnal  form — 
realities  which  were  no  more  powerfid  in  the  case 
of  om'  first  parents  than  they  are  in  the  case  of  all 
their  descendants  who  yield  to  xmlawfid  indidgence, 
as  they  did.  The  doctrine  of  the  Fall,  according  to 
this  inteqiretatiou,  is  simply  the  doctrine  of  the 
abuse  of  free  ^vill  in  our  first  parents  ;  and  the 
question  of  the  relation  of  this  primary  sin  to  all 
subsequent  sin,  is  variously  regarded  by  this  class 
of  theologians.  All  of  them  would  repudiate  any 
formal  imputation  of  it ;  yet  aU  or  most  allow  some 
actual  transmission  or  inheritance  of  connipted  will, 
as  the  consequence  of  the  original  abuse  of  it. 

The  Pelagian  theory  maintained,  indeed,  that  the 
race  was  not  the  woree  of  Adam's  fall ;  but  that,  as 
our  first  parents  '  were  to  blame  for  yielding  to  a 
temptation  which  they  might  have  resisted,  so  all 
of  us,  by  a  proper  attention  in  cultivating  our 
natural  powers,  may  maintain  our  irmocence 
amidst  the  temptations  with  wliicli  we  are  sur- 
roimded ;  and,  therefore,  that  we  fall  short  of  that 
which  it  is  in  our  power  to  do,  if  we  do  not  yield  a 
more  perfect  obedience  to  the  law  of  God  than 
Adam  yielded.'  The  Amiinian  theory,  again, 
contended  that  the  chief  loss  of  the  race,  as  the 
consequence  of  the  transgression  of  our  first  parents, 
was  the  subjection  to  death  thereby  incurred,  and 
the  moral  disadvantages  arising  out  of  the  fear  of 
death.  Others,  more  orthodox  than  either,  contend 
that  the  spiritual  imity  of  the  race  necessarily 
implies  that  the  depraved  will  of  our  first  parents 
has  descended  to  their  posterity  as  their  uiihaiipy 
portion. 

3.  The  opinion  of  those  who  look  upon  the  chapter 
in  Genesis  as  a  mere  myth  or  fable,  re[)resentmg 
a  dream  of  the  religious  imagination,  ^\■ithout  any- 
special  moral  meaning,  cannot  be  said  to  come 
within  the  pale  of  Christian  theology.    The  doctrine 


FALL  OF  THE  LEAF— FALLACY. 


of  the  Fall  is  with  them  only  a  devout  idea,  incon- 
sistent with  their  princiiiles  of  jihilosopliy  and 
histor)',  au<l  which,  accordingly,  they  dismiss  from 
their  si>eculation  or  concern  altogether. 

FALL  OF  THE  LEAF.  See  Decidcocs  Trees 
and  Leaves. 

FALL  UIVER,  a  remarkable  stream  of  M.\ss.v 
chusetts,  in  the  United  States,  is  only  about  two 
niiles  Ion;;.  Throuihout  nearly  the  whole  uf  its 
course,  it  tumbles  between  lofty  banks  over  .a  rocky 
bottom,  descending  in  its  last  half  mile  fully  KJO 
feet.  This  lower  section  of  the  torrent  is  literally 
crowded  with  mills,  which  scarcely  leave  room  for 
air  and  light  between  each  other.  The  mouth  is  on 
the  eastern  arm  of  Narragansut  Bay.  F.  It.  is  the 
name  likewise  of  the  adjai'cnt  locality.  The  town, 
or  rather  the  township,  contains  about  15,000  inha- 
bitants, who  are  chietiy  employed  in  connection  witli 
the  water-power  already  mentioned.  The  principal 
manufactiu'cs  are  woollens,  cottons,  and  ironware. 
The  place,  moreover,  has  an  excellent  harboui' — safe 
and  capacious,  \vith  deep  water,  and  of  easy  access. 

FA'LLACY.  The  incorrect  performance  of  the 
jirocess  of  reasoning,  so  as  to  lead  to  error,  is  said 
to  be  a  fallacy.  The  science  of  Logic  reduces  soimd 
reasoning  to  certain  ndes,  and  when  any  of  these 
nUes  is  violated,  a  logical  f.allacy  is  the  result. 
There  is  alw.ays  included,  in  logical  treatises  a 
chapter  on  fallacies,  in  which  the  several  kinds  are 
classified  and  illustrated.  In  the  old  writers,  there 
was  always  a  division  into  two  classes,  according  as 
the  error  lay  in  the  form  of  the  reasoning,  or  in 
the  matter;  the  formal  were  entitled  in  dictione, 
or  those  appearing  in  the  expression ;  the  material 
were  entitled  extra  dicfioncm,  implj'ing  that  the 
f.ault  could  not  be  detected  from  the  language,  but 
must  be  sought  in  a  consideration  of  the  meaning  or 
subject-m.atter.  As  some  of  the  designations 
employed  in  detailing  these  various  kinds  of  erro- 
neous reasoning  have  passed  into  common  use,  we 
shall  first  give  a  short  notice  of  the  ancient  classifi- 
cation. 

The  formal,  or  tliose  in.  diction';  were  direct 
breaches  of  the  laws  of  syllogism,  or  of  argumen- 
tation from  premises. 

The  faU.acy  of  iiiidi.itrihuted  middk  is  one  of  the 
cases  where  what  is  called  the  middle  term  of  a 
syllogism  is  used  in  two  senses.  '  A  term  is  said  to 
be  "distributed"  when  it  is  taken  universally,  so  as 
to  stand  for  everything  it  is  capable  of  being  applied 
to ;  antl,  consequently,  is  "  tmdistributcd  "  when  it 
stands  for  a  portion  only  of  the  things  desig- 
nated by  it.  Thus,  "  all  food,"  or  every  kind  of  food, 
are  expressions  which  imply  the  distribution  of  the 
terra  "  food  ; "  "  some  food,"  would  imply  its  non- 
distribution.'  In  such  a  proposition  as  '  all  food  is 
obtained  from  the  vegetable  or  animal  kingdoms,' 
the  term  is  distributed,  because  it  is  meant  to  be 
affirmed  of  every  aiiiicle  used  as  food,  that  such 
article  is  <Ierived  from  one  or  other  of  these  two 
soiu'ces.  But  when  we  say  '  food  is  necessary  for 
life,'  we  mean  only  a  limited  number  of  articles. 
Hence  such  a  syllogism  as  the  following  :  '  Food  is 
necessary  to  life ;  corn  is  food  ;  therefore,  corn  is 
necessary  to  life,'  is  faidty  from  undistributed 
middle  ;  the  major  proposition,  '  food  is  necessary,' 
&c.,  has  the  form  of  a  universal  proposition,  with 
the  reality  of  a  ]>articidar  one. 

The  mi/tiivocatio,  or  ambiijuons  middle,  is  the  case 
where  a  word  is  used  in  two  senses  so  dillerent  as 
to  give  properly  no  middle  term,  and,  therefore,  no 
connecting  linlt  between  the  jircmises  and  the  con- 
clusion. A  favourite  cxamiile  of  this  is  the  follow- 
ing :  *  Every  dog  runs  on  four  legs ;  Sirius  {the 
dog-star)  is  a  dog ;  therefore  Sirius  runs  on  foiu: 
23J 


legs.'  This  is  merely  phaying  with  the  ambiguity  of 
a  word.  Dr  Whately  has  .sliewn  that  this  fallacy 
may  often  arise  with  words  derived  from  the  same 
root,  but  acquiring  from  us,age  dilTerent  signilica- 
tions  ;  thus,  '  projectors  are  unlit  to  be  trusted  ;  this 
man  has  formed  a  project,  therefore  he  is  unfit  to  be 
trusted;'  where  the  argument  supjioscs  that  the 
meaning  of  'projector'  and  'one  who  h;is  formed  a 
project'  is  the  same,  which  it  is  not. 

The  fall.acy  of  composition  and  division  arises  by 
using  a  word  distributively  that  is  meant  collec- 
tively ;  thus,  '  live  is  equal  to  two  and  three  ;  two 
and  three  are  even  aud  odd ;  therefore  five  is  even 
and  odd.' 

'  The  fallacy  of  accent  was  an  ambiguity  arising  from 
pronmiciation.  Thus,  by  a  false  accent  in  reading  the 
commandment,  "  thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness 
against  thy  neighbour,"  it  might  be  suggested  that 
subornation  is  not  forbidden,  or  tliat  anj-thing  false 
except  eWdence  is  ))ermitted,  or  that  f.alse  evidence 
may  be  given  for  him,  or  that  it  is  only  against 
neighbours  that  false  witness  is  not  to  be  borne.' 

The  fallacia  accidentis  is  still  a  foi-m  of  the 
ambiguous  middle.  It  is  when  we  conclude  of  a 
thing  something  that  is  only  true  of  it  accidentally, 
as,  '  wine  is  pernicious,  therefore  it  ought  to  be  for- 
bidden.' The  ])remise  is  true  only  of  the  immoderate 
use,  the  conclusion  refers  to  its  use  in  every  form. 
Another  fallacy,  the  converse  of  this,  is  arguiug  d 
dicto  secundum  quid  ad  dictum  simpliciter  (j>;vssing 
from  what  is  true  in  some  respect  to  what  is  true 
absolutely).  Of  this  the  stock  example  is  :  '  What 
you  bought  yesterday  you  e.at  to-day  ;  you  bought 
raw  meat  yesterday,  therefore  you  eat  raw  meat 
to-day.' 

The  most  usually  quoted  of  the  second  class  of 
fallacies — exira  dictionem — are  the  following  : 

Jfinoratio  elenchi,  or  '  ignorance  of  the  refutation.' 
This  means  mistaking  the  point  in  dispute  ;  or  ])rov- 
ing  something  that  an  o]ipunent  does  not  deny.  This 
is  common  enough  in  controversy.  See  an  example 
in  point  in  Ethics. 

The  petitio  principii,  or  '  begging  of  the  question.' 
Tliis  is  when,  instead  of  proving  a  position  by  some 
ditl'erent  position,  something  is  assumed  that  is  iden- 
tical ■with  what  is  to  be  ]iroveil.  The  nicst  common 
form  of  this  fallacy  is  what  is  termed  rcasoninr)  in  a 
circle,  where  we  make  two  propositions  mutually 
prove  each  other.  The  following  would  be  an  examiile 
of  this  mode  of  reasoning.  Suppose  we  asked  why 
smoke  ascends,  and  any  one  were  to  answer,  '  because 
it  is  light ; '  we  then  inquire  how  it  is  known  to  be 
light,  and  the  reply  is,  '  because  it  ascends.' 

The  non  causa  pro  cauna.  This  is  a  fallacy  of 
insuilicient  induction,  or  the  inferring  a  connection 
of  cause  and  effect  where  there  is  only  a  mere  sequence 
or  accomiianiment ;  as  when  we  allege  that  the  pros- 
perity of  England  is  due  to  its  having  an  aristocracy, 
or  an  Established  Church,  or  any  other  circumstance 
that  has  attached  to  the  country,  without  asccrtjiin- 
ing  that  there  is  any  real  causation  between  the  two 
facts.  Empiricism  in  medicine  is  of  this  nature  ; 
such  a  one  took  a  certain  medicijie,  and  recovered  from 
an  illness,  therefore  the  medicine  was  the  cause  of 
the  recovery.  The  j'""^  '""^t  f."/"  propter  hoc,  is 
another  expression  for  the  same  fallacy,  which  is  one 
of  wide  ran^e,  and  whose  rectification  far  transccnils 
the  limits  of  scholastic  or  formal  logic. 

The  arijumenlum  ad  kominem  is  a  reference  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  party  adilressed,  and  means  that 
altliough  a  certain  reasoning  may  be  good  in  itself, 
such  p.arty  is  not  entitled  to  urge  it,  having  perhaps 
already  repudiated  the  same  reasoning  in  other  ca.ses, 
or  .acted  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  the  cmi)loy- 
ment  of  it.  (For  a  full  exemiililication  of  fallacies 
according    to    the    foregoing    enumeration,   see   Do 


FALLACY— rALLTNG  BODIES. 


Morfian's  Formal  Logic,  AYliately's  Logic,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic,  &c.) 

The  subject  of  fallacies  has  received  a  much  more 
comprelicnsive  treatment  in  the  work  on  Logic  by  Mr 
J.  S.  MiU,  who  has  enlarged  the  basis  of  the  science 
itself,  by  i)lacing  Induction  at  the  foundation  of 
Reasoning,  and  liy  recognising  the  necessity  of  laying 
down  rules  for  the  correct  performance  of  that  pro- 
cess. SeelNDCCTioy.  This  enables  him  to  give  a  proper 
l)lace  to  some  of  the  preceding  fallacies,  such  as  the 
post  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc,  which,  although  occurring 
in  treatises  of  syllogistic  logic,  does  not  riolate  any 
nJe  either  of  syllogism  or  of  any  process  included 
in  such  treatises.  In  fact,  it  we  take  a  complete 
view  of  aU  the  cartUnal  ojier.ations  that  enter  into 
the  estabhshment  of  truth  by  evidence,  we  ought  to 
enumerate  four  such  operations — Observation,  includ- 
ing experiment ;  Detinition,  or  the  right  use  of 
general  terms  ;  Induction  ;  and  Deduction  or  .syllo- 
gism. Now,  any  one  of  those  operations  badly 
perfoiTued  would  necessarily  lead  to  a  wrong  result, 
in  otlier  words,  a  fallacy.  But  in  addition  to  the 
mistakes  arising  from  the  admission  of  insufficient 
evidence  at  any  point,  there  is  a  class  of  errors 
(as  well  as  truths)  that  arise  from  our  receiving 
l)ropositions  without  any  evidence  at  all,  on  the 
gromid  that  the}'  are  self-e%ndent.  In  every  case 
of  rcascming,  we  must  come  at  last  to  something 
that  does  not  need  a  reason,  as,  for  example,  the 
evidence  of  our  senses,  or  our  actual  observation ; 
but  we  may  sometimes  admit  as  self-e\-ident  what 
is  really  not  so,  owing,  perh.aps,  to  our  hariug  a 
strong  sentiment  in  the  matter  on  hand.  It  is 
usual  to  consider  the  existence  of  an  external 
material  world,  altogether  independent  of  our  minds, 
as  certain  in  itself  without  requiring  any  proof 
or  reason  for  the  belief.  It  is  foimd  that  we  often 
commit  mistakes  in  this  way,  and  the  mistakes 
thence  arising  Mr  Mill  illustrates  under  the  title 
of  Fallacies  of  >>iraple  Inspection,  or  Fallacies 
(I  jn-iori,  which  includes  the  whole  of  what  may  be 
termed  Natural  Prejudices.  The  other  membei's  of 
his  classification  follow  his  di\-ision  of  the  i>rocesses 
concerned  in  tlie  investigation  of  truth :  they  are 
Fallacies  of  Observation.  Fallacies  of  Generahsation, 
including  Induction,  and  Fallacies  of  Ratiocination 
or  syllogism.  He  remarks,  moreover,  that  error 
does  not  often  take  the  form  of  a  deliberate  infringe- 
ment of  the  rules  of  good  observation,  induction,  or 
deduction,  but  rather  consists  iu  a  confused  ]iercep- 
tion  of  the  premises  involved.  In  other  words,  it  is 
the  *  not  conceiving  our  premises  \\'ith  due  clearness, 
that  is,  with  due  fixity ;  forming  one  conception  of 
om'  evidence  when  we  collect  or  receive  it,  and 
another  when  we  make  use  of  it  ;  or  imadvisedly,  and 
in  general  xmconsciously,  substituting,  as  we  pro- 
ceed, diflerent  pi'cmiscs  in  the  place  of  tliose  with 
wliich  we  set  out,  or  a  different  conclusion  for  that 
which  we  undertook  to  prove.  This  gives  existence 
to  a  class  of  f.allacies  which  may  be  justly  called 
Fallacies  of  Confusion ;  comprehending,  among  others, 
all  those  which  have  their  source  in  langiuage, 
whether  arising  from  the  vagueness  or  amljiguity  of 
oiu-  terms,  or  from  casual  associations  with  them.' 
It  is  in  this  group  that  Mr  Slill  places  the  petitio 
pirincijni,  the  ignoratio  elenclu,  and  ambiguous 
language  generally  (Logic,  Book  v.). 

The  scholastic  fallacies  were  consiilored  mostly 
in  the  light  of  weaknesses  or  involuntary  errors  of 
the  intellect,  to  be  corrected  by  sound  rules  or  a 
good  method  of  procedure.  Tlie  syllogistic  logician 
made  little  count  of  the  natural  prejudices,  or  strong 
emotions  and  passions  of  mind,  which  forcibly 
pervert  the  intellectual  views,  and  render  men  averse 
to  sound  reasoning.  This  grand  omission  was  first 
ellectively  supplied  in  the  immortal  first  book  of  the 


Novum  Organon  of  Bacon,  who,  in  a  \-igorou3  and 
telling  exposition,  set  forth  some  of  the  most  power- 
ftU  prejudices  of  the  natural  mind,  and  their  influ- 
ence in  corrupting  science  and  philosophy,  as  well 
the  everyday  judgments  of  mankind.  Under  the 
name  of  '  idola '  he  classed  four  different  species  of 
these  moral  sources  of  en-or,  against  which  the  mind 
had  to  be  fortified,  not  by  syllogistic  rules,  but  by 
a  self-denj-ing  discipline,  and  a  highly  cultivated 
perception  of  the  true  end  of  science,  which  was  to 
increase  human  power  in  all  the  arts  of  life.  His 
first  class  of  idola  were  idola  trilus,  or  delusions 
common  to  the  human  mind  generally,  such  as 
errors  of  the  senses,  the  over-susceptibility  of  the 
mind  to  impressions  of  sense,  the  limits  of  the  human 
faculties,  ami  the  interference  of  prejudices  and 
passions ;  a  very  comprehensive  class,  which  even 
he  has  failed  to  do  full  justice  to.  The  ne.xt  class 
are  idoJa  specAs,  idols  of  the  den  or  cavern,  liy 
which  he  luiderstands  the  pecidiarities  and  iiliosyn- 
erasies  of  individuals.  The  thii'd  class,  idola  fori, 
idols  of  the  market,  are  intended  to  include  the 
abuses  of  language,  or  the  various  ways  that  our 
conceptions  of  things  are  distorted  by  names.  The 
last  class  are  the  idola  theatri,  theatrical  illusions, 
under  which  he  reljukes  the  great  system-builders 
of  antiqxuty,  sucli  as  Aristotle,  for  introducing 
fanciful  and  irrelevant  considerations  into  philo- 
sophy ;  and  dwells  especially  on  the  corrupting 
intluenccs  of  superstition  and  theology,  and  also  the 
poetical  tendencies  of  the  mind,  which  are  not 
satisfied  with  truth  unless  it  can  take  on  in  addition 
a  certain  warmtli  or  brilUancy  of  colouring. 

FALLING  BODIE.S.  Owing  to  Gra-i-ity  {q.  v.), 
all  terrestrial  bodies,  if  imsupported, /aW,  or  move 
towards  the  earth's  centre.  AYhen  a  falling  body  is 
absolutely  without  sujiport,  it  is  said  to  fall  freely, 
as  distinguished  from  one  descending  an  inclined 
plane  or  curved  surface.  We  shall  here  consider 
the  two  cases  of  fi'ee  descent  and  of  descent  on 
inclined  planes. 

I.  Bodies  falling  f reel  ij. — The  first  fact  of  observa- 
tion regarding  falling  bodies  is  that  they  fall  with 
a  variable  velocity ;  from  this  we  infer  that  they 
are  acted  upon  by  some  force.  Again,  on  obser\-ing 
how  the  velocity  varies,  we  find  that  its  increments 
in  equal  times  are  equal;  from  this  we  conclude 
that  gravity  is  a  >miform  force,  which  it  is,  at  least 
sensibly,  for  small  distances  above  the  earth'.s 
surface.  We  have  next  to  find  a  measure  for  this  force. 
By  experiment,  it  is  found  that  a  body  in  1"  falls 
through  IG'l  feet,  and  that  at  the  end  of  1"  it  moves 
with  such  a  velocity,  that  if  it  continued  to  move 
imiformly  after  the  1 "  expired,  it  would  pass  over 
32'2  feet  in  the  next  second.  Hence  32'2  feet  is  the 
measure  of  the  velocity  which  has  been  generated 
in  1',  and  is  therefore  the  measure  of  the  acceler- 
ating force  of  gra^nty;  for  the  measure  of  acceler- 
ating force  is  the  velocity  which  it  will  jiroduce 
in  a  body  in  a  second  of  time.  The  quantity  .32'2 
feet  is  usually  denoted  1  ly  the  letter  g ;  and  it  is 
proper  to  mention  here  that  this  quantitj'  measures 
the  accelerating  force  of  the  earth's  attraction  on 
all  bodies.  Experiment  shews  th.it  imder  the 
exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-jiump  all  bodies  fall 
with  equal  rapidity,  and  that  the  difl'erence  of 
velocities  of  falling  bodies  in  air  is  due  entirely 
to  the  action  of  air  upon  them. 

As  the  accelerating  force  is  uniform,  it  follows 
that  the  velocity  generatta  in  any  time,  I,  will  lie 
given  by  the  formula  v  =  gt.  Since  the  force  is 
uniform,  it  must  generate  an  equal  velocity  every 
second.  In  (',  tlierefore,  it  must  generate  a  velocity 
gt,  since  it  produces  g  in  1".  In  2',  a  falling  body 
will  be  moving  with  a  velocity  of  G4'4  feet — i-e., 
were  the  velocity  to  become  constant  for  the  third 

233 


FALLIXG  SICKNESS— FALLMERAYER. 


second,  it  would  in  that  sccoud  move  tUrougli  G4'4 
feet 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  inquire  more  parti- 
cularly how  bodies  fall,  and  to  answer  such  ques- 
tions as  tirst :  A\Tjat  time  will  a  body  falling  freely 
take  to  fall  tlirough  a  given  space  ?  Second  :  What 
velocity  M-ill  it  gain  iu  falling  through  a  given 
space  ?  Third  :  How  high  will  a  body  ascend  when 
projected  straight  up  with  a  given  velocity  1  kc 
Let  A  be  the  point  from  which 
•^  a  body  falls,  and  B  its  position 

at  the  end  of  the  time  t ;  and  let 
AB  =  S.  Then  we  know  that 
at  B  the  body  has  the  velocity 
i/L  Suppose,  now,  the  body  to 
be  projected  upwards  from  B 
towards  A  with  this  velocity  gt 

B — gravity  acting  against  it,  and 

tending  to  retard  its  motion. 
We  know  that  at  the  end  of  a  time  t  it  will  be 
ajain  at  A,  having  exactly  retraced  its  course,  and 
lost  all  the  velocity  with  which  it  started  from  B, 
because  gra-^-ity  -n-ill  just  take  the  same  time  to 
destroy  the  velocity  ,'/(  which  it  took  to  produce  it. 
From  this  consideration  we  may  obtain  an  expres- 
sion for  the  space  AB  or  S  in  terms  of  the  time  I. 
In  the  time  (,  the  body  rising  from  B  with  a  velocity 
=  rjt  would  ascend,  if  not  retarded,  a  height  {f)t)  .  I, 
or  gl-.  But  in  the  time  (,  grarity,  we  know,  carried 
it  through  S  ;  it  wiU  therefore,  in  the  same  time,  by 
retarding  it,  prevent  it  going  to  the  height  gt-  by  a 
space  =^.  The  space  tlirough  which  it  actually 
ascends  is  then  represented  by  the  difference  gt-  —  S ; 
but  this  space  we  know  to  be  AB  or  S.  Therefore 
S  =  gt-  -S;  or  2S  =  gf,  or  S  =  igf'.  AVe  may 
give  this  equation  another  form.     For  v  being  the 

V 

velocity  acquired    in    the  time  t,  v  =  gt,  .:  t  —  -. 

Then  S  =  iff.-2=  |-.     Hence    d^  =  a/S.      From 

these  formuhe,  we  see  that  when  a  body  falls  from 
rest  imder  the  action  of  gravity,  its  velocity  at  any 
time  vaiies  as  the  time,  and  the  square  of  its 
velocity  as  the  space  described. 

If  the  body,  instead  of  starting  from  rest,  has  an 
initial  velocity  V ;  and  if  v,  as  before,  be  the  velo- 
city at  the  time  t,  then  evidently  u  is  =  the  original 
velocity  -I-  that  which  is  generated  by  gravity,  or 
V  ^y  +  gt;  and  the  space  ^\•ill  be  that  which 
would  have  been  described  by  the  body  mo^-iug 
imiformly  with  a  velocity  V  -I-  that  which  it  woull 

describe  under  gravity  alone,  or  S  =  Vt  -(-  ^  .  With 

regard  to  the  last  two  formida;,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
they  may  bo  made  to  suit  the  case  of  a  body  pro- 
jected upwards  with  a  velocity  V,  by  a  change  of 

signs ;  thus,  v  =Y  —ft,  and  S  =  V<  —  ^   ;     gravity 

here  acting  to  destroy  velocity,  and  diminish  the 
height  attained.  From  the  general  formula  in  the 
case  of  an  initial  velocity,  whether  the  body  be  pro- 
jected ui>wards  or  downwards,  we  may  express  v 
in  terms  of  S,  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  motion  from 


(V  +  gt?  =  V  ±  1g(Yt  +  y)  = 


rest        For  ir 
V-  +  2.7S. 

These  are  all  the  formulas  applicable  to  the  case 
of  f.alling  bodies,  and  by  their  means  all  problems  in 
this  branch  of  djniamics  m.ay  be  solved.  It  also 
appears  that  the  formuke  above  investigated  apply 
to  all  cases  of  rectilinear  motion  of  bodies  con- 
sidered as  particles  under  the  action  of  any  unifonn 
force.  In  all  such  cases,  if  / measmc  the  accelerat- 
ing force  S  =  i/l-,  v'  =  ys,  for  the  case  of  motion 


from  rest;  and  S  =  V«  +  fjl-,  and  v»  =  V  ±  2/S, 
for  the  case  of  an  initial  velocity. 

The  reader  can  easily  frame  examples  illustra- 
tive of  the  formul.'e  for  himself.  We  subjoin 
one :  A  stone  falls  down  a  well,  and  in  2'  the 
soimd  of  its  striking  the  bottom  is  heard.  How 
deep  is  the  well  ?  Meglecting  the  time  occupied  in 
the  transmission  of  sound,  the  formula  S  =  Jyl" 
applies,  or  S  =  depth  =  ig .  2",  t  being  2 ' ;  .".  depth 
=  2g,  or  C4'-t  feet 

2.   Bodies  descending  inclined    planes. — In    this 
case  the  formulas  already  investigated  apply  with  a 
slight  change.     In  the  figiu-e,  if  P  be  a  body  on  the 
inclined  plane  AB,  de- 
scending under  gra\-ity, 
we    observe   thivt    only 
that    resolved    part    of 
gravity  parallel  to  AB 
is   effective  to  make  it 
descend,  the  other  p.art 
at  right   angles  to  AM 
merely  producing  pres- 
sure on  the  plane.     The 
angle  of   inclination    of 

the  plane  being  a,  we  know  (see  CoMPOSlTlO>r  A>1) 
Eesolutiox  of  Fokces)  that  the  resolved  jiart  of 
gravity  parallel  to  the  plane  is  g  sin.  a.  The  body, 
then,  may  be  conceived  to  be  descending  under  a 
imifoiTU  accelerating  force  g  sin.  a.  We  obtain  the 
formulae,  accordingly,  for  descent  on  inclined  planes 
by  substituting  ;/  sin.  a  for  /  in  the  general  f ormiU;o 
given  above.  We  notice,  however,  that  in  descent 
on  inclined  planes  the  velocity  acquired  is,  as  in 
the  case  of  bodies  falling  freely,  due  solely  to  the 
vertical  height  through  which  the  body  falls.  By 
our  fonuula,  v"  =  '2g  sm.  a  .  S,  where  S  =  AB,  if  the 
body  fiUls  from  B.  This  m.ay  be  WTitten  d-  =  2<7  . 
S .  sin.  a,  or  =  2g .  AB .  sin.  a,  or  =  2;/  .  BC,  since 
AB  .  sin.  a  =  BC.  But  this  is  the  same  as  the 
velocity  acquired  by  a  body  in  falling  freely 
thi-ough  BC.  In  fact,  it  holds  generally  true,  that 
the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body  f.alliug  down  the 
surface  of  any  smooth  curve  is  that  due  to  the 
vertical  height  through  which  it  has  fallen  ;  which 
might  be  proved  iu  various  ways,  but  is  sufficiently 
clear  from  this,  that  any  curve  may  be  considereil 
as  a  succession  of  inclined  jilancs,  iudetinitely  short 
in  length,  ami  great  in  nimibcr  ;  for  the  proiiosition 
being  true,  as  above  proved,  for  each  of  them,  will 
be  true  for  all,  and  therefore  for  the  eiu^e. 

For  an  account  of  the  variations  of  the  value  of  g, 
due  to  the  earth  not  being  a  perfect  sphere,  and 
other  causes,  see  KjVKTH.  The  reader  is  also  referred 
to  the  article  Atwood's  JL\cniXE.  The  theory 
of  the  descent  of  bodies  under  gravity  was  first 
discovered  and  taught  by  Galileo. 

FALLING  SICKNESS.     See  EprLEPSV. 

FALLJMERAY'ER,  Jacod  PiULirp,  a  German 
traveller  and  historian,  was  born  Idth  December 
1791,  at  Tschotsch,  near  Brixen  in  the  TjtoI  ;  studied 
at  Brixen,  and  in  1S09  went  to  Salzburg,  where  he 
gave  instructions  to  pupils  in  history  and  Latin. 
At  the  iiniver.sity  of  I.andshwt,  he  studied  law, 
history,  and  i)hiIoloi.'j'.  When  Germany  rose  against 
Napoleon  in  1813,  he  entered  the  Bavarian  anny, 
and  took  part  iu  several  engagements.  After  jieace 
was  concluded,  1".  retnrue<l  to  his  studies.  In  1S2G, 
he  was  aiijiointed  to  the  chair  of  history  and 
pliilology  at  Landshut  In  ISol,  he  aceomi)anied 
the  Russian  general,  Coimt  Ostcrmann-Tolstoy,  in  a 
journey  to  the  East,  visiting  Egyjjt,  Palestine,  S.vria, 
Cjqu-us,  Rhodes,  Greece,  'Turkey,  and  Italy,  ihtr- 
ing  ISyO — 1840,  he  resided  with  Count  Ostcrmann- 
Tolstoy  at  Geneva,  and  in  the  course  of  the  next 
eight  years  twice  revisited  the  East.     The  events  of 


FALLOPIAN  TUBES— FALLOW. 


1S48  recalled  him  to  Bavaria,  and  for  a  short  time 
he  sat  as  a  deimty  to  the  Fraukfiirt  parliament,  but 
since  IS50  has  lived  jirivately  in  JIunich.  F.  is  a 
distinguished  polyglott,  and  sjieaks  a  great  num- 
ber both  of  European  and  Oriental  tongues.  His 
I>rincipal  works  are,  Geschichte  des  Kaiserlhums 
frapezunt  (Miiuch.  18.31),  Geschichte  der  II<dhmsel 
Marea  im  MiUdaltfr  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1830—1836), 
and  Fragmente  am  dem  Orient  (2  vols.,  Stuttg.  1845).' 
His  \'iews  on  the  origin  of  the  modern  Greek  lan- 
guage have  excited  the  liveliest  controversy  both  in 
Ureeco  and  elsewhere.  A  complete  edition  of  F.'s 
works  is  at  present  (1861)  ajipearing  at  Loipsic, 
entitled  Gesammelte  Werlce  von  Jakob  Phillpp 
Fallmeraijei: 

FALLO'PIAX  TUCE.S,  The  (so  called  after 
1'  alIo[iius,  who  is  usually,  Init  incorrectly,  regarded 
.as  their  discoverer),  or  o\-iducts,  are  canala°about 
four  or  live  inches  in  leilgth  in  the  human  subject, 
njiening  at  their  inner  extremity  into  the  ujiiier 
angle  of  the  uterus  or  womb,  and  at  the  other  end, 
l>y  a  fringed  funnel-shaped  termination,  into  the 
ea\-ity  of  the  peritoneum.  This  fringed  or  fimbriated 
extremity  at  certain  periods  gi-asps  the  ovarj',  .and 
receives  the  o\nim,  which  is  discharged  by  the  rup- 
ture of  the  Gr.aatian  vesicle.  See  Ov.y'ry.  The 
"vnm  usually  ])asses  along  the  F.allopian  tubes  into 
the  uterus,  where  it  is  either  impregnated  by  con- 
tact with  one  or  more  spermatozoa,  or  is  absorbed. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  ovum  becomes  not  only 
impregnated  l)ut  retained,  and  further  developed  in 
the  F.allopian  tubes,  thus  gi\ing  rise  to  one  of  the 
I'irms  of  extra-uterine  pregnane}'. 

FALLO'PIUS,  Gabriel,  a  celebrated  anatomist, 
liom  at  or  near  Jlodena,  about  the  ye.ar  1523  (this 
d.ate,  however,  is  very  uncertain),  and  died  in  1562. 
It  the  date  we  have  assigned  is  correct,  he  was  only 
twenty-five  when  he  was  promoted  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Fen-ara  to  a  professorship  at  Pisa,  whence, 
alter  a  few  ye.ars,  he  was  caUed  to  Padua,  to  succeed 
\  csalius,  who  had  been  compeUed  by  the  Inquisition 
to  resign  his  office.  See  Vesalius.  Cuvier  charac- 
terises lum  as  one  of  the  three  savants  who  restored 
r.ather  than  created  the  science  of  anatomy  in  the 
17th  c,  the  two  others  being  Ves.alius  and  Eusta- 
eluus.  After  a  short  but  brilliant  career,  lie  died 
at  the  age  of  40,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  favoxirite 
pu]nl,  Fabricius  ab  Acquapcndente. 

He  i>ublished  numerous  works  in  various  depart- 
ments of  medicine,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
lusObs(:rval!oncsAnatomica;in  lihros  quiniue  digesta-, 
1561,  in  which  he  corrects  many  errors  into  which 
his  predecessor,  Vesalius,  h.ad  fallen.  He  was  the 
lirst  to  describe  Avith  accuracy  the  ethmoid  and 
s)ihenoid  bones,  and  the  minute  structure  of  the  ear 
(the  canal  along  which  the  facial  nerve  passes,  after 
leaWnrr  the  auditor}',  is  still  Icnown  as  the  aqueduct 
of  FaUopius) ;  the  muscles  of  the  soft  palate,  .and  the 
viUi  and  v.alvul.-e  conniventes  of  the  small  intestine. 
In  some  of  his  supjiosed  discoveriesj  he  had  been 
long  anticipated ;  for  example,  the  tubes  passing  from 
the  ovary  on  either  side  to  the  uterus,  and  which 
bear  liis  name,  were  kno\ni  t<i,  and  .accurately 
described  by,  Herophdus  and  Rufus  of  Ephesus, 
.'il)0  yeara  before  om-  era.  In  addition  to  his  ana- 
tomical fame,  he  h.ad  a  considerable  reputation  as 
a  botanist.  He  was  the  superintendent  of  the 
botanical  garden  at  Padua  ;  and  a  genus  of  jilants, 
I'aUopia,  has  been  named  after  hiru.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works,  in  four  folio  volumes,  w.as 
imblished  in  1600. 

FALLOUX,  FRiiDERic  Alfred  Pierre,  Vicomte 
i>E,  a  French  author  and  statesman,  was  bom  at 
Angers  11th  May  1811.  His  family  was  distin- 
guished for  its  legitimist  zeal,  and  at  the  Restora- 


tion was  rewarded  by  receiving  letters  of  nobilitv. 
Young  F.   first  drew  attention  to  himself  by  t\vo 
works   penetrated   by  an   ardent   love  of  the    old 
Boiu;bon  order  of  things— i'//wtoire  de  Louis  X  VI. 
(Pans,  1840),  and  UHistoire  de  Saint  Pie  V.,  Pape, 
de  I'Ordre  des  Frires  pncheurs  (Paris,  1844).     These 
indic.ate  the  level  of  his  political  and  religious  faitli. 
In  the  elections  of  1846,  he  was  chosen  deputy  for 
the   department    Maine-et-Loire.      In    religion,   he 
advocated  the  ideas  of  Montalembert  ;  in  politics 
tliose   of   BeiTyer,   but   united   with  his  legitimist 
sentiments  a  love  of  liberty  and  education  strangely 
incongruous    with    the    historic    character    of '  Ids 
party.      After  the   revolution    of    February   1848, 
he   exhibited   much    energy  as   a    member  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  was  one  of  those  who  organ- 
ised the  resistance  to  the  insurrection  of  the  foth 
May,  and,  as  reporter  on  the  n.ational  workshops, 
pronounced  for  their  immediate   dissolution.      He 
was  also  one  of  the  most  ardent  promoters  of  the 
expedition  to   Pome,  which  has   since   entailed  so 
much   trouble    and   even   danger   on    the    govern- 
ment   of    France.      After    the    election    of°  Louis 
Kapoleon   to    the    presidency,    F.    was    appointed 
Mimstcr  of  Public  Instruction,  an  office  which  he 
held  only  for  ten  months.     Since  the  events  of  the 
2d  December  1851,  he  has  retired  fi-om  public  life 
altogether,  to  a  country-seat  in  the  ncitrhbourhood 
of  Angers,  where  he  occupies  himself  with  afniciil- 
tm-al  pursuits.     In  1857,  he  was  admitted  a  member 
of   the   French   Academy,   and   in  the   same   year 
pidibshed   at   Tours  his  Souvenirs  de  Charili.—V. 
has  a  brother,  a  canon  at  the  court  of  Pome,  who 
Hatters    himself    that  he    possesses    the    veritable 
h.andkerchief  of  St  Veronica,  bearing  the  imprint  of 
the  Saviour's  countenance. 

FAXLOW  (from  the  same  root  as  Ger./ahl  or  faUi, 
Lat.  fulvux,  exjiressing  a  pale  dim,  tawny  colour)! 
This  word  sometimes  signifies  waste,  unfilled  land  ; 
but  usually  it  is  applied  to  land  that  is  ploui,dio<i 
and  otherwise  stirred  for  a  season  -nithout  being 
cropped.  The  most  of  the  wheat  raised  by  the 
Romans  was  so-vni  after  the  land  was  fallowed  ; 
indeed,  the  usual  rotation  was  fallow  and  wheat 
alternately.  It  was  only  fertde  soils  that  could 
long  support  such  an  exhausting  system ;  hence 
residted  the  decreasing  produce  which  the  later 
Roman  agricultural  .authoi-s  so  often  speak  of  and 
lament. 

The  fallowing  of  land  was  introduced  into  all 
the  countries  which  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Romans.  During  their  sw.ay  in  Britain,  it 
soon  exported  large  quantities  of  wheat  ;  and 
for  centuries  after  the  Romans  left  it,  no  other 
mode  of  cultivating  the  land  w.as  followed.  It 
may  here  be  observed,  that  wherever  the  system  of 
fallowing,  without  giiing  manure  to  the  crops,  is 
pr.actised,  it  necessarily  supposes  that  the  soil  is 
at  least  niodenatcly  fertile.  This  system  is  most 
successful  on  argillaceous  soils,  which  are  retentive 
of  org.anio  manure.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  chief  use  of  fallow  is  to  liberate  the  plant-food 
which  is  already  stored  up  in  the  soil  .as  organic 
rn.atter.  The  ploughing  and  stirring,  by  admi'ttiii" 
air,  promotes  decomposition,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  turning  over  of  a  dunghill  docs;  it  also 
destroys  the  roots  of  the  weeds  that  impoverish  and 
choke  the  crops. 

It  w.as  long  before  fallowing  wag  introduced  to 
any  extent  in  Scotland ;  but  about  the  beginnin" 
of  the  present  centurj',  it  was  largely  praetisecC 
Owing,  however,  to  the  draining  of  the  sod,  and  the 
extension  of  the  green-cropjiing  system,  it  is  now 
confined  to  the  most  retentive  cl.ay-soils,  where  it 
affords  the  only  means  of  thoroughly  cleaning  the 
land.     In  a  rotation  of  beans,  clover,  cats,  fallow, 


FALLOW  CHAT-FALMOUTH. 


wheat,  and  barley,  each  field  is  subjected  to  a  pro- 
cess of  fallowing  once  in  every  six,  seven,  or  eight 
years,  accortling  to  circumstAnccs, 

Fallow-tields  usually  receive  a  deep  fun-ow  in 
autumn.  Lying  exiHised  throu^j;h  the  winter,  the 
frost  pulverises  the  surface.  In  spring,  when  the 
weather  becomes  dry,  the  cultivator  or  the  plough 
opens  up  the  soil,  and  the  jirocess  of  extirpating  the 
weeds  goes  on.  Sometimes  as  many  as  thiee  or  four 
furrows  are  given  in  simimer  before  the  seed  is 
sown  in  autumn.  In  old  cultivated  countries,  land 
is  commonly  so  much  reduced  in  its  organic  matter, 
that  fallows  receive  dressings  of  farm-yard  maniu-e, 
rape-dust,  or  guano,  to  obtain  fertility. 

hiiice  the  gener.-il  introduction  of  green  crops, 
the  term  fallow  has  dejiarted  in  some  measure  from 
its  original  meaning.  These  crops  arc  so«-n  on 
what  was  formerly  the  fallow-break,  and  are  now 
often  styled  fallow-crops.  The  land,  no  doubt, 
receives  in  some  measure  a  fallowing,  as  the  green 
crops  are  cidtivated  by  the  plough  during  their 
gro\vth.  Bivstard-f.ollowing  is  a  term  which  is  used 
in  .Scotland  when  h.ay-stubble  is  ploughed  up  in 
the  end  of  summer,  freed  from  weeds,  and  sown 
wth  wheat  in  autumn. 

Where  no  express  stipiUation  on  the  subject  has 
been  introduced  into  the  lease,  it  has  been  held 
in  Scotland,  that,  as  the  outgoing  tenant  might 
have  taken  a  crop  from  the  land,  which,  in 
accord.ance  with  the  most  ajiproved  principles  of 
agricultiu-e,  he  ought  to  leave  faUow,  and  as  the 
incoming  tenant  reaps  the  advantage  in  case  of 
his  abstaining  from  doing  so,  he  is  entitled  to 
claim  its  value  (Purves,  December  3,  1822.  See 
Bell's  Principles,  s.  12G3).  '  This  decision,'  says  Jlr 
Hunter  {Landlord  and  Tenant,  ii.  p.  458),  'has  been 
deemed  to  have  fi.\ed  the  law.'  In  conformity 
■with  the  same  principle,  it  has  been  ruled,  that 
if  the  outgoing  tenant  received  prepared  fallow, 
the  like  should  be  left  by  him.  A  tenant  who, 
on  entering  to  liis  farm,  had  received  a  certain 
extent  of  f.illow,  prepared  with  manure,  free  of 
expense,  w.is  held  bound  to  leave  the  same  amount 
of  fallow  and  manure  as  he  had  received,  and  to 
be  entitled  to  claim  p.ayment  only  for  the  sui-i)lus 
(Brown  )'.  College  of  St  Andrews,  11th  July  Ibol). 
But  where  a  portion  of  hand  has  been  expressly 
reserved  in  the  lease  for  fallow  and  gi-een  crop,  for 
which  the  tenant  was  to  receive  merely  a  certain 
sum  per  acre  for  ploughing,  the  rights  of  the  parties 
are  settled  by  the  conti'act,  and  the  tenant  can  claim 
no  additional  sura  for  fallow  (Sheriii'  v.  Lord  Lovat, 
13th  December  18^). 

FALLOW  CHAT.    See  Wheatear. 

FALLOW  DEER  {Dama  vulgaris  or  Cenms 
Du7na],  a  species  of  deer  well  known  in  Britain, 
lieing  very  commonly  kept  in  parkx,  as  it  is  also  in 
most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  probably  a  native  of 
the  countries  around  the  MetUtorranean,  and  has 
been  introduced  by  man  into  the  more  northern 
p.arts  of  Eiu'ojie,  where  it  is,  however,  now  in  some 
places  to  be  found  wild  in  forests.  It  is  doubted 
whether  it  has  not  been  introduced  by  man,  at  a 
remote,  jieriod,  from  the  North  of  Africa  even  into 
the  south  of  Eurojic,  in  all  ]>arts  of  whicli  it  is 
now  at  least  completely  naturalised.  How  far  its 
geogi-.aphic  range  extends  eastward,  is  not  very 
certainly  known.  It  is  represented  in  the  sculp- 
tures of  Kineveh.  Its  introduction  into  Britain  is 
ascribed  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  who  is  said 
to  have  brought  it  from  Norw.ay  when  he  brouglit 
home  his  queen,  Anne  of  Dcnm.ark,  and  after  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  to  have  transported 
it  to  Enfield  and'Epping.  Thousands  of  F.  D. 
now  exist  in   some  of    the  English   parks.     They 


generally  receive  some  attention  and  supplies  of 
fodder  in  winter. 

In  size,  the  F.  D.  is  smaller  than  the  stag  or 
red  deer,  from  which  it  also  differs  in  its  bro.a<l 
palmated  antlers,  its  longer  tail,  and  its  smoother 


Fallow  Deer  [Ctn-iis  Dama). 

and  finer  hair.  In  colour,  it  is  generally  yellowish- 
brown  in  simimcr ;  darker,  or  even  blackish-brown 
in  winter  ;  more  or  less  spotted  with  pale  spots, 
particularly  in  suminer  and  when  yoimg  ;  but  in 
one  variety  the  sjicits  are  very  marked  ;  in  another 
dark-coloured  v;u'iety  they  are  not  to  be  observed 
even  in  the  young.  The  buttocks  are  alw.ays 
white,  and  a  dark  line  p.isses  along  the  back.  The 
under  parts  are  white.  Wliite  F.  D.  are 'some- 
times to  be  seen.  Tlie  female  has  no  horns.  The 
male  is  called  a  Bi'cK  (Fr.  dnim),  the  female  a 
Doe  (Fr.  daime),  tlie  young  a  F.vwx  (Fr. /ooh).  The 
n.ame  F.  D.  is  derived  from  its  colour.  See  the 
article  Fallow,  in  Agriculture. 

When  the  V.  D.  and  red  deer  arc  kept  in 
the  same  p.ark,  the  herds  seldom  mingle,  nor  do 
hybrids  occur.  The  F.  D.  loves  the  shelter  of 
woods. 

Tlie  flesh  of  the  F.  D.  is  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  kinds  of  venison. 

The  remains  of  fossil  species  nearly  allied  to  the 
F.  D.  occur  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  Not  remotely 
allied  to  it  is  the  great  fossil  Irish  Elk  (q.  v.). 

FA'LJIOL'TH,  a  parliamentary  and  niunici]i,al 
borough  and  seaport  iu  the  south-west  of  Cornwall, 
on  a  west  branch  of  the  estuary  of  the  F.al,  14  niiks 
north-north-east  of  Lizard  Point,  and  209  miles 
west-south-west  of  London.  It  chicHy  consists  of  a 
narrow  street,  a  mile  long,  on  the  smith-west  of  the 
harbour,  and  of  lieautiful  suburban  terraces  and 
villas  on  the  heights  behind.  The  h.arbour,  one  of 
the  best  in  England,  is  formcil  by  the  estuary  of  the 
Fal,  which  is  ,5  by  1  to  2  miles  in  extent.  It  is  12  to 
IS  f.athoms  deep,  and  afl'ords  shelter  to  500  ves.sels 
.at  a  time.  The  mouth  is  defended  on  the  west 
Iiy  Pendeunis  Castle,  situated  on  a  rock  198  feet 
high,  and  which  resisted  a  siege  by  Cromwell  fm' 
six  months;  on  the  cast,  by  Mawcs  Castle,  both 
built  by  Henry  VIIL  Poji.  (1801)  5700.  With 
Penih\m,  it  returns  two  members  to  j)arlianient. 
In  ISOO,  1293  vessels,  of  121,971  tons,  entered  and 
cleared  the  ])ort.  There  is  a  great  pilchard-fishery 
oS"  the  neighbouring  coasts.  The  chief  exports  .are 
tin,  co]>pcr,  pilehanls,  and  fuel.  Here  orange  and 
lemon  trees  yield  plenty  of  frnit  on  open  g,ardcn- 
w.alls.  F.  arose  in  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  c..  Sir 
Walter  Kaleigh  having  at  an  earlier  period  drawn 
]>ublic  notice  to  its  eapal)ilities,  and  it  lias  been, 
since  that  time,  a  rendezvous  for  fleets  and  mail- 
packets  proceeiUng  abroad.     (1871 — jiop.  5294.) 


FALSE,  RULE  OF— FALSE  PRETENX'ES. 


FALSE,  Rule  of,  or  FALSE  POSITION,  is  a 

mode  of  reckoning  in  cases  where  a  direct  solution 
of  the  question  is  impracticable.  Any  number  is 
chosen  at  hazard,  as  that  which  is  sought ;  this/ake 
2)osUhn  of  course  gives  a  false  result,  and  from  the 
amount  of  the  error,  it  is  ascertained  by  proportion 
what  the  assumption  ought  to  have  been.  Ex. 
What  number  is  that  whose  half  exceeds  its  third 
by  1-2?  Assume  96  at  random  ;  48  —  32  gives  16, 
which  is  too  gi"eat ;  .'.  16  :  12  : :  96  :  72,  the  number 
required.  This  method  is  now  mostly  superseded 
liy  the  use  of  et  [nations. 

FALSE  AND  PRETENDED  PROPHECIES, 

vWth  intent  to  disturb  the  public  peace,  are  punish- 
able Ijy  several  old  statutes.  By  33  Henry  VIII. 
o.  14,  this  crime  is  made  a  felony;  but  by  3  and  4 
Ed.  VI.  c.  LI,  continued  by  7  E<1.  VI.  c.  11,  and  by 
")  ElLz.  c.  1."),  the  punishment  is  restricted  to  one 
year's  imprisonment,  and  forfeitiU'C  of  £10  for  the 
tix'st  offence ;  aud  for  the  second  offence,  imprison- 
ment for  life,  and  forfeiture  of  all  chattels.  These 
statutes  apply  to  a  particidar  class  of  prophecies — 
viz.,  jirophecies  '  upon  or  by  the  occasion  of  any 
arms,  lields,  beasts,  badges,  or  such  other  like  things 
accustomed  in  arms,  cognizances,  or  signets ;  or  upon 
or  by  reason  of  any  time,  year,  or  day,  bloodshed,  or 
war,  to  the  intent  to  make  rebellion,  &c.'  This 
description  refers  to  predictions  fomuled  upon  the 
heraldic  bearings  of  particidar  families,  wluch,  in 
the  state  of  jiublic  feeling  at  the  time  when  the 
statutes  were  passed,  might  have  been  productive 
of  discontent  aud  sedition.  The  statutes  artj  unre- 
pealed, but  are  not  likely  in  the  present  day  again 
to  lie  jmt  in  force. 

FALSE  BAY,  an  inlet  which  may  be  referred 
either  to  the  Atlantic,  the  Southern,  or  the  Indian 
Ocean.  It  washes  the  east  side  of  the  mountainoiu 
district  of  South  Africa,  which  tenninates  in  the 
Cajie  of  Good  Hope,  and  extends  eastward  along 
the  coast  as  far  as  False  t'ape,  measuring  about 
22  miles  in  length,  and  about  the  same  in  breadth. 
F.  B.  is,  of  course,  sheltered  from  the  north-west 
monsoon,  to  which  Table  Bay — the  harbour  of 
Cape  Town — is  exposed,  an  advantage  which  is 
more  especially  possessed  by  Simon's  Bay.  at  its 
north-west  extremity.  Hence,  besides  periodically 
receiWng  trading- vessels  from  Cape  Town  for  tem- 
porary |irotection,  it  is  permanently  the  station  of 
the  naval  force  of  the  colony. 

FALSE  IMPRISONMENT.  Every  confine- 
ment of  the  person  is  an  imprisonment,  whether  it 
be  in  a  common  prison  or  a  private  house,  or  in  the 
stocks,  or  even  by  forcibly  detaining  one  in  the 
public  streets  (Coke,  Iii/st.  ii.  482).  A  man  is  liable 
for  detaining  the  person  of  another,  not  only  without 
cause,  but  without  legal  cause.  Thus,  where  a  man 
gives  another  in  charge  for  committing  an  offence, 
the  former  is  liable  to  an  action  for  false  imprison- 
ment, if  he  fails  to  substantiate  his  case.  PoUcc- 
officers,  also,  are  liable  for  appreheniling  a  man 
■ttathout  a  competent  warrant,  or  without  reasonal  ile 
suspicion.  But  where  a  felony  has  been  committed, 
an  officer  is  entitled  to  arrest  on  suspicion.  Not 
only  constables  but  private  persons  may  arrest  a 
man  who  commits  a  felony  in  their  presence.  A 
person  who  has  falsely  imprisimed  another  is  liable 
to  a  criminal  prosecution,  and  also  to  a  civil  action. 
In  the  former  case,  lie  may  be  punished  by  fine  and 
imprisoiuucnt ;  in  the  latter,  he  must  pay  such 
damages  as  are  awarded.  Any  one  detained  with- 
out sufficient  cause  is  entitled  to  apply  for  a  -writ  of 
JIahfas  Corpus  (q.  v.)  to  procure  his  liber.ation.  In 
Scotland,  thrs  species  of  offence  is  called  Wrongous 
Imprisonment  (q.  v.). 

FALSE   NEM'S    or    RUMOURS.      Spreading 


false  news  to  make  a  discord  between  the  sovereign 
and  nobility,  is  a  misdemeanour,  and  punishable  by 
the  common  law  of  England  with  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. By  statute  of  Westmiuster  the  first,  c.  34, 
this  penalty  is  confirmed.  This  statute  is  said  by 
Lord  Coke  to  have  been  passed  in  consequence  of 
the  rebellion  of  Simon  de  Jlontfort  (Coke,  Inst.  ii. 
226).     The  law  before  the  Conquest  had  been  more 

)  severe,  aud  required  that  the  author  and  spreader  of 
false  nuuours  shoidd  have  his  tongue  cut  out,  if  he 
redeemed  it  not  by  estimation  of  his  head  (or  capi- 

j  taticni  tax).  One  of  the  articles  against  Carcbnal 
Wolscy  was  foimded  on  this  principle  of  common 
law.  '  Also  the  said  cardinal  has  busied  and  endea- 
voured himself  by  crafty  aud  untrue  talcs  against 
yoiu-  nobles  of  your  realm.' — Coke,  Inst.  iv.  92. 
The  feeling  of  the  present  day  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  axiom  of  Tacitus,  Co/ivicia,  si  irasceris,  tu<i 
clib-ulgas,  spreta  excolescunt  (If  you  seek  to  revenge 
slanders,  you  publish  them  as  jour  own ;  if  you 
despise  them,  they  vanish). 

FALSE  PRETENCES,  OiiTARHNG  Money  by. 
By  the  common  law  of  England,  a  man  is  notpunish- 
.able  as  a  criminal  who  has  induced  another,  by 
fraudulent  representations,  to  jiart  with  the  property 
of  money  or  goods,  unless  the  loss  occasioned  by  the 
deception  be  of  a  public  nature.  Larceny  or  theft 
was  the  oidy  species  of  \^TongfiU  abstraction  of 
articles  of  value  which  w.as  recognised,  and  where 
the  consent  of  the  owner  to  the  transaction  was 
obtained,  no  matter  how  fraudidently,  the  loser  was 

j  left  to  a  ci\'il  action  for  his  relief.  To  remedy  this 
defect  in  the  law,  the  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  1  was 
passed,  whereby  it  was  enacted,  that  if  any  person 
should  falsely  and  deceitfidly  obtain  any  money, 
goods,  &c.,  by  means  of  any  false  token  or  counter- 
feit letter  m.ade  in  any  other  man's  name,  the 
offender  should  suffer  any  pimishment  short  of 
death,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge.  This  statute, 
however,  only  reached  the  case  of  deception  by  use 
of  a  false  wTiting  or  token  ;  the  30  Geo.  II.  c.  24 
w.as  therefore  passed  for  the  purpose  of  including 
all  false  pretences  whatsoever.  Further  alterations 
were  made  by  sid.)sequent  statutes,  untd,  by  7  and 
8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  the  pre\"ious  legislation  on  the 
subject  was  consolidated.  This  is  now  the  nding 
statvite  in  regard  to  false  pretences.  The  general 
principle  is  th.at,  wherever  a  person  fraudulently 
represents  as  an  existing  fact  that  which  is  not  an 
existing  fact,  and  so  gets  money,  &c.,  that  is  an 

;  offence  within  the  act  (Reg.  r.  Woolley,  i.  Den.  C. 
C.  5o9).  The  false  pretence  must  relate  to  some 
present  fact,  and  therefore  a  promise  merely  to  do 
some  act  is  not  such  a  false  representation  as  will 
sustain  a  conviction.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
deception  should  be  by  words  or  \\Titing,  Imt  any 
act  tending  to  ileceive,  will  liringa  person  witliin  the 
statute.  Thus,  a  man  at  O.xford  wearing  a  cap  and 
gown,  in  order  to  induce  a  tradesman,  of  whom  he 
ordered  goods,  to  beheve  that  he  was  a  member  of 
the  university,  is  sutiicient  to  wan'aut  a  conriction. 
The  deception  practised,  however,  must  not  be 
simply  as  to  the  qualil;/  of  an  article,  for  this  is 
regarded  as  merely  a  dishonest  trick  of  trade,  and 
not  criminally  ])unishable  ;  it  is  also  necessary  that 

]  the  owner  should  be  deceived  by  the  pretence  ;  aud 
where  a  tradesman  is  induced  to  jiart  with  goods  to 
a  regidar  customer,  making  a  false  statement,  not 
on  account  of  the  statement,  but  from  his  belief  in 
the  credit  of  the  party,  the  transaction  is  not  piinish- 

I  able  under  the  act.  By  24,  25  Vict.  c.  96,  ss.  SS— 90,  it 
is  enacted  that  it  shall  be  no  bar  to  a  conviction 
that  the  crime,  on  being  proved,  amoimts  to  larceny, 
and  that  it  shall  not  be  necessary  to  prove  an  intent 
to  defraud  any  particidar  person  ;  that  the  delivery 
of  money,  &c.,  to  another  person,  for  the  benefit  of 

237 


FALSE  RETURN— FALUN. 


the  party  using  the  deception,  and  also  the  obtaining 
sis^ature  to,  or  destruction  of,  a  valuable  security, 
ic.,  by  a  false  representation,  shall  subject  the 
offeniler  to  ]>unisliment.  The  same  statute,  ss.  46 
and  47,  contains  a  salutary  provision,  that  any  person 
attempting  to  extort  money  by  threatening  to  accuse 
another  of  certain  felonies,  or  of  an  inf:unous  crime, 
may  be  transported  for  life. 

Ill  Scotland,  this  oQence  is  known  as  Falsehood, 
Fraud,  and  Wilful  Imposition.  Each  species  of  the 
olloiico  which  in  England  is  punishable  under  the 
statute,  in  Scotland  is  indictable  at  common  law. 
Thus,  false  personation,  as  where  a  man,  in  the 
assumed  character  of  an  exciseman,  received  money 
as  a  composition  for  smuggled  goods,  has  been  held 
to  warraut  a  conviction  of  falsehood.  So,  also,  where 
the  deception  consists  in  fictitious  api>carances ;  as 
whore  a  man,  by  fitting  liis  shop  with  false  bales, 
induced  another  to  tnist  him  with  goods.  Obtainijig 
money  by  begging-letters,  and  the  common  practice 
of  chain-dropping,  fall  under  this  denomination  of 
crime. 

FALSE  RETURN,  Action  fok.  Where  a 
sheriff  makes  a  false  return  to  a  WTit,  the  party 
injured  may  maintain  an  action  against  him  for 
dama<;es.  Thus,  a  return  of  non  est  inventus  to  a 
writ  of  capias,  when  the  defendant  might  have  been 
apprehended,  or  a  return  of  nulla  bona  to  a  fieri 
/'ac'ias,  when  there  were  goods  which  might  have 
been  seized,  renders  the  sheriff  liable  in  damages  to 
the  amount  of  loss  occasioned  by  his  negligence. 

FALSE  SIGNALS.  By  7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict. 
c.  89,  s.  5,  the  exhibiting  any  false  lidit  or  signal, 
with  intent  to  bring  any  ship  or  vessel  into  danger, 
is  made  felony,  and  punishable  with  death.  The 
felonious  intent  may  bo  proved  by  declarations 
made  by  the  accused,  or  by  circumstances  which 
fairly  lead  to  the  conclusion  of  a  guilty  purpose. 
The  pimishment  of  death  is  recordccl,  but  is  not  in 
fact  carried  out. 

FALSE  SWEARING.  By  19  and  20  Vict.  o.  79, 
s.  178  (Bankruijtcy,  Scotland),  any  person  guilty 
of  falsehood  in  any  oath  made  in  the  pursuance  of 
the  act,  shall  be  liable  to  a  prosecution  at  the 
instance  of  the  Lord  Advocate,  or  of  the  trustee  in 
the  sequestration,  with  consent  of  the  Lord  Advo- 
cate. But  in  the  latter  case,  the  prosecution  must  bo 
authorised  by  a  majority  of  the  creditors  present  at 
a  meeting  called  for  the  pm-[Msc.  The  person,  on 
cou\-ictiou,  is  liable,  in  addition  to  the  punishment 
awarded,  to  forfeit,  for  behoof  of  the  creditors,  his 
whole  claim  under  the  sequestration.  In  England 
a  bankrupt  is  not  put  upon  oath ;  but  on  making 
a  false  declaration,  he  is  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanour and  pimishable  with  the  penalty  of 
perjury. 

FALSE  VERDICT.  The  remedy  in  cases  where 
it  was  alleged  that  a  false  verdict  had  been  returned, 
was  formerly  by  means  of  a  writ  of  attaint.  This 
wTit  originally  lay  only  in  cases  where  the  jury  h.ad 
returned  a  verdict  on  their  own  knowledge  of  the 
facts,  and  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that,  in 
returning  a  false  verdict,  they  were  necessarily  per- 
jure(L  The  case  was  heard  before  twenty-four  men, 
and  in  case  the  original  verdict  was  found  bad,  the 
jurors  incurred  the  jieualty  of  infamy  and  forfeiture 
of  their  goods.  By  statute  of  Westminster  the 
first,  c.  34,  a  writ  of  attaint  was  allowed  upon  an 
inquest ;  i.  e.,  where  cases  had  been  decided  upon 
c%adence  adduced.  In  this  case,  the  evidence  pro- 
duced on  the  second  inquiry  could  only  be  such  as 
had  been  laid  before  the  first  jury,  as  it  woidd  have 
been  manifestly  luijust  to  punish  jurors  on  fresh 
evidence  which  they  had  not  heard.  Writ  of  attaint 
was  abolished  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  50,  s.  GO. 
23S 


FALSE  -WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.    The 

use  of  false  weights  and  scales  is  an  offence  at  common 
law  in  England,  and  pimishable  by  imprisonment. 
In  Scotland,  by  I()07  c.  2,  the  >isers  of  false  weights 
are  punishable  by  confiscation  of  movables. 
FALSEHOOD.  See  Frato. 
FA'LSET,  or  FALSETTO,  a  term  in  smging  for 
the  highest  register  of  a  man's  voice,  which  joins  the 
natunu  or  chest  voice,  and  which,  by  practice,  may 
be  so  blended  ■with  the  chest-voice  as  to  make  no 
perceivable  break. 

FALSIFYING  RECORDS.  The  injuring  or 
falsifj'ing  any  of  the  documents  of  a  court  of  justice 
is,  by  several  modern  statutes,  made  a  serious 
offence.  Any  person  obliterating,  injuiing,  or  destroy- 
ing any  record,  writ,  &c.,  or  any  original  document 
belonging  to  any  court  of  record  or  of  eqiuty,  is  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour,  and  may  be  transported  for 
seven  years  (now  penal  servitxide),  or  be  punished 
by  fine  or  imprisonment,  with  or  M-ithout  hard 
labour,  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29.  By  13  and  14  Vict 
c.  99,  any  person  employed  to  furnish  certified 
copies  wilfull)'  certifying  any  document  as  a  trne 
copy,  knowing  the  same  is  not  so,  is  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  and  may  be  imprisoned  for  eighteen 
months.  This  act  does  not  extend  to  Scotland. 
By  I  and  2  Vict.  c.  94,  any  person  employed  in  a 
public  record  office  eertifjTng  any  ^^Titing  to  be  a 
true  copy,  kno\\Tng  the  same  to  be  false  in  any 
material  ]i.art,  is  guilty  of  felony,  and  may  be 
transported  for  life. 

FA'LSTER,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  south 
of  Seel.and,  lies  between  lat.  54°  .W  aud  54°5S'N., 
and  between  long.  11°  45'  and  12°  11'  E.  It  is 
separated  by  the  strait  called  the  Gronsimd  from 
the  island  of  Mocn,  and  by  that  called  the  Guld- 
borgsuud  from  the  island  of  Laaland,  together  with 
which  F.  forms  the  stift  or  province  of  Laaland,  a 
pro\'ince  which  contains  in  all  C.35  square  miles,  and 
which,  in  1855,  had  196,811  inhabitants.  F.  is  about 
26  mUes  long,  and  16  wide  at  its  widest  part,  and 
has  an  area  of  about  178  square  miles.  It  is  fiat, 
remarkably  fniitful,  and  well  cultivated,  so  that  it 
resembles  an  attractive  garden,  and  maintains  in 
all  about  23,000  inhabitants,  who  employ  themselves 
chiefiy  in  agiicidture  and  cattle-breeding.  The  chiei 
town  is  Nykjobing,  on  the  Guldborgsund.  It  is 
very  old,  has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral,  has  some 
commerce  and  shipbuilding,  and  a  population  of 
2008.  The  only  other  place  of  any  note  is  Stubbek- 
jiibing. 

FA'LUN,  or  FAHLUN  (called  also  Gamla 
Kopimrberget,  i.e.,  the  '  old  copper- mine'),  is  a  town 
of  Sweden,  capital  of  the  liin,  or  province,  of  the 
same  name,  formerly  the  jiroWnee  of  Dalecarlia.  It 
stands  on  the  north-western  shore  of  Lake  Riiiin, 
120  miles  north-west  of  Stockholm,  and  has  long 
been,  and  still  is,  famous  for  its  copper-mines,  though 
the  quantity  of  ore  now  obtained  from  them  is  much 
smaller  than  formerly.  The  greatest  yield  was  about 
1050,  when  no  less  than  3000  tons  were  annually 
got ;  this,  however,  declined,  in  1690,  to  1900  tons; 
while  at  present  it  is  only  about  400  tons.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  used  to  call  the  mines  the  '  treasury  of 
Sweden.'  The  excavations  are  immense,  extending 
for  miles  underground,  .and  containing  vast  chambers, 
where  Bernadotte,  the  late  king  of  Sweden,  g.ave 
splendid  banquets,  on  which  occasions  the  mines 
were  brilliantly  lighted  up.  F.  is  an  old  town, 
regularly  built,  but  has  on  the  whole  a  gloomy 
effect,  as  its  houses,  which  are  of  wood,  have  become 
Ijlackeued  by  tlie  fumes  which  arise  from  the 
nimierous  smelting-furnaccs  of  the  town.  These 
fumes,  though  destructive  to  all  vegetable  life  in  the 
neighbourhood,  do  not  seem  to  affect  the  health  of 


FALTOTS— FAMILIAR  SPIP.ITS. 


the  inhabitants  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  resorted  to  for 
safety  during  the  prevalence  of  contagious  diseases. 
F.  has  a  High  School  founded  by  Queen  Christina, 
a  museum,  an  institution  for  instruction  in  the 
science  of  mining,  several  cotton  and  Ilax-spinning 
mills,  and  some  manufactures  of  blankets  and 
carpets — which  are  made  from  cow-hau' — tobacco- 
pipes,  leather,  &c.     Top.  4618. 

F.-VLTJNS,  a  term  given  by  the  agi-iciJturists  of 
Touraine  to  shelly  sand  and  marl,  which  they  spread 
over  their  lands  as  a  fertilising  manure,  and  employed 
by  geologists  as  the  name  of  the  deposits  from  which 
those  materials  are  obtained.  They  are  loosely 
aggregated  beds  of  sand  and  marl,  in  which  are  shells 
and  corals,  some  entire,  some  rolled,  and  others  in 
minute  fragments ;  occasionaDy,  they  are  so  com- 
pacted by  calcareous  cement  as  to  fonn  a  soft  budd- 
ing-stone. They  occur  in  scattered  patches  of  slight 
thickness  in  the  lower  part  of  the  vaUey  of  the 
Loire.  The  animal  remains  contained  in  them  are 
chicdy  marine,  and  have  the  stamp  of  a  more  tropical 
fauna  than  the  Mediterranean.  A  few  land  and 
llu%-iatile  moUusca  are  found  mixed  with  the  oceanic 
forms,  and  with  these  are  associated  the  remains  of 
terrestrial  quadrupeds,  as  Dinotherium  (q.  v.),  Mas- 
todon (q.  v.),  Rhinoceros  (q.  v.),  &c.  It  is  probable 
that  the  faluu-beds  were  deposited  near  the  shore  in 
shallow  water,  and  at  a  time  when  the  temperature 
was  warmer  than  it  is  now.  About  25  per  cent,  of 
the  organic  remains  arc  said  to  belong  to  recent 
species.  The  strata  foi-m  the  typical  beds  of  Lyell's 
Miocene  Period  (q.  v.),  the  middle  division  of  the 
Tertiary  rocks.  j 

FA'BIA  (Gr.  Pheme],  the  goddess  of  nimoiu-,  I 
appears  in  the  works  of  the  earliest  jioets.  Sophocles 
makes  her  the  child  of  Hope ;  Virgil,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Terra,  the  sister  of  Enceladus  and  Coeus. 
Terra  produced  her  to  avenge  herself  upon  the  gods 
for  the  defeat  of  her  sons  the  giants,  as  F.  would 
everjnvhere  ])roclaini  their  e\-il  deeds.  Ovid  describes 
her  dwelling  as  a  palace  of  sounding  brass  with  a 
thousand  entrances. 

FA'MA  CLAMO'SA,  in  the  ecclesiastical  law  of 
Scotland,  is  a  wide-spread  report,  imputing  immoral 
conduct  to  a  clergyman,  probationer,  or  elder  of  the 
church.  A  fama  clamosa,  if  very  clamant,  may  form 
the  ground  of  process  by  a  presbj'tcr}',  without  any 
specific  complaint  being  brought  before  them,  or  there 
being  any  particular  accuser.  In  these  circumstances, 
the  prcsbj-tery  act  for  the  vindication  of  their  owni 
order,  and  in  behalf  of  the  morals  of  the  community. 
Should  the  inquiries  of  the  presbytery  lead  them 
to  tlie  conWction  that  the  rumour  is  not  without 
foundation,  they  wiU  serve  the  accused  jiartj'  \rith 
a  libel,  and  thus  bring  him  for  trial  before  them. 
(Hdl's  Cliurcli  Prac.  49;  Cook's  Styles;  and  Wood 
On  Libels.) 

FAMI'LIAR    SPIRITS,   a   term    employed   to  j 
denote  certain   supernatural   beings,  in  attendance  j 
u]>on   magicians,   wizards,   witches,   conjurors,   and 
other    skilful   professors   of    the    black    art.      The  > 
word   'familiar'  is  in   all   likelihood   derived  from  | 
the  hatia  famuhix  (a  'domestic,'  a  'slave').     The  [ 
l)clief  in  such  spirits  goes  far  back  into  tlie  historj'  i 
of  the  race.     We  road  of  them  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
who   admonishes   his   countrymen   to   '  regard   not  i 
them  that  have  familiar  spirits'  (Lev.  xix.  ."il),  which 
would    imply   the    prevalence   of    the   su]>erstition  1 
among  the  X^^Tti^^^'     The  word  in  the  original 
rendered  '  familiar  spirits '  is  oboth  ;  it  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  literally 
signilies  'leathern  bottles;'  thereby  indicating  the 
antiquity  of  the  idea,  that  magicians  were  wont  to 
imprison  in  bottles   the   spirits  whom  their  spells 
had  subdued  (whence  our  '  bottle-imps '  and  '  bottle- 


conjurors  ') ;  the  origin,  again,  of  which  grotesque 
belief  is  perhaps  to  be  sought  for  in  the  circum- 
stance that  mystical  liquids  kept  in  vials  have 
been  immensely  in  vogue  among  the  conjm-ors 
of  all  ages  and  countries.  It  is  not  clear,  as 
some  think,  that  we  can  include  Socrates  among 
those  who  shared  this  vidgar  superstition,  for 
although  he  spoke  of  his  attendant  '  d;emon'  in  very 
ambiguous  terms,  the  opinion  of  all  enlightened 
critics  is,  that  he  meant  by  the  word  nothing  more 
and  nothing  less  than  what  Christians  mean  by  the 
presence  of  a  di\Tne  light  and  guide  in  the  heart 
and  conscience.  But  according  to  Delrio — a  great 
;  authority  on  this  subject— the  belief  in  familiar 
sjiirits  in  the  grosser  and  more  miigical  form  did 
exist  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  who,  he  affirms, 
j  designated  such  beings  Paredrii,  '  companions, '  as 
;  being  ever  assiduously  at  hand.  The  story  of  the 
ring  of  Gyges,  king  of  Lydi.T,,  as  narrated  by 
Herodotus,  is  held  by  Heywood  (see  Jlierarchie  of 
the  Blessed  Angels,  &c.)  to  prove  the  existence  of 
the  beUef  in  that  country  also;  and  it  is  quite 
certain  that  during  the  middle  ages  the  belief  in 
'  enchanted  rings '  containing  familiar  spirits  was 
widely  diffused  throughout  lliu-ope,  the  magicians 
of  Salamanca,  Toledo,  and  those  of  Italy,  being 
especially  famous  for  their  skill  in  thus  subjugat- 
ing and  imjirisoning  demons.  Asia,  in  fact,  woidd 
seem  to  have  been  the  original  home  of  the  belief 
in  familiar  spii-its,  which  has  long  been  established 
as  a  cardin;il  superstition  of  the  Persians  and 
Hindus,  and  which  appears  in  perfection  in  the 
Arabian Xiiiliis.  The  '  slave  of  the  lamp'  who  waits 
upon  iVladdin  is  an  example  in  point.  Whether  the 
belief  in  familiar  spirits  sprung  up  independently 
among  the  nations  of  Western  Eurojie,  or  was  trans- 
planted thither  by  intercourse  with  the  East,  does 
not  clearly  appear.  A  favourite  form  assumed  by 
the  familiar  spirit  was  that  of  a  black  dog.  Jo\-ius 
and  others  relate,  that  the  famous  CorneUus  Agrippa 
(q.  v.),  half  philosopher,  half  quack,  was  always 
accompanied  by  '  a  devil  in  the  shape  of  a  black 
dog ; '  and  add,  that  when  he  perceived  tlie  approach 
of  death,  he  took  a  collar  ornamented  with  nails, 
disposed  in  magical  inscriptions,  from  the  neck  of 
this  animal,  and  dismissed  him  ■n-ith  these  memor- 
able words  :  Abi,  ]>erdita  Bestia,  quce  me  totum  per- 
didisti — ('Away,  accursed  beast,  who  hast  ruined 
me  wholly  for  ever').  Butler,  in  his  Hudibras, 
speaks  highly  of  this  animal : 

Agrippa  kept  a  Stygi.-in  pug 
r  the  garb  and  habit  of  a  dog 
That  was  his  tutor,  and  the  cur 
Read  to  the  occiUt  philosopher. 
And  taught  liim  subtly  to  maintain 
All  other  sciences  are  vain. 

The  readei-s  of  Goethe,  too,  will  remember  that 
Mephistopheles  first  appears  to  Faust  and  Wagner 
during  their  evening  walk  in  this  shape  ;  but,  in 
truth,  the  earUest  instances  of  such  transmigration 
are  much  older  at  least,  if  medieval  tradition  can 
be  credited,  for  it  assui-es  us  that  Simon  Magus  and 
other  ancient  magicians  had  famUiar  spirits  who 
attended  them  in  the  form  of  dogs.  Curiously 
enough,  in  S[iite  of  the  servitude  to  which  the 
attendant  im|is  were  reduced  by  the  potent  spells 
of  the  magicians,  they  were  jiopularly  supposed, 
during  the  middle  a^es,  to  have  their  revenge  at  last, 
by  carrying  with  tnem  into  eternal  torment  the 
soiUs  of  their  deceased  masters.  This  idea  of  divine 
retribution  overtaking  the  practisers  of  magic  is, 
however,  not  found  out  of  Christendom.  The  Jews 
think  not  the  less  but  the  more  of  Solomon  because 
he  was,  as  they  say,  one  of  the  greatest  of  magicians ; 
and  a  similar  feeling  in  regard  to  '  wonder-workers  ' 

239 


FAMILIMIS-FAN. 


iwrvades  eastern  nations  generally,  though  it  is  to 
be  noticed  that  the  latter  are  often  represented  as 
using  their  power  malignantly.     Sec  Magic. 

FA5IILIARS.     See  Ixquisitiox. 

FA'MILY  (Ln.t  familia).  Though  we  are  in  the 
habit  of  regarding  the  life  pi  antiquity,  and  more 
particiJarly  that  of  Greece,  as  less  domestic  than 
that  of  Christian  Eiu-ope  (and  probably  with  reason), 
the  idea  of  the  family  or  house  (Or.  oU(i»),  as  the 
nucleus  of  society,  as  the  political  imit,  was  there 
vi-ry  early  developed.  Aristotle  sjicaks  of  it  as 
the"  fo\uidation  of  the  state,  and  quotes  Hesiod  to 
the  effect  that  the  original  famUy  consisted  of  the 
wife  and  the  l.ibouring  ox,  which  held,  as  he  says, 
to  the  poor  the  i)ositiou  of  the  slave  {Folit.  i.  1). 
The  complete  Greek,  family  then  consisted  of  the 
man  and  his  wife  and  his  slave;  the  two  latter, 
Aristotle  says,  never  liaviug  been  confounded  in 
the  same  class  by  the  Greeks,  as  by  the  barbarians 
[Jb.).  In  this  form,  the  family  was  recognised  as 
the  model  of  the  monai-chy,  the  earliest,  as  well  as 
the  simplest,  form  of  goverument.  MHien,  by  the 
birth  and  growth  of  children,  and  the  death  of  i 
the  father,  "the  original  family  is  broken  up  into  i 
several,  the  heads  of  which  stand  to  each  other  in  a 
co-ordiuate  rather  than  a  strictly  subordin.ate  posi- 
tion, we  have  in  these  tlie  prototypes  of  the  more 
.adv.anced  forms  of  government.  Each  brother,  by 
becoming  the  head  of  a  separate  family,  becomes  a 
memberof  an  aristocracy,  or  the  embodiment  of  a 
portion  of  the  sovereign  power,  as  it  exists  in  the 
separate  elements  of  which  a  constitutional  or  a 
democratic  government  is  composed. 

But  at  Kome  the  idea  of  the  family  was  still  more 
closely  entwined  with  that  of  life  in  the  state,  and 
the  natural  power  of  the  father  was  taken  as  the 
basis  not  only  of  the  whole  pohtical,  but  of  the  whole 
social  organisation  of  the  people.  In  its  more 
special  aspects,  the  Roman  idea  of  the  family  will  be 
explained  under  1* atria  Potesta.s.  Here  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  state  that  \\-ith  the  Romans,  as  with  the 
Greeks,  it  included  the  slave  as  weU  as  the  wife, 
and  ultimately  the  chiltb-en  ;  a  fact  wliich  indeed 
is  indicated  by  the  ctjTiiology  of  the  word,  which 
belongs  to  the  same  root  as/ainulus,  a  slave.  In  its 
■widest  sense,  thefamilia  included  even  the  inanimate 
possessions  of  the  citizen,  who,  as  the  head  of  a 
house,  was  his  own  master  (xui  juri^)  ;  and  Gaius 
(ii.  102)  uses  it  as  sjnionymous  with  patrimonium. 
In  general,  however,  it  was  confined  to  persons — 
the  wife,  chiltlren,  grandchildren,  and  gre.at-graud- 
children,  if  such  there  were,  and  slaves  of  a  full- 
blown Roman  citizen.  Sometimes,  too,  it  signified 
aU  tliose  who  had  sprung  from  a  common  stock,  and 
would  have  been  members  of  the  family,  and  under 
the  potestas  of  a  common  ancestor,  had  he  been 
alive.  See  Cognati.  In  this  sense,  of  course,  the 
slaves  belonging  to  the  different  members  of  the 
family  were  not  included  in  it.  It  was  a  family,  in 
short,  in  the  sense  in  wliioh  we  speak  of '  the  roy.al 
family,'  &c.,  with  this  difference,  that  it  was  possible 
for  an  indi\'idu,al  to  (put  it,  and  to  pass  into  another 
by  adoption.  See  AiiopTio.  Sometimes,  again,  the 
word  w.os  used  with  reference  to  slaves  exclusively, 
and,  analogically,  to  a  sect  of  philosophers,  or  a  body 
of  gladiators.  See  Smith's  IJictionari/  of  Greek  and 
Roman  A  ntiiuities. 

The  whole  social  fabric  is  based  on  the  grouping 
of  human  beings  in  families  ;  an  arrangement  which 
is  in  liarmony  with  all  the  conditions  and  wants  of 
human  life,  and  which  tends  to  foster  those  li.abits 
and  alTections  that  are  essential  to  the  welfare  of 
mankind.  A  prosperous  community  must  be  an 
aggregate  of  happy  families  ;  there  being  little  true 
happiness  in  the  world  that  is  not  intimately  con- 
240 


nccted  with  domestic  life.  The  form.al  bond  of  the 
family  is  Marriage  (q.  v. ;  see  also  roLYiiAMV) ;  and 
an  essential  condition  of  its  right  development  seems 
to  be  a  distinct  abode,  which  shall  be  not  a  mere 
shelter,  but  a  house  or  Itome,  affonlin"  a  certain 
measure  of  comfort  and  decency,  according  to  the 
staud.ard  prevalent  in  the  community.  See  Genius 
and  Demijn  of  the  Domestic  Constitutioii,  by  Rev. 
Christopher  jVnderson  (Ediu.  182G). 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE.     See  Agapemo.ne. 

FA'JIIXE,  PoHT,  an  abortive  settlement  of  S]iain, 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  .Strait  of  Magellan,  is 
situated  in  lat.  5.3°  38'  S.,  and  long.  70'  58'  W.  It 
owes  its  name  to  the  ile.ath,  by  starvation,  of  the 
Spanish  garrison ;  and  it  is  saiil  to  be  now  a  penal 
colony  of  the  republic  of  CliiU.  Some  voyagers, 
however,  have  spoken  of  the  neighbourhood  as 
'  covered  ^rith  flowers,'  and  '  decorated  with  luxu- 
riance,' and  capable  of  being  made,  so  far  as  soil  is 
concerned,  '  one  of  the  finest  regions  in  the  world.' 

FAX,  an  instrument  or  mechanical  contrivance 
for  moving  the  air  for  the  sake  of  coolness,  or  for 
Axdnnowing  chaff  from  grain.  In  the  East,  the  use  of 
fans  is  of  remote  antiquity.  The  Hebrews,  Egyp- 
tians, Chinese,  and  the  miscellaneous  population  of 
India,  all  used  fans  as  far  back  as  history  reaches. 
At  the  present  day,  it  is  customary,  in  the  better 
classes  of  houses  in  India,  to  suspend  a  large  species 
of  fan  from  the  ceiling,  and  keep  it  in  .agitation 
with  strings,  pulled  by  servants,  in  order  to  give  a 
degree  of  coolness  to  the  air.  Sec  PrxKAH.  Among 
the  oldest  notices  of  winnowing  fans  arc  those  in 
the  Scriptures.  There  the  fan  is  always  spoken  of 
as  an  instrument  for  driving  aw.ay  chaff,  or  for 
cleansing  in  a  metaphorical  sense  ;  and  such  notices 
remind  us  of  the  sim])le  processes  of  husbandry 
employed  by  a  people  little  advanced  in  the  arts. 
It  was  a  long  stride  from  the  use  of  a  simjUe 
hand-instrument  for  winnowing  to  that  of  the 
modei-n  mechanism  employed  for  a  similar  purpose. 
See  Fasxer-s. 

As  is  observable  from  the  collection  of  Egj-ptian 
antiquities  in  the  British  Musciun,  the  fan  as  an 
article  of  female  taste  and  luxiu-y  is  of  quite  as 
old  date  as  the  instniment  is  for  commoner  pur- 
poses. Terence,  a  writer  of  Latin  comedies,  who 
lived  in  the  2d  e.  E.  c,  makes  one  of  his  characters 
speak  of  the  fan  as  used  by  ladies  in  ancient  Rome  : 
Cape  hoc  Jiahellum,  el  ventuliim  hitic  J'acito — '  Take 
this  fan,  and  give  her  tlms  a  little  .air.'  From 
this  Roman  origin,  the  fashion  of  carrying  fans 
eoiUd  scarcely  fail  to  be  handed  down  to  the 
ladies  of  It.aly,  Spain,  .and  France,  whence  it  was 
in  advanced  times  imported  by  tlie  fair  of  Great 
Britain.  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  in  fxUl  dress,  car- 
ried a  fan.  Shakspcare  speaks  of  fans  as  connected 
with  a  lady's  '  braveiy '  or  finery  : 

TTith  scarfs  and  fans,  and  double  charge  of  braveiy. 

It  is  proper  to  say,  however,  that  the  f.an  w.as  in 
these  and  also  in  later  times  not  a  mere  .article  of 
finery.  There  were  w.alking  as  well  as  dress  fans. 
The  walking  or  outdoor  fan  which  a  l.ady  carried 
with  her  to  church,  or  to  pubUc  promenades,  w.as  of 
large  dimensions,  sufficient  to  screen  the  face  from 
the  sun,  and  answered  the  purpose  of  tlie  modern 
Parasol  (q.  v.).  In  old  prints,  ladies  are  seen  carry- 
ing these  fans  in  different  attitudes  according  to 
fancy.  The  ilress  fan,  which  formed  part  of  a  Lady's 
equipment  at  court  ceremonies,  drums,  routs,  and 
theatrical  entertainments,  w;is  of  a  size  considerably 
less  than  the  w,alkiug  fan,  and  altogether  more 
elegant.  Of  these  dress  f.ans  there  exist  niunerpus 
sj>ecimen3  bequeatlied  as  lieirlooms  from  one  gener- 
ation to  another ;  indeed,  there  are  few  Ladies  who 


FAN  PALM— FANARIOTS. 


cannot  shew  several  of  different  eras  throughout 
the  ISth  c. ;  some  being  in  good  preservation, 
while  in  others  the  gilded  stars  and  cupids  which 
delighteil  the  eyes  of  great-grandmothers  have  a 
mournfully  tarnished  appearance.  In  the  finer  kinds 
of  these  old  fans,  the  open  part  of  paper  is  painted 
with  pretty  rural  scenes  and  groups  of  figures  in 
the  style  of  Watteau  (q.  v.).  All  were  ))robably 
of  French  manufacture.  The  more  costly  fan 
importeil  from  China  was  and  still  is  altogether  of 
ivory,  higldy  carved  and  pierced ;  but  it  wants 
the  lightness  and  flexibility  which  were  essential 
in  the  ordinary  management  of  this  article  of 
the  toilet.  Strictly  speaking,  the  fan  was  used 
less  for  the  purpose  of  cooUug  than  for  gi«ng  the 
hands  something  to  do,  and  also  for  symbolically 
expressing  certain  passmg  feelings.  In  the  hand 
of  an  adept,  the  fan,  by  pecuUar  movements,  could 
be  made  to  express  love,  disdain,  modesty,  hope, 
anger,  and  other  emotions.  Oay,  si)eakmg  of 
Flavia's  accomplishments,  says : 

In  other  hands,  the  fan  would  prove 
An  engine  of  small  force  in  love. 

Considering  the  coarseness  of  language,  even  in 
the  higher  circles,  in  the  early  part  of  the  ISth  e., 
we  cannot  wonder  that  the  fan  should  have  been 
indispensable  to  a  lady  going  into  company.  It  was 
held  up  to  shield  the  countenance  when  anj^hing 
too  shocking  for  female  ears  was  uttered.  Pope  has 
an  allusion  to  this  use  of  the  fan 

The  modest  fan  was  lifted  up  no  more. 

And  virgins  smiled  at  what  they  blushed  before. 

Steele,  in  a  paper  in  the  Taller,  Xo.  52,  August  9, 
1709,  gives  an  amusing  account  of  Delamira,  a  fine 
lady,  resigning  her  fan  when  she  was  about  to  be 
married.  One  of  her  female  acquaintances,  ha\dng 
envied  the  manner  in  which  this  charming  and 
fortunate  coquette  had  played  her  fan,  asks  her  for  it. 
Delamira  acknowledges  the  wonderful  virtues  of  the 
fan,  and  tells  her  that  '  all  she  had  above  the  rest 
of  her  sex  and  contemporary  beauties  was  wholly 
owing  to  a  fan  (that  was  left  her  bj'  her  mother, 
and  had  been  long  in  the  famdj'),  which,  whoever 
had  in  possession,  and  used  with  skill,  shoidd  com- 
mand the  hearts  of  all  her  beholders  ;  "  and  since," 
said  she  smiling,  "  I  have  no  more  to  do  with  extend- 
ing my  conquests  or  triumphs,  I  will  make  you  a 
present  of  this  inestimable  rarity." '  Two  years 
later,  Addison,  in  a  paper  in  the  Sjieclator  (Xo.  102), 
gives  a  humorous  account  of  the  tactics  of  coquettes 
in  the  use  of  fans  :  '  Women  are  armed  with  fans 
as  men  with  swords,  and  sometimes  do  more  execu- 
tion with  them  ; '  then  he  goes  on  to  describe  how 
laflies  are  instnicted  to  handle,  discharge,  ground, 
and  flutter  their  fans — the  whole  being  a  plejisant 
satire  on  the  fan-manofu\-ring  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne. 

Later  in  the  ISth  c,  fans  served  another  import- 
ant purpose.  At  dancing  assemblies  in  London, 
Bath,  and  elsewhere,  it  was  usual  for  the  gentlemen 
to  select  their  partners  by  drawing  a  fan.  All  the 
Lidies'  fans  being  jilaced  promiscuouslj'  in  a  hat,  each 
gentleman  drew  one,  and  the  lady  to  whom  it 
belonged  was  his  allotted  partner.  Mrs  Montagu, 
in  one  of  her  letters,  refers  to  this  custom  :  '  In  the 
afternoon,  I  went  to  Lord  Oxford's  ball  at  Mary-le- 
bone.  It  was  very  aOTeeable.  The  partners  were 
chosen  by  their  fans,  out  \vith  a  little  supercherk.' 
Of  the  trick  or  fraud  which  this  authoress  deli- 
cately veils  under  a  French  term,  the  beaiux  of  that 
period  were  far  from  guiltless.  A  lady's  fan  was 
almost  as  well  known  as  her  face,  and  it  was  not 
difficult,  with  a  little  connivance,  to  know  which 
to  draw.     At  Edinburgh,  where  it  appears  to  have 


been  the  practice  to  select  a  partner  for  a  whole 
season,  the  fans  of  the  Ladies  were  carefullj'  studied. 
Sir  Alexander  Boswell  alludes  to  this  species  of 
stratagem  in  one  of  his  poems  :  > 

Each  lady's  fan  a  chosen  Damon  bore, 

"U'itli  care  selected  many  a  day  before  ; 

For  unpro^'idcd  witli  a  favourite  beau, 

Tlie  nymph,  chagi-ined,  tlie  ball  must  needs  forego. 

In  Italy,  Spain,  the  West  Indies,  and  also  some 
parts  of  the  United  States,  fans  arc  largely  iii  use 
for  giving  the  sensation  of  coolness  during  hot 
weather,  and  for  this  purjmse  they  may  sometimes 
be  seen  in  the  hands  of  gentlemen  as  well  .as  ladies. 
In  Spain,  the  old  fashion  of  fan-flirting  appears  to 
be  still  in  vogue.  A  late  traveller  in  that  eoimtry 
says  :  '  I  was  vastly  interested  in  the  movements  of 
the  ladies'  fans  at  church.  AU  the  world  knows 
that  Spanish  fans  are  in  perpetual  motion,  and 
betr.ay  each  feeling,  real  or  assumed,  that  passes 
through  the  mind  of  the  bearer.  I  felt  con\-inced  1 
coiUd  guess  the  nature  of  the  service  at  every  par- 
ticidar  moment  by  the  way  in  which  the  fans  were 
waring.  The  differeuce  between  a  litany  and  a 
thanksgiving  was  unmistakable  ;  and  I  beheved  that 
minuter  shades  of  devotion  were  also  discoverable.' 
—  Vacation  Tourists  (18G1). 

With  other  changes  in  manners,  fans  are  no 
longer  used  in  English  fashionable  circles  for  the 
frivolous  purposes  noticed  in  their  past  history ; 
they  still  continue,  however,  to  form  an  article 
of  ceremonial  dress  at  dinner  and  other  evening 
parties.  In  embellishing  them,  foreign  as  well  as 
native  art  is  exerted  on  a  scale  commensurate  with 
their  price.  From  the  superior  kinds,  composed  of 
ivory  and  silk,  costing  twenty  guineas,  down  to 
those  of  wood  and  paper,  which  are  sold  at  l.«., 
there  are  varieties  to  suit  every  toilet  and  pocket. 
Lately,  fans  made  tastefullj'  of  feathers,  also  fans 
constructed  of  straw  and  variously  coloured  ribbons, 
have  been  among  the  novelties  of  fashion.  In  the 
case  of  a  general  court  mourning,  ladies  are  enjoined 
to  use  '  black  paper  fans.'  Tlie  manufacture  of  fans 
of  various  kinds  is  carried  on  in  England,  France, 
Belgiiun,  Spain,  and  other  European  countries,  like- 
wise in  the  United  States ;  and  now,  as  formerly, 
the  fan  is  an  article  of  export  from  China  to  many 
parts  of  the  world.  w.  c. 

FAN  FALSI,  a  n,ame  common  to  all  those  palms 
which  have  fan-shaped  leaves,  as  the  species  of 
Maiiritia,  Lodoicea  (Double  Cocoa  Nut),  Hijjilurne 
(Doiun  Palm),  Corypha,  Livistona,  Chamcerops,  &c. 
The  only  truly  European  palm,  Chamcerops  humiUs 
(q.  v.),  is  a  F.  P.,  as  is  also  the  North  American 
Palmetto.  The  Talipot  Palm  (Coriiplia  ttmbraculi- 
/era)  is  sometimes  called  the  Great  Fan  Pahn.  The 
Palmyra  Palm  is  another  fan  palm.  The  fan-shaped 
leaf  is  produced  by  an  abbre\iation  of  the  miiliib 
of  a  pinnated  leaf. 

FANA'RIOTS,  the  general  name  given  to  the 
Greeks  inh.abiting  the  Fanar  or  Fanal  in  Constan- 
tinople, a  quai-ter  of  the  city  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  beacon  (Gr.  phanarion)  situated  in  it. 
They  first  appear  in  history  after  the  taking  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  and  appear  to  have 
been  originally  descendants  of  such  noble  Byzantine 
families  as  escaped  the  fury  of  the  bai-barians. 
Afterwards,  however,  the  class  was  recruited  by 
emigrants  from  different  parts  of  the  old  Byzantine 
empire.  Subtle,  insinuating,  intriguing,  they  soon 
took  advantage  of  the  ignorance  of  the  Turkish 
governors,  and  made  themselves  politically  indis- 
pensable to  their  rulers.  They  filled  the  offices  of 
dragomans,  secretaries,  bankers,  &c.  One  of  them, 
named  Panayotaki.  at  a  later  period,  was  appointed 
Dragoman  to  the  Divan,  and  his  successors  obtained 

241 


FANCY— FAXG. 


still  greater  lioiiours.  Tlirough  their  inilucuce,  the 
lucrative  oUice  of  Uragomau  of  the  Fleet  was  callcil 
into  existence,  which  gave  them  almost  unlimited 
power  in  the  islands  of  the  Archij>elago.  Besides, 
from  them  were  chosen,  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  in  1S22,  the  Hospodars  of  AVallachia  and 
Moldaria,  while,  in  addition,  the  disposal  of  most 
of  the  ci\Tl  and  military  posts  under  the  Turkish 
government  was  in  their  hands.  In  spite  of  their 
power,  however,  the  F.  never  cxhiliited  much 
patriotism ;  they  were  animated  by  the  petty 
motives  of  a  caste,  and  when  the  war  of  liberation 
broke  out  among  their  countrpnen,  they  took  no 
jiart  in  it.  In  the  present  altered  state  of  affairs 
in  Turkey,  they  have  no  political  influence.  See 
Marco  Z.alloni's  Essai  sur  les  Faiinriots  (Marseille, 
lSi24;  2d  ed.  1830).  Consult  also  Finlay's  Jli^toiy 
of  the  Greek  Revolution  (Edin.,  Blackwood  and  Sous, 
ISGl).  \ 

FANCY.     See  iMAGixATioy. 

FANDA'NGO,  like  the  Bolero,  is  an  old  Spanish 
national  dance,  in  J  time.     It  is  danced  most  grace-  J 
fully  in  the  country,  iisuaUy  to  the  accompannnent  i 


of  a  guitar,  while  the  dancers  beat  time  with 
castanets,  a  custom  borrowed  from  the  Moors.  It 
proceeds  gradually  from  a  slow  and  unifonu  to  the 
liveliest  motion ;  and  notwithstanding  the  simplicitv 
of  the  pas,  vi\4dly  expresses  all  the  graduations  of 
the  passion  of  love,  in  a  manner  sometimes  bordering 
on  licentiousness.  The  i)eople  are  so  passionately 
fond  of  it,  th.at  the  clTorts  of  the  clergy  have  never 
been  able  to  suppress  it. 

FANEUIL  HALL,  a  spacious  pulilic  hall  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  erected  in  1742  by  Peter 
Faneuil,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  town.  In 
its  original  condition  .as  so  gifted,  the  building  con- 
tained a  h.all  for  ]>ublic  meetings,  with  lesser  .apart- 
ments above,  and  a  basement  used  as  a  m.arket. 
In  1761,  it  was  destroyed  by  lire,  and  rebuilt.  Dm-ing 
the  revohitionary  struggle  with  England,  the  hall 
was  so  often  used  for  important  political  meetings, 
that  it  became  known  as  'the  cr.adle  of  American 
liberty.'  In  1803,  the  building  was  increased  in 
height  by  an  .adtUtional  story,  and  .also  increased  in 
width.  It  is  now  .an  edifice  about  80  feet  square ; 
the  hall  cont.ains  some  fine  p.aintings ;  and  the 
basement  is  no  longer  used  as  a  market.     The  cut 


Faneuil  HiiU. 


here  given,  which  is  taken  from  an  original  diawing, 
represents  tliis  interesting  historical  edifice  as  it 
existed  in  1768. 

FANFARE  is  the  French  name  of  a  short  and 
lively  military  air  or  caU,  executed  on  br.ass  instru- 
ments. It  was  brought  by  the  Arabs  into  Sp.ain, 
whence  it  passed  into  Mexico  and  the  New  World. 
Fanfaron,  derived  from  fanfare,  is  the  name  given 
to  a  swaggering  bully  or  cowartUy  boaster,  probal)Iy 
because  of  the  empty  noise  he  makes  when  '  blow- 
ing his  own  tnimjiet,'  or  threatening  timid  jicople, 
and  the  term  applied  to  his  idle  braggadocia  and 
vapouring  vaunts  is  Fanfaronnade. 

FANG  (Ang.-Sax.  and  Ger.,  anything  caught  or 
taken,  from  the  verb  fangen,  to  catch).     In  the 

2i'2 


tenninology  of  the  law  of  Scotl.and,  .a  thief  taken 
wUh  the  famj  is  one  apprehended  while  carrying 
the  stolen  goods  on  his  jierson.  It  is  not  very  long 
since  this  word  formed  jiiu't  of  the  common  s^ieecu 
of  Scotland : 

Snap  went  the  shears,  then  in  a  winlc, 
The/a^iy  was  stowed  behind  a  bink.' 

Morison's  Poems,  p.  110. 

In  England,  also,  the  verb  fancf  was  still  in  use  in 
Shakspeare's  time:  'Destruction /an<7  mankind!' 
(Timon  of  Alliens,  iv.  3);  .and  'Master  F.ang,'  in 
Henry  IV.,  is  named  after  his  office.  We  still  use 
the  phr.ase  '  in  the  fangs,'  for  in  the  clutches ;  and 
the  fangs  of  a  dog  or  of  a  serpent  are  its  teeth  with 
which  it  catches  or  holds. 


FANNERS— FAN-TRACERY  VAULTING. 


FANNERS,  a  machine  employed  to  \viniiow 
i,Tain.  In  jiassinsr  through  the  machine,  the  grain 
is  rapidly  agitated  in  a  sieve,  and  faUing  through  a 
strong  current  of  wind,  created  by  a  rotatory  fan, 
tlie  chaff  is  blown  out  at  one  end,  and  the  cleansed 
jiartieles  fall  out  at  an  orifice  beneath.  The  appa- 
ratus is  composed  chiefly  of  wood,  and  though 
ordiuarily  moved  by  the  hand,  it  is  sometimes 
connected  with  the  driving  jiower  of  a  thrashing- 
null.  The  fanners  superseded  the  old  and  slow 
process  of  wiunowiug,  which  consisted  in  throwing 
up  the  grain  by  means  of  sieves  or  shovels,  while 
a  current  of  wind,  blowing  across  the  thr.ashing- 
tloor,  carried  away  the  chaff.  '  A  machine  for  the 
winnowing  of  corn  was,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained, 
for  the  first  time  made  in  this  island  by  Andrew 
Rodger,  a  farmer  on  the  estate  of  Cavers  in  Rox- 
burghshire, in  the  year  1737.  It  was  .after  retiring 
from  his  farm  to  indulge  a  bent  for  mechanics,  that 
he  entered  on  this  remarkable  invention,  and  began 
circidating  what  were  called  I^'anners  throughout 
the  country,  which  his  descendants  continued  to 
do  for  many  years.' — Domestic  Annals  of  Scotland, 
by  R.  Chambers,  vol.  iii.  Strangely  enough,  there 
was  a  sti'ong  opposition  to  the  u.se  of  this  useful 
instrument  ;  the  objectors  being  certain  rigid 
sectaries  in  .Scotland,  who  saw  iu  it  an  impious 
evasion  of  the  Divine  wOl.  To  create  an  artificial 
wind,  W.1S  a  distinct  flj'iug  in  the  face  of  the  text, 
'  He  that  formeth  the  mountains,  and  createth  the 
wind.' — Amos  iv.  13.  Apart  from  the  foUy  of  the 
objectors,  who  carried  their  fancies  to  the  extent 
of  petty  persecution,  we  are  amazed  at  their 
ajiparcnt  neglect  of  the  fact,  that  the  wiimo%ving  of 
corn  by  artificial  means,  in  which  fans  performed 
a  conspicuous  part,  is  mentioned  repeatedly  in 
the  Old  Testament.  See  Fan.  The  advantages  in 
using  the  fanners  soon  overcame  all  prejudices  on 
tile  subject,  and  the  objections  to  the  use  of  the 
machine  are  now  remembered  only  by  tradition, 
and  by  a  passage  in  one  of  the  imperishable  fictions 
of  Scott.  In  the  tale  of  Old  Mortaliti/,  Mause 
lloatlrigg  is  made  anachronously  to  speak  to  her 
mistress  about  '  a  iiewfanfded  machine  for  du/hting 
the  corn  frae  the  chaff,  thus  impiously  thwarting 
the  win  o'  Divine  Providence,  by  raising  wind 
for  your  leddyshiji's  use  by  human  art,  instead 
of  soUciting  it  by  prayer,  or  patiently  waiting  for 
whatever  dispensation  of  wind  Providence  was 
pleased  to  send  upon  the  shieling-hill.' 

FA'NO  (Lat.  Fanum  Fortume,  so  colled  from  the 
temple  of  Fortune  which  the  Romans  erected  here 
in  commemoration  of  the  defe.at  of  Asdrubal  on  the 
!Metaunis)  is  the  name  of  a  town  and  seaport  of 
It.aly,  in  the  province  of  Urbino  e  Pesaro,  finely 
situ.ated  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  district  on  the 
shore  of  the  Aib-iatic,  30  miles  north-west  of 
Ancona,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Metaurus.  It 
is  well  built,  is  surrounded  with  walls  and  ditches, 
has  a  cathedral  dedicated  to  St  Fortunato,  and 
numerous  churches  containing  many  v.aluable  paint- 
ings, among  which  are  several  of  the  best  works 
of  Domenicliino,  and  an  excellent  'Annunciation' 
by  Guide.  The  remains  of  a  triumph,al  arch  of 
white  marble,  noised  in  honour  of  Augustus,  form 
perhaps  the  chief  object  of  classical  interest  at 
Fano.  Pop.  89G0,  who  carry  on  considerable  trade 
in  corn  and  oil,  and  in  silk  goods.  Here,  in  1514, 
Pope  .lulius  II.  established  the  first  printing-press 
with  Arabic  letters  known  in  Europe.  The  port  of 
F.  was  once  well  known  to  the  traders  of  the 
xVdi-iatic  ;  its  commerce,  however,  has  declined,  and 
the  harbour  become,  to  some  extent,  choked  up  with 
sand. 

FANS,  The,  a  race  of  aborigines  in  Equatorial 


Africa,  residing  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Gaboon 
river,  and  said  to  be  cannibals  ;  the  accounts  of  this; 
savage  race  are,  however,  still  imperfect,  and  what 
is  mentioned  respecting  them  wants  confirmation. 

FANSHAWE,  Sir  Richard,  was  born  in  160S 
at  Ware  Park,  in  the  county  of  Hertford  ;  studied  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge  ;  and  in  1626,  became  a 
member  of  the  Inner  Temple.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war,  he  took  part  with  the  king ;  and  ui 
IG-tS,  became  treasurer  to  the  navy  under  Prince 
Rujiert.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester ;  and  on  his  release,  mthdrew  to  Breda 
in  Holland,  where  Charles  II.  was  holding  his  court 
in  exile.  .iVfter  the  Restoration,  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  where  he  died 
in  1G66.  F.  was  an  author  of  considerable  reputa- 
tion. His  most  celebrated  work,  now  very  rare,  is 
a  translation  of  Guariui's  Pastor  Fido,  the  lyrical 
passages  of  which  are  rendered  with  remark.able 
skiU  and  elegance.  The  volume  in  which  it 
appeared  was  published  in  1604,  and  contains  other 
pieces  in  prose  and  verse. 

FANTA'SIA,  in  Music,  the  name  of  a  composition 
of  a  similar  character  to  the  capriccio  ;  also  given  to 
extempore  eflusions  performetl  by  a  musician  who 
possesses  the  rare  gift  of  producing,  as  it  were,  off- 
hand music  like  a  well-studied,  regular  composition. 
Hummel  was  more  celebrated  for  his  extempore 
fantasias  on  the  pianoforte  than  even  for  his  pub- 
lished compositions.  Frederick  Schneiderwas  equally 
gre.at  for  his  free  fantasias  on  the  organ. 

FANTOCCI'NI.    See  Puppet. 

FAN-TRACERY  VAULTING,  a  kind  of  Late 
Gothic  vaulting  (15th  e.),  so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  fan.  The  ribs  or  veins  spring  from  one 
point,  the  cap  of  the  shaft,  and  radiate  with  the 
same  curvature,  and  at  equal  inter^-als,  round  the 
surface  of  a  curved  cone  or  polygon,  tiU  they  reach 
the  semicircul.ar  or  polygonal  ribs  which  divide  the 
roof  horizontally  at  the  ridge  level.  The  spaces 
between  the  ribs  are  fiUed  with  foils  and  cusps, 
rescmbUng  the  tracery  of  a  Gothic  \(-indow ;  hence 
the  najne  fan-tracery.  The  spaces  between  the  out- 
lines of  the  fans  at  the  ridge  level,  are  called  by 
Professor Whewell  (Oerman  Churches)  ridge  lozenges. 
In  Henry  VII.'s   Chapel,  Westminster,  one  of  the 


Fiiu-tracury  : 
From  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 

best  examples  of  this  kind  of  vaulting,  these  lozengea 
are  occupied  by  pendants,  which  jiroduce  a  most 
astonishin"   effect,   looking   like   ai'ches   resting  on 

■Hi 


FAN-TEACERY  VAULTING-FARADAY. 


nothing.  They  are,  however,  supported  with  great 
ingenuity  l)y  internal  arches,  rising  high  above  the 
visible  vaulting.  This  is  one  of  the  toiirs-de-force 
nhieh  astonish  the  vulgar,  but  arc  only  adopted 
when  art  has  reached  a  low  level,  and  has  iu  a  great 
measure  given  jil.ace  to  artifice.  Fan-tracery  is  a 
very  beautiful  kind  of  vaulting,  and  is  peculiar  to 
England,  where  it  originated,  and  whore  alone  it 
was  practised.  .:Vmon"  the  finest  ex.implcs  are 
Henry  VII.'s  Chapel  at  vVestininster;  St  George's, 
Windsor;  and  King's  CoUege  Chapel,  Cimbriagc, 
Fan-tr.acery  is  also  frequently  used  in  the  vaulting 
of  cloisters,  as  at  Canterbury,  Chester,  &c. 

FA'RADAY,  Michael,  D.C.L.,  1832,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  chemists  and  natural  philoso- 
phers now  liWug ;  a  splendid  instance  of  success 
obtained  by  patience,  perseverance,  and  genius, 
over  obstacles  of  birth,  education,  and  fortune. 
He  was  bom  in  1704,  near  London,  his  father  being 
a  blacksmith.  He  was  early  apprenticed  to  a  book- 
binder; yet  even  then  he  devoted  his  leisure  time 
to  science,  and  amongst  other  things,  made  experi- 
ments with  an  electrical  macliine  of  his  own  con- 
struction. Chance  ha\-ing  procured  him  admission, 
in  1S12,  to  the  chemical  lectures  of  Sir  H.  Davy 
(q.  v.),  then  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  he  ventured 
to  send  to  Da^-y  the  notes  he  had  taken,  with  a 
modest  ex]iression  of  his  desire  to  bo  employed  in 
some  intellectual  pui-suit.  Davy  seems  to  have  at 
first  endeavoured  to  discourage  him,  but  finding 
him  thoroughly  in  earnest,  soon  engaged  him  as 
his  assistant  at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  travelled 
"with  X>Avy  to  the  continent,  as  assistant  and 
amanuensis.  On  their  return  to  London,  Da^-y 
confided  to  him  the  performance  of  certain  experi- 
ments, which  led  in  his  hands  to  the  condensation 
of  gases  into  liquids  by  pressure.  Here  he  first 
shewed  some  of  that  extraordinary  power  and 
fertdity  which  have  rendered  his  name  famiHar  to 
every  one  even  slightly  acquainted  with  physics, 
and  which  led  to  his  appointment,  in  1S27,  to  Sir 
H.  Davy's  post  of  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Royal  Institution.  We  shall  give  a  brief  summary 
of  his  more  important  discoveries  and  published 
works,  arranging  the  different  subjects  according  to 
their  position  in  various  branches  of  science,  rather 
than  in  their  chronological  order. 

In  chemistry,  we  have  his  treatise  on  Cfiemical 
Manipulation,  1827;  2d  ed.  1842,  even  now  a 
very  valuable  book  of  reference.  His  Lectures  on  the 
Non-metallic  Elements,  and  Lectures  on  the  Chemical 
History  of  a  Candle,  deUvered  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution, were  published  within  the  last  few  years. 
As  discoveries  or  investigations  of  a  high  order  in 
this  branch  of  science,  we  may  mention — New 
Compounds  of  Chlorine  and  Carbon,  1821 ;  Alloys 
of  Steel,  1822 ;  Compounds  of  Hydrogen  and 
Carbon,  1825;  Action  of  Sulphuric  Acid  on  Naph- 
thaline, 1826 ;  Decomposition  of  Hydrocarbons  by 
Exjiansion,  1827;  and  the  very  vahuible  series  of 
experiments  made  in  1829 — 1830,  on  the  Manufac- 
ture of  Glass  for  Optical  Purposes,  which  resulted 
in  one  of  his  gi-eatest  discoveries,  to  be  afterwards 
mentioned. 

As  practical  applications  of  science,  his  Prepara- 
tion of  the  Limgs  for  Diving,  and  Ventilation  of 
Light-house  Lamps,  are  conspicuous,  as  are  also  his 
celebrated  letter  on  Table-turning,  and  his  lecture 
on  Mental  Education. 

To  enumerate  oidy  the  most  prominent  of  his 
]mblications  on  physical  science,  we  may  commence 
with  the  Condensation  of  the  Gases  (already  referred 
to) ;  then  we  have  Limits  of  Vaporisation,  Oiitical 
Deceptions,  Acoustical  Figures,  Regelation,  Remion 
of  Gold  and  other  Metals  to  Light,  and  Conseiration 
of  Force.  Of  these,  the  condensation  of  gases  into 
214 


'  liquids  and   solids,  though  previously  effected  by 

j  others   (and   F.    has    ever    been    the    foremost   to 

I  acknowledge  another's  priority),  he  has  really  made 

'  his  own,  not  Only  by  the  extent  and  accuracy  of 

his  experiments,  but  by  the  exquisite  experimental 

methods  by  which  he   effected   the   results.      His 

ideas   on   regelation,  and   its   connection  with   the 

,  motion  of  glaciers,  have   not   met  with   univers;U 

acceptance,  though  (see  HE.iT,  Ice,  Glacier)  there 

is  no  dispute  as  to  his  being  correct  in  his/a<i&     In 

'  regard  to  Conservation  of  Force,  there   can  be  no 

!  doubt   that    he   has  been    led   into   a    fallacy,   by 

mistaking  the  technical  use  of  the  word  force  (see 

Force),  for  in  his  article  on  the  subject  he  describes 

experiments   made  with   the   view  of  proving   the 

conservation     of    statical,     not     dynamical     force, 

'.whereas  the  doctrine  of  conservation  asserts  merely 

the  conservation   of   '  energj','  which  is  not  statical 

'  force.     He  may  be  right  also,  but  if  so,  it  will  be 

by  a  new  discovery,  having  no  connection  whatever 

with  '  conservation  of  energy.' 

'  His  Christmas  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
though  professedly  addressed  to  the  young,  con- 
tain in  reality  much  that  may  well  be  pondered 
by  the  old.  His  manner,  his  imvaryin"  success  in 
illustration,  and  his  felicitous  choice  ot  expression, 
though  the  subjects  are  often  of  the  most  abstruse 
n.ature,  are  such  as  to  charm  and  attract  all  classes 
of  hearers.  Besides  two  sets  (already  mentioned) 
on  chemical  subjects,  we  have  his  Lectures  on  the 
Physical  Forces,  a  simple  work,  but  in  reality  most 
profound,  even  in  its  slightest  remarks. 

But  the  gi-eat  work  of  his  life  is  the  scries  of 
Experimental  liesearches  on  Electricity,  pubhshed 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  during  the  last 
thirty  years  and  more.  Full}'  to  undei-st-aud  all  the 
discoveries  contained  in  that  extraordinary  set  of 
papers,  would  require  a  knowledge  of  aU  that  has 
been  discovered  dm-ing  that  time  as  to  Electricity, 
Magnetism,  Electro-magnetism,  and  Diamagnetism. 
We  may  merely  mention  the  following,  almost  all 
'  of  which  are  discoveries  of  the  first  order.  They 
are  given  iu  the  order  of  ])ublication,  which  is 
nearly  that  of  discover}- :  1.  Induced  Electricity, 
1831,  comprehending  and  explaining  a  vast  variety 
of  phenomena,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
applied  in  practice  (especially  as  Magneto-electri- 
city) to  light-houses,  electro-plating,  firing  of  mines, 
telegi-aphy,  and  medjcal  purposes.  Electric  currents 
derived  from  the  earth's  magnetism.  2.  The  Electro- 
tonic  State  of  Matter,  1831 ;  3.  Identity  of  Elec- 
tricity from  Different  Sources,  1833;  4.  Equivalents 
^  in  Electro-chemical  Decomposition,  1834;  5.  Electro- 
st-itic  Induction — Si>ecific  Inductive  Capacity,  1838; 
1  6.  Relation  of  Electric  and  Magnetic  Forces,  1S38  ; 
7.  The  Electricity  of  the  C!}-mnotus,  1839;  8. 
Hydro-electricity,  1S43 ;  9.  Magnetic  Rotatoiy 
I  Polarisation,  18-16,  effected  by  means  of  the  optical 
I  glass  already  mentioned;  10.  Diamagnetism  and 
the  Magnetic  Condition  of  all  Matter,  184(5;  11. 
Polarity  of  Diamagnetics,  and  the  Relation  of 
Di.amagnetism  to  Crystalline  Forces,  1849;  12. 
Relation  of  Gravity  to  Electricity,  1851.  This,  as 
before  remarked,  is  F.'s  attempt  to  prove  a  con- 
Bcrv,ation  of  statical  force.  The  results  are  all 
ncg.ative,  but  are  none  the  less  worthy  of  carefid 
study ;  the  mode  of  experimenting  detailed  in  tlie 
paper,  and  the  precautions  taken  aud  required, 
render  it  a  model  for  every  physicist.  I'J.  Atmo- 
spheric Magnetism.  1851.  An  attempt  to  explain 
the  diurnal  changes  of  the  earth's  magnetic  force 
by  the  solar  effect  on  the  oxygen  of  the  air ;  a  very 
interesting  paper. 

We  have  omitted  many  things  well  worthy  of 
notice  even  in  so  slight  a  sketch  as  this,  but  F.'s 
name  will  be  found  in  these  pages  in  connectioa 


FARCE— FAREL. 


witli   something    new   in    nearly   every   branch   of 
physics.     (Died  25th  August  1S07.) 

FARCE,  a  dramatic  piece  of  a  low  comic  char- 
acter.   Tlie  difi'erence  between  it  and  comedy  proper 
is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.     The  aim  of  both 
is  to  excite  mirth ;  but  while  the  former  does  so  by 
a  comparatively  faithful  adherence  to  nature  and 
truth,  the  latter  assumes  to  itself  a  much  greater 
liceuce,  and  does  not  scruple  to   make  use  of  any 
extravagance  or  improb.ability  that  may  serve  its 
pm-pose.     It  does  not,  therefore,  exhibit,  in  general, 
a  relined  wit  or  humour,  but  contents  itself  with 
iji-otesque  rencontres,  and  dialogues  provocative  of 
fun  and  jollity.     The  name  is  differently  explained. 
In   any  case,   it   comes   originally   from   the  Latin 
/(ircii-e,  to  stuff;   but  while  Adehmg  says  that,  in 
the  middle  ages, /«;-ce  signified  in  Germany  certain 
songs,  which  were  sung  between  the  pr.ayers  during 
divine   service,   others   derive   it  from   the   Italian 
farsa,  this  from  the  L.atin /«;■««;«.  (stuffed) ;  while 
I'aolo  Beruardi  states   that  it  comes  from  a  Pro- 
venjal  word  farsum,  meaning  a  ra>/oiit,  or  mess  of 
different  ingredients,  an  opinion  which  has  this  to 
say   for   itself,   that   the   di-amafis  persoixv,   Juck- 
puddinrj,  &e.,  Avere   generally  named   after  special 
dishes  or  mixtures.      The  first   farces  are  said  to 
liave  been  composed  by  the  society  of  the  Clercs  <le 
Bazoche  in  Paris,  about  the  year  1400,  as  a  contrast 
to  the  ecclesiastical  plays  performed   by  the   reli- 
gious orders.     The  most  A\-idely  celebrated  and  tlie 
oldest  is  the  Farce  de  Maitre  Pierre  Pal/ielin,  which 
some  consider  to  be  a  composition  of  the  13th  c, 
but   which   was   more    probalily   executed   by   one 
Peter  Blanchet,  about  1480.     Subsequentlj",  MoUSro 
elevated  and  refined  the  farce  into  pure  comedy,  in 
his   Mi-ihcin  JIa!</rc  lui,  Malade  Imatj'maire,   Lea 
Fuui-hcrles  de  S'raplii,  and  other  inimitable  produc- 
tions.    In  England,  the  origin  of  the  modern  farce 
dates  from  about  the  commencement  of  the   ISth 
century.     It  then  began  to  be  regarded  as  some- 
thing distinct  from  comedy  proper,  and  to  consti- 
tute a  special  theatrical  entertainment.     Of  all  the 
numerous  farces  which  have  been  performed  before 
Enghsh  audiences,  only  those  of  Samuel  Foote  have 
kept  a  place  m  hterature. 

FARCY  in  horses  depends  upon  the  same  causes 
as  Glanders  (q.  v.),  which  it  usually  precedes  and 
accompanies.  The  absorlient  glands  and  vessels, 
usually  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs,  are  inflamed^ 
tender,  swollen,  hard,  and  knotted.  The  vitiated 
Ij-mph  thus  poured  out  softens,  and  ulcers,  or  farcy 
buds  appear.  Uidike  the  ulcers  of  glanders,  they 
are  curable,  but  require  time  and  care.  They  must 
be  scarified  mth  the  hot  iron,  which,  to  prevent 
their  spreading,  may  also  be  "cntly  run  over  the 
adjacent  soimd  skin.  Good  feeding  and  comfortable 
lodgings  are  essential,  and  if  they  do  not  interfere 
with  the  appetite,  give  tonics,  such  as  a  drachm 
each  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  iodine,  repeated 
t\rice  a  d.ay. 

FARDEL -BOUND,  a  disease  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  consists  of  impaction  of  the  fardel  bag,  or 
third  stomach,  with  food,  which  is  taken  in  between 
the  leaves  of  this  globidar  stom.aeh,  there  to  be 
fully  softened  and  reduced.  When  the  food  is 
unusually  tough,  dry,  or  indigestible,  consisting, 
for  example,  of  overripe  clover,  vetches,  or  rye- 
grass, the  stomach  cannot  moisten  and  reduce  it 
■irith  sufficient  rapidity ;  fresh  quantities  continue 
to  be  taken  up,  mitil  the  overgorged  organ  becomes 
paralysed,  its  secretions  dried  up,  and  its  leaves 
affected  with  chronic  inflammation.  The  slighter 
cases  so  common  amongst  stall-fed  cattle  are"  loss 
of  cud,'  indigestion,  and  torpidity  of  the  bowels. 


swelhng  up  of  the  first  stomach,  and  sometimes 
stupor  or  epilepsy.  The  overgorged  stomach  can 
moreover,  be  felt  by  pressing  the  closed  fist  upwards 
and  backwards  underneath  the  false  ribs  on  the 
right  side.  The  sj-mptoms  often  extend  over  ten 
days  or  a  fortnight.  Purgatives  and  stimidants  are 
to  be  given.  For  a  full-gro%ra  beast,  give,  in  three 
or  four  bottles  of  water  or  tliin  gi-uel,".J  lb.  each  of 
common  and  Epsom  salt,  15  ground  croton  beans, 
a  di-achm  of  calomel,  and  two  ounces  of  ginger.  If 
no  efl'ect  is  i)roduccd,  repeat  this  in  12  or  15  hours. 
Inject  soap  and  water  clysters  every  hour,  withhold 
all  solid  food,  and  allow  only  sloppy  mashes,  treacle 
and  water,  or  thin  linseed  tea.  An  occasional  bottle 
of  ale,  with  an  ounce  or  two  of  ginger,  often  expe- 
dites the  action  of  the  physic,  and  \vards  off  nausea 
and  stupor. 

FAREHAM,  a  town  and  sea-bathing  place  in 
the  south  of  Hampshire,  on  a  creek  at  "the  north- 
west end  of  Portsmouth  harbom-,  12  mUes  east- 
south-east  of  .Southampton,  and  9  miles  north- 
north-west  of  Portsmouth.  It  has  manufactures  of 
earthenware.     Pop.  (1861)  6169. 

FAREL,   GDII.LAU5IE,   one   of  the    most   active 
])romoters  of  the  Reformation  in  .Switzerland,  was 
born  in  the  year  1489  in  Dauphine.     He  studied 
at   I\aris,   and   was   at   first   distinguished    by   his 
extravagant  zeal  for  the  practices  of  the  Catholic 
Church.     'Truly,'  says  he  in  one  of  his  letters,  'the 
papacy  itself  was  not  so  papistical  as  my  heart.' 
Intercourse    -ndth    the    Waldenses,    and    with    his 
friend  LefeiTe  d'Etaples,  induced  him  to  study  the 
Scriptures;  the  result  was   his  conversion  to" Pro- 
testantism, and  F.,   who  was  by  nature  vehement 
even  to    indiscretion,    immediately   commenced   to 
proselj-tise.     The   chief   scene   of  "his    labours    was 
France  and  Switzerland.     At  Basel,  15th  Feljruary 
1524,   he    opened   his    career    of    controversy   and 
evangelisation  by  publicly  sustaining  30  theses  on 
the  points  in  dispute  between  Roman  Catholicism 
and  Protest.antism.     In  less  than  two  months,  he 
was  compelled  to  leave,  mainly  on   account   of   a 
quarrel  between  himself  and  Erasmus,  whom,  on 
account  of  his  moderate  or  trimming  policy,  F.  had 
compared  to  Balaam.     F.  next  went  to  Strasbourg, 
and  afterwards  to  Montbeliard,  where   his   icono- 
clastic  way   of   preaching  the   gospel   excited   the 
alarm   of  his  friends,   several  o"f   whom,  Qicolam- 
padius  among  others,  censured  him  sharply  for  his 
violence.      itis   zeal   was    next   manifested   in   the 
canton  of   Bern.     It  was  also  chiefly  through  his 
exertions    that    the    towns    of    Aigle,   Bex,°01on, 
Morat,    and   NeuchHtel   followed   the    example    of 
Bern  in  embracing  the  Reformation.     In  1532,  he 
went   to   Geneva,  where  his   success  was   at   first 
So  gTeat,  th.at  on  account  of  the  agitation  excited, 
he  had  to  leave  the  city.      He  returned   in  ISSs) 
was  amin  compelled  to  withdraw,  but  once  more 
entered  it  in  1534.     This  was  his  year  of  triumph ; 
the  Reformers  filled  the  churches,  and  the  Cathohc 
clergy,  who  had  m.ade   themselves    odious   to   the 
citizens  by  abetting   the  despotic   schemes   of   the 
Didce  of  Savoy,  retired  to  Lausanne  and  Fribourci. 
In  August   1535,  the  town  council  of  Geneva  for- 
mally jiroelaimed  the  Reformation.      F.,   however, 
was  a  missionary,  not  a  legislator,  and  the  organi- 
sation   of    the   Genevan   Church   passed   into   the 
hands  of  Calvin  (q.  v.).     The  severity  of  the  new 
ecclesiastical  discipline  produced  a  reaction,  and  iu 
April  1538,  the  two  reformers  were   expelled  from 
the  city.     F.  took  up  his  residence  at  Neuchatel, 
where  the  reformed  church  was  in  a  state  of  deplor- 
.able   disorder.      He   composed   its   differences,  and 
drew   U])  a  constitution,   which   it   accepted,  after 


J  y  ',  .     i,     •' .       —   — — ""    ''^«-"    uj'  ct.  ».vijai.n.ui,ii.iii,    \Miicii   It   aeceitteci,  alter 

in   severer    form,   there    is    also    fever,   grunting,  |  long  and  stormy  debates,  iu  l&i2.      In  September 


FAREWELL— FAKINI. 


of  the  s.ime  year,  we  find  him  fighting  the  battle 
of  the  Kcformation  at  Metz.  After  his  return 
to  NeJichltel,  he  frequently  visited  Calvin,  whose 
authority  in  Geneva  had  been  coin)iIetely  restored. 
It  was  on  one  of  these  occasions  that  lie  was 
jiresent  at  the  burninj  of  Servetus,  and  though 
not,  comparatively  speaking,  a  bigoted  Calvinist, 
he  allowed  his  orthodoxy  on  that  occasion  to  ehoke 
his  humanity,  exclaiming,  as  the  unhappy  heretic 
tittered  his  last  prayer  to  God  from  the  Hamcs : 
'  See  what  power  the  deWl  has  over  one  who  has 
fallen  into  his  hands.'  In  1557,  along  with  Beza, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
to  imi)lore  their  aid  for  the  Waldenses,  and  on 
his  return — incxliaustible  in  his  activity — he  sought 
a  new  sphere  of  evangelistic  labour  in  the  regions 
of  the  Jiu'a  Mountains.  \\lieu  trembling  upon 
threescore-aud-ten,  he  married  a  young  \viic,  very 
much  to  Cahiu's  disgiist,  who  sarcastically  speaks 
of  him  imder  the  circiunstances  as  '  our  poor 
brother.'  But  neither  his  newly  formed  domestic 
ties,  nor  the  infirmities  of  age,  coiUd  quench  his 
missionary  zeal.  In  15G0 — 1561,  he  proceeded  to 
his  native  Danphine,  and  passed  several  months 
.at  Gap,  preaching  against  Catholicism  with  all 
the  ardom-  of  his  youth.  In  Novemlier  loCl,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  but  was  slmrtly  after 
rescued  by  his  friends.  In  1564,  he  paid  a  ^-isit 
to  the  dying  Calvin  ;  his  strength,  however,  was 
now  nearly  exhausted,  and  on  the  IStli  Sei)tember 
1565  he  expired  at  Xeucli.'ltel,  learing  a  son  named 
Jean,  who  survived  him  only  three  years.  F.  was 
a  man  of  extensive  scholarship,  and  MTote  largely, 
but  his  works  very  inadcquatcU'  represent  the 
genius  of  the  man.  Compare  Kirchhofer's  Das 
Leben  WUhdm  Fards  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1S31— 1833), 
and  C.  Schmidt's  Fludes  sur  Fard  (Strasbourg, 
1834). 

FAREWELL,  Cape,  the  southern  extremity  of 
Greenland,  lies  in  lat.  59°  49"  N.,  and  long.  43°  54' 
W.  It  is  generally  beset  with  ice,  which,  according 
to  recent  authorities,  appears  to  come  from  the 
north-east,  and  to  sweep  round  into  Da\'is'  Strait. 
Hem<e  it  is  but  little  known  ;  and,  in  fact,  the 
Danish  traders,  in  passing  to  and  from  the  settle- 
ments on  West  Greenland,  seem  uuiformlj'  to  maintain 
('  an  offing  of  more  than  100  miles. 

FARI'A  Y  SOUSA,  Man-oel,  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  poet,  was  born  of  an  ancient  family  at 
Caravella,  in  the  province  of  Entre  Minho  e  Douro, 
18th  March  1590,  and  studied  at  the  university  of 
Braga.  For  some  time  he  was  in  the  ser%'ice  of  the 
Bishop  of  Oporto,  but  shortly  after  1613  he  wont  to 
Madrid,  where,  however,  he  did  not  long  remain,  as 
he  found  no  opportunity  there  of  inijiroving  his 
circumstances.  In  1631,  he  obtained  the  office  of 
secretary  to  the  Spanisli  embassy  at  Rome,  where 
his  extensive  acquirements  procured  him  the  notice 
of  Pope  Urban  VII  I.  and  of  all  the  learneil  men  of 
the  city.  After  some  time,  he  returned  to  Spain, 
and  died  at  Madrid  3d  June  1G49.  F.'s  \vriting3 
are  partly  in  Spanish,  and  partly  in  Portuguese. 
Of  the  former,  we  may  mention,  Discursos  moralra 
1/  politicus  (2  vols.,  Madr.  1623— 162C),  Epitome  ile 
las  Hislorias  Porturjueisas  (Madr.  1628),  CumentarioK 
sobre  la  Lusiada  (2  vols.,  Madr.  1639),  Asia  Portu- 
gnesa  (3  vols.,  liisbon,  1666 — 1675),  Europa  J'oHu- 
'juesa  (3  vols.,  Lisbon,  1 678— 1680),  Africa  Pnrtuijtiesa 
(Lisbon,  1681),  and  the  greater  ])ortion  of  his  ]>"ems, 
which  he  collected  under  the  title  of  Fucnti:  de 
Arianippe  o  liimas  Wu-ias  (Madr.  1644 — 1646). 
These  jiocms  consist  of  sonnets,  eclogues,  canzones, 
and  madrigals.  F.,  however,  composed  about  200 
sonnets  and  12  colognes  in  the  Portuguese  language; 
and  it  is  mainly  by  these,  and  also  by  three  theo- 


retical treatises  on  Poetry,  that  he  has  inlluenced 
the  development  of  the  poetic  literatiu-e  of  PortU'jal, 
in  which  he  was  long  regarded  as  an  oracle.  His 
jwetry  exhibits  talent  and  siiirit,  but  is  ou  the  whole 
tasteless  and  bombastic.  F.  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  another  Portuguese  author  of  the  same  name, 
who  was  bora  at  Lisbon  in  1581,  and  died  at  Evora 
in  1055,  and  who  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
numismatists  of  his  age. 

FARI'NA  is  the  term  used  by  many  writers  on 
bees,  instead  of  pollen,  to  denote  the  pollen  of 
flowers  collected  by  bees  for  feeding  their  larvje. 
See  Bee. 

FARI'NA,  a  Latin  term  for  meal  or  floiu-,  which 
has  been  adopted  into  the  Englisli  and  other  lan- 
guages, and  is  very  frequently  employed  both  in 
scientific  and  popular  works.  The  term  farina  is 
also  frequently  extended  to  many  substances,  which 
agree  ■n-ith  the  meal  of  the  corn-plants  or  Cerealia 
(q.  v.),  in  containing  much  starch,  and  food  made 
of  such  substances  is  often  called  farinaceous,  its 
qualities  more  or  less  resembling  those  of  the  food 
derived  from  the  cerealia.  Of  the  diflferent  kinds  of 
farina,  those  i)roduced  by  mere  trituration  of  the 
seeds  of  grasses  (corn),  hold  the  first  place  for 
importance  and  usefulness.  Most  similar  to  them 
are  those  obtained  in  the  same  manner  from  certain 
other  seeds.  See  Cere.vlia.  Tlie  farina  of  the 
different  kinds  of  Pulse  (q.  v.),  or  seeds  of  leguminous 
plants,  has  considerably  different  properties.  For 
the  qualities,  ehemistrj',  commercial  importance,  &e., 

of  the  different  kinds  of  meal,  see  Meai Other 

farinaceous  substances,  consisting  chiefly  of  starch, 
are  obtained  from  roots — often  from  tubers — of 
])lant3  of  very  different  natiu-al  orders  ;  some  kimls 
also,  as  sago,  from  stems.  Cassava  meal,  which 
contains,  along  with  starch,  much  vegetable  fibre 
and  protein  or  albuminous  substances,  is  commonly 
called  f.arina  {Farin/ia)  in  many  jiarts  of  South 
America,  where  it  is  a  principal  article  of  food. 

Fossil  fa7'ina,  monntain  niilh,  or  Aijaric  viineral, 
is  a  deposit  of  silicificd  animalcules,  obtained  from 
China,  &c.  In  100  parts,  it  consists  of  silica  50J, 
alumina  26^,  magnesia  9,  water  and  organic  matter 
13,  with  traces  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron. 

FARI'NI,  Carlo  Ll-igi,  an  Italian  author  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  1S22  at  Russi,  in  ILavenna, 
in  the  north  of  Italy.  Ha\'ing,  with  great  success, 
studied  medicine  at  Bologna,  F.  first  became  knomi 
by  several  publications  lielonging  to  the  science  of 
medicine,  and  soon  afterwards  by  contributions  to 
various  scientific  periodicals.  lu  1841  and  1842, 
ha\'ing  mixed  himself  xqj  with  politics,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  Roman  States,  and  change 
his  residence  repeateiUy  until  he  finally  settled  at 
Turin.  The  amnesty  following  shortly  upon  the 
accession  of  Pio  Mono,  opened  to  F.  not  only  his 
native  country,  but  also  a'  new  career,  through  the 
liberal  system  inaugurated  by  the  supreme  pontiff. 
In  1847,  he  was  called  into  the  reforaied  ministry, 
as  a  substitute  to  the  home  secretary  ;  in  1848.  he 
was  present  in  the  suite  of  Carlo  Alljcrto  at  V'olta, 
and  after  the  flight  of  the  king,  protested  against 
the  proclaiming  of  a  rcj)ublic.  i)uriug  the  short 
ministry  of  the  unfortunate  Rossi  (q.  v.),  F.  was 
director-general  of  the  sanitary  and  prison  deiKirt- 
ment  at  Rome,  from  which  past,  however,  he  retired 
as  soon  as  the  reaction  under  Antonelli  began  to 
be  established.  llpon  the  occujiation  of  Rome  by 
the  French,  F.  became  once  more  an  exile,  but  for 
a  .short  time  only,  for  in  Piedmont  he  found  a 
home  as  well  as  public  honours.  In  1850,  he 
held  the  seat  of  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in 
the  cabinet  of  Victor  Emman\U'l  II.,  and  on  retiring 
from  office,  was  named  a  member  of    the  supremo 


1-AKl.S  ECCHIDIAK— FAILM. 


council ;  and  has  ever  since  sat  as  a  member  of 
parliament.  When,  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
Ijourbon  princes,  as  also  of  the  papal  government 
in  the  Legations  {1859),  Central  Italy  resolved  to 
annex  itself  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel, 
by  means  of  universal  suflrage,  it  was  F.  who 
directed  the  popular  mind  with  sueh  admirable 
success  that,  on  the  day  of  ballot,  not  one  vote 
was  delivered  asking  for  a  separate  kingdom.  As 
governor  of  Central  Italy,  he  shewed  an  undaunted 
courage  against  the  threats  of  Austria,  and  exhi- 
bited a  thoroughly  consistent  moderation  against 
the  unndj-  promptings  of  the  Mazzinians.  The 
same  qualities  accompanied  his  measures  when 
tlie  newly  acqjiired  kingdom  of  Naples  was  to 
be  reorganised.  It  has  been  said  that  '  Farini  was 
the  mind  of  Italy,  as  Garibaldi  was  its  sword.' 
Among  his  literary  productions  may  be  mentioned, 
II  Stato  liomano  (The  Roman  State),  translated 
into  English  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Right 
Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone  (London,  4  vols.  1859) ;  Storia 
(V Italia  (History  of  Italy),  a  continuation  of  Botla's 
celebrated  work.  F.  was  also  a  contributor  to  Count 
Cavours  Bisorijimento.     (Died  1st  August  I8G6.) 

FAKIS  ECCHIDIAK,  an  Arab  poet  and  Utte- 
rateur,  was  bora  about  the  ye.ar  1790.  In  religion, 
be  is  a  Syrian  Christian.  He  studied  at  C'aii-o 
nnder  the  ulamas  of  the  mosque  of  El-Azhar,  and 
-11  1830  procured  for  M.  Fresnel  some  very  valu- 
able commentaries  upon  the  poem  of  Shanjara. 
He  was  afterwards  in\-ited  to  Malta  by  an  English 
missionary  society,  who  wanted  his  services  in 
their  Oriental  printing  establishment.  The  dedi- 
cation of  a  poem  to  the  Bey  of  Tunis  about  1847, 
induced  that  monarch  to  send  a  war-vessel  to  Malta, 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  F.  to  Tunis,  where  the 
poet  obtained  a  distinguished  reception,  and  many 
rich  presents.  Subsequently,  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  was  employed  in  re\-ising  the  te.xt  of  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  by  the  Society 
for  the  Proi)agation  of  the  Scriptures.  In  1851,  he 
published  in  London  the  New  Testament  in  Ai'abic. 
He  subsequently  resided  in  France  for  a  consider- 
aVile  time,  and  published  there,  along  with  M.  G. 
Dugat,  in  1854,  a  French  grammar  m  his  native 
tongue  for  the  use  of  the  Kabyles  of  Algeria.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  La  Vk  et  leg  A  ventures 
de  Fariak  (Paris,  1855)  ;  it  contains  a  narrative  of 
his  own  travels,  with  critical  observations  on  the 
Arabs  and  other  peoples  whom  be  \-isited.  Some 
of  his  own  poems  are  also  interspersed  F.  returned 
to  London  the  year  before  the  publication  of  this 
work.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War,  the 
sultan  appointed  him  one  of  his  dragomans  or 
interjircters,  but  he  has  never  discharged  the  duties 
of  his  office.  F.  is  said  to  possess  in  manjiscript  a 
collection  of  poems,  called  Tim  Divan,  which  are 
highly  spoken  of  by  those  who  have  seen  them. 

FARM  (of  uncertain  derivation),  the  term  usually 
employed  in  Britain  to  signify  a  jiicce  of  land, 
'.ither  in  pasture  or  in  cultivation,  held  in  lease 
by  a  tenant  from  the  projirietor.  In  the  United 
States,  the  term  farmer  is  often  applied  to  a  person 
who  owns  as  well  as  ciUtivatcs  land.  The  'tenure 
on  which  land  is  held  by  farmers  differs  in  different 
countries.  In  some  parts  of  continental  Europe,  the 
farmer  hires  the  land  on  the  principle  of  a  kind  of 
p.artnership  with  the  i>r(>prietor.  See  Metayer,  In 
England,  land  is  usually  let  for  a  certain  annual 
rent,  and  either  by  a  yearly  term,  or  at  the  good-will 
of  the  landloriL  In  Scotland,  the  process  of  land- 
letting  is  on  a  footing  remarkably  advantageous  for 
tenant  and  proprietor,  as  well  as  ser\'ing  the  best 
interests  of  agriculture,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
gradtially  being  introduced  into  England.      Under 


the  head  Lease  will  be  presented  the  details  of 
Scottish  tenantcy  ;  a  few  leading  features  need  here 
only  be  adverted  to.  The  Scottish  farmer  is  pre- 
simicdly  a  capitahst  able  to  work  the  land  in  the 
best  manner.  He  is  given  a  lease  of  19  years,  during 
which  period  he  has  entire  possession  of  the  land, 
and  from  the  length  of  tenure  is  encouraged  to  sink 
money  that  will  be  amply  repaid  to  him  by  increased 
crops.  He  cannot  sublet,  but  his  lease  is  heritable 
by  one  of  his  family.  The  landlord  at  the  outset 
erects  farm-buildings,  constructs  fences  and  roads, 
and  otherwise  puts  the  farm  into  a  proper  condition 
— the  whole  of  which  operations  may  cost  him  from 
£•2000  to  £4000.  Recei\-ing  his  farm  in  this  state, 
the  tenant  is  bound  to  keep  it  so,  and  to  deliver  it 
up  in  a  properly  tenantable  condition  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  lease.  By  these  explicit  arrangements, 
the  outgoing  tenant  can  make  no  claim  for  improve- 
ments either  from  the  landlord  or  from  his  successor 
the  incoming  tenant,  who  is  merely  called  on  to 
pay  for  such  crojis  as  happen  to  be  on  the  ground ; 
and  this  is  settled  by  arbiters  mutually  chosen. 
See  F.YLLOW.  Contests  about  tenant-right,  such  as 
occur  in  Ireland,  from  the  practice  of  assigning  to 
farmers  the  duty  of  erecting  buildings  and  making 
permanent  improvements,  are  thus  totally  imknown 
in  the  Scottish  system.  The  method  of  pajing  rent 
for  farms  in  Scotland  is  not  imiform.  In  some 
districts  the  annual  rent  is  a  fixed  sum,  but  in  other 
places  it  is  a  common  practice  to  pay  partly  a  fixed 
sum,  and  to  leave  another  portion  to  be  paid  in 
grain,  or  rather  the  money  value  of  so  much  grain 
according  to  the  average  market  prices  each  year, 
as  determined  by  a  jury  in  every  county.  See 
FiAES.  This  last  plan  is  the  fairest  for  all  parties, 
but  some  farmers  prefer  to  pay  a  fi.xed  sum-total, 
and  so  speculate  on  a  rise  in  markets.  In  whatever 
manner  the  rent  is  adjusted,  it  is  stipulated  to  be 
paid,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  two  equal  portions, 
at  ^^^litsunday  (May  15)  and  Martinmas  (November 
11),  but  in  practice  the  landlord  gives  three  months' 
credit  on  each  occasion — the  Whitsimday  rent  being 
exigible  at  Lammas  (August  4),  and  the  Martinmas 
rent  at  Candlemas  (February  2).  At  all  times, 
however,  the  landlord  has  a  right  of  Hypothec 
(q.v.)  over  the  crops,  and  can  take  measures  to  avoid 
being,  defrauded  of  his  proper  claims.  Usually,  the 
very  best  feeling  subsists  between  landlord  and 
tenant,  and  extreme  measures  are  of  rare  occurrence. 

Pursuing  this  abstract  of  the  Scottish  system, 
the  landlord  usually  binds  his  tenant  to  farm  or 
cidtivate  the  land  according  to  the  most  approved 
systems  in  use  in  the  district.  Such  a  course  is  no 
doubt  necessary,  to  prevent  the  abuses  that  might 
arise  from  negligence  or  ignorance  ;  but  the  restric- 
tions have  often  been  carried  too  far,  and  have 
formed  barriers  in  the  way  of  improvements.  It  is 
not,  perhaps,  very  easy  to  define  what  is  liberal  and 
what  stringent,  as  practices  vary  according  to 
cii'cumstances  of  soil  or  locality.  So  far  as  regards 
mere  cropping,  it  woidd  not  be  much  amiss,  now- 
ever,  on  most  arable  farms,  to  forbid  more  than 
one-half  of  the  land  being  m  white  crojis  during  the 
last  four  years  of  the  lease.  Green  crops,  it  may  be 
stated,  do  not  prevent  exhaustion  so  much  as  they 
prevent  the  land  being  overrun  with  weeds.  It  is 
perhaps  not  superthious  to  observe  here  that  leases 
shoiUd  be  written  in  clear  and  concise  language,  and 
as  far  removed  from  ambiguity  as  possible. 

The  size  of  farms  is  regulated  by  many  circum- 
stances. On  land  adai)tea  for  green  cro])pini;,  and 
remote  from  towns,  large  farms  form  good  suDjects 
for  cajritalists,  and  consequently  prevail.  Stiff  clay 
soils  are  rather  against  extensive  culture.  Whei'e 
crops  are  grown  that  require  much  hand-labour, 
farms  become  small  in  size.     Flax,  rape,  vines,  and 


FARM— FAKM  BUILDIXG.S. 


market-garilen  produce  all  tend  to  lessen  the  size 
of  farms.  In  new  countries,  too,  where  there  is  no 
slave  labour,  farms  are  mostly  small ;  for  labour 
being  high,  it  is  too  precious  to  be  profitably  em- 
ployed on  a  large  scale  where  the  prices  of  produce 
are  small.  Grazing  fanus,  whether  in  the  High- 
lands or  Axistralia,  form  good  outlets  for  large 
caj)italists. 

L'nder  the  modem  sj-stcm  of  fanning  in  Britain, 
not  less  than  £10  of  capital  per  acre  is  rcquii-ed  to 
farm  green-crop  land.  AVhcre  cattle  are  pastured  on 
arable  lauds  instead  of  sheep,  it  requires  still  more 
cajiital.  Highland  grazings  require  from  1  to  3  acres 
to  maintain  a  sheep  throughout  the  season.  The 
rent  varies  from  2s.  to  10*.  a  head  for  each  sheep 
kept ;  the  value  of  each  sheep  being  from  £1  to  £2 
a  head,  according  to  the  kind  and  age  of  the  stock. 

The  profits  of  farming  fluctuate  quite  as  much 
as  those  of  any  other  trade.  Strict  personal  super- 
intendence is  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  success. 
Without  this,  the  details  wiU  be  neglected,  and  loss 
will  ensue.  10  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested  is  a 
good  return.  Formerlj',  it  was  thought  that  .arable 
land  shoiild  jneld  a  gross  produce  equal  to  three 
times  the  rent.al.  One  part  went  for  rent,  one  for 
expenses,  and  the  other  for  profit.  But  no  such 
.absolute  ride  can  be  laid  down ;  for  while,  as  in 
other  trades,  some  are  making  large  profits,  others 
are  losing  money.  Skill  and  attention  are  the 
qualities  which  command  success  in  farming  as  in 
other  things. 

A  farmer  necessarily  possesses  Large  numbers  of 
animals — horses,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry. 
These  have  all  to  be  reared  and  tended,  and 
demand  no  little  care  and  experience.  Proper  seeds 
must  be  selected ;  and  the  proper  cultivation  of 
the  land  for  the  different  crops  necessitates  a  suc- 
cession of  processes  which  require  to  be  attended 
to.  These,  however,  will  be  taken  up  imder  their 
respective  heads. 

FARJM  BUILDINGS.  Each  farm  must  possess 
a  residence  for  the  farmer,  cottages  for  the  servants, 
and  buiklings  for  the  stock  and  crop.     The  farm- 


house should  be  commodious  and  plain,  with  an 
extent  of  accommodation  about  equal  to  that  whicli 
those  have  who  are  engaged  in  conunereial  piu^uits 
in  town  emjiloying  tne  s.ame  amount  of  capital. 
The  cottages  for  the  servants  should  also  be  ))lain 
.and  roomy,  and  internal  convenience  should  be  more 
studied  than  outward  ornament. 

Proper  offices  are  essential  to  the  economical 
disposing  of  the  produce  of  the  farm.  The  corn 
crops  are  usually  thrasheil  there,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  green  crops  is  consumed  by  stock,  which 
must  be  well  provided  with  shelter  from  the  cold. 
^Vhen  few  turnips  were  raised,  and  few  cattle  fed, 
large  open  com-ts  were  best  suited  for  converting 
the  straw  mto  manure.  Kow,  however,  in  many 
cases,  the  excrements  of  the  stock  are  sufficient  for 
wetting  all  the  straw,  and  hence  h.as  arisen  the 
practice  of  feeding  in  covered  courts  and  in  bo.\e3. 
In  this  case,  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  are 
carted  out  along  with  the  straw,  which  acts  the 
part  of  a  sponge.  This  is  no  doubt  an  excellent 
w.ay  of  manufacturing  home-made  manure ;  it  takes 
a  considerable  quantity  of  sti'aw,  however ;  and  as 
more  green  crojis  are  raised  and  consumed  on  the 
farm,  sufficient  straw  cannot  be  got  to  absorb  all 
the  liquid  ;  hence,  a  saving  of  the  str.aw  is  cfifected 
by  staD-feeding,  when  the  excess  of  liquid  must  be 
collected  into  tanks,  and  otherwise  disposed  of. 
WTien  it  is  remembered  that  ammonia  cannot  be 
purchased  in  the  market  at  the  present  time  under 
£60  per  ton,  the  utilitj'  of  husbanding  this  material 
when  it  is  freed  as  the  excrements  of  \he  stock 
decompose,  must  be  self-evident.  If  the  sohd 
excrements  are  kept  in  a  compressed  state,  no 
femientation  takes  pl.acc  ;  and  if  the  manure  is  of 
good  quality,  it  should  be  applied  to  the  fields 
at  once.  Liquid  mauures  should  be  carted  out, 
or  distriliuted  by  pipes,  when  tlie  jilants  are  in 
a  growing  state,  otherwise  part  will  be  w;ished 
out  of  the  soil.  Covered  farmyards  are  rapidly 
extending  over  the  country.  It  is  the  cheapest  and 
best  way  of  erecting  farm-offices.  Our  cut  repre- 
sents a  bird's-eye  view  of  a  '  farm-steading,'  for  a 


Isometrical  View  of  Covered  Homestead. 


farm  of  500  acres,  and  a  model  nf  which  was  com-  i  liouses  are  ranged  as  convenient  as  possible  to  those 
mended  by  the  judges  of  the  Berwick  cattle-show  I  in  which  the  food  is  to  be  consumed,  and  th.at  the 
in  1S54.  relative  positions  of  every  other  department   have 

The  steading  is  on  the  covered  principle,  all  the    been  carefully  studied.     This  is  the  great  point  to 
various  departments  being  under  one  roof.     It  will  i  be  attended  to  in  the  formation  of  all  homesteads, 
be  seen  by  the  ground-plan  that  the  food-preparing  j  whether  open  or  covered. 
218 


FAEM-SERVANTS-FARMING'S  ISLAND. 


Ventilation. — Without  good  ventilation,  a  covered 
homestead  must  be  a  uuisance.     A\\  the  apartments 
are   so   arranged   that,   utdcss    fresh    air    circulate 
through  them,  and  they  are  kept  perfectly  clean, 
there  must  constantly  be  unwholesome   efflu\aa  in 
the  mterior— the  foulness  of  one  ajiartment  being 
communicated  to  another.      The  system  of  venti- 
lating this  farmstead  is  certain  to  give  most  satis- 
factory results,  if  only  ordinary  care  be  taken  to 
keep  the  dift'erent  houses  as  clean  as  they  ought  to 
be.     The  arrangements  are  bricHy  as  follows  :  ° 
^  Under   each   feeding-passage  'is   built  a  circular 
air-shaft,    ,"iO    inches    iu   diameter ;    iu    connection 
with  these  there  are  feeding-mouths  with  LTatin"s 
on  the   outside  of   the  building  ;   inside,  there   are 
numerous    finely  perforated   gratings;    by   slidinc- 
valves,  wought  by  a  cord  and  pulley,  the  supi)ly  of 
air  IS  regulated.     Besides  these,  there  arc  gi-atin.'s 
every  10  or  12  feet  along  the   exterior  walls,  per- 
forated so  as  to  admit  near  the  floor  a  consider- 
al)le   quantity  of   air.      The  roof,  too,  is  prorided 
with  ventilators  with  vertical  spars,  and  openings 
are    left    here    and   there    in   the   sarking,  to    act 
as  induction   and  eduction  tubes.      The   numerous 
perforated  apertures  throughout    the  building  will 
admit   twice  the  quantity  of  air  required  for  the 
respiratiofi  of  the  animals,  and  are  so  under  com- 
luancl  that  they  will  neither  admit  flies  in  summer, 
nor   too  large  a  siqjply  of  cold  air  in  mnter.      A 
covered  steading,  somewhat  similar  in  construction 
to  the  above,  has  been  erected  at  Glen,  in  Peebles- 
shire, where  tlie  ventilation  of  the  enclosed  cattle- 
courts,  &c.,  is  admirable. 

We_  would  only  remark,  that  to  carry  out  this 
principle  of  ventilation  is  somewhat  expensive.  A 
cheap  and  yet  efBcieiit  system  of  ventilation  for 
cattle  is  to  cover  the  yards  with  pan-tiles  witliout 
plaster  or  lath.  Those  who  wish  to  see  farm-offices 
economieally  erected,  at  the  same  time  combined 
with  the  most  perfect  ventilation,  we  would  recom- 
mend to  visit  some  that  have  been  lately  built  on 
the  iiroperty  of  Lord  Kinnaird,  Eossie  Priory, 
I'erthshire.  As  a  general  rule,  farm-steadings  are 
erected  at  too  great  an  exjiense.  For  further  infor- 
mation, see  The  Bonk  of  Farm  Biiildintj.%  by  Henry 
Stephens,  F.R.S.E.,  and  P..  Scott  Burn  '(Ediii.  Black- 
wood and  Sons,  ISOl). 

FARM-SERVANTS.  Tlie  introduction  of  large 
farms  caused  a  wide  difference  to  arise  between 
the  condition  of  master  and  servant.  The  latter 
has  no  doulit  had  his  condition  meliorated,  though 
much  remains  yet  to  be  done.  Large  fanns  effe'ct 
economy  in  the  amount  of  labour,  and  where 
these  superseded  the  small  holdings  or  pendicles, 
a  certain  number  of  the  population  had  to  betake 
themselves  to  the  towns  or  the  colonies.  This 
latter  process  had  the  effect  of  diminisliing  the 
population  in  the  countrj-  districts.  The  general 
advance,  however,  which  has  taken  place  "in  the 
wages  of  the  labouring-classes  has  Iieen  happily 
shared  in  by  farm -servants.  They  have  now  the 
means  of  increasing  their  physical  comforts,  and 
in  general,  wherever  better  cottages  have  been 
built,  farm-servants  have  proved  more  trustworthy. 
Wages  vary  much,  according  to  the  locality.  In 
the  strictly  agricidtural  county  of  Dorsetshire,  they 
range  from  S*-.  to  10s.  a  week.  In  the  manufac- 
turing districts,  such  as  in  Yorkshire,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  run  up  to  I5s.  to  ICs.  a  week.  In  Scot- 
land, iiloughmen  are  generally  paid  partly  in  pro- 
duce, but  taking  everything  into  account,  wayes 
will  amount  to  nearly  \os.  a  week  all  the  year 
through  for  good  hands ;  each  family  being  pro- 
vided with  a  house  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
farm-offices.  Sec  BoTiiv.  Female  farm-servants 
receive  from  £8  to  £10  a  year,  with  food. 


FARRIER,  Ricn.u;D,  D.D.,  a  weU-kuowu  scholar 
of  the  last  century,  was  born  at  Leicester,  August 
-S  1735,  and  was  entered  a  pensioner  of  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  in  175.1  In  17(30,  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.A.,  and  was  api)oiiited  classical  tutor  of 
his  own  college.  It  is  not  known  when  he  took 
orders,  but,  while  he  held  the  office  of  tutor,  he  acted 
as  curate  at  Swavesey,  a  collage  ei-ht  miles  from 
Cambridge.  In  1766,  he  published  his  once  famous 
tsmy  on  the  Learning  of  Shakspeare  (reprinted  in 
1  /SO  and  in  1821),  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  shew 
the  sources  whence  the  great  dramatist  derived  his 
knowledge  of  the  ancients.  F.  proved  that  it  was 
from  translations,  and  that  Shakspeare  has  often 
I  cited  the  phraseology,  and  even  the  en-ors,  of  the 
translators.  In  1775,  he  was  elected  to  the  master- 
ship of  Emmanuel  College,  and  in  1778,  chief -librarian 
of  the  university.  In  1780,  he  obtained  a  prcbendal 
stall  at  Lichfield,  but  in  1788.  resigned  it  for  the 
office  of  canon  residentiary  of  St  Paul's.  He  died 
September  8,  1797. 

FARMERS-GENERAL   (Fr.  fermiers-oSni- 
rmix)  was  the  name  given  before  the  Revolution  of 
1 ;  SO  to  the  members  of  a  privileged  association  in 
I'r.ance,  who  farmed  or  leased  the  public  revenues  of 
the  nation.     This  peculiar  sj'stem  of  tax-gathering 
dates   from   an  ancient  period.     For   each   class  of 
imposts  there  was  a  sjiecial  administrative  board, 
presided  over  by  one  of  the  farmers-general,  or  by 
one  of  his  assistants.     At  first,  the  ieasing  of  the 
public  revenues  was  based  on  the  competitive  system, 
and  determined  by  the   estimates  handed  in ;   but 
latterly,  every  formality,  every  preliminary  guarantee 
of  this  nature  disappeared,  and  the  leasing  wholly 
depended  on  the  favour  or  jobbery  of  the  govern- 
ment officials.     The  minister  of  finance  selected  the 
farmers-general   at  his  pleasure,  but  his  choice  was 
always  regidated  by  the  present,  or  rather  bribe  (pol- 
de-vin)  offered  to  him;  and  which,  we  may  presume, 
was  never  inconsiderable,  inasmuch  as  its  value  was 
fixed  by  the  minister  himself.   Cienerally,  shares  in  the 
concern  were  assigned  by  the  king  to  'his  favourites, 
male  and  female.     The  number  of  farmers-general 
was  ordinarily  40,  but  shortly  before  the  Revolution 
it   had   risen   to   60.     The   lease  was   signed   by  a 
salaried  deputy,  who  was   responsible  to  the  king 
alone.     The  king  occupied  the  position  of  a  creditor 
towards  the  farmers-general,  and  could  coerce  them 
into  paj-ment  of  the  stipulated  sum  as  a  just  debt ; 
the  farmers-general,  on  the  other  hand,  occupied  a 
similar  position  towards  their  subordinates.      The 
entire  sum  which  it  was  necessary  to  place  in  the 
national  treasury— or,  iu  other  words,  the  annual 
national    revenues— amounted   to    ISO    miUious    of 
livres.     The  rest  was  enormous  profit,  for  we  are 
certainly  within  the  mark  in  estimating  it  at  seven 
million  of  livres.     The  ]iowers,  rights,  and  duties  of 
the  farmers-general  were  defined  by  special  decrees  ; 
but  however  severe  may  have  been  the  fiscal  laws 
against  fraud  and  contraband,  it  is  notorious  tliat, 
shortly  before  the  Revolution,  alnises  of  the  most 
flagraut  description  had  demoralised  the  system  and 
the  men.     The  consequence  was  inevitable.    Duriu" 
the  Revolution,  most  of  these  odious  tax-gatherers 
perished  on  the  scaffold,  the  innocent  anio"ng  them 
being  occasionally  confounded  with  the  guilty— the 
real  capitalist  with  the  selfish  and  greedy  adventurer. 
Even  the  virtues  and  the  learning  of  the  illustrious 
Lavoisier  could  not  save  him. 

Farmers  of  the  revenue  are  an  institution  of 
ancient  origin.  The  Roman  publicani  (q.  v.)  were 
officers  of  this  kind  ;  and  duties  of  various  kinds 
were  at  one  time  farmed  in  Great  Britain.  See 
Excise. 

FARMING'S  ISLAND,  an  island  reported  to  be 

249 


FARNE— FAUO. 


in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  north  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  in  lat.  30°  49'  N.,  and  lonj.  1">'.)°  20' W.,  was 
formally  taken  jiossessiou  of,  for  the  Queen  of  Kny- 
land,  on  the  Sth  February  ISGI,  by  her  Majesty's 
steamer  AWert.  The  harbour  was  trailed  Ku^Ush 
Harbour,  and  a  point,  on  which  there  is  a  settlement, 
was  termed  English  Point. 

FARNE,  FEARNE,  or  FERN  ISLES,  or  the 

Staples,  form  a  gr'oup  of  17  islets  and  rocks,  some 
being  \-isible  only  at  low  tide,  two  to  live  miles  off 
the  north-cast  coast  of  Northumberland,  op])osite 
Baniborough.  On  one  of  the  isles  is  the  tower  of  a 
priory,  built  to  the  memory  of  St  Cuthbert,  who 
s]>rnt  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  here.  There  is  a 
hole  called  the  churn,  through  which  the  sea  rises. 
The  passage  between  the  isles  is  very  dangerous 
in  rough  weather.  Two  of  the  islets  have  e.ach  a 
light-house.  Here  the  Forfarshire  was  wrecked  in 
1S38  (see  D.vRLiXG,  Grace);  and  here,  in  1843,  the 
Pegasus  met  the  same  fate,  and  GO  persons  were 
di'owned. 

FARNE'SE,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  family  in 
Italy,  whose  origin  can  be  traced  to  the  middle  of 
the  13th  c.,  when  it  possessed  the  castle  of  Farueto, 
near  Orvieto.  Many  of  its  members  have  tilled  the 
highest  offices  in  the  church.  In  1534,  Cardinal 
Alessandro  Faknese  was  raised  to  the  papal  see 
under  the  title  of  Pope  Paid  III.  (q.  v.),  and  as  his 
great  aim  was  the  aggi-andisement  of  his  family,  he 
erected  Parma  and  Piacenza  into  a  duchy,  which 
he  bestowed  on  his  natural  son,  PiETKO  Lena. 
Pietro  was  one  of  the  most  dissolute  men  of  his 
period,  and  after  many  tyrannical  attempts  to  Limit 
the  privileges  of  the  nobles,  he  was  assassinated 
10th  September  1547.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  O'lTAVio  (born  15'20,  died  1585),  who  married  a 
a.atural  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  whose  reign 
was  marked  by  an  unl)roken  peace,  and  by  various 
efforts  made  for  the  good  of  his  subjects. 

Aless.-Us'dko  Farne.se,  son  of  Ottavio,  was  born  in 
1!ti6.  He  served  lus  first  campaign  under  his  uncle, 
Don  John  of  Austria,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Lepanto,  in  the  year  1571.  He  after- 
wards followed  his  mother  into  the  Low  Countries, 
then  in  a  state  of  insiurection,  and  aided  in  obtain- 
ing the  \-ictory  at  Gembloux,  31st  Januaiy  1578. 
He  was  made  governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
by  Philip  II.,  and  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
I'rince  of  Orange.  The  ill  success  of  the  expedition 
against  England,  to  the  command  of  which  he  had 
Vieen  appointed  by  Philip  II.,  grieved  him  the  more 
from  the  contrast  it  presented  to  his  former  suc- 
cesses. On  his  return  to  the  Netherlands,  he  was 
.'(ppointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  des- 
j)atched  to  the  assistance  of  the  Catholics  in  France, 
and  compelled  Henry  IV.  to  raise  the  siege  of  Paris. 
Being,  however,  ill  supjdied  with  provisions  and 
money  by  Phihp,  and  insufficiently  supported  by 
the  League,  he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  superior 
power  of  Henry  IV.,  and  died  soon  after  at  Arras, 
in  1592.  F.  was  really  an  able  wamor,  and  though 
severe  in  his  discijiline,  was  almost  worshipped  by 
his  soldiery.  Kantjcoio,  his  son  and  successor,  did 
not  possess  the  brilliant  quahties  of  his  father ;  he 
was  sombre,  austere,  greedy,  and  proud.  A  con- 
spiracy was  hatched  against  him,  and  Ranuccio 
was  seized,  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  died  in 
1G22. — OnoAKDO,  a  n.atural  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  prince  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  his 
manners,  and  also,  according  to  Muratori,  for  his 
magnilicence,  magnanijnity,  and  liberalitj'.  He  died 
in  1(>4G,  .at  the  age  of  34. — The  family  became 
i'xtiuct  in  the  person  of  Anto.nio  F.,  who  died  in 
1731. 

The  name  of  the  Famese  family  has  been  bestowed 


upon  sever.al  celebrated  works  of  art.  These  are — 1. 
The  I-'arnese  Palace  at  Rome,  an  edifice  raised  by 
Pope  Paul  III.,  before  his  accession  to  the  holy  see, 
after  the  design  of  Antonio  da  San  Gallo.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  qiiadrangle,  and  was  completed  by  Miehael 
Angelo.  The  palace  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Rome.  The 
antique  scul))tures  for  which  it  was  formerly  renowned 
are  now  in  the  Museum  at  Naples  ;  a  few  classic 
works,  however,  .are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  great 
hall.  The  gallery  contains  the  frescoes  of  Aimibal 
Caraeci,  which  are  very  valuable,  as  exhibiting  in 
the  most  complete  manner  tlie  new  line  of  art  wliich 
he  struck  out.  In  a  room  adjoining  the  gallery,  are 
some  mythological  fresco-paintings  Viy  Domenichino. 
2.  The  Faniesina  is  a  very  elegant  p.alace  in  'IVaste- 
vere.  It  owes  its  celebrity  chiefly  to  the  frescoes  of 
Rai>hael ;  but  it  also  contains  frescoes  by  Peruzzi, 
Sebastian  del  Piombo,  and  a  colossal  head  in  c/iiaro- 
5C«ro,  attributed  to  Michael  Angelo.  Among  the 
antiques,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Faruese  family, 
now  in  the  museum  at  Naples,  are  two  which  still 
bear  the  name  of  their  original  owners.  3.  The 
Farnese  Bull  is  the  name  given  to  a  colossal  group 
attributed  to  ApoUonius  and  Tauriscus  of  Tralles,  in 
Asia  Minor,  who  probably  belonged  to  the  Ilhodian 
school,  and  lived  about  300  E.  c.  The  group  repre- 
sents Dii-ce  bound  to  the  horns  of  a  bull  by  Zethus 
and  Amphion,  for  LU  usage  of  her  mother — a  subject 
which,  notwithstanding  the  ^-igorous  mode  of  treat- 
ment, is  on  the  whole  unsatisfactorj'.  PUny  men- 
tions the  transference  of  the  group  to  Rome,  where 
it  first  adorned  the  library  of  Asinius  PoUio,  and 
afterwards  the  Baths  of  C.aracall.a.  It  w.as  dis- 
covered anew  in  the  ye.ar  lo4G,  restored  by  Bianchi, 
and  placed  in  the  Faruese  Palace.  4.  The  Famese 
Hercules,  copied  by  Glykon  from  an  original  by 
Lysippus.  It  exhibits  the  hero,  exhausted  by 
tod,  leaning  upon  his  club  ;  the  muscles  and  veins 
are  still  swollen,  the  head  inclined,  the  expression 
melancholy ;  one  hand  rests  upon  his  back,  and 
grasps  one  of  the  apples  of  the  Hesperides. 

FA'RNHASI,  a  town  in  the  west  of  Surrey,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Wey,  10  miles  west-south-west 
of  Guildford.  It  consists  chietiy  of  one  street  running 
east  and  west.  The  princi])al  feature  is  the  stately 
old  castle  of  the  bishojis  of  Winchester,  first  built  by 
Bishop  de  Blois,  brother  of  King  Stephen.  The  castle 
was  r,azed  by  Henry  III.,  relniilt  and  garrisoned  by 
Charles  I.,  and  restored  in  1684  to  its  present  state 
by  Bishop  Morlej'.  It  is  .an  emb.attled  quadrangle 
of  brick,  covered  with  stucco.  F.  has  belonged  to 
the  bishops  of  Winchester  since  860,  when  Ethelb.ald 
of  Wessex  bestowed  it  on  them.  Some  ])ai'ts  of  the 
parish  chm-ch  were  built  in  the  12th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries.  The  chief  trade  is  in  hops,  a  very  fine 
variety  of  which  is  grown  in  the  ^•icinity.  Poji. 
(18G1)  of  town  about  4500,  of  jiarish  9.351.  Wil- 
liam Cobbett  was  born  and  is  bm-ied  here.  The 
vicinity  of  Aldershott  cam]),  which  is  only  about  C 
miles  to  the  north  of  F.,  has  increased  the  activity 
of  the  town  dming  the  last  few  years. 

FA'RO,  a  pleasant  and  wealthy  episcopal  city 
of  Portugal,  capital  of  the  pro\nnce  of  Algarve,  is 
situated  in  a  plain  .at  the  mouth  of  the  Fermoso, 
in  lat.  37°  N.,  and  long.  7°  52'  W.  It  has,  on  the 
whole,  a  modern  asjicct,  but  its  houses  are  not 
handsome,  and  its  .'streets  are  in  gener.al  narrow. 
It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  which  are  said  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Moors.  The  harbour  of 
F.  is  somewhat  confined,  but  the  road  formed  by 
three  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  affords  good 
anchorage.  F.  has  considerable  exports  of  oranges, 
figs,  aneho\-ies,  and  cork.  It  has  also  a  jirosperous 
fishery.  Pop.  7900.  The  number  of  blind  peo]ile 
here  met  with  is  suri)risiiig,   groups    of    five   and 


FARO— FAUPvIEE. 


six  tngetlier   being   frequently   observed.       This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  Ught  sandy  soil  which  prevails. 

FARO,  or  PHAKO,  a  game  at  cards  of  the 
nature  of  hazard,  plaj'ed  chiefly  at  gambhng  estab- 
lishments.    See  Hoyle's  Games. 

FAROE  ISLES  (Dan.  Faar-Ocn,  sheep-islands), 
A  ^Toup  of  islands,  22  in  number,  of  which  17  only 
are  inhaV)ited,  belonging  to  Denmark,  and  lying 
nearly  midway  between  the  Shetlauds  and  Ice- 
land, between  61°  25'— 62°  25'  N.  lat.,  and  6°— S' 
AV.  long.  The  principal  island,  Stromoe  (capital, 
Thorshavn),  is  27  miles  long,  and  8  miles  broad ; 
those  ne.\t  in  importance  are  Osteroe,  Vaagoe, 
Eordoc,  and  Sudaroe.  Their  entire  area  is  nearly 
500  square  miles ;  population  about  8500.  The 
F.  I.  consist  of  basaltic  elevations,  none  of  which 
attain  a  height  of  3000  feet,  and  trap  form,ations, 
covered  with  a  thin  vegetable  soil,  which  jaelds 
pasturage  to  the  cattle  and  numerous  sheep  which 
are  reared  in  the  islands.  There  are  no  con- 
siderable valleys  or  streams,  but  small  fresh-water 
lakes  are  numerous.  The  coasts,  which  are  steep 
and  lofty,  are  broken  by  deep  inlets,  whirlpools, 
and  rapids,  which  render  na\-igation  perilous.  Tlie 
furious  hurricanes  which  prevail,  prevent  the  growth 
of  trees,  or  even  of  most  of  the  ordinary  vegetables 
and  cereals;  but  the  climate  is  so  p'eatly  modified 
I-iy  oceanic  intiueaces,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
high  latitude,  snow  rarely  lies  long  on  the  ^rountl, 
and  the  cattle  can  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
in  the  open  air.  Peat  and  coal  are  used  for  fuel ; 
traces  of  iron  and  copper,  and  o[ial,  chalcedony,  &c., 
are  found.  The  chief  sources  of  wealth  are  flocks 
of  sheep,  and  the  multitudes  of  sea-fowl  which 
frequent  the  rocks.  The  islanders  shew  consider- 
able skill  in  climbing  the  dangerous  cliffs  in  search 
of  birds,  and  they  are  also  expert  in  fishing  for 
seals  and  whales.  Their  manufactures  are  of  the 
homeliest  kind,  but  in  return  for  the  numerous 
articles  supplied  to^  them  by  the  mother-country, 
they  yield  tallow,  train-oil,  feathers,  skins,  and 
butter,  to  the  Danish  markets.  The  people  are  of 
Norwegian  origin,  a  vigorous,  laborious,  loyal,  and 
religious  race,  and  belong  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
They  are  governed  by  a  Danish  amtmaml,  or  bailiff, 
and  a  landvogt,  or  director  of  the  police  and  munici- 
iial  departments,  and  are  represented  in  the  Danish 
legislature  by  a  deputy  apjminted  by  the  king.  The 
islands,  which  were  discovered  in  the  9th  c.  by 
Norwegians,  have  belonged  to  Denmark  since  the 
incorjioration  of  Norway  with  that  kingdom  by  the 
union  of  Cahnar,  and  the  language  of  the  peojile  is 
only  a  sliglitly  modified  form  of  the  Old  Norse. 
England  held  the  islands  from  1807  to  the  treaty 
of  Vienna,  in  1S14  For  further  particulars,  see 
Tracings  of  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  Isles,  by  Robert 
Chambers  (\V.  &  II.  Chambers  :  London  and 
Edinbiirgh). 

FA'RQUHAR,  Gkoroe,  was  bora  at  Londonderry 
in  1678,  and  received  his  education  at  the  Dublin 
University,  where,  although  he  did  not  take  any 
degree,  he  secured  among  his  comrades  the  reputa- 
tion of  a  wit  who  was  a  spendthrift  of  Ids  witticisms. 
When  he  left  the  university,  he  w;vs  engaged  as  an 
actor  by  one  of  the  Dublin  theatres,  but,  hke  most 
dramatists  who  have  figured  on  the  stage,  he  proved 
but  an  indifferent  performer.  Playing  a  jiart  in 
Dryden's  Indian  Emperor,  and  forgetting  that  he 
wore  a  sword  instead  of  a  foil,  he  accidentally 
woimded  a  brother-performer,  and  was  so  shocked 
by  the  occurrence  that  he  at  once  quitted  the 
boards.  Accompanied  by  the  actor  WUks,  he 
proceeded  to  London,  and  shortly  after  received  a 
commission  in  the  regiment  commanded  by  the 
Earl  of  Orrery,  which  was  then  stationed  in  Ireland. 


Urged  by  Wilks,  and  perhaps  stimulated  by  the 
gaiety  and  leisure  of  a  miUtary  life,  he,  in  1698, 
produced  his  first  comedy,  entitled  Love  and  a 
Bottle,  which  proved  a  success.  Two  years  after- 
wards, his  Constant  Couple  apjieared,  which  met 
with  a  brilliant  reception,  anil  to  which  he  WTote 
a  sequel,  called  Sir  Harry  Wihlair.  In  1703,  he 
produced  'lite  Inconstant,  founded  on  the  H'j'W- 
tjoose  Chase  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  a  version  in 
Mhich  all  the  coarseness,  and  none  of  the  poetrj', 
of  the  elder  dramatists  is  retainecL  He  married  in 
the  same  year,  and  falling  into  serious  pecuniary 
difiicidties,  he  sold  his  commission,  and,  struggling 
witli  adverse  fortune,  succumbed.  }Ie  died  of 
dechne  in  1707,  lea\-ing  'two  helpless  girls'  to  the 
care  of  his  friend  Wilk.s.  During  his  last  iUness,  he 
WTote  the  best  of  his  ]ilays.  The  Beaux  Strataijem — 
in  six  weeks,  it  is  said — and  died  while  its  wit  and 
invention  were  making  the  town  roar  with  delight. 
F.  is  one  of  the  finest  of  our  comic  dramatists, 
although  Pope  called  him  a  '  farce  ^vTiter.'  He 
is  less  icily  brilliant  than  Congreve,  and  possesses 
on  the  whole  more  variety  and  character  than 
any  of  his  compeers.  He  had  wit  in  abundance, 
but  he  had  hiunauity  too.  He  was  a  tender-hearted 
and  somewhat  melancholy  man,  and — what  was 
rare  in  his  school  and  in  his  time — tears  are  found 
glittering  among  the  brilliants  of  his  fancy. 

FARR,  William,  M.D.,  F.E.S.,  an  eminent 
statistician,  was  born  at  Kenlej',  in  Shropshire, 
November  30,  1807,  became  an  assistant-surgeon 
at  the  .Salop  Infirmary  in  1826,  and  after  attending 
privately  the  medical  and  scientific  classes  of  the 
day,  went  to  Paris  University  in  1829,  where  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  the  most  eminent  medical 
professors.  In  1831,  he  returned  to  England,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  university  of  London, 
where  he  completed  his  professional  curricidum. 
F.  has  devoted  himself  mainly  to  a  consideration  of 
the  important  questions  resulting  from  medical 
statistics.  At  first,  he  found  it  very  difficult  to 
draw  the  attention  either  of  the  luiblic  or  of  medical 
societies  to  the  subject;  but  in  the  year  1S37,  his 
article,  *  Vital  Statistics,'  in  M'Culloch's  Statistics  of 
tilt  British  Einjnre,  obtained  the  notice  and  approval 
of  certain  influential  persons.  In  the  same  year,  the 
registration  of  all  the  deaths,  and  of  the  causes  of 
death,  was  commenced  in  England,  and  in  1838,  F. 
received  an  appointment  in  the  General  Registrar's 
Office.  Since  then,  he  has  been  made  superintendent 
of  a  statistical  department,  the  members  of  which 
have  drawn  up  the  new  London  Tables  of  Mor- 
tality, the  Quarterly  Beturns  of  BirOis,  Deatlis,  and 
Marriages,  and  the  Annual  Abstracts.  In  1851,  he 
was  one  of  the  gentlemen  employed  in  taking  the 
census  of  Great  Britain,  in  connection  with  which 
he  drew  up  several  extremely  interesting  reports. 
F.  is  the  author  of  a  new  StatUtical  ^'osulogy,  and 
of  various  valuable  papers  on  the  Finance  of  Life 
Assurance,  the  Income  Tax,  the  Pubhc  Health,  the 
Cholera,  &c. 

FA'RRIER  (from  ferrum,  iron),  a  person  who 
shoes  horses  and  treats  their  diseases.  The  better 
class  of  farriers  often  were,  and  indeed  still  are, 
men  of  great  shrewdness  and  observation,  some- 
times possessing  considerable  experience,  and  with 
skilful,  useful  hands.  Their  management  of  sick 
horses  is  occasionally  sensible,  but  generally  alto- 
gether empirical.  They  have  usuafly  but  crude 
ideas  of  the  structure,  functions,  or  diseases  of 
animals,  and  pin  their  faith  mainly  on  a  few  care- 
fully cherished  recipes.  To  tlieh  calling  as  horse- 
doctors  and  shoeing-smiths  (see  Shoeing),  they 
usually  unite  those  of  cow-leech  and  cutter  of  colts 
and  pigs,  and  although  still   met  with  in   many 

251 


FAi;  lUI-IKS— FASCIXES. 


of  the  rural  districts  of  England  and  Ireland, 
their  practice  is  gradually  passing  into  the  hands  of 
regularly  educated  Veterinarians  (q.  v.). 

FARKIEES,  AEjn'.  Farriers-major  and  farriers 
are  non-commissioned  ofticei-s  in  tl»e  cavalry, 
,ai-tillery,  engineers,  and  military  train,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  shoe  the  horses  of  their  corps,  and,  generally, 
to  assist  the  veterinary  surgeon  in  exercising  a 
proper  care  over  the  regiment.al  animals.  Tliey 
receive  the  same  pay  as  other  sergeants  (with  whom 
they  rank) ;  and,  in  addition,  certain  allowances 
jiroportionate  to  the  number  of  animals  in  charge. 
The  sura  neccssarj'-  to  defray  this  allowance  fur  a 
ye.ar  is  about  £10,000. 

FARS,  or  FAIJSISTA'N  (anciently  Persis),  a  pro- 
vince of  Persi.i,  on  the  east  shore  of  tlie  Persian 
Gulf,  lying  between  lat.  27°  30'  and  31'  30"  N., 
and  between  long.  49°  30'  and  ito"  E.  Area,  55,000 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  1,700,000,  composed  of 
Turkomans,  Banjaus,  Persians,  and  Jews.  The 
cuast  region  is  flat,  \\-ith  a  hot  climate  ;  inland,  the 
ground  rises  to  an  elevation  of  from  2000  to  3000 
feet,  the  climate  is  cooler,  and  valleys,  alike 
remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  fertihtj-,  ranging 
from  15  to  100  miles  in  length,  are  numerous.  East 
of  this  hiljy  district  the  2)rovinee  again  becomes 
Hat  and  sandy  ;  and  here  occm-s  the  large  salt-lake 
Bakhtegan.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Bundemeer 
(anciently  Araxes),  which  flows  into  Bakhtegan,  the 
N.abon.  and  the  Tab  (anciently  Arosis),  which  fall 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  proWnce  produces 
tobacco,  wine,  rice,  dates,  opium,  linen,  cotton,  silk, 
cochineal,  and  roses  for  the  manufacture  of  attar. 
It  has  iron  and  lead  mines,  marble  and  alabaster 
quarries,  and  yields  also  lior.ax  and  naphtha.  It 
trades  mainly  with  India.  The  principal  towns  ai-e 
— Shiraz,  Jehroora,  Darab  or  Darabgerd,  Behbeh.an 
or  Babahan,  and  Bushire.  iVorth  of  Shiraz,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  30  miles,  lie  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
and  s])leudid  city  of  Persepolis.  F.  also  contains 
the  remains  of  Shahpur,  a  city  older  than  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  celebrated  scidi)tured 
rocks,  called  by  the  Persians  Naksh-i-Jiustam, 

FAKSA'X  ARCHIPEXAGO,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  south-east  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  chief  of  which 
are  Farsan  Kebeer,  31  miles  loni,  and  Farsan 
Seggcer,  IS  miles,  in  lat.  16=  30'— it"  N.,  and  long. 
41°  45'— 42°  10'  E.  They  would  be  v.aluable  as 
harboui-s,  were  it  not  for  the  reefs  in  the  vicinity. 

FARTHING  {Snx-feorthun;/,  Irom/eoH/i,  fom-th), 
the  fourth  part  of  a  Penny  (q.  v.). 

FA'RTHINGALE,  old  form  of  the  word  (as 
found  in  Bishop  L.atimer)  rerdingnle,  is  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  French  rerturj'ade,  which  is  itself 
a  corruption  of  i-eriu-ffardc,  signifying  giuird  of 
modesty.  For  a  description  of  file  farthingale,  see 
Ckinolixe. 

FA'RYXDOX  INN,  tlie  name  foi-merly  borne 
by  Serjeants'  Inn,  Chancery  Lane.  This  building 
belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Ely,  by  whom,  in  1411,  it 
was  let  to  the  serjeants-at-law.  In  14S4,  the  name 
was  changed  to  Serjeants'  Inn  (q.  v.). 

FASA'NO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Terra  de  Bari, 
and  33  miles  south-oast  of  tlie  town  of  Bari,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  high  road  from  that  town  to  Brindisi. 
It  is  small,  but  wealthy.  The  whole  of  the  district 
of  F.  abounds  in  olive  plantations,  and  there  are 
numerous  oil-presses  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood. 
Poj).  11,450. 

FA'SCES  wore  bundles  of  rods  usually  made  of 
birch,  but  sometimes  of  elm,  with  an  axe  jjrojeotiug 
from  the  middle  of  them,  which  were  carried  before 
the  chief  magistrates  of  ancient  Rome,  as  s^Tnbols  of 


Fascia. 


their  power  over  life  aiul  limb.  They  were  borne 
by  the  lietors,  at  first  before  the  kings  ;  in  the  time 
of  the  republic,  before  consuls  and  pra;tors  ;  ami 
afterwards   before    the    emperors.      Their    number 

I  varied,  a  consul  having  twelve,  and  a  prajtor,  six  ; 

'  but  within  the  city  only  two.     Valerius  Publicola 
introduced    a    law   that   within   the   city   the   axo 

was  withdrawn,  excejit  in  the 

case  of   a   dictator,  who  was   :  ' 
jireceded      by      twenty -four  - 

lietors,  bearing  .as  m.any  fasces.  — ' 

Publicola  also  made  the  fasces 
be  lowered  at  the  .assemblies         "  --  -~- 
of  the  people,  as  an  .acknow- 
ledgment   of    their    supreme  ^' 
power. 

FA'SCIA,  in  Architecture, 
a  fl.at  space  or  band,  like  a 
broail  ribbon,  usually  between 
mouldings,  as  at  a,  a,  a  of  the 
architrave  (see  iig.).  Arclii- 
traves      are      called      single, 

dou1)le,  or  triple  fascia  architraves,  according  to  the 
number  of  fasci.-E  into  which  the}-  are  divided. 

FASCINA'TION  BY  SERPENTS.  A  power 
has  long  been  pojiularly  ascribed  to  serpents,  or  at 
least  to  some  Iciuds  of  them,  of  fascinating  by  their 
eye  the  small  animals  on  which  they  prey,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  intended  victim,  when  its 
escape  would  otherwise  be  easy,  and  to  cause  it 
rather  to  nm  or  flutter  into  the  mouth  which  is 
opn  to  devom-  it.  This  popular  notion  has  been 
ridicided,  but  is  supported  by  a  large  amount  of 
evidence,  and  has  been  fidly  adopted  by  some  of  the 
most  scientific  observers.  In  the  earlier  part  of  last 
century,  Kalm  described  the  rattlesn.ake  as  frequently 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  tree,  on  wluch  a  squirrel  is 
seated,  and  fixing  its  eyes  on  the  little  animal,  which 
from  that  moment  cannot  escape,  but  begins  a  dole- 
ful outcry,  comes  towards  the  snake,  runs  a  little 
bit  away,  comes  nearer,  and  finally  is  swallowed. 
Le  Vaillant  describes  a  similar  scene,  as  witnessed 
by  him  in  Africa,  a  shrilce  incapable  of  mo\Tng 
aw,ay  from  a  serpent  which  was  gazing  fi.xcdly  iit  it, 
and  dying  of  fear,  although  the  serpent  Wivs  killed. 
Dr  Andrew  Smith  states  that  the  presence  of  a 
non-venomous  South  jUrican  tree-snake,  Buorphalus 
viriilis,  in  a  tree,  causes  the  birds  of  the  nei^'hbour- 
hood  to  collect  around  it  and  fly  to  and  fro,  uttering 
pierciuCT  cries,  'until  some  one,  more  ten-or-struck 
than  the  rest,  actually  scans  its  lips,  and  .almost 
without  resistance,  becomes  a  meal  for  its  enemy.' 
He  adds,  'whatever  m.iy  be  said  in  ridicule  of 
fasciu.ation,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  bu-ds,  and 
even  quadrupeds,  are,  \mder  certain  circumstances, 
unable  to  retii-e  from  the  presence  of  certaiu  of  their 
enemies  ;  .and  what  is  even  more  extraordinary, 
unable  to  resist  the  propensity  to  advance  from  a 
situation  of  .actual  safety,  into  one  of  most  imminent 
danger.  This  I  have  often  seen  exemplified  in  the 
case  of  birds  and  snakes  ;  and  I  have  heard  of 
inst.ances  cqu.ally  curious,  in  which  antelopes  and 
other  quadrupeds  have  been  so  bewildered  by  the 
sudden  appeaiance  of  crocodiles,  and  by  the  gi-imaces 
.and  contortions  they  pr.actiscd,  as  to  be  unable  to 
fly,  or  even  move  from  the  spot  towards  which  they 
were  approaching  to  seize  them.'  Ellis,  in  his 
Three  Visits  to  Madagascar,  records  anecdotes  of 
the  s.ame  kind,  and  one  in  particidar,  of  a  frog 
app.arently  imable  to  move,  until  an  object  w.as 
]iushed  between  it  and  the  eye  of  the  snake,  when 
the  frog  iramcdi.ately  darted  away,  as  if  relieved 
from  some  mesmeric  influence  exerted  over  it. 

FASCI'NES    (from    L.at.  fusci's,   a   bundle)   aro 
1  fagots  for  military  purposes  made  of  yoimg  branches 


FASCIOLA— FASHION. 


of  trees  or  brushwood,  and  also  of  osiers,  boimd 
together  with  yarn  or  withes.  They  are  about  a 
foot  in  diameter,  and  of  various  lenj^'ths,  averaging 
12  feet,  according  to  the  object  for  wliich  they  are 
intended.  Fascines  are  used  in  the  construction  of 
temporary  works  ;  for  filling  a  ditch,  and  some 
times,  in  a  pile,  for  setting  tire  to  au  obsti'uction. 
Before  a  siege,  the  soldiers  are  employed  in  niakiuji_ 
fascines  in  great  number ;  and  wheu  needed,  eacli 
soldier  bears  one  to  the  place,  casts  it  on  the  heap, 
and  tlie  quantity  required  is  thus  accumiUated  in  a 
remarkably  short  time. 

FASCI'OLA,  a  generic  name  formerly  employed 
to  designate  all  the  Trematode  Entozoa,  as  Flukes, 
R:o.,  wliich  are  now,  however,  divided  into  many 
genera. 

FA'SHION,  or,  as  the  French  term  it,  La  Mode, 
admits  as  httlo  of  exact  definition  as  of  being 
referred  to  any  inteUigible  prmciple.  In  everj'  age 
and  country,  there  has  been  a  recognisable  costume 
or  general  style  of  male  and  female  attire,  along  with 
certain  niceties  in  the  shape,  colour,  and  te.xture  of 
dress,  which,  fluctuating  accordinc'  to  taste  or  whim, 
are  known  as  the  fashion — a  word  which  etymologi- 
caUy  signifies  making  in  a  particular  foi-m.  The 
terms  fashion  and  fashionable  are,  however,  so  com- 
prehensive as  to  include  much  beyond  the  sjihere 
of  the  toilet ;  as,  for  example,  a  style  of  speaJiing, 
living,  and  forming  opinions  ;  there  being,  to  use  a 
common  phrase,  '  a  fashion  in  everything.'  It  is 
only  in  China  and  some  other  eastern  countries  that, 
in  consequence  of  di-ess  being  regulated  by  simiptuary 
laws  or  some  equally  strict  traditions,  the  fashions 
of  attire  remain  from  generation  to  generation  with 
little  or  no  change. 

The  nature  of  clothing,  and  the  necessity  for 
its  use,  being  treated  in  the  articles  Health  and 
Textile  Fabrics,  what  seems  desirable  here  is  to 
glance  at  the  leading  forms  of  dress  and  more 
conspicuous  fashious  that  have  prevailed  in  Western 
Europe,  and  more  particularly  in  England,  since  the 
dawn  of  civilisation.  Our  modern  costume  has 
seemingly  had  a  double  origin — that  of  the  Romans 
and  of  the  Teutonic  people,  who  in  different  branches 
invaded  France  and  Britain.  The  usual  Eomau 
dress,  in  the  latter  period  of  the  Empire,  consisted  of 
a  tumc,  or  loose  upper  garment,  \rith  a  dress  for  the 
lower  limbs,  called  bracca;  hence  the  modem  term 
breeches.  Over  all  was  occasionally  worn  by  the 
higher  classes  the  loya,  or  mantle.  It  is  behoved 
that  these  Roman  costumes  were  generally  copied 
by  the  greater  number  of  British,  at  least  among  the 
more  opulent  classes.  In  the  dress  of  the  women, 
however,  there  was  but  Httle  change.  They  appear 
in  two  timics,  the  one  reaching  to  the  ankles,  the 
other  having  short  sleeves,  and  reaching  about  half- 
way down  the  thigh  :  in  other  words,  they  resemble 
a  round  gown,  or  bedgown  and  j)etticoat,  though 
the  latter,  distinct  from  a  body  and  sleeves,  is  not 
considered  to  be  ancient.  This  tunic  was  called 
in  British  gicn;  heuce  our  word  gown,  of  which  we 
stUl  see  specimens  of  short  dimensions  worn  by 
women  of  the  humbler  classes  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  periods  of  English 
history  are  marked  by  new  peculiarities  in  costume. 
Soon  after  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
amval  of  the  Saxons  in  the  5th  c,  fashions  of  apparel 
were  introduced  from  Northern  Germany,  which  con- 
tinued with  no  material  change  for  several  centuries. 
The  most  important  improvement  in  the  ordinary 
dress  of  the  people  was  the  introduction  of  the  shirt, 
a,  linen  garment  worn  next  the  skin,  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  the  Saxon  invaders.  The  common 
dress  of  the  8th  c.  consisted,  as  we  find,  of  linen 


shirts  ;  tunics,  or  a  kind  of  surcoat ;  cloaks  fastened 
on  the  breast  or  shoulders  with  brooches  ;  short 
drawers  met  by  hose,  over  which  were  worn  bands 
of  cloth,  linen,  or  leather,  in  diagonal  crossings. 
Leathern  s.mdals  were  worn  by  the  early  Anglo- 
Saxons  ;  but  afterwards  the  shoe  became  conmion : 
it  was  very  simple,  and  well  contrived  for  comfort, 
being  opened  down  the  instep,  and  there,  by  a  thou' 
passed  through  holes  on  each  side  of  the  slit,  drawn 
tight  rouud  the  feet  like  a  purse.  A  felt  or  woollen 
cap,  called  hat  (hence  our  modern  word  hat),  was 
worn  by  the  higher  class  of  Anglo-Saxons  ;  but  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  serfs  or  lower  orders 
were  without  any  other  covering  for  the  head  than 
what  nature  had  given  them.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
tunic  still  exists  in  the  smoch-frock,  a  species  of 
overall  generally  worn  by  the  peasantry  and  some 
farmers  in  En'dand.  The  blouse,  worn  by  workmen 
in  France  and  Switzerland,  has  an  equally  early 
origin. 

The  Norman  Conquest  introduced  greater  taste 
and  splendour  into  British  costimie.  Now,  were 
introduced  Gloves  (q.  v.), 
along  with  the  fashions  of 
chivalry.  The  annexed  en- 
graving represents  a  gentle- 
man of  the  reign  of  Henry 
v.:  he  is  di-essed  in  a  short 
tunic,  buttoned  in  front, 
with  girdle,  large  loose 
sleeves,  tight  hose  forming 
pantaloons,  and  stockings  in 
a  single  piece,  peaked  shoes, 
andhead-clothorcap.  About 
this  period,  silks  and  velvets 
of  divers  colours  came  into 
use  among  the  higher  classes, 
by  whom  gold  chains  were 
generally  worn.  The  dress 
of  ladies  was  of  the  richest 
kind.  Gowns  were  em- 
broidered and  bordered  with 
furs  or  velvet ;  and  the 
bodice,  laced  in  front  over  a 
stomacher,  now  first  appeared.  But  the  gi'eatest 
eccentricity  was  the  lofty  steeple  head-di-ess,  she^^•u 
in  the  annexed  portrait ;  this  consisted  of  a  roll  of 
hnen,  covered  mth  fine 
lawn,  which  hung  to  the 
ground,  or  was  mostly 
tucked  under  the  arm. 

In  the  16th  c,  the  upper 
part  of  the  long  hose 
or  nether  garments  began 
to  be  worn  loose,  or  slashed 
with  pieces  of  different 
colours  let  in,  and  the  ai-ms 
and  shoulders  of  the  doublet 
or  jacket  were  fashioned  in 
a  similar  style.  Boots  were 
also  worn  loose  on  the  leg, 
with  the  upper  part  falling 
down  ;  hence  the  origin  of 
the  buskin.  Ruffs  or  ruffles, 
collars,  and  velvet  bonnets 
with  feathers,  came  like- 
wise into  use,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  paintings  of 
Henry  VIII.  HaU,  the 
chronicler,  describes  several  of  Henry's  superb 
dresses,  and  among  them  a  frocke,  or  coat  of  velvet, 
embroidered  aU  over  with  gold  of  •  dam,ask,  the 
sleeves  and  breast  cut  and  lined  with  cloth  of  "old, 
and  tied  together  '  with  great  buttons  of  diamonds, 
rubies,  and  orient  pearls.'  The  cloaks  and  mantles 
were  of  corresponding  magnificence.    The  shirts  were 

253 


Gentleman  of  Fifteenth 
Centmy. 


Lady  of  Fifteenth 
Ceutuiy. 


FASHIOX. 


pinched  or  plaitcil,  ami  embroidered  with  gold,  silver, 
or  silli.  The  term  hose  continued  to  be  ajiiilied  to 
the  entire  vestment,  from  the  waist  to  the  feet, 
throughout  this  century  :  the  material  is  more  dis- 
tinctly stated,  for  Henry  wore  knit  silk  as  well  as 
cloth  hose  :  the  precise  period  of  the  separation  of 
the  hose  into  breeches  and  stockings,  is  not  so 
clear  as  the  derivation  of  the  latter  term  from  the 
' slochjinrj  of  hose;'  'that  is,  adding  the  lower 
part  that  covered  the  legs  and  feet  to  that  wliich 
was  fastened  by  points  to  the  doublet,'  and  was 
called  the  stoch.  The  shoes  and  buskins  were  of 
the  German  fashion,  very  broad  at  the  toes,  and 
of  velvet  and  satin,  slashed  and  puffed.  The  hats, 
caps,  and  bomiets  were  of  almost  endless  forms 
and  colours. 

The  dress  of  the  middle  ranks  in  the  reign  of 
Ucnry  VIU.  may  be  seen  in  prints  of  the  time  ; 
plain  russet  coats,  and  a 
loose  kind  of  kersey  breeches, 
with  stockings  of  the  same 
piece,  were  the  ordinary  suit ; 
and  the  London  apprentices 
wore  blue  cloaks  in  simimer, 
and  gomis  of  the  same  colour 
in  wiiiter,  as  badges  of  serW- 
tude ;  for  this  ai>pears  to 
have  been  the  age  of  domes- 
tic distinctions — the  relics  of 
the  feudalism  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  women  wore  rus- 
set, or  long  woollen  gowns, 
worsted  kirtlcs  (hereafter 
called  petticoats),  and  white 
caps  and  aprons ;  and  white 
imderlinen  came  into  general 
wear.  The  engra'ving  shews 
man  and  woman  in  the 
ordinary  dress  of  this  period. 
The  principal  novelty  of  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI. 
and  Mary  was  the  Hat  round  bonnet  or  cap,  of  plain 
velvet  or  cloth,  worn  on  one  side  of  the  head,  and 
deconated  with  a  jewel  and  single  ostrich  feather. 
The  bonnet  itself  is  preserved  in  the  caps  worn  at 
the  present  day  bj'  the  boys  of  Christ's  Hospital ; 
and  their  blue  coat  and  yellow  stockings  are  such  as 
were  worn  by  the  London  apprentices  at  the  date 
of  the  foundation  of  the  hospital  by  the  youthful 
Edward.    See  Stockings. 

The  male  costume  in  Elizabeth's  reign  was  the 
large  trunk  hose,  long-waisted  doublet,  short  cloak, 
hat,  baud,  and  feather,  shoes  with  roses,  and  the 
large  ruff ;  but  the  great  breeches,  '  stuffed  with 
hair-like  woolsacks,'  after  the  separation  of  the  hose 
into  this  garment  and  stockings,  appear  to  have  been 
worn  throughout  the  reign :  they  were  made  of  silk, 
velvet,  satin,  and  ihamask.  The  doublets  were  still 
more  costly,  and  qiulted  and  stuffed,  '  slashed,  jagged, 
pinched,  and  laced  ; '  and  over  these  were  worn  coats 
and  jerkins  in  as  many  varieties  as  there  are  days 
in  the  year.  The  cloaks  were  of  the  Spanish,  French, 
and  Dutch  cuts,  of  cloth,  sUk,  velvet,  and  taffeta  of 
all  colours,  trimmed  with  gold,  silver,  and  silk-lace 
.and  gl.ass  bugles,  inside  and  outside  equally  superb. 
The  stockings,  shoes,  slippers,  and  ruii's  resembled 
those  of  the  ladies. 

Hats  now  began  to  supersede  the  bonnets  of  a 
former  era.  Those  of  beaver  were  exceedingly 
expensive,  and  they  were  for  the  most  part  made 
of  felted  wool,  dyed.  The  most  remarkable  thing 
about  these  hats  was  their  numerous  shapes  :  some 
were  steeple-crowned;  others  were  Hat  and  broad, 
like  the  battlements  of  a  liouse ;  and  others  with 
round  crowns,  and  bands  of  .all  colours,  and  orna- 
mented with  huge  feathers  and  brooches,  clasps,  and 
jewels  of  great  value.  See  Hai°S. 
2H 


3Ian  .nnd  "SVonian  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century. 


As  regards  female  attire,  the  more  conspicuous 
features  in  the  reign  of  Eliz.ibeth  were  the  farthin- 
gale (q.  v.)  and  ruli.  The  farthing.ale,  or  fardingalc, 
consisted  in  an  extrav.agant  cxjiansion  of  the  lower 
gnmients,  by  means  of  cane  or  wh.alebone,  by  which 
the  lady  seemed  to  walk  in  a  kind  of  tub.  The 
farthingale,  which  is  referred  to  by  Sh.akspeare, 
Butler,  .and  other  writers,  mostly  in  a  satiric  vein, 
was  the  predecessor  of  the  hoop,  which  in  its  turn, 
after  an  interval,  has  been  succeeded  by  the  Crino- 
line (q.  v.)  and  hoop-work  of  steel.  The  widely 
extended  ruU'  of  line  linen,  like  a  huge  frill,  is  seen 
in  the  pictures  of  Elizabeth  and  her  envied  rival, 
M-Tiy  Queen  of  Scots,  both  stars  of  fashion  in  their 
day. 

Under  James  L,  the  male  costume  was  somewhat 
more  Spanish,  .as  respects  the  sl.ashin"  and  orna- 
menting uf  the  doublet  and  breeches.  Late  in  the 
reign,  however,  the  jackets  or  doublets  were  short- 
ened, and  the  breeches  reduced  in  size,  and  fastened 
in  large  bows  at  the  knees  ;  the  well-stockinged  leg 
was  admired,  and  the  hat  worn  low  in  the  crown, 
and  with  broad  brim,  as  seen  in  portraits  of  the 
date  1619.  Beards  and  whiskers  had  become  almost 
universal  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ;  but  in  that  of 
James,  the  former  w.as  sometimes  worn  trimmed  to 
a  point,  hanging  down  .at  the  division  of  the  nilT. 

In  the  female  costimie,  there  was  little  change. 
The  farthingale  continued  to  be  worn  by  ladies  of 
qu.aUty ;  a  strong  passion  for  foreign  lace  was  intro- 
duced ;  pearls  were  the  favourite  jewels  ;  and  the 
ruir  maintained  its  sway,  so  as  to  be  anathematised 
from  the  pulpit ;  and  the  fancies  of  fem.ale  eostimio 
were  glanced  at  in  a  sermon  preached  before  the 
king  at  Whitehall  in  1607—1608,  as  'her  French, 
her  Sp.anish,  and  her  foolish  fashions.' 

The  fashion  of  dress  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
became  stdl  more  decidedly  .Spanish  and  picturesque. 
There  were  now  worn  collars  of  rich  point-l.ace, 
large  and  h.anging  down  on  the  shoulders,  held  by  ,a 
cord  and  tassel  at  the  neck,  and  now  called  Vamliike, 
from  its  being  the  most  striking  p.art  of  the  dress  in 
which  Vandyke  at  that  time  painted  portraits. 

The  princip.al  h.abits  were  vests  and  cloaks  of 
velvet,  or  silk  damask,  short-trousered  breeches  ter- 
minating in  stuffed  roUs,  and  fringes  and  points,  and 
very  rich  boots,  with  large  projecting  lace  tops.  A 
dress  of  Charles  is  thus  described  :  A  falling  band, 
green  doublet  (from  the  armpits  to  the  shoulders 
wide  and  loose),  zigzag  turned-up  ruffles,  long  green 
breeches  (like  a  Dutchman's),  tied  below  the  Itnee 
with  yellow  ribbons,  red  stockings,  aa-ecu  shoe-roses, 
and  a  short  red  cloak 
Uned  with  blue,  with  a 
star  on  the  shoulder ;  the 
king  sometimes  wore  a 
large  cravat,  ami  at  other 
times  a  long  falling  band 
with  tassels.  The  ilress 
of  the  gay  courtiers  or 
cavaliers  consisted  of  a 
doublet  of  velvet,  silk, 
or  satin,  with  large  loose 
sleeves,  slashed,  and 
embroidered ;  Vandyke 
Collar  and  band,  and 
short  embroidered  cloak, 
worn  on  one  shoiUder : 
the  long  breeches,  fringed 
and  pointed,  met  the 
ruffled  tops  of  the  boots  ; 
the  embroidered  sword- 
belt  was  worn  over  the 
right  shoulder,  .and  in  it  w.as  hung  a  Spanish  rapier, 
and  in  the  Happing  beaver-hat  was  worn  a  plume  of 
feathers  confined  by  a  jcweh     A  buff  coat  or  jerkin 


Citizen  in  the  time  of 
Charles  I. 


I 


FASHION. 


■ivaa  often  worn,  as  a  better  defence  than  the  doublet, 
which  is  sometimes  covered.  The  engravinc;  repre- 
sents a  citizen  of  this  period  more  plainly  attii-ed. 

The  female  costume  of  this  period  was  rather 
elegant  than  splendid.  Gowns  with  close  bodies 
and  tight  sleeves  were  worn,  though  the  farthingale 
was  retained,  with  a  gorget  ruff  standing  up  about 
the  neck  like  a  fan.  French  hoods  were  stiU  worn, 
though  with  little  distinction  as  to  rank.  The  hair 
was  worn  in  small  curls,  and  the  hoods,  of  all 
colours,  fastened  under  the  chin  with  curious  effect. 
Earrings,  necklaces,  and  bracelets  were  much  worn  ; 
but  the  Piu-itans  forbade  the  females  to  wear  lace, 
jewels,  or  even  braided  hair  ;  and  they  retained  the 
close  hood  and  high-crowned  hat. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  the 
cumbrous  farthingale  disappeared,  with  the  yellow 
starched  rutf  and  band.  These  tasteless  fashions 
lielng  dismissed,  the  female  dress  became  very 
elegant,  ^vith  its  rich  fidl  skirt  and  sleeves,  and 
falling  collar  edged  -with  rich  lace,  and  the  hair 
worn  in  graceful  ringlets ;  but  these  vanities  were 
condemned  by  the  Puritan  party. 

With  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  came  certain 
ta.steless  innovations  ujion  the  elegant  Vandyke 
costume  of  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  which  were  the 
hrst  resemblance  to  the  coats  and  waistcoats  of  the 
present  day.  Thus  our  most  picturesque  attire 
lasted  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Its 
decline  was  gradual ;  its  chivalric  character  soon 
degenerated  into  grotesqueness,  which  in  its  tiu-n 
changed  to  stark  meanness.  Early  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  the  doublet  was  much  shortened,  and 
worn  open  in  front,  where,  and  at  the  waistband, 
the  rich  shirt  was  shewn  ;  and  the  loose  sleeves  and 
breeches  were  decked  -nrith  ribbons  and  points,  and 
from  the  knee-bands  hung  long  lace  ruffles.  At  the 
wi-ists,  too,  rulHes  were  worn ;  but  the  lace-collar 
was  shorn  of  its  points.  The  cloak  was  retained 
upon  the  left  shoulder,  and  the  high-crowned  and 
plumed  hat  remained  for  a  short  time ;  but  the 
crown  of  the  hat  was  soon  lowered. 

The  ])etticoat  breeches  were  another  absurdity ; 
a.Ithough  ornamented  with  ribbons  at  the  sides,  the 
lining  strangely  appeared  below  the  breeches,  and 
was  tied  at  the  knees ;  to  match  which,  the  sleeves 
of  the  doublet  only  reached  to  the  elbows,  and  from 
under  them  bulged  the  ruffled  sleeves  of  the  shirt, 
both  being  ornamented  with  ribbons.  Meanwhile  the 
skirt  of  the  doublet  had  been  lengthened  from  above 
the  waist  nearly  to  the  knees,  and  had  buttons  and 
button-holes  in  its  entire  length,  thus  becoming  a 
cuat,  and  so  named  in  an  inventory  of  1G79 ;  wherein 
also  are  the  items  of  waistcoat,  breeches,  pantaloons, 
drawers,  and  trousers,  being  the  earUest  mention  of 
these  articles.  Stockings  of  various  kinds  were 
common;  and  'the  lower  ends  of  stockings'  are 
imderstood  as  socks.  Instead  of  the  lace-collar 
was  worn  the  long  S(juare-cnded  cravat,  of  the  same 
material,  from  Brussels  and  Flanders. 

Passing  to  the  reigns  of  James  II.  and  William 
ni.,  we  find  the  male  attire  gradually  fashioned 
according  to  the  artificial  costume  of  the  court 
of  Louis  XIV.  Every  article  of  dress  was  now 
more  prim  and  exact.  The  petticoat  breeches  were 
exchanged  for  the  close-fitting  garments  tied  below 
the  knee,  and  therefore  callea  knee-breeches ;  the 
broad-brimmed  hats  were  turned  up  on  two  sides, 
and  edged  ivith  feathers  or  ribbons  ;  we  began  to 
see  the  rich  long  lace  cravat  and  embroidered  waist- 
coat ;  and  the  band  was  now  narrowed,  so  as  to 
resemble  that  worn  at  the  present  time  by  clergy- 
men. Wigs,  which  had  been  some  time  in  use,  were 
worn  still  longer  than  hitherto,  hanging  down  in 
front,  or  flowing  upon  the  shoulders,  though  the 
colour  was  altered  from  black  to  suit  the  complexion. 


From  the  17th  to  the  end  of  the  18th  c.  was  the  era 
of  Hair-powder  (q.  v.).  Wigs  (q.  v.),  and  cocked-hats; 
in  these  as  in  other  matters  there  being  an  excessive 
artificiality  in  the  tastes  of  the  higher  classes.  In 
the  annexed  cut,  we  offer  a 
representation  of  a  gentleman 
of  1750,  with  his  owing  coat 
and  ample  cuffs,  friUs  at  the 
wrist,  deep  waistcoat  hanging 
over  the  legs,  long  white  hose 
dra\^Ti  over  the  knees,  his 
cocked-hat  folded  imder  his 
arm,  and  in  his  hand  the  open 
Snuil-box  (q.  v.).  Such  was 
the  appearance  of  what  is  tra- 
ditionally known  as  the  'old 
English  gentleman.'  The  coats 
of  the  18th  c.  were  of  velvet, 
silk,  or  satin,  as  well  as  broad- 
cloth, and  their  colours  very 
fanciful  Hogarth's  favourite 
colour  was  sky-blue  ;  Key- 
nolds's,  deep  crimson  and  vio- 
let ;  and  Goldsmith  rejoiced  Gentleman  of  1750. 
in  plimi-colour.      About  1790, 

cloth  became  the  general  wear ;  the  waistcoat  beinf 
of  the  costlier  materials,  and  embroidered,  an3 
sometimes  the  breeches.  I5uckles  were  worn  at  the 
knees  and  in  the  shoes  till  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury ;  and  the  large  square  plaited  buckle  was  the 
ton  until  1791,  when  shoe-strings  became  general. 
Among  the  artificialities  of  dress  diu-ing  the  greater 
part  of  the  18th  c,  none  was  more  odious  than  that 
of  Hoops  (q.  v.),  worn  by  ladies,  who,  by  these  means 
of  expansion,  were  made  to  appear  as  if  standing  in 
an  inverted  tub.  In  the  reigns  of  George  I.  and  II.,  a 
loose  kind  of  drapery  at  the  back  of  the  dress,  called 
a  sacque,  and  hooded  silk-cloaks,  were  worn,  also  a 
very  small  muff,  such  as  have  been  lately  re\'ived. 
In  the  18th  c,  after  the  disuse  of  towering  head- 
dresses. Veils  (q.  V.)  of  an  elegant  fabric  were  intro- 
duced, and  the  Fan  (q.  v.)  was  an  important  article 
for  ornament  and  flirtation. 

The  formalities  of  the  18th  c.  received  a  severe 
blow  at  the  French  Revolution ;  and  in  the  ten 
years  from  1790  to  1800  a  more  complete  change  was 
effected  in  dress,  by  the  spontaneous  action  of  the 
people,  than  had  taken  2)lace  at  any  previous  period 
in  a  century.  The  change  began  in  France,  partly  to 
m.ork  a  contempt  for  old  court  usages,  and  jiartly 
in  imitation  of  certain  classes  of  jiersons  in  EnglantC 
whose  costume  the  French  mistook  for  that  of  the 
nation  generally.  This  new  French  dress  was  intro- 
duced by  the  party  who  were  styled  the  Sans 
Culottes.  It  consisted  of  a  round  hat,  a  short  coat, 
a  light  waistcoat,  and  pantaloons  ;  a  handkerchief 
was  tied  loosely  round  the  neck,  with  the  ends  long 
and  hanging  doivn,  and  shewing  the  shirt-collar 
above ;  the  hair  was  cut  short,  without  powder,  d,  la 
Titus,  and  the  shoes  were  tied  with  strings. 

The  comparatively  simple  form  of  dress  of  the 
Sans  Culottes  found  many  admirers  in  England,  and 
soon  became  common  among  young  men ;  the  chanfc 
from  antique  fashions  was  also  greatly  helped  by 
the  imposition  of  a  tax  on  the  use  of  hair-powder, 
which  was  henceforth  generally  abandoned.  Panta- 
loons, which  fitted  closely  to  the  leg,  remained  in 
very  common  use  by  those  persons  who  had  adopted 
them  till  about  the  year  1814,  when  the  wearing  of 
trousers,  alreadj'  introduced  into  the  army,  became 
fashionable.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  mention  that 
trousers  had,  for  the  previous  fifteen  or  twenty 
years,  been  used  by  boys,  and  were  perhaps  from 
them  adojited  by  the  army.  Previous  to  the  French 
ITevolution,  the  dress  of  boys  was  almost  the  same 
as  that  of  men.     xUthough  trousers— called  by  tho 


FASHIOX— FAST. 


Americans  panU — were  generally  worn  after  1815, 
many  elderly  persons  still  helil  out  in  knee-breeches 
against  all  innovations,  anil  to  tlic  present  day  an 
aged  gentleman  may  occasionally  be  seen  clinging 
to  this  ISth  c.  piece  of  dress.  The  general  use  of 
white  neckcloths  continued,  notwithstanding  tlie 
introduction  of  the  standing  collar,  till  the  reigu  of 
George  IV.,  when  this  monarch's  taste  for  wearing  a 
black  sdk  kerchief  or  stock,  and  also  the  use  of 
black  stocks  in  the  ai-my,  caused  a  remarkably  quick 
abandonment  of  white  neckcloths,  and  the  adoption 
of  black  instead.  The  year  1825,  or  thereabouts, 
was  the  era  of  this  signal  improvement  in  costume. 

While  these  leading  changes  were  effecting,  other 
alterations  of  a  less  conspicuous  nature  were  from 
time  to  time  taking  place.  The  disbanding  of  the 
ai-my  after  the  peace  of  1815  led  to  various  transfor- 
mations besides  those  we  have  mentioned,  ^^'^lile 
pantaloons  were  the  fashionable  dress,  it  became 
customary  to  wear  Hessian  boots  ;  these,  which  had 
originated  among  the  Hessian  troops,  were  without 
tops,  and  were  worn  with  small  silk  tassels  dangling 
from  a  cnt  in  front ;  being  drawn  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  jiantaloons,  they  had  a  neat  appearance ; 
but  the  keeping  of  them  clean  formed  a  torment 
that  prevented  their  imiversal  use.  See  Boots. 
When  trousers  were  introduced  from  the  practice 
of  the  army,  the  use  of  Wellington  boots  to  go 
beneath  them  also  became  common.  Referring  to 
the  era  of  1815  to  IS'25  as  that  in  which  trousers, 
Wellington  boots,  and  black  neckcloths  or  stocks 
came  into  vogue,  we  m.ay  place  the  introduction  of 
the  surtout  in  the  same  period  of  histoiy.  From 
the  time  when  the  coUarless  and  broad-sku'ted  coat 
had  disappe.ired  about  the  commencement  of  the 
century,  the  fashion  of  coats  had  changed  in  various 
■ways  till  the  above-named  era,  when  the  loose  frock- 
coat  or  surtout  was  added  to  the  list  of  garments. 

Such  is  a  general  account  of  the  progress  of 
fashions  in  England  until  nearly  the  present  day. 
In  these  fashions,  the  Welsh,  Irish,  and  Scotch  have 
participated,  and  there  is  now  little  to  distinguish 
the  inhabitants  of  one  part  of  the  United  Kingdom 
from  another.  A\Ti.at  differences  exist  in  particular 
localities — as,  for  instance,  the  round  hats  of  the 
women  in  Wales,  the  checked  gray  jAaid  of  tlio 
Lowland  Scottish  peasantry,  and  the  hilt  of  the 
Highlanders — will  receive  some  notice  under  their 
apjiropriate  heads. 

The  general  simplifjnng  of  dress  subsequent  to 
1815,  was  not  unaccompanied  by  an  expiring  effort 
to  sustain  a  high  style  of  fashion.  The  macaroni, 
or  highly  dressed  beau  of  the  ISth  c,  was  now  suc- 
ceeded by  the  dandy,  who,  ■with  mincing,  affected 
manners,  prided  himself  on  his  starched  collars,  his 
trouser-straps,  and  the  flashy  bunch  of  seals  which 
dangled  from  his  watch-chain.  The  Regency  was 
the  era  of  this  kind  of  supreme  dandyism,  but  it 
continued  till  later  times,  and  characterised  a  num- 
ber of  leading  public  ])ersonages,  of  whom  notices 
occur  in  Raikes's  Heminucences,  from  18,'U  to  1851. 
In  the  present  day,  may  be  noted  a  kind  of  break- 
down of  everj'thiug  like  formality  in  gentlemen's 
walking  costume.  Plain  cloths,  of  diivers  hues, 
called  Tweed-S  (q.  v.),  have  almost  superseded  mate- 
rials of  a  superior  quality ;  cloth  caps,  or  soft  felted 
hats,  called  wide-awakes  (see  Hats),  cover  the 
head ;  and  the  feet  are  prorided  with  short  ankle- 
boots  instead  of  Wellingtons.  In  evening  or  diiuier 
costume,  however,  the  old  etiquette  of  th'ess-co.ats 
and  white  neckcloths  is  stdl  uuvintained.  Among 
the  changes  that  arc  taking  place  in  the  morning  or 
walking  dress,  none  is  so  rcm.arkablc  as  the  grow- 
ing fashion  of  wearing  knickerhocL'ers.  These  are  wide 
loose  trousers  to  below  the  knee,  leaving  the  lower 
part  of  the  leg  only  stockinged  or  covered  with 


leggings.  This  fashion,  ■which  h.as  been  co))ied  more 
immediately  from  the  French  Zouaves  (seeZoi'.WE), 
and  partly  perhaps  from  the  common  practice  of 
stuffing  the  lower  parts  of  the  trousers  roughly 
into  boots  in  the  western  regions  of  the  United 
States,  is  very  much  a  resumption  of  the  costumes 
seen  in  old  Dutch  prints.  Should  it  become  general, 
leg-gaiters  or  boots  ■will  come  again  into  use,  and 
the  present  genenation  m.ay  live  to  see  the  fashion 
of  male  attire  work  once  more  round  to  the  knee- 
breeches  of  the  ISth  century.  In  fem.alc  as  well 
as  in  male  costume,  fashion  seems  to  have  a  ten- 
dency to  work  in  a  circle ;  of  this,  the  resump- 
tion of  the  fartliingale,  or  hoop,  under  the  name 
of  crinoline,  already  referred  to,  offers  a  sufficient 
example,  besides  affording  a  ludicrous  instance  of 
the  unreasoning  manner  in  which  extravagances  in 
dress  are  usu.ally  followed.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
however,  that  Englishwomen,  chargeable  as  they  are 
with  this  absurdity,  set  a  most  creditable  example 
to  their  sex  all  over  the  world,  in  allowing  no  fan- 
tastic change  of  fashion  to  prevent  them  from 
taking  outdoor  exercise  in  all  weathers,  to  Avhieh 
the  recent  introduction  of  india-rubber  Goloshes 
(q.  V.)  has  materially  aided. 

As  to  the  mor.al  \'iew  that  may  be  t.aken  of  the 
whimsicalities  of  female  fashions,  we  might  refer  to 
the  numerous  papers  of  Steele  in  the  Tatler  and 
Spectator,  and  also  the  writings  of  other  18th  c. 
essayists  ;  passing  these  over,  it  is  enough  to  quote 
the  words  of  Hazlitt,  a  more  recent  essayist. 
'  Fashion,'  he  says,  '  constantly  begins  and  ends 
in  two  things  it  abhors  most — singularity  and 
■vulg.arity.  It  is  the  perpetual  setting  up  and  then 
disowning  a  certain  standard  of  taste,  elegance, 
and  refinement,  which  has  no  other  formation  or 
authority  than  that  it  is  the  prevailing  distraction 
of  the  moment ;  which  was  yesterday  ridiculous  from 
its  being  new,  and  to-mori'ow  \vill  be  odious  from 
its  being  common.  It  is  one  of  the  most  slight  and 
insignificant  of  all  things.  It  cannot  be  Lasting,  for 
it  depends  on  the  constant  change  and  shifting  of 
its  own  harlequin  disguises  ;  it  cannot  be  sterling, 
for,  if  it  were,  it  could  not  depend  on  the  breath  of 
caprice  ;  it  must  be  superficial,  to  produce  its  imme- 
diate effect  on  the  gaping  crowd  ;  and  frivolous,  to 
admit  of  its  being  assumed  at  pleasure  by  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  affect  to  lie  in  the  fashion,  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  not 
anything  in  itself,  nor  the  sign  of  anj'thing,  but  the 
folly  and  vanity  of  those  ■who  rely  upon  it  as  their 
greatest  pride  and  ornament.  It  takes  the  firmest 
hold  of  weak,  flimsy,  and  narrow  minds,  of  those 
whose  emptiness  conceives  of  nothing  excellent  but 
■n'hat  is  thought  so  by  others.  That  which  is  good 
for  anything  is  the  better  for  being  widely  diffused. 
But  fashion  is  the  abortive  issue  of  vain  ostenta- 
tion and  exclusive  egotism  :  it  is  haughty,  trifling, 
affected,  servile,  despotic,  mean  and  ambitious, 
precise  iind  fantastical,  all  in  a  breath — tied  to  no 
rule,  and  boimd  to  conform  to  every  nUe  of  tlie 
minute.'  For  a  large  variety  of  .amusing  particulars 
concerning  fashions,  'stars  of  fashion,'  &c.,  during 
the  p.ast  two  centuries,  ■we  refer  to  Mrs  Stone's 
Chronicles  of  Fashion  (Lond.  2  vols.  1845).  w.  c. 

FAST  (a  ■vi'ord  common  to  the  Teutonic  tongues, 
which  Grimm  derives  from  a  root  signifying  primarily 
to  hold,  keej),  observe,  and  hence  to  restrain  one's 
self;  Lat.  jejunium,  Gr.  nestcia,  Hebr.  i-som)  is 
the  word  used  to  express  a  certain  self-imposed 
restraint  ■with  respect  to  the  nourishment  of  the 
body.  The  abstinence  enforced  may  bo  cither 
partial,  when  the  restriction  is  confined  to  certain 
articles  of  food ;  or  total,  when  all  sustenance  is 
dispensed  with  for  a  specified  time.  The  origin  of 
the   custom   seems  to  be   coeval  with   man's   first 


FAST. 


experience  of  the  salutary  influence  which  absti- 
nence exercises  on  the  health,  and  'with  his  more  or 
less  instinctive  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of 
retaining  the  body  in  due  subjection  to  the  soul. 
By  degrees,  the  self-mortitication  which  it  implied 
raised  it  into  a  sacriiice  offered  to  the  Deity ;  it 
became  a  religious  obser^'auce,  was  surrounded 
with  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  tinallj'  bore  the 
stamp  of  a  di\Tne  law.  Climate,  the  habits  of  a 
jicople,  and  their  creed,  gave  it  at  difl'erent  periods 
different  characteristics  ;  but  it  may  be  pronounced 
to  have  been  a  recognised  institution  with  all  the 
more  civilised  nations,  especially  those  of  Asia, 
throughout  all  historic  times.  We  find  it  in  high 
estimation  among  the  ancient  Parsees  of  Irania.  It 
formed  a  prominent  feature  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Mysteries  of  Mithras ;  and  found  it.s  waj',  together 
■nith  these,  over  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Pontus,  and 
Asia  Minor,  to  Palestine,  and  northward  to  the 
wilds  of  Scrthia.  The  ancient  Chinese  and  Hindus, 
and  princij'ally  the  latter,  in  accordance  with  their 
primeval  view — which  they  held  in  common  ^"ith 
the  Parsees — of  heaven  and  hell,  salvation  and 
damnation,  of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  and  of 
the  body  as  the  temporary  prison  of  a  fallen  spirit, 
carried  fasting  to  an  unnatural  excess.  Although 
the  Vedas  attach  little  importance  to  the  excrucia- 
tion of  the  body,  yet  the  Pavaka,  by  the  due  observ- 
ance of  which  the  Hindu  believer  is  purified  from 
all  his  sins,  requires  among  other  things  an  unin- 
terrupted fast  for  the  space  of  twelve  days.  Egypt 
seems  to  h.ave  had  few  or  no  compulsorj*  general 
fasts  ;  but  it  is  established  beyond  doubt,  that  for 
the  initiation  into  the  mysteries  of  Isis  and  Osiris, 
temporary  abstinence  was  rigorously  enforced.  In 
Siam,  all  solemn  acts  are  preceded  by  a  period  of 
fasting,  the  seasons  of  the  new  and  iail  moon  being 
especially  consecrated  to  this  rite.  In  Java,  where 
abstinence  from  the  flesh  of  oxen  is  part  of  the 
religion  of  all,  Buddhists  and  worshippers  of  Brahma 
alike,  the  manner  and  times  of  the  observance  vary 
according  to  the  religion  of  the  indiWduaL  Again, 
in  Tibet,  the  Dalai-lamaites  and  Bogdo-lamaites  hold 
this  law  in  common.  That  Greece  observed  and 
gave  a  high  place  to  occasional  fast-days — such  as 
the  third  day  of  the  festival  of  the  Eleusiniau 
mysteries,  and  that,  for  instance,  those  who  came 
to  consult  the  oracle  of  Trophonius,  had  to  abstain 
from  food  for  twenty-four  hours — is  well  known. 
It  need  hanlly  be  added,  that  the  Romans  did  not 
omit  so  important  an  element  of  the  festivals  and 
ceremonies  which  they  adopted  from  theii-  neigh- 
bours, though  with  them  the  periods  of  fasting  were 
of  less  frequent  recurrence.     See  Thesmophoria. 

As  to  the  Semitic  races,  although  we  find  the 
people  of  Nineveh  imdergoing  occasional  fasts, 
to  which  even  animals  were  made  to  conform,  yet 
the  Mosaic  law  set  apart  one  daj'  only  in  the 
whole  year  for  the  purpose  of  fastinj.  The  10th 
day  of  the  seventh  month  (Tishri),  called  '  the  Day 
of  Atonement '  (Yom  Kippur),  or,  as  the  holiest 
of  the  whole  year,  '  the  Sabbath  of  Sabbaths,' 
was  ordained  for  'the  chastening  of  the  Nephesh,' 
which  the  traditional  law  explains  as  meaning 
the  strictest  and  most  rigorous  abstinence  from 
all  food  or  drink,  as  also  from  washing,  anoint- 
ing, the  puttint;  on  of  sandals,  &c.,  from  the  sun- 
set of  the  ninth  to  the  rising  of  three  stars  on 
the  evening  of  the  tenth  day.  In  process  of 
time,  five  days  of  compulsory  fasting  were  added, 
in  commemoration  of  certain  days  of  humiliation 
aiul  national  misfortune— viz.,  the  ITth  of  the 
fourth  month  (Tamus),  as  the  anniversary  of  the 
taking  of  Jerusalem  both  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Titus  ;  the  3d  of  the  seventh  month  (Tishri),  when 
Ishmael  had  killed  Gedahah,  the  Je^vish  governor 
i;3 


appointed  by  the  Babylonians  (.Jer.  xli.  2)  ;  the 
loth  of  the  tenth  month  (Tebeth),  in  remem- 
brance of  the  siege  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  the  13th 
of  the  tivelfth  month  (Adar),  the  fast  of  Esther, 
and  the  day  most  rigorously  kept,  next  to  the 
great  Day  of  Atonement : — the  yth  of  the  fifth 
I  month  (Al)),  the  anniversary  of  the  destruction  of 
the  first  temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  of  the 
second  by  Titus.  That  the  people  had  at  all  times 
been  prone  to  attach  great  importance  to  the  use  of 
tliis  ])enance  as  a  visible  sign  of  outward  contrition, 
is  clear  from  that  ordinance  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 
puts  into  the  hands  of  the  head  of  a  family  the 
power  of  confining  self-imposed  vows  of  abstinence 
within  due  limits.  The  community  loved  to  express 
their  penitence  for  sin,  or  their  grief  on  the  death  of 
great  men,  by  occasional  fastings.  They  were  also 
considered  an  efficient  means  of  averting  the  divine 
■\vrath,  of  insuring  ^^ctory  over  an  enemy,  or  of 
bringing  down  rain  from  heaven.  Besides,  fasting 
was  not  unfrequently  resorted  to  by  those  who 
\\'ished  to  free  their  minds  from  all  hindrances  to 
meditation,  as  in  the  forty  days  of  Moses  (Exod. 
xxxiv.  28),  or  the  fast  of  Daniel  (Daniel,  x.  2  and 
3).  This  fast  of  Contemplation,  as  it  might  be  caUed, 
seems  also  to  have  been  the  model  imitated  by 
the  Cabbalists,  some  of  whom  are  known  to  have 
fasted  from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath.  In  later  times, 
when,  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  sacrifices 
had  ceased,  fasting,  as  causing  a  decrease  in  the 
ttesh  and  fat  of  the  individual,  was  considered 
to  be  in  some  degree  a  substitute  for  the  animal 
which  had  formerly  been  offered  up  by  the  priest. 
From  a  means  to  repentance  and  inward  purifica- 
tion, which  purj)ose  alone  it  had  been  originally 
intended  to  serve,  it  became  an  end  and  a  vii-tue  in 
itself  ;  an  abuse,  indeed,  neither  unknown  nor  imde- 
nounced  even  in  the  days  of  the  prophets.  If  we 
add  to  this  the  endless  chain  of  dire  calamities  and 
ever-renewed  persecutions  of  which  the  Jews  have 
been  the  victims  for  many  a  long  century,  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  their  fasts  commemorative  of 
deaths  and  tribulations  will  be  far  from  surprising. 
Most  of  these,  however,  which  were  superadded 
from  time  to  time,  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  Over 
and  above  the  six  already  mentioned,  but  few  entire 
days  are  now  observed  by  the  orthodox,  and  these 
merely  of  a  local  character.  Fasting,  with  the 
•Jews,  always  implies  entire  abstinence,  and  lasts, 
except  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  and  the  9th  of  Ab 
— when  the  sunset  of  the  previous  evening  is  the 
sign  for  its  commencement— from  the  break  of  the 
day  to  the  appearance  of  the  first  three  stars. 
.Sackcloth  and  ashes,  the  garb  of  the  penitent  in 
ancient  times,  are  no  longer  worn ;  but  as  the 
special  holiness  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  is  cele- 
brated by  various  solemnities  (see  Festivals),  so 
the  deepest  moimiing  over  the  loss  of  temple  and 
country  is  visibly  expressed  by  many  ceremonies 
in  the  .Jewish  sjTiagogues  and  homes  on  the  9th  of 
Ab.  On  that  day  also,  to  add  the  indiridual  to  the 
national  sorrow,  the  cemeteries  are  generally  visited 
(see  Jewish  Rites).  Of  several  half -days  of  fasting 
that  have  survived,  we  will  mention  the  first  two 
Mondays  and  the  fii-st  Thursday  in  the  second 
month  (lyar)  and  in  the  eighth  month  (Cheshwan), 
(sheni  vachamishi  vesheni),  in  celebration  of  the  two 
meeting-points  of  summer  and  winter ;  as  also,  several 
days  before  the  New-year  or  Day  of  Judgment,  and 
before  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  indi^-idual 
is  bound  to  celebrate  by  fasting  the  anniversary  of 
the  death  of  his  pareuts,  his  own  wedding-day  until 
the  performance  of  the  niamage-ceremony,  and 
the  birth  of  his  first-bom  male  child  (up  to  its 
thirteenth  year — when  the  duty  falls  upon  the  latter 
himself),  on  the  day  preceding  the  Pesach  (Pasha) 

257 


FAST. 


■ — in  commemoration  of  the  sparing  of  the  Israelite 
lirstboru  in  Egypt.  For  the  several  liours'  f:ists 
on  the  two  New-years'  Days,  and  on  the  first  si.\ 
ilays  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  we  refer  likewise 
to  Festivai-s,  and  we  will  only  add  in  conclusion, 
that  the  Sabbath  causes  the  postponement  of  any 
fast — that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  only  excepted 
— which  may  happen  to  be  coincident  with  it ;  and 
that  children — girls  up  to  their  twelfth,  boys  to 
their  thirteenth  year — pregnant  women,  and  the 
sick,  are  exempted  from  the  observance. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  fasting,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  held  in  high  estimation.  The  ^Mondays  and 
Thursdays — the  market-days,  on  which  the  judges 
sat,  and  the  law  was  read  in  the  sj-nagogues — were 
especially  set  aside  for  this  purpose  by  the  Pharisees. 
The  Essenes  fasted  even  more  frequently.  The 
Sadducees  alone  took  exception  to  this  rite,  and 
were  therefore  considered  ungodly.  Christ  himself 
neither  approved  nor  disapproved  of  the  custom, 
but,  as  in  all  matters  of  ceremony,  allowed  his 
disciples,  Jews  and  Gentiles,  to  act  according  or 
contrary  to  their  old  habits.  He  is  tlistinctly  against 
such  a  commandment,  and  even  excuses  those  who 
did  not  fast.  His  own  abstinence  from  food  for 
forty  days  was  like  that  of  Jloses,  entirely  an 
incliWdual  act ;  and  against  a  voluntary  and  limited 
imitation  of  such  abstinence,  to  which  the  spirit 
might  move  a  man,  no  objection  whatever  was  to  be 
taken.*  Dm-ing  the  fii'st  centuries  of  Christianity, 
these  voluntary  fasts  were  frequent  enough  ;  the  new 
converts  adhering  in  most  cases  to  their  old  rite, 
and  only  taking  care  to  change  the  days,  which  had 
been  days  of  abstinence  in  their  former  religious, 
for  others.  Besides,  they  were  considered  a  befitting 
preparation  for  holy  acts  and  feasts,  for  ordin- 
ation and  baptism.  The  time  mostly  celebrated 
annual]}'  in  common  by  all  were  the  forty  hours 
from  Friday  afternoon  to  Simday  morning,  diuing 
which  time  Chi-ist  lay  in  the  sepulchre.  But  not 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century  was  aurthing 
like  an  oi-dinance  promiUgated  with  respect  to  fast- 
ing in  the  new  rebgiou.  It  w:is  first  Montanus  who, 
as  the  Paraclete,  introduced,  .among  other  laws  of 
excessive  severity  and  rigour,  fasting,  as  an  inhi- 
bition upon  the  faithful.  The  Weelnesdays  and 
Fridays,  as  the  d.ays  when  Christ  was  taken  prisoner 
and  crucified,  were  made  days  of  strictest  abstin- 
ence from  all  food ;  while  on  the  other  days  of  the 
week,  dried,  uncooked  victuals  only  were  allowed. 
Asceticism  and  monachism  had  their  share  in 
the  gradual  development  of  the  doctrine  of  fhe 
necessity  of  mortifying  the  flesh,  and  as  a  natural 
consequence,  in  the  growth  and  dilTusion  of  the 
custom  of  fasting.  Yet,  in  the  first  six  centuries, 
the  difference  in  the  various  Christian  communities 

*  Roman  Catholics,  however,  maintain  that  all  the 
words  of  our  Lord,  which  to  Protestants  appear  to 
discoimtenance  the  obligation  of  fasting,  are  directed 
exclusively  against  the  ostentatious  and  self-reUant  fasts 
of  the  Pharisees.  They  even  understand  the  language 
which  he  used  in  condemning  the  practice  of  the  Pharisee 
fasters,  as  containing  a  direct  exhortation  to  his  own 
disciples — not  that  they  should  abstain  from  fasting — 
tiiat  they  should  fast  \vith  suitable  dispositions.  They 
hold,  moreover,  that  in  exempting  his  disciples  from 
fasting,  he  had  regaid  only  to  the  actual  time  of  his 
own  presence  among  them.  It  was  incongruous,  he 
said,  that  the  children  of  the  marriage  should  fast  as 
long  as  the  bridegroom  was  with  them  ;  but,  he  added, 
'the  days  will  come  when  the  bridegroom  sh.aU  be 
taken  away  from  them;  and  then  Viey  shall  fast  in 
thnse  dai/s  (Mark  iii.  20;  Matt.  ix.  15).  Hence  they 
infer,  that  from  the  time  of  our  Lord's  ascension  the 
practice  of  fasting  became  obhgatory  on  his  disciples, 
tlio  temporary  cause  of  the  exemption  hitherto  existing 
having  ceased. 
:;j8 


was  not  greater  in  any  other  doctrine  or  ceremony 
than  in  tliis.  Bishops  and  councils,  however,  gradu- 
ally fixed  the  times  and  seasons  for  the  whole  of 
Christendom.  The  40  hours  had  gradually  become 
40  days,  called  the  Quadragesima  ;  and  the  Council 
of  Orleans,  in  541,  m;ule  it  binding  U])Ou  every 
Christian  not  to  cat  any  meat  diu-ing  this  time, 
save  only  on  the  Sundays.*  The  eighth  council  at 
Toledo,  in  the  7th  c.,  declared  those  who  ate  meat 
during  Lent,  sinners  unworthy  to  partake  in  the 
resurrection.  From  the  8th  c.  to  the  11th,  when  a 
gr.adual  reaction  set  in,  the  laws  of  f.osting  and  the 
punishments  awarded  to  the  transgressora  became 
stricter  and  stricter ;  interilict  and  cxcommmii- 
c.ation  were  among  the  pen.alties.  By  degrees  they 
h.ad  become  so  luunerous  and  different  in  Kind,  that 
they  were  divided  into — I.  Jejvmium  generale  (a 
fast  binding  for  aD)  ;  2.  Cousuetiulinarium  (local 
fast,  &c.)  ;  3.  Peniteutiale  (atonement  for  all  trans- 
gressions) ;  4.  Votivum  (consequent  upon  a  vow)  ; 
5.  Voluntare  (for  the  better  carrying  out  of  an 
undert.aking).  These,  again,  were  kept  cither  as 
1.  Jejunium  naturale  (an  entire  abstinence  fi-om 
food  or  drink,  especially  in  preparation  for  the 
reception  of  the  Eucharist) ;  2.  Abstinentia  (certain 
food  only  being  .allowed,  but  several  times  a  day) ; 
o.  Jejunium  ciuu  .abstinentia  (the  same  food,  but 
wliich  must  be  taken  once  a  d.ay  only)  ;  and 
4.  Jejunium  sine  .abstinentia  (all  kinds  of  food,  but 
only  once  a  d,ay).  The  food  prohibited  on  p.artial 
fast-d.ays  included,  during  certain  periods,  not  only 
the  flesh  of  quadrupeds,  fowl,  and  fish,  but  also 
the  '  lacticinia ' — i.  e.,  all  that  comes  from  quad- 
ruiicd  and  bird,  as  butter,  eggs,  milk,  &c.  We 
cannot  here  enter  into  detail ;  the  discrepancies  and 
differences  of  opinion  mth  respect  to  the  times  and 
modes  of  fasting,  or  to  the  food  prohibited,  beuig, 
even  among  successive  popes  and  contemporary 
bishops  and  elders  of  the  chiu-ch,  so  nimierous, 
and  involved  in  such  obscurities,  that  the  church 
historians  themselves  shi-ink  from  enumerating 
them.  Suffice  it  to  say,  th.at  they  gr;ulually 
developed  in  the  Roman  Church  into — 1.  Weekly 
fjvsts,  of  which  Friday,  as  the  day  of  the  crucifixion, 
seems  to  have  been  early  and  generally  observed. 
To  this  was  added  the  Wednesday,  as  the  day  ou 
which  the  death  of  Christ  w.os  resolved  ujiou. 
These  two  days  received  the  name  of  .Stations ;  a 
term  borrowed  from  the  Stallones  of  the  Roman 
soldiers,  in  accordance  with  the  views  held  by  the 
ascetics  and  monks,  that  they  were  the  warriors  of 
Christ.  At  a  synod  in  Spain  in  the  begiimiug  of 
the  4th  c,  the  Saturd.ay  was  superadded,  but  this 
innovation  met  with  gre.at  ojipositiou,  especially 
in  the  East,  where  Jewish  notions  regarding  the 
Sabbath  had  obtained  a  more  permanent  recogni- 
tion. 2.  Vigils,  origin.ally  night-ser\'ices  observed 
by  the  first  Christians  on  the  eve  of  Sundays  aud 
festivals,  partly  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  custom 
of  celebrating  the  entrance  of  the  sabbath  and  of 
festivals  on  the  evening  of  the  pre\-ious  day,  aud 

*  It  is  only  just  to  add,  however,  that  here  .again 
Catholics  dissent  strongly  from  the  Protcstaiit  view  of 
this  historj'.  They  admit  that  the  followers  of  Monta- 
nus did  introduce  greater  rigour  and  frequency  into 
their  fasts;  but  they  deny  that  before  tlio  time  of 
Montaims  the  pi-actico  of  fasting  was  not  fully  recog- 
nised in  the  Christian  Church,  and  rcg.arded  as  strictly 
obligatory.  The  very  carhest  allusions  to  the  forty 
d,ays'  fast  of  Lent  (tcsmracosU)  regard  it  as  an  estab- 
Ushed  and  recognised  institution.  The  very  first 
fathers  who  allude  to  it,  speak  of  it  as  '  handed  do«Ti 
and  obscn-cd  by  the  church ; '  and  so  far  is  its  origin 
from  being  ascribable  to  the  influence  of  l^lontanism, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  the  earUest  relaxations  which 
the  church  admitted  were  a  reaction  against  tho 
excessive  and  intolerable  rigour  of  that  fanatical  sect. 


FAST. 


I>artly  in  fear  of  the  danger  to  which  a  service  in 
the  daytime  would  have  exposed  the  early  converts. 
Although  these  night-services  became  unnecessary 
in  the  course  of  time,  they  were  still  continued  up 
to  the  4th  c,  when,  owing  to  the  abuses  to  which 
they  led,  they  were  abohshed,  or  rather  transformed 
into  fast-days,  kept  on  the  eve  of  great  festivals 
in  honour  of  Christ,  Mary,  Saints  and  Apostles. 
.3.  The  great  or  40  days'  fast  (Quadragesimal  fast), 
the  most  important  and  most  rigorously  enforced  of 
all.  The  40  hours  of  fast,  in  commemoration  of  the 
40  hours  during  which  Christ's  body  lay  in  the 
tomb,  gradually  expanded  to  30,  or  rather  40  days, 
as  mentioned  before,  in  pious  allusion  to  the  40  days 
of  Moses,  Elijah,  Christ,  the  40  years'  sojourn  in 
the  desert,  or  the  40  camps — all  considered  tyi>ical, 
and  the  fasting  became  severer  the  nearer  Passion- 
week  itself  approached,  in  which  many  other  signs 
of  mourning  and  contrition  were  generally  exhibited. 
4.  The  Quatember  fasts  on  the  Wednesdays,  Fridays, 
and  Saturdays  in  one  week  of  each  season,  in 
imitation  of  the  four  Jewish  fasts  in  the  4th,  5th, 
7th,  and  10th  mouth. — There  were  still  many  other 
fasts,  such  as  those  of  ordination,  &c.,  but  as  they 
had  only  a  temporary  existence,  we  cannot  treat  of 
them  here.  Nor  can  we  enter  into  the  various 
dispensations  granted  by  the  church,  or  the  special 
pastoral  letters  generally  issued  before  Quadra- 
gesima, nor  into  the  variations  in  the  observance 
of  fasts  and  fasting  in  our  own  days  ;  we  can  only 
add,  that  they  have  in  a  great  mea.snre  lost  their 
former  severity,  and  that  only  partial  abstinence 
is  the  rule  in  aU  cases.  The  opinion  held  by  the 
church  in  former  days,  that  fasting  is  meritorious, 
.and  conducive  to  the  salvation  of  the  sold,  has 
undergone  no  change. 

With  respect  to  the  Greek  Church,  we  have  to 
observe  that  fasting  was  and  is  kept  ■with  much 
greater  severity,  the  non-observance  of  it  being  the 
le.ast  venial  of  sins.  The  days  here  extend  over 
.almost  three-qu.arters  of  the  year.  The  principal 
ones  are  the  Wednesday  and  Friday — with  a  few 
exceptions — throughout  the  whole  year  ;  the  great 
Easter  fast,  lasting  48  days ;  that  of  Christmas, 
39  days;  that  in  honour  of  the  Vii'gin,  14  d.ays;  and 
that  of  the  Apostles,  beginning  on  Monday  after 
Trinity,  and  extending  to  the  29th  of  June.  Besides 
those  smaller  fasts  of  preparation,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  vigils  of  the  Roman  Church,  they  have 
many  more  occasional  fasts,  which  we,  however, 
must  omit  here. 

The  Church  of  England  considers  Lasting  a 
praiseworthy,  but  by  no  means  obligatory  custom. 
According  to  Hook's  Church  Dictionarii,  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  Protestant  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  view  of  fasting  consists  in  this,  th.at  the 
Roman  Catholic  regards  the  use  of  fasting  as  an 
imperative  means  of  grace,  the  Protestant  only  as  a 
useful  exercise  preparatory  for  the  means  of  grace. 
In  proof  how  much  the  Church  of  England  has  left 
the  question  of  fasting  to  the  conscience  and  discre- 
tion of  her  members,  it  may  be  observed  that  she 
has  neither  defined  the  mode  or  degree  of  fasting, 
nor  .anywhere  given  a  positive  command  to  fast. 
It  h.as  been  remarked  that  no  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  England  has  in  an  episcopal  charge  laid  down 
fasting  as  a  positive  requirement.  The  days  named 
by  the  English  Church  as  seasons  of  fasting  or 
abstinence,  are  the  forty  days  of  Lent  (q.  v.),  includ- 
ing Ash  Wednesday  and  Good  Friday ;  the  Ember 
(q.  V.)  days ;  the  three  Rogation  (q.  v.)  days,  and 
all  the  Fridays  in  the  year  (except  Christmas  Day) 
and  the  eves  or  \-igils  of  certain  festivals. 

The  Scottish  almanacs  contain  hsts  of  the  Jiist- 
days  of  all  the  principal  places  in  Scotland.  These  are 
generally  one  in  each  year,  appointed  by  the  kirk- 


session  of  the  Established  Church  of  the  parish,  orliy 
concurrence  of  kirk-sessions  in  towns,  but  generally 
by  use  and  wont  fixed  as  to  their  date.  The  fast- 
day  is  alw.ays  some  day  of  the  week  preceding 
the  Communion  Sunday,  or  Sund.ay  set  apart  in 
the  Presbj'ti-rian  chm-ches  for  the  dispensation  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  usually  appointed  as  a  day 
for  '  fasting,  humili.ation,  and  prayer.'  Business  is 
generally  suspended,  shops  shut  as  on  a  Simday, 
and  churches  opened  for  public  worship.  By  an 
act  of  parliament  passed  not  many  years  since, 
factories  are  prohibited  from  can-ying  on  work  on 
the  parish  fast-d.ay,  but  in  consequence  of  the  eccle- 
si<astical  divisions  in  Scotland,  it  has  become  more 
common  than  it  once  w.as  for  .agricidtural  and  other 
kinds  of  work  to  be  carried  on.  The  fast-day  of  a 
large  town  is  ahv.ays  a  busy  day  on  the  railways, 
many  taking  advantage  of  it  for  excursions,  and 
making  it  a  day  of  amusement ;  too  manj',  also,  a 
day  of  dissipation  and  revelry.  That  it  is  right  to 
keep  up  the  annual  fast-day  in  these  circumstances 
is  doubted  by  many  who  themselves  conform  to  its 
religious  observance,  although  of  that  observance 
fasting  does  not  now  generally  form  a  part.  Many, 
however,  doulit  if  it  ever  was  a  good  institution  ; 
alleging  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  frequent 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  which  they  deem 
right  and  desirable,  and  to  which  there  is  a  growing 
tendency.  The  Scottish  Reformers,  as  appears  from 
the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  contemplated  the 
ordinary  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  at  least 
once  a  month  ;  and  the  fast-day,  as  it  now  exists  in 
Scotland,  derives  its  origin  from  a  later  period. 

A  few  words  remain  to  be  said  of  the  Moham- 
medan fasts.  Islam,  as  an  offspring  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  adopted  this  custom  with  many 
others  from  both  churches.  During  the  whole 
month  of  Ramadan,  in  which  the  Prophet  brought 
the  Koran  from  heaven,  eating,  drinking,  smoking, 
smelling  perfimies,  &c.,  are  strictly  forbidden  from 
daybreak  till  simset;  for  the  intervening  nights, 
however,  aU  these  restrictions  are  removed.  There 
are,  besides,  many  voluntary  fasts,  expiatory  Uke 
the  loth  of  Moharram,  corresponding  to  the  Jewish 
Day  of  Atonement,  or  for  the  averting  of  the 
Divine  wT.ath  in  sudden  calamities,  or  as  an  indem- 
nification for  the  omission  of  certain  pious  acts,  as 
the  pilgrimage,  &c.    See  Jews,  Mohajluedanism, 

MOXKS. 

Besides  the  Bible,  Schulchan  Aruch,  Koran,  and 
the  Fathers  generally,  we  refer  to  the  following 
authorities  on  this  subject :  Bingham,  Oriij.  vol.  i.'C. 
I,  21  ;  Fabricius,  Bihliorjr.  Antiquaria,  c.  11  ;  J.  A. 
Muratori,  JJe  Quatuor  Temjjorum  Jejuniis,  &c. ; 
J.  Dallojus,  De  Jejuniis  et  Quadraijesima,  1654; 
Schiine's  Oenclilchttforschunijen,  Th.  1 ;  Briefe  iiher 
d.  Ooltesd.  d.  nwrijenl.  Kirclie,  von  Dr  E.  v.  Muralt 
(Leip.  1838) ;  Siegel,  Altchristl.  AUerth'dmer ;  Dassel, 
De  Jure  Tenrpor.  Quadrages.,  1617 ;  Walch,  De 
Jejunio  Quadragesimal i  (Jena?,  1727);  llomborg, 
De  Quadragesima  Velerum  Chrisiianorum  et  ritihus 
in  ea  quondam  usitalis  diss,  qua  eliam  de  recentior. 
Papist,  Orcec,  Russ.,  Syrian.,  Georgian.,  Maronit., 
Jacobit.,  Ac.  diiserilur  (Helmst.  1077). 

Fasting,  or  depriv.ation  of  food,  is,  in  a  physio- 
logical .sense,  a  state  inconsistent  with  the  eimtinu- 
auce  of  life  in  most  warm-blooded  anini.als  more 
than  a  few  weeks.  If  water  is  not  supplied,  the 
period  is  much  shorter,  being  in  man  commonly  not 
more  than  a  very  few  days,  or  at  most  a  week. 
Persons  h.ave  been  foimd  in  coal-pits  and  mines,  and 
in  other  situations  where  access  to  food  has  been 
impossible,  but  where  w,ater  could  be  had,  as  long 
as  six  weeks  after  their  seclusion,  still  alive,  though 
of  course  in  a  very  feeble  condition;  and  a  very 
small  daily  allowance  of  food  has  supported  life 


FAST  AND  LOOSE— KATE,  FATALISM. 


longer  than  this,  as  in  some  cases  of  sliipwrcck,  and 
other  accidents  at  sea.  Cases  of  alleged  fasting, 
longer  than  this,  as  in  the  notorious  woman  oi 
Tutbury,  are  certainly  in  most  instances  due  to 
imposture.  The  insane  would  appear,  in  some 
instances,  to  bear  fasting  better  than  the  healthy. 
Hybernating  animals  (see  Hyukkn.vtio.n)  are  cap- 
able of  sustaining  the  want  of  food  for  an  apparently 
indefinite  period  of  weeks  during  the  winter  slee)) ; 
V)ut  no  warm-blooded  animal  can  endure  fasting  in 
anything  like  the  same  degree  as  the  reptiles,  in 
many  of  which,  indeed,  the  natiuvd  state  of  exist- 
ence is  one  of  long  intervals  between  the  times  of 
taking  food,  and  in  which  the  vital  change  of 
texture  is  remarkably  slow.  Thus,  the  remark- 
able ampliibious  animal,  the  Proteus  anffuiiius,  has 
been  known  to  live  for  years  without  food,  and  the 
same  is  tnie  of  salamanders,  tortoises,  and  even 
goldfishes.  In  fasting,  the  body  gradually  emaci- 
ates, most  of  the  secretions  are  arrested,  or  greatly 
diminished,  and  at  last  the  animal  heat  falls  rapidly 
in  all  parts  of  the  body.  In  attempting  the  recovery 
of  persons  reduced  by  fasting,  food  must  be  given 
in  very  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  of  the  most 
nourishing  an(l  digestible  quality ;  stimulants  should 
be  either  ^rithheld,  or  very  cautiously  administered. 
The  most  important  point,  next  to  the  regidation 
of  the  food,  and  sometimes  even  before  food  is  given 
at  all,  is  the  removal  of  the  torpor  and  chill  of  the 
body  by  gradually  applied  heat,  with  friction  of 
the  limbs.  See  Tiedemann's  Pht/siolopii ;  Burdaeh's 
Physiology ;  Chossat,  Pecherches  sur  V Inanition. 

FAST  AND  LOOSE  is  the  name  of  a  cheatmg 
game,  also  called  Pricking  at  the  Belt,  which  appears 
to  have  been  much  jjractised  by  the  gipsies  in  the 
time  of  Shakspeare.  The  following  is  a  description  : 
'  A  leathern  belt  is  made  up  into  a  number  of  intricate 
folds,  and  placed  edge\\'ise  upon  a  table.  One  of 
the  folds  is  m.ade  to  resemble  the  middle  of  a 
girdle,  so  that  whoever  shall  thrust  a  skewer  into 
it  woidd  think  he  held  it  fast  to  the  table ;  whereas, 
when  he  has  so  done,  the  person  '\rith  whom  he 
plays  may  take  hold  of  both  ends,  and  ch-aw  it 
away.'  The  game  is  still  practised  at  fairs,  races, 
and  similar  meetings  under  the  name  of  Prick 
the  Garter;  the  original  phrase,  'Fast  and  Loose,' 
however,  is  now  used  to  designate  the  conduct  of 
those  numerous  slippery  characters  whose  code  of 
ethics  does  not  forbid  them  to  say  one  thing  and  do 
another. 

FASTEN'S  EVE.     See  Shkove  Tuesday. 

FA'STI.  Fas,  in  Latin,  signifies  di™ie  law,  and 
fastus,  anj'thing  in  accordance  with  divine  law. 
Hence  the  dies  fasti,  or  lawful  days,  among  the 
Romans,  were  the  days  on  wliich  it  was  lawful  to 
transact  business  before  the  jira'tor.  But  the  sacred 
books,  in  which  the  lawfid  days  of  the  year  were 
marked,  were  themselves  denominated  fasti,  and 
the  term  was  employed,  in  an  extended  sense,  to 
signify  various  kinds  of  registers,  which  have  been 
often  confounded  with  each  other.  These  registers 
fall  into  two  ])rincipal  divisions — the  Fasti  Sacri  or 
Kalcndares,  and  the  Fasti  Annales  or  Historici. 

1.  Fasti  Kule.tulares,  or  calendars  of  the  year, 
were  kept  exclusively  l>y  the  priests  for  about  four 
centuries  and  a  half  after  the  building  of  the  city. 
The  aiijiearance  of  the  new  moou  was  proclaimed  by 
a  jiontifex,  who  at  the  same  time  announced  to  the 
people  the  time  which  woiJd  intervene  between  the 
Kalends  (q.  v.)  and  Nones  (q.  v.).  See  also  Calendak. 
On  the  Nones,  the  country-people  assembled  for  the 
]iui-po5e  of  learning  from  the  Ilex  Sacroram  the  various 
festivals  of  the  month,  and  the  days  on  which  they 
would  fall.  In  the  same  way,  those  who  intended 
to  go  to  law,  learned  on  what  days  it  would  be 
2(iO 


right  (fas)  to  do  so.  The  mystery  with  which  this 
lore  was  sm"ronuded,  for  puriioscs  of  power  and  profit, 
by  the  favoured  chiss,  was  dispelled  by  Cn.  Flavins, 
the  scribe  of  Appius  Crecus,  who  surreptitiously 
c0])ied  from  the  pontifical  book  the  requisite  infor- 
mation, and  pulili.shed  it  to  the  people  in  the  forum. 
From  this,  time-tables  (fasti)  became  common,  very 
much  resembling  modern  almanacs.  They  contained 
the  days  and  months  of  the  year,  the  Nones,  Ides, 
lawfid  and  unlawful  days,  &c.  ;  astronomical  obser- 
vations on  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  fixed  stars, 
the  commencement  of  the  seasons,  brief  notices 
concerning  the  introduction  and  signification  of 
certain  rites,  the  dedication  of  temples,  the  dates  of 
\actories,  disasters,  and  the  like.  In  later  time.% 
the  exploits  and  honours  of  the  imperial  family 
were  didy  entered  in  the  calendar.  The  celebrated 
Fasti  of  Ovid  is  a  soi-t  of  poetical  companion  to 
the  calendar,  as  jiublished  by  Julius  Caesar,  who 
remodelled  the  Roman  ye.ar. 

Several  very  curious  specimens  of  fasti  on  stone 
and  marble  have  been  discovered,  of  which  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  Kalendarium  Prajnesti- 
num,  which  stood  in  the  lower  part  of  the  forum  of 
Prffineste,  described  by  Suetonius.  Of  these  ancient 
fasti,  eleven  are  enumerated  by  Foggini,  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  a 
rm'al  almanac,  known  as  the  Kalendarium  Rusticum 
Farnesianum.  It  is  cut  on  four  sides  of  a  cube,  e.ach 
side  of  which  is  divided  into  three  columns,  each 
column  embracing  a  month.  The  various  agricul- 
tm'al  operations  to  be  performed  in  each  month  are 
given  on  this  curious  relic,  in  adihtion  to  the  ordi- 
nary information  contained  in  these  calendars.  In 
the' month  of  M.ay,  for  example,  the  rustic  is  told 
that  his  corn  must  be  weeded,  his  sheep  shorn,  his 
wool  washed,  &c. 

2.  Fasli  Annales  or  Historici,  were  chronicles, 
containing  the  names  of  the  consuls  and  other 
magistrates  of  the  year,  and  an  enumeration  of  the 
most  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of  Rome, 
noted  domi  opposite  the  days  on  which  they 
occurred.  From  its  application  to  these  chronicles, 
the  word  fasti  came  to  be  used  by  the  poets  as 
synonymous  with  historical  records.  A  very  inter- 
esting specimen  of  f;isti  of  this  class  was  tUscovered 
in  the  fonmi  at  Rome  in  1547.  The  fragments  into 
which  it  had  Ijeen  liroken  were  collected  and  arranged 
by  the  Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese,  and  placed  m 
the  Capitol,  where  they  may  still  be  seen,  together 
with  some  additional  portions  which  were  discovered 
in  1817  and  1818.  See  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  J'oman  Antiquities,  voce  'Fasti,'  and  also  the 
article  on  'Calendar'  (Roman)  in  the  same  work. 

FAT  LUTE  is  the  term  applied  to  a  composi- 
tion of  hnseed  oil  and  pipeclay.     See  Lcte. 

EA'TA  MOKGA'NA  is  a  striking  kind  of  mirage 
observed  in  the  Strait  of  Mcssin;v.  A  spectator  on 
the  shore  sees  images  of  men,  houses,  ships,  &c., 
sometimes  in  the  water,  sometimes  in  the  air,  the 
same  object  ha\-ing  frequently  two  images,  one 
inverted.     See  MnsAGE. 

FATE,  FATALISM,  express  a  conception  which 
has  more  or  less  jn'cvaUed  in  all  religions.  The 
words  are  derived  from  the  Latin  Falum,  which 
has  primarily  a  passive  signification,  denoting  some- 
thing uttered  —a  decree  or  ordinance.  The  Greeks 
expressed  the  same  thought  by  Eimarmene.  Molra, 
again,  was  the  active  personification  of  the  idea — 
tiie  goddess  Fate  or  Destiny.  It  represented,  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  final  monotheistic  element 
— the  vague  Unity  binding  togctlier  and  dominating 
over  the  crow<l  of  Olymjiian  deities.  In  Homer, 
Moira  has  a  double  meaning,  appearing  sometimes 
as  superior  to  the  will  of  Zeus,  and  sometimes  aa 


FATES-FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


inferior  to  tliis  will.  Witli  the  course  of  Grecian 
thought,  the  conception  of  Fate  became  more  spirit- 
ualised. In  .Eschylus  it  is  an  inexorable  Destiny; 
in  Sophocles  and  Plato,  it  is  more  of  a  free  and 
ordering  Will.  In  the  later  forms  of  Greco-Roman 
speculation,  arain,  it  undergoes  various  modifica- 
tions. With  the  Epicureans,  it  seems  identical  with 
Chance  {Tudie) ;  with  the  Stoics,  it  is  the  very 
opiiosite  of  this.  In  the  one  case,  the  Absolute  is 
.a  mere  blind  fatality;  in  the  other  ease,  it  is  an 
inmiinent  necessity  of  reason,  governing  with  iron 
sway  the  apparently  accidental  phenomena  of  life. 

In  the  two  great  religions  of  modern  times,  Clii-is- 
tiamty  and  iMohammedanism,  the  same  conception  is 
found  m  various  forms.  In  the  latter,  the  Highest 
IS  conceived  as  an  arbitrary  and  inexorable  ^law 
swallon-ing  up  every  lower  law  of  activity,  and 
permitting  no  scope  to  freedom  of  development  in 
human  nature.  In  Christianity  and  tlie  modern 
spccidation  which  it  has  coloured,  it  shews  itself 
less  liroadly  in  the  well-loiown  doctrines  of  Predes- 
tination and  of  Philosophical  Kecessity.  In  the 
Predestination  theory  of  Augustine,  Calvin,  and 
many  others,  the  old  fatalistic  doctrine  is  repudi- 
ated ;  the  recognition  of  a  free  determining  element 
in  the  divme  Will,  separates  their  idea  of  it  a!to- 
.gether  from  that  of  a  mere  blind  Destiny  ;  but  the 
influence  of  the  mode  of  thought  out  of  which  the 
old  idea  sprung,  appears  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
divine  decrees  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  inexor- 
ably overbearing  human  freedom.  In  the  doctrine 
of  philosophical  necessity  promulgated  by  Leibnitz, 
Edwards,  and  in  a  somewhat  tUfferent  form  by 
Modern  Positivism,  the  same  idea  emerges  under 
the  narne  of  inevitable  sequence— of  an  ?u  variable 
connection  liulcing  together  all  phenomena  material 
and  mental.  An  immutable  law  is  declared  to 
pervade  and  harmonise  all  existence.  This  is  a 
much  higher  concei)tion,  but  it  is  not  difficidt  to 
see  how  easdy  it  may  pass  into  the  old  parran 
doctrine  of  Fate. 

The  doctrines  of  Predestination  and  of  Philo- 
sophical Necessity  have  been  supposed  mutually 
to  support  each  other ;  in  reality,  however,  they  are 
very  different  doctrines.  The  one  starts  from  the 
dominating  conception  of  the  di\ane  Will  as  over- 
ruhng  all  things,  and  approaches  fatalism  by  ascribintr 
in  certain  cases  such  an  alisorbing  energy  to  this 
Will  as  to  leave  no  power  of  free  action  to'any  other 
will.  It  conceives  of  everytliing  as  swallowed  up 
in  the  single  omnipotence  of  the  Divine.  It  is 
Pant/ieisfic.  The  other  starts  from  the  dominating 
conception  of  law  in  nature,  and  apjiroaches  fatalism 
by  investing  thi.s  law  with  au  immutable  and  self- 
subsistent  character.  It  looks  at  all  existence  as 
a  mere  nndeviating  routine  of  development,  and 
tends  in  exact  opposition  to  the  other  doctrine,  to 
shut  out  the  Dirine  Ijehind  the  screen  of  the  Natural. 
It  is  Atheistic.  It  is,  of  course,  merely  the  ten- 
dency of  the  respective  specidations  tliat  is  thus 
characterised. 

The  conception  of  Fate  springs  irresistibly  from 
man's  consciousness  of  the  transcending  greatness  of 
what  is  outside  and  above  his  own  feeble  existence 
—  of  the  objective  Power  that  encloses  and  moulds 
his  own  subjective  activity.  As  such,  it  will  never 
wholly  disappear  from  human  spccidation,  however 
endlessl3'  modified  it  may  be. 
FATES.     See  Pakc^. 

FATHER.     See  Pake.nt  and   Cuilp,  Family 
Patria  Potestas. 


head— which  IS  large-ami  on  the  t;ilI-covers.  When 
touched,  it  distends  its  gill-covers,  sets  out  its 
spines,  and  assumes  a  very  threatening  appearance. 


Father-Lasher  (Cotlus  bvbalis). 


5.-i?3e-~ 


FATHER-LASHER  {Cottus  hulalis),  a  very 
common  fish  on  the  British  coasts,  the  most  spiny 
of  the  British  species  of  Cottus  (q.  v.),  and  parti- 
cularly armed  with  strong  spines  on  the  back  of  the 


Its  general  aspect  is  indeed  forbidding,  and  even 
the  ittle  boys  who  angle  from  the  rocks  and  pier- 
heads are  usually  averse  to  touch  it,  although  it 
IS  said  to  be  wholesome  and  agreeable  food.  It  is 
of  a  lirown  colour  above,  whitish  beneath,  curiouslv 
marbled  and  s])otted,  the  fins  marbled  black  and 
white.  In  Scotland,  it  bears  the  name  of  Lucbi 
Prouc/i.  •' 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  {Patres 
Lcdemastici),  certain  early  writers  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  term  Abba,  Griecised  i/3/3«t  (Father 
in  use  among  the  Talniudists  as  a  synonym  of 
Rabbi  (my  master),  and  constitutiug,  accortUn<T  to 
Maimonides.  the  third  or  lowest  honorary  title  of 
a  Doctor  of  the  Divine  Law,  was  in  the  first 
centuries  of  Clu-istianity  applied  indiscrimmately  to 
all  theological  writere  who  were  distinguished  by 
their  learning,  genius,  or  piety.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  word  Father,  or,  more  fully.  Father  of 
the  Church,  was  confined  to  those  teachers  whose 
writings  were  considered  pre-eminently  orthodox, 
and  who  might  be  looked  upon  as  tlie  prorjenitors,  as 
it  were,  of  certain  dogmas,  upon  the  development 
of  which  they  had  exercised  a  more  or  less  direct 
influence;  while  those  WTiters  who  diverged  into  the 
fields  of  heretical  opinion  were  called  simply  Scrip- 
tores  Ecclemastici  (Church-WTiters).  Out  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  fonuer,  some  few  master-minds,  to  whom 
the  church  owed  a  still  greater  tribute,  were  aoain 
singled  out  as  Doctore.i  Ecclesice  (Doctors  of  "the 
Church),  which  title  of  pre-eminence,  however,  is 
bestowed  on  many  writers  who  lived  subsequently 
to  the  time  of  the  Fathers,  in  consideration  of  their 
'purer  and  more  excellent  doctrine'  (Benedict  xiv 
Bulla,  Milit.  Ecclcs.). 

The  temjioral  limits  within  which  the  Fathers  are 
to  be  confined,  as  well  as  their  proper  share  of 
authority  in  m.atters  of  faith,  have  long  been 
jioints  of  grave  discussion.  While  some  include  the 
Fathers  of  the  1st  c.,  generally  called  the  Apos- 
tolical Fathers,  on  account  of  their  being  the  con- 
temporaries or  disciples  of  Christ  and  the  apostles, 
they  are  excluded  by  others  ;  again,  by  some,  the 
7th  c.  is  made  the  closing  period,  while  others  carry 
the  list  down  to  the  12th,  or  even  the  13th  century. 

With  respect  to  the  authority  of  the  Fathers,  some, 
like  Frcdegis,  held  their  words  to  be  as  sacred  as' 
those  of  the  jirophets  and  sacred  writers;  while 
others,  like  jUphonso  di  Castro,  Melelius  Cano,  and 
Cardinal  Cajetan,  ridicided  the  notion  that  Sym- 
machus  should  be  made  equal  to  St  Paul,  or  Didymus 
to  St  John  the  Evangelist.  Others,  again,  like 
Pope  Gregory  and  the  majority  of  writers,  took  the 
middle  course  of  regarding  them  not  as  infallible 
much  less  as  prophets  and  apostles,  but  held,  that 

■in 


KATUEHS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


when  in  matters  of  faith  the  most  perfect  and 
unswer\'iDg  unanimity  reii,Ti3  amonc  them,  then,  and 
then  only,  the  Holy  Ghost  is  to  ue  considered  to 
Ejieak  through  them.     See  Tradition. 

Immense  as  is  the  range  and  variety  of  their 
■writings,  ascetic,  apologetic,  polemical,  exegetical, 
moral,  historical,  or  dogmatical,  so  also  is  the 
diversity  of  their  individual  value.  Nothing  can  be 
further  from  historical  justice  th.iu  either  the  whole- 
sale laudation  or  condemnation  of  these  writers  as 
a  body ;  but  whatever  stand  we  may  take,  we  can- 
not but  see  that  they  are  of  the  utmost  moment. 
Stretching  as  they  do  over  the  eutire  extent  of 
that  period  which  forms  the  turniug-point  between 
the  antique  and  modern  world,  they  faithfully  and 
often  unconsciously  jiortray  that  awful  change, 
of  which  they  were  in  no  small  degree  the  instru- 
ments— the  gradual  wane  of  old  faiths,  and  of  an 
old  civilisation,  aud  the  slow  and  struggling  rise 
of  that  which  was  to  replace  them  ;  while  they 
preserve  the  most  minute  and  tiifling  details  with 
the  same  accuracy  as  the  most  momentous  event,  as 
each  hapi>ened  to  bear  upon  their  subject.  The 
philosoplier,  the  historian,  the  antiquary,  each  and 
all  will  find  tlieir  writings,  as  a  whole,  to  contain  an 
inexliaustible  fund  of  instruction.  Of  no  less  interest, 
pcrhajis,  are  their  works  in  relation  to  the  writers 
individually.  These,  issuing  from  all  parts  of  the 
then  known  world,  from  all  ranka,  all  creeds,  could 
not  but  impress  the  stamp  of  their  nationality  and 
callings,  besides  that  of  their  youth  or  age,  vigour 
or  feebleness,  upon  their  writing — Jew,  Greek, 
Koraau,  African,  Sjianiard — orator,  ]ioet,  lawyer, 
statesman,  priest,  they  all  bring  with  them  that 
which  was  their  own  before  they  embraced  the  new 
faith  :  their  dialectic  ])ower,  their  fantastic  poetry, 
their  graceful  speech,  their  stem  austerity.  What 
Greek  subtlety  did  theoretically  for  the  development 
of  dogma  in  Origen  and  Athanasius,  that  Homan 
thoroughness  did  practically  for  the  erection  of  the 
hierarchy  in  Leo  the  Great  aud  Gregory  III. ;  while 
from  Egypt  came  asceticism  and  nionachism,  the 
ascendency  of  spiritualism  over  sensualism  is  owing 
to  those  who  came  from  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 
How  far  Platonism,  and  especially  neo-Platonism, 
Aristotle  and  Greek  j)hilosophy  "enerally,  are  fomid 
developed  in  these  works,  and  infused  into  the  new 
faith  by  the  former  teachers  of  the  academies  them- 
selves, who  mostly  retained  their  old  jihilosophical 
garb,  upon  this,  as  well  as  upon  many  other  points, 
we  must  forbear  to  enlarge. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  take  a  brief  survey  of 
these  writers — referring  for  further  information  to 
the  special  articles  on  the  more  eminent  among  them. 
According  to  the  now  generally  adopted  method  of 
dating  them  from  the  1st  to  the  7th  c,  they  are 
diWded  into  two  distinct  periods,  the  first  of  which 
goes  down  to  the  Council  of  Nica.'a,  32.5  A.  D.  Of 
those  who  head  the  list,  the  Apostolic  Fathers — so 
called  from  their  supposed  connection  with  Christ 
and  the  apostles — very  little  need  be  said,  as  their 
writings,  which  are  mostly  of  an  ascetical  character, 
have  come  down  to  us  in  a  corrupt  aud  mutilated 
state,  and  as  the  writers  themselves  owe  their  chief 
celebrity  to  the  times  in  which  they  ha])pened  to 
live.  We  have  here  Barnabas,  the  son  of  Teostea, 
and  the  comp.anion  of  St  Paid  (Acts  ix.  27 ;  xii.  25) ; 
(-'lemeut,  supposed  to  have  been  the  third  Bishop  of 
itonie;  and  the  Clement  mentioned  by  St  I'aul 
{I'hilipp.  iv.  3)  ;  Hennas,  identical  ]ierha])3  with  the 
Hennas  of  St  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Komans  (xvi.  14) ; 
Ignatiiu,  Bishop  of  Antioch  ;  Polycaq),  Bishop  of 
Smyrna ;  Pajiias ;  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  &c. 
jS'ext  follow  the  Apologists,  or  those  Fathers  whose 
chief  aim  was  the  defence  of  the  new  faith  against 
the  Boman  state,  and  non-Christian  authors,  aud  who 
2C2 


were  the  first  to  make  their  scientific  culture,  and 
more  esi)eci.ally  the  Platonic  philosophy,  subser^-ient 
to  Christianity,  for  this  purj)ose :  Quadratus  the 
'Evangelist,'  a  travelling  missionary;  Ariatides,  an 
Athenian  pliilosopher;  Justin  Martyr,  the  well-known 
author  of  the  two  Apologies  and  the  Dialogue  with 
Try])ho  (or  rather  Tarjihon) ;  Tatian  of  Assyria,  who, 
having  examined  the  different  forms  of  worship,  as 
well  as  the  systems  of  jihilosophy  prevalent  in  his 
time,  felt  satisfied  with  none  but  Christianity,  and 
became  a  disciple  of  Justin,  and  a  indicator  of  the 
I>hilosophy  of  the  barbarians  ;  Athenagoras,  who 
addressed  his  Apology  to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  and  his  son  Commodus,  and  wrote  a  Defence 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  ;  Theophilus, 
Bishop  of  Antioch  ;  Miltiades,  &e.  Next  come  the 
Church  Fathers  of  Asia  Minor,  men  fif  more  prac- 
tical and  peaceful  tendencies  :  Hegesippus,  perhai>s 
an  Ebionite  ;  Irena;us,  Bishop  of  Lyon  and  Vienne, 
who  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  Gnostic  system  ; 
Hii>polytus,  his  disciple,  of  unknown  birthplace  and 
renowned  name.  In  the  North  African  Church,  the 
development  of  which  is  of  the  utmost  moment, 
inasmuch  as  its  langimge,  dogmas,  and  laws  were 
adopted  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Christian  world 
in  the  West,  we  find  Tertvdlian  of  Carthage,  the 
rhetorician  and  advocate,  a  man  of  profound  mind  and 
vast  influence ;  Cyprian,  the  author  of  the  TruslimonKe 
in  favour  of  Christ ;  Commodian,  the  WTiter  of  the 
llults  of  Livinij ;  and  Arnobius,  a  rhetorician  of 
Sicca,  in  Numidia.  The  first  comparatively  barren, 
though  otherwise  highly  important  church,  is  the 
Roman.  The  j)rc-eminently  practical  Roman  mind 
looked  more  to  the  outward  growth  and  wcllbeing 
of  the  church  than  to  literary  excellence,  and  thus 
we  have  only  two  distinguished  authors  to  be 
noticed  here — the  Presbyter  Cains,  known  as  an 
opponent  of  the  ilontanists ;  and  the  Presbyter 
Novatian,  who  wrote  a  ti'eatise  on  the  Jewish  laws 
respecting  food.  The  church  which,  more  than  any 
other,  endeavoured  to  combine  si>eculation  with 
faith,  and  which  gradually  became,  through  its  high 
degree  of  culture  and  erudition,  the  very  centre 
of  Christianity,  is  the  Alexandrian.  And  here  we 
have  Panticnus  ;  Clement  the  Alexandrine,  chiefly 
known  by  his  Stromata  or  Elements  of  the  Gnosis  ; 
Origen,  called  Adamantinus,  the  eminent  Neo- 
Platonist,  born  18,5  A.  D.,  in  Alexandria,  one  of  the 
most  influential  writers  of  the  whole  Christian 
Church  ;  Ilerculas,  with  his  disciple  Dionysius,  a 
liberal  and  moderate  man  ;  Gregory,  the  worker 
of  miracles  ;  Pamplulus  and  Julius  Africanus,  the 
first  Christian  chorogra]>her. 

In  the  second  period,  which  dates  from  the 
Nicfean  Council,  and  comes  down  to  Gregory  II., 
CO-i  A.  D.,  a  period  altogether  superior,  on  account 
of  the  great  number  of  intellectual  and  erudite 
men  who  devoted  their  lives  and  labours  to  the 
church,  we  have  to  distinguish  the  Greek  from  the 
Latin  Fathers.  Among  the  former,  wc  have  again 
to  draw  a  line  between  those  of  the  Alexandrine 
school — like  Euseljius  PamjihiU,  the  Herotlotus  of 
the  church  ;  Athanasius,  the  father  of  orthodoxy ; 
Basil  the  Great,  Doctor  Ecclesia;,  and  his  brother 
Gregory  of  Nyssa ;  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  called 
the  Theologian,  by  way  of  eminence  ;  Didyiims  ;  and 
CjTillus,  some  time  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the 
chief  jirosecutor  of  Nestorius — and  tlio.se  of  the 
Aiitiochian  school,  where  we  find  Ephraem  SjTUS, 
'the  projihet  of  the  SjTians  ;'  CjTil  of  Jeni.salem, 
the  converted  Arian  ;  Jolm  Chrysostom,  of  brilliant 
elotiuence ;  Diodonis,  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  one  of  the 
cliief  founders  of  the  Antiochian  school ;  and  Thco- 
doretus.  Bishop  of  Cyrus.  Besides  these,  we  find, 
of  Greek  Fathers  who  belonged  to  neither  school 
— Epijihanius,  the  violent    adversary   of    Origen ; 


FATHOM— FATS. 


Socrates  Scholasticus,  the  continuator  of  Eusebius's 
Ecclesiastical  History :  Philnstnru'iiis.an  Ari.in  ChurcU 
liistorian  ;  Logomcnus  ;  Eva_Tius  ;  Macarius  the 
Elder,  chiefly  known  through  his  mii'acles  and 
combats  with  the  de\'il ;  Procopius  of  Gaza,  the 
rhetorician  ;  and  Joannes  Scholasticus,  famous 
through  his  collections  of  canonical  law.  Among 
tlie  Latins,  we  hare  to  enumerate  first  the  African 
Fathers :  Fabius  Victorinus ;  Augustine  of  Tagaste 
in  Xumidia,  the  greatest  dogmatist  of  the  Western 
Chiu-ch  ;  Pope  Gelasius  I.  (492 — 49G),  who  finally 
fi.xed  the  canon  of  the  Bible  for  the  Roman  Church  ; 
and  the  Bishops  Fulgentius,  Junilius,  and  Facundus. 
Of  Spaniards,  we  have  Prudentius  the  poet ;  Paidus 
Orosius,  whom  Augustine  used  as  his  messenger 
to  the  East  in  his  controversies  with  Pelagius.  Of 
Gaids  there  are  HUarius  Pictaviensis,  Bishop  of 
Poitiers  about  .350,  the  Athanasiius  of  the  West ; 
Paidinus  of  Nola ;  Sidpitius  Soverus,  friend  of 
Martin  of  Tours ;  Vincent  of  Lerins,  once  a  soldier, 
who  wrote  under  the  name  of  Peregrinus  ;  Sidonius 
Apollinaris,  Bishop  of  Clermont ;  Gennadius,  the 
author  of  an  ecclesiastical  literary  history ;  Enno- 
dius  from  Aries,  who  exerted  himself  to  unite  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Church ;  and  Gregorius 
Turonensis,  who  wrote  ///storia  Ecclcnaxtica  Fran- 
corum,  the  basis  of  Prankish  historj-.  From  other 
coimtries  we  have  Sedidius,  an  Irishman  ;  Joannes 
Cassianus,  a  Scrthian  ;  and  Mercator,  of  imlvnown 
birthplace.  We  conclude  with  the  Italians  them- 
selves :  Lactantius  Firmianus,  the  Christian  Cicero  ; 
Juli)is  Firuisius  Maternus  of  Sicily  ;  Ambrose, 
Wetropolite  of  Milan,  who  raised  his  see  to  such  a 
jiower  that  it  dared  to  resist  Rome  herself  up  to 
the  I2th  century ;  Rutinns  of  Aquileia,  defender  of 
Origcn  against  the  charge  of  heresy  brought  against 
hira  in  the  West ;  Eusebiiis  HieroujTuus,  undoubt- 
edly the  most  learned  of  all  the  Latin  Fathers, 
and  who  mastered  also  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
languages,  collected  in  Palestine  the  most  valuable 
notes  for  the  elucidation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  also 
corrected  the  Latin  edition  of  the  Vidgate ;  Pope 
Leo  I.  ;  Boethius ;  AureUus  Cassiodorus,  whose 
Ilistoria  Trijmrtita,  iu  twelve  books,  served  for  a 
thousand  years  as  a  compendium  of  ecclesiastical 
history ;  the  two  poets,  Ar.ator  and  Venantius 
Fortim.atxis ;  and  Pope  Grcgoiy  I.  (509 — 1504),  is 
regarded  by  Protestants  as  ha\'ing  first  given  the 
Western  Church  its  peculiarly  Roman  Catholic  stamp 
by  developing  tlie  idea  of  the  Eucharist  into  a 
Theophany,  and  makint;  it  the  centre  of  the  wor- 
sliip.  His  works,  especi.aUy  his  letters,  are  inv>-iluable 
for  the  study  of  his  own  times,  especially  for  the 
history  of  the  conversion  of  the  West. 

On  the  JISS.  of  the  Fathers,  we  refer  to  PdH 
Lambeccii  Commenlarii  de  Bibliolheca  Ca^sarea 
Vindobonensi.  The  editions  of  the  works  of  the 
Fathers  are  of  two  cla.sses — those  of  the  individual 
Fathers,  whose  writings  are  the  most  voluminous 
and  of  highest  dogmatical  importance,  and  the  general 
Patristic  collections,  wliich  comprise  the  writings  of 
the  less  voUuninous  or  minor  F.athers.  In  the  former 
class,  the  first  pLace,  beyond  all  dispute,  belongs  to 
the  celebrated  Benedictine  editions,  by  the  members 
of  the  great  Maurist  congregation  of  the  French 
Benedictine  order  (see  Bexedictixes),  of  wliich 
community  the  task  of  eiliting  the  Fathers  came 
to  be  considered  as  the  recognised  work.  The 
Benedictine  editions  of  the  greater  Fathers,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three,  stUl  maintain  the 
very  highest  ])l.ace  in  the  cstim.ation  of  the  learned. 
Of  the  collections  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers 
(which,  for  the  most  part,  consist  of  ^vriters  not 
published  separately),  the  most  important  are  those 
of  La  Eigne,  Galland,  Rossler,  Walch,  Zimmerman, 
and  Migne,  the  last  still  in  progress.    Cardinal  Mai 


I  has  also  made  considerable  additions  to  the  Patristic 
collections  in  his  Bihliot/ieca  Patrum,  Spicilerjiam 
Romanum,  and  Classici  Audores,  as  have  the  Bene- 
<lictines  of  Solesme  in  the  Spicilegium  Solesmense. 

FATHOM,  a  measure  of  six  feet,  principally 
used  in  reference  to  marine  soundings,  and  in  mines. 
Originally,  a  fathom  was  taken  as  the  width  to 
which  the  two  outstretched  arms  extended. 

FA'TIMIDES,  or  FA'TIMITES,  the  name  of  an 
Arabian  dynasty  which  reimed  for  nearly  two 
centuries  over  Egypt.  Its  founder  was  Mahadi- 
Obaidallah,  who  flourished  from  910  to  934  A.D. 
He  asserted  that  he  was  descended  from  Fatima, 
the  daughter  of  the  Prophet,  and  Ismael.  a  grand- 
son of  Ali.  He  thus  won  over  to  his  side  all  the 
adherents  of  the  widely  diffused  Ismaelites,  an 
extravagantly  schismatic  sect  of  Mohammedans  in 
Africa,  and  overthrew  the  race  of  the  Aghlabides, 
who  nUed  at  Tunis.  His  successor  extended  his 
dominion  as  far  as  Fez,  and  his  descendant,  Moezz,  in 
the  year  970,  conquered  Egj'jit,  expelled  the  reigning 
,  family,  removed  his  comi  thither,  founded  Cairo, 
1  assumed  the  title  of  Calif,  thus  proclaiming  himself 
i  the  lawful  successor  of  the  Prophet,  and  subdued 
Syria  and  Palestine.  After  the  death  of  Moezz, 
the  F.  maintained  their  high  position  for  some 
time ;  but  graduaUy  degenerated,  and  resigned  all 
the  cares  of  government  into  the  hands  of  their 
viziers.  Their  power  now  rapidly  declined,  and 
their  vast  territories  melted  away.  In  rehgious 
matters,  the  F.,  because  they  were  raised  to  power 
by  the  followers  of  Ali,  took  xipou  themselves  the 
protection  of  the  Shiite  sect,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Ismaelitic  doctrines.  Between  the 
years  1002—1021,  the  CaUf  Hakem-Biamr-Allah 
persecuted  the  orthodox  Mohammedans  or  Sunnites, 
as  well  as  Jews  and  Clu-istians.  He  founded  au 
academy  at  Cairo,  and  endowed  it  largely,  but  con- 
nected with  it  a  secret  society  for  the  diffusion  of 
Ismaehtic  opinions.  In  the  first  stages,  the  norice 
was  shewn  the  imtenable  nature  of  the  precepts 
of  the  Koran  ;  in  the  sixth,  the  advanced  student 
found  that  religious  legislation  must  gave  way  to 
the  claims  of  philosophy  ;  in  the  seventh,  a  mystic 
pantheism  was  jiroved  to  be  the  true  philosophy ; 
and  finaUj',  in  the  ninth,  the  initiated  discovered 
th.at  he  was  not  required  to  believe  anything,  and 
might  do  whatever  he  pleased.  His  system,  "with 
considerable  modifications,  foimd  a  home  among 
that  peculiar  people  the  Druses  (q.  v.).  After  the 
death  of  Adhid,  the  last  of  the  F.,  in  1171,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  A}^^bides,  Salflh- 
ed-dln  (Saladin),  took  jjossession  of  Egy])t. 

FAT.S  are  those  oily  substances  which  arc  solid 
at  ordinary  temperature.  They  do  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  bquid  oils.     See  Oils  axd  Fats. 

FATS,  Animal.  There  is  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  amongst  chemists  regarding  the  exact 
natiire  of  the  fats  occurring  in  the  animal  body. 
According  to  most  chemists,  they  are  composed  of 
au  admi-xture  of  three  separate  fats — margarine, 
stearine,  and  oleine,  of  which  the  two  former  are 
solid,  and  the  latter  fluid,  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
Heintz,  who  has  carefully  studied  these  bodies, 
dechvres,  however,  that  margarine  is  not  a  simple  fat, 
but  a  mixture  of  stearine  and  palmitine  (a  solid  fat 
I  occiuring  in  pahu-oil) ;  and  he  considers  hiuuan  fat 
to  be  a  mixture  of  stearine,  palmitine,  and  oleine. 
For  the  chemical  characters  of  these  substances,  we 
refer  to  the  articles  Margarine,  Oleint;,  PALMm>'E, 
and  Ste^vkine,  and  we  proceetl  at  once  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  physiological  rel.ations  of  the  fat. 

Pit,  usually  enclosed  in  vesicles,  is  found  very 
extensively  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  abimdant 
in  many  larva;,  and  occurs  more  scantily  in  most 

2G3 


FATTY  ACIDS-FATUITY. 


iusects.  It  is  met  with  in  the  moUusca,  and  is 
comi)aratively  abundant  in  all  the  divisions  of  the 
vertebrata.  In  most  lish,  it  occurs  throufjhout  the 
body,  but  is  especially  abundant  in  the  liver,  -where 
it  is  found  in  the  hepatic  cells,  and  not  in  its  own 
characteristic  vesicles.  In  rei)tiles,  it  e.vists  chielly 
in  the  abdomen.  In  birds,  we  especially  liud  it 
about  the  peritoneum,  and  mider  the  skin.  In 
mammals,  it  is  very  generally  difl'used,  but  the 
greatest  quantity  is  under  the  skiu,  iu  the  omentum, 
and  round  the  kidneys. 

The  quantity  of  fat  in  the  human  body  varies 
considerably  at  different  jicriods  of  life.  In  the 
earlier  stages  of  fcptal  existence,  we  find  scarcely 
any  fat ;  in  new-born  children,  there  is  usually  a 
considerable  quantity  of  this  substance  deposited 
under  the  skin,  and  the  oriianism  continues  rich  in 
fat  till  the  age  of  puberty,  when  a  marked  diminu- 
tion of  the  substance  occura.  It  again  increases 
about  middle  life,  and  then  occasionally  occurs  in 
great  e.xccss;  for  example,  three  or  four  inches  of 
fat  are  not  unfrequcntly  found  imder  the  skin  of 
the  abdomen  in  corj)ulent  persons. 

Extraordinary  deposits  of  fat  in  some  particular 
part  of  the  body  are  observed  in  certain  races  of 
men  and  animals.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
examples  of  this  peculiarity  is  afforded  Ijy  the 
Hottentot  women,  in  whom  the  fat  aceiuniUates  in 
the  gluteal  region  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give  a 
most  remarkable  prominence  to  that  part  of  the 
body ;  and  a  somewhat  analogous  deposit  exists  in 
a  variety  of  sheep  (Ovis  sleatopiiga,  the  fat-buttocked 
sheep),  iu  which  a  large  mass  of  fat,  sometimes 
attaining  a  weight  of  forty  poimds,  is  developed  on 
the  buttocks,  and  takes  the  place  of  a  taU. 

The  origin  of  the  fat  in  the  animal  body  must 
undoubtedly  be  chiefly  referred  to  the  fat  taken 
with  the  food.  It  has,  however,  been  proved  by  the 
most  careful  investigations  on  various  animals  sub- 
mitted to  the  process  of  fattening,  on  bees  fed  with 
cane-sugar,  or  with  honey  containing  scarcely  any 
wax,  and  on  the  l.arvnj  of  the  insects  inhabiting 
galls,  that  the  animal,  like  the  vegetable  organism, 
has  the  power  of  forming  or  producing  fat,  far  more 
fat  being  found,  in  these  experiments,  in  the  body 
of  the  animal,  than  could  be  referred  to  the  fat 
taken  in  the  food.  The  excess  must  therefore  have 
been  foi'med  either  from  the  non-nitrogenous  portion 
of  the  food,  such  as  starch  and  sugar ;  or  from  the 
nitrogenous  matters,  such  as  fibrin,  albumen,  &c. 
In  the  case  of  the  bees,  it  was  cbstinctly  jiroved 
that  the  fat  was  formed  from  sugar;  while  in  the 
case  of  the  larva;  of  the  gall-insect,  it  w.na  similarly 
shewn  that  it  was  produced  from  the  starch  which 
forms  the  interior  of  the  gall  in  which  the  animal 
lives ;  and  as  we  have  no  corresponding  evidence  of 
the  convertibility  of  fibrin,  .albumen,  &c.,  into  fat 
(although  such  a  conversion  is  by  no  means  improb- 
able), we  must  for  the  present  regard  the  non- 
nitrogenous  foods  as  the  chief  fat-formers  next  to 
fat  itself. 

The  physiological  value  of  the  fats  is  due  partly 
to  their  physical,  and  partly  to  their  chemical 
characters. 

The  uses  of  the  fat  deposited  beneath  the  skin 
are,  first,  to  protect  the  body  from  external  shocks 
by  a  uniform  diffusion  of  pjressure  through  the 
whole  adipose  tissue ;  and,  second,  to  keep  up  the 
heat  of  the  body,  by  materially  checking,  through 
its  very  slight  conducting  power,  the  loss  of  free 
heat  by  radiation.  This  use  of  the  fat  is  most 
clearly  seen  in  some  of  the  lower  animals  (the 
seal,  whale,  &c.),  which  are  exposed  to  very  low 
tenqjeratures. 

Another  physical  use  of  fat  is  to  promote  the 
mobility   of   various   organs.      Hence,   in   cases   of 


extreme  emaciation,  it  always  remains  in  the  [larts 
where  motion  is  most  essential,  as  the  heart,  and 
the  orbit  of  the  eye. 

Another  of  its  important  physical  properties  is 
that  of  rendering  other  bodies  supple,  and  diminish- 
ing their  brittleness.  In  this  point  of  view,  the  use 
of  fat  is  very  consi)icuous  in  the  bones. 

The  chief  chemical  use  of  the  fat  is  its  power  of 
exciting  and  supporting  the  animal  lie.it.  In  the 
oxidation  of  the  fats  in  the  animal  organism, 
whether  the  process  be  gradual  or  rapid,  a  large 
amount  of  heat  must  necessarily  be  hberated ;  and 
that  they  are  oxidised,  and  for  the  most  jiart 
reduced  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  is  evident, 
because  they  neither  appear  in  any  quantity  in  the 
excretions,  nor,  as  a  general  rule,  accumiUatc  beyond 
a  certain  jioint  in  the  organism.  An  accumulation 
of  fat  thus  serves  as  a  reservoir  of  combustible 
matter  in  time  of  need.  This  is  especially  evident 
in  the  case  of  hybernating  m.ammals,  as,  for  example, 
hedgehogs,  iu  which  an  enormous  quantity  is 
deposited  just  before  the  iiybernating  period :  during 
this  period,  it  gradually  ilisappears,  its  carbon  being 
slowly  consumed  in  the  respiratory  process,  and 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat. 

Fat  is,  moreover,  one  of  the  most  active  agents 
in  the  metamorphosis  of  animal  matter.  Lehmann 
iLsccrtained  that  a  certain,  although  a  small  quan- 
tity of  fat  was  indispensable  to  the  complete  gastric 
cUgestion  of  nitrogenous  food,  a  fact  which  is  con- 
firmed by  the  observation  that  in  experiments  on 
artificial  digestion,  the  solution  of  substances  used 
as  food  is  considerably  acceler.ited  by  the  presence 
of  a  little  fat.  The  occiuTence  of  fat  in  the  milk  ami 
in  the  egg,  as  also  in  all  highly  cellular  organs  (as, 
for  example,  the  liver),  is  a  clear  indication  that  this 
substance  plays  an  important  jiart  in  the  process  of 
cell-formation ;  and  no  animal  cell  or  cell-yielding 
plasma  has  ever  been  observed  iu  which  fat  is  not 
a  constituent. 

An  undue  accunudation  or  increased  gl•o^\'th  of 
the  fatty  tissue  gives  rise  to  the  condition  known 
as  Obesity  (q.  v.). 

FATTY  ACIDS.     See  Oils  ato  Fats. 

FATUITY,  or  DEME'NTIA,  consists  in  the 
impairment  or  extinction  of  certain  mcnt.al  ])Owers,  or 
of  all.  Esquirol  has  quaintly  but  descrijitively  said 
that  the  idiot  and  imbecile  are  poor  who  have  never 
been  rich,  but  that  the  fatuous  or  dements  are  rich 
who  have  been  made  poor.  This  impoverishment 
is  sometimes  so  extreme,  and  the  sufferer  is  so  little 
influenced  by  consciousness  as  to  lose  a  knowledge 
of  his  own  existence  ;  and  so  little  by  impressions 
through  the  extern.al  senses,  and  fiy  the  instincts  of 
the  sensory  ganglia,  as  to  be  equally  ignorant  of 
the  existence  of  others.  Life  is  vegetative  merely. 
This  ileprivatiou  may  be  partial  or  complete.  It 
may  ajipear  as  a  w'eakening  of  sensibihty.  This 
is  not  the  tolerance  of  powerful  or  painful  im- 
pressions, or  incUfferenee  to  such,  springing  from 
abstraction  or  eiigi'ossmeut  of  the  attention,  but 
positive  extinction  of  jierccption  ;  or  it  may  present 
the  more  common  form  of  enfeeblement  of  intelli- 
gence, of  memory  ;  of  the  will,  where  the  patient  is 
apathetic,  passive,  plastic.  The  disease  may  involve 
the  affections  and  the  moral  sense,  and  abrogate  the 
power  of  deeisitm,  and  all  si)ontaneity  of  action  and 
thought.  Incoherence  in  iilc;is  and  words  may  be 
made  to  constitute  another  form,  although  generally 
regarded  as  a  characteristic ;  whether  it  amounts 
merely  to  forgetfidness,  or  to  confusion  or  irration- 
ality, to  inconseciitiveness  and  inability  to  express 
instincts  and  wishes.  Delusions  and  hallucinations 
may  co-exist  with  these  conditions,  but,  like  the 
real  impressions  received  by  this  class  of  the  insane, 


FADCHEB-FAURIEL. 


they  are  feeble,  futjacious,  and  uninfluential.  Under 
all  these  asjiects.  the  essential  element  is  privation 
of  power  ;  and  this  is  met  with  as  a  specific  mental 
disease,  arising  from  obvious  causes,  unassociated 
with  general  alienation,  acute  in  its  nature,  and 
rapid  in  its  progress.  It  is  most  frequently  the  dis- 
ease of  youth,  of  the  period  of  jjulierty,  eontemjjor- 
aneous  with  growth,  with  debilitating  and  exhaustive 
])rocesses,  and  dejiending,  in  all  probaljility,  as  in 
the  other  forms,  upon  iusutHcient  nutrition  of  the 
brain.  At  this  age,  the  injury  is  reparable,  and  what 
may  be  designated  juvenile  dementia,  has  the  rare 
tlistinction  of  being  curable.  More  frequently,  it 
is  the  sequel  of  mania,  melancholia,  and  severe 
affections  of  the  nervous  sj'stem.  The  deterioration 
here  arises  from  actual  changes  in  the  nervous 
structure,  which  render  healthy  nutrition  impos- 
sible ;  so  that,  although  mitigation,  and  sometimes 
to  a  marvellous  extent,  is  within  reach  of  treatment, 
recovery  is  l)eheved  to  be  impracticable.  Again,  it 
is  an  affection  of  old  age ;  and  although  senile 
dementia  may  seem  but  an  exaggerated  state  of 
dotage,  it  is  accompanied  by  such  marked  phj'sical 
changes,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  it  originates  in 
circumstances  differing  widely  from  that  gradual 
degeneration  of  the  tissues  which  is  eridenced  by 
the  '  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion.'  Lastly, 
this  state  may  follow  fever,  when  it  is  transitory, 
and  generally  of  brief  duration. 

Fatuity  is  one  of  the  few  morbid  mental  conditions 
recognised  in  our  legal  code,  even  by  name,  as 
relieving  from  the  consequences  of  criminal  acts,  and 
as  tUsqualifying  for  the  administration  and  disposal 
of  property.  Esquirol,  Des  Malad.  Ment.,  torn.  ii. 
p.  219. 

FAUCHER,  Leon,  a  French  publicist  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Limoges,  Sth  September  ISO.S; 
studied  at  lirst  philology  and  archaeology,  in  which 
branches  of  knowledge  he  acquired  some  reputation ; 
but  about  the  period  of  the  July  revolution  (1S30), 
betook  himself,  with  genuine  enthusiasm,  to  jour- 
nalism and  political  economy.  He  became  succes- 
sively editor  of  the  Temps,  the  ConstUutionnel,  and 
the  C'ourrier  Fratirais.  These  functions  occupied 
him  from  18.30  to  1842,  dm-ing  which  period  he 
published  many  articles  on  questions  of  political 
economy.  In  1843,  he  began  to  wTite  for  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Monde-s  a  series  of  articles  on  the  indus- 
trial condition  of  England.  The  whole  were  collected 
iiito  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1845,  imder 
the  title  of  Etudes  sur  I'Ant/lelerre,  and  constitute 
the  most  weighty  and  substantial  of  all  his  produc- 
tions, though  Englishmen  reckon  the  author  greatly 
in  error  in  many  points.  At  the  general  elections 
of  184G,  he  was  elected  for  the  manufacturing  eity 
of  Rheims,  where  his  opinions  on  tariffs  were  highly 
appreciated.  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  he  voted 
with  the  dynastic  opposition.  A  ready  but  by  no 
means  brilliant  speaker,  he  came  forward  as  one  of 
the  leading  advocates  of  free-trade,  and  published 
in  the  .Siecle,  and  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  ilondes,  a 
nimiber  of  essays  on  national  economy,  character- 
ised by  their  vigorous  and  spirited  argumentation. 
After  the  revoliition  of  1848,  he  sat  both  in  the 
Constituent  and  Legislative  Assemblies  for  the 
department  of  Maine.  When  Louis  Napoleon  was 
chosen  president,  F.  became  first  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  and  subsequently  Minister  of  the  Interior ; 
but  when  the  President  jiroposed  to  appeal  to 
universal  suffrage,  F.  gave  in  his  resignation,  and, 
after  the  cojip  itilat,  he  withdrew  from  political 
life.  F.  died  14th  December  1854.  A  large  number 
of  his  most  valualde  contributions  to  the  science 
of  politics  will  bo  found  in  the  collection  of  the 
Ecouom'wtes  et  PublicUtes  Conltmporains,  and  in  the 
Bihliot/ii'pie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques. 


FAULT,  the  term  in  Mining  and  Geology  for  any 
interruption  in  the  continuity  of  the  strata  coupled 
with  the  displacement  of  the  beds  on  either  side  of 
the  line  of  fractm-e.     See  Dislocation. 

FAUN.  Faimus  was  a  mythical  ])ersonage,  an 
ancient  king  of  Italy,  who  instructed  his  subjects  in 
agriculture  and  the  management  of  flocks,  and  was 
afterwards  worship])ed  as  the  god  of  lields  and 
of  shepherds.  The  festival  of  thu Faunalia,  held  ou 
the  5th  December,  referred  to  the  protection  he 
exercised  over  agi'iculture  and  cattle.  Fauna  was 
his  female  complement.  He  was  also  worshipped  as 
a  prophetic  divinity.  As  deity  of  the  woods  and  of 
flocks  and  herds,  he  corresponds  to  the  Greek  Pan  : 
the  idea  also  arose  of  a  plurality  of  Famii  or  Faun.s, 
like  the  Greek  Satyrs,  who  were  represented  as 
monster  deities  with  short  horns,  pointed  ears,  tails, 
and  goats'  feet,  and  to  whom  all  terrifying  sounds 
and  appearances  were  ascribed. 

FAUNA,  a  term  employed  to  designate  animals 
collectively,  or  those  of  a  particular  country,  or  of  a 
particidar  geological  period.  Thus,  we  speak  of  the 
fauna  of  Great  Britain,  the  recent  fauna,  the  fossil 
fauna,  the  fauna  of  the  Eocene  ])eriod  or  formation, 
&e.  The  term  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  animal 
kingdom  that  Flora  does  to  the  vegetable.  Its 
derivation  is  from  the  mythological  fauns,  regarded 
as  the  patrons  of  wild  animals.  In  the  fauna  of  any 
country  are  included  only  those  animals  which  are 
indigenous  to  it,  and  not  those  which  have  been 
introduced. 

FAURIEL,  C'L^irDE  Cii^ikle.s,  a  French  philolo- 
gist, historian,  and  critic,  was  boru  at  St  Etienne, 
in  the  department  of  Loii'e,  21st  October  1772, 
studied  at  the  College  des  Oratoriens  at  Tomnon, 
and  afterwards  at  Lyon,  and  in  1799  was  appointed 
to  a  situation  under  Fouehg ;  but,  destitute  of  all 
political  ambition  or  predilections,  and  passionately 
fond  of  learned  studies,  F.  resigned  his  office  in 
1802,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  calmer  pursuits 
of  literature.  He  made  himself  familiar  with 
Sanscrit,  Arabic,  and  the  treasures  of  classical 
antiquity  and  of  the  middle  ages ;  and  although  he 
did  not  write  much,  comparatively  speaking,  yet 
the  value  of  what  he  did  write  cannot  easily  be 
over-estimated.  M.  Renau  may  exaggerate  when 
he  affirms  that  F.  '  put  in  circulation  the  greatest 
number  of  ideas'  of  any  contemporary  writer  ;  but 
even  the  Germans  allow  that  in  many  points  of 
literary  history,  criticism,  and  philology,  F.  was 
twenty  years  in  advance  of  his  age.  After  the 
July  Revolution,  he  was  appointed  a  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne  ;  in  18.36,  he  published  his  cliief  work, 
Jlistoire  de  la  Gaule  Mcrid'wnide  sous  la  Domination 
des  C'onquiranls  Gcrmains  (4  vols.,  Paris),  which  is 
reckoned  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  historical 
investigation  and  art  produced  in  modern  times. 
Worthy  of  notice,  also,  particiJarly  on  account  of 
its  remarkable  historical  introduction,  is  his  edition 
of  the  Provencal  rhymed  chronicle,  entitled  Ilisfoire 
de  la  Croisade  contre  Iks  Jlcreti'iues  Albhjeoi-s  (Paris, 
1837).  F.  also  contributed  several  important  essays 
to  the  literary  journals  of  France,  of  which,  perhaps, 
the  best  known  was  that  on  the  origin  of  the  Epic 
of  Chivalry  in  the  middle  ages.  He  died  at  Paris, 
loth  July  1844.  Two  years  after  his  death  ajipeared 
a  collection  of  his  professorial  lectures,  under  the 
title  of  Jlistoire  de  la  Poesie  Proveni;ale  (3  vols., 
P.aris,  184G),  in  which  F.  endeavours,  with  gi'eat 
erudition  and  originality  of  criticism,  to  shew  that 
to  the  Provencals  must  be  attributed  the  compo- 
sition and  primitive  development  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  including 
tliose  which  describe  the  contests  of  the  Christians 
.and   Moors   in   Spain,   and  those  which   form   the 


FAUSSE-BRAYE— FAUSTINA. 


Charlemagne  cycle,  thus  finding  the  origin  of  the 
old  Spanish  and  German  pootiy  on  the  soil  of 
Franco.  F.'s  ^iews  have,  however,  met  with 
considerable  opposition. 

FAtJSSE-BRAYE,  in  Fortification,  a  low  ram- 
part encircling  the  body  of  a  ]>lace,  and  raised  abimt 
three  feet  above  the  level  ground.  This  work  has 
mostly  been  discarded  by  modern  engineers,  except 
when  used  in  front  of  cui-tains,  under  the  name 
of  Tenaiiles  (q.  v.).  The  French  engineers  gave 
this  title  to  the  work,  as  an  adaptation  from  the 
Italian  term  Fossa  Brea,  which  had  its  origin  from 
the  fausse-braye  being  commonly  in  the  ditch,  in 
front  of  the  main  wall.  The  fausse-braye  had  the 
advantage  of  giWng  an  additional  tier  of  guns  for 
defensive  purposes ;  but  the  still  greater  disadvan- 
tage of  affording  facilities  for  the  scaling  of  the 
parapet. 

FAUSSE  RIVIERE  (in  English,  False  River) 
is  a  lake  of  Louisiana,  United  States,  ■which  deser\'es 
notice  chiefly  as  an  index  of  the  physical  character 
of  the  country.  Till  about  a  century  and  a  half 
a"o,  it  w.as  a  channel  of  the  Mississippi — a  fact 
■\vhich  prob.ably  is  still  expressed  in  its  name.  Here, 
as  in  other  aUuWal  formations,  the  beds  of  the 
running  waters  are  undergoing  incessant  changes. 

FAUST,  or  FUST,  JoHANy,  the  chief  promoter  of 
the  invention  of  printing,  a  rich  citizen  of  Mayence, 
died  in  the  year  I4G0.     See  Gutenberg. 

FAUST,  Dr,  according  to  tradition,  a  celebrated 
dealer  in  the  black  art,  frequently  coniounded  with 
the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Knittlingon,  in  Wurtem- 
berg,  or,  as  some  say,  at  Roda  near  Weimar.  He 
flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the  1.5th  and  the 
beginning  of  the  1 6th  centuries,  and  is  said  to  have 
studied  magic  at  Cracow.  After  haWng  spent  a  rich 
inheritance  left  him  by  his  uncle,  F.'is  alleged  to 
have  m.ade  use  of  his  '  power'  to  raise  or  conjure  up 
the  de-vil,  with  whom  he  entered  into  a  contract  for 
twenty-four  years,  obtaining  during  that  time  his 
im  of  earthly  pleasure,  but  at  its  termination  sur- 
rendering body  and  soid  into  the  hands  of  the  Great 
Enemy.  The  devil  gave  him  an  attendant  spirit  or 
demon,  called  Mephistopheles,  though  other  n.anies 
are  given  him  by  the  later  traditionists,  with  whom 
he  travelled  about,  enjoying  life  in  all  its  foi-ms,  and 
astonishing  people  by  working  wonders,  till  he  was 
finally  carried  off  by  the  E\'il  One,  who  appeared  in 
terrible  guise,  between  twelve  and  one  o'clock  at 
night,  at  the  village  of  Rimlich,  near  Wittenberi;, 
though  several  other  jilaces  lay  claim  to  that  very 
questionable  honour.  Some  have  doubted,  consider- 
ing the  monstrously  mjiihical  form  in  which  his 
career  has  come  down  to  us,  whether  such  an  indi- 
vidual as  F.  ever  existed ;  but  it  is  now  generally 
believed  that  there  was  a  basis  of  fact,  on  which 
tradition  has  built  its  grotesque  superstructure. 
Gorres,  indeed,  asserts  that  one  George  SabeUicus, 
who  disappeared  about  the  year  1517,  is  the  real 
F. ;  but  Philip  Melancthon— the  man  of  all  the 
reformers  whose  word  in  regard  to  a  matter  of  fact 
woidd  most  readily  be  trusted— says  that  he  had 
himself  conversed  «nth  Dr  Faustus.  Conrad  Gesner 
(1.501)  is  equally  jiositive  ;  and  Luther,  in  liis  Tafde 
Talk,  speaks  of  Dr  F.  as  a  man  lost  beyond  all  hope. 
The  opinion  that  prevails,  and  which  is  reckoned  to 
be  intrinsically  the  more  probable,  is  that  some  man 
of  this  name,  possessed  of  varied  knowledge,  may 
possibly  have  ])ractiscd  juggler)'  (for  the  wandering 
savans  of  the  middle  ages  had  all  a  touch  of  the 
quack  about  them),  and  thus  have  been  taken  by 
the  ignorant  people  for  a  dealer  in  the  black  art, 
and  one  who  maintained  a  secret  and  intimate  rela- 
tion with  evil  spirits.  His  widely  difTused  celebrity 
not  only  occasioned  the  wonders  w.jrked  by  other 


so-called  necromancers  of  an  earlier  age — Albertus 
Magnus,  Simon  Magus,  and  Paracelsus— to  be  attri- 
buted to  him,  but  likewise  many  ancient  talcs  and 
legends  of  a  mar\ellous  character  were  gradually 
transferred  to  him,  till  he  finally  appears  as  the  very 
hero  of  magicians.     But  while,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
narrative  of  F.'s  marv-els  afforded  amusement  to  the 
people,  on  the  other,  they  were  made  use  of  for 
instniotion  by  the  clcrg)-,   who  pointed  out,  in  the 
frightful  fate  of  F.,  the"  danger  of  tampering  -nnth 
the  '  black  art ; '  and  the  abominableness  of  a  life 
sunk  in  sensuality  and  \-ice.     The  mj-th  of  F.  has 
received  a  manifold  literary  treatment.     First  come 
the  Volksbiicher  (or  people's  books),  which  record  F.'s 
enterprises   and   feats.     The    oldest   of  these   now 
known  ajijieared  at  Frankfort  in  1588.     'Then  came 
au  'imjiroved'  edition  of  the  same,  by  Widmann, 
entitled  Wahrhaftirfe.  Ilhiorien  von  (leiien  grduUchen 
Siinden  Dr  Joh.  F.'s  (True  History  of  the  Horrible 
Crimes  of  Dr  John  F.,  Hamb.  3  vols.,  1599) ;  and  in 
1095,  a  work  was  published  at  Niirnberg  by  Pfitzer, 
based  upon  that  of  Widmaim.     The  oldest  of  these 
books  was  translated  into  all  the  civihsed  languages 
of   Em-o])e.       Irajiostors    also    jiublished    books   of 
magic  under  the  name  of  F.,  such  as  Fausfs  rirosser 
imd    geiralticier  HOUenzwaiifj    (Faust's    Great    and 
Potent    Book    of    Spells),    Fauslen's   Miraculkiinst 
(Faust's  Art  of  Performing  Miracles),  and  Dreifaclie 
Ilulknzwaiig  (The  Threefold  Book  of  Spells).    These 
■n-retched  productions   are    filled   throughout  with 
meaningless  scrawls  and  figures,  interspersed  with 
texts  from  the  Bible  scand.alously  misapplied  ;  but 
in   the  beUef    of   the  vulgar,  they  were   snjiposed 
capable,  when  properly  understood,  of  accomplishing 
prodigies.      That   the  poetical    art    should   in   due 
time   have  seized  on  a  subject   affording  so  much 
material  for  the  fancy  to  work  upon,  was  inevitable  ; 
and   consequently,   German    literature   abounds   in 
elegies,   pantomimes,    tragedies,   and   comedies    on 
Faust.     Since  the  end  of  the  17th  c,  the  Piippeiispiel 
(Puppet-show)  of  Dr  F.  (first  published  at  Leipsic 
in  1S50)  has  been  one  of  the  most  pojndar  pieces  in 
Germany.     It  forms  the  transition  from  the  rmle 
magic  tales  concerning  F.,  to  the  later  philosophic 
conception  of  the  Faust-myth,  which  has  become  the 
most  perfect  poetical  expression  of  the  eternal  strife 
between  Good  and  E%nl  in  the  soul  of  man.     The 
first  writer  who  treated  the  story  of  F.  dramatic- 
ally was  the  English  ^^^•iter  Christopher  JIarlowe, 
about  the   year  1600  (German    translation  by  W. 
Muller,  Berlin.   1818)  ;   but  the  gi-andest  work  on 
the  subject  is  tfoethe's  Fausl,  the  first  part  of  which 
ai>peared  under  the  title  of  Br  F.,  elii  Trauerspid 
(Leip.  1790),  and  afterwards  in  a  remodelled  form, 
under  the  title  of  F.,  eine  Traf/iJdie  (Tubingen,  1808). 
The  second  part  was  published  after  the  author's 
death,  at  Stuttgai-t  in  1833.   Besides  Goethe's  di-ania, 
may  be  mentioned  Lessing's  masterly  fragment,  /'. 
7ind  die  Siehen  GdsUr  (Y.  and  the  Seven  Sjiirits), 
G.  F.  L.  Mailer's  Dr /".'a-  Lehen  (Dr  F.'s  Life,  Manh. 
1778),  and  Klinger's  F.'s  Lthen,  T/ialen,  und  Iliillcn- 
falirt  (F.'s   Life,   Doings,  and   Descent   into   Hell; 
Petersb.  and  Leip.  1791).      The  plastic  art  has  also 
found  a  fit  subject  in  Faust.     In  Auerbach's  cellar 
at  Leipsic,  where  F.  is  said  to  have  performed  many 
of  his  feats,  are  two  rude  daubs  of  the  year  15'_'5, 
representing    F.    and    Mephistopheles    riding    out 
of   the  cellar  on   a    wine-barrel.     Rembrandt   and 
Christoph    von   Sichem   have    also   illustrated   the 
story  of   F.,  and,  in  modern  times,  CorneUus  and 
Retzsch   have    done   the    same.      See    Peter's    Die 
Literatur    der   Faustsaije    (The   Literature   of    the 
Faust  Alj-th),  2d  ed.  Leip.  1857. 

FAUSTI'NA,  mother  and  daughter.  The  former, 
Annia  Galeria,  usually  spoken  of  as  Faustina  Senior, 
was   the  wife  of   the  Roman   emperor,    Antoninus 


FAUSTENUS  I.— FAVEE. 


Pius,  and  (lied  141  A-D.  ;  the  latter,  known  as 
Faxistina  Junior,  was  married  to  his  successor, 
Marcus  Aiirelius  Antoninus,  and  died  at  a  village 
near  Mount  Taurus  in  175  A.  D.  Both,  but  particu- 
larly the  younger,  were  notorious  for  the  profligacy 
of  their  lives,  which  their  exemplary  husbands  in 
vain  endeavoured  to  check.  After  their  deaths, 
institutions  for  the  relief  of  poor  girls  were  founded 
both  by  Antoninus  and  Marcus  Aurelius  in  honour 
of  them,  and  were  called  ^  pnellft  aUnieiitai'i(e  J^ans- 
tinw.'  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  his  Meditations,  speaks 
highly  of  his  wife,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made 
by  Wieland  to  defend  her  against  the  imputations 
of  the  historians  of  the  emperors. 

FATJSTI'NUS  I.,  emperor  of  Haiti,  known, 
before  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  as  Faustinus 
Soulouque,  a  negro  originally  of  very  humble  circum- 
stances, was  born  in  St  Domingo  in  17S9.  In  his 
earlier  years,  he  acted  as  servant,  and  afterwards  as 
adjutant,  to  General  Lamarre.  He  subsequently 
served  under  Presidents  Petion  and  Boyer,  and  by 
the  latter  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  ca])tain.  After 
the  j'ear  1844,  when  the  Haitian  Republic — of  which 
General  Boyer  was  then  president — was  dissolved, 
a  struggle  for  the  supreme  power  ensued,  in 
which  F.  played  an  important  part.  In  184"  he 
was  appointed  by  the  senate  President  of  the 
Kepublic.  On  tlie  16th  April  1S4S,  a  dreadfiU 
massacre  of  the  mulattoes  iu  Port-au-Prince  took 
place  at  his  instigation.  Tliis,  and  similar  measures, 
struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  his  opponents.  In 
Augtist  1849,  he  had  himself  proclaimed  Emperor 
of  Haiti,  a  title  which  he  enjoj-ed  for  about  ten 
years  ;  but  a  revolution  having  broken  out  in  1858, 
and  a  repubhc  liaving  been  declared,  F.  was  forced  to 
abdicate,  loth  Jan.  18.59.     He  died  Gth  Aug.  1867. 

FAUVETTE,  a  French  name,  jiartially  adopted 
in  tlie  English  langiuige,  for  some  of  the  little  song- 
birds of  tne  f.amily  Si/lviadcE  or  AVarblers,  having 
straight  slender  bills  slightly  comjiressed  in  front, 
the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  curving  a  little 
towards  the  tip,  and  the  legs  not  long.  They  mostly 
belong  to  the  genus  Curruca,  as  the  Blackcap,  the 
Pettychaps  or  Garden  Warbler,  the  Whitetln-oat, 
&c. ;  and  to  the  genus  Salicaria,  as  the  Sedge 
Warbler,  the  P>eed  Warbler,  &c.  The  Dartford 
Warbler  (Mi-lizopli'dus  Provincialis)  is  also  called 
Fauvette.  They  are  all  very  lively  little  birds, 
continually  flitting  about  in  pursuit  of  bisects, 
mgstly  frequenting  bushy  places  ;  and  some  of 
them,  particularly  those  of  the  genus  Salicaria, 
prefen-ing  watery  situations  where  reeds  abound. 

FAVA'RA,  a  town  of  Sicdy,  in  the  south  of  the 
island,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  four  mUcs 
south-east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  has  rich 
sulphur-mines,  and  a  population  of  11,400. 

FAVART,  Chaklf-s  Simon,  a  French  dramatist, 
was  born  .at  Paris  ISth  November  1710,  and  first 
became  kno\™  by  his  La  Clifnheuxe  irh'sprit, 
performed  in  1741.  In  174.5,  he  m.arried  Made- 
moiselle Duronceray,  herself  a  dramatic  writer  of 
some  note,  and  a  singer  of  remarkable  talent,  and 
in  the  same  year  became  director  of  the  Opf:ra- 
'Comi'jue.  The  line  taste  and  judgment  of  F. 
and  his  wife  soon  obtained  for  their  theatre  a 
great  reputation.  It  was  they  who  made  the  first 
attempt  to  harmonise  the  costume  of  the  actors 
and  actresses  with  their  impersonations,  and  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  ridiciUous  practice  of  decking 
out  soubrettes  and  country-girls  in  the  attire  of 
court-ladies.  So  powerfid,  however,  was  the  oppo- 
sition excited  against  them  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
other  theatres,  that  the  Op'ra-Comique  was  closed 
in  the  first  j'ear  of  its  existence.  After  some  time 
spent  with  Marfichal  de  Saxe  during  his  campaign 


in  Flanders,  F.  and  his  wife  returned  to  Paris,  where 
the  former  continued  to  ^-rite  operas.  His  wife  ilitd 
in  1772,  and  he  12th  Jlay  179.'i.  F.'s  success  as  a 
writer  was  very  great :  he  may  be  reckoned  the 
father  of  the  comic  opera,  and  the  happy  successor 
of  Le  Sage,  Piron,  &c.  The  number  of  his  pieces 
amounts  to  about  GO,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
are  Comment  I'Espril  vieni  aux  Filles,  Le  Coq  du 
Village,  Baslien  ct  Bastienne,  Ninnette  d  la  Cour,  Lea 
Truis  Sultanes,  and  L'Anglais  d  Bordeaux.  His 
works  have  been  published  several  times.  An 
edition  in  ten  volumes  was  published  at  Paris  in 
ISIO,  under  the  title  of  Theatre  de  Monsieur  et 
Madame  Favart.  A  very  interesting  book,  entitled 
Les  Mcinoires  el  la  CorregpondeiKe  de  Farart,  giving 
delightful  glimpses  of  the  Uteraty  and  theatric^ 
world  of  the  18th  c,  was  published  at  Paris  in  1809 
by  liis  grandson. 

FA'VERSHAM,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport 
in  the  north  of  Kent,  on  a  narig.able  creek,  opposite 
Sheppey  Isle,  8  miles  west-north-west  of  Canter- 
bury. It  chiefly  consists  of  four  streets  in  an 
irregular  cross.  It  has  a  valuable  oyster-fishery, 
employing  200  to  .300  persons.  It  sends  much 
agricultural  produce  to  London  by  hoys.  The  creek 
admits  vessels  of  150  tons.  In  the  vicinity  are 
some  of  the  most  important  gimpowder  factories  in 
the  kingdom.  Pop.  (1S71)  7198.  Under  the  name 
of  Fa^Tesfield,  it  was  a  seat  of  the  Saxon  kings, 
where  Athelstan,  in  930,  held  a  Witenagemfite.  It 
has  the  remains  of  an  abbey  founded  by  King 
Stephen,  where  he  and  his  queen,  Matilda,  are 
buried.  St  Crispin  is  said  to  have  been  appren- 
ticed to  a  shoemaker  here.  Near  F.  are  some  chalk 
caverns,  with  columns.  In  1869,  2567  vessels,  of 
161,529  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 

FAVIGNA'NA,  the  chief  of  the  yEgades,  a  group 
of  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  ofl'  the  west  coast 
of  Sicily,  Bes  at  a  distance  of  six  miles  from  the 
Sicilian  shore,  .and  is  about  six  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  two  miles.  It  has  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  with  two  castles,  and  a  population 
of  3900.  F.  is  fniitful,  has  good  pastm-age,  and 
produces  excellent  wine. 

FA'VOSITES,  a  genus  of  lamelliferous  corals, 
found  in  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous 
strata.  They  were  social  corals,  closely  packed 
together,  no  space  being  left  between  the  walls  of 
the  different  corallltcs.  As  in  the  other  p.al;eozoic 
corals,  the  lameUa;  are  developed  in  multiples  of 
four,  and  the  older  portion  of  the  stony  base  is 
partitioned  off  by  horizontal  tabidoe. 

FAVOURS,  or  MARRIAGE  FAVOURS,  bows 
of  wliite  satin  ribbons  distributed  at  marriages  in 
Great  Britain,  and  usually  pinned  on  the  breast  of 
all  concerned,  attendants  and  postilions  included. 
The  favours  of  those  more  immediately  interested 
are  sometimes  enriched  with  orange  blossom.  This 
is  an  old  usage,  connected  with  the  love-knot  of 
ancient  northern  nations,  which  is  not  likely  soon 
to  disappear;  it  forms  almost  the  only  remaining 
token  of  merriment  in  the  nuptial  ceremonial.  See 
Br.and's  Popular  Antiquities,  edited  by  EUis,  article 
'  Bride  Favours.' 

FAVRE,  Gaeeiel  CLAUtiE  Jni.FS,  a  French  advo- 
cate and  minister,  was  born  at  Lyon,  31st  March 
1S09.  He  is  the  son  of  a  merchant,  studied  for  the 
bar,  and  passed  at  Lyon  in  1830.  His  political 
opinions  have  always  been  intensely  republican, 
and  when  pleading  in  the  course  of  numerous  poli- 
tical lawsuits,  F.  not  unfrequently  placed  the  state 
solicitors,  and  even  the  j  udges,  in  a  very  embarrassing 
position,  by  the  boldness  of  his  sentiments.  As  the 
defender  of  the  Mutuellists  at  Lyon  in  1831,  he 
was  in  danger  of  losing  his  Hfe  ;  this,  however,  did 


FAVrS^FAYETTEVILLE. 


not  iirevcnt  him  from  dofeudini^  those  who  had  been 
im]ieaohed  in  Ai>ril,  and  conunencinj;  liis  speech 
witli  Jc  suxs  Iti'pitblicain.  Since  18.'i4,  F.  lias  been  a 
member  of  the  Paris  bar.  lu  the  February  revohi- 
tion  of  1S48,  he  was  Home  Secretary,  in  whie1> 
capacity  he  wrote  the  notorious  circular  for  which 
Ledru-Rollin's  administration  was  so  severely  re- 
l)roached,  investing  the  commissioners  of  the  republic 
with  tlictatorial  authority  in  the  provinces.  He  was 
active  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Foreign 
.\fiairs.  After  the  election  of  the  10th  December, 
F.  shewed  himself  a  persistent  antagonist  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  and  after  the  flicht  of  Ledru-ltoUin, 
became  the  orator  of  the  jlountain.  The  coii/j 
(Ktal  closed  his  political  career  at  this  time.  He 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  lidelity  to  the  imperial 
government,  and  betook  himself  again  to  his  pro- 
fession. In  1S5S,  he  defended  Orsuii,  on  his  trial 
for  a  conspiracy  to  murder.  In  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, he  became  a  member  of  the  Legislature.  In 
September  1870,  after  the  downfall  of  the  empire, 
he  was  appointed  Minister  of  War,  and  carried  on 
negotiations  with  Count  Bismarck.  He  resigned 
office  in  Jidy  1S71,  and  resumed  practice  at  the  bar. 
F.  is  greatest  in  political  repartee,  and  though  long 
accustomed  to  public  strife,  his  language  is  noted 
for  its  Attic  elegance, 

FA'VUS  (Lat.  a  honeycomb),  a  disease  of  the 
skin,  chiefly  of  the  hairy  scalp,  characterised  by 
yellowish  dry  incrustations  of  more  or  less  roimdish 
form,  and  often  cup-shaped,  composed  of  the  Sporules 
and  Mycclia  (q.  v.)  of  a  vegetable  growth  belonging 
to  the  order  of  Fimgi  (q.  v.).  The  discs  of  favus  are 
produced  with  gi-eat  rapidity,  and  spread  rapidly,  if 
not  .attended  to  at  the  first,  over  the  whole  scalp, 
destroying  the  bulbs  of  the  hair,  which  becomes 
very  short  and  thin,  and  then  falls  out  altogether. 
Favus  is  a  disgusting  and  unsightly,  but  hardly  a 
dangerous  disorder ;  it  is,  beyond  doubt,  conta- 
gious, but  only  spreads  where  cleanliness  is  greatly 
neglected,  and  is  therefore  almost  imknown  among 
the  better  classes.  It  is  far  more  common  among 
children  than  among  adults,  and  seems  to  be  more 
frequent  in  Scotland  than  in  England,  and  more 
frequent  also  on  the  continent  than  in  either  Eng- 
land or  Scotland.  The  cure  is  sometimes  attempted 
by  a  variety  of  medicated  and  simple  ointments,  and 
by  pulling  out  the  hair  by  the  roots,  or  epilation,  as 
it  is  called ;  but  it  seems  hardly  possible  in  inveterate 
cases  to  get  rid  of  the  disease  without  a  very  long 
persistence  in  habits  of  the  most  scrupidous  cleanli- 
ness, and  therefore  the  cure  is  seldom  permanent, 
though  easily  attained  for  the  time.  Favus  is  almost 
always  followed  by  permanent  baldness  of  the  parts 
affected  ;  unlike  Ringworm  (q.  v.),  which  is  a  minor 
disease  of  the  same  oi'der. 

The  Favus  fimgus,  Achorion  Schcenleinii,  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  fungus  which  has  recently  jtroved  so 
destructive  to  vines,  and  has  by  some  botanists 
been  placed  in  the  same  genus,  Oidium. 

FAWKES,  Guy  (properly  Guido),  the  head 
of  the  conspiracy  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  was  born  of  a  Protestant  family 
in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year  1570.  He  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  at  an  early  age,  and  served  in  the 
Spanish  army  in  the  Netherlands.  Inspired  with 
fanatical  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  on  his  return 
to  England,  he  entered  into  a  }ilot  with  several 
Catholic  gentlemen  for  blowing  up  the  king,  his 
ministers,  and  the  members  of  both  houses  at  the 
opening  of  parliament,  5th  November  ICO.*).  Guy 
I',  was  taken  with  the  burning  m.atch  in  his  hand, 
tried,  and  after  having  been  ])ut  to  the  torture, 
was  publicly  executed  .January  31, 1600.  In  remem- 
brance of  this  event,  in  most  English  towns,  but 
ac8 


particularly  in  London,  a  grotesque  figure,  stuffed 
with  straw,  is  carried  about  the  streets  on  the  5th 
of  November,  and  finally  committed  to  the  flames. 


Guy  Fawkes's  Signature  before  and  after  torture. 

.\  political  and  religious  signification  w.a3  again 
imp.arted  to  this  custom  by  what  was  called  '  the 
papal  aggression'  in  the  year  1850,  when  the  figure 
of  Cardinal  Wiseman  (q.  v.)  was  substituted  for  that 
of  Guy  Fawkes. 

FAY,  AxDR.is,  a  Hungarian  author,  was  born  in 
1786,  at  Kohany,  in  the  county  of  Zemplen.  After 
having  studied  jihilosojihy  and  law  at  the  Protestant 
college  of  Sarosijatak,  F.  was  called  to  the  bar.  He 
held  a  situation  fur  some  time  in  the  coimty  of 
Pesth,  which,  however,  he  afterwards  relinquished, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  devote  himself  altogether  to 
litenary  pursuits.  After  two  volumes  of  poetry, 
appeared  the  collection  of  Fables  (MeMh,  Vien, 
1820),  and  with  the  issue  of  th.at  work  F.  obtained 
a  decided  reputation.  The  fables  are  like  those  of 
Pha;drus  and  La  Fontaine,  but  in  prose.  Richness 
of  invention,  simplicity  of  design,  and  truth  of 
character,  are  the  chief  qualities  for  which  the  Mesck 
have  become  a  household  word  among  Himgarians. 
Among  F.'s  dramatic  works  may  be  meutioiied  the 
tragedy.  The  Two  Bathorys  (.-1  Kit  BcUhory,  Pesth, 
1827)  ;  the  comedies,  Ancient  Coins  (Ri'iji  Pciizek), 
and  Himters  in  the  M,atra  (Mdtrai  Vwhiitzoh).  The 
novel.  The  House  of  the  Beltekys  [A'  Biltikij-haz, 
Pesth,  1832),  is  rather  of  a  didactic  kind,  but  e.\Hbits 
many  features  of  Hungarian  domestic  life.  Besides 
these,  F.  has  been  a  constant  contributor  to  literary 
and  scientific  periodicals,  and  had  also  his  sliare  in 
some  of  those  pamphlets  by  which  great  social 
questions,  as,  for  instance,  female  education,  savings- 
banks,  &c.,  wei-e  bronsht  to  a  successful  issue  in 
Hungary.  In  reading  V.'s  works,  we  are  frequently 
reminded  of  Dean  Swift.  From  1825,  which  year 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  a  new  poli- 
tical life  for  Hungary,  up  to  the  year  1840,  F.  was 
foremost  among  the  leaders  of  the  libenal  ojiijosition 
in  the  county  sittings  of  Pesth  ;  but  on  the  a]ipe:ir- 
ance  of  Kossuth,  the  strides  of  public  hfe  growing 
more  and  more  rapid,  F.  gradually  retired  from  the 
region  of  pohtical  controversy,  turning  his  inventive 
mind  to  social  improvements.  The  first  savings- 
bank  of  Hungary  (at  Pesth)  is  entirely  F.'s  work. 
His  literary  works  were  published  in  eight  volumes 
at  Pesth,  1843 — 1844.  He  is  a  directing  member  of 
the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences. 

PAY'A'L,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Azores  (q.  v.),  contains  about  37  scpiare  miles,  and 
aliout  25,000  inhabitants.  As  one  must  infer  from 
such  density  of  popul.ation,  the  island  is  fertile.  In 
its  centre  is  a  mountain  ,3000  feet  in  height ;  and 
on  its  south-east  coast  .a  convenient  bay  with  good 
anchorage.  Its  jirincipal  town,  Horta,  stands  on 
this  bay  in  lat.  38°  .30'  N.,  and  long.  28°  41'  W. 

FAYETTEVILLE  is  the  name  of  a  flourishing 
city  of  North  Carolina,  United  States  of  America. 
Standing  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cape  Fear  River, 
.about  140  miles  from  its  mouth,  F.  marks  the  he.ad 
of  its  natural  navigation  ;  while,  by  means  of  locks 


FAYUil— FEATHER  GRASS. 


and  dams,  it  communicates  likewise  witli  the  upper 
basin  of  the  river.  While  the  interior  sends  down 
coal,  the  immediate  neighbourhood  is  covered  with 
forests  of  pine,  which  are  traversed  in  all  directions 
l>y  350  miles  of  plank -road,  and  yield  not  merely 
timber  but  tar  and  tui-jientine.  The  Cape  Fear, 
moreover,  gives  abundance  of  water-power,  which  is 
largely  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  cottons  and 
Hour.  F.  has  an  arsenal  of  nearly  .50  acres  in  e.xtent, 
and  numbers  fully  4000  inhabitants. 

FAYUM,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  province, 
surrounded,  in  the  form  of  a  basin,  l.)y  the  Liljyan 
Desert,  and  connected  merely  by  a  narrow  vallev 
with  that  of  the  Nile,  between  lat.  29°— 30°  K, 
and  30° — 31°  E.  This  peculiar  depression  of  the 
desert  extends  about  30  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  about  40  miles  from  east  to  west,  its  lowest 
point  lying  100  feet  below  the  banks  of  the  Nile  at 
Benisuef.  F.  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  provinces 
in  Egyjit ;  producing,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
useful  plants  of  the  country,  roses,  apricots,  tigs, 
vines,  olives,  &c.  in  gi-eat  quantities.  This  fertUity, 
m  a  province  the  soil  of  which  is  naturally  arid  and 
sandy,  is  the  result  of  irrigation.  A  canal  from 
the  Nile  was,  at  an  early  period,  carried  westward 
through  a  gorge  in  the  Libyan  hills,  which  here 
skirt  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  after  dividing 
into  numerous  branches,  lodged  its  waters  in  a 
depression  in  the  north-west,  thus  forming,  it  is 
said,  the  Lake  Mi^ris  (q.  v.).  The  ancient  capital  of 
the  province,  called  Krokodilopolis,  and  at  a  later 
]ieriod  Arsinoii,  stood  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Alujris,  and  upon  its  ruins  stands  the  present  town, 
Medinet-el-Fayflm,  still  a  place  of  considerable  size, 
and  the  chief  town  of  the  province. 

FEAL  .4.ND  DIVOT  is  a  Predi.il  Servitude  (q.  v.) 
peculiar  to  the  law  of  Scotland,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  jiroprietor  of  the  dominant  tenement  possesses 
the  right  of  turning  up  and  carrj'ing  ofi'  turf  from 
the  servient  tenement  for  the  purpose  of  building 
fences,  rooting  houses,  and  the  like.  This,  as  well  as 
the  servitude  of  fuel,  implies  the  right  of  using  the 
nearest  grounds  of  the  servient  tenement  on  which 
to  lay  and  dry  the  Turf  Peats  (q.  v. )  or  f eal.  These 
servitudes  do  not  extend  beyond  the  ordinary  uses 
of  the  actual  occupants  of  the  dominant  tenement, 
and  cannot  be  taken  advantage  of  for  such  a  pur- 
]>ose  hs  to  burn  limestone  for  sale.  They  are  not 
included  in  the  servitude  of  jiasturage,  but  must 
be  constituted  cither  by  express  grant,  or  by  posses- 
sion following  on  the  usual  clause  of  parts  and 
pertinents.  Ersk.  ii.  tit.  ix.  s.  17.  The  etymology 
of  these  words  has  been  much  ilisputed.  Feal  or 
fail  is  said  to  come  from  the  Suio-Gothic  wall,  any 
grassy  jiart  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  and 
Jamieson  derives  divot  from  (hdve  (Sax.  del/an  or 
delven),  or,  as  another  alternative,  says  that  it  may 
have  been  fonned  by  the  monkish  wn-iters  of  old 
charters  from  di'/odere,  to  dig  the  earth.  The  former 
is  the  more  probable  conjecture. 

FEALTY  (L.at.  fideUtas)  is  the  fidelity  which  a 
man  who  holds  lands  of  another  owes  to  him,  and 
contains  an  engagement  to  perform  the  services,  or 
to  pa)'  the  dues,  for  which  the  land  is  granted.  It 
was  embodied  in  an  oath,  by  which  the  tenant 
bound  liimself  on  entering  to  the  land-s.  In  taking 
the  oath  of  fidelity,  Littleton  says,  s.  91,  that  the 
tenant  shall  not  kneel,  nor  shall  make  such  humble 
reverence  as  in  homage.  The  only  object  of  fealty 
in  modern  times  is  to  keep  up  the  evidence  of  tenure 
where  no  other  services  are  due ;  but  even  to  this 
cfl'ect  it  has  gone  into  desuetude. 

FEAR,  M.\NIA  or,  or  PANPHOBIA.  There  are 
many   morbid    manifestations    of    the    instinct    of 


cautiousness.  Sudden  fear  in  sleep,  horrible  dream.s, 
nightmare,  sleep-walking,  have  been  regarded  as 
symptoms  of  a  special  disease.  Actual  terror  from 
irregular  circidation  in  the  sensory  ganglia ;  the 
sense  of  faUing  or  drowning  in  cardiac  aiiections  ; 
incubus  from  disturbance  of  the  circulation  in  the 
larger  vessels  by  repletion,  plethora,  or  position, 
where  there  is  the  super-addition  of  a  delusion  to 
the  feeling  of  apprehension — are  all  allied  and  dis- 
tinguished by  involuntaiy  and  excited  cautiousness. 
It  is  not  only,  however,  when  the  intelligence  may 
be  supposed  to  be  dormant,  and  the  instincts  awake, 
that  such  exaggerated  fears  paralyse  minds  other- 
wise sane  and  sound.  Murat,  'the  bravest  of  the 
brave,'  and  James  I.  of  England,  learned  if  not  wise, 
were  subject  to  vague,  uncontrollable  panics,  which 
for  a  time  immanned  them.  The  condition  is  often 
found  associated  with  disease  of  the  heart,  as  a  con- 
sequence and  concomitant  rather  than  a  cause.  The 
})resence  of  the  habitual  dread  of  evU,  the  fear  of 
death,  the  sleepless  and  breathless  anxiety  during 
darkness,  or  soUtude,  or  silence,  as  well  as  the  sudden, 
wild,  migoveruable  panic,  point  to  the  existence  of 
organic  or  functional  diseases  of  the  heart ;  and 
conversely,  e.xcited  or  irregular  action  of  the  organ, 
murmurs,  angina,  lead  the  astute  psychologist  to 
predicate  fear  as  a  characteristic  of  the  mental 
condition.  It  precedes,  and  is  believed  to  produce 
chorea,  cancer,  and  scirrhus.  Proximately,  however, 
it  depends  upon  alterations  in  the  capillary  circula- 
tion, or  nervous  structure  of  the  brain.  Its  charac- 
teristic is  involimtary,  irresistible,  blind  terror,  which 
arises  and  continues  vWthout  an  adequate  cause, 
and  which  is  not  influenced  by  reason  or  religion, 
not  even  by  the  removal  of  the  svipposed  object 
of  alarm.  The  disease  has  .appeared  epidemically 
during  commercial  panics,  dui-ing  the  horrors  of 
cholera  and  plague,  and  in  that  singidar  aS'ection 
called  Timoria,  which  is  marked  by  debilit)',  tremor, 
and  terror,  and  has  been  traced  to  the  effects  of  the 
damp,  imhcalthy  regions  in  Sardinia  and  Sicily,  where 
it  exclusively  occurs.  Panphobia  is  hereditary,  and 
has  been  traced  through  three  successive  genera- 
tions. In  reviewing  the  unobtrusive  members  of  an 
asylum  family,  the  palUd,  startled,  staring,  flickering 
coimtenances  may  he  detected  as  those  of  patients 
labouring  under  fe.ar.  They  resemble  melancholies 
in  palUdity  of  skin,  but  in  place  of  courting  they 
shrink  from  sympathy ;  though  horror-stricken  by 
gloom,  they  hide  in  corners,  they  escape,  they 
shriek  in  desperation,  they  climb  trees,  and  appar- 
ently inaccessible  places  ;  and  encounter  real  in  order 
to  elude  fancied  dangers  ;  or  they  are  motionless, 
])aralysed.  They  fear  and  flee  from  enemies,  police, 
demons,  doath,  ^^uuishment ;  indescribable  aixouies 
themselves. — Feuchtersleben,  Principles  of  Medical 
Psychology,  p.  281  ;  Arnold,  Observations  on  Nature, 
Kinds,  Causes,  and  Prevention  o/ Insanity,  &c.,  voL  i. 
p.  257. 

FEASTS.     See  Festr-als. 

FEATHER,  a  river  of  California,  and  a  feeder 
of  the  Sacramento,  runs  through  one  of  the  richest 
gold-fields  in  the  state.  It  receives  the  Yuba  near 
MarysviUe,  which  appears  to  mark  the  head  of  navi- 
gation— the  distance  down  the  F.  and  the  Sacra- 
mento to  the  harbour  of  San  Francisco  being  about 
100  miles. 

FEATHER  GRASS  {Stipa),  a  genus  of  grasses 
remarkable  for  the  long  awns  which  give  a  pecu- 
liar and  very  graceful  appearance  to  the  species, 
mostly  natives  of  warm  temperate  climates.  In 
some  of  them,  the  awn  is  beautifully  feathered. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  best  known  species,  the 
CojraoM  F.  G.  {S.  pennata),  a  very  doubtfid  nativi; 
of  Britain,  but  found  on  di-y  hills  in  the  miildle  and 

269 


l|- 


FEATHER  GRASS-FEATHERS. 


Feather  Grass  (Stipa  pcnnata). 


south  of  Europe.  Tt  is  a  perennial,  easy  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  favourite  ornament  of  our  gardens.  When 
gathered  before  the  seeds  are  ripe,  its  feathery  awns 

— sometimes  a  foot 
in  lenrth — remain 
attached,  so  that  I 
tufts  of  F.  G. 
retain  their  beauty 
througliout  -winter, 
and  form  one  of  tlie 
most  jile.ising  and 
familiar  decor.^tio^s 
of  rooms.  They  are 
often  dyed,  to  give 
variety  to  the  de- 
coration, but  are 
never  more  beauti- 
ful than  in  their 
natural  yeUowish- 
white  colour.  The 
feathery  awns  not 
only  assist  in  the 
ililfusion  of  the  seed, 
which  is  carried  by 
the  wind  to  great 
distances,  but  in 
a  very  interesting 
manner  help  to  tix 
it  in  the  soil.  The 
I  seed  ahghts  verti- 
Ically,  the  furrowed 
/base  of  the  awn 
becomes  twisted,  so 
that  its  furrows 
form  the  threads  of 
a  screw,  the  feathery  portion  becomes  horizontal, 
the  wind  acts  on  it,  and  the  seed  is  screwed  into 
the  grovmd — a  reverse  action  being  prevented  V^y 
stiff  hairs  which  act  as  barbs. — The  Esparto  (q.  v.) 
of  Spain  is  nearly  aUied  to  the  Common  Feather 
Grass. 

FEATHERS,  a  complicated  modification  of  the 
tegumeutary  system  forming  the  external  covering 
or  plumage  of  birds,  and  peculiar 
to  this  class  of  animals.  Xot- 
withstanding  the  varieties  of 
size,  strength,  and  colour,  all 
feathers  are  composed  of  a  quill 
or  barrel,  a  ;  a  shaft,  bb ;  and  a 
vane,  beard,  or  web,  cc,  on  either 
side  of  the  shaft,  the  vane  con- 
sisting of  barbs  and  barbules. 

The  quiU  by  which  the  feather 
is  attached  to  the  skin  is  wider 
but  shorter  than  the  shaft,  and 
forms  a  semi-transparent,  horny, 
cylindrical  tube,  wliich  termin- 
ates below  in  an  obtuse  ex- 
tremity, presenting  an  orifice 
termed  the  lower  iimbihcus,  e. 
A  second  orifice,  leatling  into  the 
interior  of  tlie  quiU,  and  termed 
the  upper  umbilicus,  /,  is  sitii- 
ated  at  the  opposite  end,  where 
the  two  vanes  meet  and  unite. 
The  cavity  of  the  quill  contains 
a  series  of  conical  capsules  fitted 
one  upon  another,  and  united  by 
a  central  pedicle  ;  and  the  whole  structure  presents 
a  remarkable  combination  of  strength  and  lightness. 
The  shaft  is  always  of  greater  length  th.an  tlie 
quill,  and  tapers  gradually  to  its  free  extremity  ; 
it  is  flattened  at  the  sides,  is  more  or  less  convex 
on  the  b.ock,  and  presents  a  longitudinal  groove 
inferiorl}'.  It  is  com])osed  of  white,  el.astic,  spongy 
structiu'e,  which  is  covered  by  a  thin  horny  sheath. 
270 


Feather. 


At  the  point  of  junction  of  the  shaft  and  quill, 
we  usually  observe — except  on  the  feathers  of  the 
wings  and  t;iil — a  small  supplementary  shaft  given 
ofl",  which  is  furnished  with  barbs  or  fibres,  and  is 
termed,  the  plumule  or  accessory  plume.  In  the 
ostrich  it  is  altogether  absent ;  in  the  rhea,  it  is 
represented  by  a  tuft  of  down ;  in  the  emu,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  equals  the  original  feathers  in  size, 
so  that  the  quill  sup[>orts  two  shafts ;  and  in  the 
cassowary  there  is  a  second  plumule  of  considerable 
size,  so  that  the  quill  presents  three  distinct  shafts. 

The  vanes  or  webs  are  composed  of  numerous 
barbs  or  small  fibres  arranged  in  a  single  series  along 
each  side  of  the  shaft.  They  .are  fine  prolongations 
of  the  outer  coat  of  the  shaft,  are  of  a  flattened 
form,  and  lie  inclined  towards  the  apex  of  the 
feather,  with  their  flat  sides  towards  each  other, 
and  their  mai'gins  in  the  direction  of  the  ex-ternal 
and  intern.-il  sides  of  the  feather.  The  barbs  are 
broader  ne.ar  the  shaft  than  at  the  free  apex,  and 
in  the  large  wing-feathers  the  convexity  of  one  is 
received  into  the  concavity  of  another.  They  are, 
however,  generally  kept  iu  position  by  the  barbules, 
wliich  are  minute  curved  filaments  arising  from  the 
upper  edge  of  the  barb,  much  as  the  latter  arises 
from  the  shaft.  There  are  two  sets  of  these  bar- 
bules, one  curved  upwards,  and  the  other  down- 
wards, and  those  of  one  barb  hook  so  firmly  into 
those  of  the  next,  as  to  form  a  close  and  compact 
surface.  In  the  ostrich,  the  barbules  are  well 
developed,  but  are  loose  and  separate,  and  it  is 
this  an-angement  which  gives  to  the  feathers  of 
this  bird  their  soft,  plumous  appearance. 

Feathers  present  numerous  gradations  of  strnc- 
tui-e.  In  the  cassowary,  the  wings,  instead  of  being 
jirovidcd  with  ordinary  feathers,  are  furnished  with 
five  cylindrical  stalks  destitute  of  barbs,  so  that 
here  we  have  merely  the  quill  and  sh.aft.  On  the 
breast  of  the  wild  turkey  there  is  a  tuft  of  feathers 
resembling  long  black  hair.  In  the  Dasylopkua 
Cuminrjii,  the  feathers  of  the  crest,  breast,  and 
throat  are  changed,  at  their  extremities,  into  round, 
horny  lamella',  looking  like  shining  black  spangles  ; 
and  in  the  common  waxwing  or  Bohemian  chatterer, 
some  of  the  wing-feathers  present  at  their  extremities 
small  horny  expansions,  resembling  red  sealing-wax, 
both  in  colour  and  consistence. 

Besides  the  common  feathers,  the  skin  of  many 
birds,  especially  of  aquatic  species — in  ■which 
plumules  rarely  exist — is  covered  with  a  thick 
co.ating  of  down,  which  m,ay  be  described  as  con- 
sisting of  very  minute  feathers,  each  of  which  is 
composed  of  a  very  small  soft  tube  lying  in  the  skin, 
from  the  interior  of  which  arises  a  minute  tuft  of 
soft  filaments,  without  any  central  shaft.  This 
downy  covering  secures  warmth  without  weight, 
like  the  soft  fur  at  the  b.-ise  of  the  hair  of  arctic 
m.ammals.  In  most  birds,  the  skin  also  bears  a 
good  many  scattered  hair-Uke  appendages,  which 
indicate  their  relations  to  the  ordinary  feathers  by 
the  iiresence  of  a  few  minute  barbs  towards  the 
apex. 

Feathers  are  developed  in  depressions  of  the  skin, 
lined  by  an  inversion  of  the  epidermis  which  sur- 
rounds the  bulb  from  which  each  feather  springs ; 
they  grow,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  hairs,  by 
the  addition  of  new  cells  from  the  bulb,  wliich 
becomes  modified  into  the  homy  and  fibrous  stem, 
and  by  the  elongation  of  previously  existing  cells. 
'I'hey  arc,  when  first  formed,  living  vascular  parts, 
growing  by  nutrient  vessels ;  but  when  they  are 
fidly  formed,  the  vessels  become  atro]ihicd,  and  the 
feathers  liecome  ilried  up,  and  gradu.olly  <lie  from 
the  summit  to  the  base.  For  a  fidl  account  of  the 
develo])ment  of  the  different  parts,  we  must  refer 
to  Professor  Owen's  article,  '  Aves,'  and  to  Professor 


FEBRICULA— FEBEONIANISM. 


Huxley's  article,  '  Tegumentary  Appendages,'  in 
the  Cycloptedlit  0/ Anatomy  ami  Plnjsiolo'jij. 

Feathers  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  some 
birils  attain  a  length  ot  more  than  two  feet.  They 
are  almost  always  renewed  annually,  and  in  many 
species  oftener ;  hence  it  may  readily  be  conceiTed 
how  much  vital  energy  must  be  exhibited  in  their 
development,  and  how  critical  the  period  of  moult- 
ing must  be.  The  plumage  is  generally  changed 
several  times  before  it  attains  the  state  which  is 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  the  adidt  bird  ;  these 
changes  may  occupy  a  period  usually  ranging  from 
one  to  live  years. 

Notwithstanding  their  extravascular  nature,  feath- 
ers, as  is  well  known,  undergo  a  change  of  colour 
after  they  are  completelj'  formed.  In  yearling  birds, 
the  winter  plumage,  which  succeeds  the  autumnal 
moult,  graduaUy  assiunes  brighter  tints,  the  new 
colour  commencing  at  the  part  of  the  rane  nearest 
the  body,  and  gradually  extending  outwards  till 
it  pervades  the  whole  feather.  Dr  Weiuland,  an 
American  naturalist,  is  of  opinion,  from  a  compari- 
son of  bleached  specimens  in  museums,  with  recent 
ones  taken  from  the  bird,  that  the  brightness  and 
fading  of  the  colours  are  due  to  the  increase  or  dimi- 
nution of  an  oily  matter.  Thus,  the  microscopic 
examination  of  the  vane  of  feathers  from  the  breast 
of  a  fresh  merganser  shewed  numerous  lacuncB  con- 
taining a  reddish  oil-like  fluid ;  some  weeks  after, 
the  same  feathers  having  become  nearly  white  from 
exposure  to  light,  disclosed  air-bubbles  instead  of 
_  the  reddish  fluid.  If  this  fluid  is  an  actual  oil,  as 
is  most  probably  the  case,  it  could  make  its  way 
into  the  non-vascidar  tissue  by  mere  physical  imbi- 
bition ;  and  on  the  varying  quantities  of  this  oil  the 
variations  of  plumage  would  depend. 

The  property  possessed  by  the  plumage  of  most 
birds,  of  keeping  the  siu-face  jiroteeted  from  mois- 
ture, is  well  kno'ivn.  This  is  due  to  two  causes. 
Most  birds  are  provided  with  an  oil-gland  at  the 
base  of  the  tail,  whose  secretion  is  distributed  over 
the  feathers  by  means  of  the  bUl ;  and,  additionally, 
the  shedding  of  water  is  partly  due  to  a  thin  plate 
of  air  entangled  by  the  feathers. 

The  feathers  vary  in  form  in  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  afford  zoological  characters  for  the 
distinction  of  species.  Hence,  they  have  received 
distinct  names,  such  as  primaries,  secondaries, 
tertiaries,  &c,  in  ornithology.  These  terms  are 
exjilaiued  in  the  article  BmDa 

The  chief  uses  to  which  feathers  are  applied  in  the 
arts  are  three — pens,  due  to  the  peculiar  elasticity 
of  the  barrels ;  betl-fmllters,  due  to  the  combined 
softness  and  elasticity  of  the  barbs  ;  and  ornament, 
due  to  the  graceful  forms  and  delicate  tints  of  the 
whole  feather.  The  mode  of  preparing  the  barrels 
for  pens  is  described  imder  Quills. 

Bed-feathers  were  used  in  England  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VII. ;  but  it  is  not  known  how  much  earUer. 
At  the  present  day,  goose-feathers  are  preferred,  the 
white  rather  than  the  gray.  What  are  called 
poultry  feathers,  such  as  those  of  the  tiu-key,  duck, 
and  fowl,  are  less  esteemed,  on  account  of  their 
deficient  elasticity.  Wild-duck  feathers  are  soft 
and  elastic,  but  contain  an  oil  difficidt  to  remove. 
The  following  is  one  among  several  modes  of  jire- 
paring  feathers  for  beds.  Clean  water  is  satm-ated 
with  quicklime ;  the  feathers  are  put  into  a  tub ; 
the  lime-water  is  added  to  the  depth  of  a  few 
inches ;  the  feathers  are  well  steeped  and  stirred  for 
three  or  four  days ;  they  are  taken  out,  drained, 
washed  in  clean  water,  tlried  upon  nets,  shaken 
occasionally  while  drying,  and  finally  beaten  to 
expel  any  dust.  The  larger  establishments,  how- 
ever, now  prepare  bed-feathers  by  steaming,  which 
is  found  to  be  a  more  profitable  and  efficient  pro- 


cess. The  down,  which  is  of  so  light  and  exquisite 
a  texture  as  to  have  become  the  symbol  of  soft- 
ness, is  mostly  taken  from  the  breasts  of  birds, 
and  forms  a  warm  and  dehcate  stuffin"  for  beds, 
piUows,  and  coverlets.  The  most  valuable  is  that 
obtained  from  the  eider-duck,  described  under 
ElDEK. 

Feathers  used  for  head-dresses,  or  other  pur- 
poses of  ornament,  are  selected  according  to  the 
forms  and  coloui-s  which  they  display.  The  oslricU, 
a  very  valuable  kind  of  feather,  may  be  taken  as 
an  example  of  the  way  in  which  ornamental  feathers 
generally  are  prepared  by  the  plumassier.  The 
mode  of  catching  the  bird  itself  is  noticed  under 
OsTRicn  ;  it  sufiices  here  to  state  that  the  huntere 
endeavour  to  avoid  injuring  the  feathers  by  blood  or 
blows.  When  brought  to  England,  the  feathers  are 
assorted  according  to  quality ;  those  from  the  back 
and  above  the  wings  are  the  best,  the  wing-feathers 
next  best,  and  the  tail-feathers  least  valued.  The 
feathers  of  the  male  are  rather  more  prized  than 
those  of  the  female.  They  are  cleaned  for  use  by 
repeated  soakings  and  washings  in  water,  sometimes 
with  and  sometimes  without  soap.  There  is  also  a 
jirocess  of  bleaching  by  means  of  burning  sulphur. 
When  dried  by  being  himg  upon  cords,  the  feathers 
pass  into  the  hands  of  the  dresser,  who  opens  the 
fibres  by  shaking,  gives  pliancy  to  the  ribs  by  scrap- 
ing them  "nith  bits  of  glass,  and  curls  the  filaments 
by  passing  the  edge  of  a  blunt  knife  over  them.  If 
the  feathers,  whether  of  the  ostrich  or  any  other 
bii'd,  remain  in  the  natural  colour,  little  more  has  to 
be  done ;  but  if  a  change  of  tint  be  required,  the 
feathers  easily  take  dye-materials — such  as  safHower 
and  lemon-juice  for  rose-colour  or  pink.  Brazil-wood 
for  deep  red,  Brazil-wood  and  cudbear  for  ciimson, 
indigo  for  blue,  turmeric  or  weld  for  yellow,  &c. 
A  process  of  bleaching  is  adopted  before  the  dyeing, 
except  for  black. 

The  Idnds  of  feathers  chiefly  used  for  ornament 
are  those  of  the  ostrich,  adjutant,  rhea  or  American 
ostrich,  emu,  osprey,  egrett,  heron,  antrenga,  bird 
of  paradise,  swan,  turkey,  peacock,  argus  pheasant, 
ibis,  eagle,  and  gi-ebe.  ArVhite  ostrich  feathers 
are  prepared  chiefly  for  ladies'  head-dresses;  and 
black  for  the  Highland  regiments  and  for  funereal 
trappings.  The  white  and  gray  marabout-stork 
feathers,  imported  from  Calcutta,  are  beautifully 
soft  and  light,  and  are  in  request  for  head-dresses, 
muffs,  and  boas  ;  the  white  kinds  will  sometimes 
sell  for  their  weight  in  gold.  The  flossy  kinds  of 
rhea  feather  are  used  for  mihtaay  plimies,  and  the 
long  bro^vn  wing  feathers  for  brooms  and  brashes. 
Os|irey  and  egrett  feathers  are  mostly  used  for 
military  plimies  by  Hussai-  troopers.  Bird  of  Para- 
dise feathei-3  are  much  sought  after  by  Oriental 
princes  for  turban-plumes.  Cocks'  feathers  are  used 
for  ladies'  riding-hats  and  for  military  phunes.  Dr 
Maegowan,  who  was  United  States  consul  at  Ningpo 
a  few  years  ago,  has  described,  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  an  ingenious  process 
which  the  Chinese  adopt  for  combining  brilliant- 
coloured  feathers  with  bits  of  coloured  metal  into 
garlands,  chaplets,  frontals,  tiaras,  and  other  orna- 
mental articles. 

FEBRI'CULA  (Lat.  a  little  fever),  sometimes 
called  also  Ephemera  (Or.  a  fever  of  a  day),  a  fever 
of  short  duration  and  mild  character,  having  no 
distinct  type  or  specific  symptoms,  by  which  it  can 
be  distinguished  and  described.     See  Fevek. 

FEBRIFUGE  (Lat  fehris,  a  fever,  and  fiifio,  I 
drive  away),  medicines  calculated  to  remove  or  cut 
short  Fever  (q.  v.). 

FEBRO'NIANISM,  in  Roman  Catholic  theology, 
a  system  of  doctrine  antagonistic  to  the  admitted 

271 


FEBRUARY— FEDEItAL  GOVERNMENT. 


claims  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  asserting  the  inde- 
jieudeiice  of  national  chvirches,  and  the  diocesan 
rights  (if  individual  bishops  in  matters  of  lueal 
discipline  and  church  government.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  notn  tie  fjucrre,  Justinus  '  Fob- 
ronius,'  assumed  by  John  Nicholas  von  Hontheim, 
coadjutor  archbishop  of  Treves,  in  a  work  on  these 
subjects,  entitled  De  Pr(Tsenli  Statu  Eeclesitv,  which 
he  published  in  the  year  17()7,  and  which,  mth  its 
several  successive  volumes,  h'd  to  a  violent  and 
protracted  controversy,  and  ilicited  the  severest 
censures  of  the  Roman  tribunals.  See  HoNTHEUi, 
Gaxlicaxism. 

FE'BRTJARY,  the  second  month  of  the  year,  has 
ordinarily  2S  days,  but  in  le.ap-year  it  has  an  addi- 
tional or  intercalary  day.  Among  the  Romans,  it 
had  originally  "29  days  in  an  ordinary  year,  but  when 
the  senate  decreed  that  the  eighth  month  shoidd 
bear  the  name  of  Augustus,  a  day  was  taken  from 
Februarj',  and  given  to  August,  which  had  then 
only  30,  that  it  might  not  be  inferior  to  July.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  circumstance,  that  during 
this  month  occurred  the  Roman  festival  called  the 
LupercaUa,  and  also  Februalia,  from  fehruare,  to 
purify. 

FE'BRUUS  (connected  with  Lat.  fcbriiare,  to 
purify)  was  the  name  of  an  old  Italian  divinity, 
whose  worship  was  celebrated  with  lustrations 
during  the  month  of  February.  The  ceremonies 
instituted  in  his  honour  were  believed  to  have 
the  effect  of  producing  fertility  in  man  and  beast. 
F.,  whose  name  in  the  Etruscan  language  is  said 
to  have  signitied  god  of  the  lower  world,  was  also 
worshipped  a.s  such  by  the  Romans,  and  identified 
with  the  Greek  Pluto. 

FECAMP,  a  manufacturing  town  and  seaport  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Seine  Inferieiu-e,  is 
situated  in  a  narrow  v-aUej',  flanked  on  cither  side 
by  steep  chffs,  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  of  the 
same  name  on  the  English  Channel,  23  miles  north- 
east of  Havre.  It  consists  mainly  of  one  long  street. 
Its  princip.al  building  is  the  handsome  chm'ch  of 
Notre  D.ame,  in  the  early  pointed  style,  and  dating 
from  the  14th  centurj-.  The  harbour  is  frequented 
by  colliers  from  Newcastle  and  Simderland,  and 
by  Baltic  timber-sliips  and  fishing-vessels.  F.  has 
cotton-mdls,  sugar-refineries,  tanneries,  ship-build- 
ing yards,  and  some  linen-cloth  and  hardware 
manufactures.     Pop.  10,42-4. 

FE'CULA,  or  F.^CULA,  is  a  term  applied  to 
starch  obtained  from  various  soiu-ces,  but  in  France 
is  generally  restricted  to  the  starch  of  the  potato. 
See  Stakch. 

FECUNDA'TION,  or  FERTILISA'TION,  in 
]ilants,  takes  place  according  to  laws  similar  to 
those  which  prevail  in  the  animal  kingdom.  In 
plants,  however,  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  not 
])ermanent  as  in  animals,  but  fall  off — the  male 
organs  generally  soon  after  fecundation,  the  female 
after  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  The  male  seminal 
substance,  called  pollen,  never  exists  in  a  fluid  state, 
but  always  in  th.at  of  granules  of  various  forms 
{pollen  rjrains),  which  consist  each  of  one  cell,  whose 
covering  is  of  various  thickness,  and  contains  the 
impregnating  substance.  After  the  deliiscence  of 
the  anthers,  the  pollen  gets  into  contact  with  the 
stigma  of  the  pistil,  which  in  its  lowest  and  thickest 
part  (the  ovaiij  or  qermen)  contains  the  rudiments 
of  the  future  seeds  (ovulen).  The  inner  layer  of  the 
cell-covering  of  the  poUeu  grain  separates  from  the 
outer  and  thicker  layer,  as  if  it  came  out  of  a  bag, 
and  continuing  to  be  elongated  by  growth,  is  earned 
down  through  the  style  to  the  germen,  where  it 
reaches  tlie  foramen  or  small  opening  of  the  emluyo 
sac,  and  comes  into  contact  with  the  ovule,  or  even 
272 


i  in  many  cases  penetrates  into  the  ovule  itself 
between  its  cells.  By  this  time,  one  or  other  of  the 
cells  of  the  ovule  has  become  considerablv  ninre 
enlarged  than  the  other  cells,  and  what  is  called  the 
amnion  has  been  formed,  in  the  mucilaginous  fluid 
of  which  (protohkisma),  after  the  contact  of  the 
pollen-bag,  through  the  dynamic  operation   of  its 

I  contents,  a  cell-fjerm  or  cytoblast  is  soon  developed. 

I  This  cytoblast  is  the  first  commencement  of  ,a  new 
and  distinct  cell,  which  divides  into  two  cells. 
These  increase,  liy  continually  repeateil  separation 

j  of  new  cells,  into  a  cellular  body,  which  forms  the 

i  more  or  less  perfect   emhrijo  of  a  new  jilant.      If 

I  the  organ  from  which  the  pollen  has  proceeded, 
and  the  organ  which  contained  the  ovule,  belong 
to  the  same  pl.ant  or  to  plants  of  the  same  species, 
the  embrj-o  arising  from  this  fecundation  becomes 
a  plant  of  the  same  s]iecies.  But  if  the  pollen 
by  which  the  fecundation  is  cfl'ected  conies  from 
a  plant  of  another  species  than  that  to  which 
tlie  plant  belongs  in  whose  "ernien  the  embryo  is 
formed,  the  seed  residting  from  this  fccuudatioD 
will  not,  when  it  grows,  produce  plants  of  the  same 
species,  but  htihrids,  interinediate  between  the  parent 

j  ])lants,  and  with  various  degix'es  of  resemblance  to 

I  one  or  other  of  them,  but  not  perfectly  correspond- 
ing with  either.  Hence  the  production  of  hybrids, 
and  multiplication  of  varieties  of  plants  in  gardens, 
by  wh.at  is  called  the  artificial  impregiuation  of  the 
stigma  of  one  plant  vrith  the  pollen  of  another, 
which,  however,  must  he  of  an  allied  species,  hybrid- 
isation being  confined  by  the  laws  of  nature  within 
very  narrow  limits.     See  Reproduction. 

FEDERAL   GOVERNINIENT    (Lat.  ftederaliis, 
bound    by  treaty,   from  feedus,   a  treaty).     When 

'  several  states,  othcr^visc  independent,  bind  them- 
selves together  by  a  treaty,  so  as  to  present  to  the 
external  world  the  aspect  of  a  single  state,  without 
wholly  renouncing  their  individual  powers  of  internal 

1  self-government,  they  are  said  to  form  a  Federation. 

\  The  contracting  parties  are  sovereign  states  acting 
through  their   representatives ;  and   the  extent  to 

1  which  the  central  overndes  the  local  legislatures  is 
fixed  by  the  terms  of  the  contract.  In  so  far  as 
the  local  sovereignty  is  renounced,  and  the  central 
power  becomes  sovereign  within  the  limits  of  the 
federated  states,  the  federation  ajiproaches  to  the 
character  of  a  Union  ;  and   the  only  renunciation 

I  of  sovereignty  which  a  federation  as  such  necessarily 
implies,  consists  in  abandoning  the  power  which  each 
separate  state  otherwise  would  possess  of  forming 
independent  relations  with  foreign  states.     '  There 

I  are,'  says  Mr  Mill,  *  two  different  modes  of 
organising  a  federal  imioii.     The  federal  authorities 

I  may  represent  the   governments  solely,  and   their 

!  acts  may  be  obligatory  only  on  the  governments  as 
such,  or  they  may  have  the  power  of  enacting  laws 
and  issuing  orders  which  are  binding  directly  on 
individual  citizens.  The  former  is  the  plan  of  the 
German   so-called  confederation,  and  of   the  Swiss 

i  constitution   pre\'ious   to    1847.      It   was   tried    in 

']  America  for  a  few  years  immediately  following  the 
war  of  independence.  The  other  principle  is  th.at 
of  the  existing  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  has  been  adopted  within  the  Last  dozen  years 
by  the  Swiss  confederacy.     The  federal  congress  of 

'  the  American  Union  is  a  substantive  part  of  the 
government  of  every  individual  state.     Within  the 

'  limits  of  its  attributions,  it  makes  laws  which  are 
obeyed  by  every  citizen  individually,  executes  them 
through  its  own  officers,  and  enforces  them  by  its 
own  tribun.ils.  This  is  the  only  principle  which 
has  been  found,  or  which  is  even  likely  to  produce 
an  effective  federal  government.  A  union  between 
tlie  governments  only  is  a  mere  .alliance,  and  subject 
to    all    the    contingencies    which    render   alliances 


FEE  AND  LIFERENT— FEE,  ESTATE  IX. 


)ircc.".rious.' — BcprciHulaHiv  Goivrnmenl,  pp.  301,  302. 
One  of  tlie  chief  cUiKculties  which  arise  in  orsanising 
a  feileral  government,  consists  in  discovering  by 
what  means  disagreements  between  one  or  more 
of  the  local  governments  and  the  central  govern- 
ment as  to  the  limits  of  their  respective  i)owers, 
are  to  be  disposed  of.  The  arrangement  by  which 
this  object  was  sought  to  be  effected  in  America, 
of  which  M.  de  Tocqueville  expre.s.sed  his  ;idmir- 
ation,  is  thus  explained  by  Mr  Mill :  '  Under 
the  more  jierfect  mode  of  federation,  where  every 
citi/en  of  each  particular  state  owes  obedience  to 
two  governments — that  of  his  own  state,  and  that  of 
the  federation — it  is  eWdently  necessary  not  only 
that  the  constitutional  limits  of  the  authority  of 
each  should  be  precisely  and  clearly  defined,  but 
that  the  power  to  decide  between  them  in  any  case 
of  dispute  should  not  reside  in  cither  of  the  govern- 
ments, or  in  any  fimctionary  subject  to  it,  but  in  an 
umpire  independent  of  both.  There  must  be  a 
supreme  comt  of  justice,  and  a  system  of  subor- 
dinate courts  in  every  state  of  the  union,  before 
whom  such  questions  shall  be  carried,  and  whose 
judgment  on  them,  in  the  last  stage  of  appeal,  shall 
be  final.  Every  state  of  the  union,  and  the  federal 
government  itself,  as  well  as  every  fmictionary  of 
each,  must  be  liable  to  be  sued  in  those  courts  for 
exceeding  their  powers,  or  for  non-performance  of 
their  federal  duties,  and  must  in  general  be  obliged 
to  em])loy  those  courts  as  the  instrument  for 
enforcing  their  federal  rights.  This  involves  the 
remarkable  consequence,  actually  realised  in  the 
United  States,  that  a  court  of  justice,  the  highest 
federal  tribun,al,  is  supreme  over  the  various  govern- 
ments, both  state  and  federal,  ba\-iug  the  right  to 
declare  that  any  new  law  made,  or  act  done  by 
them,  exceeds  the  powers  assigned  to  them  by  the 
federal  constitution,  and,  in  consequence,  has  no 
legal  validity.' — (P.  305.)  'The  tribimals  which  act 
,13  umpires  between  the  federal  and  state  govern- 
ments naturally  also  decide  all  disputes  between 
two  states,  or  between  a  citizen  of  one  state  and 
the  government  of  another.  The  usual  remedies 
between  nations,  war  and  diplomacy,  being  pre- 
cluded by  the  federal  union,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
judicial  remedy  should  supply  their  place.  The 
supreme  court  of  the  federation  dispenses  inter- 
national law,  and  is  the  first  great  example  of  what 
is  now  one  of  the  most  prominent  wants  of  civilised 
society,  a  real  international  tribimal.'  Such  rcas 
the  constitution  of  the  greatest  and  most  completely 
organised  federation  that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 
To  what  extent  it  has  been  already  shattered  by 
recent  events,  it  would  be  difEcidt  to  state,  whilst 
it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  conjecture  in  what 
form  it  may  ultimately  emerge  from  the  greater 
dangers  which  still  threaten  it. 

FEE  AND  LI'FERENT  (in  the  Law  of  Scotland) 
—the  first  of  which  is  the  fuU  right  of  proprie 
torship,  the  second  the  limited  right  of  usufruct 
during  life — may  be  held  together,  or  may  co-exist 
in  diflereut  persons  at  the  same  time.  The  settling 
of  the  limits  of  the  rights  which  in  the  latter  case 
they  respectively  confer,  is  of  very  great  practical 
importance,  and,  from  the  loose  way  in  which  both 
exjiressions  have  been  used  by  conveyancers,  by  no 
means  free  from  difiiodty.  '  In  common  language,' 
Bays  Mr  Bell,  '  they  are  quite  distinct ;  liferent 
importing  a  life-interest  merely,  fee  a  full  right 
of  property  in  reversion  after  a  liferent.  But  the 
proper  meaning  of  the  word  liferent  has  some- 
times been  confounded  by  a  combination  with  the 
word  fee,  so  as  in  some  degree  to  lose  its  appro- 
priate sense,  and  occasionally  to  import  a  fee.  This 
seems  to  have  begun  chiefly  in  destinations  "to 
husband  and  wife,  in  conjunct  fee  and  liferent  and 
17-1 


chililren  in  fee;"  where  the  true  meaning  is,  that 
each  spouse  has  a  joint  liferent  while  Ijoth  live, 
but  that  each  has  a  possible  fee,  as  it  is  uncertain 
which  is  to  survive.  The  same  confusion  of  terms 
came  to  be  extended  to  the  case  of  a  destination  to 
parent  and  child — ''to  A.  B.  in  liferent,  and  the 
heirs  of  the  marriage  in  fee  " — where  the  word  life- 
rent was  held  to  confer  a  fee  on  the  parent.  It 
came  gradually  to  be  held  as  the  technical  meaning 
of  the  words  "liferent  to  a  parent,  with  fee  to  his 
chililren  nascituri,"  that  the  word  liferent  meant  a 
fee  in  the  father.  Finally,  the  expression  came  to 
be  held  as  strictly  limited  to  its  proper  meaning 
by  the  accomjianying  word  "  allenarly,"  or  some 
similar  expression  of  restriction ;  la-  wliere  the  fee 
was  given  to  children  nati  and  nominatim  ;  there 
Ijeiug  in  that  case  no  necessity  to  divert  the  word 
liferent  from  its  proper  meaning,  or,  on  a  similar 
principle,  where  the  settlement  was  by  means  of  a 
tnist  created  to  take  up  the  fee.'     [Prin.  s.  1712.) 

FEE,  EsT.\TE  IS,  the  largest  estate  in  land  in 
point  of  quantity  of  estate  known  to  the  law  of 
England,  being  a  Freehold  (([.  v.)  of  inheritance. 
Estates  in  fee  are  divided  into  fee-simjile  and  fee- 
tail.  A  fee-simple  is  defined  by  Littleton  (1,  a.)  to 
be  a  lawful  and  pure  inheritance.  In  order  to 
create  an  estate  in  fee-simple  by  deed,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  word  heirs  should  be  used ;  for  a  gift  by 
deed  to  a  man  for  ever,  or  to  a  man  and  his  assigns 
for  ever,  creates  only  an  estate  for  life.  But  words 
of  perpetuity  annexed  to  a  gift  to  a  man  by  -will 
ai-e  construed  as  carrj-ing  an  estate  in  fee.  The  pro- 
prietor of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  eujoj's  the  fidlcst 
rights  of  property  over  his  estate,  which  he  may 
alienate  or  burden  at  pleasure,  and  out  of  which  he 
may  grant  estates  of  a  lower  kind,  as  for  life  or 
years.  He  is  owner  of  the  soil  '  a  ca;h  it-^f/uc  ad 
centrum'  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  cverj-  product 
of  the  land,  as  timber,  &c.,  and  to  all  minerals  and 
other  valuable  productions  found  beneath  the  sur- 
face. On  his  death,  the  estate  descends  to  his  right 
heirs,  except  in  the  case  of  fees  held  b}'  cor]>ora- 
tions,  which  descend  to  their  successors  in  otiice. 
Where  a  man  claims  an  estate  in  fee-simple  in  jios- 
session  in  a  corporeal  Hereditament  (q.  v.),  he  is 
said  to  be  '  seised  in  his  demesne  as  of  fee.'  Estates 
in  fee-sim]>le  are  divided  into  fee-simple  absolute, 
quahtied  or  base,  and  conditional.  A  quahficd  or 
base  fee  differs  from  a  fee-simple  absolute  by  having 
a  qualification  annexed  which  may  determine  the 
estate,  .is  where  it  is  granted  to  a  man  and  his  heirs 
'tenants  of  the  m.anor  of  Dale.'  If,  therefore,  at 
any  time  the  holder  of  the  estate  ceases  to  be  the 
tenant  of  Dale,  the  estate,  which  depended  on  that 
qualification,  determines. 

A  conditional  fee  w'as  limited  to  a  particular  class 
of  heirs,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  as  to  a  man  and 
the  heirs-male  of  his  body.  On  faUure  of  heii-s- 
luale  of  the  body  of  the  gi-antee,  an  estate  of  this 
kind  reverted  to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs.  But 
although  the  estate  was  thus  limited,  by  the  terms 
of  the  deed,  to  a  particular  series  of  heirs,  the  judges 
I)re\"iou3  to  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  held  that  the 
gift  was  a  fee-sinqile  on  condition  of  the  birth  of 
heirs  of  the  body  of  the  grantee,  and  that  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir  of  the  body,  the  condition  on  which 
the  est.ate  was  held  was  purified.  The  estate  did 
not  indeed  become  i7>.!0  fiictn  a  fee-simple  absolute, 
but  the  grantee  was  held  entitled  to  sell  the  estate, 
to  forfeit  it  for  treason,  and  to  burden  it  with 
encumbrances.  But  if  the  estate  was  not  sold,  and 
descended  to  the  heir,  he  continued  to  hold  a  fee- 
simple  conditional.  This  st.ate  of  things  led  to  the 
famous  statute  i'e  Donis  Conditionalibiis  (13  Ed.  I. 
c.  1),  whereby  it  was  enacted  that  estates  should 
be  held  secundum  J'omtam  doni.     Estates   created 

273 


FEE-FUND— FEIGXIXG  OF  DISKVSE. 


by  this  statute  were  called  estates  in  fee-tail.    See 

iSfTAlI. 

The  original  mode  of  transferring  an  estate  in  fee 
■was  by  Feoffment  (q.  v.),  but  the  statute  of  Frauds 
("20  Ciiar.  II.  c.  3)  requiring  that  WTiting  shoiiUl  be 
used  in  all  transfers  of  land,  estati-s  in  fee  must 
now  be  conveyed  by  deed  or  will. 

The  proprietor  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  in  the 
present  day  is  substantially  absolute  owner  of  the 
freehold,  which  he  holds  without  owinj;  duty  or 
service  to  any  one,  except  the  alk'j;ianee  duo  to  the 
sovereign,  who  is  regarded  as  supreme  lord  of  all 
the  lands  in  the  kingdom.  But  originally  this  was 
not  so  ;  an  estate  in  fee  is  in  its  nature  a  feudal 
benefice,  a  feud,  and  tlie  owner  of  the  fee  held  his 
estate  subject  to  all  the  services  incident  to  the 
feudal  state.  But  these  duties  have  been  by  degrees 
entirely  abolished  in  England.  See  Feudal  Sys- 
tem, Tenukks.  In  Scotland,  the  feudal  usages  in 
regard  to  land  are  still  retained  to  a  very  great 
extent.  See  Paterson's  Comixncliiim  of  EntjUsh  and 
licolcli  Law.  An  estate  in  fee  in  Scotland  must  be 
held  by  one  of  the  tliree  e.Nisting  tenures — viz., 
feu,  blanch,  or  burgage,  and  is  subject  to  the  casual- 
tics  (q.  V.)  attaching  to  these  rights.  See  Herit.ujle 
Bights. 

FEE-FUND,  in  Scotland,  is  the  fund  arising  from 
the  payment   of   dues  of  court   on   the  tal)ling  of 
summonses,  the  extracting  of  decrees,  and  the  like. 
Out    of   this   fund,    the   clerks   and  other   inferior 
officers  of  the  court  were  paid.     If  the  fund  was  at 
any  time  insufficient  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  was 
applied,  the  deficiency  was  supplied  out  of  the  moneys 
provided  by  the  acts  7  and  10  Anne  for  keeping  up 
the  Scottish  courts  of  law.     The  otEces  of  collector 
and  accountant  of  the  fee-fund  were  abolished  in 
ISGS,  and  the  duty  is  now  collected  by  stamps. 
FEEJEE.     See  Fiji. 
FEELING.     See  Emoticy. 
FEES.     Neither  barristers  nor  physicians  could 
recover  their  fees  by  legal  proceedings  against  their 
clients  or  patients,  excejit  under  a  special  contract 
The  ground  of  this  rule  was  that  they  are  regarded 
not  as  pajnnent,  but  as  an  exjiression  of  gratitude 
for  services  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  appre- 
ciated  in    money.     The  origin  of  the  rule    in  the 
case   of   the    advocates,   is   traced   to  the   relation 
which  subsisted  between  patrons  and   their  clients 
in   ancient    Rome.      When    the    former    appeared 
as  the  defenders  of  the   latter,  they  practised,  as 
Blackstone    says    (iii.    29,    Kerr's    ed.),   gratis,   for 
honour    merely,  or   at   the   most    for   the   sake  of 
gaining  influence ;  and  so  likewise,  it  is  established 
with   us   that   a   counsel    can  maintain   no   action 
for  his    fees,  which   are   given,  not   as    locatio  vtl 
conductio,    but   as    guiddam   lionorarium;    not    as 
a  salary  or  hire,  but  as  a  mere  gratuity,  which  a 
counsellor  cannot  demand  without  doing  wrong  to 
his  reputation.     The  nUe  at  Rome  was  maintained 
even   imder   the   emperors,   and   Tacitus   mentions 
(Ann.  hb.  ii.  c.  5)  that  it  was  directed  by  a  decree 
of  the  senate  that  these  lionoraria  should  not  in 
any  case  exceed  10,000  sesterces,  or  about  £80  of 
English   money.      It  has  further   been   decided   in 
England,  that  no  action  lies  to  recover  back  a  fee 
given  to  a  barrister  to  argue  a  cause  which  he  did 
not   attend    (Peake,    122).      But    S])eci.al   pleaders, 
equity  draftsmen,  and  conveyancers,  who  have  taken 
out  certificates  to  practise  under  the  bar,  and  there- 
fore are  not  counsel,  may  recover  their  reasonable 
charges   for  business   done    by  them   (Poucher   v. 
Norman,  3  B.  and   C,  744).      Another  rule  with 
reference  to  the  fees  of  barristers  and  advocates  is, 
that  they  are  paid  before  they  are  earned ;  a  rule 
which,  by  removing  from  its  members  all  pecuniary 


interest  in  the  issue  of  suits,  has  done  nuich  to 
mainbxin  the  inde|>endence  and  respectability  of 
the  bar.  As  regards  physicians,  the  rule  that  a 
fee  coidd  not  be  recovered  \y  an  action  at  law,  was 
applied  in  the  case  of  Chorley  i'.  Bolcot,  Juue  :iO, 
1791  (4  T.  R.  317).  If,  however,  either  a  barrister 
or  a  |)hysician  acted  under  a  special  agreement  or 
promise  of  a  certain  payment,  then  an  action  might 
be  brought  for  tlie  money.  But  all  medical  practition- 
ers were  relieved  from  the  above  code  of  honour  by 
the  act  of  21  and  22  Vict.  'JO,  which  applied  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  enabled  them  to  recover  in 
any  court  of  law  their  reasonable  charges  as  well  as 
costs  of  medicines  and  medical  appliances  used. 
Thjs  nde  api>lies  to  physicians,  surgeons,  and 
apothecaries  as  defined  by  the  statute.  Members  of 
the  inferior  branches  of  both  professions — attorneys, 
solicitors,  &c.,  on  the  one  liand,  and  surgeons, 
dentists,  cui)]iers,  and  the  like  on  tlie  other— were 
always  entitled  to  raise  action  for  their  fees.  In 
Scotland,  the  same  rules  prevail  as  in  England  with 
reference  to  both  ]>rofessions.  In  France,  thouL;h 
the  delicate  sense  of  honour  of  the  bar  has  always 
been  preserved  with  quite  as  much  care  as  in 
England,  the  rule  is  somewhat  different.  In  law,  an 
action  for  the  recovery  of  fees  would  be  maintain- 
able in  that  country  by  an  advocate  ;  but  '  in 
Paris,  the  rule  of  the  ancient  bar,  founded  on 
the  disinterestedness  which  was  its  characteristic, 
and  according  to  which  any  judicial  demand  of 
pajTueut  of  fees  was  strictly  forbidden  luiiler  )iain 
of  er.asure  from  the  table  (of  advoeatesl,  has  been 
religiously  preserved.' — llisionj  of  Ihe  French  Bar, 
by  Robert  Jones,  1855.  The  practice  in  France, 
however,  seems  to  be  for  the  fees  of  advocates  to  bo 
paid  afterwards,  though  .any  bargain  with  the  client 
or  his  agent  th.it  their  amount  shall  depend  on 
the  issue  of  a  trial,  is  regarded  as  dishonourable; 
and  on  several  occasions  the  bar  has  vehemently 
resisted  regulations  calling  on  them  to  acknowledge 
receipt  of  their  fees,  as  wounding  their  sensibility. 
There  can  scarcely  be  a  stronger  proof  of  the  value 
of  what  seem  in  themselves  to  be  trifling  and 
pedantic  pieces  of  etiquette,  than  the  dignified  and 
independent  position,  which,  from  its  scrupulous 
sense  of  honour,  the  French  bar  has  jnaintained 
during  all  the  jxihtical  revolutions  which  the 
country  has  undergone. 

FEHIiIRVAR  (SZEKES),  the  same  as  the  Latm 
Alba  Heijia,  or  the  German  SluhliDeisisenbuni,  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  royal  free  to^vns  of  Hungary, 
situated  in  a  marshy  district  about  40  miles  south- 
west of  Pesth.  Under  the  Arp;idian  kings,  it  was 
the  metrojiolis  of  the  realm,  and  the  residence  of 
the  sovereigns,  who  have  been  often  crowned  and 
buried  there.  On  many  occasions,  the  diets  also  were 
held  in  F.,  where  twelve  kings — among  which  are 
St  Stephen,  and  the  great  Mathias  Corviuus — lie 
buried.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  a 
population  of  21,000,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics,  and 
all  of  the  M.igyar  race.  Water  is  supplied  by  an 
artesian  well. 

FEI'A,  a  large  lake  of  Brazil,  lies  on  the  mari- 
time border  of  the  province  of  Rio  Janeiro,  and  is 
distant  150  miles,  to  the  north-cast,  from  the  city 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  so  near  to  the  Atlantic 
that  it  has  been  connected  with  it  by  means  of  a 
canaL  F.  is  about  a  degree  to  the  north  of  the 
southern  tropia 

FEIGNING  OF  DISEASE  is  much  practised 
in  the  army  and  navy,  and  also  by  convicts  and 
others  anxious  to  escape  from  discipline,  or  procure 
a  discharge  from  compulsory  ser\-ice.  In  the  army, 
it  is  technically  callecl  malinrjerinrj.  The  detection 
of  feigned  disease,  of  course,  necessarily  belongs  to 


FEINT— FELID.E. 


the   highly  educated   physician,  and    is   impossible 
without  ;i  thorou,i,di  Ivnowle.lixe  of  the  reality,  unless 
indeed    the    imitation   be   very   coarse   and    badly 
Btudied       I  he   diseases   most   commonly  simidated 
are  epilepsy,  catalepsy,  convulsions,  blindness,  deaf- 
ness, palsy,  insanity,  indigestion,  neural<;ia,  rheuma- 
tism,  palpitation   of   the   heart,    and   generally   all 
disorders  which  may  exist  without  leadin.^  to  any 
distinct  external  apiiearances.      Ulcers  of  the  le^s 
however,   have   often   been   made,   and    keiit   oiien 
artihciaUy  through  the  application  of  irritant  sub- 
stances ;  and  vomiting  or  coughing  up  of  blood  is 
very  easUy  simulated,  if  the   supposed   patient  can 
get  access  to  the  necessary  materials  in  the  slaughter-  I 
house  or  elsewhere.     The  detection  of  such  imiios-  1 
tures  is  easy  or  not  according  to  the  opportunities  , 
and  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  deceiver,  as  compared 
with  those  brought  to  bear  on  the  discovery  of  the 
fraud.    Many  men  in  the  public  services,  and  women 
adected  with  hysteria,  have  become  so  exjiert  as  to 
deceive  even  men  of  liigh  character  and  skill.     The 
«Titer  has  known  of   an  instance  in  which  a  man 
submitted    to  successive   am]>utations   of  the   arm 
upwards,  nearly  to  the  shoulder,  for  an  lUcer  ijro- 
(Uiced  and  kept  open  at  ivUl  by  local  applications  • 
and  a  case  has  been  lately  recorded  by  Dr  Murchison 
m   tlie   Jledico-chinirgical  Transactions,   in   which 
there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that  a  larcre  o.ieninrr 
into  the  stomach  was  the  result  of  causticlulistances 
deliberately  apphed  to  the  abdomen,  with  the  view 
of  exciting  sympathy. 

FKINT  (from  the  Fr.  fehidre),  in  military  or 
naval  matters,  a  mock  attack  or  assault,  usuaUy 
made  tti  throw  an  enemy  off  his  guard  against  some 
real  design  upon  his  position.     See  Fexci.ng. 


[  at  1  appenheim,  and   subsequently  in   Munich,   he 
,  was  mduced,   by  the  reputation   which  he  gained 
j  from  some  humorous  pieces,  entitled  Genrebilder,  to 
i  devote    himself    entirely   to    Uterature.      In    18,^,5 
'M^   imien-Uder    (HeU-Songs)    ap,,eared ;    and   his 
hrst  comedy,  DejSohn  avf  lM,,n  (The  Sou  on  his 
Irave  s),  was  acted  in  Munich  with  applause.    While 
travelling    thereafter    for    live    years,    chiefly    in 
,  Greece,  he  WTote  'Pictures  of  Travel'  for  Leu^ld's 
I  huropa,  and  the  correspondence  for  the  Al/,;ememe 
,  ^eitumj.      In   1841,   his   comedy  was   i.roduced   in 
I  Vienna,  and  since  IS50,  he  has  been  emiiloyed  as 
histrionic  teacher  in  the  National  Theatre  of  that 
I  capital.      F.  s    works,    which    are    numerous,    are 
-reckoned    among   the    best    specimens    of    modern 
I  German  comedy,  pleasing  by  their  cheerful  humour 
antl    hai)py    employment    of    contemporary    ideas 
^  and  events,  though  complained  of   as   deficient  in 
artistic  finish.     F.  has  published  a  collection  of  his 
comedies  in  six  volumes  [DeuMie  Orir,inal/u.«/.,plele 
(Urigmal  German  Comedies),  Wien,  1S44— IS5-') 
j      FELEGYHA'ZA,   a   town    of  Little   Ciu^ani.a, 
:  ■""°J*0'.  'S  situated  on  the  railway  between  Pesth 
.aud  Temesvar,  G7  miles  south-east  from  the  former 
It   Jias   an   extensive    trade   in   grain,   fruit,   wine 
,  tobacco,  and  cattle.     In  the  neighbourhood,  sei-eral 
;  l.omau  urns  have  been  foimd.     Poj).  17,90U. 
FELICU'DI.     See  Lipaei  Islands. 


FEITH,  EiiiJN^as,  a  distinguished   Dutch  poet 
who  ranks   next  to   Bilderdijk  (q.  v.)  as  a  reviver 
of  the  n.ational  poetry,  was  born  7th  February  1753 
at  ZwoU  in  Overyssel,  studied  law  at  Leyden,  and 
returned  to  his  native  town  in  1776,  where  he  held 
t|ie  olfice  of  burgomaster.  He  died  8th  February  1824 
F.  tried  almost  all  kinds  of  poetry.     In  his  earlier 
productions,    he    shewed   an    excessive    inclination 
tor  the  sentimental;  but  in  1792  appeared  his  J/et 
Grnj  (The  Tomb),  a  didactic  jioem,  which,  though 
not  free  from  the  weakness   referred  to,  is  yet  on 
the   whole   hapjnly  conceived,   and   contains   some  I 
admirable  passages.     His  De  Ouderdom  (Old  A"e)   I 
published  in    1802,  is   deficient   in  jilan.       AmoncJ 
his  lyrical  pieces,  Oden  en  Gedkhten  (Odes  and  Mis" 
celianeous   Poems,  4  vols.,  Anist.    179G— ISIO),  are  I 
several  marked  by  a  high  enthusiasm  and  warmth  of 
feeling.    Of  his  tragedies,  the  best  known  are  Thirza 
(1701),  Johanna  Oraji  (1791),   and  Ines  de  Castro  I 
(179,3).    Along  with  Bilderdijk,  he  recast  in  a  nobler  I 
form  Harcn's  famous  patriotic  poem,  De  Geuzeii  (Les 
Oiieux,  or  the  Beggars),  which  celebrates  the  first  | 
struggles  of  the  I>uteh  for  independence.     Of  F.'s 
prose  works,  the  most   important  are  Brieven  over 
versc/ieiden  Onderioerpen  (Letters  on  Different  Sub- 
jects, G  vols.,  Amst.  1784—1790).     These  Letters, 
by  their  pohshed  style   and   refined  criticism,  did 
much  to  imiirove  the  literary  taste  of  Holland. 

FE'LDMANN,  LEoroLD,  a  German  writer  of 
couiecbes,  was  born  at  Munich  in  1803,  of  Jemsh 
parents,  to  whose  faith  he  remains  attached. 
Ajiprenticed  in  ISlo  to  a  saddler,  and  afterwards 
to  a  cobbler,  he  soon  gave  evidence  of  his  deter- 
mination to  be  a  poet  by  sending,  in  a  jiair  of  shoes, 
which  he  had  mended,  a  poetical  expression  of  his 
devotion  to  their  fair  wearer.  For  this  his  master 
sent  him  back  to  school,  where  in  1817,  when  only 
in  his  14th  year,  he  wote  a  play,  Der  FoMie  Eld 
(Ihe  1-alse  0.ath),  which  was  actually  produced  on 
t.ie  stage.    After  spending  a  few  years  in  business 


FELID^,  or  FELI'N.E,  a  family  of  digiti-rade 
carmvorous  quadrupeds  (see  Carnivoka  and  Dioi- 
TIGR.U3A),    corresponding    to    the    genus    FeUs    of 
Linnajus,  and  sometimes  coUectively  caUed  cats  or 
the  cat  tr,be.    They  are,  generally  speaking,  the  most 
carnivorous  of  aU  the  Carnivora,  holdin|  the  same 
relative  place  among  qua(U-upeds  that  tha  Falconnla 
do  among  birds.     Their  organisation  is  admirablv 
suitable  to  theu-  habits.     They  have  a  very  lithe 
I  muscular   frame ;    the    body   is    rather    lon^    and 
remarkably   flexible;    the    limbs    generally  "short 
I'ew  of  the  species  possess  much  fleetness,  but  most 
,  ot  them  excel  m  cUmbing  and  in  leaping.     When 
I  movmg   rapidly   over   the   sm-face   of   the   ground 
they  generally  advance  by  a  series  of  zigzag  bounds' 
rather  than  by  direct  running.      They  are  mostW 
inhabitants  of  forests,  and  many  even  of  the  lart-er 
spe^cies   live   much   among  the   branches   of    trera 
I  although   some   of    the    largest    do   not   leave   the 
ground.     They  all  advance  stealthily  on  their  prev 
which  all  of  them  kill  for  themselves,  and  devour  in 
a  perfectly  fresh  state,   and   generally  whilst  still 
warm  and  qiuvering.     When  they  have  approached 
within   a    sufficient    distance,   they    complete    the 
seiziu-e  by  a  spring,  many  of  them  uttering  a  roar 
or  yeU  as   they  do   so,  and   thus   rendering  their 
victory   more   secure   by   the   constemation°which 
paralyses  the  object  of  their  attack.     Their  move- 
ments are  extremely  noiseless,   owing  to  the  soft 
velvety  pads  with  which  their  toes  are  pro\-i<ied 
Ihcir  claws  are  strong,  much  curved,  very  sharp 
and  retractile  ;   being  withdrawn  by  special  muscles 
and  ligaments  into  sheaths  when  not  in   use    and 
their  points  even  turned  upwards,  so  that  they  are 
not  bliinte.l  by  unnecessary  friction,   and   do   not 
mterfere  with   the   movements   of   the   animal   by 
accidentally  hooking  objects  which  are  in  the  way 
Ihe   ast  bone  (phalanx)  and  joint  of  the  toe  exhibit 
peculiarities  requisite  for  the  extension  and  retrac- 
tion of  the  claws.     The  fore-feet  have  five  toes,  the 
h.nd-feet  four.     The  head  of  the  F.  is  characterised 
by  great   breadth   of   skull,   whilst   the   muzzle   is 
short,  and  sometimes  even  rounded;  the  jaws  are 
moved  by  very  powerful  muscles,  and  the  articula- 
tion of  the  lower  jaw  is  such  that  it  has  no  rotatory 
motion  ;  the  teeth  also  being  so  sha,,ed,  and  those 
of  the  two  jaws  so  fitting  to  each  other,  that  they 

275 


FELID.E-FELTX. 


cut  like  scissors — the  lower  teeth  shutting  ^^^thin 
the  uiiiier — and  are  not  at  all  adajited  to  the 
trituration  of  food.  There  are  six  small  incisors  in 
each  jaw,  followed  on  each  side  by  one  very  large 
canine  tooth,  adapted  for  prehension  ;  and  this  by 


Cliaracteristic  Features  of  the  Felidre ; 
1,   timer's   head;   2,    shewinjr   the    dentition;    3,    portion   of 
toiifrtie;  4,  right  fore  p;iw,  shewing  claws ;  5,  claw,  shewing 
tendons. 

two  prrcmolars,  or  false  molars,  which,  particularly 
in  the  lower  jaw,  are  comjiressed  and  sharp-edged, 
their  edges  rising  to  a  central  summit,  with  inferior 
lateral  cusps,  so  that  flesh  between  them  is  sub- 
jected to  a  cutting  action  in  various  directions. 
Finally,  there  is  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  one  true 
molar,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  of  many  species,  a 
second  true  molar.  The  crowns  of  all  the  teeth  are 
covered  with  enamel.  The  tongue  is  rough,  with 
horny  j^apUla;  directed  backwards,  by  which  it  is 
fitted  for  cleaning  the  bones  of  the  prey.  The 
stomach  is  simjilc,  the  intestines  short,  and  digestion 
rapid.  The  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  are  e.vtremely 
acute  ;  the  eyes  are  adapted  to  seeing  both  by  day 
and  by  night ;  the  sense  of  smelling  is  also  very 
acute,  although  apparently  not  equal  to  that  of 
dogs ;  the  sense  of  taste  is  supposed  to  be  less 
acute ;  the  bulbs  from  which  the  long  whiskers 
arise  appear  to  possess  the  sense  of  touch  in  great 
perfection,  and  the  whiskers  thus  become  useful 
in  the  progi-ess  of  the  animal  through  entangled 
thickets. 

The  F.  agree  so  much  in  form  and  structure,  that 
many  naturalists  still  refuse  to  divide  the  Linnoe.in 
genus  Fetu.  None  of  the  F.  are  gregarious.  Almost 
all  of  them,  when  taken  young,  seem  capable  of 
domestication,  but  in  general  they  are  little  to  be 
trusted.  The  species  are  numerous.  They  are 
distributed  over  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and 
the  islands  adjacent  to  these  continents  ;  but  none 
are  found  in  Australia,  where  their  place  is  supplied 
by  the  carnivorous  marsu]iial  quadrupeds.  The 
largest  species  are  chietly  found  in  warm  climates. 
No  species  is  known  to  lie  common  to  the  Old  and 
New  worlds,  although  some  are  very  nearly  allied. 

Vast  numliers  of  the  larger  F.  were  brought 
from  Africa  and  the  East  for  those  savage  sports 
and  shows  in  which  the  ancient  Komans  delighted. 
Five  hundred  lions  were  slain  in  live  days  at  the 
opening  of  Pompcy's  theatre,  and  live  hundred 
panthers  have  been  let  loose  at  once  in  a  similar 
Koman  arena.  The  wealth  of  Indian  )irinces  has 
also  been  often  spent  in  fiiihts  of  such  lieasts. 

'J'he  principal  F.  are  noticed  in  sejiarate  articles,  as 
Lio.v,  Tkier,  J.vguak,  I'miA,  Leopahd,  Panther, 
Cat,  Tiger-cat,  Lynx,  Cheetah,  Ou>xe,  Caracal, 
Servai,,  Ocelot,  &c 


FE'LIX,  Antonius,  a  Koman  procurator  of 
.Tudaja  (51—62  a.  n.)  in  the  time  of  the  Apostle 
Pa\d,  was  a  frcedman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  I. 
The  circumstances  under  which  he  received  his 
appointment  are  related  difl'erently  by  Tacitus  and 
Josephus.  His  government,  jHiIitically  considered, 
was  in  some  respects  good.  According  to  Josc])hus 
and  other  authorities,  he  cleared  the  country  of 
robbers,  and  vigorously  suppressed  the  chaotic 
seditions  of  the  Jews ;  but  his  cruelty,  lust,  and 
greed  were  unbounded.  His  wife  was  Urusilla,  a 
beautifid  but  renegade  Jewess,  whom  he  had 
induced  to  abandon  her  first  husband,  and  to  form 
a  questionable  connection  with  himself.  It  wa.s 
therefore  not  at  all  wonderful  th;it  F.  should 
tremble  as  Paul  reasoned  of  '  righteousness,  temper- 
ance, and  judgment  to  come'  (Acts  xxiv.  2j). 
He  was  recalled  to  Fiome,  C2  A.  D.,  on  account  of 
the  accusations  prefeiTed  against  him  by  the  inllu- 
catial  Jews  of  Csesarea,  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
sentence  of  death. 

FE'LIX  (Pope)  L— IV.— Felix  L,  reckoned  the 
26th  in  the  succession  of  popes,  succeeded  iJionysins 
in  the  see  of  Rome  probably  in  the  year  2G!).  His 
I  pontificate  is  chiefly  interesting  as  an  early  example 
of  the  relations  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  Koman 
empire,  and  of  the  recognition  by  the  state  of  the 
ci\nl  rights  of  Christians.  In  the  pontiticate  of 
Felix's  predecessor,  Dionysius,  Paul  of  Saiuosata. 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  had  been  deposed  by  a  council 
held  in  that  city.  Paid  having  resisted  the  sen- 
tence, the  matter  was  laid  bcf<u'e  Felix,  Dionysius 
being  now  dead ;  and,  as  Paul  held  jiossession  of 
the  church  and  cliin-ch  Imildiugs,  the  bishops  wei^o 
obliged  to  claim  the  interference  of  the  Emjieror 
Aurelian,  who  was  passing  through  Antioch  ou  his 
return  from  Palmyra.  Aurelian  returned  a  decision 
■which  is  often  appealed  to  in  modern  controversy, 
to  the  cflcct  that  the  buildiugs  shoidd  belong  to 
the  person  '  to  whom  they  should  be  adjudged  by 
the  bishops  of  Italy  and  Rome.'  Felix  afterwards 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  persecution  of  the  same 
emperor,  AureHan,  ])robably  in  274. — Felix  II. 
occupied  the  Roman  see  diu'ing  the  banishment  of 
Liberius,  in  355.  It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  tli.at 
his  lirst  appointment  was  intrusive,  Init  much 
diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  his  subsequent 
career.  In  reply  to  a  petition  for  the  recall 
of  Liberius,  it  was  proposed  by  the  Emperor 
Constantius  that  Liberius  and  Felix  should 
exercise  jurisdiction  jointly ;  but  this  proposition 
was  rejected  by  the  Romans,  and  Felix  appears 
to  have  been  compelled  to  retire  from  the  city. 
According  to  the  Liher  Pontificalis,  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  end,  at  the  hands  of  his  former 
patron,  Constantius  ;  liut  this  is  not  confirmed  by 
any  coutem]iorary  authority. — Felix  III.  occupied 
the  see  of  Rome  from  4S.'i  till  492.  He  was  n 
native  of  Rome,  and  of  the  family  from  which 
afterwards  sprung  Pope  Gregory  the  Great.  His 
jiontitieate  is  historically  memorable,  as  presenting 
the  first  commencement  of  the  disruption  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches.  The  contemporary 
occupant  of  the  see  of  Constantinople,  Acacius,  as 
well  as  the  imperial  court,  was  a  favourer  of  the 
llonopliysite  party,  who  refused  to  accept  the 
decision  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  See  MoNO- 
PHV.SITE.S.  By  their  influence,  the  ])atriarch  of 
Alexandria  was  deposed,  and  replaced  by  the 
monophysitc,  Peter  Mongus.  The  dejiosed  patri- 
arch having  ajipealed  to  Rome,  Felix  sent  two 
legates  to  Constantinople,  to  require  his  restoration; 
and  the  legates  having  failed  in  their  trust,  and 
Acacius  still  adhering  to  the  heterodox  jiarty,  Felix 
assembled  a  council  at  Rome,  and  excommunicated 
not  only  the   offending   legates,   but  also  Acacius 


FELIXLUfS-FELLOWS. 


himstlf,  the  sentence  beinc;  pinned  by  a  monk 
u()on  tlie  back  of  the  patriarch's  robes  while  he 
was  actually  officiatin<;  in  the  church.  Felix  had 
previously  rejected  the  Ilvnotkon,  or  Decree  of 
Union,  iniblished  by  the  Emperor  Zioio.  The  scliism 
thus  inaujnrated  was  not  healed  till  the  year  519. 
The  only  literary  remains  of  this  pontiff  are  the 
letters  and  other  acts  of  this  controversy.  He  died 
February  24,  492. — Felix  IV.,  a  native  of  Bene- 
vento,  succeeded  Jehu  I.  in  526.  His  pontificate 
presents  no  noteworthy  event.  He  died  in  530. — 
Feli.x  \.  (anti-pope).     See  Amadei-.s. 

FELI'XIANS,  a  Spanish  sect  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  8th  c,  so  called  from  Felix,  Bishop  of  UrgeL 
See  Adoptian  Coxtroveesv. 

FE'LLAH  (plural.  El  Fellahin),  an  Arabic 
word  meaning  peasant  or  agriculturist,  specially 
applied  to  the  agricultural  or  labouring  popula- 
tion of  Egj-])t  by  the  Turks,  in  a  contemptuous 
sense,  as  '  clowns,'  or  '  boors.'  They  form  the  great 
bulk  of  the  population,  and  are  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egj-j)tians,  intermingled  with  Syrians, 
Araljs,  and  other  races  who  have  been  converted 
to  IsK-uu.  In  their  physical  conformation  and 
features,  they  dift'er  among  themselves,  those  of 
the  northern  provinces  of  the  Mediterranean  being 
of  whiter  hue,  while  at  Assouan  they  are  almost 
black.  They  are  described  as  baring  a  large  skiUl, 
facial  angle  ahuost  90  degrees,  oval  face,  arched 
eyebrows,  deep  eyes,  projecting  lips,  large  mouth, 
thin  beard,  short  nose,  large  chest,  and  small  beUy ; 
arched  back,  and  small  hands  and  feet,  and  being 
of  mean  height.  Thej'  form  the  fourth  class  of 
the  population,  and  are  distinguished  from  the 
Bedouin  or  free  Arabs,  who  have  entered  the 
country  later  than  the  .Saracenic  conquest^  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  towns  and  villages.  Their  dress 
consists  of  a  shirt  and  liiien  di-awers,  over  which  is 
a  larger  blue  shirt  (/lenV),  girdled  by  a  leather  or 
stuiT  belt,  wliich  is  exchanged  in  the  winter  for  a 
coat  with  sleeves  {zahout).  On  their  head,  they 
wear  the  tarboush,  turban,  or  a  black  or  gray  cap  ; 
the  women  tattoo  themselves,  and  are  nubile  at 
an  early  age,  being  often  married  at  11  years, 
mothers  at  12,  and  grandmothers  at  24.  The 
food  of  the  Fellahin  consists  entirely  of  vegetables, 
which  they  eat  in  a  crude  state,  dhourra  bread, 
and  beans.  Even  rice  is  too  dear  for  them  and 
animal  food  unattainable.  Their  drink  is  limited 
to  the  waters  of  the  Nile  and  'coffee,  and  the 
only  luxury  which  they  enjoy  is  the  green  tobacco 
of  the  coimtry ;  yet  on  this  diet  they  are  robust 
and  healthy,  and  capable  of  much  labour  and 
fatigue.  In  their  social  position,  they  are  inferior 
to  the  Bedouin,  who,  although  they  will  marry 
the  daughters  of  the  Fellahin,  will  not  give  to 
them  their  own  in  marriage.  They  appear  to 
exhibit  the  moral  qualities  of  the  ancient  Egj-ptiaus, 
being  intelligent,  giave,  and  calm,  docile,  pliable, 
and  sober  on  the  one  hand ;  and  idle,  jealous, 
quarrelsome,  satirical,  licentious,  and  of  unbending 
obstinacy,  on  the  other,  and  inherit  the  traditional 
hatred  of  their  ancestors  to  the  payment  of  taxes, 
which  are  often  only  extorted  by  the  bastinado. 
Their  political  condition  is  most  miserable.  Each 
village  is  governed  by  a  Sheik-el-Beled,  who  is 
responsible  to  the  Kazirs  and  Mamours,  or  district 
officers,  for  the  conduct  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
their  due  paj-ment  of  taxes.  So  oppressive,  indeed, 
is  the  taxation  and  extortion,  scarcely  ^\j  of  the 
produce  falling  to  their  lot,  that  it  would  not  bo 
possible  for  them  to  hve  if  it  were  carried  to  a 
higher  pitch,  and  none  cultivate  the  lands  with 
diligence  unless  comjielled  by  their  superiors. — 
Gliddon,  Ti/pes  of  Mankind,  p.  319 ;  Lepsius,  Egijpt 


and  EOuupia,  p.  TCi;  Lane,  Manvrs  and  C'lisloma 
of  Modern  Etjiii>tianx,  p)..  125,  120,  192,  193;  Clot 
Bey,  Aper(u  i/cnerale,  i.  pp.  159,  IGO. 

FE'LLEXBERG,  Philip  Emanuel  vov,  tlie 
founder  of  the  institution  for  the  improvement  of 
education  and  agriculture  at  Hofwyl  in  the  canton 
of  Bern,  in  Switzerland,  was  bom  at  Bern  in  1771. 
His  father  was  a  man  of  patrician  rank,  and  in  con- 
sequence, a  member  of  the  government.  From  him 
F.  received  a  very  careful  education ;  but  it  was  his 
mother,  a  great-grand-daughter  of  the  famous  Dutch 
admiral.  Van  Tromp,  who  inspired  him  with  the 
ardent  desire  of  being  usefid  to  his  fellow-creatures. 
In  I7S9,  he  went  to  the  university  at  Tubingen,  for 
the  ]>urpose  of  studying  law,  and  subsequently 
travelled  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  taking  up  his 
quarters  not  in  the  hotels  of  the  large  towns,  but  in 
the  cottages  of  the  peasantry,  that  he  might  know 
at  first  hand  the  real  condition  and  the  manners  of 
tlie  poor,  as  well  as  the  kind  of  education  received 
by  those  whose  life  was  to  be  spent  in  agricidtural 
pursuits.  When  the  revolution  of  1798  broke  out 
in  Switzerland,  F.  took  part  in  it  for  some  time; 
but  the  faithlessness  and  want  of  pubUc  spirit  on 
the  part  of  the  Bernese  government  induced  him 
to  withdraw  from  political  life  altogether,  and 
to  devote  himself  solely  to  philanthropic  schemes. 
He  now  purchased  the  estate  of  Hofwj'l,  near 
Bern,  and  soon  after  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Pestalozzi,  the  educationist.  Their  different  char- 
acters, however,  rendered  such  a  union  impracti- 
cable, and  they  found  it  necessary  to  separate.  F. 
now  proceeded  with  redoubled  zeal  to  increase  the 
produce  of  his  estate  by  new  improvements,  to  influ- 
ence the  neighbourhood  by  his  example,  and  to 
make  his  experiments  known  to  the  world  by  his 
agricultural  treatises.  At  the  same  time,  he  founded 
an  asylum  for  forsaken  children.  He  also  opened  a 
school  of  theoretical  and  practical  agriculture,  and 
connected  with  it  an  institution  for  the  education  of 
the  children  of  the  higher  classes.  The  establish- 
ment at  Hofwyl  acquired  for  its  founder  a  very 
great  reputation,  and  pupils  hastened  to  it  from  all 
quarters.  Many  foreign  princes  risited  it,  and  on 
their  return  to  their  own  countries,  founded  similar 
institutions.  In  the  year  1830,  F.  founded  a  school 
of  art,  and  some  years  later,  an  infant  school.  He 
died  21st  November  1S44.  The  institutions  at 
Hofwj'l  were  continued  for  some  years  by  his  son 
Wilhelm,  and  then  entirely  given  up.  Compare 
Hamm,  F.'s  Leben  und  Wirken  (Bern,  1845). 

FE'LLOWS,  Sir  Charles,  an  antiquary  of 
considerable  reputation,  was  bom  at  Nottingham  in 
1799.  In  the  beginning  of  1838,  he  commenced 
those  travels  in  the  East  by  means  of  which  his  name 
has  been  brought  so  prominently  into  public  notice. 
His  researches  were  chiefly  confined  to  the  western 
peninsida  of  Asia  Jlinor,  and  to  the  course  of  the 
ancient  Xanthus,  in  the  south  of  that  peninsida. 
Commencing  his  investigations  at  Patara,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Xanthus,  and  proceeding  inland  along 
the  valley  of  that  river,  he  discovered,  only  nine 
miles  from  the  coast,  the  nuns  of  the  city  of 
Xanthus,  fonnerly  the  capital  of  Lycia.  Fourteen 
or  fifteen  miles  higher  up  the  river,  he  met  with 
the  ruins  of  another  city,  which,  from  inserii^ions, 
he  found  to  be  the  ancient  Tlos.  HaWng  made 
drawings  of  some  of  the  fine  remains  of  architecture 
and  scul]iture  which  he  found  in  the  ruins  of 
these  cities,  and  copies  of  some  of  the  inscrijitions, 
F.  returned  to  England,  and  jiublished  A  Juurnol 
written  durim/  an  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor,  by 
Cluirks  Fellows,  1838  (Lond.  1839).  In  1839.  he 
again  visited  Lycia,  ami  in  the  course  of  another 
excursion,  he  discovered  the  ruins  of  no  less  than 

577 


FELLOWSHIP— FELON  AKD  FELONY. 


thirteen  cities,  each  of  which  contained  works  of 
art  Another  Journal,  entitled  An  Account  of 
Discoveries  in  Lycia,  being  a  Journal  kept  durinij 
a  Second  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor  (Lond.  ISU), 
was  the  result  of  this  journey.  In  1S41,  an  expe- 
dition left  England  for  the  purjiose  of  selecting 
works  of  art  fiom  the  ancient  cities  discovered  by 
¥.,  who  aecomi)anicd  the  cx]iedition,  and  directed 
its  ojierations.  Authorised  by  a  lirman  from  the 
sultan,  they  made  their  selections,  and  returned  in 
the  spring  of  1842.  Another  expedition  sent  out  by 
the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  brought  home 
twenty  cases  of  marbles  and  oasts  in  1844.  These 
rem.^ins  have  been  deposited  in  the  British  Museum 
in  what  has  been  called  the  Lycian  .Saloon.  In  1S45, 
F.'s  labours  were  ren'arded  by  the  honour  of  kni!;;ht- 
hood.  The  other  works  of  F.  are — T/ie  Xaniliian 
Marbles:  their  Acquisition  and  Transmission  to 
England  (1843);  An  Account  of  the  Ionic  Trophy 
Monument  Excavated  at  Xanthus  (1S4S);  a  re- issue  of 
his  earlier  Joiu-nals  under  the  title  of  Travels  and 
Jlesearches  in  Asia  Minor,  particularly  in  the  Pro- 
i-ince  of  Lycia  (1852);  and  Coins  of  Ancient  Lycia 
be/ore  the  Kcirjn  of  Alexander ;  with  an  Essay  on 
the  Eelative  Dates  of  tite  Lycian  Monuments  in  the 
British  Museum  (ISuo).   He  cUed  in  1800. 

FE'LLOWSHIP,  IN  A  rN-n-EKsnr.  As  the 
history  of  this  institution  will  be  treated  under 
Uxn-KRsiTY,  we  shall  here  only  mention  its  leading 
characteristics,  as  it  exists  in  the  two  CTeat  universi- 
ties of  England — O.xford  and  Cambridge.  In  these 
ancient  and  celebrated  seats  of  learning,  the  fellow- 
shi]i3  were  either  constituted  by  the  original  founders 
of  the  colleges  to  which  they  belong,  or  they  have 
been  since  endowed.  In  almost  all  cases,  their 
holders  must  have  taken  at  least  the  first  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  or  student  in  the  ci\Tl  law.  One 
of  the  greatest  changes  introduced  by  the  commis- 
sioners under  the  University  Act  of  1S54,  was  the 
throwing  open  of  the  fellowships  to  all  members  of 
the  university  of  requisite  standing,  by  remoWng 
the  old  restrictions  by  which  many  of  them  were 
confined  to  founder's  kin,  or  to  the  inh.ibitants  of 
certain  dioceses,  archdeaconries,  or  other  districts. 
Fellowships  vary  greatly  in  value.  Some  of  the 
best  at  Oxford,  in  good  years,  are  said  to  reach 
£700,  or  even  £800,  whilst  there  are  others  which 
do  not  amoimt  to  £100,  and  many  at  Cambridge 
which  fall  short  of  that  sum.  Being  paid  out  of 
the  college  revenues  which  arise  from  land,  they 
also  vary  from  year  to  year,  though  from  this 
arrangement,  on  the  other  hand,  their  general  value 
with  reference  to  the  v.alue  of  commodities  is 
preserved  nearly  unchangeable,  which  would  not 
be  the  case  if  they  consisted  of  a  fixed  pajTnent 
in  money.  The  senior  fellowships  are  the  most 
lucrative,  a  system  of  promotion  being  estabUshed 
among  their  holders  ;  but  they  all  confer  on  their 
holders  the  pri\-ilege  of  occupying  apartments  in 
the  college,  and  generally,  in  addition,  certain  per- 
quisites as  to  meals  or  commons.  Many  fellow- 
ships are  tenable  for  life,  but  in  general  they  are 
forfeited  shoidd  the  holder  attain  to  certain  pre- 
ferments in  the  church  or  at  the  bar,  and  sometimes 
m  the  case  of  his  succeeding  to  j)roperty  above  a 
certain  amount.  In  general,  also,  they  are  forfeited 
by  marriage,  though  this  disability  may  now  be 
removed  by  a  special  vote  of  the  college,  jiennitting 
the  fellow  to  retain  his  fellowsliip  notwithstanding 
his  marriage.  With  the  single  exception  of  Downing 
College,  Cambridge,  in  which  the  graduates  of  both 
universities  are  eligible,  the  fellowships  are  conlined 
to  the  graduates  of  the  university  to  which  they 
belong. 

FELLOWSHIP.    See  Paetnership. 

378 


FKLO  DE  SE,  in  English  Law,  is  where  a  man,  of 
the  age  of  discretion,  and  compos  mentis,  voluntarily 
kills  himself.  'No  man,'  says  Sir  M.  Hale  (PI. of  the 
Cr.  411),  'h.ath  the  absolute  interest  of  himself,  but 
\sl,  (iod  Almighty  has  an  interest  and  propriety  in 
him,  and  therefore  self-murder  is  a  sin  ag.ainst  God; 
Id,  The  king  hath  an  interest  in  him,  and  therefore 
the  injunction  in  case  of  self-murder  is  felonici  et 
voluntarii  se  interfecit  et  murderavit  contra  pacem 
domini  regis.'  A  man  or  woman  is  considered  of  full 
age  in  regard  to  capital  ofTences  at  the  age  of 
fourteen.  A  lunatic  killing  himself  during  a  tit  is 
not  guilty  of  fulo  de  se ;  but  a  merely  melancholy 
and  hypocliondriacal  temperament  is  not  such  a  state 
of  mind  as  will  relieve  a  person  from  the  conse- 
quences of  this  ofl'ence.  Where  two  jiersons  agree 
to  die  together,  and  in  pursuance  of  this  design  one 
or  both  die,  it  is  suicide,  or  felo  de  se.  And  in  some 
cases,  where  one  maliciously  attem[)ts  to  kill  another, 
and  unwittingly  kills  himself,  this  is  s,aid  (Hawkins, 
V.  C.  c,  2",  s.  4)  to  be  felo  de  se.  But  as  a  general 
rule  the  act  must  be  voluntary.  Therefore,  if  death 
ensue  from  a  rash  act  not  intended  to  kill,  as  where 
a  man  cuts  otl  his  hand  to  prevent  a  gangrene,  and 
the  act  is  followed  by  death,  this  is  not  felo  de  se. 
Formerly,  the  law  ]ninished  this  offence  by  inflicting 
ignominy  on  the  body  of  the  ofTender,  which  was 
ordered  to  be  buried  by  night  at  four  cross-ways, 
and  that  a  stake  should  be  driven  through  the 
bod}'.  But  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  52,  this  ignominious 
mode  of  burial  is  abolished,  and  it  is  provided 
that  a  felo  de  se  shall  be  privately  buried  at  night 
in  a  burial-groimd.  All  the  chattels,  real  and 
personal,  of  a  felo  de  se  are  forfeited  to  the  crown. 
In  Scotland,  the  crime  of  self-miu'der  is  known  as 
Suicide  (q.  v.). 

FELON  AND  FE'LONY.  The  etjTnolngj-  of  the 
word  felon  has  given  rise  to  much  dilt'erenee  of 
opinion.  By  the  majority  of  the  most  reliable  lexi- 
cographers, it  is  supposed  to  have  a  common  root 
with  fail,  and  its  original  signilic.ation  was  supposed 
to  be  a  vassal  who  failed  in  his  fidelity  or  allegiance 
to  his  superior,  thus  committing  an  offence  by 
which  he  forfeited  his  fee  or  feud.  From  this  it 
came  to  signify  traitorous  or  rebellious,  and  was 
gradu.illy  generahsed  till  it  reached  its  pojjular 
meaning  of  a  crime  of  so  heinous  a  nature  as  to 
infer  a  capital  punishment. 

The  characteristic  distinction  of  a  felony,  in  the 
opinion  of  all  legal  -nTiters,  is,  th.at  it  is  a  crime 
which  occasions  the  forfeiture  of  the  offender's 
goods.  '  Felony,'  saj-s  Blackstone,  '  in  the  general 
acceptation  of  our  English  law,  comprises  every 
species  of  crime  which  occasioned  at  common  law 
the  forfeiture  of  lands  and  goods.  Treason  itself, 
sa^'s  Sir  Edward  Cuke,  was  anciently  comprised 
under  the  name  of  felony.  .  .  .  And  not  only  all 
offences  now  ca)iit.al  are  in  some  degree  or  other  fel- 
ony, but... m.iny  other  offences  not  punishable  with 
death,  as  suicide,  manslaughter,  and  larceny,  as  they 
submit  the  committers  of  them  to  forfeitures.'  Wlien  a 
person  is  now  convicted  of  felony,  he  does  not  forfeit 
any  of  his  ])roperty ;  but  he  forfeits  and  is  disqualified 
for  any  government  or  public  office.  The  court  may 
order  him  to  pay  all  the  costs  incurred  in  procuring 
his  conviction,  as  well  as  compensation  to  persons 
defrauded  or  injured  by  his  felonious  act.  The 
crown  may  during  the  sentence  of  imprisonment,  or 
on  the  execution  of  the  felon,  appoint  administrators 
to  take  possession  of  all  his  jiroperty,  and  hold  it 
uutil  the  sentence  expires,  dealing  with  his  alFairs 
as  if  he  were  bankrupt,  by  paying  his  debts;  and  if 
there  is  a  surplus,  keei»ing  or  reassigning  it  for  him  or 
his  heirs  and  represi'utatives  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sentence,  3.3  and  .'54  Vict.  c.  23.  Similar  arrangements 
do  not  apply  to  Scotland. 


FELSP.-U^-FELT,  FELTIN'O. 


FE'LSPAR  (Ger.  fddspath,  field-spar),  a  mineral 
extremely  abundant  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  a  principal  constituent  of  many  rocks,  as 
granite,  gneiss,  greenstone,  trachj'te,  &c.  ;  and  clays 
seem  very  generally  to  have  resulted,  at  least  in 
great  part,  from  its  decomposition.  It  occurs  both 
massive  and  crystallised,  in  rhomboidal,  pyramidal, 
and  prismatic  crystals,  often  having  their  edges  and 
angles  tnmcated,  and  thus  very  variously  modified. 
There  are  many  different  kinds  of  F.,  which  mineral- 
ogists have  recently  attempted  to  arrange  in  mineral 
B})ecie3,  distinguished  by  physical  and  chemical 
characters,  and  also  by  geognostic  position,  and  by 
the  groups  of  minerals  with  whicli  they  are  asso- 
ciated. For  these  miner.al  species  new  names  have 
been  invented,  OrtJwclase,  Otii/uclase,  All/Ue,  Labra- 
dorile,  &c.  All  the  felspars  are  anhydrous  silicates 
of  ahmiina,  and  of  an  alkali  or  lime.  Orthoclase, 
and  the  other  more  silicious  felspars  containing 
pot.asb,  abound  chiefly  in  granite  and  the  pbdonic 
rocks ;  the  less  silicious,  containing  soda  and  lime, 
characterise  the  volcanic  rocks—'  as  labradorite  the 
basaltic  group,  glassy  felspar  the  trachytic'  All 
the  kinds  of  F.  arc  so  hard  as  not  to  be  easily 
scratched  with  a  knife,  and  are  fused  with  dilfi- 
cidty.  Some  of  them  are  soluble,  some  insoluble 
in  acids. — The  kind  known  as  Common  F.— referred 
to  Orthoclase — is  generally  white  or  flesh-coloured, 
has  a  glassy  and  somewhat  pearly  lustre,  is  trans- 
lucent at  least  on  the  edges,  and  has  an  uneven  or 
s])lintery  fracture.  Crystals  four  or  five  inches  long 
are  found  in  Aberdeenshire.  This  variety,  under 
the  name  of  Petunne  or  Pelmiize,  is  used  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ;  aloUf^  '.vith 
some  of  the  quartz  which  is  associated  with  it  in 
the  rock.  It  is  usetl,  with  other  materials,  as  a 
flux  ;  and  alone  to  form  an  enamel  or  glassy  cover- 
ing, without  which  the  porcelain  would  absorb 
moisture  and  grease,  and  woiUd  be  imfit  for  any 
e.vcept  mere  ornamental  purjioses. — Adularia  is  a 
transparent  and  almost  colourless  variety  of  F., 
often  cut  as  an  ornamental  stone,  the  finest  varieties, 
of  which  one  is  knowTi  as  Moonstone,  being  prized 
almost  as  gems.  A  variety,  found  among  rolled 
stones  in  Ceylon,  and  remarkable  for  the  reflection  of 
a  pearly  light,  has  been  sometimes  confounded  with 
Cat's  Eye. — Av.vnturine  F.  is  similar  to  the  variety 
of  t)U.artz  called  Amnturine  (q.  v.)  in  the  play  of 
light  which  it  exliibits,  and  which  is  said  to  be 
owing  to  minute  crystals  of  specular  or  titanic  iron. 
It  is  much  esteemeil  as  an  ornamental  stone.  A 
variety  with  golilen  yellow  specks,  caUed  Sunstone, 
is  very  rare  and  very  beautiful :  it  sells  at  a  high 
price. — Labradorite  exhibits  rich  colours  and  a 
beautiful  opalescence,  on  account  of  which  it  is 
much  used  for  ornamental  purposes. — A  blue  variety 
of  F.,  foimd  only  in  StjTia,  and  a  green  variety, 
sometimes  called  Amazon  Stone,  are  also  esteemed 
as  |ireciou3  stones. — .Ul  the  finer  varieties  of  F.  are 
characterised  by  a  soft  beauty,  which  well  compen- 
sates for  the  want  of  that  brilliancy  which  belongs 
to  the  true  gems. 

Kaolin,  or  Porcelain  Clay,  is  regarded  as  a  decom- 
posed felsjiar.— To  F.  also  are  referred,  as  chiefly 
composed  of  it,  or  apparently  derived  from  it, 
Felstone,  Trachj-te,  Claystone,  Clinkstone,  Pitch- 
btone,  Obsidian,  and  Pumice. 

FE'LSTONE,  a  name  introduced  by  Professor 
Sedgwick  to  designate  those  rocks  which  are  com- 
posed, either  in  whole  or  to  a  large  extent,  of  felspar. 
When  they  consist  of  a  comp.act  and  apparently 
amorphous  felspar,  they  are  known  as  Trachj-tes — 
a  variety  of  this  rock,  which  splits  into  small  slabs, 
tli.at  ring  with  a  metallic  sound,  is  called  Phonolite. 
Trachyte,  with  distinct  crystals  of  felspar  scattered 
through  it,  becomes  felstone  porphyry;  when  the  rock 


is  in  a  vitreo\is  condition,  and  has  a  resinous  lustre, 
it  is  Pitchstone.  Even  in  the  most  compact  felstones, 
minute  crystals  may  be  detected,  and  these  some- 
times increase  in  size,  till  we  have  varieties  which 
are  completely  granular  and  crystalline. 

FELT,  FELTING,  a  fabric  formed  without 
weaving,  by  taking  advant.age  of  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  fibres  of  hair  and  wool  to  interlace 
with  and  cling  to  each  other.  The  hatters'  tradition 
concerning  the  invention  of  felt  aflbrds  as  good 
an  illustration  as  any  we  can  find  of  the  principle 
of  this  manufacture.  In  most  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  the  hatters  celebrate  as  a  festival  the 
23d  of  November,  St  Clement's  Day,  as  they 
formerly  did  in  this  country ;  and  it  is  stated  that 
St  Clement,  when  on  a  pilgrimage,  put  carded  wool 
between  his  feet  and  the  soles  of  his  sandals,  and 
found  on  his  journey's  end  that  the  wool  was  con- 
verted into  cloth.  Although  this  tradition  is  very 
questionable,  as  the  manufactiire  of  felt  is  of  far 
more  ancient  origin,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  if 
carded  wool  were  thus  continually  trodden,  and  at 
the  same  time  moistened,  it  would  become  felt,  and 
all  the  manufacturer's  processes  of  felting  are  but 
modifications  of  such  treatment. 

This  matting  or  felting  of  the  fibres  of  liair  and 
wool  results  from  their  structure,  for,  when  exa- 
mined by  the  microscope,  the  hair  of  all  animals  is 
found  to  be  more  or  less  jagged  or  notched  on  its 
surface ;  in  some  animals  it  is  ilistinctly  barbed ;  and 
this  structure  is  so  directed  that  the  teeth  or  liarbs 
all  point  towards  the  tip  of  the  hair.  See  Hair. 
If  a  piece  of  human  hair  (in  which  this  structure  is 
less  marked  than  in  most  animals)  be  hehl  between 
the  finger  and  thumb,  and  rubbed  in  the  direction 
of  its  length,  it  will  invarialily  move  between  the 
fingers  in  "the  direction  of  its  root ;  for  the  skin,  while 
moving  towards  the  tip  of  the  hair,  sliiles  freely 
upon  it,  but  moving  in  the  other  direction,  against 
the  inclination  of  the  barbs,  it  brings  the  hair  with  it. 
It  will  be  easily  understood  that  when  a  number  of 
hairs  are  pressed  togetlier,  those  which  lie  in  opposite 
directions  to  each  other  and  in  contact  will  inter- 
lock at  these  barbs  or  teeth,  and  thus  resist  any 
effort  to  tear  them  asunder.  When  once  this  close 
contact  and  interlocking  is  established  between  any 
two  or  more  hairs,  they  remain  attached,  but  the 
othei-s  that  are  diflerently  arranged,  or  not  in  con- 
tact, will  still  be  free  to  move  upon  each  other;  and 
therefore,  if  subjected  to  continual  blows,  pushing, 
and  pressure,  like  the  treading  of  the  feet  in  walking, 
the  un.attached  hairs  will  be  continually  shifting 
until  they  reach  others  in  suitable  positions  for 
clinging  together,  either  by  crossing  obliquely  or  by 
lying  in  the  same  line,  and  overla])ping  at  their 
ends  or  any  other  portion.  WTieu  the  hair  has  a 
nat\iral  tendency  to  curl,  the  felting  is  still  more 
readily  brought  about  by  the  additional  interlacing. 
This  is  the  case  with  wool  to  such  an  extent,  that 
when  free  from  grease  it  cannot  be  retained  in  the 
straight  carded  condition  required  for  spinning  and 
wea™g.  When  it  is  recpiircd  to  be  felted,  the 
natural  grease  has  to  be  removed.  This  tendency  to 
felt  is  shewn  in  the  hard  lumps  formed  in  wool- 
m.attresses  that  have  been  long  used. 

The  beaver-hat  maker  produces  his  felt  by  taking 
a  few  ounces  of  the  mixed  fur,  distributing  it  in 
an  even  layer  by  twanging  a  bowstring  against  the 
heap,  and  then  condensing  this  into  a  felt  by  a 
sort  of  kneading  process  with  his  hands.  See  Hat- 
making. 

The  felt  now  extensively  used  for  carpeting  and 
other  pur])oses  is  made  by  machinery,  chiefly  from 
the  waste  wool  from  the  weaving-mills.  Many 
patents  have  been  taken  out  for  the  various  details 
of  felting-machinerj',  but  the  main  princijile  is  the 

■213 


FELTKE— FEMK  COVKKTR 


same  ill  all.  The  wool  is  carded  more  or  less  per- 
fectly, and  steamed  or  moistened  with  hot  water, 
and  jKisscd  between  beaters,  which  act  like  the 
pilgrim's  feet  in  the  manner  already  described. 
When  nsed  as  drugget  for  covering  carpets,  or  as 
a  substitute  for  carjiet,  the  felt  is  jirinted  by  means 
of  blocks  with  various  patterns,  or  simply  dyed. 
Felt  is  also  used  for  jiadding  coats  and  other  gar- 
ments, sometimes  for  cloaks  and  ca])es  ;  for  talile- 
covers,  some  of  which  are  beautifully  embossed 
and  printed  ;  for  carriage-linings,  ujiholstery  work, 
polishing  cloths,  pianoforte  li.imnicrs,  and  various 
other  purposes  where  a  coarse  or  thick  cloth  is 
requircil.  A  simple  kind  of  saddle,  cut  out  of  very 
thick  felt,  is  iu  cummou  use  in  South  America. 

Tl>e  '  felted  sheathing '  used  as  a  non-conducting 
covering  for  retainin";  the  heat  in  steam-boilers,  is 
a  substance  intermediate  between  felt  .and  jiaper, 
being  composed  of  the  commonest  woollen  refuse 
from  paper-mills,  kc,  made  into  a  semi-inilii,  and 
beaten  to  jiroduce  a  partial  felting.  This  when 
dried  hardens,  and  though  possessing  but  little 
tenacity,  and  unfit  for  the  wear  of  friction,  is,  from 
its  compactness,  better  adajited  than  ordinary  felt 
for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Asphalled  lloofinrj-fdt  is  a  very  coarse  felt  satur- 
ated with  pitch,  ■as])halt  or  coal-tar — usually  the 
latter,  on  account  of  its  cheapness  ;  it  is  retailed  at 
one  penny  per  foot,  and  used  for  covering  sheds  and 
other  buildings.  A  more  expensive  kind,  free  from 
coal-tar,  is  called  Inodorous  Felt,  and  used  as  a 
lining  for  damp  walls  upon  which  paper  has  to  be 
hung.  Asphalted  felt  is  also  used  as  a  flooring  for 
granaries  and  similar  buildings,  and  has  been  recom- 
mended for  public  schools,  to  prevent  the  noise  from 
the  shuffling  of  the  children's  feet. 

FE'LTRE',  a  town  of  Northern  It.aly,  in  the 
Venetian  territory,  is  situated  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Piave,  44  miles  north-north-west  of  Venice. 
It  suffered  severely  from  the  attacks  of  the  Goths 
in  the  5th  century.  Tlie  chief  buildings  are 
t)ie  cathedral,  the  college,  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
and  g\'mnasium.  F,  has  some  trade  in  com,  wine, 
and  oil.     Top.  6000. 

FELU'CCA,  a  small  class  of  vessel  used  in  the 
Mediterranearu      It    is   propelled    by   from    10    to 


gun-boats  against  our  ships,  when  becalmed  near 
the  Spanish  |)orts ;  from  their  speed  in  smooth 
water,  and  the  dilhculty  of  hitting  them,  they  were 
very  troublesome  antagonists, 

FEMALE  LAUOUK  is  prohibited  in  mines  and 
collieries  since  1st  March  1S4.'{  (o  and  (>  Vict.  c.  9'J), 
under  heavy  penalties.  As  to  the  limits  undiT 
which  it  is  permitted  iu  factories,  see  Factorv 
L.\w.s. 

FEINIALE  SHERIFF.  There  is  only  one  instance 
on  reconl  of  the  office  of  sheriff  in  England  having 
been  held  by  a  female  ;  this  was  in  the  c;is.e  of 
Anne,  Coimtiss  of  I'enibroke.  Tliis  lady,  who  was 
distinguished  diiring  the  reliellion  in  the  reigns  of 
Charles  I.  and  II.  by  her  stanch  .adherence  to  the 
roy.al  cause,  was  the  wife  of  Philip,  fourth  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  and  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Cumlwrland. 
On  the  death  of  her  father,  without  male  issue,  in 
164.S,  she  succeeded  to  the  hereditary  office  of  sheriff 
of  Westmoreland,  and  in  that  char.acter  she  attended 
the  judges  of  assize,  and  sat  with  them  on  the 
bench  at  Apjdeby. 

FEMALE  WHIPPING,  .as  a  public  punish- 
ment, was  .abolished  by  57  Geo.  III.  c.  75 ;  and 
by  1  Geo.  IV.  c.  C7,  it  was  enacted  that  no  female 
offender  should  suffer  the  punishment  of  being 
whipped  either  publicly  or  priv.ately ;  but  tliat 
imiirisonment  or  solitary  confinement  should  be 
substituted  therefor.     See  Wuippixc. 

lina  viro  co-operia).     In 


*k 


10  oars,  and  by  lateen  sails.  It  has  frequently  a 
luddur  at  each  end,  to  be  apjilied  as  occasion 
demands.  Duriug  the  French  war,  feluccas  were 
armed  with  a  heavy  gun  or  two,  and  sent  out  as 
•^80 


FEME  COVERTE  (fi 

the  language  of  the  law  oPiiingland,  a  woman  by 
her  raai'riiige  becomes  subject^ to  her  husband,  who 
has  the  control  of  her  person,  and  is  entitled  to  fix 
her  residence.  This  control  iu  the  husband  is 
admitted  to  a  cei-tain  extent  in  criminal  cases  to 
excuse  a  married  W'oman  from  guilt.  Thus,  in  any 
felony,  except  mmder  or  manslaughter,  comuiitted 
by  a  married  woman,  iu  presence  of  her  husband, 
it  is  assumed  that  she  acted  under  his  compulsion. 
But  this  presmnption  may  be  rebutted  by  evidence 
that  she  w.os  the  principal  .agent  in  the  crime.  A 
married  woman  cannot,  in  criminal  cases,  be  a  witness 
for  or  .ag.ainst  her  husband,  exccjit  when  he  is  tried 
for  violence  against  her.  In  civil  cases,  a  married 
wom.an  may  be  examined  in  a  suit  where  her  husband 
is  a  jiarty.  In  a  jjctition  for  divorce  on  the  ground 
of  adultery,  a  married  woman  is  not  a  competent 
witness  ;  but  where  cruelty  forms  one  of  the  grounds 
of  compLaint,  she  m.ay  be  ex.amined  on  that  subject. 
Her  projierty  is  to  a  limited  extent  transferred  to 
the  husband.  Personal  property,  when  it  is  ac- 
quired by  her  own  exertions,  is  deemed  to  be  her 
own  separate  property  ap.art  from  her  husband.  Uy 
7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  20,  even  a  will  m.ado 
before  marriage  is  revoked  by  the  m.arri.age.  And 
where  a  wife  is  deserted  by  her  husband,  she  m.ay, 
by  20  and  21  Vict.  c.  b5,  s.  21,  olitain  an  order  to 
]irotect  any  money  she  may  actiuire  by  her  own 
industry.  The  landed  pro)ierty  of  a  married  woman 
is,  during  the  marriage,  under  the  administration  of 
the  husband,  and  during  their  joint  lives,  he  is 
entitled  to  all  the  profits  of  the  lauds.  Shoidd  there 
1)0  a  child  of  the  marriage  born  alive,  and  capable  of 
inheriting  the  lands,  he  has,  by  the  Courtesy  of 
lOngland  (see  Coi'UTUSY  I.N  L.\w),  an  estate  for  life 
in  all  lauds  iu  which  he  is  seised  iu  fee  in  her  right. 
Formerly,  a  married  woman  could  not,  during  mar- 
ri.age,  execute  a  conveyance  of  lands  without  le\'y- 
ing  a  Fine  (q.  v.) ;  but  by  3  .and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  a 
married  woman  may  now  make  a  disposition  of  real 
estate  .as  if  she  were  a/<*Hie  sole.  But  tlie  husband 
must  concur  in  the  deed,  which  must  also  be  acknow- 
ledged by  the  wife,  in  presence  of  one  of  the  judges,  a 
m.a.ster  in  Chancery,  or  of  a  commissioner  api>ointed 
under  the  act.     Formerly,  an  action  could  not  be 


f  EMER\— FEilGEK  ICHTE. 


ma'ntniiieil  liy  a  married  woman  unless  with  the  con- 
currence anil  in  tlie  name  of  the  husbaml.  A  niarriuil 
woman  may  now  maintain  an  action  and  other  reme- 
dies in  her  own  name,  as  regards  her  separate  estate. 
A  married  woman  cannot  bind  her  husband  by  any 
contract  she  may  enter  into,  but  as  he  is  bound  to 
support  her,  he  is  Ualjle  for  necessaries  sui)iilied  to 
her  while  she  lives  with  him,  or  il  he  wilfully 
deserts  her,  but  not  where  she  has  left  him  of  her 
own  accord.  Formerly,  a  wife  could  not  obtain  a 
divorce  from  her  husband  ;  but  by  20  and  21  Vict. 
c.  85,  she  may  now  olitain  a  divorce  on  the  ground 
of  adultery,  coupled  with  cruelty  or  desertion. 
ISee  DivoKfE.  For  the  law  of  Scotland  in  rei;ard  to 
the  ri:,'hts  of  married  women,  see  Man  a>'d  Wife. 

FE'JIERN',  an  island  of  Denmark,  north-east  of 
Holstein,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  strait  called 
the  Feniern  Sound,  has  an  area  of  G3  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  01)00.  The  island 
is  Hat,  fruitful,  and  destitute  of  wood.  Agricul- 
ture, tisheries,  and  stocking-weaving  for  exportation, 
form  the  princip.al  employments  of  the  inh.abitants. 
The  chief  town  is  Burg,  which  has  about  2000 
inhabitants. 

FE'MGERICHTE  (derived  from  the  old  German 
Fern,  punishment,  and  Gericht,  court  of  justice), 
si>oken  of  as  the  Holy  Feme  (or  Fehme),  and  also 
known  as  the  Westphalian  or  Secret  Tribunals, 
were  among  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  supplied  the  ])lace  of  the  regu- 
lar administration  of  justice,  then  in  a  deplorable 
condition.  The  origin  of  these  courts  has  lieen 
ascribed  to  Charlemagne,  who,  it  w.as  pretended,  had 
instituted  them  to  prevent  the  relapse  into  Paganism 
of  the  Saxons  who  had  been  forcibly  converted  to 
Christianity.  It  is  more  jirobable,  however,  that 
they  were  a  relic  of  the  ancient  German  free  courts 
of  justice,  the  preservation  of  which  may  have  been 
favoured  in  Westphalia  by  special  circumstances. 

When  Henry  the  Lion  was  put  under  the  ban  of 
the  empire,  and  deprived  of  his  possessions  in 
1170,  Westphalia,  which  then  comprised  nearly  the 
whole  district  between  the  Pvhine  and  the  Weser, 
was  granted  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  ;  and 
from  this  time  the  secret  trihimals  gained  in  import- 
ance. In  the  general  confusion  which  then  pre- 
vailed in  Germany,  wlien  all  laws,  both  civd  and 
ecclesi.-istical,  hatl  lost  their  authority,  and  the 
fabric  of  society  seemed  on  the  j)oint  of  toppling 
into  ruins,  the  Femgeriehte  were  organised  for 
the  purjiose  of  arrestmg  and  controlling  the  inci- 
pient anarchy  that  threatened  to  bring  chaos  back 
again,  and  of  inspiring  ■with  feelings  of  salutary 
terror,  through  the  agency  of  their  mysterious 
powers  and  solemn  judgments,  all  rapacious  and 
lawless  persons  (but  especially  the  feudal  barons), 
who — on  account  of  the  impotence  of  the  ordinary 
legal  checks — committed  crimes  with  impunity.  In 
the  causes,  therefore,  which  led  to  their  forma- 
tion, and  in  their  general  design,  the  Femgerichte 
resemble  the  Hanseatic  to«-ns.  Tliey  soon  acquired 
tremendous  influence,  the  emperors  themselves 
having  recourse  to  their  assistance  against  ])ower- 
ful  and  rebellious  nobles.  It  was  in  the  Hth  and 
15th  centuries,  however,  that  they  attained  the 
summit  of  their  dread  authority,  when  they  began 
to  extend  themselves  over  the  whole  of  Germany. 
Benelici.al  as  in  many  instances  they  proved  to  be, 
they  could  not  fail,  in  the  long-run,  to  degenerate, 
and  to  be  frequently  cmjiloyed  as  a  clo.ak  to  self- 
interest  anil  malice.  It  is  therefore  by  no  means 
Burprising  that  many  voices  were  raised  against 
them,  and  that  in  14C1  various  princes  and  cities 
of  Germany,  as  well  as  the  Swiss  confederates, 
formed  unions  for  affording  justice  to  every  indi- 


vidual, and  preventing  any  from  seeking  it  from 
the  secret  tribunals.  Particular  chisses  likewise 
obtained  imperial  letters  of  protection  against  the 
pretensions  of  these  tribimals.  The  emperors  them- 
selves, however,  could  go  no  further  than  to  make 
some  unavailing  attempts  to  introduce  improve- 
ments into  the  constitution  of  the  Femgerichte,  as 
the  latter  were  bold  enough  to  oppose  the  imperial 
authority,  and  even  summoned  the  em])Bror  Friedrich 
III.  to  appear  before  them.  Their  influence  came  to 
an  end  only  when  the  public  peace  (Lamlfriedc)  was 
established  in  Germany,  and  an  amended  form  of 
trial  and  penal  judicature  was  introduced.  The  last 
real  Femgericht  was  held  at  C'eUe,  in  Hanover,  in 
the  year  15GS.  A  remnant  of  the  institution,  how- 
ever, existed  in  Westph-aUa  until  the  year  1811,  at 
which  time  it  was  i)erforming  the  function  of  a 
society  for  the  suppression  of  vice,  when  it  was 
abolished  by  an  order  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.  Bejond 
the  limits  of  Westph.alia,  notwithstanding  all  their 
endeavours,  the  Femgerichte  never  succeeded  in 
fidly  estabUshing  their  authority  ;  and  even  in  the 
lied  Land,  as  Westphalia  was  called  (probably  from 
the  colour  of  the  soil),  they  were  restricted  by  the 
imperial  privileges  on  which  they  founded  their 
authority. 

The  members  of  the  Feme  were  called  Wissende, 
'  the  knowing  ones,'  or  the  initiated.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  they  should  be  born  in  wedlock,  be  of  the 
Christian  religion,  lead  a  blameless  life,  and  bind 
themselves  by  a  tremendous  oath  '  to  support  the 
holy  Feme,  and  to  conceal  it  from  wife  and  child, 
father  and  mother,  sister  and  brother,  Are  and 
wind,  from  all  that  the  sun  shines  on  and  the  rain 
wets,  and  from  all  th.at  is  between  heaven  and 
earth.'  Originally,  none  but  an  inhabitant  of  the 
'Bed  Land,'  jjossessed  of  real  property,  eoidd  be 
admitted  a  member  of  the  ,Wissende  ;  at  a  later 
period,  this  rule  was  relaxed.  From  the  general 
body  were  elected  officers  called  Freiechijffen  (free 
justices),  who  were  assessors  of  the  court,  and 
executors  of  its  sentences.  The  presiding  judge 
w.as  called  the  Fn-ir/raf  (free  count).  The  general 
sujiorintendence  and  presidency  of  the  secret 
tribunals  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the  Land — i.  e.,  in 
Westphali.a,  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  The 
highest  oliice,  however,  as  supreme  president,  was 
nominally  held  by  tlie  emperor,  who  w.as  usually 
elected  into  the  number  of  the  Wissende  on  the 
occasion  of  liis  coronation  at  Aix-la-Chapclle.  The 
court  of  a  Frei^raf  was  called  Freiding  (a  free  comt 
of  ju-stice),  and  the  place  where  he  held  court  a 
Freiiluhl  (free  bench  or  court).  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  free  courts  had  its  seat  at  Dortmund. 
The  sittings  of  the  triljunal  were  either  open  or 
secret.  The  fonner  were  held  Iiy  day  in  the  ojjcn 
air,  and  decided  in  civil  disputes :  the  secret 
tribunals  took  cognizance  of  those  who  h.ad  been 
imable  to  prove  their  innocence  in  the  open  courts, 
as  well  as  of  those  who  were  accnseil  of  heresy, 
sorcerj',  rajie,  theft,  robbery,  or  nuirder.  The 
accusation  was  made  by  one  of  the  FreischiifTen, 
who  declared,  upon  oath,  that  the  accused  had 
committed  the  crime.  The  citation  w.as  secretly 
affixed,  with  symbohcal  signs,  to  the  door  of  the 
accused,  who  was  to  meet  the  Wissende  at  a  certain 
hour  and  place,  and  be  conducted  by  them  before 
the  tribunaL  The  accused  could  now  clear  himself 
by  an  oath,  but  the  accuser  ami  witnesses  could 
oppose  this  with  another.  If  the  .accused  could 
now  bring  forward  six  witnesses  to  swear  in  his 
favour,  the  accuser  could  strengthen  his  o.ath  with 
14  witnesses  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  21  mtnesses 
had  made  their  affid.avit  in  his  f.avour  that  sentence 
of  acquittal  necessarily  followed.  The  pei-sons 
convicted,  as  well  as  those  who  refused  to  obey  the 


FENCES— PENCIKG. 


summons,  were  given  over  to  the  Freischoffon.  The 
fii-st  Frfischiitfe  who  met  him  was  bound  to  liang 
him  on  a  tree,  or,  if  he  made  any  resistance,  to  put  him 
otherwise  to  death.  A  knife  w.os  left  by  the  corpse, 
to  shew  that  it  was  not  a  murder,  but  a  punishment 
inllioted  by  one  of  tlie  Freischoffeu.  Com[)are 
Wigand,  Vas  J-Vimrjeridil  fVexl/nlen's  (Hamm.  1825), 
ancl  Usener,  Die  Frri-  vml  helmUcJien  Oeric/ile  West- 
/(lien's  (Frankfort,  1832). 

FENCES,  in  Agriculture,  serve  the  twofold 
jiuqiose  of  enclosing  animals  on  pasture-grounds, 
and  of  protecting  land  from  straying  animals.  They 
are  formed  of  a  great  variety  of  materials,  and  of 
very  different  structure.  In  countries  where  wood 
or  stones  are  scarce,  more  especially  where  they 
have  been  long  settled,  hedges,  formed  of  various 
kinds  of  plants,  are  common.  These,  when  well 
kept  and  managed,  give  a  clothed  and  pictiiresque 
a])pearance  to  the  landscape.  The  hawthorn  is  the 
favourite  hedge-plant  in  this  country.     See  HErif;E.s. 

When  stones  are  used  as  fences,  they  are  built  as 
walls.  The  form  and  mode  of  building  varies  with 
the  nature  and  quality  of  the  stones,  and  the  degree 
of  taste  and  nicety  required.  Aberdeenshire  forms 
its  walls  or  dykes  surrounding  its  fields  with  the 
granite  boulders  that  are  strewed  over  the  surface 
of  the  coimtry.  The  graywacke  affords  slaty  stones, 
which  give  the  walls  their  jieculiar  form  in  other 
parts,  and  so  with  the  various  kinds  of  sandstone. 

In  new  countries,  where  wood  is  abundant,  the 
fences  are  all  of  this  material.  The  snake-fence, 
named  from  its  zigzag  form,  is  made  by  merely  lay- 
ing the  ends  of  trees  above  each  other,  and  requires 
no  other  means  of  fixing.  As  wood  becomes  more 
valuable,  it  is  made  into  stobs  and  rails.  The 
stobs  are  driven  into  the  ground  from  two  to  three 
yards  apart,  and  from  four  to  five  rails  are  nailed 
across,  according  to  the  purpose  it  is  meant  to 
serve.  The  stob  and  rafter  fence  is  made  by  driving 
the  stobs  from  three  to  four  inches  apart,  anil 
binding  the  whole  by  a  rafter  or  rail  nailed  across 
the  top.  This  is  one  of  the  strongest  of  wooden 
fences,  but  requires  more  material  than  the  other. 

Iron  or  wire  fencing  has  come  much  into  use  of 
late.  Vast  stretches  of  waste  land  in  this  eoiintry, 
as  well  as  p.astures  in  Australia,  have  been  enclosed 
by  means  of  wire-fencing.  .Strong  wires  are  stretched 
on  posts  firmly  secured  in  the  ground,  from  100 
to  200  yards  or  more  apart.  Intermediate  or  lighter 
posts  are  put  in  at  from  two  to  three  yards'  dis- 
tance. After  the  wires  are  fully  stretched,  they 
are  fixed  to  the  smaller  posts ;  when  of  wood,  by 
means  of  st;xples,  or  threaded  through,  when  of  iron. 

Lata  reijai-dintj  Fences.— la  England,  it  is  held  to 
be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  of  lands  to  repair  and 
uphold  fences,  and  not  of  the  landlord ;  and  without 
anyspeci.il  agreement,  the  landlord  may  maintain  an 
action  against  the  tenant  for  not  doing  so.  Though 
a  tenant  from  year  to  year  is  not  bound  to  put  the 
fences  and  other  buildings  on  his  farm  into  repair, 
he  must  not  do  anything  that  amounts  to  waste,  or 
to  a  breach  of  the  rules  of  good  husbandry.  He 
cannot  cut  and  sell  hedgerows,  or  if  he  does  so,  he 
must  make  up  the  hedges  and  fences  according  to 
the  course  of  good  husbandry.  '  If  there  be  a 
quickset  fence  of  white  thorn,  and  the  tenant  shut 
it  up,  or  suffer  it  to  be  destroyed,  this  is  destruction ; 
but  cutting  up  quicksets  is  not  waste,  if  it  ])reser\'e3 
the  spring.' — Woodfall  On  Landlord  and  Tenant, 
pp.  4.56,  4.57,  and  cases  cited.  Where,  in  answer  to 
a  declaration  against  a  tenant  for  not  iising  premises 
in  a  husbaniUike  manner  in  repairing  fences,  on  his 
implied  obligation  to  do  so,  the  tenant  plc-uled  that 
the  fence  became  out  of  repair  by  natural  decay, 
and  tliat  there  was  no  proper  wood  which  he  had  a 
right  to  cut  for  repairing  the  fences,  and  that  the 


]ilaintiff  ought  to  have  set  out  projier  wood  for  the 
]iurpose  of  repairs,  which  he  had  neglected  to  do, 
the  plea  was  held  to  be  b.ad,  because  it  did  not  aver 
any  request  to  the  plaintiff  so  to  do,  or  a  custom  of 
the  country  in  that  respect. — Whittield  v.  Wecdon, 
2  Chit  0S.5.  By  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  a  20,  ss.  2:i,  40,  44, 
the  destruction  of  fences  is  declared  to  be  punish- 
able summarily  with  a  line  of  not  more  than  i'o ; 
or  in  the  case  of  a  deer-jiark  fence,  with  A'oO.  The 
statute  is  limited  to  England. 

In  Scotland,  the  landlord  is  held  bound  to  put  the 
fences  on  the  farm  in  due  repair  on  the  entry  of  the 
tenant,  independently  of  any  stipiUation  in  the  lease  ; 
whilst  the  tenant  must  maintain  them  and  leave 
them,  with  the  exception  of  ordinary  tear  and  wear, 
in  the  state  in  which  they  were  given  over  to  him. 
But  the  landlord  is  not  entitled  to  increase  the 
burdens  of  his  tenant  by  erecting  new  fences  not 
stipulated  for,  unless  they  be  march-fences,  which  he 
may  be  compelled  to  erect  by  contiguous  projirietors, 
and  half  the  expense  of  which  he  mu.st  share  with 
them,  under  the  act  1601  c.  41,  ratified  by  1CS5  c.  ."59, 
of  the  existence  of  which  the  tenant  is  presumed  to 
have  been  aware  when  he  entered  to  the  farm.  As 
regards  fences  erected  spontaneously  by  the  tenant, 
the  rule  is  that  if,  being  entitled  to  remove  them, 
he  allows  them  to  remain,  he  must  leave  them  in 
repair;  Init  if  they  are  Fixtures  (q.  v.),  which  he  is 
not  entitled  to  remove,  he  is  not  bound  to  repair 
them.  It  is  optional  to  the  landlonl,  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  lease,  to  order  removal  of  fences 
and  other  buildings  voluntarily  built  by  the  tenant, 
exccjit  in  the  case  of  palings  and  movable  fences, 
or  to  prevent  their  being  removed  without  oiler- 
ing  any  indemniHcation. — Hunter,  Landlord  and 
Tenant,  ii.  p.  208.  As  buildings,  fences,  and  other 
ameliorations  made  by  the  tenant,  are  supposed 
to  be  made  for  his  own  sake,  and  not  for  the  sake  of 
the  landlord,  he  has  no  chaim  for  the  moneys  which 
he  may  have  expended  for  such  puri>oses,  at  the 
end  of  the  le.ase  ;  except  under  a  si>eci:il  stipidation 
to  that  effect.  But  if  the  tenant's  occupation  be 
terminated  abruptly,  and  more  particularly  if  his 
lease  excludes  assignees  and  sub-tenants,  ft  is 
equit.able  that  the  landlord,  getting  the  benefit 
beyond  what  was  contemplated  by  the  tenant,  the 
family  or  the  creditors  of  the  latter  should  be 
allowed  a  proportion  of  the  value  of  the  ameliora- 
tions. Bell's  Princip.  s.  1255.  The  cases  in  which 
meliorations  are  or  are  not  removable  will  be 
explained  under  Fixtctres  (q.  v.). 

FENCIBLE,  a  word,  of  doubtful  origin,  mean- 
ing defensive.  Regiments  raised  for  local  defence, 
or  at — and  only  for — a  special  crisis,  used  to  be 
denominated  '  Fencible-'  In  the  Last  French  war, 
the  local,  as  distinguished  from  the  general  militia, 
was  called  fencible,  and  many  of  the  vohmteer 
corps  styled  themselves  the  '  Royal  — — shire 
Fencible  Infantr)'.'  The  only  regiment  of  this 
char.acter  stdl  bearing  the  title  is  the  '  Royal 
Malta  Fencible  Artillery,'  although  the  Ceylon 
Rifle  Regiment  has  also  essentially  the  charauter 
of  fencible. 

FENCING  may  be  described,  for  a  general 
definition,  as  the  art  of  defending  one's  o\ni  body 
or  assailing  another  person's  in  fair  fi','ht  by  the 
aid  of  a  side- weapon — i.  e.,  by  a  sword,  rapier,  or 
bayonet.  Technically,  fencing  is  usually  limited 
to  the  second  of  these ;  and  works  on  the  art 
touch  only  on  attack  and  defence  with  the  foil  in 
pastime,  and  the  rapier  in  actual  personal  combat. 
The  present  opportunity  will,  however,  be  taken 
to  introduce  the  elements  of  single  combat  with 
foil,  sword,  and  bayonet.  The  objection  formerly 
existed   that  instruction  in  fencing  encouraged  a 


FEXCIXG. 


propensity  to  duelling  ;  but  as  that  absurdest  of 
absurd  customs  has  entirely  ceased — at  least  in 
Britain — to  demand  its  annual  victims,  no  such 
objection  now  holds.  Fencing  may  therefore  be 
safely  learned  and  taught  as  an  elegant  and  manly 
accomplishment,  developing  gracefilluess  and  acti- 
vity, while  it  imjiarts  suppleness  to  the  limbs, 
strength  to  the  muscles,  and  quickness  to  the  eye. 
This  regards  fencing  with  the  foils  (the  rapier  has 
disai>peared  with  the  duels  which  employed  it)  ; 
but  instruction  in  fencing  with  the  sword  and 
b.ij'onet,  while  conferring  the  same  advantages,  has 
in  addition  the  recommendation  of  helping  to  lit  the 
student  for  taking  an  active  part  in  any  general 
national  defence  that  political  circumstances  might 
render  necessary.  The  Foil  (q.  v.)  is  a  circular  or 
polygonal  bar  of  pliable  and  very  highly  tempered 
steel,  mounted  as  any  other  swonl,  and  blunted  at 
the  point  by  a  '  button,'  to  prevent  danger  in  its  use. 
From  its  n.atnre,  the  foil  can  only  be  employed  in 
thrusting,  and,  being  edgeless,  it  can  be  handled 
\\-ithoutliability  to  cutting  wounds.  The  length  of 
the  blade  should  be  jiroportioned  to  the  height  of 
the  person  using  it — 31  inches  being  the  medium 
length  for  men,  and  .38  inches  from  hilt  to  point 
the  maximum  allowable.  As  a  protection  against 
accidental  thnists,  the  face  is  generally  guarded 
by  a  wire-mask.  The  two  portions  of  the  blade 
are  known  as  the  '  forte '  and  the  '  feeble  ; '  the 
first  extending  from  the  hilt  to  the  centre,  and  the 
other  from  the  centre  to  the  point. 

In  drawing,  advance  the  right  foot  slightly  to  the 
front,  take  the  scabbard  vritk  the  left  hand,  raise 
the  right  elbow  as  high  as  the  shoulder,  seize  the 
hilt  \%nth  riglit  hand,  nails  tnrned  inward,  and  hav- 
ing drawn  the  foil,  pass  it  with  i-ivacity  over  the 
head  in  a  semicircle,  and  bring  it  down  to  the 
guard  (of  which  presently)  with  its  point  towards 
the  adversary,  not  higher  than  his  face,  nor  lower 
than  his  lowest  rib.  Simultaneously  with  the 
weapon  being  brought  into  position,  the  left  hand 
■\\'ith  fingers  extended  should  be  raised  to  a  level 
■with  the  head,  as  a  counterpoise  in  the  various 
motions  to  ensue.  In  estabUshing  the  position  of 
giiard,  the  right  foot  must  be  advanced  24  inches 
before  the  left,  the  heels  in  a  straight  line,  and 
e.ach  knee  slightly  bent,  to  impart  elasticity  to  the 
movements,  but  not  too  much,  lest  the  firmness  of 
the  position  be  diminished. 

In  fencing,  there  are  three  openings  or  entrances 
— the  in-iide,  comprising  the  whole  breast  from 
shoiddcr  to  shoulder  ;  outside,  attackable  by  all  the 
thrusts  made  above  the  wrist  on  the  outside  of  the 
sword  ;  and  the  low  parts,  embracing  from  the  arm- 
pits to  the  hips.  For  reaching  and  guarding  these 
entrances,  there  are  five  positions  of  the  wrist — 
prime,  seconde,  tierce,  carte  (quarte),  and  quinte. 
The  most  important,  and  those  to  commence  with, 
are  carte  and  tierce,  from  which  are  derived  the 
subordinate  positions  of  carte  over  the  arm,  low 
carte,  and  flanconnade  or  octave. 

To  engage  is  to  cross  swords  with  your  adversary, 
pressing  against  his  with  sufficient  force  to  prevent 
any  manoeuvTe  taking  you  unawares.  To  disengage 
is  to  slip  the  point  of  your  sword  briskly  under  ms 
blade,  and  to  raise  it  again  on  the  other  side,  press- 
ing in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  previous 
case. 

The  guard  in  each  position  is  a  passive  obstruc- 
tion to  the  opposing  thrust ;  the  parade  is  an  active 
obstruction,  in  which  the  guard  is  first  assumed, 
and  the  blade  then  pressed  outward  or  inward  by 
a  turn  of  the  wrist  against  the  adversary's  sword, 
so  that  when  thrust  at  your  body  it  shall  be 
diverted  from  its  aim,  and  held  off.  The  jiarade 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  mere  extension  of 


the  guard.  If  the  parade  were  called  the  '  parry,'  it 
would  convey  its  meaning  more  readily  to  English 
ears.  Anotlicr,  and  jierhaps  more  appropriate  name 
for  thrust,  is  the  '  lunge '  or  '  longc,'  as  the  tlunist 
is  almost  always  accompanied  by  a  lunge  forward 
of  the  right  foot,  to  give  at  once  greater  force  and 
longer  command  to  the  blow. 

'The  following  are  directions  for  the  principal 
guards  and  thrusts,  which  may  also  be  seen  depicted 
roughly  in  the  sketches  below. 

Carte,  Guard. — Turn  ^^Tist  with  nails  iipwards  ; 
hand  on  a  line  with  lower  part  of  breast ;  arm 
somewhat  bent,  and  elbow  inclined  a  little  to  the 
outside  ;  point  of  foil  elevated  at  an  angle  of  about 
15°,  and  directed  at  upper  part  of  adversary's 
bre.ast 

Thrust. — Being  at  the  guard  in  carte,  straighten 
the  arm,  raise  the  ■\vrist  above  the  head,  drop  the 
foil's  point  to  a  line  %\-ith  the  adversary's  breast,  throw 
first  the  wrist,  and  then  the  whole  body,  forward 
by  a  lunge  with  the  right  foot  of  two  feet  from  the 
'  guard,'  the  loft  foot  remaining  firm.  The  left  hand 
should  be  dropped  during  the  lunge  to  a  level  with 
the  thigh,  ami  to  a  position  distant  about  a  foot 
from  the  body  ;  it  will  then  afford  a  good  counter- 
poise to  the  sword-arm.  During  the  whole  action, 
the  body  must  be  jierfcctly  ui>right.  When  ]ier- 
formed  briskly,  it  appears  that  the  point  and  foot 
are  advanced  simultaneously,  but  in  fact  the  point 
has,  or  should  have,  priority,  in  order  that  the 
instantly  follo\ving  lunge  may  drive  it  home.  Most 
of  these  observations  concerning  thrust  in  carte 
apply  equally  to  all  other  thrusts. 


Fig.  1.— Carte. 

Carte  orer  the  arm  is  a  varictj'  of  this  thrust. 
The  sword  is  driven  outside  the  ailversary's  blade, 
from  the  carte  position,  but  in  the  tierce  line. 

Lo'o  Carte. — Engage  adversary's  blade  in  carte, 
then  drop  point  under  his  -nTist,  in  a  line  to  his 
elbow,  .and  thnist  at  his  tiank,  the  body  being  con- 
siderably bent. 

Flanconnade.  or  Octave. — Engage  adversary's  blade 
in  carte,  and  bind  it  with  yours,  then  carry  your 
point  behind  his  wrist  and  under  his  elbow  :  with- 
out quitting  his  blade,  plunge  your  point  to  his 
flank. 

Tierce,  Guard — As  in  carte,  the  nails  and  -OTist 
being  somewhat  more  downward,  and  the  arm 
stretched  a  little  outw.ard,  to  cover  the  outside. 

Parade. — Move  arm,  from  the  guard,  obUquely 
downward  to  the  right  about  six  inches,  and  oppose 
the  inside  of  the  adversary's  blade. 

Thrust. — From  the  guard,  turn  wrist  with  n.ail3 
downward,  the  same  height  as  in  carte,  the  inside  of 
the  arm  in  a  line  with  the  right  temple ;  then  thrust 
and  lunge  as  in  carte. 

Seconde,  Parade. — Xails  and  wrist  downward,  hand 
opposed  outward,  and  blade,  pointing  low,  should 
form  an  angle  of  about  45°  \v-ith  the  ground. 

283 


FEXCIXG. 


Thrust— The  same  as  ticrec,  but  delivered  under 
the  adversary's  WTist  aud  elbow,  to  a  iioint  between 


Fig.  2.— Tierce. 

his  riirht  armpit  and  right  breast :  the  body  to  be 
more  bent  than  in  carte  or  tierce. 


Fig.  3.— Seconde. 

Prime,  Parade. — In  usinp;  jirime  to  parry  the 
thrust  in  seconde,  pass  your  point  over  the  adver- 
sary's blade,  lower  it  to  the  waist,  keeping  your 
wrist  as  high  as  your  mouth,  nails  doi^niward,  eltiow 
beut,  and  body  held  back  as  far  as  possible.  The 
left  foot  should  also  be  drawn  backward  a  few 
inches,  to  remove  the  body  further  from  the  hostile 
point. 

Thrust. — An  extension  movement  from  the  parade. 


Fig.  4.— Prime. 

Quinlr,  Parade. — Wrist  in  high  carte,  sword-point 
low,  aiul  ojipose  adversary  from  tlu  forte  of  the 
outside  edge  of  your  Ijlade. 

Thrust. — Make  a  feint  on  the  half-circle  par.ide, 
with  the  wrist  in  carte ;  diseng.age  your  point  over 
the  .adversary's  blade,  and  thrust  directly  at  his 
(hank. 

U atf-circtt',  ]'arude— One  of  the  iirincip.al  defen- 
sive parades:  straighten  arm,  keep  wrist  in  line 
284 


witli  shoulder,  n.ail3  up  :  by  quick  motion  of  wrist 
sweep  point  from  right  to  left  in  a  circle  covering 


Fig.  5. — Quinte. 

your  body  from  head  to  knee,  until  the  .adversary's 
blade  is  fomid  and  opposition  established. 

The  parades  parry  thrusts  as  follows  : 

Carte,  M'itii  wrist  low,  parries  low  carte  and 
seconde  ;  with  wrist  raised,  all  tlie  thrusts  over  the 
]>oint  on  the  inside  of  the  sword  and  the  llanconnade. 

Tierce  i)arries  high  carte ;  with  raised  wrist, 
j)arrie3  tierce. 

Seconde  parries  all  lower  tlirusts,  both  inside  and 
outside. 

Half-circle  parries  carte,  high  carte,  tierce,  and 
seconde. 

Prime  jiarries  carte,  low  carte,  and  seconde. 

Quinte  i)anies  seconde  and  flanconnade. 

In  all  parades  or  parries,  care  nuist  be  taken  that 
in  covering  the  side  attacked,  the  ]>ar.ade  is  not  so 
wide  as  to  expose  the  other  side  to  the  enemy.  .-V 
steady  coimtenance,  shewing  no  disquietude  at  any 
attempt  he  may  make,  is,  above  all,  necessary  in 
p.arades. 

Every  parade  has  its  return,  which  should  be 
made  with  A-iv.acity  aiul  decision.  A  thrust  can  be 
returned  when  the  adversary  thrusts,  or  when, 
batlled  in  liis  attack,  he  is  recovering  to  his  guartL 
In  the  lirst  case,  no  lunge  is  necessary,  the  return 
being  made  from  the  M'rist :  this  return  requires 
gi'eat  skill  and  quickness,  since  the  adversary  sliould 
receive  the  thrust  befor*;,  by  finishing  lus  own,  he 
has  touched  your  body. 

Ordinarij  Jieliirns. — After  carte  parry,  return  in 
carte ;  after  tierce,  return  in  tierce ;  after  jiarrying 
high  carte,  return  seconde  ;  after  parrying  seconde, 
return  in  quinte  ;  after  jiarade  in  prime,  return 
seconde  or  low  carte. 

Peints,  of  which  there  .are  many  v.arieties,  con- 
sist in  tlireatening  an  attack  on  one  side  of  the 
sword,  and  then  executing  it  on  the  otlier.  The 
liest  parade  against  a  feint  is  that  of  the  half- 
circle,  which  will  be  sure  to  lind  the  adversary's 
point. 

Advance  and  Pctreal  arc  motions  of  attack  or 
withdrawal,  jjcrformcd  by  advancing  the  right,  or 
withikawing  the  left  foot  su<ldenly  about  18  inches, 
and  instantly  following  it  with  the  other  foot.  As 
the  adversary  .otlvanees,  you  nuist  retreat,  unless 
prepared  to  receive  him  at  the  sword-jioint. 

Salute. — The  salute  is  a  courteous  ojiening  of  the 
fencing,  and  consists  in  gracefully  taking  otF  the 
hat,  while,  with  th.e  foils,  your  adversary  and  your- 
self measure  your  respective  distances. 

Appcls  or  beats  with  the  right  foot,  heals  on  the 
adversary's  blade,  and  ijlissades  or  glidings  of  one 
sword  along  the  other,  are  motions  intended  to 
confu.se  the  enemy,  .and  give  0])cnings  for  tiuaists. 

Voltes,  demi-rultes,  and  disanninij,  were  niauaaivrea 
formerly  taught  with  care,  but  they  are  now  quite 


FEXCIXG. 


(lisi'aitUiI  ill  the  acailcmies  of  Englaml  and  France, 
as  useless  aud  umiesirablc. 

In  Spain  aud  Italy,  considerable  differences  of 
practice  from  that  in  France  aud  Kngland  prevail. 
The  left  hand  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  ]jarrjnng, 
and  in  Italy  is  aidcil  Iiy  a  dagger,  or  sometimes  a 
cloak.  The  Spaniard,  though  trusting  to  his  sword 
and  left  hanil  only,  has  his  blade  live  feet  long,  with 
sharp  edges ;  his  guard  is  nearly  straight,  and  one 
of  his  favourite  attacks  is  by  a  cut  (not  thrust)  at 
the  head. 

In  an  article  limited  in  length  as  this  must 
necessarily  be,  it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than 
the  merest  outline  of  the  various  motions ;  but,  of 
course,  in  actual  practice,  there  are  endless  varia- 
tions of  the  diticrent  modes  of  attack  aud  defence, 
which  will  be  severally  adopted  according  to  the 
skill  and  option  of  the  fencer.  There  is  no  finer 
indoor  exercise  than  fencmg,  as  the  muscles  in 
every  limb  are  developed  and  strengthened  by  it. 
The  great  requirements  for  success  are  a  steady  eye 
and  hand,  a  quick  purpose  as  quickly  executed,  and, 
perhajis  above  all,  perfect  equanimity  of  temper. 

The  Swor.D  Exerclse  dififers  from  fencing  with 
the  foil ;  in  that,  the  weapon  employed  has  one 
cutting  edge  as  well  as  a  point,  and  is  therefore 
intended  to  cut  and  thrust.  The  sword  is  the  .irm 
of  all  officers  in  the  army  and  navy,  of  many  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  constitutes  the  sole  mode 
of  attack  and  defence  for  the  oiiicers  of  the  British 
volunteers.  A  certain  degi'ee  of  proficiency  in  its 
use  is  therefore  always  serviceable.  In  practice,  the 
usual  substitute  is  a  stout,  straight  stick,  called  a 
'single-stick,'  having  a  basket-handle  to  protect  the 
knuckles. 

The  position  of  the  combatant  is  the  same  as 
that  assimied  in  fencing  with  the  foil ;  the  lunge  is 
similar,  .as  are  also  the  *  advance '  and  '  retreat,'  and 
other  minor  points.  According  to  the  instructions 
of  drill-masters,  there  are  seven  cuts,  with  seven 
corresjionding  guards,  and  three  thrusts.  The 
theoretical  directions  of  all  these  are  shewn  on  the 
accompanying  diagram,  which  represents  a  t.arget 
placed  opposite  a  iiupU,  so  that  he  may  see  the 
motions  he  is  expected  to  perforin  displayed  before 
him.  The  centre  of  the  target  is  sujiposed  to  be  in 
a  line  with  the  centre  of  his  breast. 


Tlie  cuts  proceed  from  the  circumference  towards 
the  centre  along  the  thick  lines.  Nos.  I,  3,  and  5 
are  inside  cvits,  and  attack  the  left  cheek,  left  side, 
and  inside  of  the  right  leg  respectively ;  2,  4,  and 
6  are  outside  cuts,  attacking  the  enemy's  right 
cheek,  right  side,  and  right  leg  on  the  outside. 
Ko.  7  is  a  vertical  cut,  aimed  at  the  head. 

The  dotted  lines  shew  the  position  of  the  sword 


in  the  several  guards  by  which  the  cuts  are  opposed. 
The  sword-handles  illustrate  the  situation  of  the 
right  hand  with  reference  to  the  centre  of  the  body. 
The  points  or  thrusts  are  shewn  by  the  black 
circles.  That  towards  Ko.  1  should  be  directed 
■with  the  wrist  and  edge  of  the  sword  ujjwards  to 
the  right ;  towards  2,  with  the  edge  upw.irds  to  the 
left ;  and  in  the  .3d  ]ioiiit,  with  the  wrist  rising  to 
the  centre,  and  the  eilge  upwards  to  the  right. 

The  'parry'  is  an  .additional  defensive  movement, 
and  consists  ui  bringing  the  WTist  nearly  to  the 
right  shoulder;  whence,  as  centre,  a  circular  sweep 
of  the  sword  is  m.ade  from  left  to  right. 

A  consiilerable  latitude  is  allowable  in  regard  to 
the  cuts,  as  to  the  part  of  the  ailversary's  body  at 
which  they  are  directed,  provided  the  general 
inclination  of  the  IjIow  be  observed ;  .similarly,  the 
cut  may  at  times  be  jiarried  by  a  guard  other  than 
that  intended  specially  for  it,  according  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  fencer. 

In  engaging,  or  joining  swords,  with  the  enemy, 
jircss  tlie  bl.ades  but  lightly  together,  so  that  the 
hand  and  wrist  may  be  readily  susceptible  of  any 
motion.  In  making  the  guards,  care  must  alw.ays 
be  taken  to  receive,  if  possible,  the  feeble  of  the 
enemy's  bhade  on  the  forte  of  your  own,  so  as  to 
offer  the  greater  opposition.  It  should  .also  be  borne 
in  mind  th.at,  in  all  cuts  .at  the  leg,  when  at  proper 
distance,  the  shifting  of  your  own  leg,  and  delivering 
a  cut  at  the  same  moment,  becomes  the  most  eflec- 
tual  and  .advantageous  defence,  particuUarly  if  you 
h.apiien  to  be  t.aller  than  your  adversarj',  as  you  will 
tlion  prob.ably  be  out  of  lus  reach,  while  he  is  within 
yours. 

In  contending  with  bayonet  or  pike,  the  most 
effectual  guard  is  the  5th,  which,  if  well  timed, 
enables  the  swordsman  to  seize  the  musket  or  pike 
with  his  left  hand,  and  then  make  the  Cth  cut  at  his 
opponent's  neck.  In  an  encounter  with  the  rapier, 
the  best  cuts  are  Kos.  3  .and  4,  as  they  .attack  the 
enemy's  arm,  which  must  bo  advanced  within  reach 
before  he  can  touch  your  body,  .and  also  constitute 
a  defence  against  his  thrust.  If  the  enemy — no 
m.atter  how  armed — be  on  horseback,  the  dismoimted 
swordsman  (proWded  he  have  proper  nerve  and 
agihty)  has  decidedly  the  adv,antage.  Endeavour  to 
l>l.ace"yourself  on  his  left,  where  he  has  less  power  of 
defending  himself  or  his  horse,  and  cannot  reach  to 
so  great  a  distance  .as  on  his  right :  an  attack  on  the 
horse  wiU  probably  render  it  imgovernable,  and  it 
becomes  easy  then  to  avoid  the  rider's  Ijlows,  while 
he  himself  may  he  attacked  with  impunity  in  .almost 
any  direction. 

Bayonet  Exerci.se. — If  the  sword  exercise  be 
of  use  to  volunteer  officers,  there  are  thirty  times 
as  many  volunteers  themselves  to  whom  a  proper 
command  of  the  bayonet  is  indispensable.  In  close- 
quarter  eng.agements,  there  is  no  wea[)on  more  for- 
midable :  from  its  length  and  weight,  the  thrust 
of  the  bayonet  gives  a  terrible  wound,  and  its  force 
is  such  that  tiiere  is  great  dilficulty  in  paiiying 
the  attack.  Like  other  small-.anns,  it  is  most  ser- 
viceable when  haiuUed  on  scientific  principles  ;  and 
the  art  of  using  it  to  advantage  is  so  simple  as  to  be 
very  easily  acquired,  while  the  exercise,  from  the 
weight  of  the  rifle,  admirably  aids  in  developing  the 
muscles  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Of  course,  the  bayonet  is  always  fixed  at  the  end 
of  the  musket,  when  it  becomes  virtn.olly  a  pike.  The 
position  of  the  feet  in  the  baj-onet  exercise  remains 
always  the  same  relatively,  and  absolutely  until 
advance  or  retre.at  be  effected.  The  right  foot  is 
thrown  back  24  inches,  and  the  weight  of  the  body 
thrown  upon  it.  The  heels  are  kept  in  a  line  with 
each  other,  both  knees  bent  and  well  apart ;  the 
right  knee  directly  over  the  foot,  the  left  easy  and 


FEXCING— FENELON. 


flexible,  iiointing  to  the  front.  In  this  position  of  the 
boilv,  all  the  defensive  motions  of  the  b.iyonet  are 
UKuie.  In  'guanl,'  the  bayonet  is  bronght  nearly  to 
a  horizontal  direction,  level  with  the  waist,  and 
pointing  towards  the  bre.ast  of  an  advancing  enemy, 
tiimilarly,  to  'gnard,'  the  positions  'low,'  'high,'  and 
'scoiind  point'  are  assumed,  the  bayonet  pointing  as 
shewn  by  the  dotted  lines  in  iig.  7.     The  butt  of 


Fig.  7. 


the  rifU-'  is  alw.ays  kept  well  to  the  right  side,  the 
hand  behind  the"  trigger-guard,  and  the  whole  body 
in  attitude  to  offer  great  resistance.  In  'low,'  the 
l)arrel  is  turned  downwards  ;  but  in  all  the  other 
defensive  motions  it  is  held  upwards.  The  position 
of  tlie  arms  is  in  each  case  that  which  would  natur- 
ally be  taken  in  placing  the  bayonet  and  musket 
in  the  re(|uired  direction. 

The  offensive  position  of  the  boily  is  iicquircd  by 
the  extension  of  the  right  leg,  and  bending  forward 
of  the  left  without  moVing  the  feet.  The  butt  of 
the  rille  is  at  the  same  time  jiressed  firmly  to  the 
shoulder.  This  position  is  called  '  point,'  and  con- 
stitutes an  extension  of  the  weajion  in  a  direction 
parallel  with  either  of  those  previously  taken.  As 
there  were  four  '  guards,'  so  there  arc  four  points, 
which  are  shown  in  Iig.  8.     The  barrel  is  in  each 


FR  OU 
2"  POINT 


^, 


Fi-.  8. 


case  upward,  and  the  motions  for  each  are  similar, 
except  in  pointing  from  '2d  jioint,'  when  the  rille, 
seized  by  the  right  hand  round  the  small  of  the 
butt,  is  thrust  straight  up  above  the  head  to  the 
full  extent  of  the  arm,  the  left  hand  f.alling  .along 
the  thigh,  and  the  legs  being  straightened  so  as  to 
form  an  isosceles  triangle. 

'Shorten  arms'  is  a  useful  motion,  both  as  a 
defence  and  as  a  prc]iaratioii  for  a  strong  attack.  It 
consists  in  carrying  the  butt  b.ack  to  the  full  extent 
of  the  right  arm,  while  the  barrel  (downwards)  rests 
upon  the  thick  part  of  the  left  arm.  The  body  is 
tlirown  uiion  the  right  leg,  and  the  left  straightened. 
Tliis  powerful  i>osition  is  seen  in  the  annexed  cut. 

In  all  the  guards  and  points,  and  also  'shorten 
anna,'  the  bayonet  may  be  turned  directly  to  the 
front,  to  the  right,  or  to  the  left,  as  circumstances 


may  suggest.     In  contending  with  a  swordsman, 
the  action  of  changing  from  right  to  left,  when  at 


Fig.  9. 

the  'high'  or  'low,'  is  sufficient  defence  against  the 
ordinary  cuts  of  the  latter. 

Among  the  treatises  consulted  for  this  article 
have  been  the  works  on  fencing  by  Angelo  and 
lioland,  as  well  as  the  shorter  instructions  issued 
by  the  military  authorities. 

FENELON,  Fkajncis  de  Salignac  de  ia  Motiie, 
was  born,  August  6, 1C51,  in  the  chlVteau  Fcnelon, 
jiroviuce  of  Perigord,  now  included  in  the  dejiart- 
meiit  of  the  Dordogne,  of  a  family  which  has  given 
many  celebrities  both  to  the  chm-ch  and  to  the  state 
in  France.  His  education  was  conducted  at  home 
up  to  his  l'2tli  year,  when  he  w.as  transferred  to 
Oahors,  and  afterwards  to  the  Plessis  College  in 
Paris.  At  the  close  of  a  most  blameless  collegiate 
career,  he  selected  the  church  as  his  jirofession, 
and  entered,  in  his  20th  year,  the  newly  founded 
seminary  of  St  Sulpice,  then  imder  the  direction  of 
the  celelirated  Abljc  Tronson,  where  he  received 
holy  orders  in  1()75.  Unlike  but  too  many  eccle- 
siastics of  his  own  rank  at  that  jieriod,  he  gave  his 
whole  heart  to  liis  saered  calling.  For  some  time 
after  his  ordination,  he  was  employed  in  attendancii 
at  the  hospitals,  and  in  other  parocliial  duties  of 
the  jiarish  of  St  Sulpice ;  and  in  the  year  1G7S, 
he  was  named  director  of  an  institution  recently 
founded  for  the  reception  of  female  converts  to  the 
Koman  Catholic  faith,  in  Paris.  During  his  tenure  of 
this  office,  he  wrote  his  iirst  work.  On  the  Education 
of  Girls,  which  is  still  a  standard  authority  ;  and 
the  gentleness,  moderation,  and  charity  with  which 
he  discharged  his  duties  towards  the  young  con- 
verts, led  to  his  appointment  as  head  of  a  mission, 
which,  on  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
in  1GS5,  was  sent  to  preach  among  the  Protestant 
jiopulation  of  Saintonge  and  Poitou.  In  IGSS,  ho 
resumed  his  duties  in  the  Waison  des  Nouvclles 
Converties,  at  Paris  ;  and  in  the  following  ye.ar,  he 
was  named  by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  highly  conlidential 
]iost  of  preceptor  of  his  grandson,  the  young  Dulce  of 
Burgundy.  F.'s  management  of  this  most  important 
and  delicate  trust  shewed  how  well  he  understood 
the  true  n.ature  and  objects  of  education.  All  his 
own  instructions,  and  all  the  exercises  enjoined  upon 
his  pupil,  were  so  contrived,  as,  while  they  imparted 
the  actual  knowledge  which  it  is  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness of  a  master  to  communicate,  at  the  same  time 
served  to  jirepare  the  mind  and  the  heart  of  the  pupil 
for  what  was  to  be  the  real  business  of  his  life,  by 
impressing  upon  him  a  sense  of  the  responsibility 
which  awaited  him,  of  the  great  princijiles  of  truth 
and  justice  >ipon  which  these  res]iousibilitic3  are 
founded,  and  of  the  hollowness  and  futility  of  all 
earthly  glory,  power,  and  hajipiness,  which  do  not 
rest  upon  this  foundation.  To  this  wise  design  of 
the  preceptor  we  are  indebted  for  many  works  still 
jiopiUar  in  educational  use;  for  the  Fables,  for  the 


FEXELON. 


Dialogues  of  the  Deail,  for  the  History  of  the  Ancient 
Philu.Hophei-s,  for  tlie  germ  at  least  of  the  Tele- 
viachus,  and  for  the  Life,  of  C'harlemar/ne,  the 
mamiscript  of  which  last  work,  unfortunately, 
was  burned  in  the  lire  which  destroyed  the  arclu- 
episcopal  palace  of  L'ambray  in  the  year  1G97.  As 
an  acknowledgment  of  these  rrreat  merits,  he  was 
presented  by  the  king,  in  IGOl,  to  the  Abbey  of  St 
Valery,  and  in  the  following  year,  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Cambray,  which  he  only  accepted  on 
the  exjjress  condition,  that  for  nine  mouths  of  each 
j'ear  he  should  be  e.xempteil  from  all  duties  as 
preceptor  of  the  priuce,  and  left  at  liberty  to  devote 
liimself  exclusively  to  the  care  of  his  diocese.  It  is 
to  this  period  of  F.'s  life  that  the  history  of  the 
unhappy  controversy  about  Quietism  belongs.  With- 
out entering  into  the  details  of  this  singidar  revival 
of  the  ancient  Mysticism  (see  ilv.sTlcisji),  it  will  be 
enough  to  say  that  two  separate  schools  of  Quietism 
are  to  be  distinguished,  the  moral  character,  or  at 
least  the  moral  tendency,  of  which  was  exceedingly 
thifercnt.  See  Quietism.  In  one  of  these,  the 
common  mystic  principle  of  the  absorption  of  the 
soul  in  the  love  and  contemplation  of  God,  led  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  soul,  in  this  state  of  absoi-ji- 
tion,  became  entirely  passive ;  that  it  was  thence- 
forth independent  of  the  external  world  ;  that  it 
suffered  no  contamination  from  the  material  actions 
of  the  outer  man,  and  that  no  acts  of  virtue,  not 
even  of  prayer,  were  any  longer  requireiL  See 
MoLlxos.  The  other  school,  while  it  maintained  the 
theory  of  passive  contemplation  and  love,  yet  rcjiu- 
diated  the  dangerous  and  immoral  consequences 
which  were  deduced  therefrom.  It  was  exclusively 
the  latter  and  less  objectionable  form  of  Quietism, 
the  jirofessors  of  which  for  a  time  claimed,  although 
not  the  jiatronage,  yet  at  least  the  indulgent  con- 
sideration of  Fenelon.  He  formed,  in  the  year  1687, 
the  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  Madame  Guyon, 
who  may  be  refjarded  as  the  foundress  of  the  French 
school  of  Quietism.  See  Guyon.  The  extraordinary 
piety  and  exemplar}'  life  of  this  remarkable  woman, 
and  his  own  natural  bias  towards  the  tender  and 
lofty  spirituality  w'hich  she  professed,  appear  to  have 
blinded  F.  to  the  true  natiu-e  and  to  the  practical 
consequences  of  the  system  which  she  followed. 
Fully  convinced  of  the  unfairness  of  much  of  tlie 
outcry  which  was  raised  against  her,  and  which  made 
her  responsible  for  all  the  principles  of  the  grosser 
Quietism  of  Molinos,  his  generous  mind  was  perhaps 
attracted  to  her  cause  by  the  very  injustice  of  her 
opponents.  He  advised  her  to  submit  her  works  to 
the  judgment  of  Bossuet,  who  was  then  in  the  zenith 
of  his  fame,  and  with  whom  F.  was  in  the  most 
friendly  relations.  In  the  condemnation  of  the  book 
of  JIadame  Guyon  by  this  prelate,  F.  acqiuesced  ;  but 
as  she  made  a  formal  submission  to  the  church, 
he  refused  to  join  in  any  condemnation  of  herself 
personally.  Nevertheless,  when  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  examine  the  whole  afifair,  F.,  although 
not  a  member,  took  a  part  in  the  proceedings  ;  and 
he  even  suggested  certain  changes  in  their  report, 
which  he  subscribed  in  common  with  the  rest.  To 
the  articles  prescribed  for  her  signature  by  this  com- 
mission, Madame  Guyon  readily  subscribed;  but  it 
was  further  considered  necessary  not  only  to  jniblish 
a  condemnation  of  her  several  works,  but  also  to 
prepare  a  special  exposition  of  the  true  doctrine  of 
the  church  on  these  questions.  AVTien  the  work  of 
Bossuet  on  this  subject  was  completed,  he  submitted 
it  to  F.  for  his  approval.  This  F.  not  only  refused 
to  give,  but  even  composed  his  own  Maxims  of  the 
Saints  in  the  Interior  Life,  in  explanation  and  defence 
of  certain  at  least  of  Madame  Guyon's  doctrines. 
He  submitted  his  book  to  the  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
and  introduced  into  it  some  moditieations  which  were 


suggested  by  the  diocesan  censors,  cheerfully  agree- 
ing to  the  stipidation  of  the  archbishop,  that  it  should 
be  kept  back  from  pubbcation  until  the  completion 
of  the  rival  treatise  of  Bossuet,  On  the  Slates  of 
Prayer.  An  imfortunate  violation  of  this  engage- 
ment, committed  -(vithout  the  knowledge,  and  in  the 
absence  of  F.,  was  the  last  of  a  long  train  of  causes 
which  led  to  the  painful  and  disedifying  rupture 
between  these  two  great  prelates.  F.'s  book  was 
received  with  much  clanujur,  that  of  Bossuet  was 
imiversally  approved  ;  and  in  the  controversy  which 
ensued,  all  the  weight  of  the  displeasure  of  the  court, 
which  F.  had  provoked  by  the  covert  strictures  upon 
the  existing  state  of  things,  in  which  he  Avas  beheved 
to  have  indulged  in  his  works  of  fiction,  was  brought 
to  bear  against  him.  He  was  ordered  to  submit  his 
book  to  the  judgment  of  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal, 
of  which  Bossuet  was  a  member.  F.  refused  to 
accept  Bossuet  as  judge,  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
already  prejudged  the  cause ;  and  in  the  end  he 
appealed  to  the  judgment  of  the  holy  see.  Unfor- 
tunately, even  while  the  affair  was  pending  at  Rome, 
the  controversy  was  stUl  maintained  in  France. 
Bossuet  published  a  succession  of  pamjihlets.  Several 
of  the  bishops  who  had  espoused  the  side  of  Bossuet, 
issued  pastorals  in  the  same  sense.  F.  defended 
himself  vigorously  against  them  all  in  several  i)ubli- 
cations,  explanatory  as  well  of  his  princijJes  as  of  the 
personal  imputations  in  which  some  of  his  adversaries 
did  not  scruple  to  indulge.  The  last  blow  against 
the  aucient  friendship  of  the  great  rivals  was  stmck 
by  Bossuet  in  his  celebrated  Relation  sur  le  Quiitisnie. 
F.  was  wounded  to  the  heart.  The  copy  of  Bossuet's 
pamphlet  which  first  came  into  his  hands  is  still 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  ;  and  the  margin  is 
literally  filled  with  remarks,  annotations,  replies, 
denials,  and  rejoinders,  in  the  singularly  delicate 
and  beautiful  handwriting  of  the  indignant  arch- 
bishop. The  copy  now  in  the  British  Museum  is 
most  probably  one  which,  as  we  learn  from  his  cor- 
respondence, he  sent  to  his  agent  at  Rome,  and  on 
the  margin  of  which  he  corrected,  for  the  guidance 
of  his  friend,  the  many  false  and  exaggerated  charges 
of  his  great  antagonist.  The  substance  of  these 
replies  he  gave  to  the  pubhc  in  a  most  masterly 
defence,  written,  printed,  and  published  within  little 
more  than  a  fortnight  from  the  appearance  of  Bos- 
suet's Relation.  From  this  point,  the  controversy 
assumed  a  more  personal,  and  therefore  a  more 
acrimonious  character ;  and  it  was  maintained  on 
both  sides  tdl  the  long  delayed  decision  of  the  j)ope 
brought  it  to  a  close,  March  12,  1G99,  by  a  brief, 
in  the  usual  form,  condemning  the  Maxims  of  tlie 
Saints,  and  marking  with  especial  censure  23  pro- 
positions extracted  from  it.  The  conduct  of  F. 
under  this  blow  constitutes,  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellow- 
churchmen,  one  of  his  highest  titles  to  glory.  Ho 
not  only  accejited,  without  hesitation,  the  decision  of 
Rome,  but  he  took  the  very  earliest  occasion  to 
publish  from  his  ov.i>.  pulpit  the  brief  of  his  condem- 
nation ;  he  issued  a  pastoral  aildress  to  his  tlook,  to 
apprise  them  of  the  judgment  of  Rome,  and  of  his 
own  cheerful  acquiescence  ;  and  he  presented  to  his 
cathedral  a  maguiticent  piece  of  church-plate,  a  gold 
ostensory,  in  which  the  Angel  of  Truth  is  rei)reseuted 
trampbng  under  foot  many  erroneous  works,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  beai-s  the  title  of  Maxims 
of  the  Sai/its!  Bossuet  is  said  to  have  been  greatly 
touched  by  the  conduct  of  his  noble  adversary,  and 
to  have  earnestly  desired  a  reconciliation.  But  the 
adverse  influence  of  the  king,  Louis  XIV.,  and  uf 
the  court,  stood  in  the  way.  The  jealousy  with 
which  the  jiolitical  principles  of  F.  were  alrea<ly 
regarded  was  heightened  about  this  time  into  ojnu 
hostUity  by  the  appearance  of  his  'J'elemachu.^,  which 
was  printed  from  a  coi)y  surreptitiously  obtained  by 

2ST 


FENESTELLA— FENUG  R  E  V.  K . 


his  servant,  and  which  the  king  regarded  as  but  a 
inaskcil  satire  upon  his  own  court :  Sesostris  bi.'ing 
supposed  to  represent  the  Grand  Monar<)ue  hini- 
ftlf ;  Calypso,  Madame  de  Moutespan  ;  I'rutisilaus, 
Louvois ;  and  Eucharis,  Mademoiselle  de  Fontanges. 
Louis's  anger  knew  no  bounds.  F.  was  stiictly 
restrained  within  liis  diocese  ;  measures  were  taken 
to  give  the  condemnation  of  liis  book  every  character 
of  publicity;  and  what  wounded  him  most  of  .all, 
all  intercourse  with  him,  whether  personal  or  by 
letter,  was  forbidden  to  his  old  and  much-loved 
]iupil,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  From  this  date,  F. 
lived  exclusively  for  his  ilook.  He  founded  at 
Cambray  a  semin.ary  for  his  archdiocese,  which  he 
made  his  own  especial  charge.  He  was  assiduous  in  • 
jireaching,  and  in  the  discharge  of  the  other  duties  , 
of  his  otlice ;  and  the  fame  of  his  benevolence,  ! 
charity,  and  enlightened  lil.ierality  is  attested  Ijy  ' 
the  order  given  intlie  campaign  of  1709  to  spare  the 
palace  and  the  stores  of  the  Archbishop  of  C;imbray. 
The  only  later  controversy  in  which  he  ajipears  is 
the  revival  of  the  Janscnistic  dispute  in  the  well-  j 
known  fonn  of  'The  Case  of  Conscience'  (see  Jan- 
.sexism),  in  which  F.  engaged  earnestly  on  the  side  | 
of  orthodoxy.  Notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of 
his  grandfather,  the  young  Duke  of  Burgundy 
retained  all  his  old  afTection  for  his  preceptor ;  and 
the  highest  hopes  were  entertained  as  to  the  future 
career  of  the  pupil  of  such  a  school.  These  hopes 
were  nnf  ortunately  cut  short  by  the  premature  de.ath 
of  the  duke  in  1712.  F.  survived  hini  but  a  short 
time.     He  died  January  7,  1715. 

The  works  of  F.  are  very  voluminous.  The  latest 
collected  edition  extends  to  twenty  8vo  volumes, 
and  embraces  every  variety  of  subjects — theology, 
philosophy,  history,  literature,  ancient  and  modern, 
oratorj-,  especially  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit, 
asceticism,  and  spirituality  in  all  its  branches.  His 
correspondence  is  very  extensive  and  most  interest- 
ing. Of  his  early  sermons  (one  of  which  was 
delivered  in  his  loth  year),  a  volume  was  printed  in 
1744.  Of  his  mature  discourses,  two  only  have 
reached  us  in  a  finished  state.  They  are  of  the  very 
highest  order  of  sacred  eloquence.  Of  the  rest,  we 
can  only  judge  from  the  skeletons  wliich  it  was  his 
haliit  to  pre]iare  with  great  exactness,  and  of  which 
very  many  have  been  preserved.  His  literary  and 
historical  works,  many  of  which  were  composed  for 
the  instruction  of  his  pupU,  are  filled  with  allusions 
and  suggestions  illustrative  of  the  principles  of 
government  and  of  the  relative  duties  of  sovereigns 
and  subjects,  far  in  advance  of  the  tinie  in  wliich  he 
lived.  His  work  on  the  Temjioral  Powa-  of  the 
Medieval  Pnpex  presents  that  doctrine  in  a  form 
which  divests  it  of  many  of  those  characteristics 
which  are  most  objectionable  in  the  eyes  of  Protes- 
tants ;  and  even  his  spiritual  writings  in  general 
may  be  read,  and  indeed  are  not  unfrequently  read, 
not  only  without  offence,  but  even  with  positive 
advantage,  by  Christians  of  all  denominations.  See 
Card.  Gaussett's  Vie  ile  Fenelon,  4  vols.  12mo  ;  also 
the  I'ie  de  Boxsiiel  of  the  same  author.  See  also  the 
Life  prefixed  to  the  collected  edition  of  the  (Euvres  de 
Fenelon  ;  the  vohuninous  correspondence  contained 
in  th.at  collection ;  and  above  all,  the  Vie  de  Feneloii, 
recently  published,  by  one  of  the  SiUpician  congrega- 
tion (^^.  Gosselin),  in  four  large  Svo  volumes. 

FENESTE'LLA,  or  FENESTRELLA,  a  genus 
of  Polyzoa,  resembling  the  recent  '  lace  coral,'  very 
common  in  Pala,'ozoic  rocks,  ranging  from  the  Lower 
Silurian  to  the  Permian.  Tliirty  species  have  been 
described. 

FK'NNEC,  or  ZERDA  (J%o/y/M),  a  genus  of 
Canid(r,  peculiar  to  Africa,  resembling  foxes  in 
general  form  and  in  the  bushy  tail,  but  having  eyes 


ad.apted  for  diurnal  and  not  for  nocturnal  vision,  and 
remarkably  large  ears.  The  sjiecics  are  small  and 
beautiful.  They  feed  partly  on  d.ates  and  other 
vegetable  food,  also  on  eggs,  and  on  insects,  which 
they  adi-oitly  snap  as  they  j)ass. 

FE  XNEL  (Firnioduni),  a  genus  of  umbellifcrons 
plants,  allied  to  Dill  (q.  v.),  but  distinguished  by  the 
cylindrical  strongly  ribbed  fruit.  The  llowere  are 
yellow.  All  the  species  are  aromatic,  and  have 
much  divided  leaves  with  thread-like  segments.  The 
best  known  is  the  Co^iMOX  F.  [F.  vulijan),  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Eunqie  and  of  some  parts  of  England. 
It  is  a  bienni.al,  threi'  or  four  feet  high,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  cliietly  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  boiled,  and  served  uj)  with  mackerel,  with 
salmon,  and  occasionally  with  other  kinds  of  fish,  or 
are  employed  to  form  a  s.auce  for  them. — SwEirr  F., 
It.\li,vn  F.,  or  Ckictan  F.  (F.  duke),  is  a  plant  of 
much  humbler  growth,  and  annual,  much  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  but  too  tender  for  the  climate 
of  Britain.  The  young  sprouts  from  the  root  are 
sweeter  and  less  aromatic  than  those  of  Common  F., 


Fennel  [Focnicuhim  vulgare) : 
ff,  a  flower. 

and  when  lilanchcd,  arc  a  very  agi-ceable  salad  and 
potherb.  The  fruit  (seed)  is  longer  and  paler  than 
that  of  Common  F.,  has  a  more  agreeable  odour  and 
flavour,  is  the  favourite  aromatic  condiment  of  the 
Italians,  and  is  used  in  medicine  a-s  a  carminative 
and  aromatic  stimulant.  Oil  of  F.,  an  aromatic, 
stimulant,  and  carminative  csscnti.al  oil,  is  also  made 
from  it. — Cape  F.  {F.  Ca/ieiixe),  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hoi)c,  li.as  a  thick,  aromatic, 
esculent  root. — The  Panmuhoorke  of  India  (/■'. 
paninoriitm)  is  a  species  of  F.  much  cultiv.ated  in  its 
n.ative  country  for  its  sweet,  warm,  and  aromatic 
fniit,  which  is  much  used  as  a  carminative,  and  in 
curries. — The  Giant  F.  of  the  south  of  Emopc  is  a 
jilant  of  a  different  genus  {Ferula),  and  abounds 
in  a  fetid  juice.  It  is  indeed  closely  allied  to 
asafa-tida,  but  forms  a  favourite  food  of  buffaloes  in 
.\puli.a,  where  it  ]iarticularly  abounds.  The  dry 
dead  stem  is  full  of  a  white  pith,  which  is  used  in 
Sicily  as  tinder. 

FENS.     See  Bedkokd  Level  ;  also  Maesiies. 

FE'NUGREEK  [TrinoneUa),  a  genus  of  jil.ants  of 
the  natural  order  PapiUonacrn;  sub-order  Leijiniiiii- 
06CF,  allied  to  clover  and  melilot.     The  leaves  have 


FENYES— FEOFFMENT. 


three  obovate  leaflets  and  scythe-shaped  stipiUes. 
The  flowers  generally  have  the  keel  vei-y  small,  so 
that  the  wings  and  standard  present  the  appearance 
lit'  a  tripetalous  corolla.  The  CosoiON  F.  ( T.  fcenuvi 
Gnecuiii)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  of 
some  parts  of  Asia ;  it  is  much  cultivated  in  India 
;i3  a  fodder-plant,  and  derives  its  name  (Fcenum 
Orcecum,  Greek  hay)  from  its  use  as  fodder  in  Greece. 


Fenugreek  [Trigonella  fmnum  Gracum). 

Us  pods  are  many-seeded,  and  cylindrical ;  its  seeds 
have  a  strong  peculiar  smell,  and  an  oily  hitter  taste ; 
the  flour  made  from  them  is  used  for  emoUient 
poultices,  but  only  in  veterinary  practice.  The 
seeds  of  F.  "were  formerly  held  in  great  esteem  in 
medicine. — Another  species  {T.  incisum),  growling 
spontaneously  in  many  parts  of  India,  is  much  used 
as  fodder  for  cattle.  The  legumes  of  the  EsctiLENT 
Trigonell^v  {T.  esculenta)f  also  an  Indian  plant,  are 
used  as  human  food.  One  species  only,  the  Bird".s 
Foot  F.  ( T.  ornilhopodloides),  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
a  small  jilant,  growing  in  sandy  pastures  near  the 
sea,  aud  nut  very  common. 

FENYES,  Ei.EK  (Alexius),  a  Hung.arian  gco- 
gr.apher  and  statistical  author,  was  horn  in  1807  at 
C'sokaj,  in  the  county  of  Bihar.  j\iter  the  usual 
career  of  studies  in  philosophy  and  law,  F.  became 
barrister-at-law  as  early  as  1829  ;  but  instead  of 
frequenting  the  law-courts,  he  began  travelling  all 
over  the  country,  with  the  purpose  of  making 
himself  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  state  of 
the  Hungarian  kingdom,  of  which  there  had  never 
before  been  an  authentic  sur\'ey.  The  first  fruits 
of  F.'s  enterprise  appeared  in  1840,  under  the  title, 
Hungary  and  lU  Annexed  Parts,  Geographkalhj 
and  StatisticaUij  considered  (6  vols.,  Pesth).  The 
great  prize  of  200  ducats  was  awarded  to  the 
author  by  the  Hungarian  Academy.  The  Statistics 
of  Hungarii,  in  3  vols.,  followed  (1843) ;  General 
Atlas  fur  Hungary  (184.5);  JJescriptinn  of  Ilungarii 
(1847);  Geogmiiliical  Dictionary  of  Hungary  (1851) 
- — all  of  which  were  published  at  Pesth.  The 
whole  of  F.'s  works  are  written  in  the  Magj'ar 
tongue,  but  several  of  them  have  been  translated 
into  (ierman,  and  repeateiUy  published.  Besides 
that  these  works  are  the  first  true  expounders  of 
the  state  of  Huug.ary,  it  is  also  generally  admitted 
that,  as  to  their  completeness,  soUdity,  and  exact- 
Vi 


ness,  they  will  bear  a  comparison  with  the  best 
of  kindred  works  in  Euiopean  literature.  During 
the  national  government  of  Hungary  (1848),  F. 
was  made  the  chief  of  the  statistical  section.  After 
a  respite  of  several  years,  from  failing  health,  F. 
is  again  busily  engaged  in  the  i)eriodical  press, 
and  is  editor  of  the  Farmers'  Journal  (A  Falusi 
Gazda). 

FEODO'SIA,  or  THEODO'SIA.     See  K.iFF.v. 

FEO'FFMENT  {infeudare),  the  oldest,  and  for  a 
lou^  period  the  only,  method  for  the  conveyance  of 
land  known  in  England.  Feoffment  consisted  in 
the  formal  conveyance  of  the  land  from  the  feoffer  to 
the  feoffee,  the  former  stating  distinctly  the  measure 
of  the  estate  conferred,  whether  it  was  in  fee,  in 
tail,  or  for  Hfe.  Where  no  mention  of  the  diu-ation 
of  the  estate  was  made,  the  gift  was  presimned  to  be 
for  hfe.  This  conveyance  of  the  land,  in  order  to  be 
complete,  required  to  be  accompanied  by  delivery  of 
Sasine  (q.  v.).  Livery  of  sasiue  was  of  two  kinds— 
viz.,  by  deed,  and  in  law.  "  In  the  former  case,  the 
parties  being  actually  u])on  the  land,  the  feoffor,  by 
delivery  of  a  twig  or  a  turf,  testilied  his  conveyance 
of  the  land.  In  livery  in  law,  the  parties  being  in 
sight  of  the  land,  the  feofi'or  referring  to  the  land 
gave  possession  to  the  feolfee.  This  mode  of  feoff- 
ment was  ineftectual  unless  the  feoffee  entered  into 
possession  during  the  life  of  the  feofl'or.  Livery  in 
deed  might  be  efl^ected  by  attorney ;  but  livery  in 
law  only  by  the  parties  themselves.  In  the  earliest 
times,  these  ceremonies  completed  the  conveyance. 
But  by  degrees  the  practice  of  embodjong  the  trans- 
action in  a  deed  was  introduced.  When  a  deed  was 
used,  it  became  customary,  but  not  essential,  to 
endorse  on  the  deed  the  fact  that  livery  of  sasine 
had  been  made.  By  the  statute  of  Frauds  (29  Car. 
II.  c.  3),  it  was  declared  that  no  estate  created  by 
livery  of  sasine,  uidess  accompanied  by  writing, 
signed  by  the  party  or  his  agent,  shoidd  be  of  any 
etiect,  except  as  an  estate  at  will ;  aud  by  8  and  9 
Vict.  c.  100,  s.  3,  a  feoffment  is  void  unless  accom- 
panied by  deed.  The  law  formerly  gave  so  great  an 
effect  to  a  feolfment,  that  even  when  the  party 
ostensibly  making  the  conveyance  was  not  lawfully 
seised  in  the  estate,  the  feolfment  was  sustained. 
This  was  called  a  tortious  conveyance  ;  the  party  in 
whose  favour  it  was  made  was  said  to  have  acquired 
an  estate  by  wrong,  the  rightful  owner  was  disseised, 
and  was  left  to  his  right  of  Entry  (q.  v.).  But  by 
the  act  last  mentioned,  this  tortious  effect  of  a  feofl'- 
ment  was  removed.  It  must  be  observed  that  the 
practice  of  feoffment  above  described,  and  which  has 
existed  in  England  from  time  immemorial,  differed 
m.iteri.ally  from  the  old  fonu  of  investiture  in  use  in 
strictly  feudal  times,  and  from  that  which  still  ]ire- 
vaUs  in  Scotland.  In  England,  the  transaction  was 
simply  a  conveyance  by  the  actual  holder  of  the 
land  to  a  new  tenant,  testified  by  certain  ceremonies, 
but  requiring  no  confirmation  by  a  third  party  to 
complete  it.  But  by  feudal  usages,  every  holder  of 
land  was  the  vassal  of  some  superior  lord,  to  whom 
he  owed  suit  and  ser\-ice,and  witliout  whose  consent 
he  could  not  even  part  with  his  land  ;  hence  no 
conveyance  was  complete  without  the  reception  of 
the  new  tenant  by  the  lord  paramount  as  his  vassal. 
In  Uke  manner,  to  this  day,  in  Scotland,  no  transfer 
of  heritage  is  complete  without  the  formal  confirma- 
tion of  the  superior ;  and  although  liy  recent  legis- 
lation the  old  feudal  usages,  which  for  two  centuries 
have  existed  as  landmarks,  telling  us  of  a  system 
now  passed  away,  have  been  abolished,  yet  the  fact 
of  acceptance  by  the  superior,  and  the  performance 
of  the  pecuniary  ser\'ices  attendant  on  that  accept- 
ance, are  still  preserved.  See  I>'l'EmiE>'T,  Sasixe, 
Feudal  System. 

2SD 


FEU  OLIGISTE-FEllDmAND. 


Ftofment  to  Fww.— This  was  an  application  of  the 
feudal  form  of  feofm^nt  in  Euslanil  in  order  to  effect 
a  couvevance  "in  trust.  The  common  law  courts, 
adherinj;  to  feudal  rules,  n-fuseil  to  recognise  any 
interest' in  the  land  but  that  of  the  person  actually 
iufeft  i  but  where  a  feoffment  was  made  to  one  man 
lo  the  use  of  another,  the  eeiuity  courts  gave  effect 
to  the  ti-ans;\ctiou  by  compelling  the  party  infeft  to 
hold  in  trust  for  the  third  person,  called  the  cestui 
que  use,  who  wfis  said  to  have  an  eiiuitable  estate,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  legal  estate  which  remainwl 
in  the  feoffee  to  uses.  By  the  statute  of  Uses,  it 
was  enacted  that  in  all  such  conveyances  the  actual 
legal  estate  should  pass  to  the  cestui  que  use.  See 
r.sES. 

FER  OLIGISTE  is  a  mineralogical  term  applied 
to  a  variety  of  anhydrous  red  oxide  of  iron  (FejO,), 
otherwise  c.illed  Specular  Iron  Ore.  The  famous 
Swedish,  Russian,  and  Elba  iron  are  in  gi-eater  part 
prepare<l  from  this  iron  ore.  The  natural  position 
of  fer  oligiste  is  in  the  primarj'  rocks.     See  Iron. 

FE'RiE  (Lat  ferus,  wild),  in  the  Linnoean  system 
of  zoology,  an  order  of  Mammalia,  nearly  corres- 
ponding to  the  Carnaria  (q.  v.)  of  Cuvier. 

FE'R^  HATU'R^  (Lat.  of  a  wild  nature). 
Those  animals  which  flee  the  dominion  of  man, 
whether  beast,  bird,  or  tish,  and  retain  their  natural 
Irccdom,  are  thus  characterised  in  the  Roman  law. 
According  to  that  system,  such  ,-inimals  became  the 
property  of  any  one  who  might  citch  them,  irrespec- 
tively of  the  ownership  of  the  soil  on  which  they 
were  taken,  on  the  principle  that  '  natural  reason 
gives  to  the  first  occupant  th.at  which  has  no  owner.' 
— Inst,  ii  tit.  i.  s.  12.  Buf  this  regulation  did  not 
prevent  the  prohibition  of  trespass.  '  Of  course,  any 
one  who  enters  the  giomid  of  .another  for  the  pur- 
pose of  hunting  or  fowling,  may  be  prohibited  by 
the  proprietor,  if  he  iierceives  his  intention  of  enter- 
ing' (lb.).  This  right  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor 
did  not  affect  the  property  of  the  animal  taken, 
though  it  gave  him  an  action  against  the  trespasser. 
If  a  wild  animal  cscai)ed  from  its  captor,  his  proprie- 
torship instantly  ceased,  and  the  animal  might  again 
be  appropriated  by  its  captor.  This  occuned  even 
though  the  animal  was  not  out  of  sight,  if  it  could 
not  be  pursued  \vithout  great  difficulty.  Even  a 
v,-oinded  animal  was  not  the  pro])erty  of  the  sports- 
man till  it  was  caught,  though  the  point  which  is 
decided  iu  this  sense  (Inst.  ii.  tit.  L  s.  13)  is  said  to 
have  been  one  on  which  difference  of  o])inion  had 
prevailed.  Except  in  so  f.ar  as  it  is  modilied  by  the 
statutes,  which  will  be  explained  imder  C.vme-law.';, 
those  provisions  form  part  of  the  common  law  both 
of  England  and  Scotland.  Animals  which  are  said  to 
be  fer;B  naturie,  or  of  a  wild  and  untamable  dispo- 
sition, any  man  may  seize  upon  and  keep  for  his 
own  use  or  pleasure ;  but  if  they  escape  from  his 
c\istody,  though  without  his  voluntary  abandon- 
ment, it  naturally  follows  that  they  return  to  the 
common  stock,  and  any  man  else  has  ,an  equal  right 
to  seize  and  enjoy  them  afterwards  (Stephen's 
lilackstone,  i.  161).  The  law  of  Scotland  followed 
the  law  of  Rome  so  closely  in  this,  as  in  other 
respects,  that  the  passage  from  the  Institutes  of 
Justinian  above  referred  to  was  translated  into 
one  of  the  oldest  collections  of  Scottish  Laws — that, 
\TZ.,  contained  in  the  Cromortie  MS.,  the  date  of 
which  may  be  assigned  to  the  latter  pai-t  of  the  14th 
c.,  and  which  certainly  is  not  later  than  the  reign  of 
Uobert  III.  (Ir\-inc's  Qamelaws,  p.  20,  and  statutes 
published  by  the  Record  Commission,  Appendix  v. 
p.  3.S.5) ;  see  also  Stair,  ii.  1,  5,  and  33 ;  and  Ersk.  ii. 
1,   10.      Under   animals,  fenu   naturtc,  the   law  of 

Rome  included  hees,  unless  included  in  a  hive,  or 
skej),  as  it  is  still  called  in  Scotland,  or  unless  the 

J.'O 


i)roprietor  be  in  pursuit  of  them,  and  has  kept  them 
m  sight.  See  Bee.  Domestic  animals,  thounh  they 
stray,  do  not  cease  to  be  the  property  of  those  to 
whom  they  have  belonged;  but  as  regards  animals 
which  have  a  tendency  to  retiu'n  to  a  state  of 
nature,  the  rule  of  the  Roman  law  was,  that 
property  in  them  continued  so  long  as  they  had 
the  intention  of  returning  (animum  revertendi),  or 
rather,  one  would  imagine,  the  habit  of  doing  so. 
This  rule  apphed  to  peacocks  and  pigeons,  but  not 
to  fowls  and  geese  ;  with  reference  to  which  it  was 
provided,  that  though  they  should  be  frightened  and 
take  to  flight,  they  were  still  yours,  though  you 
might  have  lost  sight  of  them,  and  that  whoever 
detained  them  with  a  view  to  his  own  )>rolit,  was 
guilty  of  theft.     See  Do\'ECOT,  W.^kkex,  Forest, 

FliSH. 

FE'RDINAND  I.,  emjjeror  of  Germany,  l5r>G 
—  1564,  was  boni  in  Spain,  1503.  He  was  the 
son  of  Philip  I.,  and  brother  of  Charles  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  empire  in  1556,  having  been 
jireviously  elected  king  of  Rome.  F.  had  married, 
in  1521,  Anna,  daughter  of  Ladislaus  VI.,  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary.  Wheu  her  brother  Louis 
fell  in  1526  in  battle  with  the  Turks,  leanng  no 
issue,  the  crown  w.as  claimed  by  F.  in  right  of 
his  wife.  This  involved  him  in  a  long  anil  bloody 
struggle  with  a  rival,  John  of  Zapolya,  who  laid 
claim  to  Hungary,  and  who,  as  well  as  his  son 
Sigismund,  was  siipported  by  Soliman,  sultan  of 
the  Turks.  F.  at  last  gained  the  upper  hand, 
bought  off  the  Turks  by  a  yearly  tribute,  and  finally 
secured  Hungary  and  Bohemia  to  the  House  of 
Austria.  Wlien  he  was  elected  emperor,  the  con- 
cessions he  had  made  to  the  Protestants  caused 
the  pope,  Paul  IV.,  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  him. 
That  pope  dj-ing,  his  successor,  Pius  IV.,  was  more 
complaisant ;  but  the  electors  resolved  that  for 
the  futme  the  consent  of  the  pope  should  not  be 
asked  ;  and  this  w.as  carried  out.  F.  made  several 
attempts  to  reconcile  the  Protestants  and  Catholics, 
and  urged,  though  fruitlessly,  the  reformation  of 
abuses  on  the  Council  of  Trent.  Ho  died  in  1.564, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  jirudent  and  enUghtencd 
niler,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Maximilian  II. 

FERDINAND  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  1619 
— 1637,  was  bom  at  Gratz,  9th  July  1578.  He 
was  grantlson  of  Ferdin.and  I.,  his  father  being 
Charles,  Archduke  of  Styri.a,  the  younger  brother 
of  M.aximilian.  F.'s  mother,  Maria  of  Bavaria, 
early  inspired  him  with  hatred  against  the  Protest- 
ants, lie  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Ingol- 
st.adt,  along  with  JIaximihan  of  Bavaria;  and  at 
Loretto,  he  had  t;vken  a  solemn  oath,  before  the 
altar  of  the  Mother  of  Go<l,  to  reinstate  Catholicism 
as  the  sole  religion  of  his  doininions,  at  any  cost. 
As  soon  as  he  succeeded  to  the  government  of  his 
own  duchy  of  Styria,  he  set  .about  putting  down 
Protestantism  by  force.  He  .attempted  the  same  in 
Bohemia  and  Ilungary,  of  which  countries  he  h.ad 
been  elected  king  during  the  lifetime  of  Matthi.os 
Corvinus ;  but  though  at  first  unsuccessful,  and  even 
in  danger  of  losing  his  dominions,  he  ultinuately 
managed,  with  the  aid  of  the  Catholic  league  and 
of  the  Elector  George  I.  of  Saxony,  to  subdue 
them.  Bohemia  lost  all  its  pri\'ileges.  By  h.angiug, 
contisc.ation  of  property,  and  the  banishment  of 
innumerable  famlhcs,  the  wretched  lanil  was  reduced 
to  obedience;  and  the  introduction  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  rigorous  persecution  of  Protest.ants,  re-estab- 
lished Catholicism.  Meanwhile,  F.  had  been  electeil 
emperor  of  Germany  (1010).  The  war,  which 
properly  ended  with  the  subjugation  of  Bohemia, 
was  at  the  same  time  transferred  to  the  rest  of 
Germany,   and  took   the   charaLter   of  a   religious 


FEPvDINAI^D. 


war — the  famous  '  Thirty  Years'  War  '  (q.  v.).  The 
two  imperial  generals,  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  were 
opposed  by  a  confederacy  of  the  Protestant  states 
of  Lower  Saxony,  with  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 
at  their  head;  but  the  confederates  were  defeated 
by  Tdly  at  the  battle  of  Lutter,  in  Brunswick,  and 
forced  to  conclude  peace  (Lubeck,  1629).  Confident 
in  the  ascendency  which  he  had  acquired,  F.,  in 
tlie  same  year,  issued  an  Edict  of  P>estitution  for 
the  wliole  of  Germany,  taking  away  from  the 
Protestants  nearly  aU  the  rights  they  had  acquired 
by  a  century  of  stniggles ;  and  the  troops  of  Wal- 
lenstein and  of  the  league  were  immediately  set 
to  work  to  carry  it  out  in  several  places.  But 
further  proceedings  were  soon  arrested  by  the 
dismissal  of  Wallenstein,  on  which  the  diet  of  the 
empire  at  Regensburg  had  insisted ;  and  by  the 
opposition  of  RicheUeu,  who  put  every  wheel  in 
movement  to  curb  the  power  of  the  House  of 
Austria.  At  this  time  also,  a  formidable  opj>onent 
to  the  schemes  of  the  emperor  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  (q.  v.). 
.After  the  murder  of  Wallenstein,  the  connivance  at 
which  is  an  ineffaceable  blot  on  F.'s  memory,  the 
imperial  commander,  Gallas,  gained,  1634,  the  battle 
of  Jfordlingen,  which  had  the  effect  of  detaching 
.Sa.xony  from  the  Swedish  alliance ;  but  the  ability 
of  the  Swedish  generals,  for  whom  Austria  had 
none  that  were  a  match,  and  the  open  part  tliat 
France  now  took  in  the  contest,  brought  Ijack  the 
balance  of  \'ictory  so  far  to  the  Protestant  arms, 
that  when  F.  died,  February  15,  1637,  he  had  given 
up  the  hope  of  ever  attaining  his  objects.  His 
reign  is  one  of  the  most  disastrous  in  liistory;  for 
( iurmany  owes  him  nothing  but  bloodshed,  and 
misery,  and  desolation. 

FERDINAND  III.,  emperor  of  Germany,  1637— 
1657,  the  son  of  Ferdinand  II.,  was  bom  11th  July 
1608.  He  was  not  so  much  under  Jesuitical  and 
Spanish  influence  as  his  father.  Ha\-iug  accom- 
panied the  armies  in  their  campaigns  after  the 
death  of  Wallenstein,  he  had  witnessed  the  miseries 
of  war,  and  was  inclined  for  peace ;  but  the  con- 
flicting interests  of  the  individual  belligerents 
hindered  any  unity  of  ■view,  and  made  it  necessary 
to  proceed  with  the  contest.  Thus  w.is  this  miser- 
able war  protracted,  ever  extending  in  circuit,  and 
increasing  in  devastation  owing  to  the  growing 
licentiousness  of  the  soldiery.  At  last,  in  1643,  a 
congress  met  at  Munster  to  arrange  terms  of  peace, 
which  was  concluded  in  1648,  and  is  known  as  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia.  At  the  diet  of  the  empire, 
1653 — 1654,  the  last  jiresided  over  by  an  emperor 
in  person,  F.  effected  important  alterations  in  the 
administration  of  justice.  He  died,  2d  April  1657, 
shortly  after  concluding  an  aUianee  with  Poland 
against  Sweden.  His  son,  Leopold  I.,  succeeded 
him  in  the  German  empire. 

FERDINAND  I.,  emperor  of  Austria  (1835- 
1S4S),  eldest  son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  marriage 
with  JIaria  Theresa  of  the  House  of  Naples,  was 
born  at  Vienna,  19th  April  1793.  He  was  from 
the  flrst  of  a  weak  constitution,  and  was  unfortunate 
in  those  to  whom  his  education  was  intrusted. 
Yet  he  shewed  on  all  occasions  a  goodness  of  heart, 
which  was  fostered  by  the  example  of  his  imcle,  the 
Archduke  Charles,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached. 
While  crown-prince,  he  travelled  through  his  ItaUan 
provinces,  Switzerland,  and  part  of  France,  and 
took  great  interest  in  manufacturing  industry.  In 
1835,  he  succeeded  his  father  on  ttie  throne.  It 
was  expected  from  his  character  that  he  woiUd 
inaugurate  a  more  liljeral  policy  than  his  prede- 
cessors had  pursued,  but  the  absolutist  principles 
that  seem  destined  to  ride  for  ever  the  Austrian 


cabinet,  triumphed,  and  llettemich  was  allowed  to 
carry  on  the  government.  It  now  became  obvious 
that  F.  sadly  lacked  moral  decision,  and  his 
'goodness'  exhausted  itself  in  numerous  acts  of 
clemency  and  benevolence.  Nevertheless,  during 
his  reign,  the  industry  of  Austria  made  a  great 
advance,  and  the  great  network  of  railroads  and 
highways  was  begun.  The  insurrection  in  Galicia, 
1846,  led  to  the  annexation  of  Cracow  to  Austria 
No  country  was  more  affected  by  the  European 
movement  that  began  in  the  winter  of  1847 — 1848 
than  Austria,  though  the  revolutionary  storms  that 
shook  the  empire  cannot  be  attributed  to  any  want 
of  goodwill  to  his  people  on  the  part  of  Ferdinand, 
but  only  to  a  complete  want  of  ]iolitical  wisdom. 
On  the  distiu'bances  breaking  o\it  in  March,  he  con- 
sented to  the  dismissal  of  Metternich,  the  ap)ioint- 
ment  of  a  responsible  ministry,  and  granted  the 
outlines  of  a  constitution.  In  May,  he  retired  mth 
his  court  to  Innspruck,  but  was  induced  to  return 
to  the  capital  in  August.  At  last,  the  October 
insurrection  in  Vienna  made  him  again  leave  tlie 
palace  of  Schiinbrunn,  and  retire  to  Olmiitz,  where, 
on  2d  December  1S4S,  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  nephew,  Franz  Joseph.  He  has  smce  resided 
at  Prague.  He  married,  27th  February  1831, 
Caroline,  daughter  of  Victor  Emanuel  I.,  king  of 
Sardinia,  but  has  no  children. 

FERDINAND  the  Catholic,  5th  of   Castile, 
2d  of  Aragon,  3d  of  Naples,  and  2d  of  Sicily,  was 
born  10th   March  1452.     He  was  the  son  of  Jolm 
II.,  kmg   of   Navarre   and   Aragon ;    and   in    14()0 
married,  at  Valladolid,  Isabella,  sister  of  Henry  IV. 
of   Castile.      Even   in   the   lifetime   of   his   father, 
events   were   paring  the  way  for   the   subsequent 
union  of  the  two  kmgdoms  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
On  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  iu  1474,  the 
Cortes   refused  to    acknowledge   the  legitimacy  of 
his  daughter  Juana,  and  proclaimed  Isabella  and 
her  husband  F.  joint-sovereigns.      A  war  ensued, 
iu  which  they  were  completely  successfid.     In  1479, 
F.  becoming  kin^  of  Aragon  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  the   two  kingdoms   of  Aragon  and  Castile 
were   imited   in    the   persons    of   F.   and   IsalieUa. 
Isabella,  however,  as  long  as  she  hved,  maintained 
her  position  as  queen  of  Castile,  and  allowed  her 
husband  no  other  share  in   the  government  than 
the  priv-ilege  of  aflixing  his  signahu-e  to  the  decrees, 
and  of  uniting  his  arms  with  her  own.     F.'s  whole 
reign  was  an  unuiteixupted  series  of  successfid  wars. 
In  Castile,  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  effectual 
suppression  of  the  banditti,  who  had  1)ecome  fonnid- 
able  in  the  confusion  resulting  from  the  ci^-il  wars. 
This  he  accomplished  by  re-organising  and  puttin" 
iu  force  against  them  the  liennandaJ,  or  brother- 
hood, a  kind  of  Spanish  militia,  composed  of  the 
citizens   and   the   country-people.      But   F.,  whose 
craft  and  rigoiu:  were  quite  Machiavehan,  was  not 
content  ^Wth  taking  strong   measures  against  the 
Castilian  outlaws ;    he  also  resolved  to  break  the 
power    of    the    feudal    nobilitj-,    and    made    good 
use  of  the  hermandad  in  carrying  out  this  design. 
Cities  and  towns  were  encouraged  to  make  them- 
selves independent  of  the  nobles,  who  were  deprived 
of    many    important     pri\Tleges.       Among     other 
humihations,  they  were  subjected  to  the  ordinary 
tribunals   of    justice.       The   establishment    of    the 
Inquisition  in  1478 — 1480,  although  primarily  and 
mainly  intended  to  further  'religious'  ends,  like- 
wise  helped   to    lessen    their    inffuence.       F.    also 
strengthened  his  power  by  vesting  in  himself  and 
liis  successors  the  grand-m:istership  of  the  military 
orders  of  Calatrava,  Alcantara,  and  Santi.ago.     In 
all  liis  schemes,  F.  was  ably  seconded  by  his  queen 
I.sabeUa,  and  by  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Ximencs. 
The  year  1492  was  the  most  brilliant  iu  his  rcigu, 

in 


FERDIN.VND. 


anil  is  one  of  the  most  imjwrtaitt  in  the  history 
of  the  matt'rial  projixess  of  the  wurliL  It  was  signal- 
i8»-<l  by  the  lUscovery  of  America  by  Christfipher 
Columbus,  tliouah  the  honour  of  haviui;  aided  the 
great  navicpitor  belongs  not  to  K..  but  to  Isabella. 
I'he  same  year  witnessed  the  capture  of  Cranada, 
ami  the  n'treat  of  the  last  >li«irish  umnareh  into 
Africa.  F.,  who  had  a  true  Sjiauish  liatnil  of  heirsy, 
immiHliately  issue<l  au  order  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jews  from  the  conquered  kingdom  ;  and,  in 
conse<iuence,  160,0(10  — some  say  SOO,(KM)— of  his 
new  subjects  were  compcUeil  to  scatter  themselves 
over  Kur<i|H'.  This  act  w.-is  neither  wise  nor 
Christian,  but  it  wa.s  in  accordance  with  the  reli- 
eious  KarlNirisni  of  the  age,  and  cspcci;illy  of  Spain. 
It  w.as  followed,  several  years  after,  by  the  persecu- 
tion and  expulsion  of  the  Moors— an  act  still  more 
unwise  than  the  former,  for  the  Moors  of  Uraiiada 
were  unquestionably  the  most  industrious,  civilised, 
and  retiued  inhabitants  of  the  PeninsiUa.  F.  was 
:i8  suc-cessful  abroad  as  at  home.  He  wiis  victorious 
over  Alfonso  V.,  king  of  Portugal ;  while  his 
ceneral,  tJonzalvo  de  Cordov.n,  twice  WTCsted  Najdes 
from  the  French— the  second  time  in  1503— after 
which  it  remained  permanently  in  F.'s  ))Ossession. 
In  the  following  ye.ai-,  Isi^ibella  died  ;  and  in  150"), 
he  married  Germaiue  de  Foix,  a  niece  of  Louis  XII. 
of  France.  He  took  part  in  the  famous  league  of 
Cambi-ai  formed  agamst  Venice  in  150S;  made 
himself  master  of  various  towns  and  fortresses  iu 
Afiica ;  and  in  1512,  conquered  the  kingdom  of 
Kavarre  ;  thus  becoming  monarch  of  Sp.aiu  from  the 
I'jTcnees  to  the  l!ock  of  Gibr.-Jt.ir.  He  died  at 
>iadrigalejo,  Janu.ary  '23,  1510;  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson,  Charles  V.  To  F.  and  Isabella 
Spain  owes  her  unity  and  greatness  as  a  n,ition  ; 
and,  in  the  no  less  skilful  hands  of  their  successor, 
she  exercised  an  imperial  influence  over  Europe, 
which  it  required  Luther  and  the  Keform.ition  to 
check.  See  Prescott's  Jli'storii  of  the  lieign  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  of  Spain  (1838). 

FERDINAND  A'll.,  king  of  Spain,  born  I4th 
October  1784,  was  the  son  of  King  Charles  IV.  and 
the  Princess  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma.  Although  lie 
had  the  advantage  of  excellent  preceptors,  especially 
the  Canon  Escoiquiz,  in  his  youth,  yet  the  machina- 
tions of  the  notorious  Godoy,  minister  of  8i>ain, 
prevented  him  from  enjoying  any  opportunities  for 
the  intelligent  exercise  of  his  facilities.  A  deliberate 
attemjit  was  made  by  his  mother  and  Godoy  to 
degra<le  him  into  a  lover  of  mere  .animal  jileasurcs, 
that  their  influence  and  authority  might  be  un- 
restrained. F.  soon  conceived  an  avei-sion  to  the 
minister,  which  was  increased  by  his  marriage  iu 
1802  with  the  amiable  and  accomplished  Maria 
Antonietta  Theresa,  daughter  of  Ferdinaud  I.,  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  lady,  who  endeavoured 
to  maintain  her  husband's  dignity,  died,  21st  May 

1806,  of  grief,  as  is  supposed,  at  the  insult-^  offered 
to  her  by  Godoy,  the  king  himself,  and  «above  all  by 
the  queen.  Suspicions  of  foul  play,  however,  were 
entertained  by  Ferdinand.  Mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  gratifying  their  hatred  towards  Godoy,  a  number 
of  the  noble.s,  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Infantado, 
assembled  round  the  crown-prince.  A  f.alse  stc]) 
that  the  latter  now  took  proved  the  beginning  of 
great  misery  to  Spain.  By  the  advice  of  the  Canon 
Escoiquiz,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Napoleon,  in  which 
he  expressed  a  wish  to  marry  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  This  letter  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  minister  himself,  and  the  iirince  was 
in  consequence  arrested  in  the  Escorial,  28th  October 

1807,  and  declared  a  traitor  Ijy  a  royal  proclama- 
tion, written  iu  Godoy's  own  hand,  and  addressed 
to  the  Council  of  Castile.  The  animosity  of  the 
people  towards  the  minister  led  to  the  revolution 


of  Aranjuez,  and  tlie  king  ab<lic.ated  in  favour  of 
F.,  liHh  Jlarch  I80S.  Almost  immediately  after, 
however,  Charles  wrote  to  Napoleon,  declaring  his 
abdication  to  be  forced.  Na]>oleon,  who  h.ad  designs  of 
his  own  upon  Sjiain,  refused  to  recognise  F.  as  king, 
but  sent  him  au  inWtation  to  meet  him  at  B.ayonne. 
In  spite  of  all  warnings  to  the  contrary,  F.  repaired 
to  li.ayonne,  at  which  ]>lace  he  arrived  on  the 
20th  April,  and  w.as  received  with  distinction  by 
Nai)oleon.  Meanwhile,  however,  the  French  troo]>3 
under  Murat  had  marched  across  the  Pyrenees, 
and  taken  jiossessiou  of  the  S])anish  capital.  The 
wretched  squabbles  and  recriminations  that  now 
took  place  between  Charles  and  his  son,  and  which 
were  encourtiged  by  Napoleon,  ended  in  F.'s  renounc- 
ing the  crown  of  Spain  imconditionally,  receiving 
for  himiielf  and  his  posterity  an  aunu.al  income  ot 
600,000  francs  from  the  crown  revenues  of  France, 
and  likewise  the  palace  and  ])arks  of  Navarre.  The 
ch.lteaii  of  \',alenjay,  belonging  to  Prince  T.alley- 
rand,  was  assigned  to  him  as  a  resilience,  along 
with  his  brother  Don  Carlos,  his  uncle  Don  Antonio, 
the  Canon  Escoiquiz,  and  the  Duke  of  .San  Carlos. 
Here  his  proceedings  were  watched  with  the  utmost 
\"igilance;  and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  year 
181,"!,  when  the  si)lendid  series  of  British  triumphs 
in  the  Peninsula  had  m.ade  a  longer  occup.atiou  of 
the  country  by  the  French  impossible,  that  Napoleon 
oflered  to  reinstate  him  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 
On  the  14tli  of  Miirch,  F.  returned  to  Spain,  where 
he  w:is  received  with  every  demonstration  of  loy.alty 
and  afTcctiou.  Very  unfortunately  for  Spain,  and 
also  for  his  own  comfort,  F.  had,  in  tlie  meantime, 
learned  to  associate  liberalism  with  Jacobinism,  and 
both  with  Bonapartism,  so  that,  on  his  rcaccessiou 
to  jiower,  he  threw  himself  into  the  hands  of  the 
clergy  and  the  reactionary  portion  of  his  nobility. 
Even  before  his  arrival  in  M.adrid,  he  refused  to 
swear  or  accede  to  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes, 
,as  interfering  too  much  with  the  free  exercise  of 
regal  authority,  though  he  promiseil  another  in  its 
place.  From  the  moment,  however,  that  he  .assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  a  series  of  transactions 
took  place  wliich  excited  the  astonishment  and 
disgust  of  all  liberal-iuiiuled  politicians  in  Europe. 
Instead  of  the  promised  constitution,  there  com- 
menced a  fearful  system  of  j)ersecutioii  .against  all 
wlio  were  suspected  of  holdin"  liberal  ojiiuions ;  and 
executions,  imprisonment,  exile,  and  confiscation  of 
property  reimed  in  all  pai-ts  of  the  kingdom.  The 
mon-astic  orders,  the  Inquisition,  and  the  rack  were 
restored,  and  every  expression  of  opinion  rigorously 
repressed.  At  length,  in  January  1820,  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  out,  and  F.  was  compelled  to  restore  the 
constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  1812 ;  but  the  French 
government  interfering  by  force  of  arms,  absolutism 
was  restored  in  Spain  in  1823.  In  1829,  F.  m.arried 
the  notorious  Maria  Christiiui.  She  w.as  his /o«r(A 
spouse.  By  the  iir.st  three,  he  had  no  children. 
Mari.T,  however,  bore  him  two  children  :  Isabella  II., 
the  late  queen  of  Spain,  and  the  Infanta  Maria 
Louisa,  who  married  the  Duke  of  Montpensier.  By 
the  influence  of  Maria  Christin.-i,  F.  was  induced  to 
abrogate  the  S-iUque  law  excluding  females  from 
the  throne,  and  to  restore  the  old  Castilian  law  of 
cognate  succession.  This  step  led  to  a  dangerous 
combination  among  the  adherents  of  the  Icing's 
brother,  Don  Carlos,  even  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  former,  and  after  his  death,  to  a  civil  war.  See 
Dox  Carlos,  Espartero,  &e.  On  the  20th  June 
1833,  the  deputies,  Cortes,  and  grandees  of  the 
kingdom  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  did  homage 
to  the  Princess  of  the  Asturias,  aud  F.  died  on  the 
2'.)tli  September  of  the  same  year. 

FE'RDINAND    I.,   king    of    the   Two    Sicilies, 
w.a3  the   son   of   Charles   III.  of  Spain,  and   born 


FERDINAND— FERGUSON 


12th  January  1751.  When  Charles  ascended  the 
Spanish  thnme  in  1759,  F.,  though  a  minor,  suc- 
ceeded him  on  that  of  Naples  under  a  regency. 
After  his  marria;,'e,  in  1708,  w-ith  Maria  CaroUna, 
daui,diter  of  the  Einjiress  JIaria  Theresa,  he  fell 
completely  \inder  her  iniluenee,  and  lost  all  his 
former  popularity.  The  queen  and  her  favourite 
minister  Acton  (q.  v.)  ruled  the  kingdom.  F. 
joined  England  aiul  Austria  against  France  in 
1793,  but  in  1801  was  forced  to  enter  into  a  treaty 
with  the  First  Consul.  A  subsequent  violation  of 
this  treaty  compelled  him,  in  1806,  to  take  refuge  in 
Sicily,  under  the  protection  of  the  EngUsh.  A 
French  army  marched  into  Naples,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom,  which  Napoleon  bestowed 
first  on  his  brother  Joseph,  and  afterwards  on  Murat. 
F.  was  reinstated  by  the  congTess  of  Vienna,  and 
entered  Naples,  after  Murat's  flight,  in  June  1815. 
His  queen  had  died  in  1814.  During  the  revohi- 
tion  of  1820,  he  was  obliged  to  introduce  the  Spanish 
constitution  of  1812,  but  abolished  it  next  year 
with  the  help  of  Austrian  arms.  He,  however, 
expelled  the  Jesuits,  and  abolished  superfluous  con- 
vents ;  acts  that  may,  perhaps,  partly  atone  for  his 
Ijloody  persecution  of  the  republicans  in  1800,  and 
his  general  antipathy  to  enlightened  jirinciples  of 
government.  He  died  January  4,  1825  ;  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  I.,  who  died  in  18.30. 

FERDINAND  II.,  king  of  the  Two  SicUies, 
was  the  son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  wife, 
Isabella  Maria  of  Sjiain,  and  was  born  12th 
January  1810.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1830. 
The  country  was  in  the  most  WTetched  condition ; 
and  all  eyes  were  turned  to  the  young  king, 
the  beginning  of  whose  reign  was  marked  by 
various  acts  of  clemency  towartls  political  enemies, 
and  also  by  the  introduction  of  reforms  in  the 
economy  and  government  of  the  country.  But  it 
was  not  long  before  he  began  to  Hsten  to  foreign 
counsels,  which  saw  danger  for  the  whole  peninsula 
in  liberal  measures.  From  that  time,  Naples  became 
the  scene  of  incessant  conspiracy,  insurrection, 
bloodshed,  and  pohtical  prosecutions.  Ferdinand 
jielded  to  the  storm  of  1848,  and  granted  a  consti- 
tution to  both  parts  of  his  dominions  ;  he  was  even 
obliged  to  take  part  in  the  war  against  Austria  in 
Northern  Italy.  The  Sicilians  mistrusted,  and  with 
reason,  the  king's  jjroceedings,  and  declared  that  he 
and  his  family  had  forfeited  the  Sicilian  crowni. 
F.  followed  the  constitution  so  far  as  to  call  the 
chambers  together,  but  quickly  dismissed  them, 
impatient  of  any  interference  with  his  authority. 
After  the  subjugation  of  Sicily  in  1849,  when  the 
reaction  began  to  set  in  all  over  Italy,  he  hastened 
completely  to  set  aside  the  new  constitution  ;  while 
all  who  had  taken  any  part  in  state  reforms 
were  subjected  to  those  cruel  persecutions  that  the 
Letters  of  Mr  Gladstone  have  held  >ip  to  the  e.xecra- 
tion  of  the  world.  F.  died  22d  May  1859,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  II. 

FERDINAND  III.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscauy, 
and  Archduke  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence, 
Cth  May  1709.  In  1790,  he  succeeded  his  father, 
Leopold  II.,  in  the  government  of  Tuscany,  w^hen 
the  latter  obtained  the  unperial  throne  at  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  .loseph  II.,  Leopold's  brother.  F.'s 
rule  in  Tuscany  was  one  of  combined  mildness 
and  ability  ;  and  during  his  reign  were  inaugurated 
many  jucUciiJ,  economical,  and  legislative  reforms  : 
eonunerce  was  protected  and  encouraged  ;  hospitals 
and  asylums  founded,  good  roads  ojiened  through 
the  state,  and  the  greatest  attention  bestowed  on 
the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  which  an  enlightened 
and  good  prince  coidd  exercise.  A  lover  of  peaceful 
progress,  he  remained  strictly  neutral  in  the  first  I 


coalition  agaiast  France,  and  was  the  first  sovereign 
in  Europe  to  recognise  and  treat  diplomatically 
with  the  French  Republic  in  1792.  In  1793,  intimi- 
dated by  the  combined  menaces  of  the  Russian 
and  British  cabinets,  F.  was  constrained  to  relin- 
quish his  neutral  policy,  and  become  a  passive 
member  of  the  coalition  fonned  by  the  above  govern- 
ments against  France.  In  1795,  on  the  French 
occupation  of  Piedmont,  he  speedily  reassumed 
friendly  relations  with  France.  In  1797,  in  order 
to  save  his  states  from  annexation  to  the  Cisalpine 
Republic,  F.  concluded  a  treaty  with  Bonaparte  on 
most  unfavourable  terms  ;  undertaking  to  pay  a, 
•war-levy  to  France,  and  to  transfer  to  the  Museum 
of  Paris  some  of  the  chief  master-pieces  of  the  Flor- 
entine galleries,  including  the  '  Venus  de'  Medici.' 
Owing  to  the  continued  intrigues  of  France  in  his 
states,  F.  was  forced  to  seek  an  Austrian  alliance, 
which  furnished  Bonaparte  with  a  pretext  for 
declaring  war  simidtaneously  against  Austria  and 
Tuscany.  In  1799,  F.  retired  to  Vienna,  lea\-ing 
the  French  troops  in  occupation  of  Tuscany.  In 
1801,  at  the  peace  of  Lune\TlIe,  he  was  forced  to 
renounce  all  claim  on  Tuscany.  In  1814,  the  peace 
of  Paris  reinstated  him  in  Tuscany,  and  even  restored 
his  artistic  treasures.  He  died  17th  June  1824, 
leaving  his  states  to  his  son  Leopold  II. 

FERENTI'NO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  former 
delegation  of  Frosiuone,  and  0  m.  N.W.  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  Portions  of  the  ancient  walls,  built  in 
the  Cyclopean  style  of  large  irregiUar  and  polygonal 
blocks  of  limestone,  and  patched  or  surmounted 
with  Roman  masonry,  no  mortar  baring  been  used, 
are  still  extant.  F.  is  the  ancient  Ferentinum,  a  city 
of  the  Hernici.     Present  pop.  8300. 

FE'RGXJSON,  Ad^ui,  a  Scottish  philosopher  and 
historian,  was  born  (1724)  at  Logierait,  in  Perth- 
shire, where  his  father  was  parish  minister.  He 
studied  at  the  imiversities  of  St  Andrews  and 
Edinburgh,  and  was  appointed  (1744)  chaplain  to 
the  42d  Regiment,  in  which  capacity  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  and  is  said  to  have 
charged  the  enemy  sword  in  hand,  among  the 
foremost  of  the  regiment.  In  1757,  he  succeeded 
Darid  Hume  as  keeper  of  the  Advocates'  Library  in 
Edinburgh.  He  was  next  appointed  professor  in 
the  Etlinburgh  L'niversity,  first  of  n.atural  phil- 
osophy, in  1759,  and  subsequently  (1704),  of  moral 
philosophy — a  subject  which  had  always  had  great 
attractions  for  bim  While  holding  this  oflice,  he 
accompanied  the  young  Earl  of  Chesterfield  (1774) 
on  his  travels  on  the  continent ;  and  in  1778 — 1779, 
he  acted  as  secretary  to  the  commissiou  sent  out  by 
Lord  North  to  try  to  arrange  the  disputes  between 
the  North  American  colonies  and  the  mother-comitry. 
The  state  of  his  health  induced  him,  in  1784,  to 
resign  his  professorship,  in  which  he  was  succeeded 
by  Dugald  Stewart.  In  1793,  he  visited  various 
parts  of  the  continent ;  and  on  liis  return,  took  up 
his  residence  for  some  time  at  Neidpath  Castle,  in 
Tweeddale,  and  latterly  in  St  Andi-ews,  where  he 
cUed,  22d  February  1816.  His  chief  works  are— 
Essay  on  the  History  of  Civil  Society  (Lond.  1707), 
Institutes  of  Moral  P/iUosopliy  (Lood.  1709),  History 
of  the  Pro;/ress  and  Termination  of  the  lioman 
Republic  (Lond.  1783),  and  Principles  of  Moral  and 
Political  Science  (Loud.  1792).  The  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  History  of  the  Poman 
Republic;  this,  together  with  the  Essay  and  Insti- 
tutes, have  gone  thi'ongh  a  number  of  editions.  All 
his  works  have  been  trauslated  into  German  and 
French,  and  the  Institutes  has  been  used  as  a 
text-book  in  several  foreign  universities.  F.  was 
distinguished  for  the  decision  and  manliness  of  his 
character, 

593 


FEaiGUSON— FEKMATA. 


FEROUSOJf,  James,  was  born  (1710)  near  Keith, 
a  villnse  in  Banffahire,  Scotlnnil  His  father  being 
a  JKHir  ilay-!alx)unT,  ho  enjoyi-d  only  three  months 
of  instnietion  at  schiiol,  and  Iiis  subsequent  acquiro- 
nieuta  were  the  result  of  his  own  insatiable  thirst 
for  knowledge.  His  tastes  lay  ])rinci|iaUy  for 
jiractical  mechanies  and  astronomy ;  and  while 
keo|iing  sheep,  to  which  he  was  early  sent,  he  was 
constantly  employed  in  making  minlels  of  mills,  &o., 
and  at  ni'i;ht  in  studjnng  the  stars.  AfUT  working 
at  various  country  emiiloj-ments,  he  took  to  drawing 
liattema  for  ladies'  dresses,  and  copying  pictures 
anil  prints  with  pen  and  ink.  He  then  supported 
himself  and  his  jarents  by  drawing  portraits,  first 
in  Eflinburgh,  and  afterwards  (174.S)  in  I^ndon  ; 
his  leisure  time  being  all  the  while  given  to 
astronomical  pursuits.  In  174S,  ho  began  lecturing 
on  astnuiomy  and  mechanics  with  great  acce|)tance. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1763,  and  received  from  George  III.  a  pension  of 
il50.  He  now  gave  up  portraits,  and  devoted 
himself  to  lecturing  and  writing  on  liis  favourite 
subjects.  He  dieif  in  1770.  F.  w-.-is  held  in 
high  esteem  for  the  worth  and  amiability  of  his 
character,  as  well  as  for  his  extraordinary  and  self- 
taught  acquirements.  Few  men  have  done  more  to 
promote  a  knowledge  of  the  results  of  science, 
among  those  who  have  not  the  advantage  of  regular 
Bcientilic  training.  His  principal  works  are — 
Astronomy  ex/ilained  upon  Sir  Isaac  Neicion's 
J'rinci/iles  (175C ;  Sir  David  Brewster's  ed.,  2 
vols.  1811);  Lectures  on  Mechanics,  Hydrostatics, 
Pneumatics,  and  Optics  (17G0) ;  also  edited  by  Sir 
Dand  Brewster  in  180.5 ;  and  Select  Mechanical 
Exercises,  with  an  Autobiography  (1773). 

FERGUSSOX,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  was  bom 
at  Eilinburgh  about  the  year  1750,  and  received 
his  education  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews, 
where  he  was  in  possession  of  a  liursary  founded 
by  a  |ierson  of  liis  own  name,  and  resided  four  years. 
Subsequently,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh,  and  was 
employed  in  the  office  of  the  commissary  clerk. 
His  poems  wei'e  chiefly  contributed  to  Jiuddiman's 
Weekly  Magazine,  and  gained  liim  considerable  local 
rei>utation.  Unhapjiily,  this  reput.ation  jiroved  his 
niin.  His  society  was  eagerly  sought  ;  and  in  that 
convivial  time,  he  was  led  into  excesses  which 
j)ern»anently  injured  his  health.  He  fell  into  a 
religious  melancholy,  and  finally,  through  an  acci- 
dental fr-acture  of  the  skull,  became  totally  deranged 
He  (bed  on  the  16th  October  1774,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-four. 

F.'s  poems  are  distinguished  by  considerable 
Innnour,  fancy,  and  purity  of  language,  and  he 
I)osseBscd  great  mastery  over  Lowland  Scotch.  He 
sketches  with  liveliness  contemporary  life  and  inci- 
dents, and  much  of  our  knowledge  of  old  Edinburgh 
is  derived  from  his  verses.  His  fame  however, 
rests  quite  as  much  iipon  his  unhappy  life  and 
early  death,  and  ujion  the  circumstance  that  he 
was  to  some  extent  the  forerunner  of  Burns,  as 
upon  the  essential  merits  of  his  verse.  Burns 
adniired  his  works,  was  indebted  to  them  for  liints, 
called  him  '  his  elder  brother  in  the  Muses,'  and 
when  he  came  to  Edinburgh,  erected  a  memorial- 
stone  over  his  griive. 

FE'RIyE  (Lat.),  holidays  during  which  political 
and  legal  transactions  were  8usi)ended  in  ancient 
Rome,  and  slaves  enjoyed  a  cessation  from  labour. 
Feriai  were  thus  dies  nrfiisti,  the  opposite  of  the  dies 
fasti.  ,See  FA.STt.  Days  which  were  consecrated 
to  a  particular  divinity,  on  which  any  p\iblic  cere- 
mony was  celebrated,  and  the  like,  were  feria;.  In 
contradistinetion  to  these  which  were  fcritc  publico: 
(public  holidays),  there  were  /tri<i'  jirintttr,  which 


were  obserred  by  single  families,  in  commemoration 
of  some  particular  occurrence  of  importance  to  them 
or  their  ancestors.  Birthdays,  days  of  purilication 
after  a  funeral,  &c.,  were  also  observed  as  family 
feria?.  The  public  feriaa  were  divided  into  those 
which  were  always  kept  {stalivce)  on  certain  days 
marked  in  the  calendar ;  and  those  which  were 
kept  by  command  of  the  consuls  or  other  sn]>erior 
magistrates  on  the  occasion  of  any  public  emergency. 
'  The  manner  in  which  all  public  feria)  were  kejit 
bears  great  analogy  to  our  Sunday.  The  people 
generally  visited  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and 
offered  up  their  prayers  and  sacrifices.  The  most 
serious  and  solemn  seem  to  have  been  the  /criie 
imperalivte  ;  all  the  others  were  generally  attended 
by  rejoicings  and  feasting.'  See  an  elaborate  article 
by  Dr  Schmitz  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Qreek  and 
Jloman  Antiijuilies.  In  Scotland,  those  days  during 
which  it  was  not  lawful  for  courts  to  be  held, 
execution  to  proceed,  or  any  other  judicial  steji 
to  be  taken,  used  to  be  called /ena<  times,  but  the 
expression  is  obsolete. 

FERMA'NAGH,  an  inland  county  in  the  south- 
west of  the  province  of  Ulster,  Ireland.  It  is  4j 
miles  long,  and  2i)  bro.ad;  area,  71-t  square  miles, 
J  arable,  -',,  in  wood,  and  above  J  in  water, 
including  Ujiper  and  Lower  Lough  Enie,  and  the 
smaller  lakes,  Melviu  and  Macncaii.  The  surface 
is  mostly  a  succession  of  mountains  and  hills,  and 
the  scenery  varies.  The  chief  rocks  are  limestone, 
with  many  cavities  and  underground  water-courses, 
millstone  grit,  and  old  red  sandstone.  Some  coal, 
iron,  and  marble  occur.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Erne  and  its  tributaries,  the  Colebrooke,  Woodford. 
and  Arney.  The  soil  in  the  low  grounrls  is  a  deej) 
rich  loam,  but  in  tlio  limestone  and  sandstone 
districts  it  is  cohl  and  thin.  The  climate  is  mikl 
and  moist.  Marsh-fever  prevails  in  summer  and 
autumn  near  Lough  Erne.  In  187'2,  106,091  acres 
were  in  crop ;  oats,  barley,  wheat,  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  hay  being  the  chief  jiroducts.  The  chief 
exports  are  oats,  butter,  and  eggs.  F.  is  divided 
into  8  baronies  and  23  parishes.  It  returns  2 
members  to  parliament.  Principal  towns  :  Ennis- 
killen,  Lisnaskea,  and  Lowtherstown.  Po]).  (ISol) 
116,047;  (1801)  105,.372 ;  (1S71)  <J2,6SS,  of  whom 
51,736  were  Roman  Catholics,  .35,549  Episcop-alians, 
175')  Presbyterians,  and  the  rest  of  other  denomi- 
nations. In  1872,  there  were  96  national  schools, 
with  14,925  scholars.  The  chief  antiquities  are 
raths  or  rude  hill-forts,  anil  some  ecclesiastical 
ruins. 

FERIMAT,  Pierre  de,  a  French  mathem.-vtician, 
was  bom  at  Toulouse  in  1590,  and  at  an  early 
period,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Pascal,  hit 
upon  .a  very  ingenious  mode  of  considering  flgurate 
numbers,  upon  which  he  subsequently  based  his 
doctrine  of  the  calcul.ation  of  jirobabilities.  F. 
cmiiloyed  himself  greatly  with  the  properties  of 
numbers,  and  m.ade  many  acute  discoveries  in 
regard  to  their  composition  and  analysis.  He  also 
squared  the  parabola  in  a  much  simpler  way  than 
Archimedes  at  an  earlier  period  had  done,  and 
made  many  other  discoveries  in  geomctiy.  His 
method  of  iinding  the  gre.itest  and  least  ordinates  of 
curved  lines  was  analogous  to  the  method  of  the 
then  unknonvii  differential  calculus.  In  addition  to 
his  Bcientilic  attainments,  F.  jtossessed  an  extraor- 
dinary knowledge  of  ancient  and  modern  languages. 
He  died  at  Toulouse  in  1665.  A  collection  of  F.'s 
works  ai>pcared  at  Paris  in  1679. 

FERMA'TA,  in  Music,  is  the  name  given  to  a 
pause,  or  resting- jmint,  generally  marked  by  the 
sign  '^.  The  notes  over  which  this  sign  is  placed 
are    prolonged    beyond    their    true    length.      The 


FERMEN-TATIOX— FERilEXTED  A2vD  DISTILLED  LIQUORS. 


fennata  is  frequeatly  found  near  the  end  of  a  part 
of  a  composition,  which  affords  an  opportunity  for 
the  singer  or  player  to  introduce  an  extempore 
embellishment. 

FERMENTATION  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
chanije  wliich  occurs  in  one  orfpxnic  substance  when 
iulUiuucetl  by  another  in  a  state  of  decay  or  putre- 
faction. The  process  was  originally  understood  to 
include  all  the  changes  which  matter  of  plant  and 
animal  origin  undergoes  when  disunited  from  the 
living  force,  but  is  now  restricted  to  certain  of  the 
changes.  Thus,  there  are  many  substances,  such  as 
starch  and  sugar,  which  have  no  power  of  them- 
selves to  p.oss  into  decay,  or  change  in  composition 
through  lengthened  jwriods  of  time  ;  whilst  there  is 
another  class  of  substances,  including  albumen,  fibrin^ 
and  caseine,  as  well  as  gelatinous  tissues,  mucus, 
Ac,  which,  when  exposed  to  moderately  heated  air 
in  a  moist  condition,  more  or  less  rapidly  begin  to 
jjutrefy  or  decompose.  The  latter  substances,  viz., 
those  which  spontaneously  pass  into  a  state  of 
change,  are  called  firmenU,  and  when  they  are 
brought  in  contact  with  sugar,  &c.,  which  otherwise 
would  not  be  altered,  they  cause  the  latter  to  be 
broken  up  into  simpler  compounds;  it  is  this 
process  that  constitutes  fermentation.  The  ferment 
is  always  a  bo<ly  which  has  the  power  of  rotting 
or  becoming  putrid,  and  is  actually  in  a  state 
of  decomjMJsition.  Every  substance  which  is  liable 
to  putrefy  becomes,  whUe  putrefying,  a  ferment ; 
and  in  this  condition  acquires  the  property  of 
setting  agoing  the  process  of  fermentation  in  any 
second  body  capable  of  it,  and  retains  the  power 
till  it  is  so  far  decomposed  that  the  putrescence  is 
over.  The  ferments  are  very  widely  distributed  in 
organic  matter,  and  hence,  whenever  a  plant  or  an 
animal  dies,  the  process  of  fermentation  proceeds 
more  or  less  rapidly.  The  most  important  kind  of 
fermentation  is  that  kno\vn  imder  the  designation 
of  vinotis,  and  wliich  forms  part  of  the  processes  in 
the  preparation  of  alcohol,  beer,  wine,  &c.  It  con- 
sists in  the  action  of  a  peculiar  ferment  called  Yeast 
(q.  T.)  upon  a  saccharine  liquid,  when  the  sugar 
(CijHuOj,)  is  decomposed  into  two  atoms  of 
alcohol  (each  C4H50»),  four  atoms  of  carbonic  acid 
(each  C0_),  and  two  atoms  of  water  (each  HO).  In 
this  change  it  will  be  observed  that  the  yeast,  whilst 
it  causes  the  change,  does  not  unite  directly  or 
indirectly  with  any  of  the  constituents  of  the  sugar. 
The  vinous  fermentation  proceeds  best  at  a  tem- 
perature ranging  from  GO  to  SO"  F.,  the  mean 
and  more  desirable  being  about  70°  F.  The  process 
itself  causes  the  development  of  heat,  and  recourse 
must  l>e  had,  therefore,  to  large  airy  rooms,  where 
the  fermenting  tuns  or  vessels  are  arranged,  and 
also  to  the  circulation  of  cold  water  in  pipes  dis- 
tributed roimd  the  interior  of  the  vessels,  and  in 
contact  with  the  liquid.     See  Beek. 

The  laclic  acid  fermentation  takes  place  in  milk 
when  it  begins  to  sour.  The  caseine  of  the  milk  acts 
the  jKirt  of  the  ferment,  and  it  causes  the  change 
in  the  sugar  of  milk,  which  is  in  part  resolved  into 
lactic  acid  (CeH^O,  +  HO).  The  latter  then  curdles 
the  caseine,  and  the  milk  becomes  clotted.  When 
the  milk  stiU  further  sours,  and  the  material  is  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  77°  to  86°  F.,  the  buli/ric  arid 
fermentation  takes  place,  in  which  the  putrefying 
caseine  changes  the  Sugar  (q.  v.)  of  milk  into  butyric 
acid  (CsH.O^  +  HO). 

The  riscoiLS  or  muaig  fermentation  occurs  when 
the  juice  of  the  beet-root,  dandelion,  ash-tree,  &c., 
is  allowed  to  decompose  at  a  temperature  of  90° 
to  100°  F.,  when  the  albuminous  matter  present 
causes  the  sugar  to  ferment  into  lactic  acid,  mannite, 
a  gummy  substance,  some  alcohol,  and  various 
gases.      The   same    kind   of   fermentation    occius 


when  boiled  yeast  or  boiled  gluten  is  added  to 
ordinary  sugar. 

The  remaming  processes  of  fermentation  are  the 
benzoic  fermentation,  yielding,  amongst  other  matters, 
the  Es-sential  Oil  of  Bitter  Almonds  (q.  v.) ;  the 
tinapic  fermentation,  which  occurs  in  mustard  when 
moistened  with  water,  and  during  which  the  pimgent 
oil  of  mustard  is  developed ;  and  the  acetous  fermen- 
tation, which  is,  however,  not  a  true  instance  of 
fermentation,  as  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is  required  to 
complete  the  change.     See  Acetic  Acid. 

FERMENTED  LIQUORS  arc  alcoholic  bever- 
ages made  by  fermentation  of  saccharine  fluidis 
and  juices ;  the  principal  being  the  different  kinds 
of  ale  or  heer,  made  by  fermentation  of  an  infusion 
of  malt,  chiefly  of  barley,  but  also  sometimes  of  other 
kinds  of  grain ;  and  wine,  made  by  fermentation  of 
crape-juice.  Cider  is  made  by  fermentation  of  the 
juice  of  apples  ;  perry,  of  that  of  pears  ;  palm-iciiie, 
by  fermentation  of  the  sap  of  different  kinds  of 
palm.  Fermented  liquors,  commonly  called  wines, 
are  also  made  from  the  juice  of  various  kinds  of 
fruit,  as  currant  wine  from  that  of  the  red  currant ; 
and  from  the  juice  of  some  roots,  as  parsnip  wiue 
from  that  of  the  parsnip,  &c.  The  sap  of  tho 
American  Aloe,  or  Agave  (q.  v.),  yields  the  fer- 
mented liquor  called  Pulque,  much  used  in  Mexico. 
A  wine  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  birch,  and  that 
of  some  other  trees  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 
Mead  is  a  fermented  liquor  made  from  honey. 
From  every  fermented  Uquor,  a  kind  of  sjiiril  may 
be  obtained  by  distillation. 

FERMENTED  AND  DISTILLED  LIQUORS, 

Statlstics  of.  Under  the  headings  Beeb,  Spinrre, 
and  WiXE,  will  be  found  particulars  as  to  the 
history,  manufacture,  &c.,  of  tnese  liquors.  All  that 
is  contemplated  in  the  present  article,  is  a  statement 
of  the  quantities  manufactured  and  consumed  in 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
In  1801,  the  consumjition  of  8])irits,  British,  colonial, 
and  forei™,  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  8,800,840 
gallons.  In  fifty  years,  it  had  considerably  more 
than  trebled,  having  risen  in  1851  to  28,760,224 
gallons.  In  the  same  time,  the  population  had 
risen  from  15,500,794  to  27,4.52,262.  In  the  former 
period,  therefore,  the  consumj)tion  was  at  the  rate 
of  little  more  than  half  a  gallon  per  bead,  while  in 
the  latter  jieriod  it  amounted  to  more  than  a  gallon. 
There  would  seem,  however,  to  have  been  something 
exceptional  in  the  year  1801  to  reduce  the  consump- 
tion to  the  low  point  we  have  mentioned,  as  m 
the  previous  year,  the  consumption  was  nearly  12 
million  gallons,  and  in  the  succeeding  year,  more 
than  15i  million  gallons ;  and  in  no  subsequent  year 
did  it  fall  so  low  as  in  ISiil.  The  consumption  at 
the  two  periods  was  lUvided  over  the  three  countries 
as  follows:  England,  1801,  6,1.50,983  gallons— 
namely,  2,5-55,920  British  ;  1,087,830  colonial ;  and 
1,907,224  foreign.  In  18.51,  1.3,916,313  gallons 
—namely,  9,595,368  British;  2,.542,.395  colonial; 
and  1,77S,.550  foreign.  In  the  former  period,  the 
consumption  of  each  individual  was  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  a  gallon  ;  in  the  latter,  nearly  seven-ninths 
of  a  gallon.  Scothind,  1801,  9.30,490— namely, 
British,  295,931  ;  colonial,  349,237 ;  and  foreign, 
28.5,322.  1851, 7,090,894— namely,  British,  6,8.30,710 ; 
colonial,  179,883 ;  and  foreign,  80,301.  The  con- 
sumption per  head  in  Scotland  in  1801  was  thus 
only  three-filths  of  a  gallon,  while  in  1851  it  was  2| 
callous.  Ireland,  1801,  1, 7 19,.367— namely,  British, 
355.106  ;  colonial,  1,057,316  ;  foreign,  .306,945.  1851, 
7.75.3,017 — namely,  British,  7,550,518 ;  colonial, 
158,147  ;  foreign,  44,352.  In  the  former  period,  the 
consumption  per  head  was  two-thirds  of  a  gallon  ; 
in  the  latter,  about  Ij  gallon.     But  there  is  every 

295 


FERMO— FER.\ANI)0  I'U. 


reason  to  believe,  that  the  consumption  in  1801  was 
much  lareer  in  the  United  Kingilom  generally  than 
the  statistics  indicate.  Between  the  jHTioiIs  we 
have  mentioned,  the  duty  on  British  spirits  varied 
considerably.  In  Kni;land.  in  )80i,  it  was  5«.  4J</. 
per  snllon  ;  in  ISlil,  it  had  risen  to  lis.  8i</. ;  and 
in  liCil,  it  stooil  at  7».  \0<t.  lu  Scotland,  in  1802, 
the  duty  was  3s.  10J(/.  per  callon  :  it  rose  to  9a.  4J(/. 
in  1815;  and  in  1851,  w.Vs  .'Is.  SJ.  In  Ireland,  in 
180-J,  it  w.TS  2*.  10i(/. ;  in  1815,  it  had  risen  tu 
fo.  Ii</. ;  in  1851,  it  stootl  at  'ii.  8</.  The  duties  in  the 
three  countries  have  now  been  equalised,  the  sum 
tix«l  being  at  lirst  S.<.  iht  gallon,  since  raist'd 
to  10.*.,  at  which  it  now  (IS'.'!)  remains.  In  18/1^ 
there  were  manufactured  in  Great  Britain  .30,855,035 
gallons  of  iiroof  spirits  ;  imported  for  home  consump- 
tion, 8,895,877  ;  exported,  3,891,:{G9  :  the  consump- 
tion w.as  therefore  35,859,543  (the  population  beiu" 
31.609.910),  or  about  11  gallon  to  each.  The  total 
number  of  gallons  of  proof-spirits  distilled  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1871  was  30,855,035— namely, 
in  England,  7,739.720;  Scotland,  13,813,002;  Ire- 
land, 9,302,253.  The  number  of  gallons  on  which 
duty  w;is  paiil  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  187 1  w.-vs 
25,114,201,  the  duty  amounting  to  £12,557,105. 
Of  this  sum,  £5,150J302  was  paid  in  England  on 
10,300,597  gallons;  £3,98.5,453,  in  Scotland  on 
7,970,902  gallons;  £.3,421,350  in  Ireland  on  G,S42,702 
gallons.  Of  the  whisky  distilled  in  Scotland  in 
iS71,  3.923.732  gallons  were  exported  into  England, 
and  729,700  into  Ireland;  Scotland  recei\-ing  in 
return  from  England  81G0,  and  from  Ireland  70,499. 
Ireland  sent  to  Ent;land  1,822.507  g-allons,  and  got 
back  in  return  112,283.  Of  foreign  spirits,  there 
were  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1871 — 
nun,  7,526,870  gallons,  of  which  4,108,996  were  for 
home  consumption  ;  brandy,  5,228,568  gallons, 
3,715,563  being  for  home  consumption  ;  and  other 
sorts,  including  Geneva,  1,961,633  gallons,  1,011,318 
for  home  consumption. 

The  cpiantity  of  wine  entered  for  consumption  in 
1802  was  5,449,710  gallons,  upon  which  a  duty  of 
£1,723,3.39  was  paid.  In  1851,  6,280,653  gallons; 
duty,  £1,776,246.  In  1871,  17,870,078  gallons  were 
imported,  of  which  16,341,446  were  retained  for 
home  consumption. 

The  quantity  of  beer  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  can  only  be  arrived  at  appro.xi- 
mately,  the  duty  being  le\'iable  on  the  malt.  The 
general  estimate  is,  that  two  bushels  of  malt  in-oduce 
one  barrel,  or  36  gallons  of  beer.  In  1.S7I,  the 
qu.antity  of  malt  brewed  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  .50,724,086  bushels,  equal  to  25,362,043  barrels, 
or  913,033.548  gallons  of  beer.  This  beer  w.as  made 
chiefly  in  England,  45,123,969  bushels  of  malt  being 
consumed  there ;  in  Scotland,  the  quantity  used 
was  2,728,574  bushels ;  and  in  Ireland,  2,871,554. 

FERMO,  a  town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  former 
delegation  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a  rocky 
height  4  miles  from  the  Adriatic,  and  32  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Aiicona.  It  is  well-built  and  fortified, 
surrounded  with  walls  and  ditches,  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop,  and  has  a  c.athedi-;U,  a  university 
(not,  however,  of  any  importance),  and  an  elegant 
theatre.  It  has  some  trade  in  corn  and  wool.  Pop. 
9130.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Firmiun,  whose  name  F.  inherits.  Firmum 
had  been  a  Roman  colony  from  the  year  204  B.C. 

FEUMOY,  a  tovm  in  the  east  of  Cork  county, 
Ireland,  chiefly  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Black- 
water,  19  miles  north-east  of  Cork  city.  Its  origin 
dates  from  the  12th  c,  when  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
great  Cisti-rcian  abbey  ;  but  its  jiresent  importance, 
which  commenced  in  the  end  of  hist  century,  is  <lue 
to  Mr  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Anderson,  who  iutro- 
236 


duced  mail-coaches  into  Munster.  The  hills  to  the 
[south  of  the  town  rise  in  Knockinskeagh  13SS 
feet  F.  is  handsomely  Imilt  and  regularly  laid 
out.  A  large  ecclesiastical  establishment  (Roman 
Catholic),  consisting  of  a  church,  a  bishop's  house, 
two  convents  with  large  schools,  and  a  college  with 
nearly  100  students,  has  recently  been  erected  on 
a  hill  rising  from  the  Blackwiiter.  A  bridge  of 
13  arches,  built  in  1689,  crosses  the  river.  Infantry 
and  cavalry  barracks  for  3000  men  stand  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  and  command  the  apjiroach  to 
Cork.  F.  has  a  trade  in  agricultural  proiluce.  Pop. 
(1861)  8705;  in  1871,  7611.  The  towu-r.ates  in 
1871  were  £341. 

FERN,  JIai.e,  a  name  given,  in  consequence  of  an 
erroneous  notion,  long  since  ex[)loded,  to  a  fern  very 
common  in  the  woods  of  Britain  and  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  the  Axpidiiim  JHU  jnan  of  some 
botanists,  and  Lastrwa  JUiv  mas  and  Xephrodixon 
filix  mas  of  othere.  The  fronds  are  bipinnate  ;  the 
pinuiUes  oblong,  oljtuse,  .and  seriated  ;  the  sori  near 
the  central  nen-e,  orbicular,  kidney-shaped,  and 
lixed  by  the  sinus ;  the  stipes  and  rachis  chaffy.     If 


^'.■■(f-^     (/' 


Common  Male  Fern. 

not  one  of  the  very  finest  of  our  ferns,  it  is  certainly 
a  chief  ornament  of  many  of  our  woods,  and  a  plant 
of  very  considcnable  beauty.  The  subterranean 
stem  (rhizome)  is  officinal.  It  is  about  a  foot  long, 
and  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill,  almost  inodorous, 
with  a  nauseous  sweet  taste,  becoming  astringent 
and  bitter.  It  was  anciently  used  as  an  anthelmintic, 
and  its  use  has  lieeu  reriveil,  especi.ally  in  cases 
of  tapeworm,  in  which  it  is  believed  to  be  very 
efficacious.  Its  anthelmintic  powers  are  due  to  a 
thick,  almost  black  vohatUe  oil  which  it  contains, 
and  which  is  now  itself  also  used  in  medicine. 

FERN,  Sweet  (Comptonia  aspknl/oUa),  a  shrub 
of  the  natunal  order  ^47»entoc<'(f,  sub-order  jVi/ri'ctw,  a 
native  of  the  mountain-woods  of  North  .America, 
forming  a  small  bush  with  linear  pinnatifid,  fern- 
like leaves.  Its  leaves  have  a  powerful  aromatic 
fragrance  when  rubbed.  It  is  tonic  and  astringent, 
and  is  much  used  in  the  United  States  as  a 
domestic  remedy  for  diarrha'.a. 

FERNA'NDO  PO,  .an  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  is  situated  about  20 
miles  from  the  nearest  point  on  the  shore,  and  is 
about  44  miles  long  and  20  miles  broad.  The 
appearance  of  this  island  from  the  sea  is  exceedingly 
picturesque  and  beautiful.  It  is  travei-sed  by  a 
mountain-ridge,  which,  in  Clarence  Pe.ak,  rises  to 
the  height  of  10,650  feet,  and  is  fertile.  wcll-w.atered, 
and  in  many  parts  thickly  wooded.  Besides  swarms 
of  monkeys,  some  of  which  are  of  great  size,  the 


FERNAX-NUXEZ— FERXS. 


island  contains  many  goats  and  sheep  in  a  state  of 
nature.  The  climate,  always  excessively  hot,  is 
rendered  more  intolerable,  during  the  rainy  season, 
by  a  jiestilential  wind  from  the  continent.  The 
native  jiopulation,  who  are  of  negro  race,  are  said 
to  amount  to  from  1(),0()()  to  12,000  in  number,  and 
to  inhabit  fifteen  vilLages.  The  English,  with  the 
consent  of  .Spain,  into  whose  hands  F.  P.  had 
fallen,  made  an  attemjit  in  lS-7  to  form  a  settle- 
ment on  the  island,  but  abandoned  it  in  IS.'M.  In 
1S44,  it  was  again  taken  possession  of  by  Spain. 
The  colony  has  a  population  of  about  900,  most  of 
whom  are  liberated  Africans. 

FERNAN-JTUNEZ,  a  small  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova,  and  10  miles  south  of 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  has  some  linen  and 
woollen  manufactures.     Pop.  5.300. 

FERNS  (Filicrs),  an  order  of  acrogenous  or  erj'p- 
togamous  plants,  divided  by  some  botanists  into 
several  orders ;  whilst  some  make  FUices  a  sub-class, 
and  include  in  it  Lycopndiaeecc,  Marsileaceae,  and 
Equisetacece.  See  these  heads.  F.  are  either  her- 
baceous perennial  plants,  or  more  rarely  trees,  the 
root-stock  or  the  stem  produeiug  leaf-like  fronds 
(often  called  leaves),  which  are  sometimes  simple, 
sometimes  pinnated,  or  otherwise  compound,  exhibit 
great  variety  of  form,  and  are  generally  coiled  up 
XcircincUe)  in  bud   (see   accompanying   illustratiou). 


ference,  or  longitudinally,  or  irregularly.  Moving 
spiral  filaments  exist  in  F.,  but  their  functions  in 
connection  with  reproduction  are  not  well  known. 


M 


^■^- 


Ceterach  Officinarmn. 

The  fronds  are  traversed  by  veins,  generally  of 
uniform  thickness,  which  are  simple  or  forked,  or 
netted,  sometimes  produced  from  the  sides  of  a 
midrib  or  primary  vein,  sometimes  from  a  primary 
vein  on  one  side,  sometimes  radiating  from  the 
base  of  a  frond  or  segment  of  a  frond.  The  fructi- 
fication t.akes  place  either  on  the  lower  surface  or 
on  the  margin  of  the  fronds,  and  arises  from  the 
veins.  The  spores  are  contained  in  capsules  or 
spore-cases  {tlifcoe,  sporcinyia),  which  are  often 
surrounded  with  an  elastic  ring,  and  are  either 
naked  or  covered  with  a  membrane  (involucre,  or 
indusium),  and  are  generally  clustered  in  round  or 
elongated  or  kidney-shaped  masses  {sori).  The 
margin  of  the  frond  is  sometimes  folded  so  as  to 
cover  the  s])ore-cases,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the 
Flowering  Fern  (Osmunda)  (q.  v.),  the  fertile  part 
of  the  frond  is  so  transformed  that  its  leaf-like 
character  entirely  disappears,  and  it  becomes  a  spike 
or  panicle.     The  spore-cases  buj'st  at  their  circum- 


Fems  : 
Shewing  the  .Sori  on  the  bacli  of  the  Fronds. 

The  reproduction  of  F.  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  investigation  and  discussion,  and  supposed 
discoveries  of  sexual  organs  have  been  announced, 
but  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  nature  has  not 
been  obtained — The  uimiber  of  known  species  of  F. 
I  is  about  2500.  They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
(  world,  but  are  fewer  towards  the  poles  than  within 
the  tropics,  aud  fewer  in  contiuental  than  in  mari- 
time countries,  abounding  exceedingly  in  moun- 
tainous tropical  islands,  as  in  Jamaica.  Many 
of  them  delight  in  moisture  and  shade,  although 
some  are  found  in  the  most  exposed  situations. 
Some  of  them  resemble  mosses  in  size  and  appear- 
ance ;  whilst  Tree  Ferns  (q.  v.)  resemble  palms, 
and  sometimes  attain  a  height  of  forty  feet.  A 
few  are  climbers.  One  climbing  species  [Lygo- 
dium  jiahnatum)  is  found  in  North  America  as  far 
north  as  Boston. — F.  are  divided  into  PoUtpodiea; 
HymenophjUec?,  Glekhenieie,  Schizcece,  Osinumlece, 
Dancece,  and  Ophioglossece,  of  which  sub-orders  (or 
orders)  the  first,  second,  fifth,  and  seventh  alone 
contain  British  species,  and  the  first  contains  a 
great  majority  of  all  ferns. — The  root-stocks  of  some 
F.  contain  so  much  starch  that  they  are  either  usc<l 
as  food,  or  food  is  prepared  from  them,  particularlv 
those  of  the  Tara  (q.  v.)  Fern  in  New  Zealand 
and  Van  Diemeu's  Land,  and  those  of  Aspidium 
(or  Xephrodium)  esculentiim  in  Sikkim  and  Nepal ; 
also  the  stems  of  some  of  the  tree-fems,  as  of 
Cyathea  meduUarU  in  New  Zealand,  and  Ahophila 
spinulosa  in  India.  The  j'oung  and  tender  fronds 
of  some  F.  are  occasionally  used  as  pot-herbs  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  Norway,  the  Himalaya, 
&c.  The  fronds  are  generally  mucilaginous,  slightly 
aromatic  and  astringent.  Those  of  some  species  of 
Maidenhair  (q.  v.)  are  used  for  making  capillaire.  ; 
whilst  the  bitter  and  astringent  root-stocks  of  some 
F.  are  occasionally  used  in  medicine,  as  those  of  the 
JIale  Fern  (see  Ferx,  Male)  and  the  Peruvian 
Polijpodlum  Caliguala,  particularly  as  anthelmintics. 
The  fronds  of  a  few  species  are  delightfully  fra- 
grant.— The  cultivation  of  F.  is  now  in  many  places 
j  successfully  conducted  on  a  somewhat  extensive 
scale,  both  in  the  open  air  and  in  hothouses ;  and 
to  such  an  extent  has  the  occupation  of  fern-coUect- 
ing  reached,  that  many  excellent  treatises  on  this 
subject  alone  have  been  written  and  elaborately 
)  illustrated.  Amongst  others,  we  may  mention 
i  British  Ferns  (Is.),  published  by  Routledge,  London, 
as  an  excellent  handbook  ;  while  the  magnificent 
j  Natm-e-printed  work,  published  in  2  volumes,  royal 
;  8vo,  by  Bradbury  and  Evans,  supplies  all  ntedfid 
inform.ation.  Warcban  cases,  filled  with  them,  have 
also  become  common,  and  are  most  pleasing  orna- 
ments of  apartments.  The  principal  species  will  be 
j  noticed  imder  their  particidar  heads. 

297 


FER0Z6  PORK-FElUtArJ. 


FKROZt  PORE  (so  called  from  its  founder, 
Fenuc  Toiililiik,  who  niffiied  in  Delhi  from  l.'iol  to 
l.'tSSi  staiiils  about  3  milts  from  the  left  or  soiith- 
,xst  liauk  of  the  Siitlej,  in  l;>t,  30"  ."i.")'  N.,  and  U)iig. 
74'  :>j'  H  At  one  time,  a  laige  and  imjiortant  town, 
as  its  massive  fortilieations  and  extensive  ruins  still 
indieate,  it  had  sunk  into  jmverty  and  insiguilieance, 
before  it  actu:Uly  came,  in  1835,  into  the  jKissessiou 
of  the  Euj^lish.  Since  then,  the  jilaeo  li.is  regained 
nuich  of  lU  former  consequence,  holding  out,  with 
its  wide  streets  and  its  colonnaded  bazars,  the 
liromise  of  a  grand  eiuporiimi  of  commerce.  Politic- 
ally, too,  F.  V.  has  become  prominent  under  British 
siii>remacy,  having  been  a  starting-point,  whether 
for  war  or  for  negotiation,  in  many  of  our  dealings 
with  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab.  In  connection 
with  this  featme  in  its  history,  the  city  contains  a 
monumental  church  in  honour  of  the  memory  of 
those,  both  iirivates  and  officers,  who  fell  in  the 
various  conlLcts  with  the  Siklis.  The  popidation  is 
about  10,0(K).— The  ilistrkl  of  the  same  name  has  an 
estimated  area  of  200  square  miles,  and  a  pop\ilatiou 
of  20,000.  It  is  now  for  the  most  part  either  ban-en 
or  covered  witli  jungle,  but  the  i-uins  of  tovnia  and 
villages  indicate  that  it  must  have  been  at  one  time 
both  more  fertile  and  more  popidous. 

FERO'ZE  SHAH,  a  village  apparently  \vithin 
tlio  distiict  of  Feroze  Pore,  and  situated  about  10 
miles  east-south-east  of  the  town  of  that  name,  is  in 
hit.  30°  52'  N.,  and  long.  74°  50'  E.,  lying  about  12 
miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  It  claims 
notice  mainly  as  the  scene  of  the  second  in  order  of 
the  four  great  battles  of  the  first  Sikh  war.  The 
conflict  in  question,  which  lasted  two  days,  took 
place  in  December  1S45,  ending  in  the  rout  of  the 
natives  and  the  capture  of  their  intrenelmients. 
The  British  army  was  commanded  by  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  and  Sir  Henry  Hardinge ;  and,  as  in  the 
\'ictory  of  Moodkee,  gained  only  three  days  before, 
it  sustained  heavy  loss. 

FEROZE  SHAH  CANAL,  a  work,  including 
its  branches,  of  240  miles  in  length,  demands  detailed 
notice  as  well  for  its  historical  interest  as  for  its 
ecouomical  v.alue.  It  dates  back  as  far  as  1356, 
owing  its  origin,  as  well  as  its  name,  to  Feroze 
Toghluk,  king  of  Delhi.  Viewed  as  a  whole,  it 
leaves  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna  in  lat.  30"  19' 
N. ;  and,  after  sweeping  roiind  so  as  to  skirt 
Sirhind,  a  territory  on  the  Sutlej,  it  rejoins  its 
parent  stream  at  Delhi  in  lat.  28°  39',  thus  measur- 
ing, in  mere  difierence  of  latitude,  100  geographical 
miles.  This  artificial  water-course,  intended  prin- 
cipally for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  seems  to  be 
equally  credit.able  to  native  enterjirise  and  native 
skill.  But,  as  nothing  of  the  kind  ajipears  to  be 
permanent  in  the  East,  this  noble  chaunel  was 
HO  much  neglected,  that,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  c,  it  was  cleared  out  by  Vizier  Ali  Murdan 
Khan,  wlio,  in  point  of  fact,  was  the  first  to  carry 
it,  through  its  lower  h.alf,  back  into  the  Jumna. 
Finally,  the  entire  line  has,  during  this  19th  c,  been 
.ngain  repaired  and  improved  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. In  the  light  of. the  drought  and  famine  of 
18G0,  the  importance  of  sucb  undertakings  as  the 
Feroze  Shah  Canal  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 

FERRANDI'NA,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Basilicata,  stands  on  a  height  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Basento,  35  miles  east-south- 
cast  of  Potenza.  Good  wine  is  produced  in  the 
neighbourhood.     Pop.  about  GOOO. 

FEllRA'RA,  the  most  northern  of  the  Italian 
provinces  that  are  washed  by  the  Adriatic  It 
extends  immediately  south  of  the  Po,  between  the 
main  brancli  of  which,  and  the  Po  di  Primaro,  it 
is  for  the  most  part  enclosed.     As  one  of  the  old 


delegations,  it  had  an  area  of  1180  square  miles, 
with  a  popul.ation  amounting  to  2-44,524 ;  but 
according  to  the  Sl<ifiMi--n  Ailiiiiiiixtmlwa  ilrl  Jiei/iio 
il'/laliit,  ])ublished  in  1801,  the  jirovince  had  under- 
gone certain  modifications,  and  its  pop.  was  then 
only  194,101  ;  in  1871,  it  was  215,309.  The  area 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  swamp  an<l  lake  ; 
and  many  rivers  aii<l  canids  intiTsect  it.  Ik-tween 
the  Po  "di  Volauo  and  the  I'o  di  Primaro,  the 
marshes  become  very  extensive,  and  receive  the 
uanio  of  Valli  di  Coimccio.  This  province  produces 
great  quantities  of  fish,  affords  good  i>astures,  and 
carries  on  a  great  trade  in  corn  and  hemp.  It 
was  at  one  time  a  dukedom  under  the  House  of 
Este,  but  on  the  failure  of  a  legitimate  nude  heir. 
Pope  Clement  VIII.  ^Tested  it  from  this  family, 
and  annexed  it  to  the  States  of  the  Church  in 
159S.  It  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
I8G0. 

FERRA'RA,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  pro\'ince  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  in  a  low 
marshy  jilain  in  the  delta  of  the  Po,  and  about  4 
miles  south  of  the  main  branch  of  tliat  river,  28 
miles  north-north-east  of  Bologna,  and  40  miles 
north-west  of  Kavenna.  F.  was  first  made  a  w.alled 
city  by  the  exarch  of  Kavenna  about  the  close  of  tlie 
Cth  c.,  and  in  the  following  century  (6G1  a.b.)  became 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the 
great  commercial  emporium  of  Italy,  and  the  seat 
of  a  com-t  renowned  throughout  Europe  ;  but  now 
the  city  has  a  peculiarly  deserted  and  melancholy 
.appearance  ;  grass  grows  on  the  pavements  of  its 
broad  and  regular  streets,  and  its  churches  and 
jialaces  are  either  rapidty  falling,  or  have  already 
fallen  into  decay.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls, 
and  is  strengthened  by  bastions  and  a  fortress.  The 
old  castle,  or  ducal  palace,  once  the  residence  of  the 
Dukes  of  Este,  but  recently,  luitil  1860,  occnjiied 
by  the  papal  legates,  rises  like  a  huge  rock,  is 
strengthened  w^th  comer-towers,  and  surrounded 
by  a  ditch.  Its  ecclesiastical  edifices,  wliich  are 
very  numerous,  and  of  wliich  the  churches  of 
Santa  Maria  degl'  Angeli  an<l  of  San  Benedetto 
are  the  most  remarkaUe  in  point  of  arehitectore, 
are  rich  in  paintings  by  the  great  masters  of 
the  Ferrara  and  Bologna  schools.  Besides  their 
valuable  paintings,  these  churches  contain  numer- 
ous scidptured  momunents  of  famous  persons  ;  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  has  a  curious  echo,  with 
sixteen  reverberations.  The  university,  founded  in 
1204,  was  reorganised  in  1402,  closed  in  1794,  and 
reopened  in  1824.  It  is  in  high  rei]ute  as  a  school 
of  medicine  and  jurisprudence,  and  is  attended  by 
about  200  or  300  students.  It  has  an  excellent 
library,  wliich,  besides  a  variety  of  MSS.,  missal 
paintings,  and  old  editions  of  printed  works,  con- 
t.ains  several  of  the  works  of  Tasso  and  Ariosto 
in  their  own  hand.  F.  is  specially  remarkable  for 
its  art  associations.  Under  the  jiatron.age  of  the 
Dukes  of  Este,  it  produced  a  school  ot  painters 
who  rank  high  in  the  historj'  of  art ;  while  in 
literature  the  name  of  F.  is  immortalised  through 
its  connection  ^^^th  those  of  Tasso,  Ariosto,  and 
Guarini.  At  the  period  of  its  greatest  prosjierity, 
F.  had  about  100,000  inhabitants,  but  at  [>resent 
(1S73)  it  has  a  population  of  only  72,447. 

In  1849,  the  Austrians  took  posscssiiui  of  the 
towni,  but  were  compelled  to  abandon  it  at  the 
commencement  of  the  Italian  campaign  in  June 
1859.  In  April  1860,  F.,  with  the  state  of  which 
it  is  capital,  was  formally  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  under  Victor  Emanuel. 

FEIIR.'V'RI,  Gaudenzio,  sprung  from  a  f,amily 
which  followed  a  career  of  art  as  if  by  inheritance, 
was   bom  at  Valdugia,  in  the   Milanese,   in   1484. 


FEKRATKS— FEIlRIEi;. 


A  scholar  of  Andrea  Scotto  and  Perugino,  and  the 
chosen  associate  and  friend  of  Kaiihacl,  his  own 
creations  may  be  said  to  luive  caught  some  ins]iir- 
ation  from  each  of  these  three  gj-eat  mastei-s,  while 
they  also  unmistakably  lellect  genius  of  a  bold, 
unshackled  originality.  The  chief  characteristics 
of  F.'s  style  are  correct  and  ^ngorous  delineation, 
extreme  vividness  and  delicacy  of  colouring,  noble 
grace  of  form  and  attitude,  and  unsurpassable  art 
in  the  classic  (hsposal  of  drapery.  Being  one  of 
tlie  most  laborious  artists  of  his  day,  he  lias  executed 
innumerable  ]iaintfngs  both  in  J'rrwo  an<l  in  oil,  the 
greater  part  of  which  are  jiossessed  by  the  Lombard 
^■alleries.  His  most  comprehensive  work,  the 
trescos  at  Barallo,  in  Piedmont,  represents  the 
Passiou ;  the  '  MartjTdoin  of  St  Catherine,'  to 
which  he  owes  his  brightest  fame,  is  in  the  Milanese 
collection  of  paintings.  He  died  in  1549,  having 
formed  some  good  scholars,  the  chief  of  whom  is 
Anilrea  Solario. 

FE'RRATES  are  combinations  of  ferric  acid 
(Fe03),  a  weak  unstalile  compound  of  iron  and 
oxygen  with  bases.     See  Iron. 

FERREI'RA,  Antonio,  one  of  the  classic  poets 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  152S.  He  was 
educated  at  Coimbra,  where  he  occupied  himself 
■with  the  study  of  the  Italian  and  Latin  authors, 
more  especially  Horace,  whom  lie  almost  rivalled 
in  conciseness,  but  not  in  elegance  of  expression. 
After  holding  for  some  time  the  office  of  a  professor 
at  Coimbra,  he  olitained  a  civil  ajipointmeut  of  some 
importance  at  the  court  of  Lisbon.  He  can-ied  to 
perfection  the  elegiac  and  epistolary  styles,  already 
attempted  with  success  by  Sa  de  Miranda,  and 
transplanted  into  Portuguese  literature  the  epi- 
thalainiiun,  the  epigram,  ode,  and  tragedy.  His  lues 
de  Castro  is  the  second  regidai'  tr.agrdy  that  appeared 
after  the  revival  of  letters  in  Europe,  the  first  being 
the  Soplmmnha  of  Trissino.  It  is  stdl  regarded  by 
the  Portuguese  as  one  of  the  finest  monuments 
of  their  literature,  for  its  sublime  pathos  and  the 
perfection  of  its  style.  The  works  of  F.  .are  not 
numerous,  as  Ids  official  duties  left  him  little  leisure. 
He  died  1569.  All  his  works  are  distinguished  by 
soundness  and  depth  of  thought.  His  expression 
is  strong  rather  than  sweet,  is  extremely  animated, 
and  fidl  of  that  fire  which  elevates  the  mind  and 
■warms  the  heart.  His  efforts  after  brevity,  how- 
ever, frequently  led  him  to  sacrifice  harmony  to 
thought.  His  Poemas  Lusitanos  were  first  ]mb- 
lishetl  at  Lisbon,  1598,  and  the  Todas  as  obras 
de  Ferreira  in  1771.  Compare  Sismondi's  work,  La 
Litterature  du  Midi  (Paris,  1813),  and  Bouterivek's 
'Oeschichte  da-  neiiern  Poesie  unci  Beredsamkeit  (1'2 
vols.  Gort.  1801—1819). 

FE'RRET  (Mxislelafuro),  an  animal  of  the  ■n-c.asel 
famUy  (Musielidce),  so  nearly  aUied  to  the  Polecat 
(q.  v.),  that  many  regard  it  as  a  mere  domesticated 
variety.  It  is  of  rather  smaller  size,  the  head  and 
body  being  about  fourteen  inches  long,  the  tail  five 
inches  and  a  half,  the  muzzle  rather  longer  and  more 
pointed,  the  head  rather  narrower  ;  and  the  colour 
is  very  different,  being  yello^wish,  with  more  or  less 
of  wliite  in  some  parts,  there  being  two  kinds  of  hair, 
the  longer  partly  white,  the  shorter  yellow.  The 
eyes  are  pink.  It  is,  however,  much  more  suscep- 
tible of  cold  than  the  polecat,  and  requires  careful 
protection  from  it  in  climates  where  the  polecat  is 
a  hardy  native.  It  was  imported  into  Europe  from 
Africa,  and  was  well  kno^wn  to  the  Roni.ans,  being 
anciently  employed,  as  it  still  is,  in  catching  rabbits, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  often  sent  into  their  biu'- 
rows  muzzled,  or  '  coped,'  by  means  of  a  piece  of 
string,  to  drive  them  out  iuto  nets,  or,  with  a  string 
attached  to  it,  it  is  allowed  to  seize  a  rabbit  in  the 


burrows,  and  is  then  draim  out,  holding  it  fa.st. 
The  usual  plan,  however,  is  to  let  the  F.  have 
free  range  of  rabbit-holes  unmuzzled.  Ferrets  are 
generally  kept  in  boxes,  and  attention  to  warmth 


Ferret  {Mustcla  furo). 

and  cleanliness  is  essential  to  their  health.  They 
are  capable  only  of  partial  domestication,  acquiring 
a  kind  of  famUiarity  with  man,  and  submitting  with 
perfect  quietness  to  his  handling,  but  apparently 
never  forming  any  very  decided  attachment ;  and 
they  never  cease  to  be  dangerous  if  not  carefully 
watched,  especially  "ndiere  infants  are  witliin  their 
reach.  If  allowed  any  measure  of  freedom,  they 
are  ready  to  attack  poultry,  and  kill  far  more  than 
they  can  devour,  merely  sucking  the  blood.  They 
generally  breed  twice  a  year,  each  brood  consisting 
of  six  or  nine.  The  female  sometimes  devours 
the  yoimg  ones,  in  which  case  another  brood  is 
speedily  produced. 

FE'RRIDCYA'NOGEN  is  a  compound  organic 
radical  which  has  not  been  isolated,  but  which 
forms  with  potassiimi  a  well-known  comjioimd  used 
in  the  arts,  called  the  ferridcyanide  of  potassium  or 
red  prussiate  of  potash.  In  the  preparation  of 
this  salt,  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
is  acted  on  by  a  stream  of  chlorine  g.as  until  the 
colour  of  the  liqiud  passes  from  yellow  to  deep  red, 
and  thereafter,  on  evaporation  and  cooling,  fine 
red  crystals  are  obtained.  The  chlorine  (CI)  acts 
upon  two  equivalents  of  the  ferrocyanide  of  potas- 
sium (tivice  2K,FeC«N3  =  4K,Fe„C,„N„),  removing 
one  equivalent  of  potassium  (K),  forming  chloride  of 
potassium  (KCl),  whdst  the  remaining  constituents 
combine  together,  and  produce  one  (<juivalent  of 
ferridcyanide  of  potassium  (.3K,Fe;C,|,Nc,  or  3K, 
Fe„Cyo,  or  3K,Fdcy).  The  latter  is  kno^wn  com- 
mercially in  red  crystals,  readUy  soluble  in  water, 
and  yields  a  fine  deep  Prussian  blue  (Tumbidl's 
blue)  when  mingled  ■with  solution  of  protosulphate 
of  iron  (green  vitriol),  and  hence  is  used  largely  in 
dyeing  and  calico-printing. 

FERRIER,  James  F.,  LL.  D.,  a  metaphysician, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  November  1808.  After 
studying  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
in  1S32,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1833. 
In  1842,  he  ■was  elected  to  the  chair  of  History  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1845  to  that  of 
Moral  Philosojihy  in  the  imiversity  of  St  Andrews. 
Mr  F.  early  attracted  notice  by  some  metaphysical 
essays,  which  apjieared  in  Blackwood's  Magazine ; 
and  in  1854  he  published  the  Inalilulea  of  Meta- 
physics, in  which  he  endeavours  to  construct  a 
system  of  idealism  in  a  series  of  propositions, 
demonstrated  after  the  manner  of  Euclid.   He  after- 

299 


FEUIUER- FERRY. 


wanls  edited  the  collected  works  of  his  father-in- 
law,  the  latu  Professor  Johu  Wilson  of  the  University 
of  KiUuburgh.  Dieil  at  ."^t  Andrews,  June  11,  1S64. 
FEKRIKK,  SisAN  Edmonstox,  aunt  of  the 
former,  a  succissful  novelist,  was  born  in  lidinliurnh 
in  17SJ,  .and  died  in  18.54.  Her  father,  Janus  I'Vrrier, 
one  of  the  i>rincipal  elerks  of  the  (_'ourt  of  Session, 
and  the  colleaijue  in  that  office  of  Sir  W.-Jter  Scott, 
liviil  on  terms" of  intim.'icy  with  the  wits  and  literati 
of  his  day  in  Eilinburgli,  and  Miss  F.'s  talent-s  and 
(luick  powers  of  observ,ition  were  early  called  into 


these  t.iles,  which  are  characterised  by  genial  wit, 
a  quick  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  and  consider.able 
ability  in  the  delineation  of  national  peculiarities, 
is  sufficiently  jirovcd  by  the  fact,  that  they  have 
stood  their  ground,  notw-ithstauding  the  enormous 
number  of  works  of  tictiou  which  have  flowed  from 
the  press  since  their  publication.  Miss  F.  enjoyed 
the  esteem  and  friendship  of  Sir  W.iltcr  Scott,  who, 
in  the  days  of  his  strength,  repeatedly  gave 
e.xpression  to  his  apjireciation  of  her  talents,  and 
who  derived  consolation  from  her  symp.athy  in 
the  season  of  gloom  which  darkened  the  close  of 
his  life. 

FF/KUO,  or  HIERRO,  the  most  western  of 
the  Canary  Isles,  was  formerly  considered  the 
most  westerly  point  of  the  Old  World,  .and  for 
this  reason  geographers  at  one  time  took  it  as  the 
point  of  departure  in  reckoning  longitudes,  as  is 
still  done  by  the  Germans  and  others.  Hence,  in 
all  probability,  originated  the  present  hemispherical 
division  of  the  maps  of  the  world,  F.  being  taken  as 
the  boundary-line.  The  English^  however,  have 
adopted  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  as  the  first 
meridian  and  in  this  their  examjile  is  followed  by 
the  Butch,  and  in  sea-ch.arts  generally  ;  are.a,  82 
square  miles  ;  pop.  4400.  The  meridian  of  F.  is 
18°  0'  west  of  th.at  of  Greenwich.     See  Longitude. 

FE'HUOCYA'NOGEN   is  a   compoimd   organic 
radical,  generally  regarded  by  chemists  as  existing'  in 
ferrocyanide  of  "pot.issinm,  or  the  yellow   i)nissiate 
of  potash,  but   which  has   not  yet  been   obtained 
in   a    separate   state.      The  princip.al  compound  of 
ferrocyanogen    is    the    ferrocyanide    of    potassium, 
which  is  prepared  by  heating  to  redness  in  a  covered 
iron  pot  a  mixture  of  3  parts  by  weight  of  nitro- 
geniaed  matter,  such   as  ckied  blood,  hoofs,  p.arings 
of   hides,   scrapings   of   horn,    or   the    Hesh    of    old 
or  diseased  horses   and   other  anim.als,  3  parts   of 
carbonate  of  potash,  and  one  part  of  iron  filings. 
The    carbon,  nitrogen,  and   iron  combine  together, 
and    form    ferrocyanogen    (FeCcNj   =  FeCy,,    or 
Cfy),  which,   at  the   same   time,   unites   with   the 
pot.assium,  and  produces  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, 
or  yellow  priissiate  of  potash  (2K,Cfy).     The  com- 
pound which  is  obtained  from  the  heated  iron  vessel 
is  impure,  but  by  rcjicated  solutions  in  hot  water, 
and  recrystallisatiou  on  cooling,  the  salt  is  obtained 
pure  in  tine  large  tabular  crystals  of  a  lemon-yellow 
colour.      The  fcrroey.anide  of  potassium  is  largely 
used  in   dyeing  and   Calico-printing  (q.  v.)  in  the 
production  of  many  shades  of   Prussian  blue. ;  and 
when  it  is  treated  with  sulj>huric  acid,  and  subjected 
to  heat  ap])licd,  hydi-ocyanic  or  jirussic  acid  (HC„N 
=  HCy)  distils   off  from  the  mixture.     The  ferro- 
cyanide of  pofcassium  is  characterised  by  giving  no 
indication  of  the  presence  of  iron  in  its  radical  on 
the   application   of   any  of  the   tests   for   iron.     It 
gives  a  light-blue  precipitate  on  the  addition  of  a 
solution   of    proto-sulph.ate   of   iron ;    a   dark   blue 
precipitate  with  perchloride  of  iron  :  a  ruddy  brown 
300 


precipitate  with  sulphate  of  copper ;  and  a  white 
precipitate  with  acetate  of  lead. 

FK'KKOIj,  a  strongly  fortilled  seaport  town  of 
.Spain,  in  tialicia,  is  most  advantageously  situated 
on  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  14  miles  iioith-eiLst  of 
the  town  of  Coniuua.  It  w.os  origiii.ally  a  tishiug- 
town,  until  seleetinl  for  its  natural  advantage's  as  a 
scajjort  by  C'h.arles  III.,  who  erected  here  what  was 
at  one  time  the  linest  naval  arsenal  in  tlie  world, 
and  destined  it  exclusively  for  the  Spanish  royal 
navy.  The  entrance  to  the  harbour,  formed  by  a 
narrow  inlet  from  the  Bay  of  Bctanzos,  admits  of 
the  approach  of  only  one  ship-of-the-liue  at  a  time, 
and  is  defended  by  the  castles  of  San  Felipe  and 
Palni.a.  The  town  is  defended  by  walls  and  fortili- 
cations,  is,  on  the  whole,  regidarly  Imilt,  and  has 
several  squares  and  ple.asing  alamedas  or  ]>ublie 
walks.  The  arsenal,  in  which  liftecii  sliips-of-thc- 
line  could  be  simultaneously  built,  covers  a  great 
space ;  and  though  now  in  a  somewhat  ruinous 
condition,  is  still  the  most  important  in  Spain.  F. 
h.as  nianufacturcs  of  h.ats,  naval  stores,  hardwares  ; 
and  exports  corn,  brandy,  vinegar,  ami  lish.  I'op. 
(including  the  gamson)  1G,C40. 

FE'RROTYPE,  a  term  applied  by  Mr  Robert 
Hunt,  the  discoverer,  to  designate  .some  ])hoto- 
graphic  processes,  in  which  salts  of  iron  play  an 
important  part.  Like  many  of  the  earlier  jiaper 
])rocesse3,  the  ferrotype  is  far  inferior  in  sensibility 
to  the  more  modem  collodion  process  or  Archero- 
tyjie,  and  is  on  th.at  .accoimt  seldom  if  ever  used 
even  for  landscapes. 

FERRUGINOUS  is  a  term  employed  in  chemis- 
try to  denote  the  presence  of  iron  in  natural  waters, 
minerals,  &c.  It  is  synonjnnous  with  the  term 
chalybeate.     See  CHALVBE.iTE  Waters. 

FERRY  (from  Sax.  faran,  Ger.  fuhren,  to  move, 
proceed,  allied  to  the  Lat/cro,  Eng.  hear),  a  passago 
by  boat  across  water.  By  the  law  of  England, 
a  man  in.ay  have  a  right  to  keep  a  boat  and  to 
fen-y  passengers  for  a  consideration,  just  as  he 
may  have  a  right  to  hold  a  fair,  either  liy  royal 
grant,  or  by  prescription,  from  which  a  royal  grant 
at  some  previous  time  will  be  presumed.  No 
other  title,  unless  confen-ed  by  act  of  parliament, 
will  suffice,  for  no  fair,  market,  or  ferry  can  be  set 
up  without  licence  from  the  crown  either  actual 
or  presumed.  Tlie  possessor  of  such  a  title  need 
not  necessarily  be  the  proprietor  of  the  soil  on 
which  the  market  is  held,  or  of  the  water  over 
wliich  the  right  of  ferry  is  exercised.  In  the 
latter  case,  he  need  not  be  the  proprietor  of  the  soil 
on  cither  side  of  the  river,  though  he  must  jiossess 
such  rights  over  it  as  will  enable  him  to  embark  and 
disembark  hia  passengers.  As  fulfilling  his  p.art  of 
the  bargain  with  the  public,  the  owaier  of  a  ferry  is 
bound  to  keep  a  bo.at  fit  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
passengers,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  he  has  a  right 
of  action  not  only  against  those  who  refuse  or 
ev.ade  payment  of  the  toll  or  pass.age  money,  but 
ag.ainst  those  who  disturb  his  fr.ancliise  by  setting 
U]i  a  new  feny  so  near  as  to  diminish  his  custom. — ■ 
Sti'iihen,  i.  jip.  003,  GM.  It  has  been  more  than 
once  decided,  that  the  erection  of  a  second  ferry  in 
such  circumstances  is  a  nuisance  to  the  owner  of 
the  old  one,  who  is  bound  to  keep  his  ferry  in  readi- 
ness for  the  use  of  the  t,>ueen's  subjects,  a  burden 
which  is  not  shared  by  his  rival  (North  and  Soiitli 
Sliields  Fen-y  Co.  v.  B.arker,  2  Excli.  LiU).  The 
rule  iu  Scotland  .as  to  rival  ferries  is  the  same  ;  but 
a  grant  of  ferry  from  the  crown  to  one  heritor  does 
not  prevent  his  neighbours  from  keeping  private 
boats  for  the  transport  of  themselves  and  their 
families  and  servants.  JVhere  ferries  have  not  been 
given  out  by  royal  gift,  either  express  or  presumed 


FERTILISATION  OF  PLANTS— FESCUR 


as  above  described,  they  are  inter  rerjalia,  i.  e.,  they 
belong  to  the  crown  for  the  pubhc  benetit.  lu 
this  case,  they  are  under  the  management  of  the 
trustees  of  the  roads  connected  with  them,  or  are 
regiUated  Ijy  the  justices  of  the  peace  for  the  county, 
or  by  special  acts  of  parliament.  By  8  and  9  V'ict. 
c.  41,  certain  rules  are  laid  Aovra  h>T  the  rcgiUation 
of  ferries.     The  act  is  contined  to  Scotland. 

Common  rowing-boats  are  generally  used  for 
ferrying  fi)ot-|iassengers,  but  when  horses  and 
carriages  have  to  be  taken  across,  a  flat-bottomed 
barge,  with  an  inclined  plane  at  one  end,  to  rest 
upon  the  shore,  for  landing  and  embarking,  is 
generally  used.  This  is  either  rowed  across  or 
pulled  by  a  rope.  When  the  current  is  strong, 
and  the  river  of  moderate  width,  the  latter  is  best. 
The  rope  stretched  across  the  river  passes  through 
rings  or  over  pulleys  attached  to  the  barge,  and  the 
ferrymen  move  the  barge  across  by  pulling  the 
rojie.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  rope  is  to  restrain 
the  barge  from  drifting  in  the  direction  of  the 
stream.  With  a  small  boat,  this  is  ob\-iated  by 
the  ferryman  rowing  obliquely,  as  though  he  were 
steering  for  a  point  higher  up  the  river  ;  thus  he 
moves  through  the  water  ujnvards  to  the  same 
extent  that  the  water  moves  over  the  laud  down- 
wards ;  and  by  a  composition  of  these  motions,  and 
his  tending  to  the  other  side,  he  is  carried  directly 
across.  Broad  estuaries  are  now  traversed  in  many 
places  by  steam-ferry. 

Rafts  are  sometimes  used  for  ferrying.  On  the 
Nile,  a  sort  of  raft  is  made  of  inverted  earthen-pots 
full  of  air.  For  fiuther  information  on  the  crossing 
of  rivers,  see  Fokds  and  Fording. 

Flying-hritliie  is  the  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
ferry-boat  which  is  moved  across  a  river  by  the 
action  of  the  combined  forces  of  the  stream  and  the 
resistance  of  a  long  rope  or  chain  made  fast  to  a 
fixed  buoy  in  the  middle  of  the  river.  The  boat 
thus  attached  is  made  to  take  an  oblique  position 
by  means  of  the  rudder;  the  stream  then  acting 
against  the  side,  tend^  to  move  it  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  its  length,  while  the  rope 
exerts  a  force  in  the  direction  towards  the  buoy. 
If  these  two  forces  be  represented  by  the  sides 
of  a  parallelogram,  the  actual  course  of  the  boat 
would  be  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal  (see 
Composition  and  Resolution  of  Fokces);  but  as 
the  length  of  the  rope  remains  the  same,  the  boat 
must  continue  ahvaj's  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  buoy,  and  therefore  its  course  is  a  ciu-ve,  a 
portion  of  a  circle,  of  which  the  buoy  is  the  centre, 
and  the  rope  the  radius.  The  course  of  the  boat 
and  the  action  of  the  two  forces  are  strictly  analo- 
gous to  the  path  of  a  rising  kite,  and  to  the  forces 
of  which  this  path  is  the  residtant.  The  holder  of 
the  kite  corresponds  to  the  buoy,  the  wind  to  the 
tidal  stream,  and  the  tail  to  the  rudder.  Flying- 
bridges  are  used  for  military  purposes,  and  the 
modes  of  adapting  them  to  the  varj-ing  circum- 
stances of  the  width  of  rivers  and  the  velocity  of 
their  currents,  forms  a  part  of  the  study  of  mili- 
tary engineering.  An  important  element  in  the 
problem,  is  the  determination  of  the  right  point  of 
attachment  for  the  rope.  In  the  case  of  a  wide 
river,  the  rope  or  chain  requires  to  be  of  consider- 
able length,  and  must  be  supported  by  movable 
buoys  or  by  small  boats. 

FERTILISA'TION  OF  PLANTS.  See  Fecun- 
dation. 

FESA,  or  FASA,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Ears,  80  miles  south-east  of  Shiraz,  is  situated  in 
a  mountain  defile,  is  of  consider.ible  size,  and  is  said 
to  have  a  population  of  18,000.  It  has  manufac- 
tures  of   sdken,  woollen,  and   cotton   fabrics,  and 


some  trade  in  a  superior  kind  of  tobacco  which  is 
grown  in  the  vicinity. 

FE'SCENNINE  VERSES,  a  branch  of  the 
indigenous  poetry  of  ancient  Italy,  were  a  sort  of 
dialogues  in  rude  extempore  verses,  generally  in 
Satm-nian  measure,  in  which  the  jiarties  rallied 
and  ridiculed  one  another.  It  formed  a  favourite 
amusement  of  the  country-people  on  festive  occa- 
sions, especially  at  the  couclusion  of  harvest  and  at 
weddings.  As  was  to  be  expi'cted,  it  often  degene- 
rated into  licentif>usness,  that  at  last  required  the 
curb  of  the  law.  The  Fescennine  verses  are  usually 
considered  to  be  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  to  have 
derived  their  name  from  the  Etrurian  town  Fescen- 
nium  ;  but  there  is  little  ])robabiUty  in  this  ety- 
mology. Verses  of  this  sort  were  and  are  popular 
to  this  day  all  over  Italy.  The  name  is  more  likely 
connected  with  fascinvm,  fascination,  enchantment, 
or  the  evil  eye,  against  which  the  chanting  of 
verses  may  have  originally  been  intended  as  a 
protection. 

FESCUE  (Feslxtca),  a  genus  of  grasses,  very 
nearly  alUed  to  Brome-grass  (q.  v.),  and  having  in 
some  species  a  loose,  in  some  a  contracted  panicle  ; 
the  spikelets  many-flowered,  with  two  unequal 
glumes,  which  they  much  exceed  in  length  ;  each 
floret  having  two  lanceolate  pales,  the  outer  palea 
rounded  at  the  back,  and  acuminate  or  aWTied  at  the 
summit ;  the  stigmas  growing  from  the  apex  of  the 
germen.      The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  very 


Fescue  Grass  {Festuca  praicrms) : 
a,  germen  and  stigmas  ;  b,  a  splkelet. 

widely  diffused  over  the  world,  both  in  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  Among  them  are  many 
of  the  most  valuable  pasture  and  fodder  grasses. 
None  are  more  valuable  than  some  of  the  British 
species. — ME;iDOW  F.  (F.  j^nti^nsii),  a  species  with 
spreading  panicle  and  linear  spikelets,  from  two  to 
three  feet  high,  common  in  moist  meadows  and 
pastures  of  rich  soil,  in  Britain  and  tliroughout 
Eiu-ope,  in  Northern  Asia,  and  in  some  parts  of 
North  America,  is  perhaps  excelled  by  no  meadow 
or  pasture  grass  whatever.     It  is  suitable  both  for 


FESS— FESTIVALS. 


nltemato  husbandry  and  for  permanent  pasture— 
SriKKU  F.  {F.  loliacea)—hy  many  botanists  regarded 
as  a  variety  of  Meadow  F.,  although  it  departs  from 
the  lialiit  of  the  genus  in  haWng  the  branches  of 
tlic  iKUiicle  redueed  to  a  single  spikilot,  and  forming 
a  two-rowed  rai'eme  or  spike — is  regaiiied  as  au 
ixoellent  grass  for  rich  moist  meadows. — Hard  F., 
(K  iliiriunculn),  a  grass  from  one  foot  and  a  half  to 
two  feet  high,  with  a  somewhat  contracted  panicle, 
mostly  on  one  side,  is  one  of  the  best  gi'asses  for 
lawns  and  sheep-pastures,  particularly  on  dry  or 
sandy  soils.  Sevei-al  varieties  are  known  to  seeds- 
men and  farmers.— Creeplvo  F.  or  Ked  F.  {F. 
ruhra)  is  i)robably  a  mere  variety  of  Hard  F.,  being 
distiugtiishcd  chielly  by  its  extensively  creeping 
root,  which  particularly  adapt  it  to  sandy  pastures, 
and  to  places  liable  to  occasional  inundations. — 
Shekp's  F.  (/'.  oi-ina)  is  a  smaller  grass  th.-in  auy  of 
these,  not  gener.-vlly  exceeding  a  foot  in  height,  and 
often  much  less,  abimdant  in  "mountainous  jiastui  es, 
and  especUly  suitable  for  such  situations,  in  which 
it  ofteu  forms  a  jirineipal  part  of  the  food  of  sheep 
for  many  months  of  the  year.  It  is  common  in  all 
the  mountainous  ]>arts  of  E\irope,  and  in  the  Hima- 
lay.T,  it  is  also  a  native  of  Korth  America,  and 
species  very  similar,  if  not  mere  varieties,  abound  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  Its  habit  of  growth  is 
much  tufted.— Tall  F.  {F.  datior)  is  a  grass  of 
very  different  appearance,  four  or  five  feet  high, 
with  spreading  much  branched  panicle,  growing 
ehieHy  near  rivers  and  in  moist  low  grounds,  and 
yieldijig  a  great  quantity  of  coarse  herbage,  which, 
however,  is  relished  by  cattle. — Of  foreign  siiecies, 
which  have  been  introduced  into  Britain,  F.  Iiekro- 
phijlla  best  deserves  notice,  a  tall  species  with 
narrow  root-leaves,  and  broad  leaves  on  the  odm ; 
a  native  of  France  and  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Eurf)i>e,  and  pretty  extensively  cultivated  in  some 
countries,  jiarticularly  the  Netherlands. — All  these 
species  are  jierennial. — Some  small  annual  species 
occasionally  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  ]iasture 
in  dry  sandy  soils,  but  are  never  soato  by  the 
farmer. — A  Peruvian  species  (F.  quadridcntaki), 
called  Pii/otiil  in  its  native  country,  and  there  used 
for  thatch,  is  said  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle. 

FESS.  The  fess  in  heraklry  consists  of  lines 
drawn  horizontally  across  the  shield,  and  containing 
the  third  part  of  it,  between  the  honour  point  and 
the  nombril.  It  is  one  of  the  honourable  ordinaries, 
and  is  su]iposed  to  represent  the  waist-belt  or  girdle 
of  honour,  which  was  one  of  the  insignia  of  knight- 
hood. 

Per  Fess. — A  shield,  or  charge  in  a  shield,  is 
said  to  be  parly  per  fess,  when  it  is  horizontally 
divided  through  the  middle,  or,  as  the  French  say, 
simply  cotipc. 

FbnSWIse  is  said  of  a  charge  placed  in  fess ; 
that  is  to  say,  horizontally  across  the  shield. 

FE'SSLER,  Igxaz.  Aup.elics,  a  celebrated  Hun- 
garian historian,  was  born  in  17o6,  in  the  county 
of  Suprony  or  Ocdcnburg.  During  a  long  life  full 
of  adventures,  F.  ser\-ed  successively  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  Emperor  of 
llussia  ;  and  also  held  the  office  of  Professor  of 
Oriental  Langii.ages  at  different  universities.  He 
died  .it  St  Petersi>urg  15th  December  1S.S9.  Among 
his  works  of  a  lasting  value  are — Allila  (Breslau, 
1704),  Mathias  Con-inus  (2  vols.  17!»3;  2d  edition, 
1806,  Breslau),  and  the  History  of  the  Himgarians, 
&c.  (OescJiichte  der  Unr/ern  und  dercn  Ijamls(usen, 
10  vols,,  Leip.  1812—1825).  His  autobiograjihy, 
entitled  IJecollcctions  of  my  70  Years'  Pilgrimage 
(HiickUidce  nu/meine  lOjiilirhje  Pilijerschnfl,  Breslau, 
1826  ;  2d  edit.  Leip.  1851),  is  also  a  very  interesting 
work.  Deep  learning,  coupled  with  a  rare  beauty 
:o3 


of  style,  render  F.'s  works  (all  written  in  German) 
attractive  in  the  highest  degree. 

FE'.STIVALi  PLAYS.  See  MoKAxmES,  MiRACLE 
Pi..\vs,  Mysteries. 

FE'STIVALS,  or  FEASTS  {hat.  festnm,  probably 
from  the  same  root  nsfasl  (q.  v.) ;  according  to  some, 
from  Gr.  hestia,  hearth),  a  term  denoting  certain 
jHjriodically  recurring  days  and  seasons  set  aside  by 
a  community  for  rest  from  the  ordinary  labour  of 
life,  and  more  or  less  hallowed  by  religious  solem- 
nities. Originating  within  the  narrow  circle  of  the 
family,  and  commemorating  momentous  events  affect- 
ing one  member  or  all,  these  pauses  became  more 
frequent,  and  of  wider  scope,  as  the  house  gradually 
expanded  into  a  tribe,  a  people,  a  state.  The  real 
or  imaginary  founders,  legislators,  heroes,  became 
objects  of  veneration  and  deification,  and  the  salient 
c])ochs  of  their  lives  the  consecrated  epochs  of  the 
year.  National  calamities  or  triumphs  were,  in  the 
absence  of  annals,  best  remembered  by  corresponding 
general  days  of  humiliation  or  exultiition.  Earliest 
of  all,  however,  did  the  marked  stages  in  the  onward 
march  of  nature :  spring  and  autumn,  seed-time  and 
harvest-time — symbols  of  life  and  death ;  the  sol- 
stices— turning-points  of  summer  and  winter  ;  the 
new  moon  and  the  full  moon  ;  the  termination  of 
cycles  of  moons  and  cycles  of  years,  jiresent  them- 
selves as  opportune  halting-places  for  man  himself. 
No  less  were  the  all-important  periodical  rises  of 
fertilising  rivers,  and  the  anniversaries  of  importa- 
tions and  inventions  of  new  implements  for  the 
better  cultivation  of  the  sod,  or  tending  of  the  Hocks, 
befittingly  celebrated.  The  inherent  human  tendency 
towards  referring  all  things  of  graver  import,  life 
and  death,  abimdance  and  want,  victory  and  defeat, 
to  a  higher  power,  could  not  but  infuse  a  religious 
feeling  into  0])Ochs  so  marked.  Fostered  and  guided 
by  priests  and  lawgivers,  this  property  of  our  nature 
erelong  found  its  expression  in  conunon  sacrifices, 
]>rayers,  and  ceremonies,  consecrated  to  the  various 
superior  and  minor  deities  who  presided  over  aud 
inhabited  the  elements  of  the  \-isible  and  invisible 
creation,  aud  who,  working  .aU  the  changes  within 
them,  acted,  each  in  his  sphere,  as  a  partial  provi- 
dence over  man.  Accordmg  to  the  event  which 
called  them  forth,  these  festivals  were  mom-nful  or 
joyous,  jubilant  or  expiatory.  Even  when  sorrow 
was  to  be  expressed,  the  mortification  of  the  body 
<U<1  not  always  suffice,  but  plays,  songs,  dances,  and 
processions  fuU  of  boisterous  mirth,  were  resorted 
to — as  in  the  festivals  of  Isis  at  Busiris,  of  Mars 
at  Pajjremis,  iu  thp  Adonia  of  Egypt,  I'hcenicia,  and 
Greece — because  the  di\'iue  WTath  or  sorrow  was, 
like  that  of  man,  to  be  changed  into  satisfaction. 
Besides  the  relation  between  the  common  tutelary 
deity  and  those  he  protected,  the  bond  also  by 
which  the  otherwise  disconnected  membera  of  the 
body  politic  were  held  together  was,  by  means  of 
these  festive  gatherings,  jieriodicaUy  brought  in 
view,  and  invested  with  greater  strength  and 
importance.  Apart,  however,  from  this  their  his- 
torical, astronomical,  rehgious,  aud  political  end, 
festivals  served  another  jmrpose — th.at  of  gi'owing 
cixnlisaticm.  It  was  the  glowing  spirit  of  emul.ation 
which,  stimul.atiug  the  gifted  iu  mind  and  body  to 
strive  for  the  festive  laurel  in  contests  of  genius  and 
skill,  in  honour  of  the  gods,  and  iu  the  face  of  all 
the  people,  matured  all  that  was  noble  and  Vu'ilhant 
within  the  community.  Archaic  rudeness  and  rustic 
extr.avagance  became  refined  grace  and  chissic  har- 
mony. The  stirring  drama,  the  glorious  anthem, 
the  melodious  dance,  the  elegant  game,  which 
accom]ianied  the  festive  sacrifice  of  some  nations 
at  their  highest  stage  of  development,  had  arisen 
out    of    those   very    mimicries    aud    shout=,    rudo 


FESTIVALS. 


aad  savage  beyond  expression,  of  generations  not 
long  before  them.  Enthusiastic,  wHd,  metaphysical 
E^Qi't  invested  tlie  countless  days  consecrated  to 
lier  deified  stars,  jilants,  animals,  and  ideas  ;  to  the 
Nile,  t<3  Ammon,  Kneph,  Menes,  Osu'is;  to  Horns, 
to  Neitha,  to  Ptah,  with  a  mystery,  sensuality, 
and  mourufulness  ahv.ays  exaggerated,  sometimes 
monstrous.  The  Hindu,  no  longer  daring  to  offer 
human  sacrilices,  shews  his  odd  and  cruel  mate- 
rialism by  thi-owing  into  the  waves,  on  his  festival 
of  rivers,  some  of  his  costliest  goods,  gold,  jewels, 
garments,  and  instruments  ;  while  in  the  licentious- 
ness and  debaucheries  perpetrated  on  the  festival  of 
Shiva,  the  god  of  procreation,  or  on  the  Bacchantics 
of  the  godciess  Bhavani,  he  exceeds  even  those  of 
the  Egyptians  on  their  Neitha  feasts  at  Bubastis, 
and  the  Greek  worship  of  Venus  in  her  Cyprian 
groves.  Pha>nicians  and  Assyrians,  Babylonians 
and  Phrygians,  according  to  the  Uttle  we  know  of 
their  religions  and  manners,  appear  to  have  feasted, 
thanked,  propitiated,  mourned  all  at  different  times, 
and  in  the  way  most  befitting  their  several  natures, 
even  in  the  case  of  those  gods  and  festivals  which 
they  had  in  common. 

The  ancient  Persians  alone  of  all  nations  had  no 
festivals,  as  they  had  no  temples  and  no  common 
worship.  These  '  Puritans  of  Polytheism,'  who 
worshipped  the  .sun  only,  and  his  representative 
on  earth,  fire,  scorned  show  and  pomp,  and  large 
religious  gatherings.  A  striking  contrast  to  them 
is  fonned,  in  another  hemisphere,  by  the  ancient 
Mexicans,  who  were  found  to  possess  one  of  the 
most  richly  developed  calendars  of  festivals,  scien- 
tifically divided  into  movable  and  immov.able  feasts. 
As  a  strange  and  singiJar  phenomenon  among 
festivals,  we  may  also  mention  here  that  '  of  the 
Dead  or  Souls,'  celebrated  among  the  wild  tribes  of 
North  America.  At  a  certain  time,  all  the  graves 
are  emptied,  and  the  remains  of  the  bodies  buried 
since  the  last  festival  are  taken  out  by  the  relatives, 
and  thrown  together  into  a  large  common  mound, 
amid  ,^eat  rejoicings  and  solemnities,  to  which  all 
the  neighbouring  tribes  are  invited. 

Greece  had  received  the  tj-jjes  of  ci\-ilisation, 
reUgion,  and  art  from  Egypt  and  the  East  generally, 
but  she  developed  them  all  in  a  manner  befatting  her 
glorious  clime  and  the  joyous  genius  of  her  sons. 
At  the  time  of  the  Iliad,  two  principal  festivals 
onlj' — the  harvest  and  the  vintage — seem  to  have 
been  celebrated  (i.x.  250) ;  but  they  increased  with 
such  rapidity,  that  in  the  days  of  Pericles  they  had 
reached  the  number  of  a  thousand ;  some  indeed 
being  an  epitome  only  of  their  memorable  feats 
of  arms,  others  restricted  to  one  town,  or  pro- 
vince, or  profession,  or  sex,  or  to  a  few  initiated, 
or  recurring  only  at  intervals  of  several  years  ; 
but  there  were  still  so  many  kept  by  the  whole 
people,  that  ancient  writers  bitterly  denounce 
them  as  merry  beginnings  of  a  sad  end,  as  the 
slow  but  sure  nun  of  the  commonwealth.  Their 
forebodings  proved  true  enough;  and  yet  Greece 
would  certainly  never  have  reached  the  highest 
place  among  nations,  as  far  as  Uteratiu-e,  the  arts, 
and  philosojihy  are  concerned,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  coust.ant  contests  attached  to  her  many 
festivals.  She  resisted  Asia,  because  her  citizens 
were  always  alert,  always  ready.  The  religious 
part  of  the  festival — homage  offered  to  personified 
ideas — consisted  mostly  in  the  carrying  about  of  the 
deity  of  the  d,ay  to  the  sound  of  flute,  lyre,  and 
hymns,  and  in  a  sacrifice,  followed  by  a  general 
meal  upon  certain  portions  of  the  animal  offeretL 
Then  followed  scenic  representations  sjTnbohsing 
the  deeds  of  the  gods ;  after  which  came  games  and 
matches  of  all  kinds — foot,  horse,  and  chariot  races, 
leaping,  Ijoxing,  throwing,  wrestling,  &c.    Separate 


accounts  are  given  of  some  of  the  more  remarkalilo 
Greek  festivals.  See  Baccucs,  Elecsikia»j  Mys- 
teries, Pakathenaia,  &c.  There  were  also  special 
times  set  aside  for  the  '  Holy  Games '  proper.  The 
most  important  of  these  ivere  the  Olympian,  the 
Pythian,  the  Nemean,  and  tlie  Isthmian.  (See  these 
heads.)  As  all  these  festivities  were  provided  out  of 
the  public  purse — from  the  confiscated  estates  of  the 
'tyrants'  and  poUtical  delinquents — the  indiindual 
(hd  not  suffer  more  than  a  welcome  interruption  of 
his  usual  business,  and  under  that  genial  sky  the 
]ienalty  to  be  jjaid  for  occasional  indolence  was  not 
too  heavy. 

Kome,  founded  amid  pastoral  festivities  in  honour 
of  some  god  Pales,  adopted  and  acclimatised,  as 
she  went  on  from  conquest  to  conquest,  the  foreign 
deities,  exactly  as,  with  her  usual  prudence  and 
practical  sense,  she  conferred  her  right  of  citizenship 
on  her  foreign  inhaliitants,  and  on  whole  nations 
subjected  to  her  rule.  Her  yoke  was  thus  less 
galling  to  the  new  provinces,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  populace  at  home  found  sufficient  dis- 
traction in  the  many  ancient  and  newly  imported 
festivals,  with  their  quaint  rites  and  gorgeous 
pageantry.  Yet  the  Romans — more  parsimonious 
and  abstract  by  nature  than  the  vivacious  Greek 
neighbours  from  whom  they  had  accepted  the 
greatest  part  of  their  rehgion — never  exceeded  in 
their  festivals  the  number  of  one  hundred,  and  in 
these,  again,  a  distinct  line  was  drawn  between  civil 
and  rehgious  ones.  Some  of  the  principal  rehgious 
festivals  were  the  Sementinae,  on  the  25th  of  January 
— the  rural  festival  of  the  seed-time ;  the  Lupercalia, 
in  honour  of  Pan ;  the  Cerealia ;  the  night  festival 
of  the  Bona  Dea ;  Matronalia;  Minervalia;  &c.  To 
the  purely  ci\Tl  ones  belong  the  Janualia,  the  1st 
of  January  and  the  new-year's  day,  when  the  new 
consuls  entered  upon  their  office,  and  friends  used  to 
send  presents  {sirencc)  to  each  other;  the  Quirinaha, 
in  memory  of  Eomulus,  deified  under  the  name  of 
Quirinus;  and  the  Satumaha,  in  remembrance  of 
the  golden  age  of  Satiun,  beginning  on  the  10th  of 
December.  The  celebration  of  these  festivals  was 
in  all  respects  imitated  from  the  Greeks,  with  this 
difference  only,  that  the  games  connected  with  them 
became,  with  the  pre-eminently  bellicose  Romans, 
terribly  lifelike  images  of  war.  Their  sham  sea- 
fights  ;  their  jntched  battles  between  horse  and  foot, 
between  wild  beasts  and  men;  their  so-called  Trojan 
games,  executed  by  the  flower  of  the  nobility ;  their 
boxing-matches  (with  gloves  that  h.ad  lead  and  iron 
sewed  into  them):  circus,  arena,  and  amphitheatre 
gave,  especially  in  Later  times,  the  greater  satisfac- 
tion the  greater  the  number  of  victims. 

It  is  one  thing  only  that  monotheism  has  in 
common  %vith  polytheism  with  respect  to  its  festi- 
vals— namely,  that  they  are  with  each  the  religious 
expression  of  human  joy  or  human  sorrow.  But  if 
the  former,  ^\-ith  a  dim  misgiving  of  some  awful 
and  supreme  power,  invited  the  multifarious  gover- 
nors of  the  manj'  provinces  of  natiu-e  to  partake, 
as  guests,  of  bodily  and  intellectu.al  feasts,  toijeOier 
with  their  hosts;  monotheism,  in  binding  up  all 
fear  and  all  hope,  all  gratitude  and  all  awe,  which 
moved  the  heart  of  man,  in  one  almighty  Creator, 
Mover,  and  Maintainer  of  all  things,  celebrated  its 
festivals  in  honour  of  this  omnipresent  Spirit  with 
a  veneration,  a  purity,  and  a  lofty  elevation,  such 
as  the  worshippers  of  star,  animal,  or  image  never 
knew.  With  the  first  and  strictest  monotheists,  the 
Hebrews,  whose  very  existence  as  a  nation  was 
traced  to  the  special  and  miraculous  interference  of 
this  highest  and  only  God,  the  remembrance  of  that 
great  event,  their  liberation  from  Egjqjt,  and  the 
momentous  period  of  preparation  in  the  desert  which 
followed  it,  mingled  with  almost  all  their  religious 

3oi 


FESTIVALS. 


obsciranccs,  .iiul  especially  their  festivals,  and  infused 
into  them  all  a  tone  of  deep  and  fervent  gratitude  ; 
while  at  the  same  time  it  held  ever  before  their 
e\T3  the  eause  of  their  nationality,  and  their  aim 
and  destiny  'to  lie  a  kingdom  of  priesti  and  a  holy 
|ieopli-.'  The  HehrcM-  festivals,  too,  are  of  a  historical, 
au'ricultural,  ;istronouiical,  and  political  nature ;  but 
they  mostly  combine  all  these  characteristics,  and 
arc  always  hallowiHl  by  the  same  i-eligious  idea,  and 
the  Siime  piety  and  devotion  to  one  and  the  same 
holy  name.  Connecteil  with  their  festivals  were 
no  plays  and  no  ivjiresent.itions  of  a  ;;od's  deeds,  no 
L'amesand  no  enieltv,  no  mystery  anil  no  sensuality, 
but  the  sacrifice  of  tlie  day,"and  a  siK^;ial  occupation 
with  the  diN-ine  law,  were  the  visible  signs  of  the  ' 
exalted  seasons.  The  inlluenee  of  the  number  seven  | 
— an  influence  met  with  .among  most  eastern  nations 
— is  seen  in  the  recurrence  of  many  of  the  Jewish 
solemnities.  See  Sevkx.  The  Sabbath,  the  lirst 
and  most  imiKirtant  of  these  septenary  festivals,  is 
treated  of  under  its  own  heaiL  Of  the  service  in 
the  temple,  and  of  the  way  in  which  this  and  the 
other  festiv.als  were  and  are  kept  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  tlie  temjile,  something  will  be  said  under 
JIebrkws  and  Jews.  The  most  exalted  of  new- 
moon  festivals  was  that  of  the  first  d.-iy  of  the  seventh 
month,  'the  day  of  remembrance  of  the  sounding' 
or  'of  trumpets'  (Lev.  x.Kiii.  '24),  to  which  in  later 
times,  when  the  Seleucidian  era  was  introduced  (the 
S\Tiaa  year  beginning  with  the  autumnal  equinox), 
the  name  of  Rosh  hashaua  (Xew  Year)  was  given ; 
notmthstanding  that  in  Exodus  (xii.  2)  Nisau  is 
siKiken  of  as  the  first  month  of  the  year.  After  a 
period  of  six  years  of  labour,  the  earth,  too,  was  to 
celebrate  a  Sabbath-year ;  what  it  produced  sponta- 
neously belonged  to  the  poor,  the  stranger,  and  to 
animals.  It  is  remarkable  that  even  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Cicsar  remitted  the  taxes  of  Judea  in  this 
year  of  SliemUla  (abandoning).  After  a  revolution  of 
seven  times  seven  years,  the  ye.ar  of  Jubilee  or  Jobel 
was  to  be  celebrated,  in  which  all  the  Hebrew  slaves 
were  set  free,  and  all  land  which  h.ad  been  sold  in 
the  interval  was  restored  to  the  former  owners,  in 
order  that  the  original  equilibrium  in  the  families 
and  tribes  should  be  maintained  intact.  (These  two 
festivals,  however,  were,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
not  kept  before  the  Babylonian  captivity.)  The 
pre-eminently  .agronomical  and  historical  festivals 
were  the  three  Chafjgini  (whence  the  Arab.  Hagg, 
3,  pilgrim  to  Mecca) — viz.,  Pesach  (Passover),  Scha- 
buoth  (Feast  of  Weeks),  and  Succoth  (Feast  of 
Tabernacles),  on  which  three  every  male  was 
obliged  to  go  up  to  Jenisalem  and  offer  some  of 
the  first  fruits,  besides  the  prescribed  sacrifices 
(see  P.^.ssovKR,  &c.). 

The  postmosaic  and  exclusively  historical  festi%'als, 
Purim,  the  feast  of  Ilaman,  Chanuca,  the  feast  of 
the  Maccabees,  will  be  noticed  in  the  articles  on 
Jews,  and  Jewisu  Rites. 

Oijy  a  cursory  glance  can  be  here  t,aken  of  the 
Christian  festivals,  which  are  treated  fully  and 
separately  under  their  various  names.  They  were 
for  the  most  part  grafted,  in  the  course  of  time, 
ujran  the  .Jewish  and  Pagan  ones,  but  always  mth 
a  distinct  reference  to  I'hrist  and  other  holy  person- 
ages. The  weekly  day  of  rest  w%a3  transferred  from 
Saturday  to  Sun<l.ay,  and  called  the  Day  of  Joy,  or 
Resurrection,  just  as  the  weekly  Jewish  fasts  of 
Monday  and  Thursday  were  changed  for  Wednesday 
and  Friday.  See  Fasts.  For  a  long  time,  both 
Saturday  and  Sunday  were  celebrated,  espcci.ally  in 
the  East.  Two  .separate  celebrations  took  the  place 
of  the  Jewish  Passover  :  the  Pcuicha  Staiirosimon 
was  the  festival  of  the  Death,  the  Pascha  Anastasi- 
mon  of  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  (see  Easter)  ; 
and  the  festival  of  Pentecost,  or  the  law-giving  at 


■Sinai,  became  the  festival  of  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  inauguration  of  the  New 
Covenant. 

In  tlie  course  of  the  4th  c,  two  new  festivals  were 
introduced:  Epiphany  (q.  v.),  which  originated  in 
the  East ;  and  that  of  the  Nativity  or  Christm.as 
(q.  v.).  Circumcision,  Corpus  Domini,  the  festivals 
ot  the  Cross,  of  Transfigunation,  of  the  Trinity,  and 
many  others,  are  of  still  later  date.  The  veneration 
felt  for  Mary  as  the  '  Mother  of  God,'  found  its 
expression  likewise  in  the  consecr.ation  of  many 
da)-s  to  her  special  .serWce  and  worship ;  such  as 
that  of  her  Presentation,  Annunciation  (L.aily'3 
Day),  Assumption,  Visitation,  Immacidate  Concep- 
:  tiou  (q.  v.),  and  many  minor  festivals,  over  and 
above  the  Saturdays,  which  in  some  parts  were 
entirely  dedicated  to  her,  in  order  that  the  Mother 
might  have  her  weekly  day  like  the  Son.  Besides 
these,  there  were  festivals  of  Angels,  of  Ajiostles, 
Saints,  JLartjTs  (on  the  supposed  anniversary  of 
their  death,  called  their  birthday,  die«  natalU),  of 
SoiJs,  Ordinations,  &c. 

Celebrated  at  first  with  all  the  primitive  simplicity 
of  genuine  piety,  most  of  these  festivals  were  ere  long 
invested  with  such  pomp  and  si>lendour  tliat  they 
surpassed  tlit>se  of  the  ancient  Cireeks  and  Romans. 
Burlesque,  even  coarse  and  jirofaiie  representations, 
processions,  mj'steries,  and  night-serWces,  were,  in 
some  places,  althougli  unauthorised  by  the  general 
church,  connected  witli  them,  and  voices  mthin  the 
church  loudly  denounced  these  '  jiagan  practices.' 
Ordinances  forbidding  mundane  music  and  female 
singers  for  divine  service  were  issued,  the  'I'lgils 
were  transformed  into  fasts,  days  of  abstinence  and 
penance  were  instituted,  Jiartly  as  counterpoises, 
but  with  little  residt  JCor  did  the  prodi^ous 
increase  of  these  festive  occasions,  and  the  rigour 
\vith  which  aljstinence  from  labour  was  enforced  in 
most  cases,  fail  to  produce  the  natural  results  of 
indolence  and  licentiousness  among  the  large  mass 
of  the  people.  Bitter  and  frequent  were  the  com- 
plaints throughout  Christendom ;  but  although  even 
men  like  Archbishop  Simon  of  Canterlmry  (133'2), 
Petrus  de  Alliaco,  Kicolaus  of  Clcmangis,  did  their 
utmost  to  obtain  a  reduction  of  these  festive  occa- 
sions, which  overspread  well-nigh  the  whole  year,  it 
was  only  after  the  most  decided  atid  threatening 
demands,  such  as  that  pronounced  by  the  German 
Diet  of  Numberg  in  1522,  that  Pope  Urban  was 
prevailed  upon  to  reduce  the  number  for  CathoUc 
Christianity  (1642).  Benedict  XIV.  (1742),  Clement 
XIV.  (1773),  followed  in  the  same  direction.  On 
the  change  produced  both  in  their  number  and  in 
the  manner  of  their  celebr.ation  through  the  Reforma- 
tion, we  must  forbear  to  enlarge  here. 

The  Christian  festivals  have  been  diWdcd  vari- 
ously: into  fcrice  stal Ilia;  (returning  annually  at  fixed 
times),  indicia'  (extnaorcUnary,  specially  proclaimed), 
(Inplida  (double  reminisccuce,  or  of  higher  imjiort- 
ance),  semiiluplicia  (half  double),  &c.  Another 
diWsion  is  into  weekly  and  yearly  feasts,  these  latter 
being  subdivided  into  greater  and  minor,  or  into 
movable  and  immovable.  Tlierc  is  also  a  distinction 
made  between  integri  (whole  days),  interci^i  (half- 
days),  &c. 

The  only  trace  of  the  ancient  manner  of  dating  a 
festival  from  the  eve  or  vesper  of  the  preWous  day 
-  a  practice  discontinued  since  the  12th  c,  when 
the  old  Roman  way  of  counting  the  day  from 
micbiight  to  midnight  was  reintroduced — survives  in 
the  '  ringing  in '  of  certain  days  of  special  solemnity 
on  the  night  before,  and  in  the  fasts  of  the  rigils. 

On  some  of  the  jiriiicipal  Jlohammcdan  festivals, 
partly  based  upon  those  of  the  Jews  and  Christians, 
such  as  the  weekly  Friday,  the  Yoin  Ashoora  (the 
Jewish  Day  of   Atonement),  the  Birthd.ay  of  the 


FESTOOX— FEU  AND  FEU-DUTY. 


Prophet  (Molid  An-Nebee),  that  of  Hussein,  of 
Mohammed's  granddaughter  Zeyneb,  of  the  Night 
of  the  Prophet's  Ascension  to  Heaven  (Leylet  Al- 
Mearag),  the  Night  of  the  Middle  of  the  month 
Shaaban,  in  which  the  fate  of  every  man  is  con- 
firmed for  the  ensuing  year ;  the  Eed  .\l-8hagheer 
or  Eamadan-Beyram,  at  the  end  of  the  Eamadan 
fasts,  and  the  Eed  Al-Kabir,  or  the  great  festival 
of  the  Sacrifice  (Kurban  Beyram),  see  Moham- 
medanism. For  further  iufoi-mation,  see  Herodotus 
(ii.  60) ;  Plutarch  (ra.) ;  Strabo  (vi.  aud  x.)  ;  Ovid, 
Faeti ;  Macrobius,  Sat.  i.  7,  II  ;  Jleursius,  Grcccia 
Feriata ;  Meiners,  GeschiclUc  d.  licUg. ;  Fasold, 
lerologla ;  Bible ;  Mishna ;  Gemara ;  Shidchan 
Aruch  ;  Josephus  ;  Philo  ;  Maimonides  ;  Buxtorf, 
Lex.  Talm.  ;  Sijnag.  Jud. ;  Bartolocci,  Bihl.  Rahh. ; 
Lightfoot,  Hot.  Heir,  and  Talm. ;  Lund,  BiU.  Hchr. ; 
W  ette,  Archaoloijie ;  Neandcr,  HUt.  of  the  Ch. ; 
Blackmore,  Christ.  Anliii. ;  Baumgarten,  Erldule- 
ruiiij  d.  chr.  Alterth. ;  Siegel,  Handk  d.  cltr.  Alterth.; 
Mai,  Discomi  di  Anjomento  Selii/iom  ;  Koran,  &c. 

FESTOO'N,  in  Architecture,  a  scidptured  wreath 
of  flowers  or  fruit,  frequently  used  as  an  ornament 
in  Roman  and  renaissance  buildings.  Like  many  of 
the  other  ornaments  of  classic  architecture,  it  owes 
its  origin  to  one  of  the  sacrificial  emblems,  viz.,  the 


Festoon  : 
St  Mark's  Library,  Venice. 

flowers  with  which  the  heads  of  the  animals,  the 
altars,  &c.,  used  to  be  decorated.  The  festoon 
occurs  along  with  bulls'  heads  on  the  frieze  of  the 
temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli.  The  fig.  is  an  example  of 
a  renaissance  festoon,  from  the  library  of  St  Mai-k 
at  Venice. 

FE'STUS,  Sextus  Po>rPErrs,  a  Latin  lexico- 
grapher, of  the  third  or  fourth  c.  of  our  era,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  ancient  authorities  we  have 
on  the  Latin  language.  He  made  an  epitome  of  the 
great  work  of  Vernus  Flaccus,  J)e  ['ei-boricm  Si;/- 
■nijicatione.  This  compilation,  which  was  arranged 
alphabetically  in  20  books,  was  still  fui-ther  abridged 
and  spoiled  in  the  end  of  the  8th  c.  by  Paul,  son 
of  AVarnefried,  commonly  called  Paulus  Diaconus. 
The  great  work  of  Flaccus  has  imfortunately  entirely 
perished,  and  of  the  abridgment  made  by  Festus, 
only  a  single  MS.,  and  that  in  a  deplorably  imper- 
fect condition,  has  survived.  It  came  from  Illyria, 
and  fell  into  the  hands  of  Pomponius  La^tus,  a 
distinguished  scholar  of  the  loth  centurj'.  It  ulti- 
mately passed  into  the  library  of  Cardinal  Farnese, 
at  Parma,  and  is  now  preserved  at  Naples.  The  work, 
in  spite  of  all  its  imperfections,  is  a  grand  storehouse 
of  knowledge  on  points  of  m}"thology,  grammar,  and 
antiquities.  All  previous  editions  of  F.  are  of  little 
value  compared  with  that  of  K.  0.  MiiUcr  (Gott. 
1839),  in  which  he  has  made  use  of  the  Farnese  MS. 
and  other  sources,  distinguishing  the  value  of  each. 

FE'TICHISM  is  the  worship  of  a  fetich.  The 
word  fetich  comes  to  us  from  the  Portuguese,  who 
were  the  first  Europeans  that  traded  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  who  exjiressed  their  idea  of  the 
religion  of  the  natives  by  the  Portuguese  word 
feitiplo,  '  magic'  This  word,  somewhat  modified, 
passed  into  the  French  language,  through  Brosse's 
treatise,  Du  Culte  des  Dieux  Fetiches  (Dijon,  1760), 
KG 


and  from  him  into  German,  through  the  medium  of 
Pistorius  (Stralsund,  1785).  The  term  has  now 
received  European  recognition.  A  fetich  is  any- 
thing in  nature  or  art  to  which  a  magical  power  is 
ascribed,  e.  g.,  stones,  carved  figures,  or  certain 
parts  of  plants,  animals,  &c.  In  this  general  sense 
fetichism  coincides  with  the  behef  in  charms — a 
belief  which  is  also  to  be  fomid  amon"  monotheistic 
nations.  The  first  step  out  of  feticfiisni,  is  when 
ignorant  tribes  cease  to  be  satisfied  with  belie\-ing 
merely  in  the  magical  power  inherent  in  their 
fetiches,  and  begin  to  ascribe  a  certain  conscious 
operation  to  the  objects  of  their  reverence,  especi- 
ally to  the  fetiches  in  the  forms  of  beasts  or  men. 
In  this  way  the  fetich  becomes  an  idol,  and  fetichism 
an  idolatry.  The  lowest  form  of  such  idolatry  is 
where  the  savage  does  not  hesitate  to  throw  away, 
to  chastise,  or  even  to  destroy  his  fetich,  if  it  does 
not  appear  to  gratify  his  desires.  The  reverence  for 
sacred  woods,  moimtains,  streams,  &c.,  which  fonned 
part  of  the  relio;ion  of  the  old  Greeks,  Celts,  and 
Germans,  is  not  fetichism  proper,  but  rather  belongs 
to  the  worehip  of  nature. 

FE'TID  LI'MESTONE,  a  variety  of  limestone 
which  gives  out,  on  being  %aolently  nibbed,  or 
struck  with  a  hammer,  a  smeU  like  that  of  sidphu- 
retted  hydrogen  gas.  It  has  a  dark  colour,  produced 
very  probably  from  the  perishable  portions  of  the 
auimaJs  whose  hard  skeletons  compose  the  rock. 
This  animal  matter  may  perhaps  also  be  the  cause 
of  the  disagreeable  smell.  Stinkstone  or  Swinestone 
have  been  hke-irise  employed  as  characteristic  names 
for  this  limestone. 

FETLOCK,  or  FETTERLOCK.  English  heral- 
dic writers  speak  of  a  horse  fetlock  or 
fetterlock,  and  represent  it  thus.  It 
seems  to  have  been  an  instrument  fixed 
on  the  leg  of  a  horse  when  put  to 
pastm-e,  for  the  piu'pose  of  preventing 
him  from  running  oif.  In  Scotch 
Heraldry,  a  hoop  is  usually  substituted 
for  the  chain,  and  the  fetlock  is  repre- 
sented thus,  as  in  the  arms  of  Lokkert 
(Lockhart)  of  Ban-e,  given  by  Sir  Da^d 
Lindsay ;  Argent,  on  a  bend  sable  three 
fetterlocks  or.  Some  branches  of  this 
family  carry  a  man's  heart  -within  the 
fetterlock,  one  of  the  heads  of  it  having  accom- 
panied Good  Sir  James  Douglas  with  King  Robert 
the  Bruce's  heart  to  Jerus;ilem  (Nisbet,  i.  p.  325). 

FEU  AND  FEU-DUTY.  A  feu  may  be  described, 
in  familiar  lan^age,  as  a  right  to  the  use  and  enjoy- 
ment of  lands,  houses,  or  other  heritable  subjects,  in 
perpetuity,  in  consideration  of  an  annual  payment 
in  grain  or  money,  called /t-i(-rfu(^,  and  certain  other 
contingent  burdens  called  casualties  of  superiority 
(see  Casualty).  Though  a  feu  was  frequently  used 
to  express  any  kind  of  tenure  by  which  the  relation 
of  superior  and  vassal  was  constituted,  in  its  nar- 
rower meaning,  which  we  have  here  indicated,  and 
which  is  that  in  which  it  is  now  almost  exclusively 
used,  it  was  ojiposed,  on  the  one  hand,  to  those 
tenures  in  which  the  retiu-n  consisted  of  mihtary  or 
other  personal  service  (ward  and  the  like),  and  on 
the  other,  to  those  in  which  the  return  was  illusory 
(blanch),  the  only  object  of  which  was  to  preserve 
the  relation  of  superior  and  vassal.  A  feu,  in  short, 
was  a  peqjetual  lease — a  feu-farm,  as  it  was  often 
called — by  whicli  the  tenant  became  bound  to  pay 
a  substantial  consideration,  and  his  rights  under 
which  he  might  forfeit,  as  the  penalty  of  non-pay- 
ment. In  the  present  day,  the  disposal  of  land  in 
feu  is  practically  a  sale  for  a  stipulated  annual  pay- 
ment, equivcdeut  to  cliief  rent.  It  is  in  this  lii^ht, 
accordingly,   that   feus   are    generally  regarded   in 

305 


Fetlocks. 


FEUD— FEUDAL  SVSTEM. 


Scotlaiid  ;  and  as  it  is  ou  this  footing  that  almost  all 
the   housi-iii-oiK-rty  in   towns  auJ  suburban   viUa- 
jiroiHTty  is  holtl,  tlicy  fomi  lui   imiK)rt;uit  olomont 
in  the  pnn>ritt;uv  n-latious  of   the   omiutry.     The  , 
systum  of  fcuiui;  property  for  buUiUnj;  puriioses  seems 
to  have  several  advantages  over  that^  of  the  long 
buildmg-le;ises  common  in  Enghmd.     From  its  per- 
petual character,  it  gives  to  the  pei-sou  actually  ui 
possession  a  feeling  of  greater  interest  in  the  jiro- 
perty,  and  usually  leads  him  to  erect  more  enduring 
structures   than   he    probably   would   do    under  a 
lease.     For  as  time  nms  on,  the  feu  often  increases 
in  value,  while   the   reverse  must  always  be    the 
case  with  leasehold  proiierty.      Neither  does  it  in 
any  degree  interfere  with  the  letting  of  property 
on    lease  or  otherwise.     ^Umost  aU  the  houses  in 
Etlinburgh  and  the  other  towns  in  Seotl.-md  which 
are  let,  either  on  leases  or  from  j'ear  to  year,  are 
held  by  those  who  are  spoken  of  as  their  i>roi)netors  j 
not  in  .absolute  projterty,  but  as  feus.     Modern  feu- 
duties  are  in  general  i>aid  in  money.     When  the 
stipulation  is  for  a  duty  in  grain,  the  quantity  is 
valued  by  fiar  prices  for  the  year  (see  Fl.\n.s),  and 
paid  in  money  accordingly.     The  deed  trausferring 
the  land  in  feu  from  the  superior  to  the  vassiil  is 
called    a   feu-charter— a    clumsily    conceived    and 
expensive  document,  which  requires  renewal  in  the 
case  of  heirs  to  Viissals,  or  of  parties  to  whom  the 
vassal  sells  his   right;    and  this  rejietition  of   the 
transaction,  designated  as  'entering  with  the  supe- 
rior,' forms  the  heaN-j-  drawback  on  the  acquisition 
of  laud  in  feu,  no  matter  how  small   in   amount. 
Usually,  the   feu-charter   reserves   to  the   superior 
all  minerals  in  the  ground,  aud  stipidates  that  the 
vassal  sh.-»ll  build  his  house  either  in  a  iiarticiUar 
style  or  of  a  certain  value.     By  the  Scottish  stat. 
1597  c  246,  it  is  declared  that  all  vassals  by  feu-farm 
failing  to  p.ay  their  feu-duty  for  two  years  together, 
shall  lose  their  right,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  an 
irritant  clause  hail  been  specially  engrossed  in  their 
charter.     But  as  the  superior  must  obtain  a  decree 
declaring  the  loss  of  the  vassal's  right,  before  the 
forfeiture  can  take  effect,  if  the  feu  is  worth  keep- 
ing, the   duties,    as    a   matter    of    course,  will   be 
paid.     In  the  very  rare  case  of  the  property  having 
fallen  off  in  value  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the 
feu  a  positive  burden,  it  is  possible  that  the  irritancy 
may  be  voluntarily  incurred.     For  the  most  pai-t, 
land   proprietors   near    towns    and    manufacturing 
vill.iges  are  anxious  to  add  to  theii-  annual  rental 
by  felling  grounds  for  building  purposes.     The  rate 
of  feu  is  very  various,  from  as  low  as  £S  to  as  high 
as  £500  per  acre  per  annum ;    a  common  rate  is 
from  t20  to  £.30  per  acre.    Whatever  be  the  amount, 
it  is  payable  by  the  feiiar — not  the  tenant  to  whom 
the  fenar  may  have   let  the   property.      Wlien   a 
building  consists  of  several  floors  formiug  distinct 
dwellings,  the  feu-duty  is  allocated  in  certain  pro- 
portions among  the  respective  proprietors  ;  the  feuar 
to  whom  the  lower  floor   belongs   usually  paying 
most.    In  properties  of  this  kind,  each  is  responsible 
only  for  his   own  share.      Occasionally,  feu-duties 
are  offered  for  sale  ;  and  as  a  safe  investment,  bring 
from  25  to  30  years'  piirch.-ise.     In  such  cases,  the 
vassal    has    an    opportunity   of    extinguishing    his 
feudal  tenure,  and  becoming  the  superior.      There 
are  also   instances    of    vassals    sub-feuing.      It    is 
custoin.iry  in  feuing  building  lands  for  the  superior 
to  make  the  roads  and  drains.      Relieved  of  this 
obligation,  and  getting  jwssession   of   a   site  on  a 
mere  prospective  annual  pajTnent  of  perhaps  only  a 
few  shillings,  the  feuar  has  an  undoubted  advantage  ; 
looking,  liowever,  to  the  cumbersomeness  and  cost 
of  the  feu-charters,  aud  the  liability  of  successors 
to   p,-iy   fines   at   cntrj',   the  system  is   entangled, 
troublesome,  and  exiicnsive  :  and,  at  least  as  far  as 
308 


forms  are  concerned,  is  allowed  to  stand  in  need  of 
reform. 

FEUD  (Angl.-Sax.  fatjM)  seems  to  be  only 
another  form  of  the  vfoiijirjhl,  and  is  allied  to  Joe, 
aud  probably  to  Jlciul.  It  meant  a  wai'  waged  by 
one  family  or  sui.ill  tiibe  on  another,  to  avenge  the 
death  or  other  injm-y  of  one  of  its  members.  In  a 
certain  state  of  society,  this  is  a  legitimate  mwle  of 
obtaining  rediess.  It  prevailed  extensively  among 
the  nations  of  Northern  Europe  ;  and  it  was  only  by 
gradu.al  steps  that  the  practice  was  first  restricted 
aud  then  abolished.  The  laws  of  Kudolf  I.  of 
Germany  recognised  the  right  of  wagin"  feuds.  At 
last,  pm-tial  associations  were  formed,  the  members 
of  which  bound  themselves  mutually  to  settle  their 
differences  by  courts  of  arbitration  aud  compensa- 
tion, without  going  to  war. 

FEU'DAL  SYSTEM.  By  some,  the  word  feu 
or  feud,  of  which  feudal  ip  the  adjective,  is  derived 
fri.m  the  Lat.  fdes,  faith,  and  cad  or  odii,  or  od, 
a  Teutonic  word  signifying  a  property,  or  estate,  in 
hand  ;  whilst  by  others,  ■with  perhaps  greater  prob- 
ability, the  first  syllable  .also  is  maintained  to  be 
Teutonic,  equivalent  to  vidi,  cattle,  ultimately  from 
the  same  root  mth  the  Latin  peciis,  which,  in  the 
form  of  pecunia,  came  to  signify  property,  aud  its 
representative,  money — because,  as  V.arro  remarks, 
property  amongst  pastoral  nations  consisted  of 
cattle  (Varr.,  De  Lingua  Latina,  5,  19,  s.  95,  ed. 
Mull).  A  feudiim,  in  this  sense,  would  be  a  piece  of 
land  held  for  a,/ee,  or  pecuniary  consideration,  using 
pecimiarj'  in  the  wide  sense  which  its  etjTuology 
suggests.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  feud.al  system, 
as  a  developed  institution,  belonged  neither  to  the 
Teutonic  nor  to  the  Romanic  natioii.s,  iu  their  original 
and  luimi.xcd  condition.  We  tiud  it  neither  in  the 
woods  of  Germany,  nor  iu  the  Roman  empire  pre- 
vious to  the  incursions  of  the  Franks  aud  Lombards, 
Neither  the  institutions  described  by  Tacitus,  nor 
those  with  which  the  Roman  jurists  have  rendered 
us  fainOiar,  exhibit  anj-thing  that  is  even  analogous 
to  it  as  a  whole.  But  they  each  exhibit  partial 
indications  of  some  of  the  characteristics  which 
most  peculiarly  distinguish  it ;  and  as  it  arose  about 
the  begimiuig  of  the  9th  c.,  just  when  the  fusion 
between  the  conquering  barbarians  and  the  subject 
populations  of  the  Romanised  pro\Tnces  was  every- 
where taking  place,  it  seems  impossible  to  doubt  that 
it  was  a  result  of  the  mutual  influence  of  the  two 
races.  The  subordination  of  class  to  class,  and  the 
intimate  relations  by  which  all  the  classes  of  the 
community  were  bound  together,  taken  along  with 
the  independence  and  equality  of  the  individual 
members  of  each  class  within  itself,  were  amongst 
the  most  prominent  features  of  the  simple  society 
of  the  Teutonic  nations ;  and  these  correspond  \^■ith 
wonderful  accuracy  to  the  relations  of  superior  and 
vassal,  beginning  with  the  sovereign  and  descending 
to  the  smallest  feudal  proprietor,  and  also  -n-ith  the 
equality  amongst  peers,  which  existed  within  each 
of  the  f  eud.al  classes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  incom- 
plete .and  fiduciary  character  of  the  proprietorship 
implied  in  a  feu,  as  held  in  trust  from  a  superior 
on  the  faith  of  services  to  be  rendered,  or  dues  to 
be  paid,  bore  a  very  close  analogy  to  the  Roman 
emphj-teiisis  (from  which  indeed  the  word  feu  has 
often  "been  derived),  and  to  the  dominium  utile  as 
opposed  to  the  dominium  directum.  See  DoMlNltJM 
and  EirpnYTEnsis. 

The  nature  of  this  very  important  social  institu- 
tion, b)'  which  the  life  of  every  European  people 
of  any  importance  was  governed  from  the  beginning 
of  the  9th  tiU  the  close  of  the  13th  c,  and  by 
which  many  of  the  forms  of  our  modern  life  are 
1  still  effected, -win  probably  be  more  clearly  understood 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 


if  we  commence  oiu-  description  of  it  from  below, 
by  exhibiting  the  position  of  the  simple  land- 
holder, than  by  adopting  the  monarch  in  whom 
it  culminated,  and  from  whom,  in  a  technical  sense, 
it  was  supposed  to  flow  (see  Allodium),  as  our 
point  of  departure.  The  latter  course  has  been 
more  strictly  ailhered  to  by  English  ^Titers,  from 
the  circumatance  that,  subsequent  to  the  Conquest, 
the  whole  territory  of  England  was  regarded  as  the 
property  of  the  conqueror,  and  was  by  him  diWded 
amongst  his  barons,  and  by  them  amongst  their 
dependents,  an  arrangement  which  was  somewhat 
peculiar  to  England  (see  Allodi.u.),  whereas  the 
feudal  system,  in  its  essentials,  was  common  to  the 
whole  of  Europe.  A  feudal  proprietor,  then,  or  feud- 
atorj%  was  a  pereon  who  held  his  lands  from  another, 
for  his  own  lifetime  merely,  in  the  earher  times,  on 
condition  of  certain  services  which  he  was  to  perform 
to  a  superior  or  suzerain.  Apart  from  the  duties  to 
which  he  was  thus  bound,  he  was  not  only  a  free 
man,  but  his  position  was  that  almost  of  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign  within  his  own  small  dominions. 
If  his  holding  was  at  aU  an  extensive  one,  he  lived 
in  a  castle,  which,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  successors  to  prevent  it,  was 
generally  fortilied,  not  only  for  piirposes  of  defence, 
but  to  enable  him  to  pursue  that  life  of  rapiue 
which  in  lawless  times  was  not  considered  incon- 
sistent \vith  honesty  or  personal  worth.  For  greater 
security,  the  castle  was  generally  situated  on  a 
height,  and  under  its  walls  there  nestled  a  village, 
in  which  all  the  dependents  of  the  proprietor,  ^rith 
the  exception  of  his  immediate  famUy,  and  all  those 
who  lived  by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  usually  dwelt 
— isolated  farmhouses  and  cottages  being  too  much 
exposed  to  plunder  to  admit  of  their  being  scattered 
over  the  county  then,  as  we  see  them  in  England 
now.  A  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  feudal 
domain  were  usually  bound  to  the  soil,  and  were 
thus  subject  to  a  sjiecies  of  slavery,  the  conditions 
of  which  varied  according  to  the  customs  of  different 
districts.  These  were  spoken  of  as  adscripti  or 
adscriptitii  gkbce,  and  were  called  nativi,  or  bond- 
men, and  fillein-socmen,  as  opposed  to  free-socmen 
on  the  one  hand,  and  serfs  or  tlieowes  on  the 
other,  of  whose  jwsition  we  shall  speak  below. 
(Stephen's  Com.  i.  p.  18S.)  '  He  was,'  says  Sir 
Francis  Palgrave,  speaking  of  the  ceorl,  '  a  ^'illain 
appurtenant ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  language 
which  was  employed  (to  the  effect,  namely,  that 
he  could  be  bequeathed,  bought,  and  sold),  it 
must  be  imderstood  that  the  gift,  the  bequest,  or 
the  sale,  was  in  effect  the  disposition  of  the  land 
and  of  the  ceorl,  and  of  the  services  which  the 
ceorl  performed  for  the  land,  a  transaction  widely 
differing  from  the  transfer  of  a  slave,  whose  person 
is  the  subject  of  the  purchase.'  [Rise  ami  Progress 
of  the  Enylish  Commonwealth,  vol  i  p.  18.)  The 
ceorl,  moreover,  could  jmrchase  his  own  freedom 
and  that  of  his  wife  and  offspring  (lb.).  See  Villein. 
The  rest  were  fi'ee  tenants,  farmers  in  the  modem 
sense,  though  personal  services  to  the  proprietor 
probably  in  almost  every  case  constituted  a  portion 
of  the  rent  which  was  paid.  Latterly,  when  the 
system  of  subinfeudation  was  introduced,  many  of 
lus  wealthier  tenants  came  to  stand  to  the  baron, 
or  lord  of  the  domain,  very  much  in  the  relation 
which  we  are  about  to  describe  as  subsisting 
between  him  and  his  lord  paramount.  From 
being  tenants-at-'n-ill,  scarcely  less  subject  to  his 
authority  and  exposed  to  his  caprices  than  the 
thralls,  or  \-illeins  of  the  lowest  class,  they  became 
vassals  of  their  lord,  and  free  citizens  of  what  thus 
gradually  developed  itself  into  a  feudal  monarchy 
in  miniature.  The  tenure  by  which  this  latter  class 
held  their  lands  was  generally  kno^^^l   in  England 


as  Free  Socage  (Stephen's  ut  sup.  i.  205  et  seq.). 
The  castles  by  which  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  are 
studded  along  its  whole  course,  from  Bonn  to 
Bingen,  with  their  collages  and  parish  churches, 
for  the  most  part  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
were  erected  centuries  ago,  afford  the  most  numer- 
ous and  ])erfect  examples  of  the  arrangements  of 
the  feudal  period  which  are  perhaps  anywhere  to 
be  met  with.  The  possessors  of  these  castles  stood 
in  a  magisterial  as  well  as  a  proprietary  relation 
to  theii-  dependents.  They  exercised  jurisdiction, 
extending  even  to  the  infliction  of  capital  punish- 
ment, either  in  person  or  by  means  of  officers  whom 
they  appointed  for  the  piu-pose ;  and  the  castle 
was  in  general  furnished  with  dungeons  and  other 
ai>pliances  for  carrjdng  their  sentences^into  exe- 
cution. Towards  each  other  they  stood  in  the 
relation  of  equals,  or  peers  (Lat.  pares) ;  they  were 
neighbours,  simply,  and  friends  or  enemies  as  the 
case  might  be — too  often  the  latter.  But  towards 
their  immediate  feudal  superior,  the  coimt,  marquis, 
duke,  or  whatever  might  be  his  title,  to  whom 
the  government  of  the  whole  district  belonged,  they 
all  stood  iu  a  relation  which  brought  them  in  con- 
tact, and  in  some  degree  bound  them  to  each  other. 
Of  him  they  held  their  lands  on  conthtions  some- 
what similar  to  those  on  which  they  let  them  out 
to  their  own  dependents.  At  first,  as  we  have 
said,  they  were  only  tenants  for  liife;  but  their 
rights  in  most  coimtries  very  early  assumed  a  here- 
ditary character,  the  dominant  proprietor's  rights, 
on  the  death  of  a  tenant,  being  confined  to  the 
exaction  of  certain  dues  from  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, as  a  consideration  for  conferring  on  him, 
or  rather  for  confirming  to  him,  the  feu  which  his 
father  had  held.  Where  the  feu,  fief  or  feoff,  as 
it  was  sometimes  called  from  the  mode  of  admission 
— feoSinent,  or,  as  it  is  said  in  Scotland,  infeft- 
ment  (q.  v.) — descended  to  a  female,  the  dominant 
proprietor  was  entitled  to  control  her  marriage, 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  himself  a  sufficient 
and  trustworthy  vassal ;  a  privilege  which,  like 
all  those  of  the  lord,  was  latterly  converted  into 
a  mere  pecuniary  claim.  When  the  lord  para- 
mount, or  suzerain,  as  he  was  called,  held  his 
court  of  justice,  his  vassal  barons  were  the  judges, 
being  all  on  a  footing  of  equality,  or  pares  curiae, 
as  it  was  called.  When  he  made  war,  either 
on  his  own  account,  or  as  furnishing  a  contingent 
to  the  army  of  the  state,  in  such  cases  as  in  the 
national  wars  between  France  and  England  in  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries — which  were  the  earliest 
instances  of  really  national  wars — his  vassals  were 
boimd  to  attend  him  in  person,  and  to  fm-nish 
each  the  contribution  of  men,  horses,  arms,  and 
other  mateiials  of  war  for  which  he  was  liable  by 
the  teniu'e  on  which  he  held  his  lands.  Li  addition 
to  these  services,  he  was  bound  to  watch  and  ward 
his  castle,  a  duty  which  the  minor  barons  almost 
invariably  imposed  on  their  vassals  when  the  system 
of  granting  feus  extended  downwards  to  the  class 
of  persons  who  had  formerly  been  mere  tenants-at- 
will.  Then  there  were  certain  dues  which  were 
almost  always  exigible  from  the  vassal,  such,  e.  g., 
as  contributions  towards  providing  a  ransom  for  Ms 
lord  when  in  captivity,  for  enabling  him  to  cele- 
brate the  marriage  of  his  eldest  son  ■n-ith  due  pomp, 
or  to  pro^'^de  a  suitable  dowTy  for  his  daughter. 
If  these  dues  were  not  paid,  the  land  reverted  to 
the  dominant  proprietor,  in  relation  to  whom  the 
vassal  aU  along  was  a  mere  usufructxiary.  So  far 
were  the  conditions  of  feudal  hokUngs  from  being 
always  the  same,  that  no  less  than  eighty  different 
tenures  have  been  enumerated  ;  the  onorous  char- 
acter of  which  varied  from  what  was  merely 
nominal,  e.  g.,  the  payment  of  a  white  rose  or  a 

307 


FEU  DE  JOIE-FEUERBACH. 


jiair  of  spurs,  '  if  asked  merely,'  up  to  what  was  .1 
rent  in  some  degree  equiv.ilent  to  the  yahie  of 
the  land.  For  an  account  of  the  manner  in  wliieli 
the  feudal  system  all'ected  the  constitntiou  of  land 
rii;ht3  and  the  conveyance  of  landed  property,  and 
stTll  atfects  them,  sec  Convr-asci.ng. 

Inferior  to  all  the  classes  of  society  in  feudal 
Europe  of  which  we  have  hitherto  spoken,  there 
is  rt\uon  to  fear  th.it  there  existed  alnu>st  every- 
where, in  the  earlier  times,  a  class  of  the  posi- 
tively unfree.  The  lot  of  those  who  were  in 
al>soInte  slavery  excluded  them  from  the  influences 
of  feud.-Uity  as  a  legal  and  social  institution—'  they 
wen'  not  reckoneif,'  says  Pa!j:rave,  'amongst  the 
people'— but  their  existence  is  l>y  no  means  to 
Ik"  left  out  of  .account,  in  forming  to  ourselves  a 
i)ieturc  of  European  society  in  feudal  times.  Of  the 
t:ondition  of  this  class,  as  forming  the  substr.atum 
■of  feudal  society,  we  shiUl  have  a  pretty  accurate 
conception  from  the  following  p.iss.igc,  in  which 
Lappenberg  describes  them  in  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
if  we  bear  in  mind,  on  the  one  hand,  that  subse- 
quently to  the  Conquest  their  rauks  were  prob.ably 
swelled  by  such  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  popidation  as 
was  in  absolute  poverty ;  and  on  the  other,  that 
their  position,  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  was 
jjradually  ameliorated  by  the  influences  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  spirit  if  not  the  letter  of  which  has 
everywhere  proved  hostile  to  slavery.  '  One  class 
of  the  j\nglo-Saxon  jiopulation,  at  the  period  of  the 
Nonnan  Conquest,  consisted  of  the  imfree  or  ser\-ile 
{thfoicas,  esiias),  whose  number,  as  registered  in 
Domesday-book,  was  little  above  25,000.  Of  these, 
the  majority  were  in  a  state  of  slavery  by  birth, 
whose  forefathers  h.-id  been  either  Eoman  slaves, 
British  prisoners  of  war,  or  other  enemies.  Others, 
denominated,  wlteAheuims,  or  penal  slaves,  h.ad 
been  freemen,  but  reduced  by  the  sentence  of  the 
law  to  the  servile  condition,  on  account  of  debt  or 
deUnquency.  (P.ilgrave  ut  sup.  i.  28.)  The  master 
had  the  right  of  selling  the  theow  in  the  coimtry, 
l)ut  not  beyond  the  sea,  even  if  be  had  perpetrated 
crime.  In  other  respects,  the  condition  of  the  sei-vile 
seems  to  h.ave  difl'ered  little  from  that  of  the  indigent 
free  slaves  who  had  a  special  wergild,  half  of  which 
fell  to  the  master  and  half  to  the  kin.'  (Thorpe's 
Lappenberg,  ii.  p.  320.)  It  is  probable  th.at  the 
v.ast  majority  of  the  servile  class  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  even  in  Norman  times,  consisted  of  persons  of 
Celtic  blood.  (Palgrave  vt  sup.  p.  26.)  In  proof  of 
this  fact,  Lappenberg  remarks  that  their  numbei's 
diminish  as  we  recede  from  the  Welsh  border  and  from 
Cornwall,  the  places  in  which  the  Celtic  or  original 
British  population  is  known  to  have  t.aken  refuge. 

The  social  elements  which  coimteracted  and 
mitig.ated  the  influences  of  feud.ality  in  medijev.ol 
life,  were  monarchy,  the  church,  which  vigorously 
promoted  the  emancii><ation  of  the  unfree,  and  above 
all,  the  growing  wealth,  power,  and  importance  of 
the  commons.  In  order  to  free  himself  from  the 
rude  and  insolent  dictiition  of  his  great  feudal 
vass,als,  the  king,  in  almost  every  European  state, 
courted  the  .alliance  of  the  town  communities,  who 
had  remained  more  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
had  been  left  by  the  Romans  than  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  countrj',  and  who  were  consequently 
all  .along  more  or  less  opposed  to  the  growth  and 
influences  of  feudality.  See  Municipitm.  By  their 
aid,  even  before  the  formation  of  standing  armies, 
something  a]iproaehing  to  executive  power  was 
jilaced  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign.  He  was 
tluis  en.ablcd  to  .appoint  .and  enforce  tlie  decrees  of 
independent  judges  of  his  own,  who  in  the  earlier 
time  were  generally  churchmen,  .and  thus  gre.atly  to 
circumscribe  the  power  and  influence  of  .all  classes 
of  feudal  proprietors  over  their  dei>endents.  Though 
308 


the  period  of  bloom  of  the  feiulal  system  was,  .as  «e 
have  said,  from  the  9th  to  the  1.3th  centuries,  in 
most  of  the  countries  of  Euro])e,  it  everywhere,  in 
many  of  its  features,  long  survived  the  latter  period. 
Even  considered  ;vs  a  social,  and  not  merely  as  a 
legal  institution,  in  which  Latter  cap.acity  it  still 
exists,  it  Wiis  in  many  resjieets  in  vigour  in  Scot- 
land down  to  tlie  year  1747,  wlien  military  tenures 
were  abolished  by  statute,  as  dangerous  to  public 
tr.auquillity. 

FEU  DE  .lOIE,  or  '  running-fire,'  a  discharge  of 
musketiy  into  the  air,  made  in  honour  of  a  victory 
or  other  great  occasion.  It  commences  with  the 
right-h.and  man  of  the  line,  who  discharges  his 
rifle,  .and  is  followed  successively,  .at  scarcely  per- 
ceptible intervals,  by  the  men  on  his  left,  untU  the 
extreme  left  of  the  line  is  reached.  The  effect  much 
depends  on  the  regiUarity  with  which  the  slight 
interv.al  between  the  discharges  is  preserved. 

FEU'ERBACH,  Paul  Johanx  Axselm,  Eitter 
VON,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  criminal  jurists 
of  Germany,  w.as  born  .at  .lena  14th  November  1775. 
Brought  up  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  where  his 
f.ather  w.as  an  advocate,  .and  educated  in  the  gymna- 
sium there,  he  went  in  1792  to  Jena,  where  he  culti- 
vated his  mind  by  the  study  of  philosophy,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  positive  law.  In  179S  he  ai)peared 
.as  criminal  jurist  in  a  work  On  the  Crime  of  IIvili. 
Treason,  .and  in  the  following  year  he  began  to 
deliver  lectures  in  the  imiversity  of  .Tena.  In  his 
lectures  and  published  wi'itings,  he  introduced  into 
criminal  jurisprudence  a  new  method  of  treatment, 
which  was  system.atiscd  in  his  Compendium  of  (ier- 
m.an  Penal  L.aw  {Lc/irbuch  des  Gemeinan,  in  Deutsch- 
land  geltenden  peinliclwn  Prii'atredits,  (liessen,  1801  ; 
14  Aufl.  von  Mittennaier,  1847).  'This  celebrated 
work  placed  F.  at  the  head  of  a  new  school  of  jurists, 
who  m.aintain  that  the  decision  of  the  judge  in  every 
case  ought  to  be  determined  solely  by  an  express 
deliverance  of  the  pen.al  law,  never  I>y  his  own  dis- 
cretion, and  who  on  that  account  obtained  the  name 
of  liigorists.  In  1801  F.  was  appointed  ordinary 
professor  in  Jena,  but  in  1802  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel. 
Ill  1804  he  w.as  removed  to  the  imiversity  of  Land- 
shut  ;  but  next  year,  having  received  a  commission 
to  prep<are  a  pen.al  code  for  Bavaria,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Munich  as  privy  referendary  for  the  minis- 
teriid,  judicial,  and  police  departments;  .and  in  1808 
was  .appointed  jnivy-counciUor.  The  new  penal 
code  which  he  planned  for  Bav.aria  (Slrafgesetzhuch 
fiirdas  Konigreich  Baiern,  Munchen,  1813),  received, 
.after  a  few  modifications,  the  royal  approval,  and 
was  taken  as  a  basis  in  the  emendation  of  the 
crimin.al  law  of  sevenal  other  countries.  During  this 
period  also,  he  puldished  his  Rem.ark.able  Cases  in 
Criminal  Law  {Mf rkirilrdir/c  CriminalrechtsfulU\  2 
Bde.,  Giessen,  1808—1811),  which  first  led  the  w.ay 
to  a  deeper  psychological  treatment  of  such  cases. 
In  1812,  he  published  a  work  on  Trial  by  Jury,  to 
which  a  second  volume,  on  the  .Tudieial  Procedure 
of  Friince,  was  added  in  1825,  .as  the  result  of  a  visit 
to  P.aris  in  1821.  In  1817  he  became  second 
president  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  Bamberg,  and 
afterw.ards  first  jiresident  of  the  Court  of  Appeal 
at  Anspach  for  the  Bezat  district.  In  1832  he 
published  a  work  on  the  uufortun.ate  Kaspar  Hauser, 
whose  mysterious  fate  had  strongly  attracted  his 
interest.  He  had  just  edited  a  collection  of  his 
miscellaneous  wTitings,  when  he  died  at  Frankfurt- 
on-the-Maine  2oth  May  1833.  An  interesting  life 
fif  F.  has  been  written  by  his  son,  Ludwig  [Lcben 
und  Wirken  Anselm  von  Feuerhach-s,  2  Bde.,  Leip. 
1852).  F.  left,  besides  three  daughters,  five  sons, 
who  have  all  distinguished  themselves  in  German 
literature. 


FEUERBACH— FEVER. 


FEUERBACH,  LuDWio  AuDRE.iS,  German 
philosopher,  fourth  son  of  the  prececUn;;,  was  bom 
at  Anspaoh,  2Sth  July  1804.  After  studying  theology 
for  two  years  at  Heiilelliort;  under  Paidus  and  Daub, 
in  1824  he  was  attracted  to  Berlin  for  the  purjiose 
of  hearing  Hegel,  and  soon  after  he  abandoned 
theology,  with  the  view  of  devoting  himself  entirely 
to  philosophy.  In  1828  he  became  priratdorent  in 
the  university  of  Erlangen,  but  in  a  few  years 
quitted  the  academical  chuir,  and  gave  up  his  whole 
time  to  literary  labour.  In  a  smaU  anonymous 
work  ((ledanla'ti  iiher  Tod  und  UnskrblicMeit,  Kiirn- 
berg,  18.'iU),  which  attracted  little  attention  when  it 
appeared,  he  indicated  that  he  had  already  gone 
beyond  the  standpoint  of  his  master  He<jel,  by  com- 
bating the  doctrine  of  immortality.  I)iu'ing  the 
next  few  years,  he  published  three  works  on  portions 
of  the  history  of  philosophy,  treating  severally  of 
the  period  between  Bacon  and  Spinoza,  of  Leibnitz 
and  of  Pierre  Bayle.  But  these  historical  works 
only  paved  the  way  to  a  critical  investigation  into 
the  nature  of  religion  and  its  relation  to  philosophy, 
the  resiUts  of  which  have  been  given  to  the  world 
in  several  works  well  known  to  speculative  theolo- 
gians. The  most  celebrated  of  these  is  his  work  on 
the  Nature  of  Christianity  {Das  Wcsen  des  Chrixlen- 
ihums,  Leip.  1841  ;  2  Aiifl.  1843),  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.  Starting  from  the  Hegelian 
doctrine,  that  the  Absolute  comes  to  consciousness 
only  in  humanity,  F.  denies  to  it  any  existence 
beyond  the  human  consciousness,  maintaining  it  to 
be  merely  the  projection  by  man  of  his  own  ideal 
into  the  objective  world,  on  which  he  feels  his 
dependence.  All  authority  above  man,  and  conse- 
quently all  moral  obligation,  is  therefore  consistently 
regarded  as  a  delusion  proceeding  from  man  himself, 
and  the  highest  good  is  explained  as  that  which 
is  on  the  whole  most  pleasurable.  Yet  even  this 
highest  good  is  fiu-ther  explained  as  con-sistiug  in 
resemblance  to  that  ideal  humanity  which  man 
creates  for  himself,  and  worships  as  God.  A  kind 
of  ideal  theism  is  therefore  retained  by  F.;  but  when 
his  doctrines  were  adopted  by  the  mass  of  German 
commimists,  they  degenerated,  perhaps  logically, 
into  an  actual  atheism,  which  ignored  any  moral 
or  social  law  imposed  on  the  iudi\'idual  from  any 
other  source  than  himself. — The  works  of  F.  liave 
been  collected,  with  additions  and  con'ections  to 
bring  them  into  accordance  with  his  Later  views 
{F.'s  SammtUchc.  Wcrke,  8  Bde.,  Leip.  184G— 18.51), 
and  since  then  he  has  published  a  work  entitled 
Theoijonie  (1857). 

FEUILLANS,  Congregation  of,  a  reform  of 
the  Cistercian  order,  remarkable  as  forming  part  of 
the  great  reUgious  movement  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  during  the  IGth  c,  contemporary  mth  and 
probably  stimulated  Ity  the  progress  of  the  Refor- 
mation. The  author  of  this  reform  was  Jean  de 
la  Barriere,  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 
Feiiillans,  who,  painfully  struck  by  the  relaxation 
of  its  discipline,  laid  dowm  for  himself  a  new  and 
much  more  austere  course  of  life,  in  which  he  soon 
found  many  imitators  and  associates  among  the 
brethren  of  his  order.  The  nde  thus  reformed  was, 
after  considerable  opposition  from  the  advocates 
of  the  old  nde,  approved,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, by  Pope  Sixtus  V. ;  the  refonned  congre- 
gation, however,  being  still  left  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  abbot  of  Citeaux ;  and  a  con- 
vent was  founded  for  them  by  Henry  III.  in  the 
Rue  St  Honore,  Paris.  The  subjection  to  the 
abbot  of  Citeaiix  was  removed  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  1595 ;  and  Urban  VII.,  in  1630,  separated  the 
congregation  into  two  branches,  one  for  France, 
and  the  other  for  Italy,  each  imder  a  distinct 
generah     The  rules  of   both    these  branches   were 


subsequently    modified    about   the   middle    of    the 
same  century. 

The  celebrated  revolutionary  club  of  the  Feuillants 
took  its  name  from  this  order,  the  convent  of  which, 
in  the  Rue  St  Honore,  was  the  j)lace  of  meeting  for 
the  members  of  the  club.  It  was  founded  in  1790 
by  Lafayette,  Sifeyes,  LarochefoucauM,  and  others 
holding  moderate  opinions.  The  clul)  was  at  first 
called  the  'Company  of  1789,'  and  was  intended 
to  support  the  constitution  against  the  ultra  party. 
It  reckoned  among  its  members  indiv-iduals  of  all 
classes,  who  took  the  constitution  of  England  as 
their  model.  This  opposition  served,  however, 
only  to  accelerate  the  revohitionary  movement. 
On  the  27th  January  1791,  on  Count  Clermont 
Tonnerre  being  elected  i>resident  of  the  club,  a 
l)opuLar  insurrection  broke  out  against  it ;  and,  on 
the  28th  March,  the  assembly  in  the  cloister  was 
forcibly  dispersed  by  a  raging  mob. 

FEUILLETON  (Fr.),  literally  a  small  leaf, 
signifies  that  portion  of  a  political  newspaper  set 
apart  for  mtelligence  of  a  non-political  character, 
for  criticisms  on  art,  literature,  &c.,  and  usually 
separated  from  the  main  sheet  by  a  line.  The 
feuilleton  is  an  invention  of  the  Journal  des  Dihats, 
which,  smce  the  year  1800,  has  held  an  important 
place  in  the  sphere  of  literary  criticism.  By  clegrees, 
the  belles-lettres  element  began  to  pervade  it ;  and 
the  result  was  a  species  of  light  journalistic  litera- 
ture, in  which  Jules  Janiii  became  the  acknow- 
ledged king.  In  the  years  immediately  preceding 
the  revolution,  Feb.  1848,  entire  romances  were  spun 
out  in  the  feuilleton.  The  ConstUutionnel,  in  par- 
ticular, made  large  pecuniary  profits  by  the  social 
romances  of  Eugene  Sue,  which  it  pubhshed  in  this 
manner.  The  French  system  has  been  imitated  in 
England  and  Germany,  though  with  less  success 
than  in  France. 

FEVE'DA,  an  island  of  British  Columbia,  is 
situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  between  Vancouver 
Island  and  the  continent.  It  is  in  lat.  49°  41'  N., 
and  long.  124°  W.,  measuring  32  miles  in  length  by 
2  in  average  breadth.  It  possesses  a  snug  little 
harboiu',  which  ajipears  to  be  all  the  more  valuable 
on  accoimt  of  the  superior  quahty  of  the  fuel  which 
abounds  on  the  spot.  Its  formation  is  understood 
to  be  whoUy  of  limestone. 

FEVER  (Lat.  Jebris,  from  ferveo,  I  grow  warm, 
or  perhaps  from  fehruo,  I  cleanse),  a  form  of  disease 
characterised  pinncipally  by  increase  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body,  which,  however,  requires  to 
be  estimated  according  to  the  state  of  the  internal 
parts,  rather  than  the  external ;  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  pai-ticularly  of  the  extremities,  being 
not  imfrequently  cold  rather  than  warm.  Having 
regard  to  the  heat  of  the  surface  only,  fever  has 
commonly  been  considered  as  passing  through  three 
distinct  stages,  more  or  less  marked  :  1,  the  cold  or 
shivering  stage ;  2,  the  hot  stage ;  3,  the  sweating 
stage.  This  description  is  perfectly  correct  in  most 
cases,  but  it  requires  to  be  qualified  by  the  remark, 
that  even  in  the  cold  stage  of  fevers,  it  is  now  well 
ascertained  that  the  blood  and  the  internal  organs 
have  an  elevated  temperature,  as  estimated  by  the 
thermometer  introduced  into  the  cavities  of  the 
body.  In  the  cold  stage  of  fever,  accordingly, 
and  even  in  the  most  violent  ague,  when  the  teeth 
are  chattering  with  cold,  and  the  whole  siu-face 
is  pale  and  clammy,  the  state  of  the  system  is 
well  expressed  by  the  aphorism  of  Virchow  (the 
most  ingenious  and  comprehensive  of  the  modern 
exponents  of  the  pathology  of  fever),  to  the  eSect 
that  '  the  outer  parts  freeze  while  the  inner  bum.' 
Increased  heat  of  the  body,  therefore,  is  the  most 
essential,  perhaps  the  only  essential  phenomenon  of 


FEVER— FEVERFEW. 


fever.  The  otlier  Bj-miitoius  are  loss  of  appetite, 
thirst,  rtstlessness,  .-iuil  VAgae  f;encr;U  uneasiness, 
often  heailaehe,  ami  ilitl'iised  jMiius  in  the  back 
anJ  limlis  ;  a  frci|uent  pulse,  which  is  souietiines 
also  full  and  hard ;  a  turred  tongwe,  often  with 
red  marjtiu ;  a  liiuhed  face  and  suffused  eyes ; 
vitiated  secrctious,  and  general  derangement  of  the 
functions,  with  great  ilebility  of  the  voluntary 
movements  of  the  limbs.  The  disease  often  coni- 
mences  with  a  shivering,  or  rigor,  as  it  is  tcchm- 
cally  called;  tliis  leails  through  the  cold  stage 
to  the  hot,  which  usually  follows  pretty  rapidly, 
and  is  attended  by  all  the  febrile  phenomena  m 
their  highest  degree ;  the  skin  being  often  very 
iningently  warm  to  the  hand,  dry,  and  harsh;  by 
and  by,  the  pores  appear  to  open,  moisture  begins 
to  betlew  the  surface,  ;uid  the  pungent  heat  ilis- 
apiw.-u^ :  the  disease  is  then  about  to  ]>ass  into  its 
thirtl  or  sweating  stage,  which  ushci-s  in  the 
convalescence.  For  the  special  symjitoms  of  par- 
ticular fevers,  see  Tvrncs  and  IVriioiD  Fevers, 
S.MALL-rox,  Scarlet  Feveu,  Me.\sles,  Ague, 
Lntermitient  and  rvEiuTTE.NT  Fex-er,  Yellow 
Fever. 

Besides  being  thus  the  leading  fact  in  a  number 
of  specific  diseases,  fever  is  also  associated  Ti-ith 
many  other  forms  of  disease  as  a  secondary  or 
subordinate  phenomenon,  connected  with  an  inflam- 
mation or  other  distinctly  local  disease.  Thus,  in 
Pneumonia  (q.v.)  or  Enteritis  (q.  v.),  fever  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  symptoms  as  jiain  or  any  other ; 
and  even  in  some  chronic  or  long-standing  tliseases, 
as  in  Consimiption  (q.  v.),  a  slow  and  consuming 
type  of  fever  (see  Hectic  Fever)  is  fmmd  to  be 
very  generally  present.  Indeed,  there  is  no  condi- 
tion which  rules  so  large  a  part  of  the  physician's 
duty,  whether  in  the  way  of  ilistinguishing  diseases 
or  of  ciu'ing  them,  as  this  constitutional  state. 
Fever  is  als(j  very  generally  jirevalent  after  surgical 
operations  and  injuries,  of  which  it  constitutes  one 
of  the  leading  dangers ;  and  in  midwifery  jn-actice, 
it  is  well  known  as  constituting  a  large  part  of  the 
risks  of  tlie  ]iuerperal  state,  whether  in  the  slighter 
form  commonly  called  a  weal,  or  in  the  more  dreaded 
and  fatal,  often  epidemic,  form  of  Pueri)eral  Fever 
(q.  v.). 

The  f.imily  of  fevers  is  thus  separ.ated  pretty 
naturally  into  two  large  groups,  in  one  of  which  the 
fever  is  the  greatly  jiredoniiuating  fact,  and  deter- 
mines the  specific  character  of  the  disease  :  the 
local  disease  (if  present)  being  quite  subordinate, 
and  usu.olly  secondary  in  point  of  time ;  the  other, 
where  the  opposite  order  prevails,  and  the  fever  is 
obviously  secondary.  Hence  the  distinction  em- 
bodied in  medical  language  between  idiopathic  (i.e., 
self-originatijig,  spontaneous)  and  »ym/ilomatic  or 
secondary  fevei-s.  Fevers  are  also  distinguished, 
with  reference  to  their  mode  of  diffusion,  as  Epi- 
demic (q.  V.)  and  Endemic  (q.  v.) ;  or  with  reference 
to  their  supposed  cause,  as  contagious,  infectious, 
malarious,  pneumonic,  rheumatic,  &c. ;  or  with 
reference  to  their  incidental  s}'injitoms  and  their 
peciUiarities  of  course  and  tenniuation  (the  i)resimied 
aptcific  plienomena  attracting,  of  coiu-se,  jiarticular 
attention),  as  crujitive  (see  Exanitiolvta)  or  non- 
eruptive,  bilious,  gastric,  enteric,  mucous,  putrid, 
malignant,  typhoid,  &c. 

Among  these  distinctions,  based  u})on  the  course 
of  the  fever,  one  demands  jiiuticiUar  notice,  as 
involving  an  important  law  of  febrile  diseases 
generally,  and  of  a  large  cla-ss  of  fevera  of  warm 
climates  in  particular.  Periodic  increase  and  dimi- 
nution, or  paro.\ysms  of  longer  or  shorter  duration, 
with  intervals  of  more  or  less  perfect  relief  from 
all  the  symptoms,  are  ch.ar.actcristic  of  most  diseases 
of  this  kind,  but  especially  of  those  arising  from 


malariti,  L  e.,  emanations  from  the  soil,  educed 
under  the  influence  of  soliu'  heat.  The  duration  of 
the  paro.>;ysms  and  of  the  intervals,  the  complete 
intermiiisloiu  or  more  })artial  ranission^  of  symptoms, 
become  in  such  cases  the  characteristic  facts  that 
mark  the  ttijie,  &s  it  is  called,  of  the  fever,  which 
is  accordingly  distinguished  as  intermittent,  remit- 
tent, or  continueil  ;  and,  according  to  the  length 
of  the  periods,  Tertian,  Quartan,  Quotidian,  &c. 
(q.  v.). 

The  true  pathology,  or  ultimate  essence  of  the 
febrile  state,  is  still  a  subject  open  to  question  ;  but 
it  is  in  aeconlance  with  modern  physiology  to  regard 
fever  as  connected  ■nith  some  complex  derangement 
of  the  functions  on  which  the  animal  heat  is  Known 
to  depend — viz.,  the  nutrition  of  the  textures,  or  the 
vital  changes  constantly  in  operation  between  the 
blood,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  ultimate  atoms  of 
solid  texture,  on  the  other.  Recent  observations 
have  shewn  tliat,  in  the  paro.xysm  of  .ague,  the  w;iste 
of  the  nitrogenous  tissues  is  in  excess  ;  and  fiu-ther, 
the  curious  result  appears  to  be  ai-rived  at,  that  for 
almost  every  grain  of  excretion  representing  this 
excess  of  waste  in  a  given  time,  there  is  a  propor- 
tional increase  of  the  tenii>er.atm"e  of  the  blood, 
■according  to  accuiate  thcrmometric  observations. 
If  such  observations  are  corroborated  and  extended, 
it  will  probably  appear  that  the  cause  of  fever  is  to 
be  foimd  in  an  increased  destructive  decomposition 
of  the  atoms  of  texture  through  the  oxygen  absorbed 
at  the  limgs  and  circulated  with  the  blood ;  perhajis 
imder  the  influence  of  a  derangement  of  nervous 
system ;  which  h.aa  been  she\ra  by  exi)erimeut  to 
have  a  veiy  marked  control  over  the  generation  of 
animal  heat. 

The  treatment  of  fever  will  lie  considered  under 
the  separate  forms  akeady  referred  to. 

FE'VERFEW  [PyrHhrum  partheninm  or  Matri- 
caria parthenium),  a  perenni.ol  plant,  found  in  waste 
places  and  ne.ar  hedges  in  Britain  and  many  parts  of 
Europe.  It  is  liotauicalh'  allieil  to  Chamomile  (i].  v.), 
and  still  more  nearly  to  Wild  Ch.oraomile  (Matricaria 
chamomiUa),  and  much  resembles  these  plants  in  its 


Common  Feverfew  (Matricaria  partliciiium) : 

a,  floret  of  the  ra\  ;  h,  floret  of  the  disc ;  c,  fruit,  shewing  the 

toothed  membranous  p.-Lppus, 

properties,  but  differs  in  appearance,  the  segments  of 

its  leaves  being  flat  and  comjitiratively  broad,  and 
its  flowers  smaller.  Its  habit  of  growth  is  erect,  its 
stem  much  branched,  and  about  1 — 2  feet  high.  It 
has  a  strong,  somewhat  aromatic  smell.    It  was  onca 


FJ:VEliWORT^FIAl;S. 


a  poptilar  remedy  in  a^e,  and  from  time  immemorial 
has  been  nsed  as  ah  enimenagogue.  It  is  employed 
in  infusion,  and  i.s  stimulant  and  tonic.  A  double 
variety  is  not  uncommon  in  gardens. — Of  the  same 
genus  with  F.  is  the  Mayweed  (P.  inodorum  or  M. 
inodorri),  >vith  leaves  more  resembling  those  of 
chamomile,  but  almost  scentless,  and  large  flowers, 
with  white  ray  and  yellow  disc,  very  common  in 
cnrnfiekls  and  waste  places  in  Britain  and  through- 
out Europe. 

FE'VERWORT  [Triosteum  per/oUatttm),  a  per- 
ennial plant  of  the  natural  order  C'nfyri/oliacea;  ha\-ing 
an  erect,  roimd,  hairy,  fistiilar  stem,  from  one  to  four 
feet  high,  opposite  ovato-lanceolate  entire  leaves, 
axiUarj-  whorls  of  flowers,  with  tubular  5-lobed 
corolla,  and  leathery  3-seeded  berries.  It  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  where  its  dried  and  roasted  berries 
have  been  occasionally  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee ; 
but  it  is  chiefly  valued  for  its  medicinal  properties, 
its  roots  acting  as  an  emetic  and  mild  cathartic.  It 
is  sometimes  called  Thd-ar's  Boot,  from  Dr  Tinkar, 
who  first  brought  it  into  notice. 

FEZ  (Ar.  Fas),  the  chief  and  most  northerly 
province  of  the  empire  of  Marocco,  occupies  the 
country  between  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Its  jiopulation  is  estimated  at 
about  3,200,000,  consisting  of  Berbers,  Moors,  Arabs, 
Negroes,  Jews,  and  a  few  Eurojieans.  The  pro\-ince 
is  oiWded  into  fifteen  districts. — Fi!/.,  the  capital  of 
the  province,  in  lat.  34°  C  X.,  and  long,  about  5  (X 
W.,  was  founded  by  Muley  Edi-is  II.,  in  the  year 
808  A.D.,  and  was  reckoned  during  the  middle 
ages — when  it  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Marocco — one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  largest 
cities  in  the  Mohammedan  world.  It  is  said  to 
have  contained  about  90,000  dwelling-houses,  and 
about  700  mosques,  and  was  celebrated  for  its 
splendid  public  buildiugs,  schools,  and  scientific 
institutions.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Marocco, 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  F.  gradually 
fell  into  decay.  It  is  still,  however,  a  place  of 
considerable  importance.  The  situation  of  F.  is 
eingidar;  it  hes  iu  a  valley,  formed  by  surround- 
ing hiUs  into  a  sort  of  fimnel,  the  higher  parts  of 
which  are  covered  with  trees,  orange  groves,  and 
orchards.  It  is  divided  into  Old  and  New  F.  by 
one  of  the  upper  branches  of  the  Sebu,  and  has 
a  population  variously  estimated  at  from  40,000  to 
nearly  100,000  soiUs.  There  are  100  mosques,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  that  built  by  the 
Sultan  Muley  Edris,  which  contains  his  monument, 
and  is  an  inviolaljle  refuge  for  criminals,  however 
gidlty.  On  account  of  its  numerous  mosques  and 
relics,  it  is  regarded  as  the  Holy  City  of  the  western 
Arabs.  It  lias  seven  well-attended  schools.  The 
old  palace  of  the  sidtan  is  large,  but  is  now  falUng 
into  decay.  In  other  respects,  the  external  aspect 
of  F.,  with  its  numerous  baths,  caravanseras  (of 
which  there  are  about  200),  and  bazaars,  resembles 
that  of  Mohammedan  towns  in  general ;  the  mid- 
titude  of  hotels  and  shops  alone  imparting  to  it  a 
pecidiar  and  more  European  character.  A  consider- 
able trade  is  stUl  carried  on.  by  means  of  caravans, 
with  the  adjoining  countries  on  the  south  and 
oast,  extending  as  far  as  Timbuktu.  F.  carries 
on  manufactures  of  woollens,  sashes,  silk-stufxs, 
girdles,  shppers,  tine  carpets,  &c.  Its  artisans  are 
jdso  skilful  workers  in  gold  and  jewellery. 

FEZZA'N  (more  correctly,  Fes.?.\x),  an  extensive 
oasis  in  the  north  of  Africa,  in  24° — 31'  N.  lat., 
and  12 — 1S°  E.  long.  It  lies  south  of  the  regency 
of  Tripoli,  and  has  a  population  variously  estimated 
at  from  75,000  to  150,000  souls.  The  north  is  for 
the  most  part  hills,  Init  the  hills  are  composed 
of  perfectly  bare,  black  quartz  sandstone,  with  no 


rivers  or  brooks  among  them,  and  the  south  is 
mainly  a  level  waste  of  dry  sani  Not  more  than  a 
tenth  of  the  soil  is  cultivable.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  inUages,  which  are  situated  mainly  in  the 
wadies,  wheat,  barley,  &c.,  are  ciUtivated.  Camels 
and  horses  are  reared  in  considerable  numbers. 
Lions,  leopards,  hya;nas,  jackals,  wild-cats,  porcu- 
pines, vidtures,  ostriches,  buzzards,  &c.,  are  found 
in  aliuudance.  The  iahabitants  are  a  mixed  race, 
cf  a  brown  colour,  in  many  respects  resembling 
the  negroes,  but  are  generally  well  formed.  The 
original  inhabitants  belonged  to  the  Birher  family, 
but  since  the  invasion  of  the  country  by  the  Arabs 
in  the  loth  c,  the  traces  of  this  native  North 
African  element  have  gra<iually  become  very  faint. 
The  language  spoken  is  a  comipt  mixture  of  Berber 
and  Arabic.  The  people  are  far  behind  in  civilisa- 
tion, and  occupy  themselves  with  gardening  and  the 
manufacture  of  the  most  indispensable  necessaries 
of  life.  Considerable  trade  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  caravans  between  the  interior  of  Africa  and  the 
coast.  F.  is  the  Phazania  of  the  ancients,  against 
which  the  Romans,  under  Cornelius  Balbus,  imder- 
took  a  campaign  about  20  B.C.  During  the  classic 
period,  as  well  as  in  the  middle  ages,  it  was 
governed  by  its  own  princes  who  were  at  first 
independent,  but  afterwards  became  tributary  to 
the  pashas  of  Tripoli.  In  the  year  1842,  F.  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks,  and  since  that  time  has 
remained  a  Turkish  pashalic.  Murzuk,  the  capital 
of  F.,  is  a  well-built  town,  with  broad  streets  and 
a  population  of  .'5000.  Merchandise  valued  more  than 
i'2 1,000  annually  changes  hands  here,  and  of  that 
amoimt  the  slave-trade  tonns  seven-eighths.  Mvu-zidi 
is  now  the  great  starting-point  from  the  north  for 
the  interior  of  Negroland.  Compare  Earth's  Travels 
in  Central  Africa  (Lond.  1857),  and  also  the  descrip- 
tions given  of  Fezzin  by  Denham,  Clapperton, 
Oudney,  Richardson,  Dr  Vogel,  &c. 

FIAR.    See  Fee  and  Liferent. 

FIARS  {a  word  said  by  Jamieson  to  be  of 
Gothic  origin,  and  to  exist  in  the  same  form  in 
Icelandic).  The  fiars  prices  in  Scotland  are  the 
prices  of  the  different  kinds  of  grain  of  the 
gro\vth  of  each  county  for  the  preceding  crop, 
as  fixed  by  the  sentence  of  the  sheriff,  proceeding 
on  the  report  of  a  jury  summoned  for  the  pur- 
pose, before  whom  the  evidence  of  farmers  and 
corn-dealers  is  produced.  The  values  thus  officially 
ascertained  serve  as  a  ride  for  ascertaining  the 
prices  of  gi-ain  in  all  contracts  where  they  are 
not  fixed  by  the  parties ;  and  in  many  sales  it 
is  agi'eed  to  accept  the  rates  fixed  by  the  fiars. 
Ministers'  stipends,  m  so  far  as  they  consist  of 
grain,  and  crown  dues,  are  also  paid  \yy  the  fiars 
prices  of  the  county  for  each  year.  With  a  view  to 
the  latter,  fiars,  in  former  times,  were  struck  in 
exchequer.  An  error  in  striking  the  fiars  wiU  not 
afford  a  ground  of  suspension. 

The  form  of  procediu-e  in  '  striking  the  fiars,'  as  it 
is  called,  is  regulated  by  Act  of  Sederunt,  21st  Dec 
1723,  renewed  29th  February  1728.  The  time  fixed 
by  this  act  for  smnmoning  the  jury  is  between  the 
4th  and  20th  of  February,  and  the  verdict  must  be 
returned  before  1st  March,  old  stjde  ;  which  is  gene- 
rally considered  too  early,  as  before  that  time  not 
much  grain  of  the  previous  crop  has  been  brought 
into  the  market.  Mr  Barclay,  sheriff-substitute 
of  Perthshire,  in  his  Digest,  gives  the  following 
account  of  this  difficult  and  delicate  process  as 
practised  in  his  county.  'In  Perthshire,  the  fiars 
court  is  held  on  the  last  Friday  of  February,  or  the 
first  Friday  of  JIarch.  The  jury  consists  of  eight 
heritors,  a  few  farmers,  and  some  neutral  parties, 
especially  one  or  two  able  to  check  the  calculations. 

311 


FIASCO— FIBKE. 


An  cxperienci'd  accountant  is  sworn,  and  acts 
as  sucli,  but  is  not  on  the  jury,  and  is  paid  a  fee 
from  the  county  rates.  The '  list  of  the  jury  is 
shifted  every  alternate  year,  thereby  f^iving  sutficieut 
release  from  duty,  and  yet  securing  jicrsons  skilled 
in  the  practice.  Some  ye.-u^  ago,  it  w,is  .irranged  to 
take  no  juror  who  either  paid  or  received  rents 
according  to  the  liars  ;  but  this  greatly  limited  the 
choice,  and  was  compLained  of,  and  abandoned.  All 
considerable  dealers  in  Perthshire  \-ietual,  whether 
resident  in  Perthshire  or  elsewhere,  are  miiformly 
BUiumoned,  and  in  addition,  every  person  whose 
name  is  given  iu  by  whatever  person  interested.' 
As  grain  is  commonly  sold  according  to  weight, 
one  shilling  being  generally  allowed  ou  wheat  for 
every  adilitiou.-d  iiound-weight  on  every  bushel ; 
on  an  appUcatiou  by  the  farmers,  it  w.is  agreed  to 
determine  the  cLassificatiou  by  taking  a  certain 
weight  .-vs  the  ]ioint  of  division.  Tlie  first  thing 
which  the  jury  do  is  consequently  to  determine  the 
point  of  weight.  The  witnesses  .xre  then  sworn  to 
the  schedules,  which  they  receive  after  hanest, 
and  in  which  they  insert  every  separate  quantity  of 
grain  sold,  with  the  dates  and  jirices  divided  into 
tirst  and  second  classes,  according  as  the  judgment 
of  each  -n-itness  dictates,  and  the  weight  of  each 
p,areel.  The  resiUts  of  the  separate  schedules  are 
inserted  by  the  accountant  in  a  general  schedide, 
which  is  s\uniued  up  by  the  accountant,  such  mem- 
bers of  the  jury  as  are  capable  .assisting  him.  The 
result  constitutes  the  fiars  prices  for  the  year.  The 
same  mode  is  not  adopted  in  England  ;  but  weekly 
averages  of  all  grain  sold  at  public  markets  arc 
ascertained  and  published  in  the  Gaytte,  and  this 
is  without  respect  to  the  produce  of  particular 
counties.  9  Geo.  IV.  e.  60 ;  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  14 ; 
9  and  10  Vict.  c.  22.  See  Historical  Accoutit  of 
Vie  Strikinff  of  the  Fiars  in  Scotland,  by  George 
Paterson,  Esq.,  Advocate,  1852. 

FIA'SCO,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Italian 
theatre,  and  now  naturalised  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, besides  being  occasionally  used  by  English 
writers.  It  signifies  a  failure  to  please  on  the  part 
of  an  actor  or  singer,  and  is  thus  the  opposite  of 
furore,  although  why  the  word,  which  simply  means 
a  bottle,  should  come  to  be  thus  appUed,  is  more 
than  anybody  knows.  In  Italy,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  hear  an  audience  cry  out,  '  Okl,  old,  fiasco," 
even  when  the  singer  has  only  made  a  single  false 
note. 

FI'AT,  in  English  Law,  a  short  order  or  warrant 
of  some  judge  for  making  out  or  allo\ving  certain 
processes. 

FIBER.     See  Musquash. 

FI'BRE  (Lat.  fihra),  a  term  of  very  common  use 
as  applied  to  objects  of  a  stringy  or  thread-like 
character,  whether  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  min- 
eral kingdom.  Minerals  are  often  described  as  of  a 
fibrous  structure  or  appearance,  in  which  there  is, 
however,  no  possibility  of  detaching  the  app.arent 
fibres  from  the  general  mass,  or  in  which  they  are 
inflexible  and  brittle  if  detached  ;  but  a  more  perfect 
example  of  mineral  libre  is  found  in  AimaiHhis,  a 
variety  of  Asbestus  (q.  v.).  For  the  scientific  use 
of  fibre  with  regard  to  the  animal  kingdom,  we 
refer  to  the  article  Muscle  ;  for  its  scientific  use 
with  regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  to  Vege- 
TABLK  Tis-suE  .and  to  Wood  and  Woody  Fibre. 
In  its  more  popular,  but  perfectly  accunate  use,  it 
includes  the  hair  or  wool  of  quadrupeds,  the  silken 
threads  of  the  cocoons  of  silk-worms  and  other 
insects,  the  fibres  of  the  leaves  .and  of  the  inner 
bark  of  plants,  and  the  elong.ated  cells  or  haira 
connected  with  the  seeds  of  plants,  the  ordinary 
mat('ri.als  of  cord.age  and  of  textUe  fabrics. 


Of  mineral  substances,  amianthus  alone  has  been 
used  for  textile  fabrics,  .and  that  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent  Animal  and  vegetable  fibres  have, 
from  the  earliest  ages,  suppUed  man  with  cordage 
and  with  cloth.  How  the  invention  took  place,  can 
only  be  matter  of  conjecture. 

The  animal  fibres  used  for  textile  purposes  are 
chiefiy  of  the  two  cKasses  already  mentioned — (1) 
the  wool  or  hair  of  quathaipcds,  and  (2)  the  silk  of 
the  cocoons  of  insects.  To  these  m.ay  be  added  (3) 
the  Byssus  (q.  v.)  of  molluscs,  but  this  class  contains 
only  the  Byssus  of  the  I'lNHA  (q.  v.)  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, an  article  of  ancient  and  high  reputation, 
but  more  of  curiosity  than  of  use.  The  skins  and 
intestines  of  auim;ds,  although  sometimes  twisted 
or  plaited  for  various  uses,  can  scarcely  be  reckoned 
among  the  fibrous  materi<als  afforded  by  the  animal 
kingdom.  For  information  regarding  the  fibres 
obt,ained  from  the  cocoons  of  insects,  see  Silk  and 
SiLKWOKM.  It  is  to  the  first  class  that  the 
greater  number  of  different  kinds  of  anim.al  fibre 
used  for  textile  purposes  belong  ;  and  the  wool  of 
the  sheep  far  exceeds  all  the  rest  in  importance. 
See  .Sheep  and  Wool.  But  the  wool  or  hair  of  other 
quadrupeds  is  also  to  some  extent  used,  as  of  the 
Goat  (see  Go.VT  and  Angoka),  the  Al])aca  (q.  v.), 
the  Camel  (q.  v.),  the  Bison  (q.  v.),  the  Musk  0.x 
(q.  v.),  the  Y.ak  (q.  v.),  and  the  Chinchilla  (q.  v.) ; 
.all  of  which,  excejit  the  Last — and  it  has  but  a 
doubtfid  claim  to  be  mentioned — are,  like  the 
sheep,  niniinants.  The  hair  of  compar.atively  few 
anim.als  is  sufficiently  long  for  textile  purposes,  or 
can  be  procured  iu  sufficient  alnmdance  to  make 
it  of  economic  importance.  The  w.armth  of  cloth- 
ing depends  much  on  the  fineness  of  the  hair, 
and  on  other  characters  in  which  wool  particularly 
excels. 

The  usefid  veget.al)le  fibres  are  f.ar  more  numerous 
.and  various  than  the  animal.  They  are  obtained 
from  plants  of  natur,al  orders  very  different  from 
each  other ;  none  of  them,  howevei-,  belonging  to 
the  class  of  .acrogenous  or  erj'jitoganious  plants. 
They  are  obtained  also  from  difl'erent  parts  of  plants. 
Those  which  are  derived  from  exogenous  plants  are 
either  the  fibres  of  the  inner  bark  (or  B.\sT,  q.  v.), 
.as  flax,  hemp,  &c.,  or  hairs  of  the  fruit,  .as  cotton. 
The  useful  fibres  of  endogenous  pl.ants  sometimes  also 
belong  to  the  fruit,  as  coir  or  cocoa-nut  fibre,  and 
the  unimportant  fibre  of  cotton-gr.ass.  The  sp.athe 
of  some  of  the  p.alms  is  sometimes  also  sufficiently 
fibrous  and  strong  to  be  used  for  bags,  &c.,  without 
sepanation  of  its  fibres  ;  the  fibres  of  the  interior  of 
the  stem  of  old  cocoa-nut  palms  .are  sometimes  used 
for  coarse  piu-poses ;  the  fibrous  chanacter  of  the 
stems  of  the  slender  palms  called  rattans,  of  bul- 
rushes, &c.,  fits  them  for  wicker-work,  for  plaiting 
into  chair-bottoms,  and  the  like  ;  the  roots  of  the 
Agaves  (q.  v.)  yield  fibres  usefid  for  various  pur- 
poses ;  but  generally,  the  more  valuable  fibres 
obtained  from  endogenous  pl.ants  .are  those  of  their 
leaves,  either  of  the  leaf-stalks — as  Pi.ass.aba  filire 
and  Gomuto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  both  produced  by  p.alms 
— or  of  the  blade  of  the  leaf,  as  Pine-apple  fibre, 
Pita  Flax,  New  Zealand  Flax,  Bowstring  Hemp,  &c. 
The  fibres  of  the  leaves  of  endogens  being  p.arallel 
to  each  other,  .are  easdy  obtained  of  sufficient  length 
for  economical  purposes  ;  whilst  the  reticulated 
fibres  of  the  leaves  of  exogens,  even  if  long  enough, 
which  is  comparatively  seldom  the  case,  cannot  be 
separated  for  use.  The  hast  fibres  of  exogens, 
however,  are  often  of  sufficient  length,  and  easily 
separable.  Their  separation  is  gener.olly  accom- 
plished by  steeping  in  water,  or  by  freiiuent  bedew- 
ing with  w.ater,  so  .as  to  cause  a  p.arti;d  rotting  of 
the  other  parts  of  the  b.ast  and  of  the  bark  which 
covers   it.      But   the   fibres   of  endogens   being  in 


FIBRE— FIBRINE. 


general  discoloured  and  injured  by  this  process  to 
a  much  greater  degree  than  those  of  exogens,  mere 
mechanical  means  are  usually  prefei-red  for  their 
separation,  such  as  beating,  passing  between  rollers, 
and  scraping.  The  fibres  of  many  leaves  are  separ- 
ated by  scraping  alone.  Tlie  fibres  of  fruits,  as 
cotton,  eidst  m  nature  in  a  separate  state,  like  the 
wool  or  hair  of  animals,  and  require  merely  to  be 
collected  and  cleaned. 

A  com]ilete  enmneration  of  the  kinds  of  vegetable 
fibre  applied  to  economical  purposes  would  not  be 
easj^  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Cotton  have  long  had  the 
pre-eminence.  To  these  have  recently  been  added 
New  Zealand  Flax,  Jute,  Sunn  or  Sunn  Hemp, 
Coir,  Pita  Flax,  Abaca  or  Manilla  Hemp,  Bow- 
string Hemp,  China  Grass,  Piassaba,  and  many 
others.  New  kinds  are  continually  being  brought 
under  notice,  and  to  this  industrial  exhibitions  and 
industrial  museums  have  most  beneficially  contri- 
buted. New  kinds,  however,  do  not  immediately 
command  the  attention  they  deserve.  '  If  a  new 
product  is  sent  into  the  market,'  says  Dr  Eoyle, 
'  few  of  the  regular  customers  will  buy  it,  iis  they 
want  that  to  wliich  their  machinery  and  manufac- 
tures are  suited.'  But  for  the  judgment  and  enter- 
prise of  Mr  Salt,  it  might  have  been  long  ere  alpaca 
wool  had  obtained  its  [iresent  place  among  the 
materials  of  our  manufactui-es ;  and  there  is  much 
reason  to  think  that  many  vegetable  fibres,  now 
little  regarded,  may  yet  in  like  manner  be  exalted 
to  importance. 

For  the  use  of  vegetable  fibres  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  see  Paper. 

Fibrous  Plants.  Without  attempting  a  com- 
plete enumeration  of  plants  which  jdeld  filjres 
employed  for  economical  purposes,  we  give  the 
following  as  a  list  which  may  be  usefiU.  Many  of 
the  subjects  will  be  found  treated  in  separate 
articles,  or  more  fully  noticed  under  the  natural 
orders.  The  most  important  are  indicated  by 
capitals. 

I.  Exogenous  Plants. 

1.  Fibres  of  the  Fruit. 

Nat.  Ord.  Malracem.      COTTON,  produced  by  species 
of  Gosin/piujii. 

Slerailiacca:     Silk-cotton,  or  vegetable  silk, 

the  produce  of  Bombax  villosum,  &c. 

Aschpiadacc(E.     The   silk-like   down   of  the 

seeds  of  Virginian  Silk  {Asckpias  Syriam). 

2.  Fibres  of  the  Timer  Bark  or  Bast. 
Nat.  Ord.  Mairaera:      Deckanee  Hemp  {Hibiscus  can- 
nahiinrs). — Other  si)ecies  of  Hibiscus,  Ai- 
thtva  cannabina,  Sida  abutihn,  &:c. 

Sterculiacca;.  A  number  of  species  of  different 

genera  ;  some  of  them  cultivated  to  a  small 
extent. 

Titiacew.     JuTE  (Coreliorus  oUtorius,  C  eaji- 

sularis,  kc.) — The  bast  of  some  trees  of 
this  fandly,  as  the  Linden  or  Lime  [Tilia 
Europiea,  &c.)  is  used  for  mats,  ropes,  &o. 
See  Bast. 

LinacecE.    FLAX,  the  produce  of  Linum  usi- 

tatissimum. 

Lcriuminnsa;.—?iVS'S,  Jubbulporc  Hemp,  &c., 

the  produce  of  species  of  Crutataria. 
Spanish  Broom  {.Spartium  junecum). 
Bokhara  Clover  (Melilotus  nrburca). 
Dhunchee  {Sesbania  aculcata). 
Species  of  Cytii-its  (as  Comiuon  Broom),  Butea, 

Parkin-sonia,  Bauhinia,  &c. 
^—^—  Asclepiadacca.      Jetee    (Marsdenia    tenaeis- 

sitiia), 
Tercmn  or  Mudar  (species  of  Calofropis). 
Virginian  Silk  {Asclei)ias  Syriaca,  A.  debilis). 
Other  species  of  several  genera. 
— Apori/iumtv.      Canadian    Hemp    [Apocynum 

cannabinuvi). 


Nat.  Ord.  Vrticect.  Common  Nettle  (Vrtica  dioica)  and 
other  species  of  Urtica. 
Species  of  Bahmeria,  one  of  them  yielding 
China  Grass  Fibre. 

Cannabinance.     HEMP  (Cannabis  aativa). 

Hop  {Hamulus  lupuius). 

Muraee(v.     The  bark  of  some  species  of  Fig. 

Conifenr.      Inner   bark   and  roots   of   some 

species  of  Piaie  and  Fir. 

Unknown.     Buaze. 


n.  Endogenous  Plants. 

Nat.  Ord.  Liliaccee. 

New    Zeal.vnd    Flax,    fibre    of   leaves    of 

Phormium  tenax. 
Bowstring  Hemp,  fibre  of  leaves  of  species 

of  Sanseviera. 
Fibre    of   leaves    of   species   of  Aloe  and  of 
Yiicca. 

Amaryllidece.     Pita  Flax,  fibre  of  leaves  of 

Agave  Americana. 
Fibre  of  leaves  of  species  of  Fourcroya. 

Musacca.      Abaca    or    Manilla    Hemp,   and 

Plantain  Fibre,  obtained  from  leaves  of 
species  of  Musa. 

Bromcliacccc.      Pine-apple    Fibre,   Curratow, 

kc,  fibres  of  leaves  of  species  of  Bromclia, 
ka. 

Pandanacea;.  Fibres  of  leaves  of  Screw-pines. 

Palmaccw.      CoiR   or   cocoa-nut    fibre,    from 

husk  of  cocoa-nut.  Fibre  of  cocoa-nut 
stem.  Gonmto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  from  leaf- 
stalks of  Gomuto  Palm  [Arenga,  saccliari- 
fera). 

Piassaba,  from  Attalca  funifcra  and  Lcopold- 
inia  Piassaba  (the  Chiquichiqui  Palm). 

Other  fibres  from  leaf-stalks,  kc,  of  many 
palms. 

Cypcracca;.     Fibre  from  leaves  of  .H^n'qpAorum 

cannabinum  (see  CoTTON-GRASS).  Mats, 
chair- bottoms,  &c.,  made  of  dififerent 
Cyjyeracecc. 

Graminece  or  Grasses.    Esparto  {Stipa  tcna- 

ciasima). 
Moonja  (Sa.ccharum  munja). 

FI'BRINE  is  an  organic  compoimd,  occurring 
both  in  animals  and  plants.  In  its  chemical  com- 
jMsition  it  closely  resembles  albumen  and  caseine, 
and  it  was  until  recently  beheved  that  these  three 
substances  possessed  a  common  radical,  to  Avhich 
the  name  proteine  (from  protcno,  I  am  first)  was 
given,  the  proteine  being  regarded  as  the  primary 
basis  of  all  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Hence  we 
frequently  find  fibrine  described  as  one  of  the 
proteine  bodies. 

Fibrine  is  mainly  distinguished  from  the  allied 
substances,  albumen  and  caseine,  by  its  separation 
in  a  solid  state,  in  the  form  of  extremely  delicate 
filaments  or  lamella?,  from  any  fluid  in  which  it  is 
dissolved,  very  shortly  after  the  abstraction  of  the 
latter  from  the  organism. 

Anim.al  fibrine,  which  is  of  the  greatest  physio- 
logical importance,  occurs  principally  in  the  blood, 
the  lymph,  and  the  chyle.  In  order  to  obtain  it  in 
a  state  of  purity,  we  beat  or  stir  the  blood  with 
a  bundle  of  twigs,  to  which  the  fibrine  adheres  in 
strinc;s.  The  impiu'e  fibrine  thus  obtained  is  then 
rinsed  with  water,  boiled  with  alcohol  and  ether, 
— to  remove  fatty  matters — and  dried.  In  healthy 
venous  blood,  it  scarcely  ever  amounts  ti>  3  in  1000 
parts,  its  average  quantity  being  23.  Small,  how- 
ever, as  its  amoimt  is,  it  varies  more  than  any  other 
constituent  of  the  blood,  and  in  acute  inflammatory 
diseases  sometimes  exceeds  its  average  by  five  or 
six  times.  .  Moreover,  arterial  blood  contains  more 
fibrine  than  venous  blood.  In  the  l^Tnph  and  chyle, 
it  occurs  in  considerably  less  ciuantity  than  in  the 
blood.  In  inflammatory  exudations,  we  find  fibrine 
in   the   contents    of    the    serous    cavities — as,   for 


FIBROUS  TISSUE— FICIITE. 


example,  of  the  pleiira  and  peritoneum — anJ  on 
the  IUIICOU3  niembraue  (as  in  croup) ;  in  these 
cases,  it  usually  occurs  in  a  state  of  si>ontaneous 
coainilation. 

There  are  good  physiological  tvasous  for  believing 
that  librine  is  formeil  from  albumen,  and  not  directly 
from  the  fooil ;  and  as  librine  contiuns  a  little  more 
oxygen  th.-»n  albiunen,  it  has  been  inferred  that  it  is 
formed  from  the  latter  by  a  jirocess  of  oxidation. 
As,  however,  more  librine  is  found  in  the  blood 
in  pneumonia — when  a  considerable  portion  of  tlie 
lungs  is  rendered  imper\*ious  to  air — tnau  in  almost 
any  other  disease,  we  arc  inclined  to  atlopt  the 
opjiosite  hjnwthesis,  that  the  augmentation  of  the 
librine  in  mflammatory  blood  "is  caused  by  an 
insufficient  sujiply  of  oxygen.  When  oxj-gen  is 
al)uiidantly  introducc<l  into  the  blood,  the  librine 
rapidly  underjjota  further  transformations :  on  the 
other  h.-uid,  when,  in  consequence  of  impeded  respi- 
ration, the  quantity  of  oxygen  conveyed  to  the  blood 
is  not  sufficient  to  effect  the  further  normal  oxi- 
dation or  transformation  of  the  librine,  we  have  an 
actumiJation  of  that  constituent  in  the  circulating 
fluid. 

It  has,  however,  been  a  disputed  question,  whether 
fibrine  is  produced  in  the  elaboration  or  in  the 
disintein"ation  of  the  tissues.  For  the  discussion  of 
this  siuiject,  and  of  other  points  connected  -with 
librine,  we  must  refer  to  Lehmann's  Pltysiological 
Ch-'mlslry,  vol.  i.  pp.  oGl — .364. 

The  substance  forming  the  mass  of  flesh  or  mus- 
cular tissue  was  formerly  regarded  as  identical  \rith 
coagulated  blood-librine.  The  two  substances  are, 
however,  chemically  distinct,  and  the  muscle-librine 
will  be  described  under  its  new  chemical  u.ame, 
SrMToxDfE  (from  sunleinein,  to  contract  or  render 
tense). 

FIBROUS  TISSUE.    See  Tissues. 

FI'CHTE,  JoHAXN  GoTTUEB,  an  illiistrious 
German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rammeau,  in  Upper 
Lus.atia,  19th  May  1762.  His  earliest  years  were 
marked  by  a  love  of  solitary  musing  and  meditation. 
When  a  mere  child,  he  was  wont  to  wander  forth 
to  upland  fields,  that  he  might  enjoy  the  pleasure 
of  gazing  into  the  illimitable  distance.  In  1775,  he 
was  placed  at  the  gymnasium  of  Pfoita,  near  Kaiuu- 
hurg ;  and  in  1780  he  entered  the  university  of 
Jena,  where  he  devoted  himself  at  first  to  theology, 
but  afterwards  to  philosophy.  During  the  years 
1784 — 1788,  he  supported  himself  in  a  precarious 
way  as  tutor  in  various  Saxou  families.  Subse- 
quently, he  went  to  Zurich  in  a  simil.or  capacity, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  excellent 
lady  who  afterwards  became  liis  wife,  Johanna  Maria 
llahn.  In  1791,  F.  obtained  a  tutorship  at  Warsaw, 
in  the  house  of  a  Polish  nobleman.  The  situation, 
however,  proved  disagreeable,  and  was  thrown  up 
by  the  fastidious  philosopher,  who  next  proceeded 
to  Kiinigsberg,  where  he  had  an  inten^ew  with 
Kant,  of  whom  he  had  become  an  ardent  disciple. 
Here  he  wrote,  in  1792,  his  Kritik  aller  Ofenbarumj 
(Critique  of  all  Revelation),  which  he  shewed  to 
that  pliilosopher,  who  praised  it  highly,  but  still 
maintained  a  certain  air  of  reser\-e  towards  the 
enthusiastically  earnest  author,  which  pained  the 
latter  greatly.  At  Kiinigsberg,  F.  was  reduced  to 
such  straits  for  want  of  the  means  of  subsistence, 
that  he  was  forced  to  ask  the  loan  of  a  small  simi 
of  money  from  Kant,  which  the  latter  was  stoical 
enough  to  refuse.  Things  were  now  at  the  worst 
Mnth  F.,  and  of  course — according  to  the  old  adage 
— they  began  to  mend.  He  entered  the  delightful 
family  of  the  Count  of  Krokow,  near  Danzig,  as 
tutor;  was  enabled  to  marry;  and  in  1794  was 
ajipointcd  to  the  chair  of  Philosophy  at  Jena,  where 


ho  commenceil  to  expound  with  extraordinary  zeal 
his  system  of  transcendental  idealism.     F.,  in  f.act, 
preadied  his  |>hilo3ophy  as  if  he  believed  its  recep- 
tion essential  to  the  salvation  of  his  hearers.     In 
1795,  he  publisheil  his  WUsensdiaflshhre  (Doctrine 
of  Science),  in  which  he  clearly  broke  away  from 
Kant,   whose   speculations   did    not   seem    to    him 
s\ilficiently    thorough,    or,    as    Englishmen    would 
say,  idealistic,      ludeeil,  as  early  as   179.3,   writing 
to  N iethammer,  he  says  :   'My  conWction  is,  th.at 
Kant   has  only   indicated    the   truth,    but   neither 
unfolded  nor  proved  it.'     An  accusation  of  atheism, 
which  F.  ferWdly  but  fruitlessly  refuted,  cost  him 
his  ch.air  in  1799.     In  the  prerious  year,  he  pub- 
lished his  System  der  Sittenkhre  (System  of  Ettiics, 
Jena,   1798),  considered   by  many  to  be  his  most 
mature  work.    He  now  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he 
delivered  lectures  on  jihilosophy  to  a  select  auditory. 
In  1800,  ajipeared  his  Ueher  die  ISestimmunrien  des 
Mensdien  (On   the  Destiny  of  Man).      In  1805,  ho 
obtained  the  chair  of  Philosojihy  at  Erlangen,  with 
the  i)rivilegc   of  residing  at   Berlin  in  the  winter. 
Here  he  delivered  his  celelirated  lectures,  Ueher  das 
]Vegen  des  Gdehrten  (On  the  Nature  of  the  Scholar, 
Berlin,   1805 — 180G).     In  the  same  ye.ir,  appeared 
his   Grundziige  des  ijegenu-artigeti  Zeitalters   (Char- 
acteristics of  the  Present  Age) ;  and  in  1806,  his 
Aiiweisttng  zum  selhjen  Leben  oder  die  BeligionMehre 
(The  Way  to  the  Blessed  Life,  or  the  Doctrine  of 
Religion).     But  F.  was  a  patriot  as  well  as  a  philo- 
sopher.   The  victories  of  Napoleon  at  Auerstadt  and 
Jena  drew  forth  the  famous  lieden  an  die  Deutsdien 
(Adilresses  to  the  Germans).     These  addresses  were 
full  of  the  most  exalted  enthusiasm.     F.  '  laments 
that  his  age  has  denied  him  the  privilege  accorded 
to  jfEsehylus  and  Cer\-antes,  to  make  good  liis  words 
liy  manly  deeds.'      The  Prussian  king  apjireciated 
the  zeal  of  the  eloquent  metaphysician,  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  peace,  requested  him  to  draw  up  a 
new   constitution   for   the   Berlin  University.      In 
1810,  the  imiversity  was  opened,  ^vith   a   host  of 
brilliant  names,  F.,  Wolll',  Miiller,  Humboldt,   De 
Wette,    Schleiermacher,    Neander,    Klaproth,    and 
Sa\-igny.     By  the  votes  of  his  colleagues,   F.  was 
xmanimously  elected  rector.     Here,  as  at  Jena,  he 
laboured  with  unremitting  energy  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  all  those  customs  winch  he  deemed  barbarous 
in  themselves,  and  incompatible  with  the  true  idea 
of  a  scholar.      In   1813,  the  war  of  independence 
broke  out,  and  the  hosjiitals  of  the  Prussian  capital 
were  soon  crowded  with  patients.      F.'s  wife   was 
one  of  the  first  who  offered  her  services  as  a  nui"se. 
For  five  months,  she  tended  the  sick  with  all  the 
patient  tenderness  and  devotion  of  her  nature.     At 
last,  she  was  seized  with  fever,  3il  January  1814. 
Aiter  a  fearful  struggle,  she   recovereil;    but  her 
husband  caught  the  infection,  and  in  spite  of  all 
remedies,  sank  under  its  influence,  and  died  27th 
January  1814.     It   is  tlifficult   to  speak  calmly   of 
Fichte.     His  Ufe  stirs  one  like  a  tnimpet.     He  com- 
l>Lnes  the  penetration  of  a  philosopher  with  the  fire 
of  a  jjrojihet, and  the  thimder  of  an  orator;  and  over 
all  his  life  lies  the  beauty  of  a  stainless  purity.     See 
Fidite's  Lehen  und  litcrarisciier  Brie/ioediset   (pub- 
lished by  I.  H.  Fichte,  2  vols.  Sidzb.  1830—1831); 
and  W.    Smith's  Memoir,  published   by   Chapman 
and  Hall  (Lond.  1848).     The  fundamental  notion  of 
the  idealism  set  forth  in  F.'s  writings,  at  least  in 
the  earlier  of  them,  is  the  sole  reality  of  the  Kgo  or  I, 
which  posits  both  itself  and  the  Non-ego,  or  Not- 1. 
(The   ))hrase    'to    posit,'    it  ought  to  be  observed 
here,  signifies  in  Gennan  metaphysics,  to  present  to 
the  consciousness.     Hence,  when  it  is  said  that  the 
ego    posits    itself,   the    meaning    is,   that   the    e"0 
becomes  a  f.act  of  consciousness,  which  it  can  only 
become    through   the   antithesis    of    the    non-ego.) 


FICHTE— FICINO. 


Uniler  this  ego,  however,  must  not  be  understood, 
according;  to  the  usual  misapprehension,  the  human 
and  finite,  but  the  '  absoUite  subject-objecti\-ity ' 
{absolute  siilijecl-ohjeclivilat),  the  eternal,  imiversal 
reason.  The  ego  is  the  absolutely  productive, 
which,  however,  would  not  attain  to  conscious- 
ness of  itself — i.  e.,  of  its  infinite  spontaneous 
activity,  did  it  not  at  the  same  time  place  in 
contrast  to  itself,  and  as  an  impediment  {anstoss) 
and  limit  to  its  activity,  the  non-eijo — i.  e.,  the 
objective  world,  or  nature.  The  ego,  in  so  far 
as  it  is  determined  by  the  non-ego,  is  the  intelli- 
gent ego,  and,  as  such,  the  subject  of  theoretical 
science;  the  ego,  on  the  other  hand,  as  deter- 
mining the  non-ego,  is  the  subject  of  practicid 
science.  Freedom,  absolute,  spontaneous  activity, 
for  its  own  sake,  is  not  with  F.,  as  with  Kant,  the 
condition  and  pre-supposition  of  moral  action,  but 
is  itself  the  highest  expression  of  the  jjrobk'ui  of 
the  moral  law.  To  realise  tliis  self-activity,  how- 
ever, the  ego  requires  an  external  world  of  objects, 
in  order  that  in  them  as  limits  it  may  become  con- 
scious of  its  own  activity.  To  this  idealistic  system 
of  ethics  it  has  lieen  plausibly — some  think  >m- 
answerably — objected  that  it  makes  the  non-ego  be 
required  as  the  condition  of  morality,  and  at  the 
same  time  represents  the  removal  of  this  condition 
as  the  aim  of  moral  efTort.  With  respect  to  the 
idea  of  right,  F.'s  theory  of  freedom,  in  its  fimda- 
mental  jirinciples,  attached  itself  to  the  Kantian 
theory  of  freedom  as  the  innate  and  primitive  prin- 
ciple of  right.  Generally  speaking,  F.  makes  that 
which,  from  the  staud-jioint  of  onlinary  conscious- 
ness, we  call  the  world,  merely  a  product  of  the  ego ; 
it  exists  only  through  the  ego,  for  the  ego,  and  in  the 
ego.  F.  himself  afterwards  mochficd  or  exteuded 
his  system,  so  as  to  bring  out  more  prominently  the 
theUtic  character  of  his  metajihysius.  The  tran- 
sition to  this  later  stage  of  F.'s  philosophy  is 
seen  in  his  Beslimmumj  dea  Menschen  (Destination 
of  Man).  It  arose  from  the  intense  religiosity  of 
his  nature.  F.  was  essentially  a  worshipjiing  nature, 
and  though  he  never  ceased  to  be  a  philosopher,  the 
imtiring  aspiration  of  his  later  j'e.ars  was  to  realise 
in  his  o%™  way  the  belief  of  the  great  Jewish  law- 
giver :  '  The  eternal  God  is  thy  refuge,  and  roimd 
thee  are  the  everlasting  arms.'  A  popidar  exposi- 
tion of  his  philosophy  is  given  in  his  Aitweisung  zum 
sfdigen  Lehai.  It  is  set  forth  in  a  strictly  scientific 
manner  in  the  lectures  published  in  the  XachrieMi.^- 
senen  Werke,  edited  by  I.  G.  Fichte  (.3  vols.  Bonn, 
IS34 — 1833),  in  which  his  Spccuhttlve  Logik  and  his 
revised  theory  of  right  and  morals  are  particidarly 
deserving  of  attention.  Although  F.  never,  strictly 
speaking,  foi-med  a  school,  and  though  his  system 
has  only  been  adopted  by  a  few,  such  as  J.  B. 
Schad,  Mehmel,  Cramer,  8chmiilt,  and  Michaelis, 
his  influence  upon  the  subsequent  development  of 
German  philosophy  has  been  very  important.  F.'s 
collective  works  have  likewise  been  published  by 
his  son,  I.  H.  Fichte.  His  popular  works  have 
been  translated  into  English  liy  W.  Smith,  and 
pubhshed  bj'  J.  Chapman  of  London  in  his  '  Catholic 
Series.'  Their  titles  are — The  Vcilination  of  Man, 
The  Vocation  of  tlie  Scliolar,  The  Nature  of  tlie 
Scholar,  The  Woy  to  the  Blessed  Life,  and  The 
Characteristics  of  the  Present  Age. 

FICHTE,  LmiiNUEL  Hermanx,  son  of  the 
former,  and  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  imiver- 
sity  of  Tiibingen,  was  born  in  1797,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  jihilosophieal  studies,  being 
attracted  by  the  later  views  of  his  father,  which 
he  considers  were  essentially  thtistic.  He  also 
attended  the  lectures  of  Hegel,  but  felt  averse  to 
his  pantheistic  tendencies,  and  leaned  more  to 
Schleiermacher   and   Schclling.      Occupied  at  fh'st 


as  a  teacher,  F.  was  ajipoiuted  professor  of  philo- 
sophy in  Bonn  in  18.SG,  and  in  1842  received  a 
call  to  the  imiversity  of  Tubingen.  His  chief 
works  are — Britriige  zur  Characteristih  der  neuerii 
Philosophie  (18-11),  Grund-Mge  zum  Sijsteme  der 
Philosophie  (Heidel.  1839—1847)  ;  Sijstim  der  Ethik 
(Leip.  1850 — 1851),  and  Anthropologic,  oder  die 
Lehre  von  der  MenscJUichen  Seek  (Leij).  1856).  He 
suggested  meetings  of  fihilosophcrs  similar  to  those 
held  liy  phj-sicists ;  and  at  the  one  held  at  Gotha, 
1847,  he  delivered  an  address  On  the  Philosojijnj 
of  the  Future  (Stuttg.  1847).  The  great  aim  of  his 
speculations  has  been  to  find  a  philosophic  basis  for 
the  personality  of  God,  and  for  his  theory  on  this 
subject  he  has  proposed  the  term  Concrete  Theism, 
to  distinguish  it  alike  from  the  abstract  theism 
which  malces  God  almost  an  unreahty — a  barren 
aggregate  of  Hfeless  .attributes  ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  all-absorbing  pantheism  of  Hegel, 
which  swallows  up  the  human  and  the  divine 
in  its  own  inapprehensil>le  totality.  Recently, 
F.  has  published  an  important  work,  Zur  Seelen- 
frage,  cine  Philosophische  Confession,  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  .1.  D.  Morell.  imder 
the  title  of  Contributions  to  Mental  Philosophy 
(1860),  for  an  account  of  which  see  art.  CoNSCious- 
NE.SS.  During  the  movements  of  1848,  he  issued 
several  pohtical  tracts.  The  principle  of  F.'s 
politics  is  not  unlike  Dr  Arnold's  maxim.  He 
holds  that  there  is  only  one  kind  of  real  conser- 
vatism, that  of  constant  well-planned  reform  ;  and 
that  all  revolution  consists  either  in  attempts  to 
precipitate  prematm'cly  the  future,  or  to  go  back 
to  ideas  that  are  effete,  the  last  being  only  the 
chi-ysahs  form  of  the  first.  The  state,  'according 
to  the  idea  of  benevolence,'  belongs  to  the  futm-e. 
The  regeneration  of  Christianity  woidd  consist  in 
its  becoming  the  ^"ital  and  organising  power  in 
the  state,  instead  of  being  occupied  solely,  as 
heretofore,  with  the  salvation  of  individuals.  To 
this  recent  school  of  philosophy  belong  Weisse, 
Chalybceus,  Wirth,  and  others. 

FICI'NO,  Maksilio,  an  illustrious  philosopher 
of  the  It.alian  Platonic  school,  was  bom  at  Florence 
I4.'53.  He  was  the  son  of  the  princip.ol  jiliysi- 
cian  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici ;  and  to  the  liberality  of 
this  prince  he  owed  the  classical  cidture  which 
inspu'cd  his  fut>u-e  career.  At  the  suggestion  of 
Cosmo,  F.  undertook  the  translation  of  Plotinus, 
Jamblichus,  Proclus,  and  Porj^hyry,  besides  a  Latin 
but  by  no  means  Uter.al  version  of  Plato.  In  1463, 
he  was  appointed  by  Cosmo  president  of  a  classical 
society  or  academy,  founded  in  1440,  having  for  its 
aim  the  diffusion  of  the  Platonic  doctrines,  which 
F.  held  to  be  the  basis  and  confirm.ation  of  the 
Christian  system.  On  the  death  of  Cosmo,  F. 
foimd  a  no  less  mimificent  patron  in  this  prince's 
grandson,  Lorenzo  de'  Jledici ;  and  having,  at 
the  mature  age  of  40,  decided  on  entering  the 
church,  he  was  endowed  by  Lorenzo  with  the 
rectorship  of  two  churches  in  Florence,  and  a 
canonry  in  the  cathedr.al.  His  theological  doctrine, 
whde  undoubtedly  sincere,  presents  a  strange 
medley  of  incongruous  views,  the  natural  result  of 
his  attempt  to  fuse  the  philosophy  of  Plato  ^\•ith 
the  Christian  creed.  He  died  in  1499,  and  was 
inten-ed  in  the  cathech-al  of  Florence,  where  a 
monument  commemorates  his  upright  and  manly 
qualities  no  less  than  his  learning  and  jihUosophy. 
F.'s  collected  works  were  published  at  Basel  (2  vok. 
f.  1491),  and  consist  of  translations  from  the  Greek 
phUosoj)hci's,  and  original  metaphysical  and  theo- 
logical c<jmpositions,  of  which  we  may  mention  the 
Theologica  Platonica,  De  Beligione  Christiana,  the 
Latin  epistles,  and  a  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of 
St  Paul 

315 


FICTION— FIELD. 


FICTION.    Soc  Novels  ami  Romances. 

FICTION  OF  LAW  has  been  dcfineil  to  bo  'a 
Bii|i|K>sitiou  of  law  that  a  tlun"  is  truo,  which  is 
eiuior  certainly  not  true,  or  at  least  is  as  probably 
false  as  tnie.'—Erskine,  In^l.  iv.  '2,  38.  Fictions 
have  existed  in  all  lef;al  svst<'ms.  They  must  be 
rvsuxleJ  as  a  sjweies  of  legal  fraud,  whicli  has  been 
tolerated  as  enabling  individuals  who,  by  tho  strict 
letter  of  the  law,  would  have  been  excluded  from  j 
obtuuing  redress  of  evils,  to  procure  that  remedy  by  ; 
a  pious  fraud.  There  are  two  general  ma.vims  which 
nxTlate  the  api)lic,ition  of  factions— viz.,  that  no 
fiction  shall  be  allowed  to  operate  a  wrong,  and 
that  no  fiction  shall  be  admitti'd  which  in  the  n.-iturc 
of  things  is  impossible.  The  Koman  form  of  judi- 
ci.al  procedure  abounded  with  lictions,  by  which 
.alone,  in  many  cases,  a  jiarty  aggrieved  could  enforce 
his  right.  Thus,  an  heir,  unjustly  disinherited,  by  ' 
the  querela  inojUciosi  teetamenti,  feigned  that  his 
father  had  been  mad.  A  stranger  in  Rome,  who 
had  been  robbed,  could  not  obtain  restitution  without 
the  riclio  cirilalis,  whereby  he  feigned  liimself  a 
citizen.  JIany  of  the  lictions  existing  in  Rome  have 
found  a  counterpart  in  modern  systems ;  thus,  the 
/iclio  Ivnijce  maiiim,  whereby  lanils  at  a  distance 
were  feigned  to  be  delivered,  resembles  an  Enghsh 
feoffment  at  law.  In  like  mamier,the/c<i'o  Iraditionis 
iti/mboliae  of  keys  of  a  wai'chouse  to  give  possession 
of  the  articles  contained  therein,  and  of  a  deed  in 
confirmation  of  the  covenants  contained  therein. 
The/c(io  unitatis  per.ionarum  was  the  original  of  the 
Scottish  fiction,  that  the  heir  is  eaclem  persona  cum 
defuncto.  But  in  no  system  of  laws  have  fictions 
been  so  Uberally  adopted  as  in  that  of  England.  It 
is  by  means  of  fictions  alone  that  the  original 
limited  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  Queen's  Bench 
and  Exchequer  has  been  extended  to  ordinary  suits. 
In  the  latter  court,  every  plaintiff  assumed  th.at  he 
was  a  debtor  to  the  crown,  and  was  debarred  from 
discharging  his  obligation  by  the  failure  of  the 
defendant  to  satisfy  his  demand  ;  in  the  former,  it 
was  assumed  that  the  defendant  had  been  arrested 
for  some  supposed  trespass  which  he  had  never  in 
fact  committetL  The  fictitious  characters  of  John 
Doe  and  Richard  Roe  long  contributed  to  make  the 
action  of  ejectment  famous.  And  though  those 
fictions  have  disappeared  before  the  ruthless  hand  of 
modern  legislation,  yet  to  this  day,  in  an  action  at 
the  instance  of  a  f.athor  for  the  seduction  of  his 
daughter,  damages  can  only  be  awarded  on  the 
assumption  that  she  was  his  servant,  and  that  he  has 
suffered  pecimiary  loss  by  deprivation  of  her  services. 
In  Chancery,  again,  the  whole  doctrine  of  uses  and 
trusts  is  based  upon  a  fiction.  Perhaps  the  best 
explanation  of  the  introduction  of  fictions  into  legal 
systems  is  to  be  found  in  Dr  Colcpihomi's  Summary 
of  the  Roman  Uiril  Law,  2027.  It  involves,  he  says, 
'less  difficulty  to  adhere  to  knovvn  and  admitted 
forms,  and  gradually  to  accommodate  them  to  the 
changed  state  of  society,  than  to  ujisot  all  the 
incidents  connected  with  them  by  a  sudden  change, 
which  nmst  ever  tend  to  unsettle  the  law  and 
practice  of  the  courts.  All  nations  have  therefore 
found  it  more  desirable  to  let  tlie  one  glide  into  the 
other,  than  to  adopt  any  alirupt  measiu-c  which 
might  disturb  the  practice  and  effect  of  former 
decisions.' 

In  the  law  of  Scotland,  fictions  of  law  are  not  of 
frequent  occurrence.  For  the  benefit  of  creditors, 
the  ))rinciple  that  the  heir  is  eadem  persona  cum 
di'functo  is  admitted ;  and  in  an  action  of  '  Reduction- 
iniprobation '  of  a  deed,  it  is  assumed  that  the 
document  was  false,  whether  the  fact  be  so  or  not. 
But  in  general  tho  legal  system  of  Scotland  has 
shewni  a  facility  of  adapting  itself  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  and  that  without  Tiroducin"  the 


alarming  results  which  ]>resented  tlicmselvcs  to  tlio 
imagination  of  Dr  ColiiiUioun. 

FICUS.     See  Fio. 

FID  (from  the  Lat.  jindere,  fidi,  to  divide),  for 
splicing  ro])es,  is  a  large  pointed  |>in,  with  an  eye  at 
the  thick  end,  of  iron  or  lignum  vibe,  used  liy 
sailors  in  separating  and  interlacing  the  strands  of 
which  the  rope  is  composed. 

A  masl-fid  is  a  bolt  inserted  through  the  bottom 
of  a  ship's  toi)mast  or  top-gallant-mast,  with  ends 
resting  on  the  trestle-trees  sustained  by  the  head  of 
the  lower  mast  or  topmast.  Unless  the  mast-lid  ba 
withdrawn,  the  supjiorted  mast  cannot  be  lowered. 

FIDDEMIN,  one  of  the  h.and.-:')mest  villages  of 
the  Fayftm,  inhabited  by  a  Mussulman  and  Coptic 
jiopulation.  It  is  surrounded  by  fruit  trees,  and  is 
remarkable  for  a  large  olive,  supjtosed  to  be  the 
original  one  plantcil  in  Egj^)t,  and  yielding  annu- 
ally 268  pounds  of  olives. — Clot  Bey,  Aperfu  (jini- 
rale  sur  VEijypte  (8vo,  Paris,  1840),  vol.  i.  j).  213. 

FIDDLE.     See  Violin. 

FIDEICOMMISSUM,  in  the  Civil  Law,  was  a 
conveyance  of  property  in  trust  to  be  transferred  to 
a  third  person  named  by  the  truster.  Fideicom- 
missa,  when  first  introduced,  were  not  supported 
by  the  law.  The  jierformance  of  them  depended, 
therefore,  on  the  conscience  of  the  jiarty  intrusted, 
and  they  were  consetiucntly  frequently  not  carried 
out.  They  were  originally  adopted  fur  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  property  either  where  a  jiarty, 
from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  as  inability  to 
procure  the  proper  number  of  witnesses,  was  pre- 
vented from  executing  a  will ;  or  where  he  desired 
to  benefit  those  who,  by  law,  were  precluded  from 
taking  the  property.  To  eff'ei-t  this  piu'pose,  an 
actual  conveyance  was  made  to  a  friend,  coupled 
with  a  request  that  the  property  shoiUd  be  trans- 
fen"ed  to  another.  Fideicommissa  having  thus  been 
introduced  for  a  special  purjiose,  were  ay  degrees 
extended  to  conveyances  of  the  whole  inheritance, 
and  finally  were  used  for  tho  jiurpose  of  settling 
estates  in  a  paiticular  order  of  succession,  forming 
the  earliest  instance  of  Entails  (q.  v.).  Fideicom- 
missa first  received  the  sanction  of  positive  law  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  by  whom  authority  was 
given  to  the  praetor  to  ei>force  the  performance  of 
these  fiduciary  oliligations. — fn.stitul.es,  ii.  23,  s.  I. 
The  Emperor  Claudius  subsequently  extended  this 
authority  to  the  consuls  and  presidents  of  provinces. 
Fideicommissa  were  either  particular  or  universal, 
the  fonner  being  a  bequest  of  a  particular  subject, 
or  a  part  only  of  the  inlieritance ;  the  latter  comi)re- 
hended  the  whole  estate. 

In  Holland,  the  ]u'iuciples  of  the  civil  law  as 
to  fideicommissa  form  an  important  branch  of 
the  law  in  regard  to  landed  estates.  An  heir  may 
be  required  to  transfer  either  the  whole  or  a  portion 
of  his  inheritance.  Tlie  provisions  of  the  Senatus- 
Consultum  Trebellianum  also  have  been  adopted  ; 
but  if  an  heir  resist  the  intentions  of  the  testator, 
and  is  compelled  by  l.aw  to  execute  the  trust,  he  is 
i  nut  .allowed  to  take  the  benefit  of  these  provisions. 
The  benefit  also  may  be  excluded  by  express  direc- 
tion in  the  will.  Children  who  have  received  their 
leg.al  jiortions,  and  are  required  to  transfer  to  a 
stranger  the  rest  of  the  inheritance,  are  entitled  to 
retain  a  fourth  part  fur  themselves.  Grotius,  Dutch 
Jurisprudence,  by  Herliert,  b.  ii.  c.  20. 

FIDI'CTJLA,  a  small  musical  instrument  in  the 
shai)e  of  a  lyre. 

FIEF.     See  Feu  DAL  System. 

FIELD.  In  Heraldry,  the  field  is  the  whole 
surface  or  continent  of  the  escutcheon  or  shield.  It 
is  so  called,  according  to  some,  because  it  represents 


FIELD-ALLOWANCE— FIELDING. 


the  field  of  battle  on  which  the  achievumeuts 
or  charges  represented  un  it  are  sujujosed  to  have 
been  gamed.  In  blazoning,  the  tincture  or  metal  of 
the  field  must  be  the  first  thing  mentioned. 

FIELD-ALLOWANCE,  a  daily  allowance 
granted  to  ofiicers  of  the  British  army  in  consi- 
deration of  extra  expense  entailed  upon  them  in 
consequence  of  militai-y  operations.  Ordinanj  field- 
allowance,  ranging  from  £1,  lOs.  for  a  general  ollieer 
to  I.?,  for  a  subaltern,  is  applicable  when  troops  are 
encamped  at  home  or  in  the  colonies.  Extra- 
ordinanj  field-allowance  is  sanctioned  when  and 
wherever  troops  are  engaged  in  actual  warfare :  it 
ranges  for  the  above  ranks  from  £2,  10s.  to  Is.  6d. 
Strict  rules  are  laid  down  that  no  officer  shall 
receive  this  allowance  unless  positively  present  with 
the  army. 

FIELD-GLASS,  is  the  lens  usually  interposed 
between  the  object-glass  and  eye-glass  of  a  micro- 
scope, which,  receiving  the  diverging  rays  from 
the  former  before  they  form  an  image,  contracts 
the  dimensions  of  the  image,  and  increases  its 
brightness,  so  as  to  render  it  of  a  proper  size 
and  degree  of  distinctness  for  being  viewed  by 
means  of  the  eye-glass.  See  Field  of  View,  and 
Microscope. 

FIELD-MARSHAL,  the  higliest  rank  of  general 
officers  in  the  British  and  some  foreign  armies.  In 
the  former,  it  is  a  special  honour  enjoyed  by  very  few 
officers,  and  only  conferred  by  selection,  either  on 
the  ground  of  distinguished  service  or  of  royal  birth. 
WTieu  imcmployed,  the  field-marshal  has  no  higher 
pay  than  any  other  general,  but  if  commanding  an 
army,  he  receives  £16,  Sa  9(/.  a  day  for  staff-pay, 
while  a  general  has  but  £9,  9.«.  6(/.  The  equiva- 
lent rank  in  the  navy  is  tluat  of  admiral  of  the 
fleet.  Formerly,  a  captain-general  was  occasionally 
appointed,  who  had  rank  higher  even  than  a  field- 
marshaL 

FIELD-MOUSE,  a  name  popularly  given  to 
certain  species  both  of  Mouse  and  of  Vole.  See 
these  articles. 

FIELD-OFFICERS,  in  the  Army,  are  such  as 
are  competent  to  command  whole  battalions — viz., 
majors,  lieutenant-colonels,  colonels — in  contradis- 
tinction to  those  merely  intrusted  with  company 
duties,  as  caj>tains,  lieutenants,  and  ensigns. 

FIELD   OF  VIEW  is  the  whole  space  within 
which  objects  can  be  seen  through  an  optical  instru- 
ment ;   more  strictly,  it  is  the  space  within  which 
the    image   of   an   object   may  be    seen   by  whole  i 
pencils.     That  part  of  the  image  which  is  seen  by  | 
partial  pencils  of  the  fight  from  the  object  speciUum  ' 
or   lens   is   called  the   ragfjed  edge,  and   usually  a  I 
diaphragm  is  employed  to  cut  it  oS'  from  the  view  of 
the  obser\'er  altogether. 

FIELD -TRAIN,  a  department  of  the  Royal 
Artillery,  consisting  of  commissaries  and  conductors 
of  stores,  responsible  for  the  safe  custody  of  the 
ammimition,  for  the  formation  of  proper  depots  of 
shot,  &c.,  between  the  front  and  the  base  of  opera- 
tions, and  that  a  due  proportion  shall  be  constantly 
at  the  service  of  each  gun  dm-ing  an  engagement. 

FIELD-WORKS  are  intreuchments  and  other 
temporary  fortifications  tlu'own  up  by  an  anuy  in 
the  field,  either  as  a  protection  frura  the  onslaught 
of  a  hostile  force,  or  to  cover  an  attack  upon  some 
stronghold.  Field-works  will  be  more  particularly 
described  under  the  article  Fortific.4.tiom  (q.  v.). 

FIELDFARE  {Tiirdiis  jiilan^),  a  species  of 
Thrush  (q.  v.),  in  size  about  equal  to  the  blackbird, 
but  with  greater  length  of  wing  ;  the  general  colour 
gray,  the  feathers  tipped  with  a  brownish  black 
elongated    spot ;    the   throat    and    breast    reddish 


yeUow,  streaked  and  si)otted  with  black  ;  the  fore- 
part of  the  back  and  wings  of  a  rich  brown  colour ; 
the  tail  sfightly  forked  and  nearly  black ;  the 
under  jiarts  white.  The  F.  is  a  very  common  winter 
\-isitant  of  Britain,  although  it  rarely  breeds  even  in 


Fieldfare  [Turdus  pilaris). 

the  northern  parts  of  the  island.  It  arrives  from 
more  northern  regions  when  the  winter  has  fully 
come,  and  departs  again  towards  the  end  of  spring. 
It  is  well  known  to  youthful  sportsmen,  and  affords 
much  employment  for  their  guns  during  the  Chiist- 
mas  hoUdays,  when  it  may  generally  be  found  in 
small  flocks — often  along  with  its  smaller  congener, 
the  red\ving — iu  fields,  if  the  weather  is  mild, 
feeding  on  worms,  snails,  &c.,  or,  in  severe  weather, 
about  hedges,  thickets,  and  woods,  wherever  haws 
and  other  such  fruits  or  seeds  are  abundant.  Its 
\iTuter  migrations  extend  southward  as  far  at  least 
as  the  islands  of  the  MediteiTanean.  It  is  one  of 
the  summer  songsters  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  of 
Siberia  ;  its  song  is  soft  and  melodious,  but  is  much 
less  familiar  to  us  in  Britain  than  its  call-note, 
which  is  harsh.  It  is  extremely  plentiful  iu  Nor- 
way, where  its  nests  are  very  generally  built  in 
spruce  firs,  and,  contrary  to  the  ordinary  habits  of 
thrushes,  in  society  ;  numerous  nests  being  often  to 
be  found  in  the  same  tree,  and  '  tivo  himdred  nests 
or  more  being  frequently  seen  within  a  very  small 
space.'  The  F.  is  easOy  tamed,  and  sings  well  in 
captivity. 

FIELDING,  Heskv,  bom  April  22,  1707,  was 
the  son  of  General  Edmund  Fielding,  connected 
^vith  the  Earls  of  Denbigh.  He  was  sent  to  Eton, 
and  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  university  of 
Leyden,  to  prosecute  legal  studies.  Returning  to 
London,  he  began  to  waite  for  the  stage,  and 
worked  with  so  much  industry  that  between  1727 
and  1736  he  produced  nearly  a  score  of  comedies 
and  farces,  which  were  forgotten  with  nearly  as 
much  speed  as  they  were  produced.  He  married  in 
1736,  and  falling  heir  to  a  small  estate,  he,  with  his 
young  wife,  retired  from  London.  But  his  was  not 
a  Fortunatus's  purse,  and  his  hand  was  continually 
in  it ;  and  in  three  years  after  his  marriage,  he  was 
back  in  London  a  student  at  the  Temple.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  usual  time,  but  gout  inter- 
vening, steady  practice  was  rendered  impossible. 
Happily,  a  way  of  escape  was  at  hand.  Richardson 
published  Pamela  ;  the  town  was  ringing  with  it ; 
and  F.,  whose  strong,  healthy,  imconventional  nature 
revolted  from  the  moral  priggishness  of  '  Virtue 
Rewarded,'  resolved  to  %vrite  a  counterjjart,  pur- 
porting to  be  the  adventures  of  Pamela's  brother, 
Joseph  Andrews.  This  work,  begun  in  a  satirical 
mood,  and  intended  merely  to  quiz  Richardson, 
deepened  as  it  proceeded,  and  flowered  out  into 
humorous  adventure.      The  exquisite  character    of 

317 


FIELDING— FIESCHI. 


Parson   A.lams   took   the   world   by  s»n>nse.   »" 
remains  one  of  the  iKTUUineut   gloni-3   of   bushel 
«^^<.n      The  next  important  work  .uuUi-takeu  by 
hm  was  JonaOum    Wild,  a  ma^^tc.r-i.K'ce  of  m>ny 
"bioh  has  never  been  sulUcieutly  aj-preciated,  and 

h  oU  doubtless  8„g.estod  to  Mr  Thackeray  he 
^o.K.  and  conduct  ot%irry  L,j„don.  The  i-ebelho. 
^f  1745  indueed  F.  to  undertake  the  .hrection  of 
lLjacvl.Ue  Journal,  in  support  of  the  Hanovenan 
suc-ce-ssion;  and  shortly  after,  as  a  y<'^f'-\l"'^^ 
lov:Utv,  he  was,  tlirough  the  mlluence  of  Loul 
LrtU'iton,  promoted  to  a  pension  and  t"  t^^i;^:^ 
of  justice  of  the  peace  of  xMid.Uesex  and  ^\  est- 
minster  ^\^xae  eng;.ged  in  majjister.al  duties  he 
Pueed  To,n  JonA  most  famous  het'on  winch 
the  world  has  never  censed  to  read,  nor  cntics  to 
Idin^  His  next  work  was  ^me^m-less  stnkmg 
and  Easterly  th.-u>  its  predecessor,  but  qmeter 
fn  .tX,  and  em-iched  with  scenes  of  domestic 
ien  llrness.  Shortly  after  its  pubUcat.ou,  he  was 
'tuck  d  by  dropsy,  jaundice,  and  asthma  a  com- 
pl^tion  of'^disordL  which  baffled  the  skiU  o    the 

>  vsci-uis.  Seeking  relief,  he  left  England  for 
fc  on  the  26th°June  17W,  and  ched  there  on 
the  Sth  October  of  the  same  year,  at  the  early  age 

"  F^^witf'^^h"'  first  great  English  novelist,  and  he 
remkins  to  this  day  one  of  the  greatest.  Tmn  June,  is 
a  miracle  of  invention,  character,  and  wit.  It  contains 
the  most  amusing  scenes  and  adventures,  the  most 
sparklin"  delineations  of  life,  high  and  low,  the  most 
abundant  satire.  Everywhere,  the  author's  manhness, 
shrewd  sense,  and  scorn  of  meanness  and  hy[)Ocrisy, 
are  apparent.  If  defects  may  be  hmted,  it  may  be 
said  that  F.'s  nature  was  more  robust  than  dehcate ; 
that  it  was  deficient  in  the  sentimental  and  poetic 
side ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  that  his  ideal  of  woman 
is  not  hifh,  and  his  descriptions  of  the  tender 
passion  either  commonplace  or  extravagantly  rap- 
turous. The  love-scenes  between  Tom  and  Sophia, 
and  the  episode  of  the  '  Man  of  the  HiU,'  which 
is  meant  to  be  passionate  and  poetic,  are  perhaps 
the  only  portions  of  the  great  novel  which  readers 
skip.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  all  F.'s  works 
are  disfigured  by  coarseness  of  circumstance  aud 
expression ;  but  that  was  the  faidt  of  the  time  as 
much  as  of  the  man.  He  was  coarse,  as  he  wore 
rutlles,  drank  claret,  and  hated  the  Pretender.  He 
set  himself  to  paint  society  as  he  saw  it,  and  we 
must  forgive  the  coarseness  for  the  truthfulness  of 
the  picture. 

FIELD IJTG,  CopLET  Vandyke,   an  English 

painter  in  water-colours,  was  bom  about  1787,  and 

began  to  exhibit  in  1810.     For  many  yeara  he  held 

the  office  of  President  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 

Water-colours,  and  was  generally  recognised  as  the 

reiiresentative  of  that  branch  of  art  in  England.    He 

died  at  Worthing,  in  Sussex,  March  3,  1855,  m  his 

C8th  ye.ar,  and  after  a  career  of  steady  prosperity. 

Possessing    remarkable    mechanical   dexterity   and 

knowledge  of    effect,  F.  painted  with  what  severe 

critics  would  call  fatal   facility.      He   contributed 

about  a  score  of  pictures  annually  to  the  exhibition 

of  the  Water-colour  Society.    But,  to  do  him  justice, 

he  always  exhibited  a  certain  easy  finish  of  treatment, 

which  was  perhaps  of  itself  a  kind   of   secondary 

talent.      Although  his  range  of  subjects  was   but 

limited,  yet  within  it  he  was  abnt)st  unrivalled.     As 

a  painter  of  marine  effects,  and  of  the  landscapes  of 

down  and  glade,  it  is  thought  by  many  that  he  has 

had  as  yet  no  equaL 

FIERDING  COURT  (Fierding  Thing),  a  district 
court  in  use  among  the  early  Gothic  nations.  This 
court  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
speedy  justice  in  small  matters.     There  were  four  of  | 

31S 


these  courts  in  every  huntb-od,  e.ioh  presided  over 
bv  a  separate  judge,  whose  jurisdiction  extended  to 
all  causes  where  the  matter  in  dispute  did  not  exceed 
the  sum  of  three  marks.  Stiernhook,  X>e  Jure  (Jutk 
hb.  i.  c.  2. 

FI'ERI  FA'CIAS,  Writ  of,  an  English  writ  for 
enforcin"  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  law  against  the 
goods  of  a  debtoV.     It  may  be  sued  out  as  soon  as 
final  judgment  has  been  signed,  or,  in  case  of  atrial 
out  of  term,  in  foiuteeu  days  after  verdict,  unless,  on 
special  cause  shewn,  a  judge  order  speedy  execution. 
But  a  wit  of  fieri  facias  cannot  be  enforced  after  a 
Ciipu's  ad  mtin/Miendum  (q.  v.)  has  been  issued.   The 
shci-iff,  in  executing  this  writ,  may  not  bre;Jc  open 
doors ;  but  haWug  obtained  peaceable  entrance,  he 
may  break  open  inner  doors,  cupboards,  and  trunks. 
The  officer  in  execution  having  taken  possession,  may 
leave  an  assistant  in  charge,  by  whom  an  inventory 
of  the  goods  is  made.     He  is  entitled  to  remain  on 
the  premises  a  reasonable  time,  in  order  to  remove 
the    goods;    but    if    he    continue    longer   without 
permfssion  of  the  owner,  he  is  liable  to  an  action 
tor  trespass.     By  8  Anne,  c.  14,  if  goods  are  removed 
from   land   or   premises    let    on    lease,    the   party 
removing  them  must  pay  the  rent  and  taxes.     A 
creditor  may  not  take,  in  execution,  manure,  hay, 
&c.,    where,    by    the    covenants   of   the   lease,   the 
tenant    is     prohibited    from    removing    them    (56 
Geo.  III.  c.  50).     Growing  crojis,  if  seized  in  execu- 
tion', and  sold,  are  Uable  for  rent  accruing  after  the 
date   of   the  seizure,    as   long   .as   they  remam   on 
the  cToimd  (14  and  15  Vict.  c.  25).   By  1  and  2  \  ict. 
c.   110,  money,  bank-notes,  biUs  of  exchange,  and 
other  securities,  may  be  taken  under  a  wnt  of  hen 
facias.     By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  127,  a  creditor  is  not 
entitled  to   take    wearmg-apparel  and  bedding  or 
tools   where    the    value    of    the    whole    does    not 
exceed  £5.     Such   fixtures   as   belong  to  the  heir, 
and  not  to   the   executor,  cannot  be  taken   under 
this  writ.      The   goods   of  the  party  only  who  is 
named   in   the   writ  may   be   seized;    and    if    tlic 
officer   take  goods   belonging   to   a  stranger,  he  is 
liable  to  an  action  for  damages.     By  1  and  2  Vict. 
c.    110,  decrees  and  orders  m  Chancery  have  the 
effect  of  a  judgment  in  a  court  of  law,  hence,  fieri 
facias  and  other  common  law  -mits  proceed  upon 
the  former  as  well  as  the  latter. 

Fki-i  facias  de  bonis  cccksiasiicis  is  a  wnt  directed 
to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  requiring  Mm  to  attach 
the  ecclesiastical  goods  of  a  clergj-man  withui  his 
diocese,  in  satisfaction  of  the  judgment  of  a  court 
of  law. 


FIE'SCHI,  Count  Giovanni  Luigi,  a  member  of 

one  of  the  most  illustrious  Houses  of  Genoa,  was 

born  about  the  year  1523.    In  addition  to  the  lustre 

of  ancestral  fame,  his  name  has  attained  a  tragic 

historical  celebrity  in  connection  mth  a  remarkaljle 

conspiracy   of   which   he   was   the   chief.      Andi-ea 

Doria,    a    famous    admiral,    sprung    from    a    race 

hereditarily  at  feud  with  that  of  F.,  having  expelled 

tlie  forces  of  Francis  I.  from  the  state,  had  restored 

the  republican  form  of  government,  but  at  the  same 

time  by  his  vi"orous  admiuistration,  effectuaUy  held 

in  check  the  'iimbition   of    the  nobles.      Count  F. 

or.'anised  a  plot,  ha\-ing  for  its  object  the  death  of 

Doria    and   his  neiihew  Gi.ancttino,   the   object  of 

F.'s   special   hatred,  and  the   establishment  of    an 

oligarchic  form  of  government.     Instigated  by  the 

approval  of   Fr.ance  and  Rome,  and   supported  by 

an  alliance   with  the  Duke  of   Parma,  F.   speedily 

onroUed    a   formidable    array   of    accomplices    his 

three  brothers  among  the  foremost.     Crowds  of  lus 

own    feudal    retainers   were    secretly    armed    and 

assembled  from  the  various  hereditai-y  lauds  of  tno 

House ;  three  gaUeys,  purchased  with  the  conmvanoe 


FIESCHI— FIFESHIRE. 


of  the  pope,  were  fiilly  equipped,  aud  .ill  being  in 
readiness,  the  attempt  was  fixed  for  the  2d  of 
January  1547.  Doria,  in  spite  of  repeated  warn- 
ings, refused  to  ascribe  treacherous  or  subversive 
designs  to  F.,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  fast  friend 
and  partisan.  Complete  success  seemed  at  first  to 
crown  the  conspirators ;  the  gates  of  the  city  were 
forced,  the  fleet  captured,  Gianettino  assassinated, 
Doria  in  flight.  F.  had  but  to  appear  aud  dictate, 
but  he  was  nowhere  to  be  found ;  and  the  strangest 
episode  of  this  wild  di'ama  is  the  sudden  disappear- 
ance of  its  hero.  In  step))ing  from  one  galley  to  the 
other  in  the  darkness  of  night,  F.  stumiJed,  and 
falling  overboard,  was  borne  down  liy  his  ponderous 
armour,  and  miserably  drowned  in  the  harbour,  or, 
according  to  some,  stiied  in  the  slime. 

FIESCHI,  Joseph  Marco,  known  by  his  attempt 
on  the  life  of  King  Louis  Phihppe,  was  born  iu 
Corsica  in  the  year  1790.  His  early  life  contains 
nothing  of  note.  A  profligate  career  appears  to  have 
reduced  him  to  great  poverty  about  the  year  1835, 
when  he  conceived  the  idea  of  assassinating  the 
king.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  tUabolical  design 
was  the  supjiression  of  a  situation  which  he  held, 
by  order  of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine.  Disguising 
his  crime  under  the  cloak  of  pohtical  enthusiasm, 
he  leagued  with  himself  one  or  two  obscure  persons, 
of  pothouse  jKilitics,  who  hated  the  government  of 
the  Citizen  King.  These  were  Pierre  Morey,  a 
saxhller;  Pepin,  a  grocer;  and  Victor  Boire.iu,  a 
maker  of  lamps.  F.  sketched  the  plan  of  an 
infernal  machine  with  twenty  barrels,  that  coidd 
be  simultaneously  discharged ;  got  one  made,  and 
placed  it  in  a  house  of  the  I5oidevard-du-Temple. 
The  review  of  the  National  Guard  held  there, 
28th  Jidy  18.35,  aSbrded  F.  the  opportunity  he 
desiretl.  On  the  approach  of  the  king  and  queen, 
he  fired  his  machine.  Eighteen  people  were  kUled, 
among  whom  w;is  Marshal  Mortier,  who  fell  dead 
beside  his  sovereign.  Louis  Philippe,  however, 
himself  escaped  with  a  mere  scratch,  and  was  able 
to  continue  the  review.  F.  was  immediately  seized, 
aud  along  -with  his  accompUces,  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed,  16th  February  1836. 

FIE'SOLE  (anciently,  Fccsulce),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Etruscan  cities,  is  situated  on  the  crest  of 
a  hill,  at  about  three  miles'  distance  from  Florence, 
of  which  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  parent  city. 
From  the  heights  of  F.,  the  view  presented  by 
Florence  aud  the  neighbouring  valleys  is  gorgeous 
in  the  extreme.  We  find  F.  first  mentioned  in 
225  B.C.  during  the  great  Gaulish  war.  Haunibal 
encamped  here  after  crossing  the  Apennines.  The 
city  was  next  destroyed  by  Sulla  iu  the  Social  War 
(90 — 89  B.C.),  who  afterwards  despatched  thither  a 
military  colony.  At  the  invasion  of  Tuscany  by 
the  Goths,  F.  also  fell  under  their  domhiion,  and 
being  by  natiu'e  and  art  a  formidable  stronghold, 
was  mmierously  garrisoned  by  the  barbarians.  The 
growth  of  Florence  during  the  middle  ages  gradually 
reduced  it  to  insignificance.  It  is  now  a  place  of 
about  2500  inhabitants.  The  only  vestige  of  Etrus- 
can structures  still  remaining  is  the  cyclopean  city 
wall,  constructed  of  huge  blocks  of  stone,  many 
portions  of  which  are  wonderfully  perfect.  The  site 
of  the  Etruscan  fortress  is  now  occupied  by  a 
convent,  and  interesting  fragments  of  the  foundations 
are  often  brought  to  hght.  The  amphitheatre  and 
other  remains  belong  to  the  Roman  age.  The  very 
ancient  church  of  St  Alexander,  sujiposed  to  have 
originally  served  as  a  jjagan  temple,  contains  an 
altar  dedicated  to  Bacchus,  the  inscrii)tion  of  which 
is,  however,  illegible,  oiving  to  a  lissure  in  the 
middle.  Coins  and  other  relics  have  been  repeatedly 
dug  up. 


FIESOLE,  Fra  Giovanni  da,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  regeneratoi-s  of  ItaHan  art,  also  known  by 
the  title  of  11  heato  Ain/etico,  was  born  at  Mugello 
in  1387.  In  1407,  he  entered  the  Dominican  order, 
and,  together  with  his  brother,  consecrated  his 
artistic  abilities  exclusively  to  sacred  aims,  illus- 
trating various  works  of  devotion  with  beautiful 
miniatiu"e  designs.  These  early  artistic  efforts  are 
remarkable  for  their  rich  eflects  of  colouring, 
gorgeous  illumination,  and  exqiusite  elaboration  of 
the  most  minute  ornamental  details.  Having 
achieved  a  high  reputation  as  fresco-painter  by 
some  noble  compositions  with  which  he  endowed 
his  own  and  other  convents,  he  was  commissioned 
by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  with  the  decoration  of  the 
church  of  Santa  Annunziata  and  the  convent  San 
Marco.  Each  cell  of  the  convent  was  adorned  with 
a  tine  fresco  of  large  dimensions,  and  amidst  other 
paintings,  one  can  stiU  distingiiish  F.'s  'Annuncia- 
tion.' The  fame  of  this  work  induced  Pope  Nicholas 
V.  to  summon  him  to  Rome,  aud  intrust  him  with 
the  execution  of  a  series  of  illustrations  taken  from 
the  life  of  St  Laurence,  destined  to  embelhsh  the 
private  chapel  of  St  Laurence  in  the  Vatican.  See 
Giaugiacomo  Romano,  Le  Pilture  della  Cuppello  di 
y^icoto  v.,  &c.  (Rome,  1810).  So  rigid  a  disciplin- 
arian was  F.,  that  no  private  or  public  work  was 
ever  imdertaken  without  the  formal  consent  of  his 
superiors  being  obtained,  and  to  them  all  pecuniary 
remuneration  was  transferred.  The  archbishojjrio 
of  Florence,  spontaneously  oft'ered  him  by  the  pope, 
was  humbly  declined.  He  died  in  Rome  in  1454. 
The  gallery  of  Florence  possesses  several  pictxires 
of  P.,  still  im dimmed  in  brilliancy  of  colouring. 
One  of  these,  the  '  Birth  of  John  the  Baptist,'  is  a 
conception  fidl  of  simple  and  winning  grace.  Some 
of  the  largest  easel-compositions  of  this  artist  at 
present  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre;  among 
those  in  the  antechamber  are  the  '  Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,'  and  the  '  Miracles  of  St  Dominico.'  One 
supreme  aim  pervades  all  the  creations  of  F. — that 
of  arousing  lofty  devotional  feeling  through  the 
contemplation  of  the  beautiful  in  art. 

FIFE,  an  ancient  wind-instrument  of  military 
music,  in  which  the  melody  is  produced  by  blowing 
through  a  hole  iu  a  reed  or  tube,  while  the  escape 
of  air  is  regulated  by  the  fingers  stopping  or  open- 
ing a  munber  of  other  holes  in  different  parts  of 
the  pipe.  It  has  a  comp.iss  of  two  octaves,  from  D 
on  the  fourth  line  of  the  treble  clef  to  D  above 
in  altissimo.  The  fife  figures  in  the  sculptiu'ed 
memorials  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  from 
that  time  to  this  has  maintained  its  place  as  a 
simple  yet  effective  instrimient  for  martial  piur- 
poses.  It  was  common  Viith  English  troops  till  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  but  was  then  discontinued  ;  to  be 
re-introduced  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  at  the  siege 
of  Maestricht  in  1747.  It  is  a  universal  favourite 
in  the  navy,  and  many  a  stirring  air  on  drums  aud 
fifes  has  cheered  the  British  sailor  to  deeds  of 
daring. 

In  the  infantry,  there  is  a  ffer  to  each  company, 
and  a  fife-major  to  each  Ijattaliou,  the  former 
recei\Tng  the  daily  pay  of  Is.  IU.,  the  latter,  who  is 
a  non-commissioned  officer,  2s. 

FIFE-NESS,  a  promontory  of  Scotland,  the 
eastmost  point  of  Fifeshire,  in  lat.  56°  17'  N.,  and  long. 
2°  35'  W.  On  the  north,  in  the  sea,  are  the  dangerous 
Carr  Rocks,  mth  an  iron  beacon  35  feet  high, 
which  required  six  years  to  construct.  F.  is  in  view 
of  the  Isle  of  May  and  Bell  Rock  lights.  In  the 
Ness,  trap  rocks  jut  through  the  carboniferous 
strata,  and  the  rocks  contain  small  caves. 

FIFESHIRE,    a    maritime,    almost    peninsular 
I  coimtj'  of  the  east  of  Scotland,  between  the  Fu-th  of 


riFrEENTH— FIG. 


Forth  on  the  south  and  the  Firth  of  Tay  on  the 
north.  It  is  44  miles  iu  extreme  Icni^h  from  north- 
east to  south-west,  an  J  18  at  its  greatest  breadth  ; 
area,  503  sqii.ire  miles  ;  coast-line,  So  miles,  mostly 
roekv,  ;uul  ha\-iug  many  good  ]>orts.  The  surface 
is  a  "succession  of  cultivated  vales  and  hills.  The 
hills  rise  in  the  West  Lomond,  1713  feet,  and  Largo 
Law,  1020.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tay,  Forth, 
Ixlen  (-20  miles  long),  and  Leven  (T-').  F.  rests  on 
old  red  sandstone,  with  trap  rocks  in  the  north,  and 
c.-irboniforous  strata,  with  trap,  in  the  south.  There 
•ire  manv  coal  and  iron  mines,  ;uid  lime  quarries. 
The  cliuiate  is  dry,  he.ilthy,  and  mild  on  the  Forth  ; 
but  the  v.alleys  in  the  north  are  much  exposed  to 
the  full  sweep"  of  the  east  and  nortli-east  gales.  The 
soil  is  a  rich  loam,  or  wet  clay  on  till.  The  Howe 
of  Fife,  on  the  Kden,  is  mostly  s.-vndy  and  gravelly, 
and  not  very  productive.  In  1872,  the  total  acreage 
under  all  kinds  of  crops,  bare  fallow,  and  gr.ass,  was 
240,036;  under  corn  crops,  90,713;  imdcr  green 
croi>s,  49,187 ;  clover,  sanfoin,  and  grasses  under  rota- 
tion, 55,823.  The  total  number  of  cattle  reported  the 
same  year  w.ts  39,125;  sheep,  64,940;  pigs,  7258; 
horses  used  for  agriciUture,  &c.,  93GS.  F.  has  a 
greater  number  of  proprietors,  gentlemen's  seats, 
and  plantations,  in  jiroportion  to  its  size,  than  any 
other  Scotch  county,  and  its  coasts  are  thickly 
studded  with  towns  and  villages.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  linen,  floor-cloth,  and  malt  liquors. 
F.  contains  CI  parishes.  Pop.  (1871)  160,735.  It 
returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  chief 
towns  are  Cupar,  the  county  to^\-u,  Dunfermline,  St 
Andi-ews,  Kirkcaldy,  East  and  West  Anstmther, 
Burntisland,  Cr.oil,  and  Dysart.  The  ancient '  King- 
dom of  Fife'  was  the  most  cidtivated,  as  well  as 
the  most  warlike,  of  Scotch  coimties.  It  contains 
striking  monastic,  feudal,  and  jjalatial  ruins  at  St 
Andrews,  Dunfermline,  Falkland,  and  Lindores ; 
many  Celtic  and  Koman  remains.  Many  of  the 
events  connected  with  the  Scottish  Eeformation 
took  place  in  this  county,  esjiecially  at  St 
Andrews. 

FIFTEENTH,  a  stop  in  English  organs  tuned 
two  octaves  above  the  diapasons,  the  lowest  C  pipe 
of  which  is  two  feet  long. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN.  Among  the 
strange  and  whimsical  forms  of  opinion  which  the 
rebgious  and  political  fermentation  of  the  17th  c. 
brought  to  the  surface  of  society,  and  embodied  in 
the  suape  of  religious  sects,  were  those  of  the  Fifth 
^Monarchy  Men.  The  date  which  has  been  assigned 
to  their  first  appearance  is  1G54.  Notwithstanding 
the  ridicide  with  which  they  have  often  been  over- 
whelmed, there  seems  nothing  in  their  tenets  more 
objectionable  than  we  find  iu  those  of  many  of  the 
other  sects  of  the  period,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
beheve  that  the  practices  of  their  leaders  exceeded 
in  .absurdity,  or  equalled  in  impiety,  those  of  Eob- 
bins,  Ileeve,  Muggleton,  and  other  apostles  of  the 
Ranters.  In  common  with  most  persons  w-ho  hold 
the  literal  interpretation  of  prophecy,  they  believed 
in  the  four  great  monarchies  of  Antichrist  marked 
out  by  the  prophet  Daniel ;  and  quite  consistently 
with  Christian  orthodoxy,  they  added  to  them  a 
jyVi — w,.,  the  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth.  So  far, 
there  was  nothing  peculiar  in  their  views.  But 
their  error  was  twofold.  \d.  They  believed  in  the 
munediate,  or  at  least  in  the  ])roximate,  advent  of 
Christ  (a  tenet  which  was  common  to  them  with  the 
early  church) ;  and  id.  They  heUl  that  the  f  ulfihnent 
of  God's  promise  to  this  effect  must  be  realised  by 
the  forcible  destruction  of  the  kiugdom  of  Antichrist. 
Every  obstacle  which  opposed  itself  to  the  setting 
up  the  Messiah's  throne  was  to  be  thrown  down,  and 
what  these  obstacles  were  was  a  question  for  the 


solution  of  which  the  only  criterion  which  presented 
itself  was  their  own  fanatical  prejudices  and  hatreds. 
It  is  obWous  that  such  doctrines  in  such  times  must 
have  given  rise  to  pr.actical  as  well  as  speculative 
disorder.  The  Fifth  Monarchy  Men  became  extinct 
as  a  sect  shortly  after  the  Restoration  ;  a  fact  which, 
by  depriving  them  of  exponents  of  their  own 
boily,  may  have  exposed  them  to  misrepresentation 
(Marsden's  Jlixtori/  of  the  Later  Purilans,  p.  387). 
in  politics,  the  Fifth  Monarcliy  Men  were  republicans 
of  the  extremest  section ;  and  when  their  conspiracy 
to  murder  the  Protector,  and  revolutionise  the 
goveri'.ment,  w.os  discovered  in  1057,  their  leaders, 
\'enner.  Grey,  Hopkins,  &c.,  were  imprisoned  in 
the  Gate  House  till  after  the  Protector's  death. 
Amongst  their  arms  and  ammvuiition  which  was 
seized,  w.as  found  a  standard  exhibiting  a  lion 
couchant,  sujiposed  to  re]ireseut  the  lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  with  the  motto,  'Who  will  rouse 
him  up?' — Niel's  Puritans,  vol.  iv.  p.  186.  See  also 
Carlyle's  Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeclies,  vol.  iii. 
p.  31. 

FIG  (Ficxis),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Moracea;  and  distinguished 
by  having  the  llowers — m.ale  and  female  mixed— 
within  an  almost  closed  top-shaj)ed  fleshy  receptacle, 
which  eidarges  to  form  the  fruit,  and  encloses 
numerous  one-seeded  carpels,  imbedded  in  its  pulp. 
There  are  more  than  100  species,  some  of  them  very 
large  trees.  Almost  all  belong  to  tropical  and  sidj- 
tropical  coimtries,  of  the  vegetation  of  which  they 
often  form  a  most  important  feature.  They  abound 
iu  India,  in  every  jungle  and  hiUy  situation,  to  the 
most  northern  Himalaya,  and  some  of  them  are 
cultivated  about  every  village.  Both  F.  rdirjiosa 
(the  Peepul)  and  F.  Kumphii  are  held  in  veneration 
by  the  Hindus.  The  most  notable  species  are  the 
Common  Fig  (see  below) ;  the  Banyan  (q.  v.) ;  the 
Peepid  (q.  v.),  Bo  Tree  or  Sacred  Fig  of  India ;  the 
Sycamore  (q.  v.);  and  the  East  Indian  Caoutchouc 
(q.  V.)  Tree.  The  leaves  of  some  species  are  entire, 
those  of  others  are  lobed.  Several  species  of  lig 
exhibit  the  character  for  which  the  banyan  in 
particular  has  become  celebrated,  of  sending  roots 
straight  down  to  the  ground  from  their  spreading 
branches,  and  thus  midtiplj-ing  the  apparent  stems, 
by  which  a  vast  canopy  of  branches  and  foliage  is 
supported.  The  East  Indian  Caoutchouc  or  India 
Rubber  Tree  is  remarkable  for  the  exposure  of  its 
roots,  which  appear  iu  masses  above  ground,  extend- 
ing on  all  sides  from  the  base  like  great  writhing 
snakes.  Some  figs  are  creeping  or  trailing  slirubs, 
with  slender  stems,  covering  heaps  of  stones,  or 
ascending  trees  like  ivy. — Besides  the  Common  Fig, 
many  species  yield  edible  fniits,  although  none  of 
them  are  nearly  eq<ial  to  it  in  value.  Amongst 
them  are  the  Peepul  (F.  reUgiosa),  F.  Benjamina,  F. 
piimila,  F.aiiriculata,  F.  Kmnpliii,  F.  Beiigalensis,  F. 
aspera,  F.  racemosa,  and  F.  yranntnm,  all  East  Indian, 
also  the  Sycamore  of  Egj'pt. — The  milky  juice  of 
some  species  is  bland  and  abundant,  as  of  F,  Saus- 
sureana,  which  has  therefore  been  ranked  among 
Cow-trees.  In  other  species,  the  milky  jxiice  is  very 
acrid.  That  of  the  Common  Fig  prod\!oes  a  burning 
sensation  on  the  tongue.  That  of  F.  toxicaria,  a 
native  of  the  Malayan  islands,  is  used  for  poisoning 
arrows. — L.vc  (q.  v.)  is  gathered  frtsn  some  species. 
— The  leaves  of  F.  jioJitoria  are  so  rough  that  they 
are  used  for  polishing  wood  and  ivory  iu  India.  The 
juice  of  the  fruit  of  F.  tinctoria  is  used  in  Tahiti  to 
dye  cloth  :  the  colour  is  at  first  green,  but  being 
acted  on  l>y  the  juice  of  a  Cerdia,  it  becomes  bright 
red.  The  l>.ark  supplies  cord.age,  of  which  lishiug- 
nets  arc  made. 

The  Co)rMON  Fig  {Ficits  Carka)  is  a  native  of 
the  East,  as  the  speciiic  name  Carica  (from  Carin) 


I'lGAKU— FIGURATE  >;U.MBEES. 


imports  :  but  it  is  now  cultivated  throughout  the    aud  the  Canaries,  a  spii-it  is  distilled  from  fermented 
whole  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  even  found    ligs. 


naturalised  there.  Its  cultivation  has  also  extended 
to  many  "wann  countries.  In  North  America,  it  is 
seldom  to  be  seen  further  north  than  Philadelphia ; 


Common  Fig  {Ficus  Carica) : 

(7,  male  flower,  iiiupnificil ;  6,  male  flower,  natural  .<iize ;   p, 

luuialc  fluwcr,  niaunillcU  ;  (I,  female  flower,  natural  tizc. 

and  it  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  lie  a  common  frait 
tree  in  Britain,  although  even  in  Scotland  ligs  may 
occasionally  be  seen  ripened  on  a  wall ;  and  in  the 
south  of  England  lig-trees  are  sometimes  growni  as 
standards,  aud  a  few  small  tig  orchards  exist.  Pro- 
tection is  always  given  in  some  way  during  Avinter. 
Near  Paris,  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Euro]ie,  fig-trees  are  so  trained  tliat  the  branches 
can  be  tied  in  buntUes  and  laid  along  the  .ground, 
when  they  are  covered  -vrith  htter  ancl  earth.  The 
lig  is  a  low  deciduous  tree  or  shrub,  with  large  deeply 
lobed  leaves,  which  are  rough  above,  and  downy 
beneath.  The  branches  are  clothed  with  short  hau-s, 
and  tlie  bark  is  greenish.  The  fruit  is  produced 
singly  in  the  axils  of  tlie  leaves,  is  pear-shaped,  aud 
lias  a  very  short  stalk  ;  the  colour  in  some  varieties 
is  bluish-black  ;  in  others,  red,  purple,  yellow,  green, 
or  wliite.  ITie  varieties  in  cultivation  are  nimierous. 
In  warm  cUmates,  the  tig  jaelds  two  crops  in  the 
year — one  from  the  older  wood  (midsiunmer  shoots  of 
the  preceding  year),  aud  a  second  from  the  young 
wood  (spring  shoots  of  the  same  year) ;  but  in  colder 
regions  the  latter  never  comes  to  perfection.  Fig- 
trees  are  propagated  by  seed,  by  suckers,  &c. ;  very 
frecjuently  by  layers  or  by  cuttings.  In  Britain, 
they  are  often  to  be  seen  in  hothouses,  and  grow 
Well  in  pots.  Dried  figs  form  an  important  article 
of  food  in  the  Levant ;  in  more  northern  regions, 
they  are  used  for  dessert,  or  for  metlicinal  purj)03es, 
being  applied  to  gimiboils  and  other  sores,  and  also 
administered  in  pidmonary  aud  nephritic  affections, 
aud  to  relieve  habitual  constipation.  The  luilj) 
contains  about  G2  ]ier  cent,  of  a  kind  of  sug.nr  called 
Sii'jar  of  J''irjs.  Figs  are  either  dried  in  the  sun 
or  in  ovens  built  for  the  imrposc.  Great  quan- 
tities are  annually  imported  uito  Britain  from  the 
Jlediterranean.  Tlie  best  are  mostly  brought 
from  Smyrna,  and  are  kno\\Ti  as  Turkey  Jigs,  of 
which  those  called  Eleme  or  Elemi  are  most  highly 
esteemed.  Figs  of  inferior  quality  are  imported  in 
considerable  quantities  in  the  form  of  fig-cake, 
pressed  along  with  almonds  into  cakes  some- 
what like  smaU  cheeses.  In  the  Levant,  Portugal, 
177 


FI'GAllO,  a  dramatic  character  introduced  on 
the  Parisian  stage  in  17S5  by  Beauniarchais  (q.  v.) 
in  his  Barbkr  dc  Seville  and  his  Jfarlage  dc  Figaro. 
These  plays,  in  which  F.,  who  cooUy  outwits  every 
one,  is  first  a  barber  and  then  a  valet-de-chambre, 
secured  for  their  author  a  brUliaut  reputation  not 
only  in  France,  but  also  in  Germany,  where  many 
trauslatious  and  adaptations  of  the  pieces  appeared. 
Mozart,  Paesiello,  and  Piossini  also  made  tlioin  the 
basis  of  classic  operas.  Since  their  pubhcation,  the 
character  of  F.  lias  stood  as  a  tjiie  of  cunning, 
intrigue,  and  dexterity.  After  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourlions,  a  hterary  periodical,  distinguished 
for  its  satirical  tiilent,  assumed  the  name. 

FIGEAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  dejiartmcnt  of 
Lot,  is  situated  in  a  valley  surroimded  l>y  linely 
wooded  hills  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  SellC",  .'<"2 
miles  east-north-east  of  Cahors.  It  is  iiTegular,  its 
streets  are  narrow,  and  badly  planned,  and  its 
hoases  in  general  not  well  biult,  liut  the  antiquity 
and  quaintness  of  many  of  its  buildings  give  it  a 
picturesque  and  interesting  appearance.  It  has  two 
beautiful  Gothic  churches,  one  of  them,  that  of  St 
Sauveur,  has  a  choir  of  the  11th,  a  general  super- 
structure of  the  15th,  and  a  modern  front  of  the 
I'Jth  century.  F.  owes  its  origin  to  a  Benedictine 
monastery,  founded  by  Pepin  in  755  a.d.  It  h.as 
some  cotton  manufactures,  and  a  trade  in  wine  and 
cattle.     I'op.  6S20. 

FIGHTING  FISH  {Macropodus  pugnax  or 
Ctenops  2"i!l»<ii'),  a  small  fresh-water  lish,  of  the 
family  ^((aftasirfcE  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  the  south-east 
of  Asia,  and  particidarly  of  Siam,  where  it  is  very 
commonly  kept  as  goldlishes  are  in  Britain,  but  on 
accoimt  of  its  pugiiacitj-.  Two  of  these  creatures 
when  brought  together,  often  rush  immecbately  to 
combat,  or  it  is  even  enough  to  introduce  a  looking- 
glass  into  the  water,  and  the  fish  hastens  to  attack 
its  own  iuiage.  Fish-tights  are  a  favourite  amuse- 
ment of  the  Siamese  ;  the  licence  to  exhibit  them 
yields  a  considerable  annual  reveuue ;  and  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  gambling  takes  jdace  in  con- 
nection with  them  ;  not  merely  money  and  property, 
but  children  and  hberty  bemg  sometimes  staked. 
The  F.  F.  has  the  anal  and  dorsal  fins  prolonged 
into  tapering  points.  When  the  fish  is  quiet,  its 
colours  are  dull ;  but  when  it  is  excited,  they  glow 
with  metallic  splendour,  and  'the  projected  gill- 
membrane,  waving  Uke  a  black  frrll  aroimd  the 
throat,  adds  something  of  grotesqueness  to  the 
general  appearance.' 

FIGUE'RAS,  a  town  in  the  north-east  of  Spain, 
is  situated  near  the  French  frontier,  in  the  province 
of  Gerona,  in  a  fruitful  district,  20  miles  north-north- 
east of  the  town  of  Gerona.  Its  streets  are  gloomy, 
but  it  has  beautiful  promenades.  On  a  height  near  ' 
the  town  is  the  citadel  of  S.  Fernando,  the  strongest 
fortress  of  Spain,  and  the  key  of  the  Pj'renees  on 
their  south  side,  with  accommodation  for  20,1)00 
men.  This  fortress  has  been  so  frequently  taken 
by  the  French,  as  to  give  rise  to  the  remark,  com- 
mon enough  among  the  Spaniards,  that  the  citadel 
of  S.  Fernando,  in  time  of  peace,  belongs  to  Spain, 
but  in  time  of  war  to  France.     Pop.  8350. 

FI'GULINE.     See  Potter's  Clay. 

FIGURANTES  is  the  term  applied  in  the 
ballet  to  tliose  dancers  that  do  not  come  forward 
alone,  but  dance  in  troops,  and  also  serve  to  fill  up 
the  scene  and  form  a  background  for  the  solo 
dancers. 


FI'GURATE     NUMBERS.      Tlio 


nature    of 

321 


FIGURE-FIJI  ISLANDS. 


figurate  uuiubers  \nH  bo  understood  from  tho 
fdloning  table : 

1 .  i.   »,    4,   s,     6.      7.  &o. 

I.  1,  3.    0, 10,  15,    21,    2S,  kc. 

II.  1,  4, 10, 20,  35,    BC,    84,  kc. 
HL  1,  D,  15,35,  70, 12G,  210,  Jto. 

ko.  ko. 

The  natural  numbers  are  hero  taken  as  the  basis, 
and  the  tiret  order  of  figurate  numbers  is  formed 
from  the  series  by  successive  .idditious ;  thus,  the 
6th  number  of  the  first  onler  is  the  sum  of  the  first 
five  natural  numbers.  The  secoud  oixler  is  theu 
formed  from  the  first  in  the  same  way  ;  and  so  on. 

If  instead  of  the  series  of  uatund  uumbens,  whose 
difference  is  1,  we  take  series  whose  differences  are 
2,  3,  4,  &c.,  we  may  form  as  many  different  sets  of 
figurate  muubers.    Thus : 

1,  3,    5,    7,     9,  Ac. 

I.  1, 4,    9, 16,    25,  ice. 

n.  1,  5,  14,  30,   55,  kc 

m.  1,  6,  20,  60, 105,  kc. 

kc.  &c. 

Or— 

1.  4.    I.  10.     18,  &e. 

I.  1,  5, 12,  22,    35,  &c 

n.  1,  6,  18,  40,    75,  kc 

m.  1,  7, 25,  65, 140,  &o. 

kc.  &c. 

The  name  jujuraU  is  derived  from  the  circumstance, 
that  the  simpler  of  them  may  be  represented  by 
arrangemeuts  of  equally  distant  points,  forming 
geometrical  figures.  The  numbers  belonging  to  the 
first  orders  receive  the  general  name  of  pmijijonal, 
and  the  special  names  oi  triamjular,  sriuare,  jienta- 
gonal,  &c.,  according  as  the  difference  of  the  basis  is 
1,  2,  3,  &c.  Those  of  the  second  orders  are  called 
ptp-amidal  numbers,  and  according  to  the  differ- 
ence of  the  basis,  are  triagonally,  quadra^onally,  or 
pentagonally  pyramidal.  The  polygonal  numbers 
may  be  represented  by  points  on  a  surface ;  the 
pyramidal  by  piles  of  balls. 

The  general  formula  for  polygonal  numbers,  from 
■which  any  particidar  one  may  be  found  by  substi- 
tuting the  proper  values  for  ji  and  r  is, 
(r  -  2)  »'  -  (r  -  4)« 
2 
where  n  =  number  of  the  term  required,  )•  =  the 
denomination  (3  if  triagonal,  5  if  pentagonal,  &c.). 

FIGURE,  in  general,  is  the  outUne  or  surface  of 
a  body  determining  its  form  or  shape.  In  Arith- 
metic, figure  denotes  a  nimierical  character  such  as 
1,  2,  3,  &c.  Figure,  in  Geometry,  denotes  a  surface 
or  space  enclosed  on  all  sides,  and  is  superficial 
when  enclosed  by  lines ;  solid,  when  by  surfaces. 
See  Regular  Figures,  Similar  Figures,  &c. 

FIGURED  BASS,  in  Music,  is  a  bass  part  with 
figiu-es  placed  over  the  notes,  which  inflicate  the 
harmony  to  be  played  to  each  note,  and  serves  as  a 
guide  to  the  accompanist.  Ludovioo  Viadana  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  figured  bass  in  the 
17th  century. 

FIGURE-STONE.    See  Soap-stone. 

FI'GWORT  (ScropMilaria),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scrophulariaceis,  having  a  nearly 
globose  corolla,  with  a  small  5-lobcd  limb ;  tlie 
lowest  lobe  retlexed ;  and  foiu-  stamens  with  an 
ad(Utional  rudimentary  one.  They  are  mostly 
herbaceous  plants,  and  natives  of  the  temperate  parts 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  not  possessed  of  much 
beauty  either  in  Dowers  or  foliage.  The  roots  of 
some  arc  purgative  and  emetic.  The  leaves  of  the 
Knotted  F.  (.V.  nodosa),  a  common  plant  in  moist 
grounds  in  Britain,  arc  used  for  fomentation  of 
tujuours,  repellent  powera  being  ascribed  to  them. 


and  in  tho  form  of  an  ointment  in  cutaneous 
<liseases.  A  decoction  of  them  is  used  to  cure  scab 
in  swine.  They  have  a  fetiil  odmir  when  bruised, 
and  their  taste  is  acrid.  The  tuberous  root  was 
formerly  esteemed  in  scrofula,  but  perhaps  only  on 
accouut  of  a  supposed  resemblance  to  scrofulous 
tumoiu^. 

FIJI,  FEEJEE,  or  VITI  ISLANDS,  a  gi-oup 
of  islands  of  volcanic  origin,  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  situated  in  lat.  15°  30'— 20°  30'  S.,  and  long. 
177" — 178°  W.  They  were  discovered  by  Tasuian, 
the  Dutch  navigator,  in  1643.  Tliere  are  altogether 
about  225  islands,  80  of  which  are  said  to  be  inha- 
bited. Tho  princii)al  are — Viti  Levu,  or  Great  Fiji, 
and  Vauua  Levu  (Great  Laud),  the  former  having 
an  area  of  about  00  miles  by  50,  with  au  estimated 
j)o]iulation  of  50,000,  and  the  latter  exteudiug  over 
100  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  20  miles,  and 
a  popiJation  of  about  30,000.  Tlie  total  popidatiun 
of  the  group  h:is  been  variou.sly  stated  at  from 
130,000  to  .lOO.OOO :  there  are  now  about  3000 
whites,"  chiefly  British  subjects.  Of  the  other 
islands,  the  most  inijiortant  are  Ovalau,  the  resi- 
dence of  most  of  the  whites  ;  Vnna,  or  Somosomo  ; 
Kandavu,  Koro,  Mbau,  and  Taviuni.  Shoals  and 
reefs  surround  the  islands.  Earthquakes  are  com- 
mon, and  destructive  hurricanes  are  periodical. 
The  temperature  ranges  from  60°  or  70°  to  upwards 
of  120° ;  but  the  mean  is  set  down  at  about  80°. 
On  Vanua  Levu,  there  are  several  hot  springs, 
ranging  from  200"  to  210°.  The  soil,  which  is  of  a 
deep  yellow  loam,  and  well  watered,  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  even  to  the  very  summits  of  the  mountains, 
which,  in  Great  Fiji,  reach  an  elevation  of  more 
than  4000  feet.  The  chief  vegetable  productions 
are  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the  banana,  plantain,  cocoa- 
nut,  yam,  and  taro.  The  sugar-cane,  arrow-root, 
cotton,  and  nutmeg  also  flourish.  The  agricultural 
implements  of  the  natives  are  of  the  most  primitive 
character  ;  but  in  manufactures  of  a  rude  kind  they 
are  further  advanced  than  other  Polynesians.  The 
Fijians  are  of  middle  size,  strong  limbed  and  short 
necked  ;  complexion  between  a  copper  colour  and  a 
black,  and  hau'  dark,  curly,  and  bushy.  They  used 
to  be  horrible  cannibals :  but  now,  to  all  appearance, 
their  habits  are  completely  changed  ;  cannibalism 
has  ceased  since  1854,  polygamy  is  abolished,  and 
the  idols  all  destroyed.  'This  change  has  been  almost 
entirely  due  to  the  persevering  efforts  made  by 
Wesleyan  missionaries  during  the  last  thirty  years. 
According  to  the  returns  of  the  Wesleyan  Church 
in  1871,  there  were  106,777  attendants  on  public 
worship,  of  whom  23,223  were  fully  accredited 
members  of  the  church.  Till  lately,  the  F.  I.  were 
nded  by  two  great  chiefs,  Thakombau  and  Maafa, 
along  with  two  others  who  were  less  powerful.  In 
1858,  however,  in  order  to  escape  from  the  insup- 
portable exactions  of  the  Tonguese,  Thakombau 
oS'ered  his  possessions  to  the  British  government ; 
and  although  this  offer  was  declined,  it  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Polynesian  Company,  projected  at 
Melbourne  in  ISOS,  to  which  Thakombau  ceded 
200,000  acres  of  land.  Since  then,  the  F.  I.  have 
been  intimately  connected  with  Victoria  ;  and  the 
European  residents  have  not  ceased  to  make  efforts 
to  secure  the  protection  of  the  British  flag.  Recently, 
a  desire  to  acquire  the  protectorate  has  also  been 
manifested  by  the  United  States.  At  present, 
accoriling  to  an  act  passed  by  a  general  congress 
in  August  1871,  Thakombau  is  recognised  as  king 
of  all  the  islands  ;  the  executive  consists  of  the 
king  and  a  ministry  of  whites,  aud  the  legislature, 
of  a  Privy  Council  of  Fijians,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  composed  of  from  twenty  to  forty 
Kuropeans.  Since  1867,  a  steady  immigration  has 
taken  jilace,  chiefly  from  Victoria.   In  IbOO,  93  ships. 


FILAKGIERI— FILE,  FILING. 


witli  an  aggregate  of  7920  tons,  entered  Levuka  and 
other  ports;  and  in  1870  and  1871,  these  numbers 
were  nearly  doubled.  The  exports  amounted  in 
1869  to  £54,020,  and  in  the  first  six  months  of  1871 
to  £43,038.  Land  can  be  purchased  at  very  low- 
rates  ;  and  already  275,000  acres  belong  to  British 
subjects  alone.  Levuka,  ux  the  island  of  Ovalau, 
the  chief  town  of  Fiji,  is  the  centre  of  an  efficient 
postal  organisation,  and  has  steam  commiuiication 
with  Mclliourne,  Sydney,  and  Auckland. 

FILANGIE'RI,  Gaktano,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished judicial  writers  and  reformers  of  his 
century,  was  bom  of  noble  parentage  at  Naples  in 
1752.  Having  early  al>andoned  the  career  of  arms 
to  which  he  was  originally  destined,  he  devoted  his 
intellect  to  the  study  of  morals,  pohtics,  and  legis- 
lation. In  1774,  the  iiromulgatiou  of  some  T^ise 
judicial  refoniis,  limiting  the  arbitrary  jiuisdiction 
of  courts,  ha^^ng  met  with  considerable  opposition 
from  these  legal  officials,  young  F.  published  a 
defence  of  the  royal  decree,  and  at  once  attracted  the 
favourable  notice  of  com-t  and  minister.  In  1777, 
he  was  appointed  coiui-chamberlaiu ;  and  in  1780, 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work,  La 
Scienza  delta  Leijislazione.  The  first  part  is  devoted 
to  an  analysis  of  the  essentiaDy  fixed  ethics  of  legis- 
lation, and  of  those  principles  which  are  modiiiable 
according  to  local  and  nation;J  exigences  ;  the 
second  treats  of  the  two  great  problems  of  all  poli- 
tical economy,  wealth  and  population ;  the  third, 
of  criminal  law  in  its  widest  extent ;  the  fourth,  of 
pubHc  instruction ;  and  the  fifth,  which  considers 
ecclesiastical  and  religious  law,  was  on  the  eve  of 
being  pnlilished,  when  its  author,  in  1788,  was 
prematurely  cut  off  at  the  age  of  36,  lea^Hng  in  this 
work  an  inconijilete  but  splendid  monument  to  the 
noble  sense  of  justice  and  the  exalted  humanity 
of  its  author.  The  best  Italian  edition,  which  also 
includes  his  Opuscoli  Scelti,  is  in  /  Classici  Italiana 
(6  vols.  Svo,  Milan,  1822). 

FILA'RIA.  See  GciNE.v-woRJi  and  Thread- 
worm. 

FILBERT.     See  Hazel. 

FILE,  FILIXG.  A  file  is  a  steel  tool,  having 
its  surface  covered  with  teeth  or  serratures,  anil 
used  for  cutting  down  and  shaping  metals  and 
other  hard  substances.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
in  the  earhest  stages  of  metal-working,  when  bronze 
implements  first  superseded  those  of  stone,  rough 
stones  were  used  for  the  purposes  to  which  files 
are  now  appHed  ;  nevertheless,  the  use  of  files  dates 
from  high  antiquity.  They  are  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  first  book  of  Samuel,  xiii. 
21,  also  in  the  Odyssey. 

Files  are  made  of  .almost  every  conceivable  shape, 
to  suit  the  very  varied  purposes  to  which  they 
are  applied — flat,  square,  round  or  rat-tail,  trian- 
gular, half-round,  feather-edged,  &c.,  besides  being 
variously  bent,  in  order  to  get  at  intricate  work. 
Ncai-l)-  all  these  files  are  made  thicker  in  the  middle, 
or  '  bellied,'  the  object  of  -which  will  be  explained 
under  FILING. 

Files  require  to  be  made  of  the  very  best  steel, 
■which  is  first  forged  into  the  required  shape,  and  is 
then  called  a  '  blank.'  The  blanks  are  then  finished 
more  accurately  to  the  required  form  by  grinding, 
planing,  or  fihng. 

The  blanks  thus  prepared  and  well  softened  (see 
Tempering)  are  next  handed  to  the  cutter,  who 
sits  astride  on  a  low  bench  or  stool,  and  has  before 
him  a  stone  anvil,  with  a  flat  piece  of  pewter  laid 
upon  it.  The  blank  is  held  upon  the  anvil,  -with 
its  tang  towards  the  cutter,  by  means  of  a  long 
loop  of  leather-strap,  into  -\vhich  the  cutter  places 


his  foot.  He  then  cuts  the  teeth  by  sti-iking  -with 
a  hammer  a  short  stout  chisel,  held  obliquely  at  an 
angle  of  about  12^  or  14"  from  the  ))erpendicular. 
The  object  of  this  will  be  easily  imderstood  ;  for, 
if  the  chisel  -were  perpendicular,  a  furrow  liku 
the  letter  V  would  be  indented,  and  an  equal  burr 
struck  up  on  each  side ;  but,  instead  of  this,  a 
cuttinf'  tooth  like  that  of  a  saw,  but  ^"ith  less 
obliqmty,  is  required  ;  this  is  eflected  by  the  obli- 
q<iity  of  the  chisel,  and  a  bmT  is  thromii  up  on  one 
side  only — -viz.,  towards  the  tang. 

The  astonishing  regularity  obseiwable  in  the  dis- 
tance between  the  teeth  is  secured  in  this  way : 
The  cutting  is  commenced  at  the  point  of  the  file ; 
the  chisel  is  then  drawn  backwards,  laid  upon  the 
blank,  and  slid  forwards  till  it  reaches  the  burr 
raised  by  the  last  cut ;  the  blow  is  now  struck, 
and  another  tooth  and  bm-r  jiroduced,  which  serves 
as  a  guide  for  the  next  cut ;  and  so  on.  The 
distance  between  the  teeth  thus  depends  on  the 
force  of  the  blow  and  the  obhqirity  of  the  cut ;  for 
the  hea\'ier  the  blow,  the  gi-eater  the  ridge  or  bmr, 
and  the  obUquity  determines  the  distance  of  the  cut 
from  the  biur ;  the  skill  of  the  workman  consists, 
therefore,  in  the  precise  regulation  of  the  blows. 

Most  files  are  double  cut — that  is,  they  have  two 
series  of  courses  of  chisel-cuts,  which  are  oppositely 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  55°  to  the  central  line 
of  the  file.  The  second  course  is  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  first,  but  with  lighter  blows,  and  is 
usually  somewhat  finer  than  the  first.  This  angular 
crossing  converts  the  ridges  into  pointed  teeth. 
Files  used  for  soft  metals  which  are  Hable  to  clog 
the  teeth,  are  single  cut — that  is,  they  have  but  one 
coiu'se  of  cuts.  Tajier  files  have  the  teeth  finer 
towards  the  point.  Rasps  for  wood  are  cut  -n^th 
pointed  chisels ;  each  tooth  being  an  angular  pit 
with  a  strong  burr,  instead  of  a  long  furrow.  The 
newly  cut  teeth  in  the  soft  steel  are  preserved  from 
injmy  by  being  laid  upon  the  softer  pe-wter  block 
before  referred  to.  The  rapidity  with  which  the 
blows  are  stnick  varies  \^"ith  the  fineness  of  the 
file ;  60  or  80  cuts  are  commonly  made  per  minute. 

Files  have  to  be  very  carefully  hardened  and 
tempered.  If  heated  too  strongly,  or  matle  too 
hard,  the  steel  is  so  brittle  that  the  teeth  tear  off ; 
if  too  soft,  they  wear  down  rapidly,  and  the  file 
soon  becomes  useless.  Great  care  is  also  required  in 
keeping  them  straight,  as  the  sudden  cooling  neces- 
sary for  hardening  is  verj'  apt  to  warp  the  steel. 

At  first  sight,  it  would  ajipear,  from  the  simplicity 
and  continual  repetition  of  the  movements  requu-ed 
in  file-cutting,  and  the  precision  and  regidarity  of 
the  work,  that  it  is  an  operation  specially  adapted 
for  machinery.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
cut  files  by  machinery,  but  with  only  partial  success  ; 
the  chief  difficulty  arises  from  the  necessity  of  modi- 
fying the  force  of  the  blow  to  suit  the  hardness  of 
the  steel.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  supply  a 
large  number  of  blanks  all  of  exactly  the  same  hard- 
ness ;  and  if  the  machine  be  adjusted  to  suit  the 
hardness  of  one  blank,  it  may  strike  too  heavy  or 
too  fight  a  blow  for  the  next ;  whereas  the  workman 
feels  at  once  the  hardness  of  the  steel  he  is  working 
upon,  and  adjusts  his  blows  accordingly. 

Filing. — To  the  uninitiated,  this  may  seem  a 
simple  operation  of  rubbing  one  piece  of  metal  upon 
another,  and  requiring  only  muscular  strength  and 
no  skill.  This  is  far  from  being  the  case,  for  a 
skilful  workman  will,  in  a  given  time,  with  a  given 
amount  of  muscidar  work,  cut  away  a  far  greater 
quantity  of  metal  with  a  file  than  one  who  is  xm- 
skdful,  for  he  makes  every  tooth  cut  into  the  work, 
instead  of  ruhhinrj  over  it.  To  do  this,  he  must 
adapt  the  pressure  and  velocity  of  motion  of  the 
file  to  the  coarseness  of  its  teeth,  and  the  hardness, 

323 


FILE— FILLAX. 


l.rittlcuo«9,  and  touj;hness   of  t)ie   maU'rial   ho  is 
wcrkins  «i>ou.  ,.       „       , 

To  lil'-  j(al,  tlint  is,  to  avoid  rounding  the  sharp 
oil!;cs  I'f  a  narrow  i>icoc  of  work,  is  very  diHieult, 
anil  some  years  of  coiitiim:U  luactioe  is  riMiuiied 
liefori'  an  apprentice  can  ilo  this  well,  especially  in 
•smoiithing  up'  or  tinishin*;  work  l>cfore  )K>li»liinj;, 
and  tliorc  arc  some  who  never  succeed  in  lilin.v, 
snioothinj:,  and  iMilishiua  without  rounding  the  edfjcs 
of  line  work.  The  power  of  doinu  this  constitntes 
the  iu;un  test  of  skill  anions  mathematical  iiistni- 
inent  makers  and  other  metalworkers.  The  tiattest 
surface  can  be  obtained  by  laying  the  work,  where 
its  form  admits,  upon  a  i>icce  uf  cork  held  m  the 
vice,  and  filins;  it  with  one  hand,  the  prcssurc  on 
the  file  beinj;  tximmunieated  by  the  foretin^vr. 

It  is  mainly  to  aid  the  workman  m  lilinj;  ilat 
that  the  rounded  or  bellied  form  is  given  to  lih'S  ; 
this  partiallv  compensates  the  tcnilcucy  of  the 
hands  to  move  in  a  curved  line  with  its  convexity 
upwards  when  they  move  forwai-d  and  apply  pres- 
sure, .as  in  the  act  of  lihng. 

FILE  (Fr.  >/<•,  a  row,  Lat.  Jltum,  Ital.  filn,  Jilo), 
in  a  milit;iry  sense,  is  used  to  signify  any  line  of 
men  standing  directly  behind  each  other,  as  rank 
infers  to  men  standing  beside  one  another.  In 
ordinary  formations  of  the  present  day,  a  battalion 
st.ands  two  deep,  or  in  two  ranks — front  and  rear — 
wherefore  a  tile  consists  of  two  men.  .Sometimes, 
however,  the  battalion  may  be  formed  much  more 
solidly,  as  in  a  square,  wheu  the  tile  comprises  a  far 
larger  number.  The  number  of  files  iu  a  company 
dcsi-ribes  its  width,  as  the  number  of  ranks  does  its 
depth:  thus,  100  men  in  'fom-s  deep'  would  be 
siwken  of  as  25  files  in  4  ranks. 

FILIATION,  the  correlative  of  paternity.  In 
the  Law  of  Scotland,  the  filiation  of  a  cliild  is  the 
process  by  which  its  paternity  is  determined.  The 
"cneral  rule  that  the  father  is  he  whom  the  niairiage 
points  out  {pater  (st  quern  niipiiie  denionstrant),  is  a 
presiuuption  which  may  be  overcome  by  shewing 
its  impossibility  iu  point  of  fact — as,  for  example, 
where  tlie  husb.and  is  impotent,  or  where  he  has  been 
absent  from  his  wife  dm-ing  tlie  period  between  the 
eleventh  solar  and  the  sixth  lunar  montli  preceding 
the  birth.  As  regards  natural  children,  a  C(ypiila 
more  than  ten  months  before  birth  does  not  filiate, 
hut  it  forms  an  important  admuiicle  of  jiroof,  which, 
till  the  passing  of  IG  Vict.  c.  20,  it  was  held  might 
be  completed  by  the  oath  of  the  mother.  As  to  the 
effect  of  that  statute  on  the  previously  existing  law, 
sec  Evidence,  aud  Semi  Pu:xa  Pkobatio.  | 

FILICA'.TA,  VixcESZO,  a  lyrical  poet  of  Italy, 
w,as  l)om  at  Florence,  of  an  ancient  but  impoverished 
family,  in  1642.  Deeply  wounded,  while  yet  a 
youth,  in  his  aflections,  he  resolved  to  dedicate 
his  undiTOled  genius  to  heroic,  martial,  and  sacred 
themes,  forswearing  all  amatory  compositions  for 
the  future,  and  pen-ei'scly  consigning  his  exquisite 
love  inspirations  to  the  flames.  In  si.t  sublime 
odes,  F.  celebrated  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  iu 
1G33  from  the  besieging  forces  of  the  Turks,  chiefly 
effected  by  the  heroism  of  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  aud  of  Charles  Duke  of  Lorraine.  On  the 
publication  of  the  odes  in  Florence  in  1CS4,  F. 
became,  almost  in  spite  of  himself,  famous,  and 
attracted  the  notice  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden, 
an  ardent  admirer  and  munificent  protectress  of 
Italian  letters  and  genius.  Relieved  from  harassing 
]>ecuniary  embarrassments  by  the  liberal  patronage 
of  Christina,  F.  was  en.abled,  with  undisturbed 
iKiwcrs,  to  devote  himself  to  composition,  some  of 
Ilia  most  touching  verses  being  addressed  to  his 
roy.al  benefactress.  Patriotic  sonnets,  the  grandest 
oi  which  is  a  lament  over  the  internal  weakness 
all 


of  Italy— /'«/'«,  Itiilia,  O  Iu  cui  feo  la  «or<e— and 
lieroic  odes,  severely  chassie  in  form,  are  the  chief 
works  <il  FUieaja.  His  career  as  p.atriot,  citi/en, 
and  man,  won  him  reverence  and  love  as  universal 
as  w.as  the  admiration  accouled  to  his  works.  In 
adv.anced  age,  he  was  appointed  judge  and  senator, 
and  in  1702  was  called  to  one  of  the  highest  magis- 
terial otlices  in  Florence,  where  he  ilied  m  honoured 
jicacc,  September  24,  1707.  His  works,  imder  the 
title  of  I'oesie  7'oncane  di  Vincenzo  da  Filicaja, 
Senalore  Fiorenlino  c  Accadimieo  delta  Crusca,  were 
published  after  liis  death.  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Venice  (2  vols.  1702),  containing  both  the  Italian 
and  Latin  verses  of  the  author. 

FI'LICES.     See  Ferns. 

FI'IjIGREE,  from  the  Italian  filiijrana  ifilo,  a 
thread  or  wire,  and  ijrano,  a  grain  or  bead),  the  old 
liligree-work  being  ornamented  with  small  be.ads. 
The  name  is  now  ajiplied  to  delicate  wire-work 
ornaments,  usually  made  of  gold  or  silver  wire, 
which  is  twisted  into  spirals  and  other  convoluted 


Kligrec  Ornaments: 
Irom  a  drawing  by  Jt.Mariniia,  in  the  I'lorcncc  Exhibition 

(isei). 

forms ;  and  these  spirals,  &c.,  are  combined  to  form 
a  sort  of  metallic  lace-work,  which  is  shaped  into 
brooches,  earrings,  crosses,  head  ornaments,  and 
othei-s  of  a  very'light  and  elegant  character.  This 
work  is  chiefly  done  in  Malta,  Sardmia,  the  Ionian 
Islands,  and  some  parts  of  Turkey.  It  sometimes 
receives  the  general  u.ame  of  Malte.ee  work. 

rrLIPO-D'ARGIRO,  S.\x,  a  to^vn  of  Sicily,  iu 
the  province  of  Catania,  auil  aliout  oO  miles  west- 
north-west  of  the  towu  of  that  name,  stands  on  the 
rirrht  bank  of  the  Traina.  in  an  exceedingly  fertile 
district.  It  contains  a  ruined  Saracenic  castle,  and 
several  religious  edifices.  Saffron  of  good  quality, 
and  in  considerable  quantity,  is  grown  in  the 
vicinity.  Pop.  7300.  San  F.  stands  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Sikelian  city  of  Agyiiuni,  the  birth- 
place of  Diodorus  Siculus  the  historian,  and  which, 
aljout  400  B.  c,  is  said  to  have  had  20,000  citizens. 

FILLAX,  St.  Two  Scoto-Irish  saints  of  the 
name  of  Fillan  apjiear  in  the  church  calendars, 
and  have  left  their  mark  on  the  topograjihy  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  (1.)  St  Fillan,  or  Faolan, 
surnamed  the  Leper,  had  his  yearly  festival  ou 
the  20th  of  June.  His  chief  church  in  Scotl.and 
was  at  the  e.ast  end  of  Loch  Erne,  in  Perthshire, 
where  'St  Fillan's  Well'  was  long  believed  to  have 


FILLET— FILLMOEE. 


supernatural  jinwcra  of  healing.  A  seat  in  the  rock 
of  Dunlillau  still  kecjis  the  name  of  '  St  FiUan's 
Chair  ;'  and  two  cavities  beside  it  are  saiil  to  have 
been  hollowed  by  St  F.'s  knees  in  prayer.  His  Irish 
church  is  at  Ballyheyland  (anciently  called  Kill- 
helan  or  Kill  Faelaiji),  in  the  barony  of  Cullenagh, 
in  Queen's  County,  (i)  St  Filian,  the  abliot,  the 
son  of  St  Kentigerna  of  Incheailcoch,  in  Locli 
Lomond,  lived  in  the  Sth  c,  and  had  liis  yearly 
festival  on  the  7th  or  9tli  of  January.  His  church 
in  Ireland  was  at  Cluain  Maoscna,  in  Fartullach, 
in  the  county  of  Westmeath.  His  chief  church  in 
Scotland  was  in  Perthshii'e,  in  the  upjier  part  of 
Glendochart,  which  takes  from  him  the  name  of 
StrathtiUan.  Here,  a  well-endowed  priory,  dedi- 
cated in  liis  honour,  was  i-epaired  or  rebuilt  in  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century.  King  Ilobert  Bruce 
maile  a  gi-ant  of  money  to  the  work,  in  gratitude, 
probably,  for  the  miraculous  encouragement  whicli 
he  was  said  to  have  received  on  the  eve  of  Bannock- 
burn  from  a  relic  of  the  saint — one  of  his  arm- 
bones  enclosed  in  a  silver  case.  Another  relic  of  St 
F. — the  sUver  head  of  his  crosier,  or  pastoral  staff 
— has  been  preserved  to  our  time.  It  is  called  the 
'  Coygerach'  or  '  Quigrich,'  and  appears  in  record 
as  early  as  the  year  1428,  when  it  was  in  the  here- 
ditary keeping  of  a  family  named  Jore  or  Dewar, 
who  Avere  believed  to  have  been  its  keepers  from 
the  time  of  King  Robert  Bruce.  They  had  half  a 
boll  of  meal  yearly  from  every  parishioner  of  Glen- 
dochart who  held  a  merk  land,  and  smaller  quan- 
tities from  smaller  tenants  ;  and  they  were  bound, 
in  return,  to  follow  the  stolen  cattle  of  the  parish- 
ioners wherever  their  traces  could  be  found  within 
the  rcibn  of  Scotlaml.  The  Quigrich,  besides  its 
virtues  in  the  detection  of  theft,  was  venerated  also 
for  its  miraculous  powers  of  healing.  In  1487,  the 
right  of  keeping  it  was  confinued  to  ilaUce  Doire  or 
JJewar  by  King  James  III.  in  a  charter,  which  was 
presented  for  registration  among  the  public  records 
of  Scotland  so  lately  as  the  year  1734.  Sixty  years 
later,  the  Quigrich  still  commanded  reverence ;  but 
its  healing  vii-tues  were  now  oidy  tried  on  cattle, 
and  its  once  opulent  keepers  had  fallen  to  the  rank 
of  farm-labourers.  It  was  publicly  exhibited  in 
Edinburgh  in  the  year  1818,  before  being  carried 
to  Canada,  where  it  now  is,  iu  the  bauds  of  a 
descendant  of  its  old  custodiers,  a  farmer  named 
Alexander  Dewar.  He  puts  sucli  a  value  on  the 
relic,  that  he  has  hitherto  refused  to  part  with  it 
for  less  than  £400  sterling,  or  lOUU  acres  of  CanatUan 
land.  It  has  been  recently  figured  and  described  by 
Dr  Daniel  Wilson  in  a  paper  in  the  Canadian  Jour- 
nal, Xo.  xxiv.,  reprinted  in  a  p.amjjhlet,  with  the 
title  of  The  Quii/ric/i,  or  Croxkr  of  Ht  Fillan  (Toronto, 
1859)  ;  and  in  the  Proceedings  of  t/ie  Society  of 
Antiqitarifs  of  Scotland,  vol.  iii.  part  ii.  p.  23.3,  plate 
xxvi.  (Edin.  18(il).  A  linn  in  the  river  Fillan 
or  Dochart,  iu  StrathtiUan,  was  long  beheved  to 
work  wonderfid  cures  on  insane  persons,  who  were 
immersed  in  the  stream  at  simset,  and  left  bound 
hand  and  foot  till  sunrise  in  the  ruins  of  the  neigh- 
bouring church  of  St 
Fillan.  A  hand-bell, 
which  bore  the  name 
of  St  Fillan,  was 
also  believed  to  ■\iork 
miracles. 

FILLET,   in   Archi- 
tecture, a   small   space 
FiUets.  or  band  like  a  naiTow 

ribbon  used  along  with 
mouldings,  a,  a,  a  (sec  fig.)  are  cx.amples  of  fiUets, 
both  in  classic  and  Gothic  architecture. 

FILLET,   in   Henildr)-,   is    an    ordinary   which, 


accordiug  to  Guilhm,  contains  the  fourth  part  of  the 
chief. 

FFLLIBUSTERS,  another  nameforthe  piratical 
adventurers  whose  origin  and  history  are  treated 
of  under  BrcANEERS  (fj.  v.).  Recently,  it  has 
become  famiUar  to  English  ears  as  the  designation 
of  certain  lawless  adventurers  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  who  have  attempted  \"iolently  to 
possess  themselves  of  various  countries  in  Jvorth 
America.  The  plea  urged  l^y  these  pei-sons  h;w 
generally  been,  that  such  countries  were  a  prey  to 
anarchy  and  oppression,  and  coidd  only  attain  to 
prosperity  by  annexation  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  introduction  of  '  democratic '  institutions — 
amongst  which,  strange  to  say,  slavery  stands 
prominent.  The  most  notorious  of  these  fiUibusters 
was  the  late  William  W^alker,  whose  expedition 
against  Nicaragua  in  18.5.5  was  so  far  successful 
that  he  kept  hii  ground  in  that  country  for  nearly 
two  years.  At  last,  he  was  driven  out  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  various  states  of  Central  America. 
He  was  subsequently  captured  .and  shot,  .September 
12,  ISGO,  at  Truxillo,  in  Central  America,  iu  the 
course  of  another  piratical  cxj^edition. 

FILLMOEE,  MiLLAKD,  an  American  statesman, 
the  thirteenth  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  iu  CaJ^lga  county.  New  York,  on  the  7th  of 
January  ISOO.  His  history  presents  .a  remarkable 
example" — not,  however,  unparalleled  iu  America 
— of  one  who,  without  the  advantages  of  early 
education,  and  without  any  aid  from  influential 
connections,  has  risen  to  the  very  highest  position 
in  the  government.  His  parents  removed,  ne.ar  the 
close  of  the  last  c,  from  New-  England  to  Cayuga 
county,  which  was  then  a  wilderness.  Young  F. 
reached,  it  is  said,  the  age  of  19  withovit  ever 
having  seen  a  grammar  or  a  geogi*aph3\  In  1821, 
he  removed  to  Erie  county,  in  the  western  part 
of  New  York,  making  the  journey  principally  on 
foot.  Soon  after,  he  entered  a  law-office  in  Buffalo, 
and,  while  pursuing  his  legal  studies,  supported 
himself  by  teaching  a  school.  He  commenced  the 
practice  of  law  .at  Aurora,  m  Erie  coimty,  and  in 
a  few  years  rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession.  Ho 
was  elected  in  1829  to  the  st.ate  legisl.ature,  .and  in 
1832  was  chosen  a  representative  to  Congi-ess.  Here 
he  distinguished  himself  by  the  faithfulness  and 
ability  with  which  he  discharged  his  pubUc  duties. 
He  -was  elected  in  1832  by  the  .anti-Jackson  party, 
and  was  re-elected  as  a  WTiig  in  1836.  1838,  and 
1840.  In  1841,  Jlr  F.  was  appointed  chairman  of 
the  committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  after  the  sjicakcr- 
ship,  the  most  responsible  .as  well  as  the  most 
honourable  position  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. Undtr  his  auspices  and  direction,  the  cele- 
brated t.aritf  of  1842  w.as  prepared  and  caiTied 
through  the  House.  In  1848,  he  was  elected  to  the 
Aace-presidency  of  the  United  States,  with  General 
T.aylor  .as  president,  .and  entired  vqjon  the  duties 
of  his  ofiiee  in  March  1849.  (Jencral  Taylor  h-aAnng 
died  iu  July  1850,  Mr  F.  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency for  the  unexpired  portion  of  the  term  of  four 
years.  Although  his  party  was  a  minority  in  both 
houses  of  Congress,  his  administration  was  m.arked 
by  a  number  of  useful  measures,  and  rarely  has  a 
president  of  the  United  St.atcs  acquired  and  descr\-ed 
so  high  a  ch.aracter  for  vigour,  firmness,  and  impar- 
tialitj'.  Among  his  most  imjiortant  measures  may 
be  mentioned  the  expedition  sent  out  under  Com- 
modore Ferry  for  the  inirpose  of  opening  the  ports 
of  J.apan  to  American  commerce — an  imdertaking 
which  w.as,  at  least  for  the  time,  eminently  success- 
ful. When  he  retired  from  ofEce  on  the  4th  of 
March  1853,  he  left  the  country  in  the  enjoyment 
of    a   high    degree    of    prosperity.       He    was    the 

3J5 


FILTER,  FILTRATION". 


caiiiliilate  of  the  American  I'arty  (or  the  presidency  the  domestic  filters  that  are  offered  for  sale  are 
io  1850  ;  but  in  the  contest  which  followed,  Mr  well  adapted  for  their  required  purpose.  In  inir- 
Bucbanan,  the  democratic  nominee,  was  chosen  chasing  a  filter,  the  buyer  must  not  be  satisfied 
iircsident  Since  his  retirement  from  public  life,  with  merely  seeing  that  the  water  which  has 
ilr  F.  I1.13  resided  at  Buffalo— which  h.is  been  his    passed  through  it  is  rendered  perfectly  transparent 

home    for    some    thirty    years  —  where    he    enjoys    — this  is  so  easily  done  by  a  new  and  clean  filter 

.•miong  all  cl.osses  that  high  consideration  to  which,  but  he  shoijd  see  that  the  filter  is  so  constructed  aa 
by  his  talenta  and  integrity,  he  is  so  justly  entitled,  to  admit  of  being  readily  cleansed,  for  the  residual 
FILTER,  FILTRATION.  When  sohd  matter  matter  must  lodge  somewhere,  and  must  be  some- 
is  susiKuded  in  a  liquid  in  which  it  is  insoluble,  it  ''o^  removed.  AVhen  large  quantities  of  water  have 
may  be  separated  by  various  means.  Under  the  t"  l>e  filtered,  this  becomes  a  serious  difhculty,  and 
.irticle  Fixing,  various  methods  of  causing  such  I  many  ingenious  modes  of  overcoming  it  have  been 
suspended  matter  to  collect  together  and  sink  to  deWsed.  In  most  of  these,  water  is  made  to  asceml 
the  bottom  or  Hoat  on  the  surface,  and  thereby  [  through  the  filtering  medium,  in  order  that  the 
clearing  the  liquid,  are  described.  The  process  of  ;  impurities  collected  on  it  may  fall  back  into  the 
filtration  consists  in  passing  the  liquid  through  i  impure  water.  Leloge's  ascending  filtsr  consists 
some  porous  substance,  the  interstices  of  which  are  j  °^  four  compartments,  one  above  the  other ;  the 
too  small  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  the  solid  par-  •  upper  part,  containing  the  impure  water,  is  equal 
tides,  the  principle  of  the  action  being  the  same  i^i  capacity  to  the  other  three.  This  commimicatcs 
as  that  of  a  sieve;  but  as  the  particles  of  fluids  are    '^y  "  tube  with  the  lower  one,  which  is  of  small 


height.  The  top  of  this  is  formed  by  a  piece  of 
porous  filtcriugstone,  through  which  alone  the 
water    can    pass    into    the 


immeasurably  small,  the  porea  must  be  extremely 
minute. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  filter  is  that  com- 
monly used  in  chemical  laboratories  for  separating  '  third  compartment,  which 
precipitates,  &c.  A  square  or  circular  piece  of  |  is  tilled  with  charcoal,  and 
blotting-paper  is  folded  in  four,  the  comer  where  covered  with  another  plate 
the  four  folds  meet  is  placed  downwards  in  a  funnel,  !  of  porous  stone.  The  fourth 
and  one  side  is  partly  opened,  so  that  the  paper  forms  '  compartment,  immediately 
a  lining  to  the  funnel.  The  liquid  passes  through  !  above  the  third,  receives 
the  pores  of  the  paper,  and  the  solid  matter  rests  i  the  filtered  water,  which 
npon  it  The  chief  advantages  of  this  filter  are  its  baa  been  forced  through 
simplicity,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  solid  matter  the  lower  stone,  the  char- 
may  be  removed  and  exaniiued.  coal,  and  the   upper  stone. 

A  simple  water-filter  for  domestic  purposes  is  )  A  tap  is  afhxed  to  this,  to 
sometimes  made  by  stuffing  a  piece  of  sponge  in  draw  off  the  filtered  water, 
the  bottom  of  a  funnel  or  the  hole  of  a  flower-pot,  ^"d  a  plug  to  the  second 
and  then  placing  above  this  a  layer  of  pebbles,  then  i  <""  lower  compartment,  to 
a  layer  of  coarse  sand,  and  above  this  a  laj-er  of  i  remove  the  sediment, 
pounded  charcoal  three  or  four  inches  in  depth. 
Another  layer  of  pebbles  should  be  placed  above 
the  charcoal,  to  prevent  it  from  being  stirred  up 
when  the  water  is  poured  in.  It  is  ob\-ious  that 
such  a  filter  will  require  occasional  cleaning,  as 
the  suspended  impurities  are  left  l>ehind  on  the 
cliarcoal,  kit  This  is  best  done  by  renewing  the 
charcoayitc.,  and  taking  out  the  sponge  and  wash 


In  the  diagram  shelving 
this  filter  in  section,  the 
figures  1,  2,  3,  and  4  indi- 
cate the  corresponding  com- 
partments. At  /,  the  top 
of  the  tube  by  which 
the  first   and  second  com- 


Lelo^je's  Filter ; 
2.  .1,  4,  the  four  compart- 
ments ;  ab,  the  first  porous 
stone  of  third  or  fiUerinc 
compartment  ;  cfl,  tlie 
exit  filtering  stone  of  (/ ; 
c,  the  plug  to  remo%'e 
for  cleanin>;  out  second 
compartment;  /,  a  loose 
sponge  at  entrance  of 
communicating  tube. 


partments   communicate, 

"^S  'tv''  By  a  small  addition  to  this,  a  "cottage-filter  [  sponge  may  be  placed  to  stop  some  of  the  grosser 

J^^Y/dc  made,  which,  for   practical   use,   is  quite    impurities. 

^UIU  to  the  moiit  expensive  filters  of  corresponding        Since   1831,   when    this   filter  was    contrived,   a 


gae.  It  consists  of  two  flower-pots,  one  above  the 
other;  the  lower  one  is  fitted  with  the  sponge 
and  filtering  layers  above  described,  and  the  U])per    this.     Bird's  Syphon  Filter  is  a  cylindrical  pewter 


number  of    ascending  filters    have  been  patented, 
many  of  them  being  merely  trilling  modifications  of 


one  with  a  sponge  only.  The  upper  pot  should 
be  the  largest,  and  if  the  lower  one  is  strong, 
the  upper  one  may  stand  in  it,  or  a  piece  of  wood 
with  a  hole  to  receive  the  upper  pot  may  rest 
upon  the  rim  of  the  lower  one.  The  two  pots  thus 
arranged  are  placed  upon  a  three-legged  stool  with 
a  hole  in  it,  through  which  the  projecting  part  of  the 
lower  sijonge  passes,  and  the  water  drops  into  a  jug 
placed  below.  The  upper  pot  serves  as  a  reser\oir, 
and  its  sponge  stops  the  coarser  impurities,  and 
thus  the  filtering  layers  of  the  lower  one  may  be 
iised  for  two  or  three  years  without  being  renewed, 
if  the  upper  sponge  be  occasionally  cleaned^  Care 
must  be  taken  to  wedge  the  upper  sponge  tightly 
enough,  to  prevent  the  water  passing  from  the  upper 
pot  more  rapidly  than  it  can  filter  through  the 
lower  one. 

A  great  variety  of  filters  are  made  on  a  similar 
principle  to  the  above,  but  constructed  of  oma- 
meut.iJ  earthenware  or  porcelain  vessels  of  suitable 
shape.  It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  enter 
upon  the  merits  of  the  filters  of  different  makers, 
especially  as  there  is  really  very  httle  difference 
between  them  in  point  of  elEcieucy,  and  nearly  all 
326 


vessel  containing  the  filtering  media,  and  to  it  is 
attached  a  long  coU  of  flexible  pe^vter  pipe.  When 
used,  the  cylinder  is  immersed  in  the  water-butt  or 
cistern,  and  the  pipe  uncoiled  and  bent  over  the 
edge  of  the  cistern,  and  brought  dovm  considerably 
below  the  level  of  the  water.  It  is  then  started  by 
applying  the  mouth  to  the  lower  end,  and  sucking 
it  till  the  water  begins  to  flow,  after  which  it  con- 
tinues to  do  so,  and  keeps  up  a  large  8ui)ply  of  clear 
water.  This,  of  course,  is  an  ascending  lilter,  and 
the  ujiward  iiressure  is  proportionate  to  the  (liffer- 
ence  between  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  cistern 
and  that  of  the  lower  end  of  the  exit  tube.  See 
SypnoN.  Sterling's  filtering  tanks  are  slate  cisterns 
dirided  into  compartments,  the  water  entering  the 
first,  then  passing-  through  a  coarse  lilter  to  a 
second,  and  from  there  through  a  finer  filter  to  the 
main  receptacle,  where  the  filtered  water  is  stored 
and  drawn  off  for  use. 

A  common  water-butt  or  cistern  may  be  made  to 
filter  the  water  it  receives  by  the  following  means  : 
Divide  the  cistern  or  butt  into  two  compartments, 
an  upper  and  a  lower,  by  means  of  a  watertight 
p.artition  or  false  bottom;  then  take  a  wooden  box 


FILTER,  FILTRATION. 


or  small  barrel,  and  perforate  it  closely  with  holes  ; 
fit  a  tuhe  into  it,  reaching  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  inside,  and  projecting  outside  a  little  distance  ; 
fill  the  box  or  barrel  mtli  iio\v<lered  charcoal,  tightly 
rammed,  and  cover  it  with  a  bag  of  felt ;  then  fit 
the  projecting  part  of  the  tube  into  the  middle  of 
the  false  bottom.  It  is  evident  that  water  can  only 
pass  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  compartment  by 
going  througli  the  felt,  tlio  charcoal,  and  the  tube, 
.and  thus,  if  the  upper  jiart  receives  the  sujiply,  and 
the  water  for  use  is  drawn  from  the  lower  part, 
the  whole  will  be  filtered.  It  is  easily  cleaned  by 
removing  the  felt  and  washing  it. 

Various  means  fif  compressing  carbon  into  solid 
porous  masses  have  been  patented,  and  filters  are 
made  in  which  the  water  passes  through  blocks  of 
this  eomjjresscd  carbon.  Most  of  these  are  well 
adajited  for  the  pui-pose,  but  their  asserted  supe- 
riority over  filters  composed  of  layers  of  sand  an<l 
charcoal  is  doubtful.  A  very  elegant  anil  con- 
venient iiortable  filter  for  soldiers,  travellers,  .and 
others  who  may  require  to  drink  from  turl)id  ponds 
and  rivers,  was  constructed  of  Ransome's  filtering 
stone,  and  is  also  made  of  the  compressed  carbon. 
A  small  cylinder  of  the  stone  or  carbon  is  connected 
vnt\i  a  flexible  India-rubber  tube  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  cylinder  may  be  immersed  in  a  river,  the 
mouth  .aiiplied  to  a  mouth-piece  at  the  other  end  of 
the  tube,  and  the  water  drawn  through  the  tiltering 
cylinder. 

The  filtration  of  water  on  a  large  scale  will  be 
treated  of  under  Watek-supi'I.v. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  were  m.ade  by 
Mr  H.  M.  Witt,  to  ascertain  whether  soluble  matter, 
such  as  common  salt,  is  in  any  degree  removed  from 
water  by  filtration.  Theoretically,  it  h,as  been 
assumed  that  tliis  is  impossible,  since  the  filter  only 
acts  mechanically  in  stopping  suspended  particles; 
but  the  results  of  Mr  Witt's  experiments  shew  th.at 
from  live  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  s.alts 
were  separated  by  sand-filters  such  as  above 
describett  This  is  a  curious  and  interesting  subject, 
well  worthy  of  further  investigation.  Another  most 
important  matter,  on  which  a  series  of  accurate 
experiments  is  required,  is  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  soluble  organic  m.atter  m.ay  be  decomposed 
by  filtration,  especially  by  charcoal  filters,  and  to 
ascertain  how  long  charcoal  and  other  porous 
matter  retains  its  property  of  acting  on  organic 
matter  in  watery  solution.  The  power  of  dry  char- 
coal in  decomposing  organic  matter  in  a  g.aseou3 
state  is  well  establi.shea  (see  below),  and  it  is 
also  well  known  that  fresh  ch.arcoal  acts  powerfully 
ujion  organic  matter  in  solutions,  but  the  extent  to 
which  this  power  is  retained  in  the  charcoal  of  a 
filter  in  continuous  action  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained.  This  is  of  tlie  highest  importance,  as 
it  sometimes  happens  that  water  of  brilliant  trans- 
parency, and  most  pleasant  to  drink,  on  account  of 
the  carbonic  .acid  it  contains,  is  charged  with  such 
an  amount  of  poisonous  organic  matter  as  to  I'ender 
its  use  as  a  daily  bever.age  very  dangerous.  Char- 
coal obtained  from  burning  bones  is  still  more 
efficacious  than  charco.al  from  wood.  A  filter  of 
animal  charccal  wUl  render  London  porter  colourless. 
Loam  and  clay  have  similar  properties.  Professor 
Way  found  th.at  putrid  urine  and  sewer-water, 
when  passed  through  el.ay,  dropped  from  the  filter 
colourless  aiul  inoff"ensive. 

When  a  liquid  contains  mucilaginous  or  other 
matter  having  viscous  properties,  there  is  consider- 
able difficulty  in  filtering  it,  as  the  pores  of  the 
medium  become  filled  up  and  made  water-tight. 
Sjiecial  filters  are  tliercforc  required  for  sjTups, 
oils,  &c.  .Such  liquids  as  .ale,  liecr,  &c.,  would  be 
exceedingly  difTicult  to  filter,  and  therefore  they  are 


clarified  by  the  processes  described  under  Fining. 
Oil  is  usually  jiassed  through  long  bags  made  of 
twilled  cotton  cloth  (Canton  flannel).  These  are 
commonly  4  to  8  feet  long,  and  12  to  15  inches  in 
diameter,  and  are  enclosed  in  coarse  canvas  bags, 
8  or  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  thus  the  inner 
filtering-bag  is  corrugated  or  creased,  and  a  large 
surface  in  proportion  to  its  size  is  thus  presented. 
Syrups  are  filtered  ou  a  small  scale  by  confectioners, 
&c.,  by  passing  them  througli  conical  flannel  b.ags, 
and  on  a  large  scale  in  the  creased  hag-filter  just 
described.  Thick  syrups  have  to  be  diluted  or 
clarified  with  white  of  egg,  to  collect  the  sediment 
into  masses,  and  then  they  may  be  filtered  through 
a  coarse  cloth  strainer.  Vegetable  juices  generally 
require  to  be  treated  in  this  manner. 

The  simple  laboratory  filter  has  to  be  modified 
when  strong  acid  or  alkaline  solutions,  or  sub- 
stances which  are  decomposed  by  organic  matter, 
re(|uire  filtration.  Pure  silicious  sand,  a  plug  of 
asbestos,  jiounded  glass,  or  clean  charcoal,  are  used 
for  this  purpose.  Bottger  recommends  gim-cotton 
aa  a  filter  for  such  purposes.  He  has  used  it  for 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  fuming  sulphuric  acid, 
chromic  acid,  permanganate  of  potash,  and  concen- 
trated solutions  of  jiotash  and  acpia  regia.  He  says 
that  projierly  prciiared  gun-cotton  is  only  attacked 
at  ordinary  temjieratures  by  acetic  ether. 

Filtering  paper  for  laboratory  puqioses  requires 
to  be  freed  from  inorganic  impurities  th.at  are  soluble 
in  acids,  &c. ;  tliis  is  effected 
by  washing  the  paper  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  or,  when 
tliick,  with  nitric  and  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  removing  the 
acid  by  wasliing  thoroughly  "  J^^ 
with  distilled  water. 

WTien  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  bquid  has  to  pass 
through  a  filter,  it  is  sonie- 
tuncs  desirable  tliat  it  should 
be  m.ade  to  feed  itself.  In 
the  laboratory,  this  is  done  by 
inverting  a  flask  filled  with 
the  liquid  over  the  filtering 
funnel,  the  mouth  of  the  fl.ask 
just  touching  the  siu^ace  of 
the  liquid  when  at  the  desired  , 
height  in  the  funnel.  As  soon  ' 
as    it    sinks    below    this,    air 

enters  the  flask,  and  some  liquid  f.alls  into  the  funnel. 
On  a  large  scale,  self-acting  filters  arc  fed  liy  the 
common  contrivance  of  a  ball-cock  and  supply-pipe. 

Air  Filters. — The  extraordinary  powers  of  char- 
coal in  disinfecting  the  gaseous  ])roducts  evolved 
from  decomposing  anim.al  and  vegetable  matter, 
have  been  made  available  by  I)r  Stenliouse  in  con- 
structiug  an  apparatus  for  purifying  air  that  is  m.ade 
to  pass  tlirough  it.  A  suitable  cage,  containing 
charcoal  in  small  fragments,  is  fitted  to  the  opening 
from  which  the  deleterious  gases  issue,  and  is  found 
to  render  them  perfectly  inodorous,  and  probably 
innocuous.  The  first  application  of  this  was  made 
in  18.'54,  when  a  eli.areoal  air-filter  was  fitted  up  in 
the  justice-room  of  the  Mansion  House,  London, 
the  window  of  which  opens  above  a  large  urinal,  the 
smell  of  which  was  very  offensive  in  the  room.  The 
filter  at  once  destroyed  the  nuisance,  and  '  although 
six  years  have  elapsed,  the  charcoal  has  never 
required  to  be  renewed.'  103  of  such  filters  have 
been  applied  to  the  outlets  of  the  sewers  of  one 
district  of  the  city  of  London,  and  no  bad  smell  is 
observable  where  they  are  placed,  and  no  obstruc- 
tion ofTered  to  the  ventilation  of  the  sewers.  They 
have  been  applied  with  like  rosiUts  in  two  or  tln-ee 
county  towns.     The  subject  is  fully  treated  by  Dr 

327 


FIMBRIATED-FIXDER  OF  GOODS. 


Stenliouse  in  a  lottor  to  the  lord  mayor,  )ml>lishcd 
by  t'buri-liill  (Lomlon).  Charcoal  rcsiumtors  are 
Biuall  air-lilters  of  the  same  kind  applied  to  the 
month.     8ee  KesprRATOR. 

Fl'MBUIATED  (Ijit  fmbria.  a  border  or  hem), 
is  s-iid,  in  Heraldry,  of  an  ordinary  having  a  narrow 
bonier  or  etlging  of  another  tincture. 

FINAL  JUDGMENT.  The  meaning  of  this 
term  in  the  Law  of  Scotland  baring  led  to  some 
dispute,  an  Act  of  Sederunt  (q.  v.)  was  passed  on 
the  nth  July  1S2S,  declaring  it  to  be  api>lieable  to 
a  case  in  which  '  the  whole  merits  of  the  cause  have 
been  disjiosed  of,  although  no  decision  h;is  been 
given  as  to  exiwnses,  or,  if  expenses  have  been 
found  due,  although  they  have  not  been  modified 
or  deccrne<l  for.'  The  importmce  of  the  definition 
arises  from  the  fact,  that  only  final  judgments  can 
be  carried  by  advocation  from  the  inferior  to  the 
superior  courts.  '  The  whole  merits  of  the  cause' 
h.is  i>een  held  to  mean,  not  only  the  merits  cf  the 
action  to  which  the  advocator  is  a  Jiarty,  but  also 
those  of  any  other  conjoined  with  it.  If  the  parties 
in  the  conjoined  action  will  not  proceed  to  have  it 
determiuetl,  the  advocator  ought  to  apply  to  the 
inferior  judge,  stating  his  intention  to  advocate, 
and  |)nvyiiig  him  to  call  on  the  jiarties  to  proceed 
with  the"  conjoined  process ;  and,  failing  their  doing 
so,  to  disjoin  the  causes,  which  disjunction  will 
render  an  advocation  competent.  Shand's  Practice, 
i.  p.  i^A.  In  Advocations  (q.  v.)  and  Suspensions 
(q.  v.),  if  the  record  be  closed,  and  the  jjroof  con- 
cluded in  the  inferior  court,  the  case  m.ay  be  taken 
at  once  to  the  Inner  House  without  a  judgment  of 
the  Lord  Ordinary,  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  36.  In  order 
to  warrant  an  appeal  to  the  circuit  court  in  a  ci\'il 
canse  (where  otherwise  competent)  not  only  the 
merits  must  have  been  disposed  of,  but  the  expenses 
modified  and  decerned  for. 

FINA'LE,  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  a 
musical  composition  which  finishes  the  act  of  an 
opera  ;  also  to  the  last  movement  of  an  instrumental 
composition,  as  in  the  symphony,  quartet,  quintet, 
sonata,  &c.  The  character  of  the  finale,  in  pui'cly 
instrumental  works,  is  always  lively.  lu  the  oiiera, 
it  depends  on  the  subject,  while  in  some  operas 
the  finale  consists  of  an  aria  alone,  as  in  Mozart's 
Fiijaro,  instead  of  the  usual  full  concerted  music 
for  soli  and  chorus. 

FINA'NCE,  a  French  word  incorporated  with 
our  language,  means  the  art  of  managing  money 
matters,  the  person  who  professes  this  art  being 
called  a  financier.  Finance,  in  the  plui'al,  is  often 
used  for  money  itself,  but  still  with  a  reference  to 
the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  as  where 
the  linances  of  a  country  are  s.iid  to  have  imjiroved 
or  fallen  off — that  is  to  say,  have  become  abimd- 
ant  or  scanty  according  to  the  expenditure  of  the 
country.  Sometimes  the  word  is  applied  to  private 
wealth,  but  it  is  properly  applicable  to  public  funds. 
We  use  it  in  this  country  rather  in  a  political  and 
economic  sense  than  officially,  but  in  France  there 
have  been,  from  time  to  time,  comptrollers-general 
of  finance,  councils  of  finance,  bureaus  of  finance, 
&c.  Many  statesmen  have  been  spoken  of  as  great 
financiers,  from  the  talent  which  they  have  shewni 
for  adjusting  national  revenue  and  expenditure, 
as  Colbert,  Turgot,  and  Necker  in  France,  and 
Godolphin  and  I'eel  in  Britain.  As  a  brancli  of 
statesmanship,  finance  is  intim.ately  connected  with 
other  branches.  In  questions  of  nation.al  policy 
— such  as,  whether  a  state  can  go  to  war  or  not 
— the  financier  is  the  jwrson  who  is  expected  to 
count  the  cost,  and  say  how  the  necessary  funds 
are  to  be  obtained.  In  the  question,  whether  an 
unpopul.ar  or  oppressive  tax  is  to  be  abolished,  the 


financier  is  an  authority  on  the  question,  whether 
the  government  can  do  without  it.  Hence,  there 
is  a  special  connection  between  finance  and  taxation, 
which  has  become  closer  and  stronger  since  the 
progress  of  political  economy  has  shewn  that  the 
taxes  which  are  the  most  productive,  and  even 
the  most  easily  collected,  are  not  alw.ays  the  best, 
looking  at  the  gain  or  loss  of  a  nation,  in  the 
long-run.  Turgot  said  that  finance  was  the  art  of 
plucking  the  fowl  without  making  it  cry.  On  this 
notion,  the  principle  of  indirect  taxation  achieved 
its  popiUarity.  For  inst.ance,  customs  duties  seem 
to  f.oll  on  no  one.  The  iniporti'r  and  the  retailer 
add  them  to  the  price  of  the  article,  and  the 
ultimate  jJurclL-iser  only  knows  that  the  article  is 
dear  without  exjieriencing  the  sense  of  hardship 
felt  by  one  who  pays  out  money  directly  in  the 
shape  of  a  tax.  But  many  indirect  taxes  have,  on 
the  other  hand,  been  found  to  ali'ect  the  trade  and 
the  wealth  of  communities  to  an  extent  which  li.as 
made  tliciu  very  deleterious  in  comparison  with 
direct  taxes.  See  further  on  matters  connected 
with  finance  the  heads  Cr.sroMS  ;  l)KBi',  N.\tioxal; 
Corn  L.vws;  Excise;  Free  Trade;  Taxation; 
IIevexue. 

FINCH  (Gcr.  Finh ;  for  the  origin  of  the  word, 
see  CuAFFlxcn),  the  popular  n.ame  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  species  of  little  bii'ds  of  the  order  Insesiores, 
and  tribe  Conirostre-i.  Many  of  them  have  great 
powers  of  song,  and  are  called  llanl-hiUed  Soiiii- 
hirdi,  in  contradistinction  to  the  W.arblers  (Si/l- 
r'lnda)  or  So/l-hilkd  So»f/-b'irdi.  The  name  F.  is 
sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  FiinniUidis  (q.  v.), 
either  in  its  more  extensive  or  more  restricted  appli- 
cation ;  but  the  limits  of  its  popid.ar  use  are  very 
indeterminate,  and  some  birds  are  equally  knowni  as 
finches  and  as  linnets,  or  as  gi-osbe.aks.  tec.  The 
word  F.  often  forms  part  of  the  jiopul.ar  name  of 
birds  of  this  family,  as  bullfinch,  cliaiiinch,  haw- 
finch, pine-finch,  &c. 

FINDER  OF  GOODS.  The  finder  acquires  a 
special  property  in  goods,  which  is  avadable  to 
him  against  all  the  world  except  the  true  owner ; 
but  before  appropriating  them  to  his  own  use,  he 
must  use  every  reasonable  means  to  discover  the 
owner.  It  has  been  decided  that  if  the  jiropcrty 
h.ad  not  been  designedly  abandoned,  and  the  liiuler 
knew  who  the  owner  was,  or  knew  that  he  could 
have  discovered  him,  he  was  guilty  of  larceny  in 
keeping  and  appropriating  the  articles  to  his  own 
use.  K.  V.  Thurborn.  1  Benisou  c.e.  393  ;  Merry  v. 
Green,  7  M.  and  W.  62.3.  In  the  latter  case,  in  which 
a  person  purchased,  at  a  public  auction,  a  bureau, 
in  which  he  afterwards  discovered,  in  a  secret 
drawer,  a  purse  containing  money,  which  he  .a})i)ro- 
priated  to  his  own  use,  Mr  Baron  I'arke  thus  Laid 
down  the  law.  '  The  old  rule,  that  "  if  one  lose  his 
goods,  and  another  find  them,  though  he  convert 
them  animo  furandi  to  his  own  use,  it  is  no 
larceny,"  has  undergone  in  more  recent  times  some 
limitations.  One  is,  that  if  the  finder  knows  who 
the  owner  of  the  lost  chattel  is,  or  if,  from  any 
mark  iqion  it,  or  the  circumstinces  under  which  it 
is  found,  the  owner  coidd  be  re.ason.ably  .iscertaiued, 
then  the  fraudulent  convei-sion,  animo  furandi,  con- 
stitutes a  l.arcency.'  This  law,  however,  althoucrh 
in  most  cases  clear,  is,  in  others,  extremely  dilii- 
cult  in  ajiplicatiou,  and  judges  and  juries  often 
go  wronc.  The  question  for  the  jury  is  not  wliether 
they  think  the  finder  could  have  discovered  the 
owner,  but  whether  he  believed  that  he  could  ;  .and 
if  not  satisfied  as  to  this,  they  cannot  convict 
him  of  larceny.  It  is  a  mistake  to  sujipose  that 
the  finder  is  bound  to  advertise,  or  use  extra- 
ordinary means  to  discover  the  owner ;  indeed  he 


FrNT)HORX— FDflAL. 


canmit  claim  suck  expenses  from  the  real  owner,  if 
lie  ai)[)ear. 

FI'NDHORX,  a  river  rising  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Monadh  Liadh  Monutains,  in  the  east  of  Invcr- 
uess-shire.  It  runs  north-oast  through  the  counties 
of  Inverness,  Nairn,  and  Klgin,  in  the  valley  of 
Strathdearn,  passes  Forres,  and  enters  the  Moray 
Firth  at  the  Wllai^e  of  Findhorn  hy  a  lagoon  three 
by  one  and  a  half  miles  in  extent,  after  a  coiu'se  of 
about  90  mih\s.  Its  waters  aljound  in  salmon  and 
trout.  Its  basin  consists  of  gneiss  in  tlie  upjier  part, 
and  of  old  red  sandstone  in  tlie  lower.  At  one 
]ilaee,  it  rose  nearly  50  feet  in  the  great  floods  of 
August  1829,  known  as  tlie  '  Moray  Floods,'  and  did 
much  ilamage.  West  of  the  mouth  of  the  F.  are  the 
Ciilhin  Sands,  in  one  part  IIS  feet  high,  and  covering 
9500  acres  of  a  formerly  fertile  tract. 

FINE  OF  LANDS,  in  England,  fictitious  pro- 
ceedings formerly  in  common  use  in  order  to  transfer 
or  secure  real  property  by  a  mode  more  efficacious 
than  an  ordinary  convej'ance.  A  fine  is  defined  by 
Coke,  (juoting  from  Glanville,  an  amicable  composi- 
tion and  final  agreement  by  leave  and  licence  of  the 
king  or  his  justiciaries  ;  and  such  indeed  it  was  in 
its  original  effect,  and  it  was  called  a  fine  because  it 
put  a  termination  (./('/;«)  to  all  litigation  between  the 
parties,  and  those  claiming  througli  tliem,  in  regard 
to  all  matters  touching  the  suit.  The  proceedings  in 
a  fine  were  shortly  as  follow :  The  party  to  whom  the 
laud  wa-s  to  be  conveyed  commenced  a  fictitious  suit 
against  the  vendor.  But  the  case  w.is  no  sooner  in 
coiu-t  than  the  plaintilf  asked  leave  to  agree  or 
settle  with  the  defendant.  This  leave  ha\'ing  been 
obtained,  a  covenant  was  entered  into  whereby  the 
vendor  or  defendant,  called  the  cor;nizor,  recognised 
the  right  of  the  plaintiff,  called  the  cognkee,  to  the 
lands,  of  which  he  admitted  that  the  plaintiff  was 
■wrongfully  kept  from  the  possession.  These  pro- 
ceedings, which  at  first  were  real,  were  afterwards 
adopted  universally  without  having  a  shadow  of 
foundation  in  fact.  This  solemn  farce  haAang  been 
completeil,  a  iiole  of  the  fine,  being  an  abstract  of 
the  covenant,  the  names  of  the  parties,  and  the 
parcels  of  the  land,  was  entered  on  the  rolls  of  the 
court  ;  and  the  business  was  concluded  by  what  was 
called  the  foot  of  the  fine,  setting  forth  the  parties, 
tlie  time  and  place  of  agreement,  and  before  whom 
the  fine  was  levied.  The  whole  w.as  embodied  in 
indentures  commencing  Iifrr  est  Jinnlis  concordia.  It 
was  necessary  that  a  fine  shoijd  be  le\'ied  openly  in 
the  Court  of  Common  I'leas,  or  before  the  chief- 
justice  of  that  court,  or  before  two  or  more  com- 
missioners appointed  in  the  countrj'.  Fines  were 
of  four  kinds,  which  need  not  bo  specified  hero.  In 
order  that  a  fine  should  have  full  effect,  it  required 
to  be  levied  with  proclamalioiis,  i.  c,  open  proclama- 
tion of  the  transaction  in  court.  A  fine  so  le\-ied 
cut  off  the  right  even  of  strangers  who  failed  to 
assert  their  claim  during  the  period  allowed  by  law ; 
hence  an  estate  was  said  to  be  ban'cd  by  fine  and 
non-claim.  A  fine  leried  by  a  married  woman  had 
the  effect  of  cutting  off  all  right  she  might  have 
in  the  hinds,  and  was  the  only  mode  by  which  a 
married  woman  could  convey  lands  ;  and  in  order  to 
protect  her  from  undue  influence,  she  was  privately 
e.xamiued  as  to  the  voluntarj'  nature  of  the  trans- 
action. A  fine  leWed  liy  tenant  in  tail  cut  off  the 
estate  tail,  but  did  not  affect  remainders  ;  hence, 
though  a  fine  was  sometimes  used  to  bar  an  entail, 
the  usual  method  was  by  common  Recovery  (q.  v.). 
But  while  a  recovery  w,as  the  most  effectual  method 
of  barring  an  entail,  it  required  the  consent  of  the 
tenant  in  possession.  Where,  then,  that  consent 
could  nfit  be  obtained,  or  where  the  tenant  in  tail 
was  at  the  same  time  tenant  in  fee  in  remainder,  a  | 


fine  was  a  convenient  mode  of  barring  the  entail. 
The  statute  De  Donli  prohibited  fines  as  a  means  of 
barring  entails,  but  this  restriction  was  removed  by 
32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  3G. 

The  old  law  as  to  fines  has  been  abolished  by 
the  Fines  and  liecoverles  A  et.  .'i  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  7-1. 
This  act  was  passed  for  the  jiui-pose  of  abolishing 
the  cumbrous  machinery  used  in  the  transfer  of 
land  according  to  the  ancient  forms  and  fictions. 
The  act  abolishes  all  the  fictions  formerly  in  use. 
In  regard  to  lines  and  recoveries  1)V  heirs  of  entail, 
it  permits  every  tenant  in  tail  of  freehold  land 
whether  in  possession,  in  remainder,  or  contingency, 
to  dispose  of  the  lands  for  an  estate  of  fee-simple 
absolute,  or  any  less  estate,  by  any  of  the  ordinary 
conveyances,  except  a  will,  at  common  law,  or 
under  the  statute  of  Uses  (q.  v.).  The  conveyance 
must  be  registered  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  within 
si.x  months  after  its  execution.  But  where  there  is 
an  estate  of  freehold  prior  to  the  estate  tail,  the  act 
requires  that  the  consent  of  the  tenant  of  the  free- 
hold shall  be  necessaiy  in  order  to  give  full  effect  to 
the  conveyance.  This  person  is  called  the  jtroteclo)- 
of  the  nettlement.  Where  a  conveyance  is  made 
without  consent  of  the  protector,  it  has  the  effect  of 
ban'ing  those  only  who  woidd  succeed  under  the 
heir  by  whom  it  is  executed.  This  is  precisely  the 
etl'ect  which  under  the  old  law  belonged  to  a  recovery 
without  the  consent  of  the  tenant  to  the  preeeipe, 
and  of  a  line  levied  by  a  tenant  in  tail ;  so  that 
the  statute,  while  it  abolishes  the  fictions,  sustains 
entails  as  family  settlements  to  the  limited  efi'eet 
which  they  formerly  possessed.  In  regard  to  fines 
by  married  women,  the  act  provides  that  a  Feme 
Covcrte  (q.  v.)  may  dispose  by  deed  of  any  lands,  or 
of  money  subject  to  be  invested  in  the  purchase  of 
lauds.  It  is  necessary,  unless  specially  dispensed 
with  by  the  court,  that  her  husband  should  concur 
in  the  conveyance,  and  that  she  shoidd  acknowledge 
it  before  a  judge  of  one  of  the  superior  courts  at 
Westminster,  or  a  Master  in  Chancery,  or  two  of 
the  commissioners  appointed  for  that  purjjose  under 
the  act. 

FI'NGAL'S  CAVE.     See  Staffa. 

FINGER-BOARD,  th.at  part  of  a  stringed  musical 
instrimient,  as  in  the  violin,  violoncello,  guitar,  &e., 
which  is  made  of  ebony-wood,  and  glued  on  the  neck 
of  the  instrument,  and  shaped  on  the  top  somewhat 
round,  to  suit  the  position  in  which  the  strings  lie 
on  the  nut  and  the  bridge.  At  the  lower  end,  the 
finger-board  jirojects  over  the  sounding-board  of  all 
those  uistruments  played  w-ith  the  bow,  while  in 
the  guitar  species  the  finger-board  is  glued  down 
on  both  neck  and  sounding-board.  The  strings  are 
stretched  along  the  finger-board  from  the  nut  at 
the  top  to  the  bridge  at  the  lower  end,  and  are 
pressed  do«Ti  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  to 
make  the  different  notes  in  music ;  while  the  right 
hand  produces  the  soimd  either  by  a  bow  or  the 
points  of  the  fingers. 

FINGERS.    See  Hand. 

FINGERS-AND-TOES,  the  popular  name  of  a 
disease  in  turnips,  called  also  Anbury  ^q.  v.). 

FI'NIAL,  an  ornament,  generally  carved  to 
resemble  fohage,  which  forms  the  termination  of 
pinnacles,  gables,  sjiires,  and  other  portions  of  Gothic 
architecture.  There  are  traces  of  foliated  termina- 
tions, both  in  stone  and  metal,  on  the  pediments  of 
classic  buildings  (see  Acrotep.ion),  but  it  was  not  till 
the  12th  c.  that  the  finial  proper  was  introduced. 
During  the  latter  part  of  that  century  .and  the  whole 
of  the  13th  c,  finials  of  the  most  perfect  form  and 
of  infinite  variety  were  used  as  the  cromiing  orna- 
ments of  every  salient  point  in  the  buildings  of  the 

3-i3 


FLN'IXG— FDCISTKRE. 


jwriiHl 


(see  fig.  1).  The  architects  of  the  14th  c, 
liuials,  as  in  other  oiniiiuents,  imitated  more 
closely  the  forms  of  natural  fuliace ;  but  their 
tinials  had  neither  tlie  variety  of  desi<;n  nor  the 
vij^ur  of  outline  of  those  of  the  prccedmg  century 
(see  fii;.  -2). 

In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  the  finials  became 
more  and  more  meagre  in  form,  and  are  frequently 
only  four  crockets  set  upon  a  bare  jiyramidal 
terininal.     Some  vai-iety  of  effect  is  often  t'btainud 


J,  from  Bishop  Uriilporl's  Monument,  Salisbury  Cathedral; 
2,  York  Miuptei- ;  3,  Maulbroun,  Germany ;  4,  Crew  Ilall, 
Cheshire;  5,  Augsburg, 

during  this  period  by  surmounting  the  finial  with  a 
gilded  vane.  This  is  common  in  Tudor  and  domestic 
architecture  (fig.  3).  Finials  were  carved  both  in 
stone  and  wood,  and  in  the  latter  material  with 
great  delicacy  and  minuteness.  In  connection  Ti-ith 
metal- work,  liuials  of  metal  were  used,  and  whatever 
the  material  adopted,  its  natural  capabilities  were 
made  a  source  of  special  beauty. 

The  finial  is  one  of  the  most  effective  ornaments 
of  Gothic  architecture,  and  when  that  style  was 
succeeded  by  the  reWval  of  chissic,  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  om-  forefathers  coidd  not  persuade 
themselves  to  part  with  the  finials  to  their  buildings. 
We  thus  find  in  Elizabethan  architecture  a  great 
variety  of  finials  ;  they  are,  however,  almost  entirely 
of  a  geometric  form,  and  without  foliage  (fig.  4),  and 
are  frequently,  especially  when  terminating  wooden 
gables,  combinations  of  finial  and  vane  jiartly  wood 
and  partly  iron  (Hg.  5).  In  the  stricter  classic 
which  succeeded  the  Elizabethan,  some  traces  of  the 
favourite  finial  still  remain  in  the  balls,  obelisks,  &c., 
used  as  terminations,  and  also  in  the  shields  and 
supporters  (themselves  a  remnant  of  feudalism) 
which  form  the  crowning  ornament  of  gate-piers, 
pedestals,  &c. 

FINING,  the  process  of  clearing  turbid  liquors, 
such  as  beer,  wine,  &c.  The  simplest  mode  of 
fining  is  by  p.assing  the  liquor  through  a  porous 
substance  that  ret.iins  the  solids  and  .allows  the 
clear  liquid  to  pass  through  (see  Filtkk)  ;  but  tliis 
method  is  only  apj)licable  to  particles  mechanically 
suspended  in  a  lim])id  liquid.  When  the  liquid 
contains  mucilaginous  or  other  matter,  that  reatlily 
clogs  the  filter,  some  other  means  of  fining  must  be 
used.  Such  is  the  case  with  all  nuilt  liquors  and 
most  wines  when  turbii  WTien  in  good  condition, 
these  do  not  usually  require  fining,  as  the  suspended 
m.itter  .agglomerates,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  shortly 
after  the  fermentation  is  completed.  When  this 
830 


docs  not  take  place,  some  means  of  promoting  such 
action  .are  usu.ally  adopted.  One  of  the  simplest  is 
to  add  soUible  albumen,  such  as  white  of  egg.  to  a 
jHirtion  of  the  liquid,  and  .after  beating  it  well  in 
this,  to  aild  the  mi.xture,  and  stir  it  into  the  whole 
of  the  liquid.  Upon  the  aii]ilication  of  heat,  the 
albumen  coagidates  and  contracts  from  its  diffusion 
into  a  scum,  enveloping  .and  drawing  together  the 
suspended  matter.  The  scum  is  then  easily  removed. 
!  This  method  is  adojited  for  sjTups  and  other  liquids 
I  that  may  be  heated  without  mischief.  In  making 
j  clear  soups,  the  albumen  of  the  meat  performs  this 
(  function.  As  alcohol  coagulates  albumen,  it  may 
be  used  for  fining  wines  and  cordials  without  the 
application  of  heat.  It  is  generally  used  for  red 
mnes.  Malt  liquors  are  usually  liued  by  means  of 
gelatine,  either  isingl.ass  or  chcajier  substitutes  being 
used.  One  pound  of  isinglass  is  soaked  in  three  or 
four  pints  of  water,  or  sour  beer,  then  more  sour 
liquor  added  as  the  isinglass  swells,  until  it  .amounts 
to  about  a  gallon.  The  jelly  thus  formed  is  next 
dissolved  in  seven  or  eight  gallons  of  the  liquor  to 
be  fined.  This  solution,  having  the  consistence  of  a 
sjTup,  is  called  'brewers'  finings,'  and  about  a  pint 
to  a  pint  and  a  li.alf  is  added  to  a  b.arrel  of  ale  or 
porter,  or  to  a  hogshead  of  cider  or  wine.  The 
action  of  this  depends  upon  the  combination  of  the 
gelatine  with  the  astringent  matter  (taimic  acid) 
of  the  liquor,  forming  thereby  an  insoluble  solid, 
which  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  carries  N^ath  it,  like 
the  co.agulating  albumen,  the  suspended  matter ; 
but  .as  the  flavotrr  of  malt  liquors  jiartly  depends 
upon  the  astringents  they  contain,  the  fining  ad'ects 
the  flavour;  the  astringents  also  help  to  jireserve 
the  liquor,  and  hence  their  removal  is  in  this  respect 
disadvantageous.  M.alt  liquors  thus  fined  do  not 
'  stand  well  on  dr.aught.'  The  use  of  gehatine  for 
fining  red  wines  is  objectionable,  ,as  in  most  of 
these  the  astringent  flavour  is  an  esteemed  quality, 
and  therefore  albumen  is  preferred. 

Other  methods  of  fining  are  adopted.  Sugar  of 
lead  is  sometimes  added,  and  afterwards  one-half  its 
weight  of  sidphate  of  jiotash  dissolved  in  water. 
By  this  means,  an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lead  is 
precipitated,  which  in  subsiding  carries  down  other 
m.atters  -n-ith  it.  This  is  a  dangerous  [iroeess,  the 
siilts  of  le.od  being  poisonous.  If  properly  conducted, 
the  whole  of  the  lead  may  be  precipitated,  but  a 
casual  mistake  in  the  quantities  might  cause  the 
death  of  many  people.  0.x-blood  is  used  in  the 
same  m,anuer  .as  .albumen  and  isingl.ass.  Lime, 
alum,  alcohol,  .and  acids  act  by  coaguLating  albumen 
&c.,  contained  in  the  liquor.  Plaster  of  Paris,  clay, 
and  even  sand,  are  sometimes  used  to  carry  down 
the  suspended  matters.  A  atrip  of  isinglass  or  a 
])iece  of  dried  sole-skin  is  often  used  for  fining 
coffee,  and  it  acts  in  the  manner  above  described. 
Liquors  that  are  unusually  difficult  to  fine  are 
called  *  stubborn '  by  coopers  and  cellarmen. 

FINISTERE,  or  FINbSTEKRE  (Lat.  Finis  lerrce, 
'  Land's  End '),  a  dep,artment  at  the  western  extre- 
mity of  Fr.ance,  comprehending  a  jiart  of  the  former 
duchy  of  Brotagnc,  has  an  area  of  '26iS  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  662,48.5.  It  is  traversed  from 
east  to  west  by  two  low  but  ])icturesquc  chains 
of  hills.  Its  coast  is  very  rugged  and  broken,  its 
shores  bristling  with  dangerous  granite  rocks,  and 
fringed  with  many  islands.  The  soil,  one-third  of 
which  is  occupied  by  sandy  tracts  and  marshes,  is 
moderately  productive ;  and,  owing  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea,  which  w.oshes  the  northern,  Avestern,  and 
southern  shores  of  the  dei)artment,  the  climate  is 
mild  and  humid.  Corn,  hemp,  and  flax  are  grown 
in  considerable  quantities.  In  the  valleys,  smiling 
meadows  everywliere  occur.  The  silvi-r  and  le-od 
mines  of  F.  .are  very  valuable  ;  those  of  PouilKaouon 


FIXISTEEUE— riNLAY. 


and  Huelgoet  being  about  the  richest  in  France.  Its 
principal  rivers  are  the  Aulne,  the  Elorn,  and  the 
Odet.  The  first  of  these  ia  connected  by  a  canal 
with  the  Blavet,  and  forms  part  of  the  great  line 
of  communication  by  water  from  Brest  to  Nantes. 
This  department  is  divided  into  the  following 
five  arrondissements :  Quim])er,  Brest,  Chftteaulin, 
Morlai.x,  and  Quimperle.  Quimper  is  the  chief 
town. 

FINISTERRE,  Cape,  or  LAJTD'S  EXD,  is  the 
name  given  to  a  promontory  at  the  north-western 
extremity  of  Spain,  in  l.at.  42'  54'  N.,  and  long, 
about  9°  20'  W.  It  is  the  PromorUormm  Nerium 
of  the  ancients. 

FI'NLAND  (Fin.  Suomesimaa,  laud  of  lakes  and 
marshes)  is  a  grand  duchy  of  Russia,  Ij-ing  between 
59°  and  70°  N.  lat,  and  between  21°  and  33'  E. 
long.,  is  about  750  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
has  an  average  breadth  of  about  185  miles.  Accord- 
ing to  tlie  Ku-ssian  census  of  1851,  the  |)opulation 
was  l,63l),915,  and  it  has  maintained  a  pretty  con- 
stant r.ate  of  increase:  in  1867,  it  was  1,8.(0,853.1 
The  area  of  F.  may  be  estimated  .at  about  1 35,000 
square  miles,  of  which  nearly  one-third  is  occu-| 
pied  by  marshes  and  lakes.  The  largest  of 
these  sheets  of  water,  imlependently  of  Lake 
Ladoga,  which  belongs  partly  to  the  Russian 
pro\-ince  of  Olonetz,  are  Lakes  Puruvesi,  Payane, 
Enara,  and  Saima;  the  last  of  these,  which  is  i 
about  ISO  miles  in  length,  constitutes  a  portion  of  i 
the  system  of  water-commimication  which  lias  been 
established  between  the  central  parts  of  the  country  . 
and  the  Gidf  of  Finland.  The  lakes  are  especially 
numerous  in  the  south-west  of  F.,  where  they  are 
.almost  all  united  together  by  rivers  .and  waterfalls, 
round  the  central  lake  of  Pyhajar\n.  The  surface  is  I 
a  table-land,  from  400  to  600  feet  above  the  level  of  , 
the  sea,  with  occasional  higher  elevations.  There 
.arc,  however,  no  mountain-ranges,  and  hence  the 
rivers  are  unimportant ;  but  in  the  north  the  country 
is  intersected  by  a  sandy  ridge  known  as  the 
'  Maanselkae,'  which  merges,  imder  the  name  of  the 
Lapintunturit  Mountains,  into  the  great  Lappo- 
Norwegian  Alpine  chain.  The  coast-line  is  generally 
low,  but  to  the  south  it  is  skirted  by  numerous 
rocky  islands,  separated  from  the  land  by  narrow 
ch.annels,  ditfictdt  of  navigation,  but  well  ad.apted 
for  purposes  of  defence  against  hostile  attacks  from 
the  sea.  The  principal  geological  formations  are 
fri.able  granite,  hard  Umestone,  .and  slate.  The 
forests  of  F.  are  still  very  abundant,  although  they 
have  been  recklessly  cut  down  in  m.any  parts  of  the 
country  for  the  sake  of  their  ashes,  which  are  used 
to  stimulate  the  soil,  whose  n.atur.al  poverty  requires 
to  be  coiuiteraeted  by  frequent  manuring.  Pine  and 
fir  predominate,  but  birch,  beech,  oak,  &c.,  thrive  in 
the  south  ]iart3  of  the  coimtty,  where  some  good 
past\ire-land  is  to  be  met  with.  Since  the  incorpor- 
ation of  F.  with  Russia,  agricidtiu'e  has  declined, 
aud  fishing  and  cattle-breeding  increased  in  import- 
ance. The  most  valuable  exports  of  F.  are,  however, 
the  products  of  its  forests,  as  timber,  pitch,  potash, 
tar,  and  rosin,  for  although  it  still  jaelds  some 
grain,  the  supply  is  scarcely  greater  than  the  home 
demand,  although,  when  it  belonged  to  the  .Swedish 
crown,  F.  was  regarded  as  the  granary  of  Sweden 
for  barley  and  rye.  Wheat  and  oats  are  but  httle 
gi-owTi.  Few  fruits  ripen  except  hardy  berries ;  and 
in  the  e.xtreme  north,  vegetation  is  almost  limited  to 
mosses  and  liverworts.  F.  yields  some  copper,  iron, 
lime,  and  slate,  but  it  produces  scarcely  any  salt, 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  princip.al  articles  of 
import.  Reindeer,  wolves,  elks,  ueavers,  and  various 
kinds  of  game  aboimd  ;  while  the  numerous  lakes, 
aud  the  adjacent  gidfs,  supply  the  inhabitants  with 


an  abundance  of  salmon,  herring,  and  other  lish. 
The  climate  is  rigorous,  and  winter,  which  lasts  seven 
or  eight  months,  is  succeeded  by  a  brief  spring, 
which  passes  almost  suddenly  into  a  short  but 
hot  summer  of  six  or  seven  weeks,  succeeded  in 
its  turn  by  a  rainy  season,  which  ushers  in  the 
return  of  cold  weather.  In  the  north,  the  sun 
is  absent  during  a  part  of  December  and  .Januarj', 
and  almost  perpetually  aliove  the  horizon  during 
the  short  summer.  F.  is  dirided  into  eight 
l.-enes  or  governments — Xyland,  Abo-Biorneborg, 
Tawastehuus,  Wiborg,  Kuopio,  St  Michel,  Wasa, 
Uleaborg,  which  are  included  in  the  three  dioceses 
of  Abo,  Borgo,  and  Kuopio,  and  cont.ain  in  all  214 
parishes.  The  predominant  form  of  religion  is  the 
Lutheran,  but  the  Greek  Church  has  of  late  years 
been  gaining  ground.  The  courts  of  law  are  held 
at  Abo  (the  ancient  capital),  Wasa,  and  Wiborg ; 
and  there  is  one  university,  which  was  founded 
in  1640  at  Abo,  but  removed  from  thence  to  the 
present  capital,  Helsingfors,  in  1829.  The  highest 
ailministrative  .authority  is  vested  in  the  imperial 
seucate  for  F.,  consisting  of  18  members,  nominated 
by  the  emperor,  and  presided  over  by  the  governor- 
general  of  F.  The  army  numbers  now  only  679 
men,  but  has  the  privilege  of  serving  in  distinct 
corpSj  without  being  incorporated  in  the  general 
forces  of  the  empire.  The  naval  force  also  forms  a 
ilistinct  squadron,  under  its  own  national  tl.ag. 

The  early  history  of  F.  is  shrouded  in  obscurity, 
and  little  is  known  of  the  people  before  the  12th  c, 
when  Eric  the  Saint,  king  of  Sweden,  exasperated  by 
their  piratical  im-o,a<ls,  undertook  a  crusade  against 
them,  and  compelled  them,  by  force  of  arms,  to 
]irofess  Christianity.  The  hold  which  the  Swedes 
then  acquired  over  the  coimtry  was  never  wholly 
lost  till  1809,  when  Sweden  secured  peace  ■with 
Russia  by  the  cession  of  .all  F.  and  the  island  of 
Aland ;  before  that  time,  however,  the  Russians  had 
at  various  epochs  WTested  portions  of  the  Finnish 
territories  from  the  Swedes,  whde  F.  had  been  for 
centuries  the  perpetual  cause  and  scene  of  wars 
between  the  two  n.atious.  The  Swedish  language 
had  taken  such  deep  root  in  F.,  that  the  efforts  of 
the  Russian  government  to  displace  it  in  favour  of 
the  native  Finnish  h.ave  hitherto  met  with  only 
p.artial  success,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
the  people  still  ojienly  prefer  their  old  masters. 
The  inhabitants,  who  call  themselves  Siiomex,  and 
are  denominated  Tscliiules  by  the  Russians,  have, 
however,  no  afBnity  of  race  with  the  Swedes, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  difl'ering  from  .all  other 
European  nations,  excepting  the  Lapps  and  the 
Fimnarkers,  to  whom  they  are  very  probably  allied. 
See  Finns  and  Fix>n.su  LiTERATrRE. — For  further 
information,  see  Gerschau,  Versuch  einer  Oesch. 
Finland  (1821);  Riihs,  Finland  (.Stockh.  1827); 
Friis,  Benkrivelse  oi'er  de  norske  Finlapper  (1841); 
Gylden,  Histor,  och  statin.  Anteckninfj,  oin  Stadcrna 
i  Finland  (1845);  Stockfleth,  Bidrag  til  Kunds.  om 
Finneme  i  Norge ;  Topelius,  Finland  frcemsidlldl  i 
Teckning  (1860). 


FINLAND,   GcLF   of,  the   c 
Bidtic   Sea,    between    22°    and 
between  59°  and  61'  N.  lat.     Its 
Russian  territory.      It  receives 
great  lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga, 
gulf  is  not  deep,  and  only  very 
topography   of    the   Gulf    of    F. 
thoroughly  elucidated  by  Struv 
esting  part  of  the  great  work  of 
of  the  B.a!tic. 


astern  aim  of  the 
30°  E.  long.,  and 
coasts  are  entirely 
the  waters  of  the 
The  water  of  the 
sUghtly  s.alt.  The 
,,  which  has  been 
e,  forms  an  iiiter- 
the  Russian  survey 


FINLAY,  George,  a  distinguished  historian,  w.a-s 
born  in  Scotland  about  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century.   Circumstances  induced  him  to  take 

331 


FINMARK— I'lXXS. 


up  bis  resilience  ia  Athens,  where  he  has  patiently 
ami  industriously  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  later  Greek  "history.  The  fruits  of  his  labour 
and  researches  are  coutaiuetl  in  his  JI iflorii  uf  U irece 
uniltrl/i'' Koiiuuis.  14CB.C.  toTl"  A.D.  (London,  184.!; 
•Jd  ed.  lSo7) ;  Jlislorji  of  Greece  j'l-om  itx  Coiiijut.it 
Oil  the  Crusaders  to  Us  Conquest  hy  the  Turks,  ami  of 
the  Empire  of  Trebhond,  1-204— 1401  A.D.  (L<indou, 
ISol) ;  J/islori/  of  Ote  Jii/zautiiie  and  Greek  Em- 
pirm,  716 — 14o;j  a.d.  (Ivondou,  2  vols.,  18o.'{ — 1854) ; 
llistoni  of  Greece  uinbr  the  Othouian  and  Venetian 
Dominion  (1854) ;  and  Jlisloni  of'  the  Greek  Revolu- 
tion (Edin.  Blaekwooii  and  Sons,  ISCl).  F.  is  not 
regarded  as  a  philosophical  historian,  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  term  ;  but  he  h.as  been  e.arnest  and 
indefatigable  in  his  ende.ivoui-s  to  obtain  a  solid 
and  accurate  eonce]>tiiin  of  the  times  about  which 
he  h.-w  written,  aiul  has  thus  been  enabled  to  throw 
a  (lood  of  new  light  on  the  obscurity  of  modern 
Givck  historv.  F.  also  exhibits  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  Greek  art,  antiquities,  and  tojiogniphy. 

FI'XSIARK,  a  province  of  Norway,  and  the  most 
northern  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  Ijing 
between  68°  30'  and  71°  N.  lat.,  and  17°  and  31"  E. 
long.,  constitutes  Norwegian  L.a])land  (q.  v.).  Area 
about  24,000  square  miles,  of  which  three-fourths 
are  occujiied  by  the  continent,  the  rest  belonging 
to  the  numerous  islands  wliicli  skirt  its  north-west 
shores,  and  terminate  in  the  North  Cape.  Innumer- 
able fiords  and  bays  indent  the  coast.  The  interior 
is  intersected  by  a  snow-eovered  range  of  moun- 
tains, reaching  an  elevation  of  4000  feet ;  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow  being  here  less  than  3000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Agi-icultiire  is  impracti- 
caljle  above  an  elcv.ition  of  100  feet ;  a  few  berries 
are  the  only  fruits  that  ripen  ;  and  although  barley, 
potatoes,  and  a  few  other  vegetables  thrive  in  some 
jiarts,  tish  and  game  constitute  almost  the  sole  food 
of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  nortli,  where  no  trees 
are  to  be  found,  the  turf  of  the  marshes  affords  a 
good  supply  of  fuel.  The  thin  vegetable  mould 
wliich  covers  the  stony  soil  yields  gi'ass  for  the 
sheej)  and  cows,  which  gi-aze  on  the  declivities  of 
the  rocks  skirting  the  fionls  and  creeks.  The 
principal  soiu'ce  of  wealth  is  the  i-eindeer  in  the 
north,  and  the  cod-fisheries  in  the  south.  The  pop., 
which  docs  not  exceed  50,000,  consists  principally 
of  La])ps  (see  L.:VPL.ixi>),  a  people  of  Finnish  origin. 
Hamraerfest,  the  capital  of  F.  (70°  40'  N.  lat.),  is  "the 
most  northern  town  of  Europe. 

FINNISH  LITERATURE.  To  Elias  Lonnrot 
of  Helsingfors  belongs  the  merit  of  having  rescued 
from  utter  obli\aon  some  of  the  numerous  sagas  and 
songs  which  had  for  ages  been  recited  by  the  Finnish 
Hunolainen,  or  singers,  to  the  sound  of  the  kantcla, 
or  harp,  and  thus  transmitted  from  one  generation  to 
another.  Although  liis  researches  were  limited  to 
the  district  of  K.arelia,  in  the  government  of  Kupio, 
lie  obtained  numerous  songs  and  proverbs,  and  a 
complete  epos,  consisting  of  32  parts,  each  of  which 
contained  from  200  to  700  verses.  This  singular 
moniuncnt  of  the  earlier  culture  of  the  people'was 
published  by  him  in  183.").  under  the  title  of  Kalewala 
(the  ancient  name  of  Finland),  but  it  met  with  little 
notice  till  the  academy  of  Dorpat  made  it  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion  at  their  meetings  in  1840.  This 
publicity  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign 
pliilologists,  and  led  to  its  translation  into  Russian, 
.Swedish,  and  Germ.an.  The  learned  Finnish  scholar, 
Carsten,  the  Grimms,  and  Brockhaus,  agree  in 
regarding  the  Kalewala  as  a  ])ure  epic,  and  charac- 
terise it  as  a  composition  possessing  a  thoroughly 
Oriental  appreciation  of  nature,  an  almost  unpar.alteled 
wealth  of  iinases  and  trojies,  gre.at  ilexibility  of 
rhythm,  and  a  copiousness  of  synonyms  not  to  be  met 


with  in  any  other  northern  tongue.  There  is  less 
unanimity  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  jilot,  for 
while  one  critic  believes  that  the  incidents  rcfi-r  to 
delinite  historicil  ejioehs,  another  regards  them  as 
purely  allegorical.  But  whatever  discrepancy  of 
opinion  there  may  be  in  this  respect,  the  Kalewala 
is  .admitted  by  all  who  are  cntitletl  to  form  a  judgment 
of  its  merits,  to  be  one  of  the  most  curious  monu- 
ments of  the  kind  jiossessed  by  any  European  jieople. 
The  date  of  its  composition  must  be  referred  to  a 
period  anterior  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
amongst  the  Finns  in  the  14th  c,  while  there  is  even 
strong  internal  evidence,  from  an  iilentity  of  the 
names  and  traditions  of  the  Kalewala  with  many 
still  current  in  Esthonia,  that  the  poems  very  probably 
belong  to  an  epoch  anterior  to  the  immigi'ations 
of  the  Kareliaus  into  the  districts  which  they  now 
occupy.  The  publication  of  the  Kalewala  h.as 
given  a  powerful  inii)etus  to  the  study  of  the  Finnish 
laugxiage,  which  the  Russian  government  efTectively 
sustains  by  encouraging  the  cultivation  and  use  of 
their  native  tongue  l)y  the  Fiulanders.  The  upi>er 
classes  still  cling  to  the  use  of  .Swedish,  but  the 
peasantry  .and  small  lauded  jiropiietors  welcome 
with  avidity  every  .addition  to  the  limited  stock  of 
their  printed  literature.  Finnish  weekly  papers 
circulate  freely  among  them,  and  political  questions 
are  discussed  with  an  entbusi.asm  which  is  never 
met  with  .among  similar  classes  in  .Scandinavia  or 
Russia  Proper,  but  which  affords  additional  ju'oof  of 
the  diversity  of  character  wliich  distinguishes  the 
Finn  from  either  of  the  neighbouring  nations  with 
which  he  has  been  successively  incorjiorated. 

The  prose  literature  of  Fiidaud  is  .almost  exclusively 
devoted  to  religious  au'l  moral  subjects.  The  Bible 
was  translated  into  Finnish  in  1612,  but  .a  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  had  been  translated  a  centiu'y 
earlier.  Several  Finnish  jioets  have  acquired  a 
reputation  of  late  years,  but  their  works  bre.ithc 
the  same  melancholy  tone  which  so  strongly  charac- 
terises the  more  ancient  poems  of  Fiiil.aua.  Ijonnrot 
h.as  made  a  coUection  of  about  7000  jiroverhs  [Suomiii 
kan.fa)i  &inaUkiija,  1842),  and  about  2000  charades 
(Suom.  kans.  arwoiluskia,  1S51).  See  Erman'sylrcA/'o 
;'.  d.  Kunde  v.  Jiussland.  TengstrOni  i  Fosterldmlskl 
'Alb.  (Helsingf.) 

FINNS,  geographic.allj',  the  name  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Finland ;  but  in  ethnology,  th.at  of  .a 
considerable  liranch  of  the  Ugi-ian  race,  dwelling  for 
the  most  part  in  Finland,  though  with  some  rejire- 
sentatives  in  Sweden  and  Norw.ay  as  well.  The 
Ugrians  have  been  classed  among  the  n.ations  said 
to  have  a  Mongolian  origin.  Dr  Latham  places 
them  among  the  '  Turanian  Altaic  Mongolid.'e,'  and 
diWdes  them  into  Ugrians  fif  the  East,  and  Ugi'ians 
of  the  West.  The  Western  L'gri.ans  consist  of 
Lapps,  Finns,  Permi.ans,  and  other  nations  or  tribes 
in  the  north  and  north-west  of  Russia,  and  of  the 
Magyars  in  Himg.ary.  The  Magyars  .are  the  most 
numerous,  and  next  after  these  come  the  Finns, 
comprising  .about  2,000,000  of  imlividu.als.  All  the 
other  tribes  of  Western  I'grians  do  not  together 
comprise  so  many.  The  F.,  in  common  with  the 
other  Ugrians,  are  of  the  Mongolian  type.  A 
recent  traveller,  Mr  B.aj-ard  Taylor,  describes  them 
as  ha\-ing  '  high  cheek-bones,  square,  strong  jaws, 
fiUl,  yet  firm  lips,  low  broad  foreheads,  dark  eyes 
and  hair,  and  a  deeper,  warmer  red  on  the  cheeks 
than  on  those  of  the  rosy  Swedes.  The  average 
height  is,  perhaps,  not  quite  equal  to  th.at  of  the 
latter  r.ace,  but  in  physical  vigour  there  is  no 
inferiority,  and  there  are  among  them  many  men 
of  splendid  stature,  strength,  and  jirojiortion.' 
Other  travellers  bear  simiUir  testimony  to  the 
physical  apijearaiice  of  the  F.  jiroper,  or  those 
of  pure  Finnish  blood ;  but  although  these  form  the 


FIXS-Fin. 


majority,  there  are  many,  in  the  towns  especially, 
who  jiass  for  F.,  while,  in  reality,  they  are  quite  as 
much  entitled  to  be  called  Swedes,  or  even  Russians, 
on  account  of  the  fretjuent  intermaniages  of  the 
F.  with  individuals  of  those  two  nations.  The  F., 
from  having  been  originally  a  noiuatlie  race,  have 
for  many  centuries  been  stationary  and  civilised. 
Long  before  the  arrival  of  the  German  and  Slavic 
nations  in  the  north  of  Europe,  the  Ugrians,  or  Ogres 
(for  the  name  so  common  in  fiction  is  really  of 
historic  origin),  jiossessed  it,  and  were  gi'adually 
l>u3hed  fiu-ther  north  and  east  by  the  new  invaders. 
Uoth  F.  and  Lajips,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe, 
originally  extended  much  further  south  than  they 
do  at  present,  occupying,  perhaps,  the  whole  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.  '  The  Finns,'  says  Prichard, 
'  were,  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  as  savage  as  the 
Lapps ;  but  the  former,  during  the  succeeding 
ages,  became  so  far  civUised  as  to  exchange  a 
nomadic  life  for  one  of  agricidtural  pursuits  ;  while 
the  Lapps  have  ever  continued  to  be  bai'barous 
nomades,  as  well  .is  the  .Siberian  tribes  of  the  same 
race — namely,  the  W'ogids  and  Ostiaks.  The  Finns, 
.TS  well  as  their  lirethren  the  Beormahs,  or  Finns  of 
the  White  Sea,  had  probably  undergone  this  change 
long  before  the  time  when  they  were  \-isited  by 
Otther,  the  guest  of  Alfred.  When  the  Finns  were 
conquered  by  the  Swedes,  they  had  long  been  a 
settled  people,  but  one  of  curious,  and  singular,  and 
isolated  character.' 

The  Finnish  language,  like  that  of  the  other 
Ugi'ian  n.itions,  belongs  to  the  Turanian  f.amUy  of 
languages,  and  hence  offers  some  striking  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the 
Turks,  Tartars,  Mongols,  ilandshurians,  Timgusians, 
and  even  JLagyars  or  Hungarians.  Li  Finnish, 
the  nouns  are  not  inflected,  but  an  additional 
word  is  required  to  denote  the  variations  of  case, 
nimdjcr,  and  sex.  The  prejiositions  and  pronouns 
are  sulhxed  to  the  words  they  modif}'.  The  verbs 
have  only  two  tenses,  past  and  present ;  the  future 
being  expressed  by  adding  to  the  present  some 
word  indicating  a  future  action  or  state  of  being. 
It.i.sk  considers  the  Finnish  to  be  the  most  harmoni- 
ous of  tongues.  Many  Swedish,  and  a  few  Russian 
words  have,  of  course,  become  incorporated  with 
the  language,  in  consequence  of  the  social  and 
jiolitical  relations  of  the  F.  with  those  two  countries. 
The  F.  of  our  time  are  doidjtless  the  same  race  as 
the  Fi'Kiii  of  Tacitus,  and  the  Phlnnui  of  Str.abo 
and  Ptolemy,  though  not  occupying  the  same  geo- 
gi-aphical  area.  '  The  nearest  approach  to  a  name 
at  once  general  and  native,'  says  Dr  Latham,  '  is 
Suomelaiuen,  meaning  swamp,  morass,  or  fen  people ; 
the  term  Finn  and  Finlander  being  of  foreign  origin.' 
W'ith  respect  to  the  social  habits,  mor.als,  and 
manners  of  the  F.,  all  travellers  are  unanimous  in 
praising  them.  They  arc  of  a  cheerful  disposition, 
.affectionate  towards  each  other,  and  honest  and 
honourable  in  their  dealings  with  strangers.  They 
are  also  cleanly  in  their  persons,  being  much 
addicted  to  the  use  of  the  vairour-bath,  to  which 
circumstance  may  be  attributed  the  strongly  marked 
difference  in  physical  ap])earance  between  them  and 
the  stunted  Lapps,  to  whom,  in  language  as  well  as 
many  other  respects,  they  stand  closely  related. 

FIXS  (allied  to  L.at.  pinna  or  penna,  see  letter 
F),  org.ans  adapted  for  s\vimming  or  locomotion  in 
water.  The  limits  of  the  application  of  the  term 
are  rather  vague.  It  is  always  ajipUed  to  the 
locomotive  organs  of  fishes,  when  they  jmssess 
special  organs  of  locomotion,  as  almost  all  of  them 
do;  and  equally  to  those  organs  (the  pectoral 
and  ventral  tins)  which  are  homologous  to  the 
limbs  of  other  vertebr.ate  animals,  and  to  those 
(the  vertical  tins)  which  may  be  said  to  be  super- 


added to  them,  and  to  belong  to  fishes  alone ; 
equally  also  to  those  which  are  furnished  with 
rays,  having  a  membrane  stretched  on  them,  as 
is  generally  the  case  in  all  the  fins  of  fishes,  and  to 
those  which  consist,  as  in  some  fishes,  of  a  mere 
fold  of  the  skin,  and  'which,  when  they  exist  in 
fishes,  are  in  reality  not  very  much  org.ans  of 
locomotion.  The  name  fins  is  given  to  the  locomo- 
tive organs  of  Cetacm,  but  not  to  those  of  any 
other  Mammalia,  even  when,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
hind  feet  of  seals,  they  approach  very  nearly  to 
the  character  of  the  fins  of  fishes.  Nor  is  it  ever 
given  to  the  webbed  feet  of  birds.  But  it  is 
often  given  tcj  the  swinuning  organs  of  inverte- 
brate anim;Us,  .as  to  the  expansions  of  the  mantle 
which  servo  this  purpose  in  the  Cephalopoda,  and 
which  are  entirely  destitute  of  rays. 

FI'NSBURY,  or  FEN  TOWN,  a  parliamentary 
l)orough  of  Middlesex,  forming  the  north  part  of 
London  (q.  v.). 

FI'NSCALE.     See  KcBD. 

FI'NSTER.AA'RHORN,  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Bernese  Alps.     See  .^lps. 

FINSTERWALDE,  a  sm.aU  town  of  Fnissia, 
in  the  province  of  Brandenbm'g,  is  situated  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Black  Elster,  40  miles  north  of 
Dresden.  It  has  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
machinery ;  spinning  and  wea^'ing  are  carried  on. 
Pop.  7370. 

FI'ORIN.    See  Belnt  Gras;?. 

FIR,  a  name  often  used  in  a  sense  co-extensive 

\vith  the  widest  sense  of  the  word  Pine  (q.  v.),  and 
therefore  so  as  to  include  a  large  portion  of  the 
OoNiFER.E  (q. v.),  or  at  least  the  whole  of  the 
Linn^an  genus  Pitius.  But  the  name  fir  is  often 
also  used  in  a  more  restricted  signification,  and 
the  trees  so  design.ated  are  those  foniung  the  genus 
Abies  of  some  authors,  Abies  and  Picea  of  others, 
which  the  greater  number  of  botanists  have  now 
.agreed  in  separating  from  Piinis.  The  Scotch  Fir, 
however,  is  a  true  Pine  {Piniis  stjlvestris),  and  wUl 
be  described  along  ^^•ith  its  congeners.  See  Pine. — 
The  genus  Abies  is  distiuguisheil  from  Piniis  by  the 
fiat  rounded  apex  of  the  scales  of  its  cones,  and  by 
leaves  not  in  clusters  of  definite  number.  Some 
botanists  include  the  species  of  L.\kch  (q.v.)  and 
Ced.\r  (q.v.)  in  the  genus  Abins;  but  if  these  be 
separated,  no  species  with  clustered  leaves  remain 
in  this  genus,  which  then  contains  only  the  different 
kinds  of  .Spruce  Fir  and  of  SIL^-ER  Fir,  or 
species  most  nearly  allied  to  those  which  ordin- 
arily be.ar  these  names.  All  of  them  are  ever- 
green. The  S])ruce  Fii-s  form  the  genus  Abies  of 
some  authors,  distinguished  by  short  solitary  leaves, 
scattered  .all  round  the  brauchlets,  and  by  the 
scales  of  the  (peudidous)  cones  being  attenuated 
at  the  apex,  and  remaming  fixed  to  the  axis  of  the 
cone.  'The  Silver  Firs  form  the  genus  Picea  of 
some,  distinguished  by  the  deciduous  scales  of  the 
(erect)  cones.  It  being  supposed,  however,  that  the 
Linn.-ean  names  had  been  given  through  mistake, 
and  th.at  the  common  Silver  Fir  is  the  true  Abies  of 
the  ancients,  and  the  Norway  Spruce  their  Picea, 
Link  has  attempted,  but  'without  being  followed  by 
many,  to  restore  these  names  to  their  ancient  use, 
and  to  denominate  the  genera  accordingly. — The 
Norway  .Spruce  (Abie^  ciceha  or  Pinus  Abies) 
is  a  noble  tree,  sometimes  attaining  the  height  of 
180  feet,  with  long  cylindrical  pendulous  cones, 
denticulate  scales,  and  scattered,  green,  crowded, 
suddenly  pointed,  almost  quadrangular  leave;?.  It 
is  the  Ficlite  of  the  Germans,  called  also  liothlanne  or 
Sclaoarztanne.  Like  the  other  kinds  both  of  .Spruce 
and  Silver  Fir,  it   exhibits  the  peculiar   character 

;33 


Kin. 


nf  the  ConilWa  more  perfectly  than  many  of  the 
tnio  Pines  "do,  in  its  perfectly  erect  stem,  from 
whK-h  proceed  almost  wl.orled  horizontal  branches. 


Common,  or  Norway  Spruce  Fir  {Ahics  cxfc'sa)  : 
Copied  from  Selby's  Sritish  Forest  'I'recn. 

It  is  a  very  beautiful  pyramidal  tree,  aud  when  old, 
its  long  branches  droop  towards  the  ground.  It 
forms  entire  forests  in  the  middle  aud  north  of 
Europe  and  in  Asia,  chieflj'  upon  elevated  ridges, 
although  it  jirefcrs  moist  places.  It  loves  districts 
of  primitive  rock.  In  some  ])laces,  it  is  found  even 
within  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  not  a  native  of 
Britain,  but  has  long  been  very  generally  iJauted, 
although  too  often  it  is  merely  made  a  uurse  for 
other  trees,  aud  is  not  allowed  to  attain  a  consider- 
able aj'e  or  size.  It  is  of  rapid  growth,  but  is 
believed  to  live  to  the  age  of  400  years.     It  yields 


Cone  of  Norway  Spruce  Fir : 
a,  branchlct  and  cone  ;  b,  scale,  'with  seeds ;  c,  a  seed. 

the  same  products  as  the  Scotch  Fir,  resin,  tiu'iien- 
tine,  tar,  and  lampblack  (see  these  heads) ;  but 
more  resin  than  turpentine.  The  true  Sj)ruce  Kosiii 
flows  spontaneously  from  the  bark.  The  purest 
pieces  are  whitish  or  jiale  yellow,  are  sold  under  the 
name  of  Common  Frankincensk,  and  used  for 
ointments  and  plasters,  and  when  melted  yield  the 
commoa  Burgundy  I'itch  (q.  v.).  The  bark  of  the 
spruce  ia  a  good  and  cheap  non-conductor  of  heat : 
331 


the  cones  are  an  excellent  substitute  for  tannei-s' 
bark.     In  Sweden  and  Norway,  the  inntr  bark  is 
made  into  b.'uskets  ;  and  the  long  and  slender  roots, 
s])lit  aud  boiled  with  ivlkali  and  sea-salt,  arc  dried, 
and  twisted  into  cordage,  which  is  used  both  for 
vessels  and  by  farmci-s.     The  wood  is  used  for  fuel 
and  for  house-building ;  it  also  supplies  masts  and 
spars  for  ships.    It  ia  the  White  Ciibi.stiania  Dkai. 
and  Danzio  I)K.VLof  the  market,  and  is  very  largely 
ira|  sorted  into  Britain  from  Norway  and  the  Baltic. 
It  is  whiter,  lighter,  less  resinous,  and  more  elastic 
than  the  timber  of  Scotch  Fir.    The  sapwood,  whilst 
still  in  a  gelatinous  state,  is  sweet,  and  is.  eaten 
fresh  in  Sweden  and  Lajilaud ;  and  tlic  inner  bark, 
in  times  of  scarcity,  is  mixed  with  a  little  Hour  or 
meal    of   some  kiud,  and  b.iked  into  bread.     The 
voung  shoots,  still  covered  with  their  bud-scales,  are 
m  nuany  parts  of  Europe  used  for  fumigation.     The 
leaf-buils  are  also  employed  medicinally  in  cases  of 
scuiT^',  rheumatism,  and  gout.     The  jwUen  is  often 
sold  by  ai)othecaries  instead  of  the  dust  of  the  Club- 
moss  or  Lycopodlum, — A  very  superior  variety  of  this 
lir  is  luiowni  as  the  Red  Norway  Si-ri'ce.     Dwarf 
varieties  are  cultivated  amongst  ornanu'utal  shrulis. 
— The  Black  Spruce  [Ahics  it'njrti),  of  which  the 
Bed  Spruce  (sometimes  called  A.  rubra)  is  regarded 
as  a  mere  variety  caused  by  difference  of  soil,  and 
the  White  Spruce  (^1.  aUm),  form  great  woods  in 
North  America.     The  Black  Spruce  is  found  as  far 
north  as  lat.  65°.     Both  species  are  now  common  in 
jilantations   in   Britain.      Both   have   quadrangular 
leaves ;  those  of   the  Black  .S]iruce   are  of  a  dark 
glaucous  green,  those  of  the  White  Spruce  are  of  a 
lighter  colour.     The  cones  <if  the  Bhick  Spruce  are 
short,   ovate-oblong,   obtuse,   and   pendidous,    with 
rounded  scales  ragged   at  the  edge ;    those   of  the 
AVbite  Spnice  are  oval,  and  tapering  to  a  point  with 
entire  scales.   The  Black  Spnice  is  a  valiial>le  timlior 
tree,  supjdying  yards  of  ships,  &c.,  but  its  planks 
are  apt  to  split     The  White  Spruce  is  smaller,  and 
the  timber  inferior.     From   the  Black  Spruce  the 
Kisence  of  Spruce  is  obtained,  w'hich  ia  so  useful  as 
au   antiscorbutic   in   long  voyages,  and  is  used  for 
making  spruce-beer.     Spruce-beer  is  also  made  by 
adding  molasses  or  m,aple  sugar  to  a  decoction  of  the 
young  branchlets,  and  allowing  the  whole  to  ferment. 
From  the  fibres  of  the  root  of  the  White  Si>ruce, 
macerated    in   water,   the    Canadians   prepare    the 
thread  with  which  they  sew  their  birch-bark  canoes ; 
and  the  seams  are  made  water-tight  with  its  resin. 
— Fi-om  the  twigs  of  the  Oriental  Fir  (A.  Orien- 
talis),  a  native  of  the  Levant,  a  very  fine  clear  resin 
e.tudes,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Sapindus* 
Tears.     This  fir  has  very  short  quadrangular  leaves, 
densely  crowded,  and   uniformly  imbricated. — The 
Hemlock  Spruce  of  North  America  (A.  Catiailensh) 
forms  great  part  of  the  forests  of  Canada  and  of 
the  Northern  States  of  America,  extending  north- 
wards as  far  as  Hudson's  Bay.     Its  timber  is  not 
much   esteemed,   as   it   si)lits   very   obliquely,   and 
decays  rapidly  in  the  atmosphere ;   but  the  bark 
is  valued  for  tanning.     The  leaves  are  two-rowed, 
fiat,  and  obtuse.    The  cones  are  scarcely  longer  than 
the  leaves.     The  yoimg  trees  have  a  very  graceful 
appearance,  but  the  older  ones  are  generally  much 
disfigured    by   remaining    stunqis    of    theu-    lower 
liranches. — A.  dumosa  of  Nepal  is  very  much  allied 
to  the  Hendock  Spruce. — A.  Douijlasii  is  a  noble 
tree,   attaining  a  height  of  2.50   feet,  which   forms 
immense  forests  in  the  north-west  of  America,  from 
lat.  43°  to  lat.  52°.     The  bark,  when  the  tree  is  old, 
is  rugged,  and  G — 9  inches  thick.     It  abounds  in 
a  clear,  yellow  resin.      The  timber  is  hea\'y,  firm, 
and  valuable ;  the  gro'\vth  very  ra])id. — A.  Menziesii, 
a    native    of    North    CaUforuia,    very    similar    to 
A.  Uowjlasii  in  general  aiipearance,  also  produces 


FIR-FIKDUSI. 


timber  of  excellent  quality. — A.  Brunoniana,  a 
Himalayan  species,  forms  a  stately  blunt  pyramid 
of  120 — 150  feet  in  height,  with  branches  spreading 
like  the  cedar,  and  drooping  gracefully  on  all  sides. 
It  is  found  only  at  considerable  elevations.  The 
wood  is  not  durable,  but  the  bark  is  very  usefiU. — 
The  KncTROWor  Himalayan  Spruce  {A.  Smilluana, 
called  also  A.  Morinda  and  A.  Khidrow)  much 
resembles  the  Norway  Spruce,  but  has  longer  and 
more  pendulous  branches.  The  wood  is  white,  and 
not  highly  esteemed,  although  it  readily  spUts  into 
jilanks. — The  Mount  E.nos  ]hs.  (A.  Ceplialonica),  a 
native  of  Cephalouia,  attaining  a  height  of  60  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  yields  durable  and 
very  valuable  timber. — All  these  species  have  been 
introduced  into  Britain,  and  some  of  them  seem 
likely  soon  to  be  pretty  common  in  our  plantations, 
as  well  as  others  from  the  north-west  of  America 
and  from  the  mountains  of  Asia,  as  A.  WMmanniana, 
&c.,  noble  trees,  and  apparently  quite  suitable  to 
the  cUmate. — The  common  Silver  Fir  (Picea 
peclitutta,  or  Abies  or  Pinus  picca)  has  erect  cyUn- 
drical  cones,  5 — 6  inches  long,  and  two-rowed 
leaves,  with  two  white  lines  upon  the  imder  side. 
It  forms  considerable  woods  ujjon  the  mountains 
of  Central  Europe  and  of  the  north  of  Asia,  and 
attains  a  height  of  ISO — 180  feet,  and  an  age  of 
300  years.  It  is  not  a  native  of  Britain,  but  large 
trees  are  now  to  be  seen  in  very  many  places.  The 
wood  is  white,  contains  little  resin,  is  very  soft  and 
light,  and  is  employed  for  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  coopers,  turners,  and  joiners,  and  in  ship  and 
house  carpentry,  also  for  making  band-boxes  and 
for  many  lino  purposes,  especially  for  the  sound- 
ing-boards of  musical  instnmients.  The  same 
resinous  and  oily  products  are  obtained  from  the 
Silver  Fir  as  from  the   Spruce  and  Scotch   Fir, 


Silver  Fir  (Picea  peclinata) : 
Copied  from  Sclby's  British  Forest  Trees. 

but  of  superior  quality.  It  jaelds  the  beautifid 
clear  turjientine  known  as  Strasburg  Turjientine. 
Very  similar  to  the  Silver  Fir,  but  generally  of 
much  smaller  size,  and  indeed  seldom  much  above 
thirty  feet  in  height,  is  the  Balm  of  Gilead  Fir 
[Picea  or  Abies  baUamea),  a  native  of  North  America 
from  Virginia  to   Canada.     The  wood  is   of   little 


value,  but  the  tree  yields  Canada  Balsam  (q.  v.). 
Besides  these,  a  number  of  other  species  of  Picea 
are  found  in  the  western  parts  of  North  America 
and  in  the  Himalaya,  some  of  which  arc  trees  of 
gi-eat  magnitude,  and  yielding  excellent  timber,  as 


Cone  of  Silver  Fir : 
a,  brancblet  and  cones ;  6,  a  scale ;  r,  u  seed. 

P.  i/randis,  a  Californian  tree  of  170 — 200  feet  in 
height — P.  amabilis,  a  species  much  resembling  it — 
P.  nobilis,  a  majestic  tree,  which  forms  vast  forests 
on  the  moimtains  of  Northern  California — P.  Iruc- 
Uala,  a  Cahfomian  species  remarkable  for  its  slender 
stem,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  120  feet,  and  yet 
is  only  about  one  foot  in  diameter  at  the  base, 
and  likewise  for  the  manner  in  which  the  middle 
lobe  of  each  braetea  of  its  cones  is  produced  so  as 
to  resemble  a  leaf — P.  Webbiana,  the  Himalavan 
Silver  Fir,  which,  in  its  native  regions,  fills  the 
upper  parts  of  inoimtain  valleys,  and  cro^ais  summits 
and  ridges  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  10,000 
feet,  a  tree  of  great  size,  35  feet  in  girth,  and  with 
a  tnuik  rising  40  feet  before  it  sends  out  a  branch. 
Most  of  these  have  been  introduced  into  Britain 
with  good  prospect  of  their  succeeding  well  in  oiu- 
climate,  and  other  species,  as  P.  Pichla,  a  native 
of  the  Altai  Mountains,  very  nearly  resembling  the 
Silver  Fir,  P.  Nwdmanniana,  P.  Fraserii,  &c. — P. 
reliijiosa  is  a  tall  and  elegant  tree,  a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  Mexico,  with  slender  branches,  which 
are  very  much  used  by  the  Mexicans  for  adorning 
churches,  and  cones  shorter  than  those  of  any  other 
Sdver  Fir.  P.  Jezoensis  is  a  new  siwcies  recently 
introduced  from  Japan. 

FIRDUSI,  FIRDOWSI  (Tusi),  Abu'l-Kasim 
Mansur,  the  greatest  epic  poet  of  Persia,  was  boru 
between  304—328  h.,  or  916—940  A.  D.,  at  Shadab  or 
Eizvan,  near  Tus  in  Khorassan.  Whether  the  name 
Firdusi  (from  firdus,  garden,  paradise)  was  given  to 
him  because  his  father  {Fachreddin  Ahmad)  was  a 
gardener,  or  on  account  of  the  '  Paradise  of  Poetry ' 
which  he  had  created,  is  matter  of  controversy. 
All  that  is  knoA^-n  of  his  early  life  is,  that  when 
a  boy  he  was  very  industrious,  and  also  that  'ho 
loved  to  sit  for  daj-s  alone  on  the  bank  of  a  river.' 
At  the  age  of  between  thirty  and  forty,  he  went  to 
Gazneh,  where  Mahmud  the  Gaznewide,  a  great 
admirer  and  patron  of  poetrj'  and  the  arts  generally, 
then  resided.  Erelong,  F.  had  an  opportunity  of 
displaying  both  his  talent  and  his  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  ancient  Persian  historj'  and  legendary 
lore  before  the  sultan  himself,  who  was  so  pleased 
•with  an  episode  (the  story  of  Sijavush)  written  by 
him  at  his  majesty's  order,  that  he  at  once  paid  him 
a  gold  dirhem  for  each  couplet,  and  shortly  after- 
wards sent  him  a  great  nimiber  of  fragmentary 
ancient  chronicles  and  histories  of  Persia,  that  he 
might  versify  them,  and  thus  carry  out  the  task 
once  attempted  by  Dakiki — viz.,  to  Amte  a  poeticid 


FIRE-FUllu-ULMS. 


liistory  of  tliu  Persian  kings  from  the  creation  of 
the  uiirhl  to  the  end  of  the  Sassanidc  dynasty 
(030  A.  i>.) — the  rcw:inl  to  be  a  dirhein  a  line.  F. 
s|H.ut  thirty  years  over  the  work,  and  produeed  the 
limous  Jj'uiik  of  Kiii'js  {.Shah  J\'(i;ne/i).  eonsistinj;  of 
Gt'.lKH)  double  lines.  Without  ,i;oiu!;  so  f;ir  ;is  many 
critics  have  gone,  we  may  fairly  rank  it  amon^'  the 
greatest  epics'of  all  nations :  the  /liud,  the  Malmbhd- 
i-ala,  the  yiMimgeii.  Truth  and  fiction,  history 
and  fairy  lore,  all  the  most  gorgeous  imagery  of  the 
luist  anil  its  qiuaintest  conceits,  together  with  the 
homeliest  and  most  touching  descriiitions  of  himian 
joy  and  human  sorrow,  of  \alour  .and  of  love,  the 
liuet  h.as  formed  into  one  glowing  song.  Though 
abounding— in  strict  adlierence  to  its  sources— in 
imi'ossibiuties  and  anachronisms  (such  as  .rVlexandcr 
the  Great  being  a  Christian,  Ki-Khosroo  holdiii" 
the  Zend  Avesta  in  his  hands— some  hundred  and 
twenty  yeai-s  before  it  w;vs  brought  to  light- 
Abraham  being  Zerdusht,  &c.),  it  yet  contains  not 
a  little  that  is  of  real  historical  value,  quite  apart 
from  its  being  the  most  faithful  mirror  of  its  own 
times.  See  Suaii  Nameh.  But  while  F.  was 
'  weaving  his  poetical  eaq)et,'  his  enemies  ha*l  not 
been  iiile.  Unable  to  attack  his  genius  and  his 
honesty,  they  attacked  liis  religious  opinions ;  and 
the  suitan,  influenced  by  bigotry  and  av.oiice,  sent 
the  poot,  instead  of  60,(KIO  dirhems  of  gold,  so 
many  dirhems  of  silver.  F.  was  at  a  public  bath 
when  the  messenger  arrived  with  the  money,  and 
on  discovering  tfiat  it  w.is  silver,  and  not  gold, 
Mahmud  had  sent  him,  he  divided  the  amount  into 
three  portions,  .and  g.avc  one  to  the  attendant  at  the 
b.ath,  another  to  the  messenger,  and  the  third  to  a 
man  who  brought  him  a  glass  of  sherbet.  He  then 
burned  several  thousjind  verses  which  he  had  written 
in  praise  of  the  sultan,  as  sequel  to  the  Sluih  Xaiiieli, 
and  composed  one  of  the  bitt^^rest  satires  against  him, 
which  he  handed  over,  well  sealed,  to  the  king's 
favourite  slave,  to  give  it  to  him  when  he  might  be 
seized  with  one  of  his  fits  of  despondency,  as  it 
contained  a  beautiful  panegyric  on  him.  Dreading 
the  sultan's  rage,  he  tied  precipitately,  first  to  Tus  ; 
persecuted  here,  he  ne.xt  went  to  B.agdad,  where 
Kadir  Billah,  the  calif,  received  him  with  all 
honour.  But  the  unrelenting  anger  of  M.ahmud 
followed  him  thither,  and  he  removed  to  Tabaristan, 
which  again  he  had  to  leave,  to  seek  another  place  of 
refuge.  After  eleven  years  of  restless  wanderings,  he 
was  at  last  allowed  to  return  to  his  native  place,  a 
broken,  WTetched  old  man.  Mahmud  is  said  to  have 
repented  his  cruelty  at  last,  and  to  have  sent  a 
caravan  loaded  with  the  costliest  goods  to  F.,  to 
entreat  his  forgiveness,  and  induce  him  to  become 
once  more  the  st.ar  of  his  court.  But  while  the 
king's  messengers  entered  one  gate  of  the  city,  F.'s 
bier  waa  carried  out  to  his  last  abode  by  the  other, 
1020  A.D.  (411  H.).  His  only  daughter — an  only 
son  of  his  had  died  long  before  him  at  the  age  of  .37 
yeai-3 — refused  the  smtan's  present,  and  certain 
builtUngs  were  erected  instead,  in  honour  of  the 
dead  poet 

The  great  popidarity  which  the  Shall  yameli  has 
always  enjo3'ed  in  the  East,  is  to  a  certain  .amount 
also  the  cause  of  the  uncritical  state  of  the  texts. 
Every  transcriber  shaped  and  moidded  certain 
passages,  or  even  episodes,  according  to  his  own 
fancy,  so  th.at  not  two  out  of  the  innumerable  copies 
arc  quite  alike.  Kor  are  the  60,000  couplets  extant 
in  any  one  instance,  the  xitmost  number,  including 
all  the  most  palpable  interpolations,  never  exceed- 
ing ,50,600.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  text, 
with  a  glossary  and  introduction,  was  published  by 
Turner  Macau  (Calcutta,  J  Si'.),  4  vols.).  Another 
edition,  with  a  French  translation,  was  pid>lished  by 
Mohl  (Paris,  1840,  &c.).  Champion  published  some 
33G 


Englisli  extracts  in  17SS.  F.  also  WTote  auotiier 
jKJcm,  i'lisii/'  mill  ZuleiUia,  which  has  been  edited  by 
Morley,  and  a  Divan,  or  collection  of  poems.  M.auy 
European  Orieut.alist3  have  written  on  F. ;  among 
others.  Hammer,  Wahl,  Giirres,  Schack,  Kuckert, 
Jlorley,  Ouseley,  Atkinson,  Iv'asariauz,  &c. 

FIRE.  For  the  superstitions  connected  with 
fire,  see  Beltein,  Keed-fike,  .and  SfN  and  Fike 
\Voi;.saip. 

FIEE,  in  Armorial  Bearings,  is  used  to  denote 
those  who,  lx:ing  ambitious  of  honour,  perform  bravo 
actions  with  an  ardent  courage,  their  thoughts 
always  aspiring  as  the  fire  tends  upwards.  A  tlame 
of  tire  is  more  frequently  used  .as  a  charge  in 
Fiance  and  (iermany  than  in  this  comitry  ;  but  wo 
have  fire-balls  or  bombs,  fire-beacons,  firebrands, 
tire-buckets,  &c.,  in  abundance. 

FIEE,  Okdeal  bv.    See  Okde.a.u 

FIEE,  St  A>TnoNY's.    See  Erysipeias. 

FIEE  AND  SWOED.  By  the  law  of  Scotland, 
though  decree  may  be  given  in  a  civil  action  ag.ainst 
an  absent  defender,  no  criminal  sentence  can  be 
pronounced  unless  the  accused  be  present.  But  to 
resist  a  criminal  cit.ation,  is  to  rebel  ag.ainst  the  law 
of  the  land,  and  in  former  times  might  be  treated  as 
treason.  In  this  view,  letters  oifirc  and  eword  were 
occasionally  issued  by  the  privy  council  (Stair,  iv. 
89).  These  letters  were  dii-ected  to  the  sherifl'of  the 
county,  authorising  him  to  call  in  the  assistance 
of  the  country,  and  to  proceed  to  the  extremities 
which  the  terrible  words  fire  and  sword  indicate, 
should  such  proceedings  be  necessary  for  apprehend- 
ing the  accused  party.  Lord  Stair  describes  this 
remedy  as  the  '  last  leg.al  execution,  w.arranting  all 
manner  of  force  of  amis  that  is  competent  in  war.' 
The  same  course  might  be  resorted  to  where  the 
decree  of  a  court  was  resisted;  and  the  object 
with  which  letters  of  fire  .and  sword  were  more 
frequently  issued  than  any  other,  was  to  enable  the 
sheritl'  to  dislodge  refractory  tenants  who  retained 
})ossession  contrary  to  the  oi-dcr  of  the  judge,  or  the 
diligence  of  the  law.  By  the  modern  ])r.actice,  the 
judge  may,  of  coui-se,  always  call  in  the  aid  of  the 
miUtaryto  apprehend  an  accused  party,  or  to  enforce 
a  decree  where  the  ortlinary  means  have  proved 
unavailing. 

FIRE  AXNI'HIL.'VTOE.  An  apparatus  bearing 
this  name  w.as  patented  by  Mr  Phillips  in  lS4tl,  and 
attracted  a  good  de.al  of  pubUe  attention,  as  it  w;is 
expected  at  the  time  that  it  woidd  supersede  the 
ordinary  I'ire  Engine  (q.  v.).  The  object  of  this 
invention  was  to  extinguish  fires  by  pouring  into 
the  midst  of  the  confiagration  streams  of  carbonic 
acid,  sidphurous  acid,  .and  other  gases  which  do  not 
support  combustion.  A  bottle  containing  sulphuric 
acid  w;is  placed  immediately  over  a  mixture  of 
chlor.ate  of  potash  and  sugar,  which,  again,  was  sur- 
roimded  by  a  mi.xture  of  charcoal,  nitre,  and  gypsum. 
On  breaking  the  bottle,  the  sulphuric  acid  drops 
upon  tlie  chlorate  of  potash  and  sujjar,  which,  .as  is 
well  known  to  chemists,  produces  immediately  an 
intense  combustion  of  the  sugar ;  the  heat  from  this 
fires  the  surrounding  mixture,  and  dense  volimies  of 
the  above-mentioned  gases  are  evolveil.  It  is  found, 
however,  to  be  practically  of  little  value  in  ordinary 
tires,  where  the  air  has  free  access. 

FI'REAEMS  m.ay  be  defined  as  vessels — of 
whatever  form — used  in  the  propulsion  of  shot,  shell, 
or  bullets,  to  a  gre.ater  or  less  distance,  by  the  action 
of  gunjiowder  exploded  within  them.  They  have 
]ilaycd  so  great  a  part  in  the  world's  story,  that 
their  invention,  development,  .and  science  deserve 
careful  an.alysis.  At  a  more  advanced  period,  an 
obvious    division     of     the     subject     into    cannon, 


FIREARMS. 


mortars,  and  small-arms  presents  itself ;  but  in  the 
infancy  of  tbe  invention,  and  amid  the  obscurity 
enshrouding  it,  we  can  only  seek  to  inquire  into  the 
orii^in  of  firearms  generally. 

The  invention  of  gun]io\vder  bears  so  directly 
upon  the  gradual  introduction  of  firearms,  that  it 
will  be  well  to  consider  the  two  discoveries  concur- 
rently. The  widely  prevalent  notion  that  gun- 
powder was  the  imvntiuii  of  Friar  Bacon,  and  that 
cannon  were  first  used  by  Edward  III.  of  England, 
must  be  at  once  discarded.  It  is  certain  that 
gunpowiler  differed  in  no  conspicuous  degree  from 
the  Greek  fire  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  nor  from 
the  lerre.strial  thunder  of  China  and  India,  where  it 
had  been  known  for  many  centuries  before  the 
chivalry  of  Europe  began  to  fall  beneath  its  level- 
Ung  power. 

'Nitre,'  says  Sir  George  Staunton,  'is  the  natural 
and  daily  jiroduce  of  China  and  India :  and  there, 
accordingly,  the  knowledge  of  gunpowder  seems  to 
be  coeval  with  that  of  the  most  distant  historic 
events.'  The  earlier  Ar.ab  historians  call  saltpetre 
'Chinese  snow'  and  'Chinese  salt;'  and  the  most 
ancient  records  of  Cliina  itself  shew  tliat,  when 
they  were  written,  fireworks  were  well  know^l, 
sevei-al  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
From  these  and  other  circumstances,  it  is  indu- 
bital»le  that  gunpowder  was  used  by  the  Chinese 
as  an  explosive  compound  in  pre-historic  times ; 
when  they  first  discovered  or  applied  its  power  as  a 
propellant,  is  less  easily  determined.  There  is  an 
account  of  a  bamboo  tube  being  used,  from  which 
the  '  impetuous  dart '  was  hurled  a  distance  of  100 
feet :  this  was  at  a  very  early  period,  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  precisely  when.  It  is  recorded,  however, 
that  in  CIS  B.C.,  during  the  Taing-off  dynasty,  a 
cannon  was  employed,  bearing  the  inscription  :  '  I 
hurl  death  to  the  traitor,  and  extermination  to 
the  rebel.'  This  must  almost  necessarily  have  been 
of  metal.  We  have  also  curious  e\'idence  in  regard 
to  the  armament  of  the  Great  Wall ;  for  Captain 
Parish,  who  accompanied  Lord  Macartney's  mission, 
reported  that  '  the  soles  of  the  embrasures  were 
pierced  with  small  holes,  similar  to  those  used  in 
Europe  for  the  reception  of  the  s'wivels  of  wall- 
pieces.  The  holes  appear  to  be  jiart  of  the  original 
construction  of  the  wall,  and  it  seems  difficult  to 
assign  to  them  any  other  purpose  than  that  of 
resistance  to  the  recoil  of  firearms.'  If  this  surmise 
be  correct,  the  use  of  jingalls  would  be  carried  back 
to  three  centuries  .at  least  before  the  Cliristiau  era. 
Stone  mortars,  tlirowing  missUes  of  12  lb.  to  a 
distance  of  300  paces,  are  particularly  mentioned 
as  having  been  employed  in  757  A.  D.  by  Thang's 
army;  and  in  1232  A. c,  it  is  incontestable  that 
the  Chinese  besieged  in  Caifong-fou  used  cannon 
against  their  Mongol  enemies.  Thus,  the  Chinese 
must  be  allowed  to  have  established  their  claim 
to  an  early  practical  knowledge  of  gunpowder  and 
its  effects. 

It  seems  likely,  however,  that  the  principles  of 
firearms  reached  Europe  from  India  rather  than 
China,  and  that  countrj'  has  equal,  if  not  superior, 
claims  to  the  first  acquaintance  with  the  art.  The 
ancient  Sanscrit  WTitings  appear  to  point  very 
]>lainly  to  the  operation  of  some  primitive  sort  of 
cannon,  when,  in  recording  the  wars  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Hercides  in  India,  it  is  stated  that  the  sages 
remained  imconcerned  s[)ectator3  of  the  attack  on 
their  stronghold,  tdl  an  assault  was  attempted,  when 
they  repulsed  it  with  wiiirlwinds  and  thunders, 
hurling  destruction  on  the  inv.ailers  ;  and  a  Greek 
historian  of  Alexander's  campaign  testifies  that  the 
Ilmdus  had  the  means  of  discharging  flames  and 
missiles  on  their  enemies  from  a  distance. 

These  Indian  philosophers  seem,  from  the  writings 
173 


of  C'tesias  and  /Elian,  to  have  also  possessed  an 
unquenchable  fire  sinular  to  that  emjiloyed  later  by 
the  Greeks.  Passing  from  these  very  early  times, 
in  which  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  sort  of 
great  gim  was  employed,  we  come  to  the  compara- 
tively recent  date,  1200  a.d.,  when  their  use  ia 
established  beyond  a  doubt,  for  Chased,  the  Hindu 
bard,  writes  (in  stanza  257)  that  the  culivers  and 
cannons  made  a  loud  re[)ort  when  they  were  fired 
off,  and  that  the  noise  of  tlie  ball  w.a.s  heard  at  the 
distance  of  about  ten  coss,  which  is  more  than  tliree- 
quarters  of  a  mile.  In  1258,  the  vizir  of  the  king  of 
l)elhi  went  forth  to  meet  the  ambassador  of  Hulaku, 
the  grandson  of  fienghis  Khan,  with  3000  carriages 
of  fireworks  (in  the  sense  of  weapons,  probably  a 
sort  of  rude  muskets).  In  1368,  300  gun-carriagea 
were  captured  by  Midiammed  Shah  Bahmiaui.  'The 
use  of  cannon  had  so  far  advanced  in  India  by  1482, 
that  they  were  even  used  for  naval  purposes  ;  shells 
ha\-ing  been  employed  two  years  earlier  by  the 
sovereign  of  Guzerat.  In  1500,  the  Portuguese  had 
matchlockmen  to  contend  with,  as  well  .as  heavy 
ordnance.  Pigafetta,  in  1511,  found  the  town  of 
Borneo  defended  Ijy  02  pieces  of  cannon  moimted  on 
the  walls.  So  much  for  the  antiquity,  and  a[ipar- 
entiy  common  use  of  firearms  in  China  and  India, 
at  times  long  antecedent  to  any  knowledge  of  them 
in  Europe,  and  diu-ing  the  period  at  which  they 
were  scarcely  developed  in  an  effectual  degree. 
Most  of  the  pieces  discovered  in  India,  and  supposed 
to  be  of  early  manufacture,  are  composed  of  parallel 
iron  bars  welded  together,  and  very  often  they  had 
a  movable  breech-piece. 

The  knowledge  of  gimpowder  and  firearms  may 
be  presumed  to  have  extended  in  a  westerly  direc- 
tion through  the  Arabs,  wliom  we  find  using  them 
possibly  in  711  A.  D.,  under  the  name  of  manjaniks, 
and  certainly  very  early  in  the  14th  century.  The 
Byzantine  emperor,  Leo,  introduced  'fire-tubes' 
between  890  and  911,  for  use  in  connection  with 
Greek  fire ;  and  there  can  be  httle  doubt  that  these 
were  a  species  of  cannon,  probably  of  sm.iU  bore. 
In  Spain,  both  Moors  and  Cliristians  used  artillery 
as  early  as  the  12th  century. 

Friar  Bacon  was  couspicuovis  among  his  contem- 
poraries for  his  general  learning,  and  we  have  no 
evidence  to  shew  whether  he  discovered  the  ingre- 
dients of  gmipowder  independently  of  foreign  aid, 
or  whether  he  derived  the  knowledge  from  some 
ancient  m.anuscripts ;  the  latter,  however,  seems 
the  more  likely  conclusion,  as  Sir  F.  Palgravc 
brought  to  light  in  the  Bodleian  Library  a  letter 
from  a  Spanish  friar.  Brother  Ferrarius,  who  was 
a  contemporary  of  Bacon,  in  which  the  materials  of 
Greek  fire  are  detailed,  differing  only  in  proportions, 
and  in  these  but  sUghtly,  from  real  gunpowder. 
That  the  latter  was  identified  of  old  with  Greek 
tire,  is  shewn  by  the  name  '  Crake,'  applied  to  the 
first  cannon  usecL  This  word,  which  stdl  survives 
in  '  cracker,'  is  pointed  out  by  Sir  F.  I'algrave  to 
be  nothing  more  than  a  Norman  corruption  of 
'  Grec.'  Bacon's  announcement  dates  from  121G; 
but  tlie  powder  of  his  time,  as  made  in  the  West, 
was  not  readily  explosive,  since  the  materials  were 
but  roughly  cleared  of  impurities,  and  then  mixed 
together  on  a  slab;  and  probably  little  use  could 
be  made  of  it  as  a  propellant  untd  the  process  of 
granulating  had  been  introduced  by  Bertholdus 
Schwartz  in  1320.  Immediately  after  this  dis- 
covery, cannon  of  small  size  appeared  in  the  armoury 
of  almost  every  state,  as  if  their  use  h,ad  been 
known  previously,  although  no  practical  effect  had 
been  given  to  the  knowledge,  on  account  of  the 
badness  of  the  powder  manufactured.  These  cannon 
generally  consisted  of  a  smaller  barrel  or  chamber 
to  receive  the  charge,  which  fitted  into  a  larger 

337 


ITREARMS. 


one  containing  the  projectile  (see  tig.  1).  It  may 
be  siifel.v  assumed  that  these  wca])on9,  if  terrifying 
from  their  uoise,  were  toU-rably  harmless— at  least 
to  the  enemy — in  their 
practice.  In  1326,  the 
Florentine  republic  ordered 
the  making  of  iron  shot 
and  cannon  for  the  defence 
of  its  Wllages.  In  1.327, 
Ed  wan!  HI.  used  'crakeys 


Fig.  1. 


From  tho  Santlni  Manuscript.,  ^j  ^.^^,  j^gj^j^g^  the  Scotch  , 
in  1339,  ten  cannons  were  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Cambray.  By  1346,  various  improvements  had 
been  made":  and  we  tind  in  the  same  year  the 
consuls  of  Bruges  witnessing  experiments  by  one 
Peter,  a  tinman,  who  h.ad  constructed  a  cannon 
with  a  square  bore,  to  throw  a  cubical  shot  of 
about  eleven  pounds ;  his  bolt  passed  both  walls  of 
the  town,  and  unfortunately  killed  a  man  on  the 
other  side.  We  have  the  authority  of  ViUam  for 
belie\-ing  that  Edward  III.  had  three  cannon  at 
Crfcy ;  but  the  cannon  then  made  were,  from  the 
little  knowledge  of  casting,  Limited  to  about  the 
size  of  modem  duck-guns,  and,  as  has  been  re- 
marked, three  very  inferior  muskets  could  have  h.id 
but  Uttle  to  do  with  putting  50,000  men  to  flight. 

Up  to  this  time,  European  ordnance  had  been 
kept  back  by  the  rarity  and  high  prices  of  sulphur, 
saltpetre,  and  iron,  the  last  having  been  so  scarce 
in  England,  that  it  was  thought  necessary  to  forbid 
its  exportation  by  a  statute  of  28  Edw.  III.  Still, 
crude  as  was  their  form,  and  small  their  number, 
firearms  had  established  a  firm  footing  in  Christen- 
dom ;  their  mission  of  civilisation,  and,  paradoxical 
as  it  may  appear,  of  humanity,  had  begun.  With 
the  first  killing  discharge,  the  doom  of  feudalism 
had  gone  forthl  Plated  armour  no  longer  availed 
against  the  weapon  of  the  peasant ;  and  the  mailed 
chivalry,  the  sinews  of  previous  battles,  who  had 
trampled  with  their  iron  heels  upon  popular  rights, 
no  longer  could  carry  all  before  them,  but,  like 
other  soldiei-s,  were  now  as  loath  to  be  slain 
by  unseen  foes  as  the  veriest  villein  in  the  host. 
The  people  discovered  their  powers  of  contending 
with  the  noblesse ;  by  degrees,  they  rose  for  liberty, 
,ind  suppressed  the  tyrannies  of  the  petty  lords  who 
had  long  held  them  as  mere  bondsmen.  In  war, 
again,  as  artUlery  became  more  general,  so  the 
slaughter  of  battles  diminished,  for  an  army  out- 
manoeuvred was  an  army  at  the  enemy's  mercy, 
and  therefore  beaten;  whereas,  pre\'iously,  in  the 
hand-to-hand  fights  where  \'ictors  and  vanquished 
mixed  pell-meU  in  single  combat,  a  \-ictory  could 
only  be  really  won  when  there  were  no  foes  left 
to  slay.  A  battle  as  great  as  that  at  Crecy  might 
now  be  gained  with  a  loss  to  the  vanquished  of  not 
more  than  1000  men,  instead  of  the  30,000  who 
are  said  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the  English  sword 
or  bow. 

Dating  from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the 
employment  of  cannon  and  bombards  in  siege 
operations  became  more  or  less  general.  Froissart 
records  that  the  Black  Prince  took  bombards, 
cannon,  and  Greek  fire  to  the  reduction  of  the 
castle  of  Ilomozantln  in  1356,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  availed  himself  of  firearms  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  the  same  year.  The  bombards 
seem  to  have  been  short,  capacious  vessels,  from 
which  stone  balls  were  shot  with  sm.oll  charges  to 
a  short  distance,  and  at  considerable  elevation ; 
they  were  essentially  the  parents  of  the  present 
bombs  or  mortars  (see  fig.  2).  The  cannon  (conna, 
a  reed),  on  the  other  hand,  were,  for  some  time  at 
least,  of  extremely  small  bore,  scarcely  larger  than 
muskets  of  the  18th  c. ;  they  discharged  leaden 
bullets,  and  would  have    probably  been  used  as 

338 


hand-weapons,  but  for  their  cumbrous  and  heavy 
workmanship,  which  necessitated  small  carri.agcs. 
Arms    of    this    description    are    doubtless    those 


Fig.  2,  from  the  Chroniques  de  Si  Denis,  Fourteenth 
Century.  Fig.  3,  Bombard  of  the  Fifteenth  Century, 
from  Froissart.  Fig.  4,  Cannon  of  the  Fifteenth 
Century,  from  Les  Vigiles  de  Charles  VII. 

referred  to  as  ha%Tng  been  brought  by  Piichard  U. 
to  the  siege  of  St  Malo,  to  the  number  of  400 
pieces,  where  they  are  said  to  have  kept  up  an 
incessant  fire  day  and  night  on  the  town  without 
success. 

In  the  loth  c.,  anuies  for  siege  operations  were 
usually  accompanied  by  great  and  small  guns,  the 
latter  being  intended  to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the 
besieged  while  the  large  bombards  were  being  loaded, 
an  operation  requiring  no  small  time.  These  guns 
were  gradually  improved,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  that  the  founders  succeeded  in 
casting  iron  ordnance,  to  the  entire  exclusion,  until 
quite  the  present  day,  of  cannon  formed  of  square  or 
rounded  bars  welded  together.  England  had  even 
then  become  famous  for  the  workmanship  of  its 
ordnance.  The  accompanying  sketch  (fig.  5)  of  a  gun 
found  in  the  wreck  of  the  Mai'y  Hose,  which  sunk  at 


Fig.  5. 

Spithead  in  the  above  king's  reign,  wiU  shew  that  a 
degree  of  excellence  had  been  attained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artillery,  little  inferior  to  that  which  has 
lasted  till  our  own  day,  when  rifled  ordnance  are 
rapidly  superseding  cannon  of  smooth  bores.  Still, 
so  late  as  Henry's  reign,  although  great  guns  were 
found  veiy  serviceable  in  siege  and  naval  opera- 
tions, where  the  defences  of  those  days  ofiered  but 
a  trifling  resistance  to  their  power,  they  appear  to 
have  been  looked  upon  rather  as  an  encumbrance 
than  an  advantage  with  armies  in  the  field  This 
is  attributed  partly  to  the  hea\'y  character  of  the 
guns  themselves,  and  especially  of  their  carriages, 
but  more  particularly  to  the  badness,  or  rather 
absence,  of  the  necessary  roads  for  their  transport. 
In  1522,  it  is  recorded  in  the  state  papers  that  the 
'  kinges  ordonauns  [were]  imable  to  pass  over  Stanes 
More  towards  Carlile.' 

As  time  passed  on,  the  details  of  the  manufacture 
were  improved,  the  general  principles  remaining 
the  same  ;  the  size  of  the  guns  increased,  while  the 
proportionate  weight  of  the  carriages  diminished ; 
limbers  (q.  v.)  were  added,  and  the  equipage  of  a  gxiu 
gradually  i)erfected  and  lightened.  With  increased 
caUbre,  to  which  augmented  range  was  usually 
added,  the  number  of  cannon — at  one  period  enor- 
mous— taken  with  an  army  was  by  degrees  reduced, 


FIREARMS— FIREBALLS. 


until  now  a  certain  standard  proportion  between 
artillery  and  infantry  is  ordinarily  maintained. 
Three  guns  to  a  thousand  infantry  is  the  proportion 
now  considered  best  (1S73).  Of  course,  this  propor- 
tion differs  with  the  opinions  of  various  commanders ; 
but  the  greatest  modern  generals  have  always  acted 
on  the  maxim,  that  it  is  wasteful  to  send  a  soldier 
on  any  duty  of  danger  which  a  ball  can  be  made  to 
perform.  As  a  weapon  of  offence,  Vaul)an  doubled 
the  utility  of  heavy  ordnance  when  he  applied  the 
Ricochet  (q.  v.)  .system  of  tiring.  Napoleon  may 
almost  be  Siiid  to  have  won  his  battles  by  artillery, 
for  he  rarely  if  ever  brought  his  infantry  into  action 
except  as  supports,  until  a  way  had  been  opened 
for  them,  or  a  p.inic  caused,  by  the  massed  lire  of 
large  batteries  of  guns.  The  Duke  of  WeUingtou 
also  devoted  the  greatest  attention  to  his  ordnance- 
train  ;  while,  referring  to  recent  events,  the  cam- 
paigns of  Lord  Clyde  in  India  were  remarkable 
instances  of  the  use  of  artillery  being  pushed  with 
abundant  success  to  its  greatest  limit.  During  the 
Franco-German  W.av  of  1870—1871,  the  Prussians 
were  considered  somewhat  behind  the  age  in  their 
use  of  artillery. 

Cannon  of  widely  varying  bores  have  at  different 
times  been  cast,  and  the  various  sorts  became  so 
numerous  in  continental  armies,  as  at  one  time  to 
cause  much  inconvenience  from  the  large  quantities 
of  ammunition  which  it  was  necessary  to  carry. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  set  the  example  of  reducing 
his  guns  to  a  few  stand.ard  caUbres,  and  the  same 
improvement  was  immediiitely  adopted  .systematic- 
ally in  the  French  and  other  armies.  The  cannon 
recently  in  use  in  the  British  .army  are  detailed 
under  the  article  Cannon  ;  but  the  introduction  of 
rifled  guns  of  late  years  has  limited  the  classes  to 
the  following :  Muzzle-loaders — 12-inch,  3.)  tons 
('Woolwich  infants')  ;  1.3-ineh,  2.'}  tons;  11-inch,  2.5 
tons ;  10-inch,  18  tons  ;  9-inch,  12  tons ;  8-inch,  9 
tons;  7-inch,  7  tons;  64-ponnder ;  IG-pounder ; 
9-pounder ;  7-pounder  (steel)  mountain-gun.  Breech- 
loaders— 7-inch,  G4-pounder,  40-pounder,  20-poundor, 
12-pounder,  9-pounder,  6-pounder.  For  a  particular 
explanation  of  the  several  sorts  of  cannon,  see 
Gunnery,  Cannon,  Carronades,  Howitzer. 

The  mortar  differs  from  all  other  gims  in  its 
solidity  of  form,  its  shortness,  and  its  Large  bore. 
The  object  is  the  projection  of  shells  by  a  more  or 
less  vertical  fire,  with  the  intention  of  breaking 
through  and  destroying,  by  weight  and  explosion 
together,  roofs  of  magazines,  public  buildings,  and 
so  on,  or  of  sinking  a  shell  deep  into  earthworks 
of  a  fortress,  in  which  it  sh.-iU  explode  as  a  most 
deadly  mine.  The  different  sorts  of  mortar  will 
be  described  under  Mortar.  The  mortar  arose 
naturally  nut  of  the  old 
bombard,  and  doubtless 
deviated  by  degrees  more 
and  more  from  the 
cannon.  Fig.  6  shews 
a  bombard  or  mortar 
designed  in  the  15th 
century.  In  very  early 
days,  we  read  in  Arabian 
authors  of  a  cylinder 
hewn  in  the  rock  at 
Alexandria,  and  used  as  a  mortar.  Such  a  cylinder, 
and  of  large  size,  is  still  to  be  seen  .at  Gibraltar, 
where  it  was  employed  in  the  last  siege  against 
the  Spanish,  when  it  was  made  to  discharge 
volleys  of  large  stones,  which  spreading  at  times 
to  a  distance  of  500  yards,  constituted  a  formidable 
means  of  defence.  In  recent  years,  nearly  .all  guns 
fire  shells,  so  that  the  specific  necessity  for  mortars 
has  greatly  diminished. 

A  gun  is  a  frustnim  of  a  right  cone,  with  a 


Fig.  G. 
From  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 


cylinder  (bore)  removed  around  the  axis ;  from  which 
it  follows  that  the  thickness  of  metal  is  greatest 
at  the  breech,  where  it  has  to  withstand  the  effect 
of  ignited  powder  in  its  most  condensed,  and  there- 
fore most  powerful  state.  Guns  are  first  cast  in 
loam  or  dry  sand,  then  turned  to  the  required 
shape,  and  lastly  bored  with  the  minutest  accuracy. 
Formerly,  they  were  cast  with  the  bore  already 
formed ;  but  the  direction  was  rarely  ex,actly  cor- 
rect, and  the  surface  scarcely  ever  strictly  even. 
Some  additional  particidars  of  their  manufacture 
wiU  be  given  under  Gun-factories,  Royal  ;  and 
the  science  of  artillery  will  be  summarised  under 
Gunnery. 

An  article  on  firearms  would  be  incomplete 
without  some  allusion  to  the  progress  made  in 
small-arms.  In  the  15th  c,  the  smallest  sort  of 
cannon  were  probably  at  times  mounted  and  used  as 
hand-guns.  From  this  the  step  to  the  .arquebus  was 
rapid ;  that  weapon  developed  as  years  passed  into 
the  clumsy  matchlock ;  th.at  into  the  firelock 
and  flint-musket ;  then  the  percussion-musket ;  and 
lastly,  into  the  beautiful  rifles  of  our  own  day,  which 
have  culminated  in  the  central-fire  breech-loaders. 
For  diminutives,  small  arquebuses  were  made  to 
do  duty  as  horse-pistols  ;  genuine  pistols  succeeded 
them  ;  these  were  gradually  improved  and  reduced 
in  size,  till  they  h.ave  culminated  in  the  saloon 
pistol,  available  for  a  w.aistcoat-pocket ;  and  the 
deadly  revolver,  which  quatb'uples  a  man's  defen- 
sive power.  All  these  weapons  are  described  under 
their  respective  heads — Arquebus,  Matchlock, 
Mu.sKET,  Plstol,  Revolver,  Rifle. 

Many  valuable  works  have  been  WTitten  on  fire- 
arms from  the  days  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Tartagha  to  the  present.  Among  those  considted 
for  this  article  have  been  Btudes  sur  le  Passe  et 
VAvenir  de  I'Arlillerie  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
111.  ;  Our  Engines  of  War,  by  Captain  Jervis ; 
Major  Straith's  Treatise  on  Artillery;  General 
Chesney  On  Firearnu^,  &c. 

FIREARMS,  Proving  op  (in  Law).  In  conse- 
quence of  the  frequency  of  accidents  from  the 
biu'sting  of  insufficient  barrels,  the  legislature  has 
interfered,  not  to  regidate  their  manufacture 
directly,  but  to  prevent  all  persons  from  using 
or  selling  them  imtQ  they  have  been  regid.arly 
proved  in  a  public  proof-house.  The  first  act 
for  this  purpose,  which  was  passed  in  1813,  was 
soon  after  superseded  by  the  fuller  and  more 
complete  one  (55  Geo.  III.  c.  59).  By  this  statute,  a 
fine  of  £20  is  imposed  on  any  person  using,  in  any 
of  the  progressive  stages  of  its  manufacture,  any 
barrel  not  didy  proved;  or  any  person  delivering 
the  same,  except  tlu'ough  a  proof-house  ;  and  on  any 
person  receiving,  for  the  purpose  of  making  guns, 
any  Ixarrels  which  have  not  passed  through  a  jiroof- 
house.  These  pen.alties  are  to  be  levied  on  convic- 
tion before  two  justices,  and  the  like  penalties  on 
persons  counterfeiting  the  jjroof-marks.  The  statute 
does  not  extend  to  Scotland  or  to  Ireland,  and 
arms  manufactured  for  Her  Majesty,  are  exempted 
from  its  operation.  By  10  Geo.  1\.  c.  38,  repeal- 
ing 6  Geo.  IV.,  the  malicious  and  unlawful  use  of 
firearms  in  Scotkand  is  punishable.  See  Game 
Laws. 

FIREBALLS  .are  projectiles  occasion.ally  dis- 
charged from  gims  or  mortars,  for  the  purpose  either 
of  setting  fire  to,  or  of  merely  illuminating  some  work, 
against  which  hostUe  operations  are  directed.  The 
usual  ingredients  are — mealed  powder,  2  ;  saltpetre, 
14  ;  sulphur,  1 ;  rosin,  1 ;  turpentine,  2i ;  with  pitch, 
tow,  naphtha,  &c.,  as  circumstances  dictate.  The  use 
of  fireballs  has,  however,  been  in  great  measure 
superseded  by  the  introduction  of  rockets  (q.  v.), 

339 


FIKEBOTE— FIRE-ENGINR 


and  incendiary  shclb  (q.  v.).  Akin  to  the  farcball, 
was  the  jirf-arroic  of  ancient  warfare,  which  con- 
sist«l  of  tow  stceiied  in  pitch,  rosin,  or  some  inflam- 
nialJo  mixture,  WTappeil  roimd  the  sliaft,  and  lire.  1 
nli>,'ht  amoni;  an  enemy's  works  or  troops,  tireek 
lire  WM  also  discharged  in  many  cases  on  largo 
arrows  surrounded  by  tow  and  shot  from  balisltx. 

FIKEBOTE,  the  rii;ht  of  a  tenant  for  life  or 
years,  acconlini;  to  English  law,  to  cut  wood  on  the 
estate  for  the  purpose  of  fuel.     See  Estovkr. 

FIREBRICK.    See  Brick. 

FrnECL.W  is  the  variety  of  day  which  is 
emiiloyed  in  the  construction  of  gas-retorts,  glass- 
pots,  'lirebricks,  crucibles,  &c.,  which  require  to 
withstand  high  temperatures.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  coal  measures  ;  and  the  more  famous  kind  is 
the  Stonebridije,  which  is  found  in  a  bed  about  four 
feet  thick,  tt  also  occurs  lari;cly  near  Glasgow, 
Xewcastle-on-Tyne,  and  in  Belgium  and  France. 
The  princip.-U  constituents  of  lirocl.ay  are  silica  and 
alumina,  accompanied  by  small  jH-oportions  of  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  water,  and  organic  matter,  as  may 
be  observed  from  the  following  table  : 


No.1. 

No.l 

No.  3. 

No.<. 

N<p.  5. 

Silica,  . 

6410 

61 'JO 

48  55 

09-25 

83  29 

2315 

31-35 

30-25 

17  00 

8-10 

im 

4-63 

4-OG 

2-97^ 
1-30) 

Limo, 

I -48 

1-66) 
l-DlJ' 

1-88 

]^Ia^i)C5m,    . 

0-93 

154 

2-90 

Organic  Matter  \ 
and  Water,      )' 

lOOO 

10-47 

10-G7 

7-50 

364 

Fireclay  is  found  abundantly,  near  and  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  is  re.adily  reduced  to 
j->owder  by  travelUng  wheels.  When  kneaded  with 
-water,  and  fashioned  into  vessels  and  other  articles, 
it  is  dried,  and  is  then  generally  subjected  to  a 
strong  heat,  w-hich  drives  off  tlie  water  and  organic 
matter,  causes  the  silica  to  unite  more  firmlj' 
-with  the  alumina,  &c.,  and  leaves  a  more  or  less 
porous  material,  which  can  withstand  very  high 
temperatures.  The  Passau  crucibles  are  merely 
dried,  and  are  not  fired  like  Hessian  crucibles  and 
other  fireclay  wares.  The  larger  the  percentage 
of  siHca  (sand)  in  the  clay,  the  more  refractory  are 
the  articles  fasliioned  from  it ;  and  hence  sand  is 
often  added  to  clay  to  increase  its  fusing-point 
and  refractory  powers ;  but  a  certain  proportion 
of  alumina,  &c,,  is  required  to  serve  as  a  flux, 
to  cement  and  hold  together  the  particles  of  sand. 
The  proportions  of  sand  and  clay  are  determined 
by  the  temperature  to  which  the  manufactiu-ed 
article  is  intended  to  be  exposed ;  and  the  fireclay 
of  crucibles  or  bricks,  which  are  serviceable  at  a 
comparatively  low  temperature,  as  in  the  lining 
of  limekilns,  woidd  become  soft,  and  yield  in  glass 
or  porcelain  furnaces. 

FIREDAMP  is  the  miners'  term  applied  to 
light  carburetted  hydrogen  or  coal-gas  when  it 
issues  from  crevices  in  coal-mines.     See  G.\s. 

FIRE-EATING,  a  name  -usually  given  to 
a  variety  of  feats  performed  by  jugglers  -with 
flaming  substances,  melted  lead,  red-hot  metal,  &c. 
Evelyn,  -n-riting  under  date  October  8,  1672,  thus 
describes  fire-eating  in  his  day  :  '  I  took  leave  of 
my  Lady  Sunderland.  She  m.ade  me  stay  dinner 
at  Leicester  House,  and  afterwards  sent  for 
Richardson,  the  famous  fire-eater.  He  devoured 
brimstone  on  glowing  coals  before  us,  chewing 
and  swallowing  tliem  ;  he  melted  a  beer-glass,  ancl 
eat  it  quite  up ;  then  taking  a  live  coal  on  his 
tongue,  he  put  on  it  a  raw  oy.stcr  ;  the  coal  was 
blown  on  with  bellows  till  it  ilamed  and  sparkled 
in   his   mouth,  and   so  remained   till   the    oyster 


gaped,  and  was  quite  liroiled  ;  then  he  melted 
l>itch  and  wax  with  sulphur,  which  he  drank  ilown 
as  it  flamed  ;  I  saw  it  flaming  in  his  mouth  a 
good  while  ;  he  also  took  up  a  thick  piece  of  iron, 
such  .as  laundresses  use  to  jiut  in  their  smoothiug- 
boxes,  when  it  was  fiery  hot.  hehl  it  between  his 
teeth,  then  in  his  hand,  and  threw  it  about  like  a 
stone  ;  then  he  stood  on  a  small  ])ot,  and  bending 
his  body,  ti>ok  a  glowing  iron  with  his  montu 
from  between  his  feet,  without  touching  the 
pot  or  groimd  with  his  hands ;  with  divers  other 
j)rodigiou3  feats.'  About  1S18,  Signora  Josephine 
GiranicUi,  who  described  herself  as  the  'original 
Salamander,'  performed  astonishing  fe.ats  of  this 
kind  iu  London  and  other  (il.aces  in  England. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  her,  '  She  conmiences 
her  perfoi-mances  l)y  passing  plates  of  red-hot  iron 
over  her  legs  ;  she  then  stands  with  her  feet  naked 
on  a  plate  of  red-hot  iron,  and  afterwards  dra\^-s  the 
same  plate  over  her  hair  ami  across  her  tongue,' 
itc.  About  the  same  time  apjieared  in  Paris  JI. 
Chaubert,  whoso  astonishing  jiowers  of  resisting 
heat  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Xational  Listi- 
tute.  Among  other  tilings  performed  liy  tliis  person, 
was  his  going  into  a  common  baker's  oven,  with  a 
leg  of  mutton  in  his  hands,  and  remaining  with 
the  oven  closed  until  the  mutton  was  completely 
di-essed.  Another  of  his  performances  was  standing 
in  a  flaming  tar-barrel  until  the  whole  of  it  was 
consumed  around  him.  He  subsequently  exhibited 
in  London. 

Many  of  the  feats  of  this  kind  are  undoubtedly 
mere  tricks,  or  illusions,  produced  by  sleight  of 
hand ;  others  are  capable  of  scientific  explanation. 
There  is  nothing  more  wonderfid  in  stuffing  blazing 
tow  into  the  mouth — a  common  form  of  mountebank 
fire-eating — than  in  eating  flamiuc;  plum-pudding, 
or  in  dipping  the  finger  mto  spirits  and  letting  it 
burn  like  a  candle.  It  is  also  well  known  that  the 
tongue,  or  the  hand  dipped  in  w-atcr,  may  be  rubbed 
-with  impunity  against  a  white-hot  bar  of  iron  ;  the 
layer  of  vapour  developed  between  the  hot  metal 
and  the  skin  prevents  contact  and  jiroduces  coolness 
(see  Spheroidal  St.vte  of  Lhji:lds).  Such  per- 
formances as  those  of  M.  Chaubert  are  explained  by 
the  weU-known  power  of  the  living  body  to  maintain 
its  normal  temperature,  for  a  tkne,  independently  of 
the  external  temperature  (see  AxiM^u.  Heat). 

FIRE-ENGINE,  a  machine  employed  for  throw- 
ing a  jet  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  extinguishing 
fires.  This  name  was  formerly  appUed  to  the 
steam-engine.  Machines  for  the  extinguishing  of 
fires  have  been  used  from  a  verj'  early  date.  They 
were  employed  by  the  Komans,  and  are  referred  to 
by  PUny  ;  but  he  gives  no  account  of  their  construc- 
tion. Apollodorus,  architect  to  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
speaks  of  leathern  bags,  with  pipes  attached,  from 
which  water  w-as  projected  V>y  squeezing  the  bags. 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  in  his  Treatise  on  Pneumatics 
— \\Titten  probably  about  150  years  before  the 
Cliristian  era — proposition  27,  descriiies  a  machine 
which  he  calls  '  the  si])hons  used  in  conflagrations.' 
It  consisted  of  two  cylinders  and  pistons  connected 
by  a  reciprocating  beam,  which  raises  and  lowers 
the  pistons  alternately,  and  thus,  with  the  aid  of 
valves  opening  only  towards  the  jet,  projects  the 
water  from  it,  but  not  in  a  continuous  stream,  as 
the  pressure  ceases  at  each  alternation  of  stroke. 

The  accompanying  copy  of  Hero's  diagram 
exjilains  itself.  Little  or  nothing  is  known  as  to 
the  extent  to  which  engines  of  this  kind  were  prac- 
tically used.  We  have  accounts  of '  instniments  for 
fires,'  and  *  water  syringes  useful  for  tires.'  in  the 
building  accounts  of  the  city  of  Augsburg,  1518  ;  and 
in  1G57,  Caspar  Schott  describes  a  fire-engine  used 
in    Nuremberg,    which    must    have    been    almost 


rrKE-ENGIXE. 


identical  in  constniction  with  that  described  by  Hero. 
It  had  a  water-cistern,  was  drawn  by  two  "horses, 
was  worked  by  28  men,  and  threw  a  jet  of  water, 


an  inch  in  diameter,  to  a  height  of  80  feet.  It  was 
not  until  late  in  the  17th  c.  that  the  air-chamber 
and  hose  were  added;  the  first  being  mentioned 
by  Perrault  in  1684,  and  the  hose  and  suction-pipe 
being  invented  by  Van  der  Heide  in  1670.  In 
England,  hand-squirts  were  used  up  to  the  close 
of  the  ICth  century.  They  were  of  brass,  and 
contained  three  or  four  quarts  of  water.  Two  men 
held  the  hamlles  at  the  sides,  while  a  third  forced 
up  the  piston.  The  nozzle  was  dipped  in  a  vessel 
of  water  after  each  discharge,  then  raised,  and  the 
water  again  forced  out.  So  clumsy  an  ajiparatus 
could  have  been  but  of  little  ser\-ice  in  the  fearful 
conflagrations  to  which  our  old  wood-built  towns 
were  so  subject. 

With  the  adtlition  of  the  air-chamber  and  hose, 
and  some  improvement  in  the  details  of  construc- 
tion, the  'siphons'  of  Hero  became  the  modern 
fire-engine.  The  principle  of  the  action  of  the  air- 
chamber,  and  of  its  connection  with  the  pumps,  &c., 
■will  be  easily  understood  by  the  aid  of  the  annexed 
diagram,  where  a  represents  in  section  a  piston 
asceuding,  d  the  other 
piston  descending,  /  the 
pipe  or  hose  communicat- 
ing with  the  water-supply, 
g  the  hose  that  conveys  the 
issuing  stream  to  the  fire, 
be  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  air-chamber,  e  the 
space  above  filled  -n-ith 
compressed  air.  The  rising 
piston  raises  the  water  from 
'to  fill  its  cylinder;  the 
descending  piston  forces 
the  water  contained  in  its 
cylinder  into  the  bottom 
of  the  air-chamber,  and 
thereby  compresses  the  air 
in  e.  The  pistons  rise  and 
descend  alternatel}'.  The 
compressed  air  reacts  by  its  elasticity,  and  pressing 
npon  the  surface  be,  forces  the  water  through  the 
hose  <j.  In  the  space  e,  above  be,  the  whole  of  the 
air  that  formerly  filled  the  chamber  is  supposed  to 
be  compressed.  Assuming  this  to  be  one-thu-d  of  its 
original  bidk,  its  pressure  will  be  about  45  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch,  and  this  pressure  will  be  continuous 
and  nearly  steady,  if  the  pumps  act  with  sufficient 
force  and  rajiidity  to  keep  the  water  at  that  level. 
As  air  may  be  compressed  to  any  extent — and  its 
elasticity  is  increased  in  exactly  the  same  proportion 
— the  force  that  may  be  stored  in  the  compressed 
air  is  oidy  limited  by  the  force  put  upon  the  pumps, 
and  the  strength  of  the  apparatus. 

Under  proposition  9  of  the  same  work,  in  which 
'the  siphons  used  in  conflagrations'  are  described, 


Hero  describes  and  figures  the  air-chamber  as  'a 
hollow  globe  or  other  vessel,  into  which  if  any  liquid 
be  poured,  it  will  be  forced  aloft  spontaneously 
and  with  much  violence,  so  as  to  empty  the  vessel, 
though  such  upward  motion  is  contrary  to  nature.' 
The  globe  is  represented  with  a  single  piston 
attached  for  compressing  the  air.  Thus,  about  ISOU 
years  elapsed  before  proposition  9  and  projjosition 
27  of  this  work  were  put  together  for  so  obvious 
and  useful  a  purjiose  as  the  fire-engine,  although 
the  book  was  tolerably  well  known  to  the  mathe- 
maticians of  the  period  ;  and  when  they  were  put 
together,  it  was  proljably  done  by  a  practical  man, 
who  had  never  heard  cf  the  name  of  Hero. 

The  more  recently  constructed  fire-engines  include 
contrivances  for  preventing  the  entrance  of  mud  and 
gravel,  and  for  getting  readily  at  the  valves  in  case 
of  their  being  out  of  order,  while  the  cistern  is 
dispensed  with,  a  hose  being  carried  directly  to  the 
water-supply.  They  are  usually  ih-awn  by  two  or 
four  horses,  though  smaller  engines  are  made  to  be 
drawn  by  hand  or  by  one  horse.  The  hose  is  of 
leather,  fastened  by  metal  rivets,  instead  of  the 
sewing  formerly  used.  In  the  United  States,  cotton 
is  woven  into  a  tube  by  machinery  constructed  for 
the  purpose.  Two  such  tubes  are  fitted  one  within 
the  other,  and  held  together  by  a  solution  of  India- 
rubber,  which,  on  consolidating,  forms  a  water-tight 
layer. 

The  fire-engines  of  the  London  Fire  Brigade 
establishment  have  usually  6-inch  barrels  with 
7-inch  stroke,  and  throw  about  70  gallons  of  water 
per  minute.  Their  weight,  with  imjilements,  fire- 
men, and  driver,  is  about  30  cwt.  These  are  found 
more  convenient  for  general  purposes  than  larger 
engines,  as  they  can  be  drawn  at  a  gallop  by  two 
horses  for  a  distance  under  six  miles.  Four  horses 
are  used  for  gre.iter  distances.  When  a  large  engine 
is  required,  two  of  these  may  be  joined  together, 
and  throw  ISO  gaDons  per  minute.  The  pumps  are 
worked  by  levers,  with  long  horizontal  bars  attached, 
to  enable  a  niunber  of  men  to  work  together  uijou 
the  same  pumps.  Many  larger  engines  than  these 
have  been  constructed,  and  steam  has  been  success- 
fully applied.  The  first  ap])lication  of  the  steam 
fire-engine  was  made  when  the  Argyle  Kooms  in 
London  were  burned  in  1830.  Several  floating 
tire-engines  for  conflagrations  near  the  Thames 
have  been  constructed  and  worked  by  steam ;  one 
of  these  is  capable  of  throwing  1400  gallons  per 
minute.  A  floating  engine  was  used  with  consider- 
able eflect  when  the  Houses  of  Parliament  were 
burned ;  but  at  the  fire  of  the  warehouses  near 
London  Bridge  (1861),  the  fury  of  the  combustion, 
when  at  its  maximum  height,  was  so  great,  that 
the  combined  efforts  of  all  the  London  engines, 
whether  worked  by  steam  or  by  hand,  had  no 
perceptible  effect  in  subduing  it.  For  all  ortUnary 
fires,  the  hand-engines  above  referred  to  are  the 
most  useful,  as  they  can  be  brought  to  the  spot 
and  set  in  action  immediately.  Nevertheless,  so 
greatly  have  the  steam  fire-engines  been  recently 
improved,  that  steam  of  100  II).  pressure  on  the 
square  inch  can  be  raised  in  seven  minutes  after 
making  the  fire. 

It  has  been  questioned  whether,  in  cases  of  very 
intense  combustion,  a  comparatively  small  stream  of 
water  has  any  subduing  effect  at  all — some  assert 
that  it  may  even  increase  the  conflagration.  Various 
chemical  liquids  have  been  proposed  as  flame-e.xtin- 
guishers;  but  plaiu  water  is  still  the  only  power 
used  to  any  extent. 

Fike-Brigai)E.s. — Fur  working  fire-engiues,  a 
body  of  Jiremcii  are  required.  The  fire  insurance 
companies  formerly  had  separate  establishments  of 
fire-engines  and  firemen;  but  in  1825  some  of  them 

3U 


FIRE-ENGINE— FERE-ESCAPES. 


unitwl.  and  by  1SS3  all  the  iin|)orUiit  companies 
coinbiiH'il,  and  tbc  London  Fire-brigade  was  formed, 
under  the  management  of  tlio  lato  Mr  Braidwood, 
whoso  death  iji  the  discharge  of  his  duties  at  the 
ureat  lire  just  referred  to  was  justly  deplored 
throughout  the  country  as  a  national  loss.  In  1805, 
an  act  of  parliament  empowered  the  Metropolitan 
JJo.-u-d  of  Works  to  purchase  the  eugiues  and  apjili- 
auces  of  the  London  Fire-brigade  establishment; 
to  secure  the  services  of  the  brigade  men ;  to  con- 
struct additioual  engines  and  stations;  to  map  out 
the  metropolis  into  convenient  districts ;  and  to 
cause  the  liremen  to  act  in  harmony  with  a.  salvage 
corjis  and  a  fire-escape  cori)3.  The  engines  now 
used  are  very  powerful ;  the  manual  engines  are  for 
•2-J,  -26,  30,  38,  and  46  men  each ;  while  the  steam 
lire-eiigines,  especially  those  constructed  by  Messrs 
Shand'anil  JIason,  on  a  princijilo  ])ateuteil  in  1870, 
will  throw  a  jet  to  a  vertical  height  of  180  feet,  or 
drive  water  through  half  a  mile  of  jiipe  horizontally. 
At  .1  fire  in  the  East  India  Docks  in  1806,  the 
steam  fire-engines  poured  in  the  euormous  quantity 
of  3.000,000  "gallons.  At  the  latest  great  lire  in 
London,  that  of  the  Alexandra  Palace,  in  June 
1S73,  a  jiowerful  force  of  engines  was  present,  but 
there  was  insufficient  water  to  render  them  eli'ective. 
The  establishment  comprises  about  400  firemen,  55 
stations,  90  manual  engines,  and  35  steam-engines 
(5  of  them  floating).  As  the  Metropolitan  Board 
in  London  pay  a"  fee  to  the  first  person  who 
gives  notice  of  a  fire  at  the  engine  station,  there  is 
always  a  supply  of  volunteers  from  among  cabmen 
and  people  in  the  streets,  besides  policemen,  to  per- 
form this  important  service;  and  in  like  manner 
the  pump-bars  of  the  tire-engines  are  always  fidly 
manned.  The  men  of  the  brigade  wear  a  uniform, 
with  strong  helmets  and  metal  epaulets,  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  blows  of  falling  beams, 
&c.  The  courage  and  skill  of  the  men  in  making 
their  way  through  and  about  burning  buildings,  for 
the  purposes  of  directing  the  stream  from  the  hose, 
or  for  saving  life  and  property,  and  the  general 
efficiency  of  the  whole  organisation,  are  worthy  of 
the  highest  praise.  The  water-supply  in  London  is 
not  so'well  managed  as  the  engine-supply,  thereby 
frustrating  the  exertions  of  the  firemen. 

Most  of  our  provincial  towns  now  have  a  fire- 
brigade  upon  the  same  model  as  that  of  London. 
The  fact  that  Paris  has  several  times  as  many  fire- 
men as  London,  is  a  tolerable  proof  of  the  amount 
of  work  the  London  firemen  aro  called  u])on  to 
perform.  At  Paris,  as  on  the  continent  generally, 
the  lire-engines  and  firemen  are  under  government 
control ;  and  the  sajjeiirs  pompiers,  or  firemen,  are 
empowered  to  enforce  the  assistance  of  any  people 
they  can  find  in  the  streets. 

In  many  continental  towns,  fire-watchmen  are 
stationed  in  commanding  situations,  such  as  church- 
towers;  and  their  duty  is  to  ring  a  fire-bell,  or 
otherwise  give  the  alarm,  immediately  u])on  observ- 
ing a  conllagration.  The  fire-companies  of  the 
United  States  are  comjiosed  of  volunteer  firemen, 
who  receive  no  pay,  but  certain  immunities  from 
taxation  and  militia  service.  Their  annual  parade- 
day  is  quite  a  fete.  Each  company  has  a  special 
nniform;  and  in  some  cities  the  rivalry  among 
them  is  so  great,  that  they  frequently  have  desperate 
fights  for  the  best  'location'  for  their  engines. 
Prizes  are  awarded  to  those  whose  engines  throw  a 
jet  of  w\atcr  to  the  greatest  height.  An  admirable 
system  of  electro-telegraphy  has  been  adopted,  to 
give  notice  from  station  to  station  in  the  event  of 
fire.  Nevertheless,  American  conflagrations  are 
often  frightfully  destructive :  witness  those  at 
Chicago  in  1871,  and  at  Boston  in  1872  and  1873. 

In  Constantinople,  there  are  two  fire-towers,  one 

342 


on  each  aide  of  the  Golden  Horn,  with  watchmen 
coutinu.ally  stationed  there.  A  large  wicker-ball  is 
hauled  up  to  the  side  of  the  tower  as  a  signal,  and 
the  cry  of  'There  is  a  fire  at  Scutari,  Tophane,'  or 
whatever  be  the  quarter  of  the  city  in  which  it 
occurs,  is  raised  and  taken  up  by  the  patrol,  who 
strike  the  pavement  with  their  iron-bound  staves 
as  they  repeat  the  ery.  In  a  few  minutes,  the 
alarm  is  thus  spread  throughout  the  whole  city. 

FIRE-ESCA'PES.  An  immense  number  of 
contrivances  have  been  at  difterent  times  proposed 
for  enabling  people  to  escape  by  "windows  and 
house-tojis  from  burning  buildings.  They  are  of 
two  distinct  kinds — one  for  aftbrding  aid  from 
outside,  anil  the  other  for  enabling  those  within  the 
house  to  eff'ect  theii'  own  escape.  Of  the  latter,  the 
simplest  is  a  cord  that  shoiUd  be  firmly  attached 
to  the  window-sill  of  every  sleeping-apartment, 
and  coiled  up  either  in  a  box  on  the  floor,  or 
under  a  dressing-table,  or  other  suitable  place.  A 
ro]>e  one-quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  knotted  at  intervals  of  about  a  foot,  is  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  A  good  cpiarter-inch 
sash-cord  will  support  from  three  to  four  cwt.  or 
more  if  new,  and  mil  cost  from  Gil.  to  2s.,  according 
to  the  height  of  the  room.  A  man  with  tolerable 
nerve  may  let  himself  do%vu  by  means  of  such  a 
cord,  either  by  placing  his  feet  against  the  wall  and 
biinging  '  hand  over  hand'  down  upon  the  knots,  or 
by  clinging  with  his  feet  and  knees  to  the  rope  as 
well  as  with  his  hands.  A  man  may  let  down  a 
woman  or  child  by  means  of  a  sack  at  the  end  of  the 
rope,  or  simply  by  fastening  them  to  the  end,  and 
letting  the  rope  pass  through  his  hands,  aided  if 
necessary  by  the  friction  of  the  window-sill,  if  it  be 
allowed  to  bend  over  it.  A  rope  coiled  u])0u  a  drum 
inside  a  dressing-table,  with  a  winch-handle  to  uncoil 
it,  is  another  form.  A  pulley  fixed  to  the  window- 
sill,  over  which  runs  a  rope  mth  a  chair  or  simijlo 
board  to  sit  on,  is  a  well-known  contrivance. 

Some  means  of  escape  from  every  sleeping-room 
shoidd  be  provided,  and  the  inmates  shoidd  be 
thoroughly  prepared  by  knowing  beforehand  how  to 
act  in  case  of  a  fire  cutting  off  communication  with 
the  usual  means  of  outlet.  In  a  row  of  houses 
mth  projecting  balconies,  a  board  of  sufficient 
length  to  reach  from  the  balcony  of  one  house  to  the 
next  may  be  kept  in  each  room,  or  even  a  rope 
might  be  thrown  across  with  the  aid  of  a  stone  or 
lump  of  coal,  &c.,  tied  to  one  end.  An  exit  by  the 
roof  or  from  the  window  on  to  the  parapet  affords 
a  ready  means  of  escape  from  a  top-story,  and 
shoidd  always  be  proWded  in  tall  houses.  In  case 
of  emergency,  when  no  provision  has  been  made,  the 
cord  hohling  the  sacking  of  the  bedstead  may 
be  undone,  or  the  bedclothes  and  curtains  tied 
together  to  form  a  rope ;  or  as  a  last  resource,  the 
bedding  may  be  thrown  out  of  window  to  foim  a 
cushion  to  alight  ui)on  in  case  of  the  cord  or  bed- 
clothes being  too  short  to  reach  the  ground;  or 
if  there  be  no  time  to  extemporise  such  cordage, 
and  it  should  be  necessary  to  drop  directly  from 
the  window,  in  this  case,  it  woidd  be  better  to 
hang  by  the  hands  from  the  window-sill  and  then 
dro]),  than  to  jump  dii-cct,  as  the  height  of  the  fall 
would  be  somewhat  diminished  thereby.  In  all 
such  cases,  presence  of  mind  and  coolness  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  may  render  very  simple 
and  slender  means  of  escape  more  effectual  than 
the  most  complete  and  elaborate  would  be  without 
these  qualities  ;  and  presence  of  mind  may  be  to  a 
great  extent  acquired  chiefly  by  being  mentally 
prepared,  and,  if  possible,  by  rehearsals  of  what 
shoidd  be  done  in  case  of  danger. 

Fire-escapes,  to  be  used  from  without,  consist 
either  of  simple  ladderskcpt  in  churches,police-officee, 


FIREFLY— FIRELOCK. 


or  other  convenient  stations,  or  a  series  of  lad- 
ders that  can  be  jointed  together  ;  of  poles  with 
baskets  attached ;  of  ropes  with  weights  at  one  end, 
that  they  may  be  thrown  or  shot  into  \4-indows ;  of 
combinations  of  ladders,  ropes,  bags,  baskets,  nets, 
&.C.  The  fire-escape  now  generally  adopted  by  the 
Society  for  the  Protection  of  Life  from  Fire  is  a  light 
carriage  or  framework  on  wheels,  to  which  a  series 
of  ladders,  &c.,  are  attached.  It  is  thus  described  by 
the  society :  '  The  main  ladder  reaches  from  30 
to  35  feet,  and  can  instantly  be  appUed  to  most 
second-floor  windows  by  means  of  the  carriage-lever.' 
This  projects  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  ladder  like 
the  shafts  of  an  ordinary  can'iage,  and  works  upon 
the  axle  of  the  wheels  as  a  fulcrum.  '  The  upper 
ladder  folds  over  the  main  ladder,  and  is  raised 
into  position  by  a  rope  attached  to  its  lever-irons  on 
either  side  of  the  main  ladder ;  or,  as  recently 
adoi)ted  in  one  or  two  of  the  escapes,  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  pulleys  in  lieu  of  the  lever-irons.  The  short 
ladder  for  first-floors  fits  in  imder  the  carriage,  and 
is  of  the  greatest  service.  Under  the  whole  length 
of  the  main  ladder  is  a  canvas  trough  or  bagging 
made  of  stout  saU-cloth  protected  by  an  outer 
trough  of  copper-wire  net,  leaving  sufficient  room 
between  for  the  yielding  of  the  canvas  in  a  person's 
descent.  The  addition  of  the  copper-wire  is  a 
great  improvement,  as,  although  not  affording  an 
entire  protection  against  the  canvas  failing,  it  in 
most  cases  avails,  and  prevents  the  possibility  of 
any  one  faOing  through.  The  soaking  of  the  canvas 
in  alum  and  other  solutions  is  also  attended  to  ; 
but  this,  while  preventing  its  flaming,  cannot  remove 
the  risk  of  accident  from  the  fire  charring  the  canvas. 
The  available  height  of  these  escapes  is  about  45 
feet ;  but  some  of  them  carry  a  short  supplementary 
ladder,  which  can  be  readily  fixed  at  the  top,  and 
which  increases  the  length  to  50  feet.' 

This  society  has  upwards  of  l'-!0  of  these  fire- 
escapes  stationed  in  ditterent  parts  of  London. 
They  stand  in  the  roadway,  and  are  each  under  the 
charge  of  a  conductor  during  the  night.  Almost 
every  house  in  London  is  within  two  or  three 
minutes'  nm  of  one  of  these.  Since  1836,  when 
the  operations  of  the  society  first  commenced,  they 
have  saved  thousands  of  lives.  At  one  fire,  nine 
lives  were  saved  by  one  man  and  fire-escape.  Fire- 
escapes  of  similar  construction  are  now  stationed  in 
some  of  our  provincial  towns.  When  required, 
they  are  nm  to  the  burning  house,  the  main 
Ladder  standing  nearly  upright  all  the  while.  It  is 
then  directed  to  the  required  window  at  a  consider- 
a'ule  inclination,  and  the  attend.ant  ascends  the 
ladder,  and  helps  the  inmates  either  to  descend  by 
it,  or  if  they  are  imable  to  do  this,  he  lets  them 
do^vn  by  the  canvas  trough,  which  forms  an 
inclined  plane,  aJong  which  they  may  easily  and 
safely  descend  with  the  aid  he  is  enabled  to  afford 
them. 

FIREFLY,  a  name  common  to  all  ivinged 
luminous  insects,  at  least  to  all  that  possess  much 
luminosity.  Except  the 
lantern-fly  (q.  v.),  they 
are  all  coleopterous,  and 
belong  to  two  nearly 
allied  tribes,  Lampy- 
rides,     to     which     the 

glowworm    (q.  v.)     also 

JFtS  belongs,  and  Elaterides, 
to  which  belong  our 
skipjack  beetles,  and  of 
which  the  lar\'ie  are  too 
well-known  to  farmers 
as  viTre-worms.  The 
male  glowworm,  which  alone  is  winged,  has  too  Httle 
luminosity  ever  to  receive  the  name  of  F.,  but  the 


Firefly  (Lampyns  Ilalicu) 


fireflies  of  the  south  of  Europe  (Lampyria  Italica) 
and  of  Canada  [L.  coruaca)  are  nearly  allied  to  it. 
See  Glo\v"vvokm.  Fireflies  are  only  seen  in  the 
most  southern  parts  of  Europe.  They  abound  in 
almost  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  the 
brilliancy  of  the  spectacle  presented  by  them  when 
glancing  about  in  numbers  amidst  the  darkness  of 
night,  has  been  often  described  mth  enthusiastic 
admiration.  Mr  Gosse  says  of  the  Canadian  F.  : 
'  The  light  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  very  difl'erent  from 
the  blue  gleam  of  the  Eughsh  glowworm  :  from  this 
circumstance  I  at  first  took  them  for  candles  in  the 
woods,  and  though  told  what  they  were,  at  every 
one  that  appeared,  the  same  idea  would  come  across 
my  mind.  .  .  .  They  more  frequently  give  out  the 
light  while  flying,  than  when  crawling  or  resting, 
though  we  may  often  observe  the  intermittent  gleam 
as  one  crawls  up  a  stalk  of  gi'ass,  or  rests  on  the 
leaf  of  a  tree.  They  fly  slowly,  and  as  they  fly, 
emit  and  conceal  their  light  with  great  regidarity  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  seconds  ;  making  inter- 
rupted lines  of  light  through  the  air,  gleaming  slowly 
along  for  about  a  yard,  then  suddenly  quenched,  and 
appearing  again  at  the  same  distance  ahead.  Tho 
insect  is  a  pretty  beetle,  with  soft  elytra,  of  a  light- 
brown  colour,  marked  with  red,  and  handsomely 
striped  ;  the  light  proceeds  from  the  last  three  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen,  which  are  of  a  delicate  cream 
colour  by  day.  At  night,  these  three  segments  are 
bright  at  all  times ;  but  at  the  regular  intervals  I 
have  mentioned,  they  flash  out  with  dazzhng 
splendour.  If  this  part  be  plucked  off  and  crushed, 
many  patches  of  brilliance  occur  for  a  few  moments 
among  the  flesh,  but  they  gradually  die  away.'  He 
further  describes  these  fireflies  as  appearing  in  great 
numbers  in  sunmier  evenings,  over  wet  and  marshy 
ground,  millions  of  them  above  a  river,  or  over  the 
surface  of  a  large  field,  like  stars  on  a  clear  winter 
night,  but  flashing  and  disappearing,  and  moving 
about  in  mazy  evolutions. — But  still  more  brilliant 
are  the    fireflies  of  more 

tropical  regions,  belonging  ^  ,^ 

to    the    tribe    Elaterides,         ^I-i.      ^  -^^ 

as  the  F.  of  the  West 
Indies  (Elater  noctilucus), 
which  gives  out  its  light 
chiefly  from  two  eye-like 
tubercles  on  the  thorax. 
The  light  is  so  powerful, 
that  the  smallest  print 
may  be  read  by  it ;  and 
this  becomes  quite  easy  if 
a  few  of  the  insects  are 
enclosed  in  a  small  glass 
vessel.  They  are  not  unfre- 
quently  employed — p.arti- 
eularly  in  .St  Domingo — to  give  light  for  household 
jiurposes ;  and  they  are  used  for  purposes  of  decora- 
tion on  festival-days  by  women,  who  attach  them 
to  their  dress  or  to  their  hail-.  One  which  had 
been  accidentally  brought  alive  to  Paris,  once 
astonished  and  alarmed  the  Faubourg  St  Antoine. 
These  insects  are  caught  in  some  parts  of  the  West 
Indies — a  torch  being  used  to  attract  them — and 
brought  into  houses  to  destroy  mosquitoes,  which 
they  eagerly  pursue  and  devour.  See  LujnxosiTY 
OF  Insects. 

FI'RELOCK,  the  name  applied  on  its  introduc- 
tion, in  1690,  to  the  old  musket,  which  produced  fire 
by  the  concussion  of  flint  and  steel,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  viaichlock  previously  in  use,  which  had 
been  fired  by  the  insertion  of  a  lighted  match  at  the 
powder-pan.  Writers  of  the  earlier  part  of  the 
18th  c.  called  firelocks  'asnaphans ; '  a  word  obviously 
comipted  from  the  Dutch  snapliaan,  and  leading  to 
the  inference  that  they  were  brought  to  England  by 

3J3 


Firefly  {Elater  noclilucus). 


FIREXZUOLA-FUIE-PKOOF  SAFES  AND  REPOSlTOiaES. 


William  III.  and  his  Dutch  auxiliaries.  Their  first 
invention  is,  however,  involved  in  obscurity.  The 
weaiwn  was  8u|)erseded  before  1S30  by  the  iiercus- 
sion  nuisket ;  which,  iu  its  turn,  has  now  yielded  to 
the  rifle  (q.  v.). 

FIREXZUOLA,  Anoelo,  an  author  distinOTished 
for  the  Attic  choiccucss  of  his  lani,'uai;e.  was  Ixiru  at 
Florence  in  1493.  Having  completed  at  Perugia 
the  studies  which  he  commenced  iu  Florence,  he 
proceeded  to  Itome  in  anticipation  of  a  brilliant 
legal  career,  but  shortly  abandoned  the  eternal  city, 
disaii}>ointed  in  hoi)e  and  shattered  in  health.  It 
seems  well  authenticated,  that  he  lin.ally  enrolled 
himself  among  the  monkish  brotherhood  of  Vallom- 
brosa,  and  rose  to  considerable  influence,  in  s]iite 
of  the  extreme  licence  of  morals,  and  hcentiousness 
of  writing  for  which  he  was  noted.  The  date  of 
his  death  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  generally  jilaced 
between  1542  and  1544.  His  chief  works  are  a 
spirited  paraphrase  of  the  Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius 
— iu  which  he  is  geuerally  considered  by  his  coun- 
trj-men  to  have  far  excelled  the  original  in  nerve 
and  beauty  of  language;  /  Discorsl  degli  Animali 
— containing  some  sound  lessons  of  just  legislation 
to  the  ruling  powers,  the  censure  bein^  skilfully 
veiled  by  means  of  his  animal  oratoi-s  ;  1  Bafjiona- 
menti,  a  work  in  close  imitation  of  the  Decameron 
both  as  regards  the  impurity  of  sentiment,  and 
classic  purity  of  language  ;  Ji  Tratlato  della  bellezza 
detle  donne,  an  eulogistic  discussion  concerning  the 
charms  of  the  gentle  sex,  to  whom  he  was  inordi- 
nately devoted.  His  %vorks  were  published  in 
Florence  after  his  death.  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Florence  (1763,  3  vols.). 

FIRE-POLICY.    See  Insurance. 

FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS.  The  problem  of 
constructing  warehouses,  dwelling-houses,  &e.,  that 
shall  be  proof  against  all  risk  of  conflagration,  has 
not  yet  been  solved.  The  liability  to  conflagration 
may  be  greatly  diminished  by  the  construction  of 
a  building,  but  cannot  be  entirely  averted  ;  and 
therefore,  in  all  '  lire-proof  buildings  containing 
furniture  or  other  combustible  materials  of  any 
kind,  the  ordinary  precautions  against  fire  shoidd 
be  strictly  observed.  It  is  well  to  state  this  at  the 
outset,  as,  unless  it  be  imderstood,  a  so-called  lire- 
proof  building  may  be  more  dangerous  than  an 
ordinary  one,  especially  in  warehouses,  &c.,  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  watchmen  and  others,  who,  relying 
upon  the  supposed  imnuinity  the  name  expresses, 
are  liable  to  neglect  many  precautions  they  would 
not  fail  to  obser\-e  in  a  building  believed  to  be 
dangerous.  The  most  destructive  fire  that  has 
occurred  in  London  since  ICGli  was  that  at  Cotton's 
Wharf,  in  1861,  the  warehouses  of  which  were 
what  is  called  'lire-proof.'  The  great  fury  of  this 
coniiagration  depended  ou  the  nature  of  the  goods 
that  were  stored.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  believe 
that  such  combustibles  as  taUow,  turpentine, 
&c.,  could  have  been  stored  in  the  vicinity  of 
saltpetre,  unless  there  had  existed  some  faith  in 
their  practical  isolation  from  each  other  by  the 
fire-proof  divisions  of  the  building,  as  it  is  so  well 
understood  tli.at  saltjietre,  though  incombustible 
of  itself,  intensities  to  an  immense  extent  the  com- 
bustibility of  .all  combustibles,  by  suppljing  tliem 
■with  luidiluted  oxygen  when  he.-ited  in  contact  or 
wnthin  a  moderate  distance  of  them. 

The  nearest  a])proximation  to  fire-proof  construc- 
tion may  be  obtained  as  follows :  the  walls  should 
be  of  stone  or  brick,  and  any  ties,  lintels,  &c., 
required  in  tlie  construction  should  be  of  iron.  The 
staircases  should  be  of  iron  or  stone,  and  the  floors 
or  Landings  of  tiles,  concrete,  or  stone.  Wherever 
"      ai'r  '"*-'^"''^'^'y  "sed,  it  should  be  prepared  ^vith 


silicate  of  soda  (see  Fire-proofino).  Instead  of 
'  wooden  joists  to  support  the  floors  of  each  story, 
I  arched  stone  or  brickwork  should  be  used,  and 
this  shoiUd  be  put  together  with  sufticient  care  to 
be  independent  of  the  mortar.  The  roof  should 
I  be  constructed  in  like  manner,  wooden  rafters 
being  entirely  excluded.  The  doors  should  be  of 
iron,  and  the  security  woiUd  be  much  increiiscd 
if  the  doors  between  any  two  apartments  con- 
taining combustible  materials  were  double,  with  a 
space  between  them  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
walls.  Of  course,  it  is  not  practicable  to  carry  out 
all  these  precautions  in  a  dwelling-house,  but  the 
danger  from  lire  may  be  considerably  diminished 
by  attending  to  some  of  them.  Wooden  staircases 
are  especially  dangerous.  The  most  important 
conditions  for  a  warehouse  are,  that  each  apartment 
shall  be  sejiarated  from  the  next  by  stout  walls 
of  non-conducting  materials,  and  more  especially, 
that  each  shall  be  as  nearly  ,as  possible  air-tight ; 
and  whenever,  from  the  nature  of  the  goods, 
ventilation  is  required,  it  should  be  obt.ained  by 
periodically  opening  the  doors  and  windows.  If 
this  latter  condition  is  fullilled,  any  tire  would 
extinguish  itself,  unless  there  be  along  with  the 
combustible  goods  some  oxygen-giving  substance, 
such  as  s.altpetre,  chlorate  of  potass,  or  other 
nitrates  or  chlonates. 

At  lii'st  sight,  it  may  appear  that  a  warehouse 
built  entirely  of  iron,  would  be  eflectually  fire-proof, 
but  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  In  the  first 
place,  iron  conducts  heat  more  readily  than  any 
other  m,aterial  used  iu  buikling ;  secondly,  cast-iron 
is  liable  to  crack  and  split  when  suddenly  heated  or 
cooled.  Iron  supports  may,  under  some  circum- 
stances, be  even  more  objectionable  than  w'ood,  for 
if  the  w<ater  from  a  fire-engine  were  to  play  upon  a 
heated  cast-iron  girder,  it  would  probably  give  w.ay 
immediately,  while  a  stout  wooden  beam  might  be 
extinguished  before  being  burned  through.  When 
buddings  supported  by  iron  girders  are  burning, 
they  are  far  more  dangerous  to  firemen  than  those 
with  wood,  as  the  experienced  fireman  can  form  a 
pretty  accurate  judgment  of  the  time  that  burning 
wooden  beams  will  stand,  and  may  move  about 
in  their  vicinity  to  direct  the  stream  of  Avater  to 
where  it  is  most  needed,  but  iron  girders  split  and 
fall  without  visible  notice.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  floors  of  arched  masonry  are  recommended 
above.  In  great  fires,  the  heat  is  sufficient  to 
fuse  iron. 

Without  going  to  the  expense  of  making  ware- 
houses aud  manufactories  absolutely  fire-proof, 
certain  precautions  not  of  a  costly  nature  might  be 
usefully  adopted,  for  the  purpose  of  merely  checkin{» 
the  progress  of  conflagi-ation  until  the  arrival  of 
fire-engines.  Among  these  simple  measures,  m.ay 
be  included  iron  doors  hinged  on  stone  between 
different  departments ;  a  sufficient  deafening  not 
easily  destructible  between  the  ceiling  of  one 
story  aud  the  floor  of  that  above ;  and  stone  stairs. 
For  rendering  timber  difficiUt  of   combustion,  see 

FlKE-PKOOFIXG. 

FIRE-PROOF  SAFES  AND  REPO'SITORIES 

are  used  as  receptacles  for  deeds,  jiaper-money, 
account-books,  aud  other  valuables.  They  are  now 
regular  articles  of  commerce,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  counting-house,  lawyer's  office, 
jeweller's  or  watchmaker's  shop  or  warehouse,  and 
are  indispensable  to  banking  and  such-like  establish- 
ments. Our  forefathers  used  o.aken  chests  secured 
with  iron  straps  and  studs  for  similar  jmrposes. 
That  which  formerly  contained  the  crown-jewels  of 
Scotland,  and  is  still  exhibited  in  Edinljurgli  Castle, 
is  a  good  exaini)le.  Subsequently,  iron  chests  made 
simply  of   stout   cast   or  wrought;  iron  were   used. 


FIRE-PROOFING— FIEE-RAISING. 


The  modem  safe  has  double  walls  and  doors  of 
stout  iron  jilatea,  and  the  space  between  the  plates 
is  filled  with  some  substance  that  shall  resist  the 
transmission  of  the  heat  which  would  be  readily 
conducted  through  solid  iron.  The  materials  used 
for  these  linings  are  very  various— sand,  dried  clay, 
charcoal,  ashes,  bone-dust,  alum,  gjqisum,  &c.  The 
safes  of  Mess:-3  S.  Mordau  &  Co.,  which  are  largely 
used  by  bankei-s,  are  lined  with  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  saw-dust  and  alum.  Some  makers  include 
small  vessels  containing  liquids,  the  vessels  burst 
when  heated,  and  the  liquids  exert  some  cooling 
effect.  Ahmi  acts  in  nearly  the  same  manner.  It 
contains  24  equivalents  of  water,  or  nearly  half  its 
weight.  At  212',  ten  equivalents  are  driven  oif  in 
vapour ;  at  248°,  ten  more ;  and  at  .102°,  the  four 
remaining  equivalents  are  volatdised.  It  is  a  mistake, 
however,  tu  suppose  that  any  of  these  linings  can 
render  such  a  safe  really  fire-proof ;  and  this  is 
admitted  by  the  more  scrupulous  manufacturers, 
who  carefuUy  abstain  from  using  the  designation 
of  '  fire-proof,'  but  apply  that  of  '  fire-resisting,' 
which  honestly  describes  aU  that  they  are  capable 
of  doing,  as  they  may  resist  the  action  of  fire  for 
a  considerable  time ;  but  whether  or  not  their 
contents  may  be  idtimately  preserved  from  a  fire, 
is  simply  a  question  of  the  duration  and  inten- 
sity of  the  heat  to  which  they  are  exposed.  Their 
great  weight  in  some  cases  assists  in  preserring 
them,  especially  when  on  an  upper  floor,  as  such  a 
safe  would  be  the  first  thing  to  break  through  the 
burning  joists  and  descend  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
building,  where  the  fire  is  Jisually  the  most  smothered. 
These  safes  are  sometimes  let  into  recesses  of  stout 
masonrj-,  built  on  purpose,  and  protected  by  an 
additional  double  iron  door.  This,  of  course,  adds 
greatly  to  their  security.  All  such  safes  should  of 
course  be  secured  by  the  best  locks  that  can  be 
made,  protected  by  ever}'  possible  precaution  against 
picking,  blowing  up  by  gunpowder,  or  other  violence. 
See  LocK,s. 

FIRE-PROOFING.  Attempts  have  continually 
been  made  to  render  cotton,  linen,  and  other  textile 
fabrics,  timber,  &c.,  incombustible ;  but  at  present 
they  have  been  but  partially  successful.  There  are 
many  means  by  which  fabrics  may  be  prevented 
from  flaming,  their  combustion  being  reduced  to  a 
slow  smouldering  ;  and  the  many  recent  cases  of 
fat,al  resiUts  from  the  present  extrav-agant  dimensions 
of  ladies'  dresses  have  rendered  the  adoption  of  some 
such  protection  against  fire  very  desirable.  By 
moistening  the  fabric  with  a  solution  of  any  saline 
substance,  which,  upon  drying  will  leave  minute 
crystals  deposited  in  or  between  the  fibres,  its 
inflammability  will  be  greatly  diminished,  but  the 
salt  imparts  a  degree  of  harshness  to  the  fabric,  and 
in  many  cases  weakens  the  fil>res.  Alum,  sulphate 
of  zinc,  and  sulj)hate  of  soda  have  been  used,  and 
are  effectual  to  prevent  flaming,  but  they  weaken 
the  fibre.  Common  salt  does  the  same.  Phosphate 
and  sulphate  of  ammonia  are  less  objectionable  on 
this  account,  but  the  former  decomposes  by  contact 
with  the  hot  iron  in  ironing.  Tungstate  of  soda  has 
been  proposed,  and  is  said  to  have  no  injurious  effect 
on  the  fil>re.  SiUphate  of  ammonia,  chloride  of 
ammonium  (sal  ammoniac),  and  borax,  are  among  the 
best  fitted  for  domestic  use,  though  they  are  not 
unobjectionable.  For  made-up  clothing,  borax  is, 
perhaps,  the  best,  as  it  is  most  effectual  in  its 
action,  and  is  the  least  injurious  to  the  appearance 
of  the  article,  though  it  is  stated  to  have  some 
weakening  effect  on  the  fibre ;  this,  however,  is  only 
perceptible  in  case  of  a  tearing  strain,  and  will  not 
perceptibly  damage  such  articles  as  ladies'  under- 
clothing, or  anything  else  only  subject  to  ordinary 
wear.     Wood  has  been  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 


Milk  of  lime,  alum,  sal  ammoniac,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  chloride  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphuret  of 
hme  and  baryta,  &c.,  have  been  used,  and  its  inflam- 
mabilili/,  but  not  its  comhuMibilili/,  is  destroyed.  Like 
the  fabrics,  when  similarly  treated,  wood  smouldei-3 
slowly.  The  most  efficient  protection  to  wood  is 
silicate  of  soda.  If  planks  of  moderate  thickness  be 
brushed  three  or  four  times  over,  on  each  side  with 
a  strong  solution,  they  are  rendered  almost  incom- 
bustible ;  they  will  only  burn  when  very  intensely 
heated.  The  sihcate  fuses  and  forms  a  glass  which 
envelojjes  the  surface,  and  even  the  internal  fibres 
of  the  wood,  if  it  be  sufficiently  saturated,  and  thus 
seals  it  from  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

FIRE-RAISING,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the 
equivalent  term  for  Arson  (q.  v.)  in  England.  If 
any  part  of  a  tenement,  however  small,  has  been 
set  fire  to  wilfully,  this  crime  has  been  committed. 
It  is  quite  indifferent  where  the  fire  has  com- 
menced, and  the  offence  is  frequently  perpetrated 
by  settingfire  to  furniture,  or  to  other  olijects  either 
\vithin  or  without  a  house  ;  but  it  is  not  regarded 
as  completed,  and  is  pimished  as  a  separate  crime, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  afterwards,  urdess  the  fire 
has  communicated  itself  to  some  part  of  a  build- 
ing. If  the  fire  originated  in  carelessness,  how- 
ever gross,  it  is  not  wilful  fire-raising,  but  a  minor 
offence,  punishable  with  fine  and  imprisonment. 
But  if  the  intention  was  to  injure  the  proprietor 
of  a  tenement  by  burning,  not  his  house,  but  an 
object  in  its  neighbourhood — e.  g.,  a  haystack — 
and  the  fire  was  accidentally  communicated  to  the 
house,  the  offence  is  the  same  as  if  the  fire  had  been 
applied  to  the  house  directly.  The  infliction  of  capital 
punishment  for  the  offence  of  fire-raising  is  now  in 
desuetude.  Where  a  man  burns  liis  own  house 
without  endangering  the  hfe  of  any  one,  he  has  not 
committed  the  crime  of  fire-raising,  but  he  may 
be  punished  criminally,  if  the  act  was  done  for  the 
purpose  of  defrauding  the  insurers.  Till  recently,  it 
was  the  rule  in  Scotland,  that  where  fire  was  the 
result  of  inevitable  accident,  it  freed  a  carrier  or 
innkeeper  from  responsibility  for  any  goods  that 
were  destroyed  in  his  custody,  unless  where  fraud  or 
collusion  could  be  she^Ti ;  but  the  law  in  this  respect 
has  been  altered  by  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment 
Act,  19  and  2U  Vict.  c.  GO,  which  jjroiades,  s.  17, 
that  after  the  passing  of  the  act  (1850),  *  All  carriers 
for  hire,  of  goods  within  Scotland,  shall  be  liable  to 
make  good  to  the  owner  of  such  goods  all  losses 
arising  from  accidental  fire  while  such  goods  were 
in  the  jjossessiou  or  custody  of  such  carriers' — 
thus  equalising  the  law  of  Scotland  with  that  of 
England, 

Attempting  to  set  fire  to  houses,  crops,  &c.. 
is  a  distinct  crime  fi-om  Arson  (q.  v.),  or  the  actual 
destruction  of  property  by  fire.  By  9  and  10 
Vict.  c.  5,  it  is  enacted,  that  if  any  one  shall  attempt 
to  set  fire  to  a  house,  &c.,  with  such  intent  that  the 
offence,  if  committed,  would  be  felony,  and  liable  to 
be  transported  for  life,  he  may  be  transported  for 
fifteen  years  (now  penal  servitude),  or  imprisoned 
for  two  years.  The  attempt  to  bm"n  growing  crops 
of  com,  &c.,  is  a  felony  by  7  and  S  Geo.  IV.  c.  30, 
and  pimishable  by  transportation  for  seven  years,  or 
by  imprisonment.  These  oft'ences  are  also  misde- 
meanours at  common  law.  By  24  and  25  Vict.  c. 
97,  s.  8,  the  attempt  to  set  bnildings  on  fire  is 
punishable  by  penal  ser\'itude  for  fourteen  years, 
or  imprisonment  for  two  years ;  if  a  male  imder 
sixteen,  to  be  whipped. 

In  Scotland,  an  attempt  to  commit  wilful  fire- 
raising  (q.  V.)  is  an  oflence  at  common  law.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  constitute  this  offence  that  the  fire 
should  have  consumed  any  [laii;  of  the  building, 
&c.     Furniture — as  a  mattress — partly   consumed, 

345 


PraE-SHlP— FIRMAMENT. 


a  li.nhtwi  l>oat  thnist  luidor  a  stack  without  igniting 
it,  are  sullicieut  to  warrant  a  con\-iction.  Inciting 
otliers  to  commit  Kreraising  is  an  indictable  oHenco  ; 
ami,  in  sonio  oKl  caaes,  jwrsons  have  been  puuisheil 
for  the  mere  throats  to  commit  tho  offence,  without 
being  gniltv  of  any  overt  act 

The  English  Act  9  and  10  Vict,  c  25,  dechires  that 
whoever  shall  maliciously,  by  tho  explosion  of  gim- 
]wwder  or  other  explosive "  substance,  destroy  or 
damage  any  dwelling-house  in  which  there  is  any 
jierson  at  the  time,  is  guUty  of  felony,  and  shall  be 
sulijected  to  transportation' lor  life,  or  not  less  than 
fifteen  years,  or  to  an  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
three  years.  Blowing  up  a  building  with  intent  to 
murder,  and  thereby  endangering  life,  or  casting 
upon  any  person  any  explosive  or  corrosive  fluid 
Aereby  grievous  bodily  harm  is  occasioned  him, 
and  similar  offences,  are  declared  subject  to  the 
same  punishment  Attempting  any  of  these  ofTences 
subjects  the  jwrpetrator  to  a  minor  punishment 
The  manufacturing  or  lia\-ing  in  possession  any 
explosive  substance,  or  dangerous  or  noxious  thing, 
or  any  machine  or  instrument  for  the  pui-pose 
of  coiiimitting  any  of  the  above  offences,  is  a 
misdemeanour,  liable  to  imprisoivment  not  exceed- 
ing two  years.  Male  offenders  imder  eighteen 
years  of  age,  conrictcd  imder  tho  act,  may  be 
whipped. 

FIRE-SHIP,  a  vessel,  usually  an  old  one,  filled 
with  combustibles,  sent  in  among  a  hostile  squadron, 
and  there  lired,  in  the  hope  of  destroying  some  of 
the  ships,  or  at  least  of  producing;  great  confusion. 
Livy  mentions  the  use  of  such  by  the  Rhodiaus, 
B.C.  190;  but  among  the  first  occasions  in  modern 
times  when  they  are  known  to  have  been  employed, 
were  by  the  Dutch  in  the  Scheldt  during  the  War 


of  Independence  in  the  Netherlands,  and,  shortly 
after,  by  tho  English  in  15S8,  against  the  Spanish 
Armada.  The  Chinese  tried  them  against  the 
British  fleet  before  Canton  in  1857,  but  imsuccess- 
fully.  The  service  of  navigating  one  of  these  ships 
into  the  midst  of  an  enemy,  there  firing  it,  and 
then  attempting  to  escape,  is  always  fraught  ivith 
great  risk  of  failure  and  disaster. 

FIREWORKS.    See  PyKOTECHNY. 

FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.     See  Guebres. 

FIRISHTA,  Mohammad  Kasim  Hindu  Shah, 
a  celebrated  I'eraian  historian,  born  towards  the  end 
of  the  IGth  c.  (1570?),  at  Astrabad,  on  the  Ca.si)ian 
346 


Sea.  At  a  very  early  age,  he  went  with  his  father 
(Oliolam  Ali  Hindu  Shah)  to  India,  where  we  liud 
him,  when  twelve  years  old,  at  Ahmednuggur,  iu 
the  Deccaii,  sharing  the  instruction  which  the 
latter  gave  to  Prince  Minm  Hussein  Nizam  Shah. 
He  afterwards  became  cajitain  in  the  body-guard 
of  Murteza  Nizam  Shah  ;  and  when  this  king  was 
deposed  by  his  own  son,  F.'s  former  fellow-student 
— who,  in  his  own  turn,  was  de])osed  and  murdered 
iu  less  than  a  twelvemonth  afterwards — ¥.  went 
to  Bijapore  (998  li.,  1589  a.d.),  where  Ibrahim  Adil 
Shah  U.,  the  reigning  monarch,  received  him  with 
great  honour.  He  also  appears  to  have  conferred 
a  military  rank  upon  him.  as,  soon  after  his 
arrival,  F.  is  mentioned  as  taking  part  in  an  action 
.against  Jumal  Khan,  iu  which  he  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner,  but  ere  long  he  made  liia 
escape.  His  death  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place 
shortly  after  the  year  IGli  His  great  work  is  the 
Tarikhi  Firishta,  or  History  of  the  Mohammedan 
Power  in  India,  which  he  linished  in  1018  u.  (1009 
a.  D.).  Twenty  ycai's  were  spent  in  its  jircpara- 
tioii,  and  the  number  of  books  used  for,  and 
partly  embodied  in  it — special  histories  of  certain 
[leriods  and  jiro'STnces — amoiuits,  according  to  F. 
himself  (Introduction),  to  thirty-five  ;  but  twenty 
othei-s  besides  these  are  quoted  in  tho  course 
of  the  work.  It  consists— besides  a  preamble  or 
introduction  on  the  Progress  of  Mohammedanism 
in  India,  and  a  final  treatise  on  the  geogi-ajihy 
and  the  climate  of  India — of  12  divisions,  treating 
of  the  kings  of  Ghizni  and  Lahore,  Delhi,  the 
Deccan,  Guzerat,  Malwah,  Caudeish,  Bengal  and 
Beliar,  Mooltan,  Siade,  Cashmere,  Malabar,  and 
of  the  saints  of  India.  Written  with  an  impar- 
tiabty,  simplicity,  and  clearness  rare  in  an  Eastern 
work,  this  history  has  become  a  standard  work  on 
the  subject,  into  which  it  was  the  first  to  enter  .at 
length.  Single  portions  of  it  have  been  traiishated 
by  Dow,  Scott,  Stewart,  Anderson,  &c. ;  but  the 
whole  work,  edited  first  by  J.  Brigirs  (Bombay,  1831, 
fol.  2  vols.),  was  also  translated  by  him  (London, 
1832,  8vo,  4  vols.).  A  fuUer  accoiuit  of  F.'s  life 
i  ;iiid  writings,  by  the  same,  will  be  found  iu  the 
'  nd  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 

>>  irlcty. 

FI'RKIN  (dim.  from  four,  the  fourth  jiart  of  a 
b.arrel),  an  old  measure  of  capacity  containing  nine 
gallons  (old  ale  and  beer  measure).  But  previous 
to  the  year  1803  it  had  two  values,  being  estimated 
at  eight  gallons  in  old  ale  measure,  and  at  nine  in 
old  beer  measure.  The  firkin  is  equivalent  to  9| 
imperial  gallons.     See  Gallon. 

FI'RLOT  (according  to  Jamieson,  from  Ang.- 
Sax.  J'wrth  and  lot,  the  fourth  part),  an  old  Scotch 
dry  measure,  of  which  there  were  four  in  a  Boll 
(q.  v.).  Though  differing  in  value  for  different  sub- 
stances and  places,  its  relation  to  the  boll  remained 
invariable.     See  Peck. 

FIRM.    See  PAKTNERSinr. 

FI'llMAMENT,  a  word  in  use  of  old  to  signify 
the  vault  of  heaven.  The  term  found  its  way  into 
English  from  the  Vulgate,  which  renders  the  Sep- 
tuagint  Stereoma,  and  the  Hebrew  IhOcia,  by  the 
Latin  Firmamenium  (Gen.  i.  G).  Eakia  (from  the 
verb  raka,  to  beat  or  strike  out)  signifies  whatever 
is  expanded  or  stretched  out,  and  was  specially 
employed  by  the  Hebrews  to  deuote  the  hemisphere 
above  the  earth,  compared  (Exod.  xxiv.  10)  to  a 
splendid  .and  jiellucid  sapphire.  Elsewhere  (Ez.  i. 
22-26)  it  is  sjiuken  of  as  the  'floor'  on  which  the 
throne  of  the  Most  High  is  placed.  Hence  it  follows 
th.at  the  notions  of  soliility  and  expansion  were 
both   contained   in    the   Hebrew  conception  of  the 


FIKMAN— FIRST-FRUITS. 


firmament.  The  blue  ethereal  sky  was  regarded  as  a, 
BoUd  crystal  sphere,  to  wliich  the  stars  were  fixed 
(compare  the  ccelo  affixa  sidera  of  Pliny,  ii.  39 
and  xvjii.  57),  and  which  was  constantly  revohnng, 
carrying  them  with  it.  This  sphere  or  firmament 
divided  '  the  watei's  which  were  under  the  fir- 
mament from  the  waters  which  were  above  the 
firmament ; '  and  the  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  rain, 
&c.,  was,  that  there  were  'windows  in  heaven' — 
i.  e.,  in  the  firmament,  through  which,  when  opened, 
the  watei's  that  were  above  the  firmament  descended. 
'  The  same  day  were  all  the  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  broken  up,  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were 
opened,'  Gen.  -iHi.  11.  The  view  entertained  by  tlie 
Greeks,  and  other  early  nations,  was  essentially  the 
same.  In  the  progress  of  astronomical  observations, 
it  was  found  that  many  of  the  heavenly  bodies  had 
independent  motions,  inconsistent  with  the  notion 
of  their  being  fixed  to  one  sphere  or  firmament. 
Then  the  number  of  crystaUine  spheres  were  inde- 
finitely increased,  each  body  that  was  clearly  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  haNTng  one  assigned  to  it,  till  a 
complex  system  was  introduced,  capable  of  being 
fully  understood  only  by  the  philosophers  who 
formed  it.  See  Ptolemaic  System.  It  was  long 
before  men  formed  the  idea  of  the  possibihty  of  a 
body  being  maintained  in  motion  in  space  without 
a  fixed  support,  and  considering  the  number  of 
jihennmena  of  wliich  the  hypothesis  of  a  crystalline 
firmament  offered  an  apparent  explanation,  we  must 
regard  it  as  having  been  in  its  day  a  cui-ious  and 
ingenious  sj)eciUation. 

ri'IlJIAN,  a  word  of  Persian  origin,  signifies  an 
order,  and  is  used  by  the  Turks  to  denote  any 
official  decree  emanating  from  the  Ottoman  Porte. 
The  right  of  signing  any  firman  relating  to  afl'airs 
connected  with  his  special  department  is  exercised 
by  every  minister  and  member  of  the  divan,  but 
the  office  of  placing  at  the  head  of  the  firman  the 
tlioijrai — a  cipher  containing  the  name  of  the  sultan 
in  interlaced  letters,  and  which  alone  gives  efi'cct  to 
the  decree — is  committed  to  the  hands  of  a  special 
minister,  who  is  called  nichandji-ejjendi.  The  name 
applied  to  such  decrees  as  have  been  signed  by  the 
sultan  himself  is  hatii-sli^rif.  The  name  firman 
may  also  signify  a  more  formal  kind  of  Turkish 
passport,  which  can  only  be  granted  by  the  sultan 
or  by  a  pasha. — A  written  permission  to  ti'ade  is 
called  in  India  a  fii-man. 

FIRST-BORN  (Heb.  Belcor,  Gr.  }>rotolokos,  Lat. 
primorjenitun),  in  scriptural  use,  signifies  the  first 
male  oflfspring,  whether  of  man  or  of  other  animals. 
By  a  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  indeed  of  the 
common  law  of  nature,  it  was  estabfished  that  the 
firstlings  of  all  the  produce  of  creatures,  whether 
animate  or  inanimate,  were  in  some  sense  due  to 
the  Creator  as  a  recognition  of  His  supreme 
dominion.  See  Fie-ST-Fruits.  Under  the  title 
arising  from  this  recognition  are  to  be  classed  many 
observances  regarding  the  first-bom  of  animate 
beings,  whether  rational  or  irrational,  which  pre- 
vailed among  eastern  nations  generally,  or  which 
are  specially  established  by  the  Mosaic  law  :  1.  The 
first-born  male,  whether  of  men  or  of  animals,  was 
devoted  from  the  time  of  birth  to  G'.hI.  lu  the 
case  of  fii-st-born  male  children,  the  law  required 
that,  within  one  month  after  birth,  they  should  be 
redeemed  l>y  an  oflering  not  exceeding  in  value  five 
shekels  of  silver  (Exod.  xiii.  13).  If  the  child  died 
before  the  ex])iration  of  thirty  days,  the  obbgation  of 
redemption  ceased  ;  but  if  that  term  were  com[)leted, 
the  obligation  was  not  extinguished  by  the  subse- 
quent death  of  the  infant.  This  redemption  took 
place  according  to  a  fixed  ceremonial.  The  first- 
born male  of  animals  also,  whether  clean  or  \mcleau, 


was  equally  regarded  as  devoted  to  God.  The  first- 
born of  clean  animals,  if  free  fi'om  blemish,  was  to 
be  delivered  to  the  priests  within  twelve  months 
after  birth,  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  Lord  (Deut.  xv.  21 ) ; 
nor  was  it  permitted  to  any  but  the  priests  to 
partake  of  the  fiesh  of  such  Wctims  (Num.  xviii.  18). 
If  the  animal  were  blemished,  it  was  not  to  be  sacri- 
ficed, but  to  be  eaten  at  home  (Deut.  xv.  22).  The 
first-born  of  unclean  animals,  not  being  a  fit  subject 
for  sacrifice,  was  either  to  be  put  to  death,  or  to  be 
redeemed  with  the  addition  of  one-fifth  of  its  value 
(Lev.  xxvii.  27  ;  Num.  x\Tii.  15).  If  not  redeemed, 
it  was  to  be  sold,  and  the  price  given  to  the  priests. 
2.  Primogeniture,  both  by  the  patriarchal  and  by  the 
Mosaic  law,  had  certain  privileges  attached  to  it, 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  headship  of  the  family, 
and  a  double  portion  of  the  inlieritance.  Before  the 
time  of  Moses,  however,  it  was  in  the  power  of  the 
father  to  decide  which  among  all  his  sons  should  be 
considered  the  first-bom.  Jloses  oi'dained  that  the 
right  should  invariably  belong  to  the  first-born  in 
point  of  time. 

Among  other  nations,  considei-able  variety  existed 
as  to  the  succession  of  children  to  the  inherit- 
ance of  their  parent.  The  Greeks,  especially  the 
Athenians,  excluded  the  females  of  a  family  so 
rigorously  from  the  inheritance,  that  in  the  event  of 
a  father  dying  intestate  and  without  heirs-male  of 
his  body,  the  nearest  male  kinsman  succeeded  to  the 
estate.  The  later  Romans,  on  the  contrary,  placed 
daughters  on  the  same  footing  with  sons  as  to  the 
dirision  of  intestate  property.  The  Mohammedans 
gave  the  daughtei-s  a  certain  share  of  the  father's 
estate,  but  only  one-half  of  that  assigned  to  the 
sons.  All  the  nations  of  Germanic  descent  restricted 
the  succession,  especially  in  land,  to  heirs-male. 
But  the  Visigoths  in  Spain  admitted  females,  except 
in  certain  contingencies. 

The  rights  of  the  first-born  in  English  and  Scotch 
law  are  noticed  under  Succession,  Pkimogesitcre, 
&c.  In  France,  the  law  of  primogenitm"C  fell  at 
the  Revolution,  in  common  with  many  other  relics 
of  the  feudal  system.  How  far  the  residts  of  the 
change  have  been  beneficial,  is  stiU  a  moot-ques- 
tion among  poUtical  economists.  In  the  state  of 
Virginia,  also,  after  the  American  revolution,  a 
similar  change  took  place  ;  and  that  the  ch.ange 
has  been  iu  accordance  with  public  opmion  in 
that  state  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  a 
])arent  now  commonly  makes,  by  w-ill,  the  same 
disposition  of  his  property  as  that  which  woiUd  be 
jiro\-ided  by  the  law  itself  iu  the  case  of  his  dying 
intestate. 

FIRST-FRUITS  (Heb.  reshUli,  Gr.  pi-olofienne- 
mata  and  aparchai,  Lat.  primilia;),  that  portion  of 
the  fniits  of  the  earth  and  other  natural  produce, 
which,  by  the  usage  of  the  Jews  and  other  ancient 
nations,  was  offered  to  God,  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  His  supreme  dominion,  and  a  thanksgi%'ing 
for  His  bounty.  Among  the  Jews,  the  institution 
of  first-fruits  comprised  both  public  and  jirivate 
offerings. 

Of  the  former  class,  there  were  three  principal 
oflerings  :  the  first  was  at  the  opening  of  the  corn- 
harvest.  On  the  day  after  the  Passover  Sabbath, 
the  ICth  of  the  month  Nisan,  a  sheaf  of  new  corn, 
which  was  cut  and  gathered  with  much  solemnit)', 
was  carried  to  the  Holy  Place,  and  there  waved 
before  the  altar  (Lev.  xxiii.  5  and  foU.)  ;  nor  was  it 
permitted  to  commence  the  har\'est-work  till  after 
this  solemn  acknowledgment  of  the  gift  of  fruitfiU- 
ness.  Again,  at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  two  loaves 
of  leavened  bread,  made  from  the  flour  of  the  new 
harvest,  were  waved,  with  a  similar  form  of  worship, 
before  the  altar  (Ex.  xxxiv.  22).  Thirdly,  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  in  the  7th  month,  was  held 

317 


FtRTH-FlSCHART. 


the  great  feast  of  the  g»thcred-in  han-ost,  the  final 
aoknowleJgment  of  the  bounty  of  God  in  the  fruits 
of  the  voar  (xxiii  161. 

Besiiles  these  public  offerings  of  first-fruits  on  the 
Tart  of  the  entire  people,  individual  Jews  were  1 
bound  to  private  ofTerinss,  each  upon  his  ovra  l>ehalf.  j 
1  A  cake  of  the  first  douch  of  the  vear  was  to  be 
offere<l  to  the  Lord  (Num.'^xv.  -iU.  i  The  '  first  of 
all  the  fruits'  were  to  be  placed  in  a  basket,  and 
carried  to  the  appointeil  place,  where  the  basket 
was  to  lie  offered  with  a  prescribetl  form  of  words, 
commemorative  of  the  sojourn  of  Israel  in  Ejypt, 
and  of  his  deliverance  bv  the  strong  hand  (Deut. 
xxvi.  2  and  folL).  All  these  offerings  were  divided 
into  two  classes— the  first,  which  were  called  Biatrini, 
compriseti  the  various  kinds  of  raw  produce,  of 
which,  although  the  law  seems  to  contemplate  all 
fruits,  seven  sorts  only  were  considered  by  the 
Jewish  doctors  to  f.-dl  under  the  obligation  of  first- 
fruit  offerins— viz..  wheat,  barley,  crapes,  figs,  pome- 
granates, olTves,  and  dates.  The  law  lavs  down  no 
rule  .xs  to  the  qu.intity  of  the  first-fruit  offering; 
and  it  would  be  tedious  to  enter  into  the  many 
questions  regarding  it  which  have  been  raise<l  by  the 
commentators.  It  was  customary  for  the  offerers  to 
make  their  obl.-itions  in  companies  of  twenty-four, 
and  with  a  singularly  striking  and  effective  cere- 
moniaL 

The  second  class  of  fiist-fmit  offerings  were 
called  Tern  moth,  and  comprised  the  produce  of  the 
year  in  the  various  forms  in  which  it  is  prepared  for 
Luman  use,  as  wine,  wool,  bread,  oil,  date-honey, 
dried  onions,  and  cucumbers.  As  to  the  quantity  of 
these  offerings,  and  the  persons  on  whom  the  obliga- 
tion fell,  there  are  many  discussions,  for  which  we 
must  refer  to  the  bibheal  authorities. 

Under  the  kings,  and  again  after  the  captivity, 
much  laxity  crept  into  the  observance  of  this 
practice,  which  Xehemiah  laboured  to  revive  in 
its  primitive  exactness.  Offerings  analogous  to  the 
Jewish  first-truits  became  usual  very  early  in  the 
Christian  Church,  as  is  clear  from  a  passage  in 
Iren.-eus  {Adr.  Hctr.,  b.  iv.  c.  17  and  34);  but  the 
extent  to  which  it  prevailed,  and  the  amount  and 
general  character  of  the  oblation,  are  exceedingly 
uncertain.  It  appears  to  have  been  merged  in  the 
legal  provision  established  by  the  emperors. 

The  medieval  ecclesiastical  impost  known  under 
the  name  of  primitice,  or  first-fruits,  and  some- 
times of  annat(3  or  annalia,  was  entirely  different. 
By  the  word,  in  its  medieval  and  modem  sense,  is 
meant  a  tax  imposed  by  the  popes  on  persons 
presented  directly  by  the  pope  to  those  benefices 
which,  by  the  canonical  rules,  or  in  virtue  of 
privileges  claimed  by  them,  fall  within  the  papal 
patronage.  Persons  so  presented  were  required 
to  contribute  to  the  Roman  see  the  first-fruits 
(that  is,  the  income  of  the  first  year)  of  their 
benefice.  During  the  residence  of  the  popes  at 
Avignon,  when  the  papal  necessities  compelled  the 
use  of  every  means  for  eking  out  a  precarious 
revenue,  the  impost  was  sought  to  be  extende<l  to 
every  benefice ;  and  this  claim  was  the  subject  of 
many  contests,  es3>ecially  in  Germany  and  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  claim,  so  far  as  regarded  direct 
papal  presentation,  had  existed  fromthe  reign  of 
King  John.  Henr\-  VIII.,  by  two  successive  ', 
statutes  (25  Henry  VrH.  c.  20,  and  26  Henry  VIII. 
c.  3),  withdrew  the  right  of  first-fruits  from  the 
pope,  in  order  to  transfer  it  to  the  king ;  and  he 
established  a  special  court  for  the  administration 
of  first-fruits,  which,  however,  was  soon  disused. 
In  the  reign  of  Anne,  the  revenues  arising  from 
this  imiost  in  England  were  vested  in  a  Board,  to 
be  apphed  for  the  purpose  of  supplementing  the 
incomes  of   small   benefices   (2   Anne,   c    II).      A 


similar  change  was  introduced  in  Ireland  by  the 
2  Geo.  I.  c  15 ;  but  in  the  latter  kingdom  the 
iiavmint  w.is  entirely  abolished  by  the  3  and  4 
Will.  IV.  c  27.  In  France,  this  tax  was  alwlished 
by  the  '  Pragmatic  Sanction '  enacted  at  Bourges 
ill  143S,  and  subsequently  by  the  Concordat  of 
Leo  X.  with  Francis  L  in  1512.  In  Spain,  it 
ceased  partially  in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  finally  imder  Charles  V.  In  Germany, 
it  formed  one  of  the  first  among  the  Centum  Gram- 
miiia  presented  to  the  cmiwror  in  1521,  and  the 
claim  ceased  altogether  from  that  period. 

FIRTH.     See  Frith. 

FISCH  ART.  Jonx,  a  very  extraordinary  German 
author,  was  l>oru  either  at  Mainz  or  Strasburg, 
probably  about  the  year  1545.  Regarding  his  life, 
we  know  verj-  little.  He  was  by  profession  a  jurist, 
but  his  wTitings  exhibit  an  immense  learning  and 
reading  in  all  the  departments  of  himian  knowledge. 
About  1570,  he  made  a  journey  to  England.  Towards 
loSO,  he  was  li\"ing  at  Strasburg  in  terms  of  close 
friendship  with  the  eminent  book-printer,  Bemhard 
Jobin.  During  15SI  and  15S2,  he  was  advocate 
to  the  Imperial  Chamber  at  Speier,  and  in  1585 
became  bailiff  of  Forbach,  where  he  probably  died 
about  1590.  Of  the  very  numerous  writings  which 
.appeared  1570 — 1590,  partly  under  his  own,  and 
partly  under  various  fictitious  names,  about  fifty 
have  been  proved  to  be  on  the  whole  genuine, 
though  disfigured  by  interpolations.  In  respect  to 
others,  however,  the  authorship  is  doubtful  The 
original  editions  of  almost  all  F.'s  works  are 
extremely  rare,  but  new  ones  have  recently  been 
published.  His  most  celebrated  works  are  based 
on  foreign  models,  particularly  Rabelais,  but  there 
is  no  servile  imitation  manifested:  a  free  creative 
genius  works  plastically  on  the  materials.  To  this 
class  belong  lus  Alter  Pral-iil:  Grogsmutter  (1573), 
Assentheurlich  Xaupengeliorliclie  G(fc>i!(Jiil:litterung 
von  C.  S.  It'.  (1575),  Podagrammifxh  Trostludi- 
lein  (1577),  Bineniorb  des  IJeyl.  JiOmiscJien  Inien- 
f^hwarms  (1579),  and  jDer  Heilig  Brottorh  (1580). 
These  writings  are  wholly  satirical.  With  the 
most  inexhaustible  humour,  he  lashes,  now  the 
corruptions  of  the  clergy,  now  the  astrological 
fancies,  the  dull  pedantrj',  or  other  follies,  public  and 
private,  of  the  time.  Xext  to  these  stands  the 
outrageously  comic  work  of  F.'s — quite  original  in 
its  conception — entitled  Flohat:,  Weibertratz  (1574). 
Essentially  different  in  its  homely  and  simple  tone 
is  his  £)as  gluckhafl  Sdiiff  ron  Zurich,  written  in 
verse,  and  published  in  1576  (new  edition  by  Hailing, 
1829).  Similar  in  point  of  style  are  his  Psalmeit 
und  Geisdic/ie  Lieder  (1576;  new  edit.  Berlin,  IS49). 
The  rest  of  F.'s  nimieroiis  writings,  partly  in  prose, 
jjartly  in  verse,  are  of  unequal  merit,  singularly 
varied  in  stj-le  and  contents ;  the  prose  works 
being  in  general  more  complete  than  the  poetic. 
What  gives  so  high  a  value  to  F.'s  satirical  humour, 
is  the  warm  and  genuine  feeling  which  he  exhibits 
for  the  moral  foundations  of  all  public  and  private 
life — viz.,  religion,  'fatherland,'  and  the  f-amily,  a 
feeling  which  betrays  itself  in  his  wildest  mirth. 
His  works  are,  moreover,  one  of  the  richest  sources 
from  whence  to  draw  information  ^vith  regard  to 
the  manners  of  his  time.  But  perhaps  the  most 
extraordinarj'  thing  about  F.  is  his  treatment  of 
the  language.  Xo  German  author  can  be  compared 
with  him,  not  even  Jean  Paul  Richter  himself.  He 
coins  new  words  and  turns  of  expression,  without 
any  regard  to  analogy,  but  nevertheless  displays 
the  greatest  fancy,  wit,  and  erudition  in  his  most 
arbitrarj-  formations.  The  fidlest  collection  of  his 
writings  is  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  For 
a  critical  account  of  fie  investigations  concerning 


FISH— FISHERIES. 


F.  and  his  -n-orks,  see  Volmar  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's 
EiicydopcEclie  (s.  1,  vol.  5). 

FISH,  a  naval  term  of  various  application.  The 
fsh  is  an  apparatus  of  pulleys  employed  in  dragging 
the  llukes  of  the  anchor  towards  the  bow  after  it 
has  been  hoisted  to  the  cat-head. — Fisli-front,  or 
pauiicli,  is  a  long  piece  of  oak,  or  fir,  convex  without, 
concave  within,  securely  fastened  on  the  injured 
portion  of  a  sprung  mast  or  yard,  to  which  it 
imjjarts  rigidity.  iSidf-Jislws  are  long  pieces  of 
timber  dove-tailed  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a  made 
mast,  to  give  it  a  circular  fonn  and  the  requisite 
diameter. 

FISHER,  John,  Bishop  rif  Kochester,  was  born 
in  14.5G  at  Beverley,  iu  Yorkshire,  educated  at 
Michael  House  College  (now  incorjiorated  with 
Trinity  College),  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1491,  and  of  which  he  became  master  in 
1495.  Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond,  mother  of 
Henry  VII.,  charmed  by  the  report  of  his  virtues 
anil  learning,  next  appointed  him  her  chaplain  and 
confessor.  In  1.501,  he  was  elected  chancellor  of 
the  university:  and  in  1502,  became  first  Margaret 
Professor  of  Divinity.  Two  years  later,  he  obtained 
the  bishopric  of  Rochester.  For  many  years  after 
this  a]ipointment,  he  laboured  ddigently  for  the 
welfare  of  the  chiu-ch  and  the  universities.  The 
Reformation  of  Luther  found  in  him — as  might 
have  been  expected  from  his  devout  ecclesiasticism 
^a  strenuous,  if  not  an  able  opponent.  In  1527, 
a  mpture  took  place  between  him  and  Henry  in 
regard  to  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catharine.  F. 
refused  to  declare  the  marriage  imlawfid.  From 
this  period,  he  figures  in  the  politico-religious  strifes 
of  liis  time  as  a  stanch  adherent  of  the  papacy.  He 
opposed  the  suppression  of  the  lesser  monasteries  in 
1529,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  Henry  as  head 
of  the  church  in  1531,  and  thereby  excited  the  dis- 
like of  the  party  of  progress  in  the  English  nation. 
His  credulity — many  would  apply  a  harsher  term — 
in  reference  to  Elizabeth  Barton  (q.  v.),  the  'Holy 
Maid  of  Kent,'  involved  him  in  a  still  more  perilous 
antagonism  to  the  king.  He  was  imprisoned ;  and 
on  refusing  to  take  the  oath  affirming  the  legality 
of  Henry's  marriage  with  Anne  Eoleyn,  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  April  20,  1534,  where  he 
was  treated  with  great  barbarity.  A  kind  but 
inconsiderate  act  of  Pope  Paid  III.  now  hastened 
the  destruction  of  the  old  man.  His  Holiness,  as  a 
reward  of  his  faithful  services,  sent  him  a  cardinal's 
liat  in  May  IXio.  When  Henry  was  informed  of 
this,  ho  exclaimed :  '  Mother  of  God,  he  shall  wear 
it  on  his  shoulders,  then ;  for  I  will  leave  him 
never  a  head  to  set  it  on.'  His  ruin  was  now 
certain.  He  was  accused  of  high  treason,  and  after 
a  brief  trial,  was  condemned,  and  executed,  22d 
June  1535.  F.  was  one  of  those  xmfortuiuite  per- 
sons who,  with  abundance  of  personal  virtues,  find 
themselves  opposed  to  the  overwhelming  tendencies 
of  the  times  in  which  they  live. 

FISHERIES.  The  capture  of  various  kinds  of 
fish  for  the  ]uirpose  of  trade  has  always  been  exten- 
sively carried  on  in  maritime  countries,  and  in  those 
which  are  watered  by  large  rivers  ;  and  has  been 
the  means  in  many  instances  of  adding  greatly  to 
their  jirosperity.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
especially,  this  pursuit  affords  remunerative  employ- 
ment to  a  large  proportion  of  the  population,  and 
forms  an  imequaUed  nurseiy  for  sailors  to  recruit  the 
royal  navy. 

The  art  of  capturing  fish,  like  other  arts,  has  been 
brought  only  by  degrees  to  its  present  perfection. 
In  remote  ages,  fish  were  caught  in  the  rudest 
manner  by  men  who  lay  on  the  rocks,  ready  to 
shoot   them  with   arrows,   or   transfix   them   with 


spears.  Even  yet,  in  places  which  are  only  partly 
civilised,  fish  are  taken  with  blankets  or  sheep- 
skins ;  and  a  roughly  made  spear,  known  as  a 
leister,  is  still  used  in  the  country  districts  of 
the  United  Kingdom  in  the  illegal  captiu-e  of 
sahuon.  Advancing  intelligence,  however,  and  the 
use  of  fish  as  au  article  of  barter  for  other  kinds 
of  food,  soon  led  to  more  effective  modes  of 
capture.  Persons  who  dwelt  on  the  sea-coast  began 
to  exchange  lish  for  animal  food  killed  by  the 
inland  hunters,  and  iu  this  way  initiated  a  com- 
merce wliich  is  now  represented  by  a  vast  amount 
of  capital  and  enterjirise. 

The  importance  of  fisheries,  as  bearing  on  the 
food-supplies  of  nations,  inland  as  well  as  maritime, 
and  as  forming  a  remunerative  outlet  for  Labour,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated,  more  es])ecially  as  fish 
has  ever  been  in  the  greatest  demaud  by  all  classes 
of  the  people,  and  has  been  in  use  for  human  food 
from  the  most  remote  periods.  Previous  to  the 
Reformation,  it  was  m  universal  demand  in  Britain, 
being  the  prescribed  diet  during  the  fasts  appointed 
by  the  church. 

One  great  peculiarity  of  this  source  of  wealth 
is  that,  with  slight  exceptions,  the  sea-harvest  (if 
we  may  so  call  it)  is  ripened,  without  trouble  or 
expense  for  the  fisher,  who  oidy  requires  to  provide 
the  means  of  gathering  it ;  and  that,  imder  certain 
regidations,  it  is  free  to  aU  comers.  River  fisheries, 
except  for  salmon,  are  unproductive  in  Great  Britain ; 
and  Lochleveu  is  the  only  British  fresh-water  lake 
the  jiroduce  of  which  is  marketable. 

The  iiriucipal  fisheries  of  Groat  Britain  include 
the  capture  of  salmon,  herring,  cod,  soles,  turbot, 
mackerel,  lobsters,  oysters,  &c.  Immense  quantities 
of  these  are  in  constant  demand  :  the  various  lines 
of  railway  that  branch  inland  from  the  coast  afford 
a  means  of  rapid  ti-ansit,  and  have  in  consequence 
considerably  enhanced  the  value  of  sea-produce, 
much  of  which  was  at  one  time  useless  for  want  of 
sufiiciently  rapid  conveyance  to  those  seats  of  popu- 
lation where  it  would  have  found  ready  sale.  It  is 
affirmed,  indeed,  by  those  who  have  studied  the 
subject,  that  increased  demands,  consequent  upon 
improved  facilities  of  transit,  have  affected  the 
fisheries,  and  rendered  them  less  productive  than 
formerly.  The  machinery  of  capture  is  being  ex- 
tended every  j'ear,  and  the  supplies  have  now  to  be 
brought  from  greater  distances,  the  shoals  frequent- 
ing the  coast  lines  being  much  exhausted  by  the 
incessant  inroads  made  upon  them  by  the  fisher- 
men. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  relialjle  statistics  of 
the  different  fisheries.  Excepting  the  government 
Board  for  Scotland,  there  is  no  recognised  authority 
on  the  subject.  The  foUowiug  figures,  bearing  on 
the  herring-fisheries  of  Scotland,  which  are  the 
most  important  fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
are  taken  from  official  returns  made  by  the  commis- 
sioners, and  annually  laid  before  parliament.  They 
only  represent  the  quantity  of  herrings  which  is 
'cured  ;'  but  immense  numbers  of  that  fish  are  sold 
fresh,  as  taken  from  the  sea.  The  numlier  of  barrels 
cured  in  1870  was  833,100,  and  iu  1871  the  number 
was  825,475.  If  each  barrel  contained  700  herrings, 
the  number  cured  in  the  latter  year  would  be 
577,832,500.  It  would  be  no  exaggeration  to  say 
that  an  equal  number  would  be  sold  fresh.  A 
large  number  of  the  barrels  were  branded  by  the 
government  inspectors,  a  sum  of  £5780  being 
paid  by  the  curers  for  this  certificate  of  excel- 
lence. The  number  of  boats  engaged  in  the 
herring-fishery  of  1871  was  15,313 ;  the  fisher- 
men and  boys  emi)loyed  iu  the  fishiug  numbered 
413,546  persons ;  and  the  estimated  value  of  the 
boats  and  nets  employed  in  the  fishery  is  A'890,019. 


FISHERIES. 


The  Scottish-cured  herrings  are  sold  not  only  in 
Great  Britain,  but  in  her  colonies  and  foreign 
countries.  At  Hamburg  and  other  continental  sea- 
ports, there  are  merchants  who  deal  largely  in  cured 
herrings,  anil  employ  agents  who  annually  visit 
the  various  British  ports  to  purchase  supjilies.  It 
is  for  the  satisf.action  of  these  foreign  buyers  that 
the  '  brand '  is  used ;  it  denotes  the  quality  of  the 
herrings,  and  prevents  one  class  of  herrings  being 
sold  for  another  class  that  may  be  inferior.  The 
principal  seats  of  the  herring-fishery  in  Great 
Britain  are  at  Wick,  in  Caithness-shire,  Scotland, 
and  at  Yarmouth,  in  England;  but  that  industry  is 
also  carried  on  at  many  other  places  on  the  British 
sea-board,  and  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  which  is 
2500  miles  in  extent.  It  is  estimated  by  the  fishery 
inspectors  for  Ireland  that  the  total  value  of  the 
herrings  captured  in  the  Irish  seas  in  1872  would 
amount  to  a  qu.arter  of  a  million  sterling.  Sixty- 
eight  millions  of  herrings  were  taken  at  Howth 
alone. 

A  -visit  to  Billingsgate  affords  the  best  means  of 
obtaining  a  proper  notion  of  the  food-we.alth  of  the 
sea,  many  tons  of  all  kinds  of  fish  being  daily 
distributed  from  that  mart.  The  average  quan- 
tities of  white  fish  estimated  to  pass  through 
Billingsgate  in  the  course  of  a  year  are  as  follows  : 
Haddocks,  3,500,000 ;  whitings,  20,000,000  ;  soles, 
100,000,000 ;  cod,  950,000  ;  plaice,  35,.500,000 ;  mack- 
erel, 35,000,000.  This  estimate  is  only  at  the  Ijest  a 
very  rough  one,  as  no  machinery  exists  for  gathering 
such  statistics.  So  great  is  the  demand  for  white 
fish  throughout  the  Icingdom,  that  many  fishermen 
run  north  to  the  Orkney  Islands  to  obtain  them. 
Most  of  the  cod-smacks  carry  their  cargo  alive  as 
far  as  Gravesend ;  but  they  dare  not  venture  farther 
up  the  Thames,  as  the  fish  would  not  live  in  its  foul 
waters.  The  Irish  seas  are  famed  for  the  fine  qu.ility 
of  their  white  fish  ;  the  haddocks  of  Dublin,  in  par- 
ticular, have  a  great  reputation,  but  during  late 
years  they  have  become  very  scarce.  In  Scotland,  a 
vast  proportion  of  the  haddocks  are  slightly  smoked, 
and  sold  as  '  Finnans,'  which  form  a  well-known 
breakfast  delicacy  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Large 
quantities  of  cod  and  ling  are  caught,  split  up,  and 
sold  in  a  dried  state.  During  1S71,  the  latest  year 
for  which  official  returns  have  been  made,  the  cod, 
ling,  and  hake  fishery  produced  119,020  cwt.,  cured 
in  that  way,  in  addition  to  9945  barrels  which  were 
pickled.  The  nimiber  of  these  fish  caught  in  1S71 
was  3,582,270,  being  1,117,532  less  than  in  the  pre- 
vious year.  The  most  valuable  white  fish,  indi%-idu- 
ally  considered,  is  the  aldermanic  turbot,  which 
brings  a  high  price.  The  supply  of  turbot  is  chielly 
derived  from  Holland,  the  fishermen  of  that  country 
making  the  capture  of  the  turbot  and  the  sole  a 
specialitc.  Eels  are  also  caught  in  large  quantities 
at  all  seasons,  and  fetch  a  remunerative  price  in  the 
London  fish-markets.  As  many  as  16,285  boxes  of 
eels  are  annually  sent  from  Ireland  to  EnglaniL 
These  boxes  will  each  contain  on  an  average  40  lb. 
weight,  and  the  price  at  6d.  per  lb.  would  give  a 
money  value  equal  to  the  number  of  boxes.  In 
Scotland,  where  a  prejudice  has  long  existed  against 
that  fish,  the  eel  fisheries  are  beginning  to  prove 
remunerative. 

The  lobster,  being  hy  far  the  most  valuable  of  the 
crustacean  kind,  is  most  assiduously  nursed  in 
ponds,  so  as  always  to  be  ready  for  market.  Mr 
Scovell  of  Hamble,  near  Southampton,  keeps  a 
thousand  or  two  always  on  hand,  and  steam-vessels 
are  employed  to  bring  them  alive  from  the  most 
distant  parts  of  the  coast :  these  boats  are  built 
exclusively  for  this  purpose,  and  have  immense 
wells  in  them  to  hold  the  living  freight.  The  lob- 
sters arc  not  at  once  brought  to  London,  but  are 


kept  ready  in  perforated  boxes,  in  various  parts  of 
the  Tlianies,  to  answer  the  demand  as  it  arises. 
Norway  supplies  .at  least  two-thirds  of  our  lobsters, 
the  daily  consumption  of  which  in  Great  Britain 
li.as  been  estimated  at  60,000.  The  lobsters  taken 
from  the  British  seas  have  now  to  be  sought  for  at 
greater  distances  from  the  .shore  than  formerly — 
those  obtained  on  the  inimeiliate  coast  being  now 
very  small,  and  technically  called  'half  lobstei-s;' 
they  do  not,  of  course,  yield  such  a  rcnumerativo 
price  as  the  larger  fish.  There  is  also  an  enor- 
mous demand  for  oysters,  and  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  our  maritime  ]ioiiulatiou  earn  a  com- 
fortable livelihood  by  breeding  and  dredging  them. 
At  Whitstable,  in  Kent,  and  at  various  places  in 
Essex,  there  are  dfpots  for  sorting  and  storing 
oysters.  The  'spat'  is  procured  and  grown  in  the 
course  of  four  years  into  a  marketable  commodity 
of  much  value,  the  wholesale  prices  for  the  various 
kinds  having  been  doubled  between  the  years  1S60 
and  1873.  The  oyster  used  to  be  found  in  great 
abundance  on  the  British  coasts,  but  some  of  the 
natural  beds  have  been  so  largely  drawn  upon 
that  they  are  becoming  exhausted.  The  natural 
oysters  of  Ireland  are  now  very  nearly  dredged 
up.  In  America,  the  oyster  is  a  common  mollusc, 
and  notwithstanding  a  constantly  increasmg  de- 
mand, the  natural  beds  are  still  productive.  Sec 
Oyster. 

Whilst  sea-fisheries  are  open  to  all  who  have  the 
means  of  working  them,  salmon-rivers  are  for  the 
most  part  private  property.  The  owners  of  par- 
ticular streams  usually  form  themselves  into  an 
association  chiefly  for  the  protection  of  the  fish 
during  the  spawning  season.  The  usual  method 
is  for  the  '  lairds '  to  let  their  fishings  to  tenants, 
who  are  called  '  tacksmen,'  and  whose  interest  it  is 
to  capture  and  sell  all  the  fish  they  can  find.  The 
rents  obtained  are,  in  some  instances,  very  large, 
and  form  a  handsome  addition  to  the  land-revenues 
of  the  proprietors.  Before  the  invention  of  packing 
in  ice,  and  previous  to  the  introduction  of  steam- 
boats and  railways,  salmon  used  to  be  hawked 
through  the  country  towns  by  cadgers  at  an  almost 
nominal  price,  whilst  it  was  sometimes  sold  in  the 
public  markets  at  twopence  per  pound.  When  the 
increased  demand  for  it,  created  by  these  facilities 
of  conveyance,  caused  it  to  attain  its  present 
price,  tacksmen  were  tempted  to  overfish  their 
streams,  and  the  consequence  was  the  comparative 
exhaustion  of  particular  rivers  ;  but  by  the  wisdom 
of  the  legislature  in  passing  one  or  two  protective 
acts  of  parliament,  the  salmon-fisheries  are  now 
(1873)  proving  very  remunerative  both  to  lessees 
and  lairds,  the  fish  having  again  become  com- 
paratively plentiful  and  increased  in  size.  The 
rental  of  the  river  Tay,  in  1872,  was  .£17,000.  To 
pay  such  a  rent,  and  pro\-ide  for  the  working 
expenses  of  the  various  fishing-stations,  70,000 
salmon  and  grilse,  of  the  average  weight  of  10  lbs. 
each,  would  require  to  be  captured.  See  Salmon, 
Pisciculture. 

The  following  statement  of  the  number  of  boxes 
of  salmon  received  in  London  for  the  year  1872  will 
afford  an  index  to  the  value  of  the  British  salmon- 
fisheries.  Each  box  contained  112  lbs.  The  Eng- 
lish rivers  include  those  of  Wales  : 

Scotch 23.023 

Irish 5.298 

Knglish, 2,70G 

Dutch 952 

Nnrwcfiian, 352 

Swetlish 964 

Total  for  1S72 33,300 

ff     for  1871 35,274 

Decrcast! 1,975 


FISHERIES. 


It  is  impossible,  from  the  paucity  of  reliable 
information,  to  do  more  than  roughly  estimate  the 
amount  of  capital  employed  in  the  British  lisheries, 
or  the  value  of  the  stock  of  boats,  nets,  and  other 
instruments  of  capture.  However,  it  is  certain  that 
the  value  of  the  annual  produce  of  British  fisheries 
of  aU  kinds  is  not  less  than  £5,000,000. 

A  semi-official  estimate  has  been  very  carefully 
compiled  of  the  supposed  total  annual  value  of  the 
fisheries  of  Scotland  (exclusive  of  salmon),  with  the 
following  result  : 


Herrings,        ,       ,       . 

Sprats 

Cod  and  Lin?, 
Haddock  and  Whiting. 
Turbot  and  other  fl.it  lish. 
Oysters,       .        .        ,        . 
Lobsters,  &c.. 
Mussels  and  Whelks, 

Total, 


£1,505,431 


Assuming  that  as  many  salmon  are  eaten  in 
Scotland  as  are  sent  to  London,  that  would  give 
us  46,056  bo.xes  of  1 12  lbs.  each  ;  and  taking  the 
average  price  as  five  poimds  per  box,  the  siun, 
added  to  the  aljove,  would  be  £230,280,  making 
a  grand  total  of  £1,735,711.  No  materials  exist  for 
forming  a  detailed  estimate  of  the  annual  value  of 
the  English  coast- fisheries.  The  Irish  sea- fisheries 
are  rapidly  declining.  In  the  year  1846,  there  were 
nearly  20,000  boats  and  vessels  of  various  sizes 
engaged  in  the  Irish  fisheries  ;  but  in  1872,  the 
number  employed  in  the  fishery  was  only  8000.  In 
1846,  the  number  of  men  and  boys  employed  in 
connection  with  the  sea-fisheries  of  Ireland  was 
100,000  ;  in  1872,  the  number  shewn  in  the  returns 
was  only  a  little  over  31,000.  AVithin  a  year,  the 
number  of  boats  had  decreased  by  a  thousand,  and 
the  sea-fishermen  and  boys  by  7000. 

The  food-fisheries  of  France  are  now  becoming 
co-e.xtensive  with  those  of  Britain,  so  far  as  the 
capture  of  sea-fish  and  crustaceans  are  concerned. 
A  very  large  number  of  sardines  are  annually 
caught  and  cured  iu  the  French  seas,  the  cure  of 
this  little  fish  being  a  very  remunerative  industry 
at  Concarneau  and  other  places.  In  the  culti- 
vation of  those  less  important  fishes  -which  thrive 
best  iu  lakes,  canals,  and  rivers,  the  French  excel 
us,  for  while  we  oiUy  cultivate  these  for  pur- 
poses of  amusement  (see  Angling),  the  French 
people  make  them  an  article  of  commerce,  and 
derive  considerable  sums  of  money  from  their 
sale.  At  one  time,  the  whole  fresh-water  fisheries 
belonging  to  France  were  not  of  so  much  value 
as  one  of  our  salmon  streams  ;  but  by  means  of 
artificial  cultivation  and  careful  nursing,  they  have 
been  much  increased  in  value,  and,  by  the  care  of 
the  government,  are  being  yearly  improved.  The 
fresh-water  fisheries  of  France  are  of  great  extent, 
some  of  the  fishponds  in  that  comitry  being 
upwards  of  thirty  thousand  acres.  These  fisheries 
are  all  more  or  less  under  the  control  of  the 
government.  In  Paris,  the  annual  consumption 
of  fish  has  been  estimated  to  give  for  each  indi- 
vidual 30  lbs.  of  sea-fish,  and  1  lb.  of  fresh-water 
fish. 

Among  the  foreign  fisheries  most  worthy  of  notice 
are  the  river-fisheries  of  Germany,  where  the  cul- 
ture of  the  Danube  salmon  and  other  fresh-water 
fish  is  assiduously  carried  on.  In  the  Mediter- 
ranean, various  kinds  of  fish  are  taken,  the  one  of 
greatest  value  being  the  timny.  The  anchovy  and 
sardine  are  also  taken  in  large  quantities.  An 
account  of  the  great  eel-fishery  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Po,  on  the  Adriatic,  has  already  been  given  in  this 
work.  See  Coji.^cchio.  The  Dutch  are  at  present 
as  industrious  upon  the  sea  as  they  were  at  the 


time  when  they  founded  Amsterdam,  and  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  population  of  Holland  are  engaged  in 
their  fisheries,  which  are  still  a  source  of  wealth  to 
that  kingdom.  The  herring,  although  not  taken  by 
the  Dutch  in  such  large  quantities  as  formerly,  is  as 
carefidly  cured  as  ever,  Dutch-cured  herrings  having 
a  great  reputation.  Excellent  salmon  are  taken  in 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  many  of  which  are  sent  to 
London  for  sale,  as  they  can  be  eaten  at  a  time 
when  British  salmon  cannot  be  obtained.  The 
NoiTvegian  fisheries  afiford  large  quantities  of  lob- 
sters and  turbots,  while  from  Newfoundland  is 
derived  a  plentiful  supply  of  cod  or  ling.  The 
Newfoundland  fisheries,  which  are  principally  for 
cod,  have  existed  for  upwards  of  three  centuries. 
Sir  Francis  Drake  was  the  first  person  who  fished 
there  on  behalf  of  England,  and  the  fish  he  sent 
home  soon  excited  a  spirit  of  enterprise  iu  the 
country,  which  led  to  the  dispatch  of  a  large 
number  of  ships  and  the  extension  of  the  fishery. 
The  island  is  surrounded  by  the  cod-banks,  and  the 
capture  and  cure  of  this  fish  form  the  staple  occu- 
pation of  the  people.  In  America,  immense  quan- 
tities of  shad  are  bred  artificially  in  order  to  aid 
the  natural  supplies  ;  the  '  pisciculture '  of  salmon 
has  also  been  commenced  on  a  large  scale,  that 
fish  having  become  scarce  near  the  seats  of  great 
population.     See  NEWFOtJN-DL.\ND. 

The  oil-fisheries  are  not  so  important  as  they 
were  at  one  time,  the  invention  of  gas  and  the 
discovery  of  other  lubricants  having  rendered  us 
independent  of  whale  oil.  The  success  of  the 
whale-fisheries  has  also  fluctuated  so  much  as  to 
prevent  modern  capitalists  from  embarking  very 
largely  in  the  trade.  The  only  novelties  that  dis- 
tinguish the  whale-fishery  of  the  present  day  are 
the  introduction  of  steam-whalers,  and,  in  soma 
instances,  of  vessels  wintering  in  Greenland  ;  but, 
with  all  these  advantages,  our  whalers  barely  pay 
their  expenses,  and  the  fishery,  as  compared  with 
former  years,  exhibits  a  considerable  falling-off. 
The  total  whaling  fleet  numbered  at  one  time  159 
ships,  but  to-day  it  barely  amounts  to  a  tenth  of 
that  number.  The  seal  is  now  largely  captured  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  its  oil,  many  thousands 
being  annually  killed  by  British  sealers,  as  many 
as  15,000  being  taken  by  the  men  of  a  single 
ship.  See  Wh.ile,  C.^cholot,  Se.\l,  Green- 
land, &c.  The  South-Sea  or  sperm-whale  fishery 
is  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  Americans,  who 
pursue    this   branch    of    commerce    most    success- 

fully. 

The  British  and  Irish  sea  and  salmon  fisheries 
are,  so  far,  regulated  by  numerous  acts  of  parlia- 
ment. It  is  quite  impossible,  however,  to  give  a 
precis  of  all  the  provisions  which  the  legislature 
have  laid  down  for  promoting  and  protecting  our 
fisheries,  they  are  so  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
quite  local.  The  sea-fisheries  are,  in  eflect,  free  to 
aU  Avho  choose  to  fish ;  but  the  salmon  is,  by  use 
and  wont,  as  also  by  acts  of  i)arliament  passed 
at  various  times,  private  property,  although  the 
owners  of  fisheries  have  had  to  submit  them,  from 
time  to  time,  to  the  regidating  power  of  the  legis- 
lature. 

The  following  is  a  simimary  of  the  leading  points 
of  fishery  legislation  : 

From  a  very  early  time,  statutes  have  been 
passed  both  in  England  and  Scotland  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  breeding  of  fish,  and 
preventing  the  destruction  of  the  spawn  or  fry. 
The  development  of  the  fisheries  led  to  a  system  of 
advancing  public  moneys  for  their  encouragement ; 
for  this  purpose,  commissioners  were  appointed, 
through  whom  money  was  advanced  on  loan.  A 
treaty  was    entered    into    in    1830    between    her 

351 


FISHES. 


Majesty  and  tho  late  King  o£  tbe  French,  and 
carriwl'into  elToct  by  act  of  parliament,  concerning 
tlio  lishcrics  in  the  seas  Detween  the  British 
Islanils  anil  France.  By  this  convention,  tlie  limits 
within  wliich  tho  general  risht  of  fishing  is  excln- 
sively  reserved  to  the  subjects  of  the  two  kingdoms 
iTS|K"etivily,  arc  fixed  at  three  miles'  distance  from 
low-water  mark.  With  respect  to  bays  the  mouths 
of  which  do  not  exceed  ten  miles  in  widtli,  the 
three-mile  distance  is  measured  from  a  straight  line 
drawn  from  headland  to  headland.  In  1S54,  a 
similar  treaty  was  concluded  between  her  Majesty 
and  the  United  States  of  America,  relating,  inter 
alia,  to  the  rights  of  fishery  between  the  British 
colonies  in  North  America  and  the  United  States. 
Fresh  fish  of  British  taking,  imported  in  British 
bottoms,  may  be  landed  without  report  or  entry. 
Persons  emiiloyed  in  the  fisheries,  in  such  manner 
and  under  such  circumstances  as  are  laid  do\vn  in 
50  Geo.  III.  c.  lOS,  are  exempted  from  impress- 
ment. 

It  would  be  well  if  the  various  acts  of  parli.ament 
regulating  the  fisheries  were  codified  or  arranged  in 
Boiie  logical  sequence ;  and  the  various  fishery 
offices  might  be  consolidated  under  one  governing 
board,  iuste.-id  of  being,  .-is  at  present,  scattered  over 
various  public  departments,  or  administered  in 
sej)arate  offices. 

FISHES,  Royal— i.e.,  those  which  at  com- 
mon law  are  the  property  of  the  crown — are  the 
whale  and  tho  sturgeon,  when  either  thrown  on 
shore,  or  caught  near  the  coast.  The  ground  of  the 
privilege  is  said  to  have  been  the  superior  value 
of  these  fishes.  Tiiey  were  considered  too  precious 
for  a  subject,  just  as  the  Swan  (q.  v.),  -vihich  was  a 
roy.al  bird,  was  too  good  for  any  table  but  the  king's. 
'  Our  ancestors,'  says  Blackstone,  '  seem  to  have 
entertained  a  very  high  notion  of  the  importance  of 
this  right,  it  being  the  prerogative  of  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  the  dukes  of  Xomiandy ;  and  from 
one  of  these  it  "was  probably  derived  to  our  princes. 
It  is  expressly  claimed  and  allowed  in  the  statute 
De  Prccrogativa  lleriis  (17  Edw.  II.  c.  11),  and  the 
most  ancient  treatises  of  law  now  extant  make 
mention  of  it.' — Stephen's  Com.  ii.  p.  .547.  Strictly, 
it  was  the  head  only  of  the  whale  which  belonged 
to  the  king,  the  tail  being  a  perquisite  of  the  ([uccn- 
consort  (lb.  p.  457).  In  Scotland,  whales  thrown 
on  shore  above  six  horse-power  di'aught,  belong  to 
the  queen  or  her  donatary,  the  adinir.al.  Smaller 
whales  have  been  claimed  both  by  the  landlord 
and  the  tenant  on  whose  ground  they  are  cast,  but 
they  are  usually  given  to  the  catcher.  In  Shetland, 
where  the  washing  of  whales  on  shore  is  an  occur- 
rence of  sufficient  frequency  to  h.ave  given  rise  to 
a  local  custom,  they  .are  equally  divided  between 
the  proprietor  of  the  soil  and  those  concerned  in 
catching  them.    See  S.\lmon. 

FISHES  (Pisces),  the  fourth — or,  according  to 
Milne-F.dwards  and  some  other  n,aturahsts  (see 
AMniiBiA),  the  fifth — class  of  vertebratcd  animals  ; 
consisting  of  creatures  which  live  in  water,  and 
accordingly  breathe  l)y  gills  (hranchia),  and  not, 
at  any  stage  of  their  existence,  by  lungs.  In  number 
. — both  of  individuals  and  of  diflerent  kinds — 
they  are  supposed  to  exceed  all  the  other  classes  of 
vertebrate  animals  put  together.  Even  the  water 
of  hot  springs  and  the  pools  of  caverns  have  their 
peculiar  fishes,  and  some  of  these  are  only  known 
as  thrown  out  with  torrents  of  muddy  water  by 
volcanoes. 

Tlie  form  of  fishes  is  generally  adapted  to  easy 
and  rapid  jtrogression  through  w.ater,  being  more 
or  less  nearly  that  of  a  spindle,  .swelling  in  tlie 
middle,  and  tapering  towards  the  extremities ;  the 


outline  unangular,  and  the  surface  smooth.  But 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  numerous ;  and  some, 
provided  with  other  means  of  seeking  tlieir  ftiod, 
or  of  preservation  from  their  enemies,  exhibit  the 
gicatest  possible  departures  from  the  ordinary  sha]>e  : 
some  are  globe-shaped,  some  have  a  most  iiTegular 
and  angidar  outline,  many  are  much  elongated,  as 
eels  ;  and  others  are  compressed  and  flattened,  as 
flounders. 

The  bones  of  fishes  differ  much  in  their  structure 
from  those  of  other  vertebrate  animals  :  they  are 
less  dense  and  compact,  and  when  their  ossifica- 
tion is  perfect,  remain  separate,  as  in  tho  early 
cmbryotic  state  of  the  ilammuliu.  The  bones  of 
the  sub-class  of  Cartilaginous  Fishes  (q.  v.),  how- 
ever, never  become  properly  ossified.  The  bones 
of    fishes    generally   contain   a  smaller    proportion 


"^ 


Skeleton  of  Perch. 


of  earthy  matter  than  those  of  other  vcrtebnate 
animals,  and  their  cartilaginous  basis  contains  no 
gelatine  strictly  so  called.  The  tj-pical  character 
of  the  vertebrate  skeleton  is,  however,  maintained, 
although    modified ;    and    m.any    of    the   bones— a 

I  great  majority,  for  cxamjile,  of  those  of  the  head 
— are  e^•idently  homologous  with    those    of   qu.ad- 

'  rupeds  and  of  man.  There  is  no  neck,  and  the 
vertebr.T3  are  distingnish.able  only  into  abdominal 
and  caud.al.  The  vertebr.'e  are  concave  at  each  end, 
and  pierced  in  the  middle,  the  hoUow  space  being 
occupied  ■with  a  gelatinous  substance.  Spinous 
processes,  sometimes  short,  sometimes  long,  extend 
upwards  and  downwards  from  the  vertebra^  to 
support  the  muscles.  Fishes  also  generally  have 
ribs,  connected  with  the  .abdominal  vertebra;;  and 
in  many,  an  additional  set  of  small  bones  (epiplaind 
spines)  connected  with  the  ribs,  and  arising  from 
near  the  base  of  the  ribs,  extends  outwards  .and  back- 
wards through  the  hater.al  muscles.  The  four  limbs 
which  belong  to  the  typical  structure  of  vertebrate 
animals,  assume  in  fishes  the  form  of  Fins  (q.  v.), 
and  are  generally,  although  not  always,  all  present, 
the  first  pair  being  the  pectoral,  the  second  pair  the 
ventral  fins.  In  some  fishes,  the  ventral  fins,  answer- 
ing to  the  hind-feet  of  quadrupeds,  are  actually 
further  forward  than  the  pectoral  fins,  and  are  then 
called  jugular  fins.  In  some,  .as  the  common  eel, 
the  ventral  fins  .are  w.anting  ;  in  some,  as  the  Mura-na, 
there  .are  neither  pectoral  nor  ventr.al  fins.  Con- 
nected with  these  fins  arc  bones,  which  shew  that 
they  represent  the  limbs  of  other  vertebr.ate  anim.als. 
Fishes  have,  however,  .also  other  fins  not  so  closely 
connected  as  these  with  tho  internal  (endo-)  skeleton, 
and  not  placed  like  them  in  paii-s  towards  the  sides, 
but  vertically  on  the  middle  (mesial)  line;  one  or 
more  (dorsal)  on  the  back ;  one  or  more  (anal)  on  tlie 
opposite  or  ventral  .aspect,  behind  the  .anus ;  and  one 
(caudal)  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  The  caudal  fin 
is  in  general  the  princijial  organ  of  locomotion,  and 
most  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  combine  to  give  great 
energy  to  its  strokes,  great  jiart  of  the  body  moving 
with  it,  and  the  vertebne  with  theii-  processes  being 
so  framed  as  to  admit  great  freedom  of  Lateral,  au<l 
scarcely   any   vertical   motion.      Tho   pectoriil   and 


FISHES. 


ventral  fins  seem  to  serve  chieHy  for  balancing  the 
body,  and  guidins  and  staying  its  nioticm  ;  the  dorsal 
and  anal  hus,  like  the  keul  of  a  ship,  for  keeping 
it  in  its  proper  position.  All  the  vertical  fins  are 
supported  by  bones  which  do  not  join  tho.se  of  the 
internal  skeleton,  but  are  tliickest  at  the  skin,  from 
which  they  penetrate  towanls  the  vertebrae,  being 
inter])Osed  between  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebral  column.  Several  of  the  last  caudal 
vertebra;  are  generally  very  short  and  combined,  and 
the  interposed  spines  which  support  the  caudal  fin 
converge  towards  them.  The  rai/s  of  fins  are  either 
pointed  bones  (spines) — sometimes  prolonged  beyond 
the  membrane,  and  forming  defensive  weapons — or 
they  are  cartilaginous  and  jointed,  in  which  case 
they  often  also  branch  near  their  siunmit.  The 
caudal  fin  never  has  any  other  than  these  soft  rays, 
and  many  fishes  have  no  other  in  any  of  their  fins. 
A  few  fishes,  belonging  to  different  families,  have 
the  pectoral  fins  developed  to  an  unusual  degree,  so 
as  to  make  them  capable  of  supjiorting  short  fii<;hts 
in  the  air  (see  Flyixg  Fish  and  f  lvi.ng  GiTiNWBD) ; 
and  a  few  are  capable  of  emplojing  their  fins  as 
organs  of  locomotion  in  a  very  different  way,  creeping 
along  the  groimd,  or  hopjiing  among  the  weeds  anil 
stones  of  the  shore. 

The  heart  of  fishes  consists  only  of  one  auricle  and 
one  ventricle,  receiving  venous  blood  only,  and  sending 
it  to  the  gills,  where,  being  oxygenated,  it  passes 
iiito  the  greater  or  systemic  circulation  Ijy  the  dorsal 
vessel.  See  CirculjITION.  In  most  fishes,  there  is, 
close  to  the  heart,  a  thick  biilh  or  muscular  swelling 
of  the  great  artery  which  conveys  the  blood  from  the 
heart  to  the  gills,  and  whicli  assists  in  propelling 
the  blood,  being  furnished  with  v.alve3  to  prevent 
its  regurgitation  into  the  heart  ;  and  this  bulb  and 
its  valves  exhibit  varieties  admirably  characteristic 
of  different  natural  groups,  much  founded  upon  in 
the  system  of  Muller  and  Owen.  The  blood  of 
fishes  is  red ;  its  corpuscles  are  oval  and  of  consider- 
able size,  but  in  general  not  very  numerous.     Fishes 


Cheironectes  Caudimaculatns. 

consume  little  oxygen  in  respiration,  and  are  cold- 
h/oiided  animals,  having  in  general  a  temperature 
little  elevated  above  that  of  the  water  in  which 
they  live  ;  although  there  are  some  singular  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  as  the  tunny,  sword-fish,  &c., 
which,  ha\Tng  a  comparatively  high  temperature, 
have  also  redder  blood  with  more  numerous  cor- 
pu.scles.  The  oxygen  appropriated  by  means  of  the 
giils  in  resi)iratiuu  is  not  obtained  by  decomposition 
of  w,ater,  but  from  the  air  which  is  mixed  in  it, 
and  hence  the  necessity  of  aerating  an  aquarium ; 
179 


hence  also  we  perceive  one  of  the  benefits  resulting 
from  the  agitation  of  the  ocean  and  of  lakes  by 
winds.  Some  fishes  require  a  greater  supply  of  air 
than  they  can  easily  obtain  from  the  water,  and 
frequently  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  Fishes 
taken  out  of  the  water  die  from  want  of  breath, 
in  consequence  of  the  drying  up  of  the  fine  fringes 
of  the  gills  ;  and  those  wliich  are  capaVjle  of  suljsist- 
ing  longer  out  of  water  than  others,  have  generally 
small  gUl  openings,  not  so  freely  admitting  the 
air  to  dry  the  gills,  whilst  a  few  are  provided  with 
receptacles   for   water   to   keep   them   moist.      See 

AN.4BASID.E. 

The  gills  of  fishes  are  situated  at  the  back  part 
of  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  consist  of  a  multitude 
of  very  vascular  membranous  plates,  which  are 
generally  in  double  fringe-like  rows  fixed  by  the  base 
only,  and  sim]ile,  although  in  a  few  fishes  they  are 
feathery,  and  in  the  gi-eater  number  of  Cartilaginous 
Fis/us  (q.  v.),  they  are  fi.xed  both  by  their  external 
and  their  internal  edges,  or  consist  of  mere  folds  of 
membrane  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  gill-cavities. 
In  general,  there  are  four  gills  on  each  side  ;  the 
number  is  greater  in  some  of  the  Cartilaginous 
Fishes.  In  Osseous  Fishes,  the  gUl-plates  are  attached 
to  the  external  edge  of  the  branchial  arches,  bony 
arches  connected  with  the  ht/oid  bone  or  bone  of  the 
tongue — which  is  imusually  developed  in  fishes — 
and  with  the  base  of  the  skull,  the  connection  at 
both  ends  being  effected  by  inter\-emng  small  bones, 
and  the  whole  forming  a  complicated  system ; 
whilst  the  cavity  containing  the  giUs,  on  each  side 
of  the  head,  is  covered  by  a  bony  plate,  the  gill-hd, 
gill-cover,  or  operculum,  with  two  subordinate  pieces, 
called  the  suh- operculum  and  inter-operculum,  articu- 
lated on  the  temporal  bone,  and  playing  on  the 
pre-operculum,  a  bony  plate  placed  before  them  in 
the  head.  It  is  by  the  motion  of  these  bony  plates 
that  the  water  is  expelled  which  is  taken  in  by  the 
mouth,  and  which,  after  passing  amongst  the  gills, 
and  suppljdng  them  ■nnth  air,  passes  out  by  the 
gill-oriiices  at  the  back  of  the  head.  Besides  these 
opercular  plates  or  bones,  a  series  of  flattened  rays, 
connecting  them  with  the  bone  of  the  tongue,  and 
called  the  hranchiostegal  rays,  aid  in  forming  the 
gill  ca\'ities.  In  the  branchiostegal  rays,  distinctive 
characters  of  fishes  are  often  found. 

The  brain  of  fishes  differs  very  considerably 
from  that  of  other  vertebrate  animals.  See  BrjIin. 
In  general,  they  possess  the  ner\'es  and  organs  of  all 
the  senses,  although  the  senses  of  touch  and  taste 
are  commonly  supposed  to  be  more  dull  than  in 
many  other  animals  ;  and  a  few  fishes,  li\-ing  chiefly 
in  mud,  or  in  the  waters  of  caverns,  are  destitute 
of  eyes,  and  consequently  of  sight,  although  even 
they  possess  optic  nerves,  and  seem  sensitive  to 
light.  But  in  most  of  them,  the  eyes  are  large,  and 
vision  is  evidently  very  acute ;  and  some  have  cirri 
or  barbules  near  the  mouth,  filaments  proceeding 
fi'om  some  of  the  fin-rays,  &c.,  which  are  regarded 
as  delicate  organs  of  touch,  adapted  to  the  wants 
and  habits  of  the  particular  species.  The  eyes  are 
covered  by  the  skin,  modified  in  its  character,  and 
have  no  eyelids  nor  nictitating  membrane.  They 
are  very  variously  placed  in  different  kinds.  There 
is  no  external  ear. 

The  mouth  is  the  only  organ  of  prehension.  It  is 
very  different  in  different  kinds — sometimes  very 
small,  sometimes  extremely  large,  sometimes  forming 
a  sucker  by  which  the  fish  can  both  fix  itself  and 
pimip  up  the  fluids  of  the  animal  on  which  it  preys. 
The  snout  is  also  abbreviated,  prolonged,  or  other- 
wise modified  va  very  various  ways.  The  teeth  are 
far  more  various  in  form,  number,  position,  and 
structure,  than  in  any  other  class  of  animals.  They 
never  have  any  roots,  but  are  fixed  to  the  bones 


FISHES. 


which  supiiort  them  ;  they  fall  off,  however,  and 
arc  rcpliiced.  Some  fishes  have  no  teeth ;  some 
have  very  small  teeth  ;  some  have  teeth  iii  great 
number,  but  so  fine  as  to  resemble  the  hairs  of  a 
brush ;  some  have  short  thick  teeth ;  some  have 
lou"  sharp  teeth,  either  straight  or  crooked ;  some 
ha\-e  teeth  so  flat  and  closely  set  that  they 
resemble  a  regular  and  beautiful  jiavemeut ;  and 
the  teeth  of  fishes  are  sometimes  situated  not  only 
on  tlie  jawbones,  but  on  the  vomer  or  bono 
extending  along  the  middle  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  indeed,  also,  on  other  parts  of  the 
palate  to  the  very  throat,  and  very  commonly  on 
the  tongue.  The"  food  of  fishes  is  various :  a  few 
subsist  on  vegetable  food  of  different  kinds,  but  most 
of  them  on  anim.il  food,  of  which  tliere  is  no  kind 
that  docs  not  seem  to  be  particularly  agreeable  to 
some  of  them,  from  the  mere  animalcule  or  the  most 
minute  crustacean  to  the  flesh  of  the  mammalia. 
In  general,  they  are  excessively  voracious,  and  seem 
to  spend  most  of  their  lives  in  seeking  food.  Many 
of  them  prey  on  other  fishes,  and  many  seem  equally 
willing  to  devom-  other  species  or  the  younger  and 
weaker  of  their  own.  .Some  of  them  swallow  their 
food  almost  or  absolutely  alive  ;  others  subject  it  to 
processes  of  comminution,  trituration,  and  masti- 
cation in  the  mouth.  Salivary  glands  are  not  found 
in  fishes,  although  they  exist  in  some  of  the  inverte- 
brate animals.  The  digestive  process  seems  to  be 
performed  veiy  rapidly.  The  stomach  and  intestines 
vary  very  much  in  different  kinds.  The  kidneys 
are  in  general  extremely  large,  extending  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  abdomen. 

The  air-bladder  is  found  in  many  fishes,  but  not 
in  all ;  and  is  present  or  absent  iu  different  fishes 
even  of  the  same  genus  or  family.  See  Air-bl.U)DER. 
Its  uses,  and  its  connection  with  the  habits  of 
particular  species,  have  as  yet  been  but  jjartially 
ascertained. 

Fishes  are  oviparous  (egg-producing)  ;  a  few  are 
ovo\'iviparous  (eggs  hatched  within  the  body,  and 
yoimg  produced  alive).  The  chief  reproductive 
organs  are  generally  two  elongated  lobes  of  a  fatty 
substance,  milt,  in  the  males,  and  of  rudimentary 
eggs,  re,  in  the  females.  Impregnation  usually 
takes  place  after  the  roe  or  spawn  is  deposited,  the 
male  accompanying  the  female  to  the  place  of 
spawning.  In  some  Cartilaginous  Fishes,  it  takes 
place  before  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  ;  and  male 
sharks  and  rays  are  fxirnished  with  organs  called 
claspers,  the  use  of  which  is  well  indicated  by  the 
name.  The  fecundity  of  fishes  is  generally  very 
great,  and  their  eggs  very  small  in  proportion  to 
the  size  which  they  ultimately  attain,  although 
this  is  not  so  much  the  case  in  the  Cartil.aginous 
Fishes  .already  mentioned.  Some  of  the  fishes 
most  valuable  to  man,  as  the  salmon,  herring, 
and  cod,  are  remarkable  for  their  fecundity.  Nine 
millions  of  eggs  have,  according  to  Leuwenhoek, 
been  ascertained  to  exist  iu  the  roe  of  a  single 
cod ;  and  prorisiou  is  thus  made  both  for  the 
preservation  of  the  species  amidst  all  the  dangers 
to  which  the  spawn  and  the  young  are  exposed, 
and  for  the  wants  of  man.  The  spawn  of  fishes  is 
deposited  in  very  different  situations,  according  to 
the  different  kinds— as  by  some  on  aquatic  plants, 
by  some  on  beds  of  sand  or  gravel ;  but  many 
species  leave  the  depths  of  the  ocean  in  order  to 
deposit  it  in  shallower  waters,  and  some,  usually 
marine,  ascend  rivers  for  this  purpose.  Very  few 
fishes  take  any  care  of  their  eggs  or  young  ;  but 
there  are  remarkable  exceptions  to  this  nile,  and 
some  of  the  gobies  and  sticklebacks  are  known  to 
tend  their  young  with  great  care.  Sticklebacks  also 
construct  nests.  See  Stickleback.  It  is  not  long 
since  this  curious  fact  was  discovered,  although 
35* 


these  little  fishes  have  been  so  long  familiarly 
known ;  and  it  is  therefore  not  improbable  that 
many  other  fishes  may  have  the  same  habit. 

The  gron-th  of  fishes  is  very  rapid  whon  supplies 
of  food  are  abundant,  but  becomes  slow  in  less 
favourable  circumstances,  or  is  arrested  for  a  long 
time,  in  a  manner  to  which  there  seems  to  be 
nothing  simQar  among  other  vertebrate  animals. 

The  skin  of  fishes  is  generally  covered  with  .Scales 
(q.  v.),  which,  however,  are  sometimes  minute  .and 
imbedded  in  the  sldn,  and  sometimes  lUtogethcr 
wanting.  The  scales  are  either  horny  or  bony,  and 
are  generally  imbricated,  like  the  slates  of  a  roof, 
their  free  ends  backwards ;  but  sometimes  form 
bony  plates,  fixed  by  the  whole  of  their  lower 
surface.  They  usually  exhibit  beautiful  symmetrical 
markings  and  inequalities  of  surface  of  various 
kinds,  and  in  some  are  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of 
enamel.  The  differences  of  character  in  the  scUes 
have  been  made  the  foundation  of  a  classification  of 
fishes  by  Agassiz,  by  whom  all  fishes  are  distributetl 
into  the  foiu-  orders  of  Ci/cloid,  Ctenoid,  Placoid,  and 
Ganoid  Fishes  (see  these  heads),  having  respec- 
tively cycloid,  ctenoid,  placoid,  and  ganoid  scales  ;  a 
classification  which  has  been  found  particularly 
convenient  with  reference  to  fossil  fishes,  although 
other  systems  maintain  their  gromid  against  it  as 
preferable  for  recent  species.  It  is  not,  however, 
wholly  artificial,  for  a  relation  can  be  very  generally 
traced  between  the  character  of  the  scales  and  the 
general  structure  and  economy  of  a  fish. 

The  scales  of  a  row  extending  from  the  head 
to  or  towards  the  tail  on  each  side  of  the  body 
of  Osseous  fishes  in  a  somewhat  waved  line,  called 
the  lateral  line,  are  pierced  for  the  transmission 
of  a  slimy  matter,  with  which  the  whole  body  is 
lubricated. 

The  colours  of  fishes  depend  upon  a  substance 
consisting  of  small  polished  lamin*,  secreted  by  the 
skin. 

As  fishes  need  no  covering,  like  fur  or  feathers,  to 
prevent  the  dissipation  of  their  animal  heat  in  the 
suiTOimding  mediiun,  their  scales  must  be  regarded 
chiefly  as  defensive  armour.  Some  of  them  are  also 
defended  by  large  bony  plates,  which  are  either  on 
the  head  alone  or  also  on  the  body,  and  some  by 
spines  connected  vnth  the  fins,  gill-covers,  &c.  Few 
have  any  other  offensive  weapons  than  their  teeth, 
but  the  spine  attached  to  the  tail  of  some  r.ays  is  a 
remarkable  exception,  as  is  also  the  elongated  snout 
or  beak  of  the  sword-fish,  saw-fish,  and  a  few  others. 
But  a  much  more  remarkable  kind  of  armour — 
probably  both  offensive  and  defensive — is  possessed 
by  a  few  fishes,  in  an  electrical  apparatus,  by  which 
they  can  give  severe  shocks.  It  is  also  an  inte- 
resting fact,  that  the  electrical  apparatus  is  qiiite 
different  in  tliflerent  fishes  possessing  it,  the  Gym- 
notus  or  Electric  Eel,  the  Torpedo,  and  the  Electric 
Silurus  or  Malapterunis.    See  ELECTRicm',  Animal. 

Many  fishes  are  gregarious,  smmming  in  shoals, 
which  in  some  species  consist  of  immense  mul- 
titudes. Some  also  make  periodic  migrations  ; 
salmon,  for  example,  ascending  our  rivers,  and 
herrings  and  pilchards  visiting  our  coasts,  but  the 
long  migi'ation  formerly  ascribed  to  these  fishes  is 
now  doubted  or  disbeUeved.  The  occasional  over- 
land migrations  of  eels,  and  the  more  frequent 
overland  migrations  of  some  tropical  fishes,  cannot 
but  be  regarded  with  peculiar  interest ;  and  the 
instinct  is  very  wonderfid  by  which,  when  fleeing 
from  a  pool  that  is  about  to  lie  dried  \\\>,  they  direct 
their  course  towards  a  place  where  water  is  more 
abundant.  This  facidty  is,  however,  rare,  although 
possessed  by  tropical  fishes  both  of  the  eastern  and 
western  hemispheres  ;  but  more  generally  the  fishe.-i 
destined  to  inhabit  tropical  ponds  which  are  liable 


FISHES— FISH-HOOKa 


to  be  dried  up,  are  capable  of  living  dormant, 
imbedded  in  the  mud,  tiU  they  are  liberated  again 
by  the  rains,  when  they  reappear  in  their  former 
miJtitudes. 

Of  the  uses  of  fishes  to  man,  by  far  the  most 
important  is  that  of  supplying  him  ivith  food. 
Fishes  form  an  article  of  food  in  almost  all  coun- 
tries, and  in  some  a  principal  part  of  tbe  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  Many  fishes  are  highly  esteemed 
for  the  table,  which  are  not  procured  in  sufficient 
abundance  to  be  a  principal  part  of  food  in  any 
country.  Some  fishes,  on  the  contrary,  are  unpala- 
table ;  and  some,  mostly  tropical,  aie  poisonous, 
whilst  others  are  poisonous  only  at  particular  sea- 
sons.— The  skin  of  some  Cartilaginous  Fishes  yields 
Shagreex  (q.  v.),  and  the  air-bladder  of  some  fishes 
yields  Isinglass  (q.  v.).  The  minute  laminae  which 
give  brilhancy  of  colovir  to  some,  and  the  similar 
substance  found  in  the  air-bladder  of  others,  afford 
the  materials  of  which  artificial  pearls  are  made. 
— OU  usefiil  for  lamps  is  obtained  from  a  number 
of  fishes,  and  the  medicinal  value  of  cod-liver  oil 
is  now  well  known. 

The  classification  of  fishes  most  generally  adopted 
is  that  of  Cuvier,  who  divides  them  into  Osseous 
Fishes  (ha^-ing  true  bones),  and  Caktilaginocs 
Fishes  (q.  v.)  ;  and  dirides  Osseous  Fishes  into 
Acanthopterous  Fishes  {Acanihopterijfi'u,  q.  v.),  and 
Malacopterous  Fishes  {Malacoptei-yijii,  q.  v.).  The 
system  of  Agassiz  has  already  been  noticed.  That 
of  Miillcr  and  Owen  differs  from  both. 

Fossil  Fisltes. — The  medium  in  which  fishes  live, 
and  the  hard  and  almost  indestructible  nature  of 
some  portions  of  their  skeletons — as  their  teeth, 
spines,  and  scales — woiUd  leatl  us  to  anticipate  their 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Sedimentary  rocks  :  but 
inasmuch  as  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal  are  liable 
to  speedy  decomposition,  the  remains  of  fish  must 
often  exist  in  a  fragmentary  and  scattered  con- 
dition. Thus,  the  teeth  in  the  shark,  the  spine 
defence  in  the  sting  ray,  and  the  scales  in  the  bony 
pike,  would  survive  the  total  destruction  of  the 
cartilaginous  skeleton  as  well  as  the  soft  portions 
of  these  fish,  and  would  alone  remain  to  testify  to 
their  existence. 

The  earhest  ichthyc  remains  are  of  this  frag- 
mentary character.  They  have  been  obtained  from 
the  '  Ludlow  rock,'  a  member  of  the  Upper  Silurian 
series,  and  consist  of  spines  and  portions  of  skin, 
that  have  been  thickly  covered  with  hard  tubercles 
and  prickles,  like  the  shagreen  of  the  shark's  skin. 
The  spines  most  nearly  resemble  the  dorsal  spine 
of  the  dogfish ;  they  are  small,  flattened,  and 
slightly  curved.  Along  with  other  similar  frag- 
mentary remains,  they  have  been  placed  imder  the 
somewhat  indefinite  generic  title  Onchiis. 

The  minute,  compressed,  conical,  and  glistening 
bodies,  called  Conodonts,  obtained  in  great  numbers 
from  the  Lower  Silurian  measures  in  Russia,  and 
considered  by  their  describer,  Pander,  to  have  been 
the  teeth  of  fishes,  belong  certainly  to  very  dillerent 
animals.  Their  small  size  and  j)eculiar  forms,  and 
the  entire  margin  of  the  hollow  base  by  which 
they  were  attached,  shew  them  to  have  been  the 
denticles  from  the  lingual  ril)bon  of  shell-less 
moUuscs,  which  huve  left  no  other  traces  of  their 
existence  than  these  remarkable  Conodonts. 

The  Ludlow  bone-bed  contains  the  earhest  noticed 
fish  remains.  No  idea  of  the  numerical  importance 
of  fishes  at  this  early  period  can  be  satisfactorily 
formed  ;  yet  these  remains  being  confined  to  a  single 
thin  bed,  and  occiu'ring  rarely  even  in  that,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  Silurian  seas  were  but 
thinly  tenanted  by  these  earliest  sharks. 

In  the  immediately  succeeding  Devonian  rocks, 
their    munbers    largely    increased.      The    ichthyo- 


dorulites,  or  fossil  spines  of  this  period,  have  been 
referred  to  fourteen  different  genera.  Numerous 
species  of  true  ganoids  have  been  determined  from 
their  well-preserved  enamel  scales,  which  occur 
singly  or  in  confused  groups,  and  frequently  also 
associated  with  the  head,  tins,  and  tad,  so  as  to 
present  a  faithful  'nature-print'  of  the  fish  upon 
the  rock.  See  Dittekus,  Diplacakthus,  &c.  But 
the  most  remarkable  and  characteristic  fossils  of 
this  period  are  the  Buckler-fishes,  whose  head 
and  part  of  theu-  body  were  covered  with  bony 
plates,  giving  them  so  singidar  and  anomalous  an 
appearance,  that  some  of  them  were  originally 
considered  crustacean.  They  are  almost  confined 
to  the  Old  Ked  Sandstone  series,  a  single  species 
(found  in  Permian  strata)  being  the  only  cepha- 
laspid  that  is  known  later.  See  C'epkalaspis, 
CoccosTEUs,  Ptekichthys,  &c. 

Fish  remains  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Coal-measures.  Upwards  of  twenty  species  of 
plagiostomous  fishes  have  been  determined  from  the 
spine  defences,  some  of  which  are  very  large  and 
powerful.  The  frequency  with  which  the  peculiar 
teeth  of  the  cestracionts  are  met,  shew  that  they 
must  have  been  common  in  the  carboniferous  seas. 
Ganoids  were  also  abundant.  See  Pai.^osiscus, 
HOLOPTYCHIUS,  &C. 

In  the  Permian  period,  the  forms  are  similar  to 
what  exist  in  the  older  strata.  Up  to  the  last 
Permian  deposit,  the  fish  have  all  possessed  hetero- 
cercal  tails ;  but  ■with  the  Secondai-y  rocks,  the 
homocercal  tad  not  only  appears,  but  becomes  the 
more  frequent  form. 

Numerous  species  and  many  new  forms  appear 
in  the  Trias  and  Oolite.  Sharks  are  remarkably 
abundant  in  the  Cretaceous  strata  ;  but  the  Chalk  is 
specially  remarkable  from  containing  the  earliest 
discovered  remains  of  the  true  bone-fishes — those 
covered  with  ctenoid  and  cycloid  scales. 

In  the  Tertiaiy  strata,  the  character  and  pro- 
portion of  ichthyc  remains  exliibit  a  condition  in 
the  inhabitants  of  the  water  very  similar  to  what 
at  present  prevails.  The  cartilaginous  orders 
decrease,  and  are  replaced  by  osseous  fishes,  such  as 
the  salmon,  cod,  turbot,  and  herrui" — fishes  which 
are  of  much  greater  value  to  man  than  those  they 
superseded. 

FISH-HOOKS.  A  considerable  amount  of  skill 
is  required  for  the  successfid  manufacture  of  these 
simple  articles.  There  are  two  kinds  in  the  market, 
the  English  and  the  Limerick  fish-hooks,  the  lattei 
are  in  the  highest  repute  among  anglers.  The 
English  fish-hooks  are  made  chietly  at  Eedditch, 
in  Worcestershire.  Steel-wire  is  cut  into  the 
required  lengths,  and  softened ;  then  the  ends  of 
three  of  these  are  inserted  into  shallow  holes  of  a 
sort  of  rest  or  standard,  and  thus  supported,  the 
barbs  of  aU  three  together  are  cut  up  by  the  skilfid 
pressure  of  a  stout  knife  ;  they  are  then  pointed, 
and  turned  by  pressing  them  against  a  little  ridge  of 
sheet-brass  let  into  a  block  of  wood,  and  having 
the  requisite  curvature.  The  other  end  is  next 
flattened  out,  by  lajTng  it  on  a  small  anvil,  and 
striking  a  blow  with  a  hammer.  This  is  done  to 
prevent  the  silk  Hgature  from  slipping  over  the  end. 
The  finer  worm-hooks  have  the  shanks  filed,  in  order 
that  the  silk  dressing  may  not  enlarge  the  shank  so 
much  as  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  worm  over 
it.  They  are  then  hardened,  tempered,  and  blued. 
The  Limerick  hooks  are  made  by  cutting  the 
steel,  which  is  made  from  the  best  malleable  iron, 
into  lengths  for  two  hooks.  The  ends  are  then 
forged  out  to  the  shape  of  barb  and  point,  and  the 
barb  is  imdercut  icith  a  file  from  the  sohd  forged 
end,  instead  of  being  cut  and  turned  up  vnfh 
a   knife.      This    constitutes    the    chief   superiority 


FISH-LOUSE— FISTULA. 


of  the  Limerick  hooks.  They  are  shaped  to  the 
n-qiiirvil  curve  by  grasping  them  ill  circular  pliers, 
auil  bending  the  wire  with  a  turn  of  the  wrist. 

FISH-LOUSE,  or  SEA-LOUSE,  names  com- 
monlv  given  to  the  entomostracous  crustaceans  of 
tlie  order  Siphonostoma.  All  the  creatures  of  this 
order  are  of  small  size,  and  parasitic  on  (islips, 
aquatic  batrachians,  &o.,  on  the  juices  of  which 
they  live,  althoui;h  they  have  also  tlie  power  of 
swiuiming  freely  in  the  water,  some  of  tlieir  legs 
being  adapted  to  this  purpose,  and,  indeed,  they 
can  swim  with  extreme  rapidity,  making  use  of  this 
power  to  gain  that  jilace  where  they  may  obtain 
food  at  the  expense  of  other  creatures.  They  do 
not  begin  life  as  parasites,  the  females  depositing 
their  numerous  egijs  on  stones,  jilants,  &c.  They 
are  animals  of  singular  form  and  ajiiHarance.  The 
genera  Argulim  and  Caliijus  aie  now  regai-ded  as  the 


1,  Cnligus  (female) ; 


Fish-Louse  : 
2,  Aiyiiliis,  natural  size;  3,  ArguJus, 
magnified. 


types  of  two  families.  In  the  fonner,  there  is  a 
curious  sucking  disc  on  each  side  of  the  beak  or 
proboscis,  although  there  are  also  jointed  members 
terminated  by  prehensile  hooks.  In  the  latter,  the 
hooks  of  the  anterior  pairs  of  feet  are  the  principal 
organs  of  adhesion  to  the  sli]>pery  bodies  of  the 
fishes  from  which  food  is  to  be  drawn ;  and  the 
abdomen  of  the  female  is  furnished  with  two 
remarkably  long  tubes,  the  functions  of  which  are 
not  perfectly  ascertained.  The  liodies  of  all  of 
them  are  transparent,  or  nearly  so.  Some  of  the 
Catiifidce  are  common  on  many  of  the  British  sea- 
fishes ;  Argulus /oliaceus  on  fresh-water  fishes,  and 
even  on  tadpoles.  Sickly  fishes  often  become  the 
victims  of  multitudes  of  these  creatures. 

The  name  fish-louse  is  sometimes  given  also  to  the 
Lerna'klce,  but  they  are  very  difl'erent. 

FISHING-FROG.     See  Angler. 

FISHING-TACKLE.     See  Angling. 

FISHPONDS.    See  Pisciculture. 

FISK,  or  I'TSC,  a  term  often  to  be  found  in 
Scottish  law-books.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
fisru«,  literally,  a  wicker-basket,  which  came  ulti- 
mately to  signify  the  i)rivy  purse  of  the  emperor, 
as  distinguished  from  the  public  ti-easury,  which 
was  called  ararium.  In  Scotland,  it  signifies  gene- 
rally the  crown's  revenues,  to  which  the  movable 
estate  of  a  person  denounced  rebel  was  foiinerly 


forfeited.  It  still  gives  his  name  to  a  \ery  import- 
ant otKcer,  the  Procurator  Fiscal  (q.  v.),  or  pubho 
prosecutor  in  the  first  instance,  by  whom  all  crimes 
iire  jirosecuted  before  sheriffs  and  other  inferior 
judges,  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  to  crown 
counsel — i.  e.,  to  the  Lord  Advocate,  or  his  dejiutes  — 
all  cases  which,  from  their  aggravated  character, 
require  to  be  tried  by  a  higher  court.  See  Public 
Pkosecutor. 

FISSfUO'STRES  (Lat.  split-beaked),  a  tribe  of 
birds,  one  of  the  tribes  into  which  the  great  order 
Imessores  is  divided.  It  is  characterised  by  peculiar 
width  of  gape,  and  the  bill  is  depressed  or  horizon- 
tally flattened,  short,  and  often  furnished  with  strong 
bristles  at  the  angles  ;  the  birds  of  this  tribe  being 
insectivorous,  and  generally  subsisting  by  catching 
insects  on  the  wing,  to  which  this  structure  of  bill 
is  beautifully  adapted.  The  powers  of  flight  are 
generally  great,  but  the  legs  are  short  and  weak. 
Swallows  and  goat-suckers  are  familiar  examples 
of  this  order. 

FISSURE  LLID^,  a  family  of  gasteropodous 
molluscs,  of  the  order  Sctitibrauchiata.  The  shell 
much  resembles  th.at  of  the  limpet  family  (Patel- 
lidu'),  but  has  either  a  hole  ,at  the  apex,  or  a  slit 
at  the  front  margin.  The  hole  at  the  apex  charac- 
terises the  genus  Fhssurella  (Keyhnlo  Limpets),  and 


Fissurella  : 
1,  the  animal;  £,  the  shell. 

the  slit  appears  in  the  gemis  Emarri'inula.  These 
openings  of  the  shell  are  subservient  both  to  the 
passage  of  the  water  requisite  for  respiration,  and 
the  discharge  of  the  excrements.  The  lissurellida) 
resemble  limpets  in  their  habits,  and  are  found 
either  on  the  sea-shore  or  at  no  very  great  depth. 
They  are  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Several 
species  are  British. 

FI'.STULA,  in  former  times,  was  applied,  in  its 
etymological  meaning  of  a  /J/yJr?,  to  such  Abscesses 
(q.  v.)  as  had  contracted  to  narrow,  hard,  open 
passages  in  the  soft  texture  of  the  body  (see 
Tissue),  lined  by  a  kind  of  false  membrane,  giving 
rise  to  a  thin  discharge.  At  the  present  time, 
however,  the  term  fistiUa  is  generally  limited  to 
the  opening  of  such  a  passage  when  in  close  contact 
with  a  mucous  membrane.  Thus  it  is  common  to 
speak  of  salivary,  urinary  fistula,  &c. ;  and  the  most 
common  and  troublesome  kind  of  all  is  the  iistiUa 
iu  ano,  in  connection  with  the  lower  bowel,  or 
PLectum  (q.  v.).  The  tre.atmcnt  of  fistula  shotUd 
only  be  intrusted  to  experienced  surgeons  ;  but 
there  are  always  quacks  in  abimdance  willing  to 
undertake  it,  ami  hold  out  llatteriug  hopes  of  au 
early  cure  without  proper  sm'gical  procedure. 

For  the  cure  of  salivary  or  urinary  fistida,  all 
that  is  generally  necessary  is  to  restore  the  patency 
of  the  ducts,  which  is  done  by  passing  instruments 
along  them.  Shoidd  a  fistula,  however,  be  situated 
where  it  is  surromided  by  muscular  fibres,  as  at  the 


FISTUL  ARID.E— FIVES. 


orifice  of  the  lower  bowel,  it  is  necessary  to  divide 
these  muscular  tibre.s,  so  as  to  leave  the  part  at  rest 
while  nature  repairs  it.  As  the  sinus,  which  is 
the  continuation  inwards  of  the  fistida,  is  lined 
with  iniporfectly  organised  lymph,  it  is  generally 
necessary  to  stimulate  the  part  by  the  introduction 
of  lint,  either  alone  or  saturated  with  some  irritant, 
such  as  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  which,  when  mixed  in 
the  jiroportion  of  1 — 3  grains  to  each  ounce  of 
water,  and  coloured  with  lavender,  makes  the 
famous  red  lotion  of  the  shops. 

At  times,  however,  fistuU-e  require  more  elaborate 
treatment,  and  are  extremely  difScidt  to  close, 
especially  those  which  result  from  loss  of  tissue 
between  two  adjacent  mucous  canals  ;  fortunately, 
however,  modern  surgery  is  able  to  remedy  these 
also.  It  is  necessary  to  make  the  edges  of  the  orifice 
once  more  raw,  and  to  bring  them  in  contact,  but 
formerly  the  wound  used  rarely  to  unite,  as  the 
stitches  produced  such  an  amount  of  irritation. 
Now,  however,  by  the  use  of  silver  or  iron  wire, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  surgeon,  the  parts  can 
be  kept  together  long  enough  to  insure  union ; 
and  thus,  by  the  ingenuity  ot  American  surgeons, 
especially  Marion  Sims  of  New  York,  and  others 
in  this  country,  certain  diseases  of  women,  arising 
from  jirotracted  labours,  and  formerly  rendering  the 
unfortunate  subjects  of  them  miseraVjle  and  unfitted 
for  any  of  the  duties  of  life,  may  be  now  remedied 
by  a  skilfully  performed,  but  almost  painless  pro- 
ceeding. 

FISTULA'RID^,  AULOSTO'MID^,  or 
FLUTEMOUTHS,  a  family  of  aeanthopterous 
fishes,  remarkable  for  the  conformation  of  the 
head ;  the  skull  being  elongated  into  a  tube,  at  the 
extremity  of  which  are  the  mouth  and  jaws.  The 
species  are  all  marine ;  they  are  widely  distributed ; 


eonfoundin"  it   with   any  dangerous   fungus.      Its 
taste  resemoles  that  of  the  common  muslnroom,  but 


Snipe  or  Trumpet  Fish  {Cenlriscus  3co!n2}ax]. 

only  one,  the  Snipe-fish,  Sea-snipe,  or  Trumpet-fish 
(Centriscim  scolopax),  is  found,  and  that  veiy  rarely, 
iu  the  British  seas.  These  fishes  are  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Pipe-fishes,  which  have  a 
similar  elongation  of  snout,  but  are  otherwise  very 
difierent. 

FISTULI'NA,  a  genus  of  fungi  allied  to  Boletus 
(q.  V.)  ;  the  uuder  surface  {hi/i>iemum)  at  first  covered 
with  minute  warts,  which  ultimately  form  tubes. 
F.  he.patica  is  common  in  Britain  and  throughout 
Europe  on  old  oak,  walnut,  and  chestnut  trees ; 
it  occurs  also  on  ash  and  beech.  It  is  semicircular, 
of  very  regular  outhne,  with  a  lateral  stem,  or 
none ;  its  colour  red  ;  its  substance  fibrous  and 
fleshy,  much  resembling  beet-root.  When  old  and 
beginning  to  decay,  it  looks  like  a  mass  of  liver. 
It  sometimes  attains  a  great  size.  Dr  Badham 
describes  a  specimen  nearly  five  feet  round,  and 
weighing  eight  pounds.  Mr  Berkeley  mentions  one 
which  grew  on  an  ash  pollard,  and  weighed  nearly 
thirty  pounds.  This  fungus  is  much  esteemed  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  as  an  esculent ;  it  is  whole- 
some and  nutritious  ;  and  the  abundance  in  which 
it  may  often  be  procured,  makes  it  the  more  worthy 
of  regard  ;  whilst  there  is  almost  no  possibility  of 


Fistalina  Hcpatica. 

is  rather  more  acid.  '  When  grilled,  it  is  scarcely  to 
be  distinguished  from  broiled  meat.'  It  furnishes 
itself  with  abundance  of  sauce. 

FITCHET.     See  Polecat. 

FITCHY,  or  FITCHE.  Crosses  are  said,  in 
Heraldry,  to  be  fitchy  when  the  lower  branch  ends 
in  a  sharp  point.  Crosses  are  supposed  to  have  been 
so  shar|)ened  to  enable  the  primitive  Christians  to 
stick  them  into  the  groimd  for  devotional  purjioses. 

FITS,  a  name  popidarly  applied  to  Convidsions 
(q.  v.),  or,  indeed,  to  any  sudden  seizure  of  (Usease 
implj-in"  loss  of  consciousness,  or  any  considerable 
change  in  the  condition  of  the  mind. 

FITZ  is  an  old  Norman  word  signifying  '  son,' 
evidently  from  the  Lat.  jilius  (Fr.  jUs).  Like  the 
Scotch  Mac,  the  Irish  0',  and  the  Oriental  Ben,  it  is 
prefixed  to  proper  names  to  signify-  descent,  as  in 
the  Norman  names  Fitzwilliam,  Fitzwalter,  Fitz- 
gerald. A  later  application  of  it  has  been  to  denote 
the  natural  sons  of  ro3'alty,  as  in  Fitzroy,  Fitzjanies, 
and  Fitzclarence.  The  Eussian  termination  witch  is 
a  disgiused  form  of  the  same  word. 

FIU'ME  (iu  the  lUyrian  language,  Heka  or  liika ; 
Latin,  Famini  St  Viti  ad  Jtumeii),  an  important 
seaport  of  Austria,  is  situated  at  the  efflux  of  the 
Fiumara  into  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  in  the  Adriatic, 
40  miles  south-east  of  Trieste,  across  the  Istrian 
])eninsula,  in  lat.  45°  20'  N.,  and  long.  14°  26'  E. 
F.  has  quite  the  character  of  a  German  town,  is 
adorned  with  many  handsome  buildings,  and 
consists  of  an  old  and  new  town,  which  together 
contain  about  14,000  inhabitants.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  toljacco,  rosoglio,  wax,  jiaper,  chemicals, 
and  a  flourishing  trade  in  ship-building.  F.  has  a 
fine  freestone  quay,  with  a  light-house,  Init  has 
little  commerce.  It  has  been  a  free  port  since  1722; 
and  in  1849  was  severed  from  Hungary  with  the 
territory  to  which  it  belongs,  and  now  foi-ms  a 
portion  of  the  Austrian  crownland  of  Croatia. 

FIVES,  a  popular  game  in  England,  and  one 
especially  enjoyed  by  school-boys,  and  in  certain 
barracks  where  there  is  a  '  court,'  by  soldiers.  The 
game  existed  at  a  very  early  period — 14th  c. — both 
iu  France  and  England,  being  termed  'pahn-play' 
in  the  former,  and  'hand-tennis'  in  the  latter;  its 
present  name  is  derived  from  its  being  played 
usually  by  five  on  each  side.  The  method  of  playing 
the  game  is  very  simple  :  a  good  roomy  court  is 
requisite,  bounded  by  a  high  wall  at  one  end,  and 
against  this  wall  a  liaU  is  propelled  by  striking  it 
with  the  open  hand.  The  players  arrange  themselves 
either  five  against  five,  as  is  usually  the  case,  or  in 
fewer  numbers,  and  begin  the  game  by  one  member 
striking  the  ball  against  the  wall,  and  causing 
it    to    rebound    anywhere   beyond   the    floor-score, 

357 


FIXED  AIR— FIXTURES. 


which  is  about  two  yards  from  the  wall ;  one 
PI  the  opposite  jwrtythen  strikes  the  ball  as  it 
n'lwmuls,  and  if  it  does  not  toiioh  the  wall  hiu'lior 
than  thn'e  feet  from  the  prounil,  his  stroke  goes  for 
nothing,  and  the  opiiosite  ])arty  score  one.  Tlie  ball 
may  he  struck  eitiier  from  a  direct  reboimd  before 
it  reaches  the  ground,  or  after  it  h.is  '  dapped '  or 
hop|)ed  from  tlic  groimd  once.  Fifteen  is  usu.ally 
game,  ^^^len  the  jilayers  are  skilful,  the  ball  is 
kejit  going  by  the  .-Uternate  strikers  for  many 
minutes  at  a  time,  and  the  game  is  thus  rendered 
exciting  both  for  players  and  oulookei-s. 

FIXED  AIR  w.is  the  name  given  to  Carbonic 
Acid  (q.  V.)  by  Dr  Black,  who  was  the  first  to 
obscri-e  that  the  sohd  substance,  carbonate  of 
magnesia  (MgO,CO,),  could,  when  heated,  evolve 
carbonic  acid  (COj),  proving  that  the  Latter  was  a 
fixed  air  whilst  in  iinion  with  the  magnesia. 

FIXED  BODIES  is  a  term  applied  in  chemis- 
try to  those  substances  which  remain  fixed,  and 
•ire  not  volatilised  at  moderately  high  temperatures. 

FIXED  OILS  are  those  oils  w;hich,  on  the 
application  of  heat,  do  not  volatilise  without 
decomposition.     See  Oii-S. 

FIXED  STARS.    See  Staes. 

FIXING,  in  Photographj'.  \Vhen  a  picture  lias 
been  obtained  through  the  agencj'  of  light,  by  the 
exposure  of  a  sensitive  surface  siut.ably  prepared, 
and  the  subsequent  development  of  the  latent  image, 
there  remains  in  the  deepest  shadows  of  the  picture 
a  portion  of  the  sensitive  material,  imacted  upon 
by  Ught.  The  remov.al  of  this  imaltered  sensitive 
material  by  an  appropriate  solvent,  is  termed  fixing, 
though  the  term  clearing  would  perhaps  be  prefer- 
able, fixing  being  more  strictly  accurate  in  the  case  of 
the  Daguerreotj-pe  process  (q.  v.),  where  the  pictiu'c 
is  literally  ^"xfrf  to  the  silver-plate  by  the  deposition 
of  a  film  of  metallic  gold,  of  extreme  tenuity,  from  a 
boiling  hot  solution  of  Sel  D'or  (q.  v.). 

For  particulai"3  of  failures  arising  fi*om  imperfect 
fixation  or  clearing,  see  Pelntixo  Process. 

FI'XTURES,  in  the  Law  of  England,  are  those 
personal  chattels  (q.  v.)  which  are  let  into  the  soil, 
or  otherwise  actually  affixed  to  the  freehold ;  a 
definition  which  is  sufficiently  acciu'ate  to  afford 
a  principle  for  the  solution  of  the  questions  which 
arise  between  landlord  and  tenant  as  to  the  right 
of  the  former  to  retain,  or  of  the  latter  to  remove — 
but  a  principle,  the  application  of  which  is  attended 
with  many  practical  difficulties.  If  the  chattels  he 
entirely  clear  of  the  soil,  they  are  not  fixtures  at  all, 
and  may  be  carried  oil'  at  pleasure  Uke  any  other 
species  of  personal  property.  The  general  rule  as  to 
what  constitutes  a  fixture  legally  immovable  is,  that 
it  must  be  either  let  into  the  earth,  or  cemented 
or  otherwise  united  to  some  erection  previously 
attached  to  the  ground,  so  tluat  it  woidd  bo  waste 
to  remove  it  afterwards  (Woodfall,  jij).  4C6,  407). 
But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  a  tenant  may  in  all 
cases  construct  any  erection  ho  may  make  in  such  a 
manner  as  that  it  shall  not  become  a  fixture.  Thus, 
if  he  even  erect  buildings — as  barns,  granaries,  sheds, 
and  mills — upon  blocks,  rollers,  pattens,  pillars,  or 
jilates,  resting  on  brickwork,  they  may  be  removed, 
although  they  have  sunk  into  the  ground  by  their 
own  weight  (lb.  4G7).  To  this  nde  v.arious  excep- 
tions have  been  made  in  favour  of  what  have  been 
called  trade-fxiures,  or  fixtures  put  up  for  the 
piu-pose  of  carrjang  on  a  trade ;  and  the  statute  men- 
tioned below  h.as  greatly  modified  the  law  as  to  tlioso 
erected  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  is  difiicult  to 
litatc  the  limits  of  the  exception  Avith  reference  to 
trade-fixtures  with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The 
following  is  perhaps   as   near  an  approach  as  the 


varj-ing  circumstances  of  each  individual  case  will 
admit  of.  *  Whenever  the  following  circumstances 
occur,  it  may  be  confidently  pronounced  that  there 
the  tenant  may  safely  remove  the  article.  Thus, 
things  wliich  the  tenant  has  fixed  to  the  freehold 
for  the  purjTOses  of  trade  or  manufacture,  may  be 
taken  away  by  liim  whenever  the  removal  is  not 
contrary  to  any  prevailing  practice  ;  where  the 
articles  can  be  removed  without  causing  material 
injury  to  the  estate,  and  where  of  themselves  they 
■H'ere  of  a  perfect  chattel  nature  before  they  were 
put  up,  or  at  least  have  in  substance  that  character 
nidependently  of  their  union  with  the  soil— or,  in 
other  words,  where  they  m.ay  be  removed  without 
being  entirely  demolished,  or  losing  tlieir  essential 
character  or  value'  {li.  p.  4GS) ;  see  also  the  case 
of  HellaweU  v.  Eastwood,  6  Excheq.  Rep.  312. 
Nurserymen  have  been  allowed  to  remove  trees 
and  shrubs  which  they  have  planted  expressly  for 
pm-poses  of  sale,  but  not  to  plough  up  straw- 
l:>erry-l)eds,  out  of  the  ordinary  coui-se  of  manage- 
ment of  the  nursery-ground.  Neither  can  they 
remove  hot-houses,  green-houses,  forcing-pits,  or 
other  erections  of  that  description  ;  and  in  no  case 
can  private  persons  sell  or  remove  fruit-trees, 
tliough  planted  by  themselves  (Amos  and  Ferand 
on  Fixtures,  343,  2d  edition).  The  provision  of 
the  common  law  of  England  with  reference  to  .agri- 
cidtural  fixtures  has  been  modified  by  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  25,  s.  3,  which  pro-i-ides,  that  li  any  tenant 
of  a  faim  or  land  shall,  with  the  consent  in  writing 
of  the  landlord  for  the  time  being,  at  his  own  cost, 
erect  any  farm-buildings,  either  detached  or  other- 
wise, or  put  up  any  other  biulding,  engine,  or 
machinery,  either  for  agrioUtural  pur])oses  or  for 
the  purjioses  of  trade  and  agriculture  (which  shall 
not  have  been  put  up  in  pursuance  of  some  obli- 
gation in  that  behalf),  then  all  such  building, 
engines,  and  machinery  shall  be  the  property  of 
the  tenant,  and  shall  be  removable  by  him,  not- 
withstanding the  same  may  consist  of  sei)arate 
buildings,  or  that  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof, 
may  be  built  in  or  permanently  fixed  to  the  soil, 
so  as  the  tenant  making  such  remov.al  do  not  in 
anj-wise  injure  the  laud  or  buildings  belonging  to 
the  landlord,  or  othermse  do  put  the  same  in  like 
plight  and  condition  as  the  same  were  in  before  the 
erection  of  anj^hing  so  removed,  proWded  that  no 
tenant  shall  be  entitled  to  remove  any  sucli  matter 
or  thing  without  giving  to  the  landlord  or  his 
agent  one  month's  pre\'ious  notice  in  -nTiting  of  liis 
intention  so  to  do ;  and  thereupon  it  shall  be  Lawful 
for  the  landlord,  or  his  agent,  on  his  authority,  to 
elect  to  purch.ase  the  matters  and  things  proposed 
to  be  removed ;  and  the  right  to  remove  the  same 
shall  thereby  cease,  and  the  same  shall  belong  to 
the  lautUord  ;  and  the  value  thereof  shall  be  ascer- 
tained by  two  referees,  one  to  be  chosen  by  each 
party,  or  by  an  umpii-e  to  be  named  by  such  referees, 
and  shall  be  paid  or  allowed  in  account  by  the  land- 
lord who  shall  have  so  elected  to  purchase.'  This 
act  is  confined  to  England;  but  in  questions  of 
fixtures,  as  Mr  Hiuiter  oljserves,  the  common  Law  of 
England  having  been  deemed  practically  aiithori- 
tative  in  Scotland,  the  clause  affords  valuable  matter 
for  consideration,  as  shewing  wliat  has  been  held 
advisable  in  England  (Landlord  and  Tenant,  p.  290, 
3d  edition).  In  Scotland,  it  has  been  customary,  in 
■agricultural  leases  more  particularly,  to  determine 
the  respective  rights  of  lamllord  and  tenant  by 
positive  stipulation,  and,  for  tliis  reason,  fewer 
points  ha\c-  been  decided  by  the  courts  than  in 
England. 

As  regards  urban  tenements,  the  rule  seems  to  be, 
that  the  tenant  may  remove  whatever  he  has  fixed 
up  for  ornament  or  domestic  use — e.  g.,  hangings, 


FLACCUS— FLAG  OF  THE  PEOPHET. 


■wainscot,  stoves,  &c.,  but  not  such  erections  as  have 
become  part  of  the  tenement,  and  constitute  ]ier- 
manent  improvements.  Thus,  lie  caimot  remove  a 
conservatory  fixed  to  and  communicating  wth 
rooms  in  a  dwelling-house  by  windows  and  doors. 

FLA'CCUS,  C.  Valerius,  a  Roman  poet,  who 
flourished  in  the  1st  c,  and  is  supposed  to  have  died 
88  A.  D.  Absolutely  nothing  is  knomi  regarding 
his  life.  He  is  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the 
Argonautic  expedition,  which  in  its  extant  form  is 
incomplete.  Some  modern  critics,  AVagner  among 
others,  praise  it  extravagantly,  and  place  the  author 
next  to  Virgil ;  but  the  more  general  opinion  of 
sound  scholars  is,  that  the  work  is  rather  a  specimen 
of  learned  mediocrity  than  of  genuine  inspiration. 
The  editio  pnnceps  of  the  Arrjonautka  ajipeared  in 
1472.  Of  modem  editions,  may  be  mentioned  those 
of  Wagner  (Giitt.  180.5)  and  Lemaire  (Paris,  1824). 
An  English  metrical  translation  was  published  by 
one  Nicholas  Whj'te  as  early  as  loGo.  SimUax 
translations  exist  in  French,  Itahan,  and  German. 

FLACOURTIA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exo- 
genous plants,  allied  to  Passion-flowers,  consistin- 
of  shrubs  and  small  trees,  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  warmest  parts  of  the  globe.  Many  of 
the  species,  particularly  of  the  genus  Flacourtia, 
produce  pleasant,  sweet,  or  subacid  fruits.  Fla- 
courtia inemiis  is  much  esteemed  and  cidtivated 
in  the  Moluccas.  Arnotto  (q.  v.)  is  jiroduced  by  a 
tree  of  this  order. 

FLAG,  a  popiUar  name  for  many  endogenous 
plants  \^"ith  sword-shaped  leaves,  mostly  grooving  in 
moist  situations.  It  is  sometimes  particularly  appro- 
priated to  the  species  of  Iris  (q.  v.),  or  Flower- 
de-luce  ;  but  is  given  also  very  indiscriminatelj' 
to  other  plants  of  similar  foliage,  as  the  Acorus 
calamus  (see  Acorus),  which  is  called  Sweet  Flag. 

FLAG  (common  to  the  Teutonic  languages,  and 
derived  from  a  root  signifying  to  fly),  a  cloth  of 
li^ht  material,  capable  of  being  extended  by  the 
wind,  and  designed  to  make  known  some  fact  or 
■want  to  spectators.  In  the  army,  a  flag  is  the 
ensign  carried  as  its  distinguishing  mark  Ijy  each 
regiment ;  and  also  a  small  banner,  ■with  which  the 
ground  to  be  occupied  is  marked  out.  In  the  navy, 
the  flag  is  of  more  importance,  often  constituting 
the  only  means  vessels  have  of  communicating 
■with  each  other,  or  with  the  shore.  For  this 
purpose,  de'vices  of  conspicuous  colours  (usually 
black,  white,  red,  yellow,  or  blue)  are  hoisted  at 
the  mast-head  or  at  the  galT.  The  flags  having 
three  forms — viz. 


1,  the  Square  Flag ;  2,  the  Pennant ;  3,  the  Burgee. 

A  very  few  patterns  in  each  shape  give  sufficient 
combinations  of  three  or  four  flags  to  express  any 
letter  or  word  in  the  language.  The  flag  is  also  a 
sign  of  the  rank  of  the  principal  person  on  board  a 
vessel,  as  the  'Royal  Standard,'  containing  the 
arms  of  the  United  Kingdom,  which  is  only  hoisted 
when  a  member  of  the  royal  family  is  on  board; 
the  Anchor  of  Hope,  on  a  red  ground,  denoting 
the  Admiralty ;  the  pennant,  which  specifies  the 
admiral's  squadron  to  which  the  ship  belongs  (see 
Flag-officer)  ;  and  the  ensign,  which  denotes 
the  nation. 

The  ensigns  borne  by  ships-of-war  of  the  leading 


states  of  the  world  are  as  shewn  below  (in  these 
diagrams,  the  direction  of  the  lines  shews  the  colour, 
as  in  heraldry),  viz. : 


WHITE       BLAC  K  PCD 


UE        YELLOW      CRfEN 

— 1 


Flags  of  the  Principal  Maritime  Nations : 
1,  Hritain,  red  ensign ;  2,  Brit!,in,  while  ensipn ;  3,  Britain, 
blue  ensien;  4,  France;  5,  Russia;  6,  Prussia;  7,  Italy; 
8,  Helgium;  9.  Hulhind;  10,  Austria;  11,  United  States; 
12,  Spain;  13,  Portusal ;  14.  Greece;  15,  Turkey;  16,  Den- 
mark ;  17,  Brazil ;  IS,  Sweden. 

A  wliite  flag  is  accepted  throughout  the  world  as  a 
token  of  peace;  a  red  flag,  as  defiance;  and  a  black 
flag  denotes  a  pirate  ;  a  flag  of  plain  yellow  ustiaUy 
signifies  that  the  vessel  bearing  it  is  in  quarantine. 
See  also  Uniox  Jack. 

FLAG  OF  THE  PROPHET  (Sanjak-Sherif) 
is  the  sacred  banner  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was 
originally  of  a  white  colour,  and  was  composed  of 
the  turban  of  the  Koreish,  captured  liy  Mohammed. 
A  black  flag  was,  however,  soon  substituted  in  its 
place,  consisting  of  the  curtain  that  himg  before  the 
door  of  Ayeshah,  one  of  the  Pro]ihet's  wives.  This 
flag,  regarded  by  the  Mohammedans  as  their  most 
sacred  relic,  first  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
followers  of  Omar  at  Damascus ;  it  afterwards  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Abbasi ;  then  passed  into 
those  of  the  califs  of  Bagdad  and  Kaliira ;  and,  at  a 
later  period,  was  brought  into  Eurojie  by  Aniurath 
III.  It  was  covered  ■with  forty-two  inTappings  of 
sUk,  deposited  in  a  costlj'  casket,  and  preserved  in  a 
chapel  in  the  interior  of  the  seraglio,  where  it  is 
guarded   by  several  emirs,  with    constant   prayers. 

350 


FLAG-CAPTArN— FLAGEOLET- TONES. 


The  KinutT  iinloUUd  at  the  comniencoiiKnt  of  a 
war,  ami  likewise  carefully  prcserveil,  is  uot  the 
same,  although  it  is  believed  by  the  jwople  to  be  so. 
FLAG-CAPTAIN,  in  the  Navy,  is  the  cajitiun  of 
the  admiral's  bhip  in  any  squadron,  and  is  ordinarily 
his  Domiuec. 

FLAG-LIEUTE'NANT  is  an  officer  who,  in  the 
na\'T.',  perfiirnis  such  duties  for  an  admiral  as  would 
devolve  upon  an  aide-de-camp  in  the  army.  He 
communicates  the  admiral's  onlei-s  to  the  various 
ships,  either  ]x?rsonally  or  by  sij^aL  I 

FLAG-OFFICER,  in  the  British  Navy,  is  an  j 
admiral,  vice-admiral,  or  rear-admiral.  He  is  so 
called  from  his  rijj;ht  to  carry,  at  the  mast-head  of 
the  ship  in  which  he  sails,  a  "dag  denoting  his  rank. 
For  an  admiral,  the  flag  is  borne  at  the  main ;  for  a 
vice-admiral,  at  the  fore ;  and  for  a  rear-admiral, 
at  the  mizzen:  the  flag  being  formerly  rel,  white, 
or  blue,  according  to  the  squadron  to  which  the' 
officer  belonged.  I 

FLAG-SHIP,  the  ship  in  a  fleet  which  bears  the 
admiral's  flag,  and  therefore  forms  a  sort  of  centre 
to  which  .ill  other  vessels  must  look  for  orders.     It  [ 
is  usually  the  largest  vessel  in  the  fleet.  | 

FLA'GELLANTS,  the  name  given  to  certain 
bodies  of  fanaticU  enthusi;ists,  who,  at  various 
intervals  from  the  13th  to  the  IGth  c,  made  their  ' 
appearance  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe, 
proclaiming  the  wrath  of  God  agaiust  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  times,  inviting  sinnei's  to  atone  for  sin 
by  self-intticted  scourgings  or  flagellations,  and 
themselves  jiubliely  enforcing  this  e.vhortation  by 
voluntary  scoiu-gi  ng  of  themselves,  and  by  other 
forms  of  self-castigation.  In  large  and  ilisorderly  j 
bands — frequently  headed  by  priests,  and  by  fan- 
atics in  the  costume  of  priests  and  monks,  bear- 
ing banners  and  crucifixes  aloft,  their  breast  and  j 
shoulders  bare,  and  their  face  concealed  by  a  hood 
or  mask,  each  armed  with  a  hea%'y  knotted  scourge, 
loaded  with  lead  or  iron — they  marched  from  town 
to  town,  chanting  h3Tnns  full  of  denunciations  of 
vengeance  and  of  woe.  In  the  most  public  place  of  ■ 
each  town  which  they  entered,  they  threw  them- 
selves upon  the  earth,  with  their  arms  extended  , 
in  the  fonu  of  a  cross,  and  there  inflicted  ujnm  i 
themselves  the  discipline  of  scourging,  frequently 
to  blood,  and  even  to  mutilation.  Each  member  j 
enrolled  himself  for  33  days,  in  honour  of  the  33  ■ 
years  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  on  earth  ;  and  all 
for  the  time  professed  entire  poverty,  subsisting 
only  on  alms  or  voluntary  offerings.  These  fanatical  ! 
movements,  resembling,  in  some  respects,  at  least, 
the  religious  revivals  of  our  own  time,  recurred  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  most  remark.able,  how- 
ever, are  three  in  number.  The  first  originated  at 
Perugia  in  1260,  at  a  time  when  society  in  Italy 
was  greatly  disorganised  by  the  long  continued 
struggles  of  the  Cueljih  and  Ghibelline  factions. 
The  very  disorders  of  the  time  prepared  the  Wiiy 
for  this  religious  reaction.  Numbei-s  crowded  to 
follow  the  new  cry,  until  at  last  the  body  became 
so  formidable  as  to  draw  upon  itself  the  suspicions 
of  Manfred,  the  son  of  Frederic  II.,  by  whom  it 
W.1S  ■vigorously  suppressed.  Later  ofjfshoots  of  the 
party  made  their  appearance  in  Bavaria,  Austria, 
Sloravia,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  France  ;  when  to 
their  extravagant  practices,  they  added  still  greater 
extravagances  of  doctrine.  In  \-irtue  of  a  pre- 
tended revelation,  they  asserted  that  the  blood 
shed  in  self-flagellation  had  a  share  with  the  blood 
of  our  Lord  in  atoning  for  sin  ;  they  mutu.illy 
confessed  and  absolved  each  other,  and  declared 
their  voluntary  penances  to  be  a  substitute  for  all 
the  s-icraments  of  the  church,  and  for  all  the  minis- 
trations of  the  clergy.  The  jews  were  to  them  an 
360 


object  of  speci.ll  abhorrence;  and  this  unfortunate 
race,  exjKised  at  all  times  to  every  caprice  of  the 
po]>ular  will,  suffereil  dreadfidly  from  the  fury  o£ 
the  Fl.igellants  in  many  of  the  towns  of  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.     In  the  second  outbreak  of 
i  Flagellantism    about    1349,    the    outrages    against 
])ublic  decency  were  much  more  fl.igi-ant  than  at 
its  first  ajipearance.     Men  and  women  indiscrimi- 
nately  now   apjieared   in    public   half   naked,   and 
ostent;>tiously  underwent  these  self-inflicted  scourg- 
I  ings.     The  immediate  occasion  of  this  new  outluirst 
of  fanaticism,  w.is  the  terror  which  jiervaded  society 
[  during    the   ilreadful    jjl.igue    known    .is  the   Black 
Death,  which  Hecker,  in  his  Epiilcmics  vf  the  il iddU 
Ayes,  describes   with  terrible  fidelity.      The   same 
extravag.inces  were  again  repeated  in  Upper  Ger- 
many, the  prorinces  of  the  Rhino,  the  Netherlands, 
Switzerland,  Sweden,  and  even  England.     Although 
rigorously   excluded    from    France,   these    fanatics 
effected  an  entrance  into  AWgiion,   then  the  resi- 
dence of   the  popes,  wlicn   they   were   condemned 
by  a  bull  of  Clement  VI.     The   mania  gradually 
subsided,  nor  do  we  .again  find  any  permanent  trace 
of  it  till  the  beginning  of  the  next  century.     In  the 
year  1414,  a  new  troop  of  Flagellants,  locally  called 
Fiegler,  made   their   appearance   in  Thuringia   and 
Lower  Saxony,  renewing  and  even  exaggerating  the 
wildest  extravagances  of  their  predecessors.     These 
new    fanatics    appear    to    have    rejected    all    the 
received  religious   usages,  and  indeed  aU  external 
worship,  placing  their  entire  reUauce  on  faith  and 
'  flagellation.'      Their    leader    was    called    Conrad 
Schmidt.     They  rejected  not  only  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  upon  the  sacraments,  but  also  purga- 
tory and  prayers  for  the  dead.     Schmidt  pretended 
a  di^'ine  mission  ;  and  proclaimed  that  the  blood  of 
flagellation  was  the  true  wedding-garment  of  the 
gospel ;  th.it  it  was  more  precious  than  the  blood 
of    the  martjTs,   and    a    sure   passport  to   eternal 
life.      The   ^■iolcnce   of  these   fanatics   drew   upon 
them  the  severest  pimishments  of   the  Inquisition. 
Many    of    them    were    capitally    condemned,    and 
Schmidt   himself   was  burned   at   Sangerhausen   in 
1414.     Their  doctrines,  comprised   in  fifty  articles, 
were  condemned  in  the  Council  of  Constance. 

These  strange  extravagances  are  reprobated  by 
the  Koman  Catholic  Church  in  common  with  all 
other  Christian  communities  ;  but  Koman  Citholics 
(relying  on  1  Cor.  ix.  27,  Coloss.  iii.  5)  hold  the 
lawfidness,  and  even  the  meritorious  character, 
of  voluntary  self-chastisement,  if  imdertaken  with 
due  dispositions,  jiractised  without  ostentation  or 
fanaticism,  and  animated  by  a  lively  faith  and  a 
firm  hope  in  the  merits  of  Clu-ist.  This  is  the 
self-castigation  known  under  the  name  of  "the 
Discii)Une  ' — a  form  of  mortification  not  imfrequent 
in  the  monastic  state,  and  even  practised  by  lay 
persons,  and  these  sometimes  of  the  highest  rank, 
both  in  ancient  and  in  modem  times.  Compare 
Forstemann's  Die  Chrhtlkhen  Gehslergef^eVsclw I'l '  ti, 
Wadding's  Annales  Mlnorum  Fratrum,  Kajmakli's 
Continuation  of  Baron i us,  Mosheim's  Church  Iligtorii 
('So.imes'  ed.),  Gieselei''s  Kirchenfjeschichtf,  Milman's 
Latin  Christianity,  and  Wetsir's  Kirchen-Lexicon. 

FLA'GEOLET,  a  wind  instrument  with  a  mouth- 
piece like  the  common  whistle.  It  is  made  of  box- 
wood or  ivory,  in  several  pieces,  and  has  holes  for 
the  fingei"s,  like  the  flute.  According  to  Eurney, 
the  flageolet  was  invented  by  Sieur  Juvigny  in  15S0. 

FLAGEOLET-TONES  is  the  n.ime  given  to  the 
harmonic  notes  of  the  violin,  violoncello,  and  other 
stringed  instniments,  which  notes  are  produced  by 
the  finger  lightly  touching  the  string  on  the  exact  part 
which  generates  the  h.irmony,  and  not  by  pressing 
the  string  down  to  the  finger-board.      The   string 


FLAG  STONE— FLAME. 


vibrates  on  both  sides  of  the  finger,  the  long  side 
dividing  itself  into  parts  of  the  same  length  as  the 
short  side.  See  Hakmonics.  The  inventor  of  the 
manner  of  playing  flageolet-tones  is  said  to  have 
been  Domenico  Ferrari.  The  best  work  on  the 
subject  is  by  CoUinet. 

FLA'GSTONE,  a  rock  which  splits  into  tabular 
masses,  or  flags  of  various  size  and  thickness,  in  the 
original  plains  of  stratification.  Flagstones  are 
i^enerally  sandstones,  combined  with  more  or  less 
argillaceous  or  calcareous  matter ;  some,  however, 
are  indurated  clays,  and  others  thin-bedded  lime- 
stones. They  are  used  for  paving,  cisterns,  &c. 
The  most  famous  are  those  of  Festiniog  (North 
Wales),  remarkable  for  theii-  large  size,  even  grain, 
and  great  beauty  ;  those  of  Yorkshire,  also  of  large 
size,  and  of  great  hardness  and  toughness  ;  and 
those  of  Caithness,  which  are  extremely  tough  and 
durable.  The  Caithness  flags  belong  to  the  Old 
lied  Sandstone ;  the  Yorkshire  are  taken  from  the 
millstone  grit  division  of  the  Coal  Measures. 

FLA'MBOROUGH  HEAD  (Saxon,  Fleam- 
hiinili),  a  promontory  of  the  Yorkshire  coast,  and 
forming  the  northern  boundary  of  Bridlington 
Bay.  It  tenninates  a  range  of  white  perpen- 
dicular chalk  clitfs,  6  miles  long,  and  300  to  450 
feet  high.  Its  rugged  sides  contain  many  caverns, 
and  in  the  sea  near  are  picturesque  chalk  rocks, 
which  swarm  vnih  sea-birds.  The  chalk  contains 
fossil  sponges,  crinoids,  &c.  On  the  Head  is  a  light- 
house, 'l\-i  feet  high,  seen  19  miles  off,  and  in  lat. 
54°  7'  N.,  and  long.  0°  5'  E.  Across  the  peninsula, 
ending  in  the  Head,  nms  a  ditch,  with  two  lines  of 
defence  and  breast  works,  called  Dane's  Dyke,  but 
really  an  ancient  British  work. 

FLAMBOY'ANT,  the  latest  style  of  Gothic 
architecture  which  prevailed  in  France.  It  prevailed 
there  during  the  loth  and  part  of  the  IGth  cen- 
turies, and  corresponds  to  the  Perpendicular  (q.  v.) 
in  England.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  flame- 
like forms  of  tlie  tracery  of  the  'i^'indows,  panels, 
&c.   (fig.   1),     The  characteristics  of  this  style  are 


Fig.  1.— Window,  Harflcur. 

minute  and  elaborate  ornament,  combined  with 
general  bareness  of  surface.  The  crockets,  for 
instance,  are  generallj'  cut  into  a  great  numljer  of 
small  leaves,  whUe  they  are  placed  far  apart ;  the 
mouldings   are  divided   into   large   empty  hollows, 


and  small  thin  fillets  and  beads ;  the  finials  have 
crockets  minutely  carved,  set  upon  bare  pyra- 
midal terminals ;  the  arch-mouldings  are  divided 
into  a  great  numlier  of  small  parts,  and  want  the 
boldness  and  decision 
of  the  earlier  styles. 
These  moiddings  are 
frequently  abutted  on 
the  pillars,  or  conti- 
nued down  them  with- 
out any  caps  ;  and 
when  there  are  caps, 
they  are  small  and 
without  effect.  See 
fig.  2.  When  moidd- 
ings join,  they  are  fre- 
quently run  through 
one  another,  so  as  to 
appear  to  interlace. 
The  effect  is  intricate 
rather  than  beautiful, 
suggestive,  like  the 
rest  of  the  style,  of 
ingenuity  in  stone- 
cutting  rather  than 
art.  The  doorways 
and  windows  are 
sometimes  large  and 
fine  (as  in  fig.  1 ) ;  but  «hile  these  are  highly  enriched, 
the  general  surface  of  the  building  is  left  too 
plain.  There  are  many  large  buildings  in  France 
executed  in  this  style,  but  it  is  usually  portions 
only  which  are  fine,  not  tl.e  general  effect.  Some 
of  the  spires  of  this  period  are  also  very  beautiful. 
The  north  spire  of  Chartres  Cathedral,  for  example, 
is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  France. 

FLAME  is  a  particular  form  of  Combustion  (q.  v.) 
or  burning.  Ordinary  combustion  consists  in  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosjihere  combining  with  some 
combustible  substance  so  rapidly  as  to  give  out  light 
and  heat.  When  the  combustible  is  either  originally 
a  gas,  or  becomes  so  by  the  heat,  the  combustion 
takes  the  form  of  flame.  Flame,  then,  is  the 
biu'ning  of  a  gas.  In  most  cases,  the  gas  of  flame  is 
a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  with  minute 
particles  of  solid  carbon  suspended  in  it,  and  is 
formed  from  the  fuel  (coal,  tallow,  &c.)  being  decom- 
posed by  the  heat.  The  heat  and  light  of  flame 
vary  with  the  gas  :  hydrogen  produces  great  heat, 
but  little  light.  The  lighting  power  of  a  gas 
depends  upon  the  proportion  of  carbon  it  contains, 
the  particles  of  which  become  glowing  hot  before 
being  consumed. 

The  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle, 
or  simple  gas-jet,  consists  of  a 
hollow  cone,  in  the  centre  of 
which  there  is  no  combustion. 
The  central  space  appears 
dark  only  by  contrast  with  the 
liuninous  cone  which  surrounds 
it.  It  consists,  in  reality,  of 
transparent  invisible  compounds 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which 
are  constantly  rising  in  vapour 
from  the  wick.  If  a  glass  tube, 
open  at  both  ends,  be  held 
obliquely  in  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  with  its  lower  extremity 
in  the  dark  central  space  above 
the  wick,  it  will  conduct  away 
a  portion  of  the  combustible  vapour,  which  may  be 
kindled  like  a  gas-jet  at  its  upper  end,  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  1.  This  dark  jiortion  of  the  flame  may 
be  called  llie  area  of  no  comhusdon. 

The  luminous  cone  which  envelops  the  dark 
space  is  the  area  of  partial  conihustioii.     The  oxygen 

3lil 


Fig.L 


FLAMENS-FLAMINIAN  WAY. 


n,  arra  of  no  com- 
I'Ustion:   6, 


of  the  atmosphere  penetrates  to  this  depth,  ))ut  not 
in  siirticient  quantity  to  oxiiiisc  or  burn  l)oth  the 
larlnin  and  the  hydrogen  ;  it  therefore  unites  with 
the  hydrogen,  for  which  it  has  the  stronger  attr:ie- 
tiou,  and  leaves  the  carbon 
free.  The  outer  cone  is  named 
llie  arm  of  compltle  comhusliuii, 
because  there  the  carbon  meets 
with  sufficient  oxygen  to  biu-n  it 
entirely.  The  light  is  produced 
in  the  area  of  p.irtial  combustion, 
where  the  carbon  is  set  free  from 
the  hydrogen  in  the  form  of  solid 
p.irticles,  and  is  heated  to  white- 
ness by  the  combustion  of  the 
hvdrogen.  The  combustion  of 
the  carbon  in  the  outer  cone,  by 
which  it  is  converted  into  car- 
aru  of  bonic  acid  g-as,  produces  heat,  but 
partial  combustion;  go  little  light  as  to  be  barely 
<-,  area  of  complete  +  .  ui 
oombuslion.  tr.-iteaDie. 

That  carbon  exists  in  a  solid 
state  in  the  white  part  of  a  tlame,  is  readily  shewn 
by  hohling  a  piece  of  white  earthen-ware  into  it, 
\vhich  becomes  co,ited  ^^^th  carbon  in  the  form  of 
soot  No  soot  is  deposited  in  the  d.ark  or  no-com- 
bustion area  of  the  name,  because  there  the  carbon 
is  in  chemical  combination  with  hydrogen,  forming 
a  g.is.  The  carbon  becomes  soUd  only  when  the 
hydrogen  deserts  it,  as  it  were,  to  unite  with  oxygen. 
The  liighly  illuminating  power  of  compoiiutls  of 
hydrogen  and  carbon  is  thus  traced  to  the  fact,  that 
Oteir  lii/droije/t  and  carbon  do  not  burn  simultaneously, 
hut  gucce-isireli/,  and  in  such  a  uxiy  that  tlie  one  heats 
the  other  white  hut.  It  is  quite  possible  to  make  them 
burn  simultaneously ;  but  when  they  do,  the  light 
evolved  is  very  feeble.  This  takes  place  in  the 
'  Biinsen  burner,'  in  which  air  is  allowed  to  mix 
with  the  gas  before  combustion. 

FLA'MENS  were  priests  in  ancient  Rome  devoted 
e.ich  to  some  special  deity.  There  were  fifteen  in 
all.  The  chief  of  these  (Flamines  Majores)  were  the 
flamens  of  Jupiter,  of  Mars,  and  of  Quirinus,  who 
were  alw.iys  patricians  ;  the  remaining  twelve  (Fta- 
mines  Minores)  were  chosen  from  the  plebeians.  The 
iiamens  were  elected  at  first  by  the  Comitia  Curiuta, 
but  afterwards  by  the  Comitia  'Trihula,  and  were 
installed  into  their  office  by  the  supreme  dignitary 
of  the  Roman  pagan  religion,  the  Pontifex  Maximus. 
The  flamen  of  Jupiter  was  a  privileged  person  ;  he 
was  not  required  to  take  an  oath,  was  attended  by 
a  lictor,  his  house  was  an  asylum,  and  he  had  a  scat 
in  the  senate.  But  all  this  was  attended  by  numer- 
ous superstitious  restrictions :  he  might  not  have  a 
knot  on  any  part  of  his  attire,  nor  touch  Hour,  or 
leaven,  or  leavened  bread  ;  he  might  not  touch  or 
name  a  dog,  or  mount  a  horse,  or  be  a  night  out  of 
the  city,  &c.  His  wife,  caUed  Flamiiiica,  was 
subjected  to  similar  re.stiictions,  and  when  she  died, 
the  flamen  was  obUged  to  resign.  The  majority  of 
lloman  writers  attribute  the  institution  of  flamens 
to  Xuma. 

FLAMI'NGO  {PlioenicojUerus),  a  genus  of  birds 
which  until  recently  was  placed  by  all  naturalists 
among  the  Grallatores  (Waders),  but  is  now  gener- 
ally ranked  among  the  Palmipedes,  and  even  referred 
to  the  family  of  .'lH(7fi(/(f.  The  bill  is  large,  deeper 
than  broad,  and  suddenly  curved  downwards  near 
the  middle,  so  that,  as  the  bu-d  w.ade3  and  seeks  its 
foo<l,  either  in  the  water  or  in  the  mud,  it  makes 
use  of  the  bill  in  a  reversed  position,  the  upper 
mandible  being  lowest.  The  edges  of  both  man- 
dibles are  furnished  with  small  and  very  tine 
transverse  lamiiue,  which  serve,  like  those  in  the 
l)ill»  of  the  ordinary  Analidee,  to  prevent  the  escape 


of  tlie  small  crnstaceaiis,  molluscs,  worms,  small 
tishes,  seeds,  &e.,  which  are  the  F.'s  fooil,  and 
to  separate  them  from  the  mud  with  which  they 
may  be  mingled.  The  upjier  surface  of  the  tongue 
is  also  furnished  on  both  sides  and  at  the  base  with 
numerous  small  flexible  horny  sj>ines,  directed  back- 
warils.  Unlike  the  ordinary  ,l»ia^irfff,  flamingoes 
have  great  part  of  the  tibia,  as  well  as  the  tarsus, 
naked,  in  this  resembling  all  the  Waders.  Tlii-y  are 
birds  of  powerful 
wing,  and  fly  either 
in  strings  or  in 
wedge-shaped  flocks 
like  geese,  a  single 
bird  leading  the  way 
for  the  tiock.  They 
seldom  make  use  of 
their  webbed  feet  for 
swimming,  to  which 
the  length  of  their 
legs  is  not  well 
adapted,  the  use  of 
the  membrane  being 
rather  to  support 
them  on  soft  miidily 
bottoms.  When  feed- 
ing, they  keep  their 
feet  in  almost  con- 
stant motion,  as  if 
to  stir  the  mud.  Flamingo  (i^AffjnVopto'us  ru5cr). 
Hundreds  may  some- 
times be  seen  feeding  together  in  the  sh.allow 
waters  or  salt  marshes  of  tropical  coasts,  chiefly 
of  Asia  and  -Vfrica,  or  on  the  banks  of  rivers  or 
inland  lakes,  and  by  their  large  size  and  rich  coloiu-s 
making  a  brilliant  sjiectacle.  They  make  their 
nests  in  marshes,  scraping  together  a  heap  of  mud, 
on  the  top  of  which  is  the  nest;  and  it  is  said 
that  the  long  legs  of  the  female  F.  often  hang  down 
into  the  water  during  the  incubation,  not  beiu" 
easily  disposed  of  otherwise. — There  are  several 
species  of  F.,  but  very  simdar  to  each  other,  both  in 
appearance  and  habits.  One  species  only  visits  the 
south  of  Europe,  the  Common  F.  (P.  ruber),  a  bird 
measm-ing  fully  four  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  bill 
to  that  of  the  taU,  and  six  feet  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  claws ;  the  male,  when  in  fidl  phunage, 
is  of  a  rose-red  colour,  with  deep  purple  wings ; 
the  female,  and  the  young  for  several  years,  are  less 
brilliant,  the  young  at  first  being  whitish,  and  the 
red  first  appearing  on  the  wings. — The  American' 
F.  (P.  Americanus  or  Chilensis)  is  of  a  more  orange 
tint,  and  is  abundant  on  many  p.arts  both  of  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  America. 

FLAMI'JflAN  WAY  {Via  /Vuwinra),  the  great 
northern  road  of  ancient  Italy,  leading  from  Rome 
to  Ariminum  {Jlimini)  on  the  Adriatic.  It  was 
constructed  by  C.  Flaminius  during  his  censorship 
(220  E.  c),  and  was  designed  to  secure  a  free  com- 
mimication  with  the  recently  conquered  Gaulish 
territorj'.  The  F.  W.  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated and  most  frequented  roads  of  Italy  both 
during  the  period  of  the  Republic  and  of  the 
Empire.  Its  importance  may  be  estimated  from 
the  fact,  that  when  .Augustus  (27  B.  c.)  appointed 
persons  of  consular  dignity  road-siu'veyors  for  the 
other  highways  of  his  dominions,  he  reserved  the 
care  of  the  F.  W.  for  himself,  and  renewed  it 
throughout  its  whole  length.  Its  general  direction 
was  northerly.  Leaving  Rome,  it  kept  for  the  most 
part  at  no  great  distance  from  the  Tiber  till  it 
reached  Narnia  (Narni),  where  it  stnick  off  in  a 
north-e.asterly  direction,  passing  Interamna  ( Terni) 
and  Spoletium  (Spolcto),  and  reaching  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  at  Forum  Flamiuii.  Crossing  the 
central  ridge  of  the  Apennines,  at  Ad  Eusem  (La 


FLAMSTEED— FLANDERS. 


Sehieggia  ?),  it  again  proceeded  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, pursuing  mucli  the  same  line  of  route  as  the 
modern  road  from  Folis;no  to  Fano,  and  reached  the 
Adriatic  at  Fanum  Fortune  (Fano),  whence  it 
wound  along  the  coast  to  Ariminum  (Rimini),  where 
it  ended,  or  rather  where  the  name  ceased ;  for  the 
Via  ^miha  (see  Emilia  N  PROvnNCEs)  was  just  a 
continuation  of  it.  Tlie  wliole  length  of  the  ro.id 
from  Rome  to  Ariminum  was  (accordin"  to  the 
Jerusalem  Itinerary),  2'22  mUes,  and  according  to  the 
Antonine,  210  miles.  Remains  of  it  still  exist  at 
various  places,  and  assist  the  antiquary  in  tracing  its 
direction. 

FLAM.STEED,  John,  the  first  astronomer-royal 
of  England,  for  whose  use  the  Royal  Oljservatory 
at  Greenwich  (called  Flamsteed  House)  was  built, 
was  born  near  Dcrljy,  19th  August  164G,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  mathematical  and  astronomical 
pursuits.  While  yet  a  youth,  he  mastered  the  theory 
of  the  calciUation  of  eclipses ;  and  his  calcidations 
of  some  remarkable  eclipses  of  the  moon  were 
the  means  of  introducing  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
eminent  scientific  men  ot  his  time,  among  others  to 
Sir  Jonas  Moore,  then  Siu'veyor-general  of  the  Ord- 
nance, through  whom,  and  in  connection  with  whose 
department,  he  was  appointed  astronomer  to  the 
king  in  1675.  The  year  following,  the  Observatoi-y 
at  Greenwich  was  built,  and  F.  began  that  series  of 
observations  that  constitute  the  commencement  of 
modem  practical  astronomy.  He  formed  the  first 
trustworthy  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  fur- 
nished those  lunar  observations  on  which  Newton 
dejiended  for  the  verification  of  his  lunar  theory. 
Extracts  from  the  jiapers  of  F.,  found  in  the  Oljser- 
vatory  by  Mr  Francis  Baily,  and  jmblished  by 
authority  of  the  Admii-alty  in  1835,  brought  to  light 
a  very  shaqi  quarrel  that  had  taken  place  between 
F.  and  Newton  and  Halley  %\-ith  regard  to  the  publi- 
cation of  the  results  of  F.'s  labours.  The  Historia 
Caleatis  Britaimka,  his  great  work,  in  three  vols., 
giving  an  account  of  the  methods  and  results  of 
astronomical  observation  up  to  his  time,  was  begun 
to  be  printed  before  his  death  in  1719,  but  was  not 
published  tUl  1725.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  F., 
while  following  his  scientific  pursuits,  quaUfied 
himself  for  holy  orders,  and  in  1GS4  was  ]iresentcd  to 
the  living  of  Burslow,  in  Surrey,  which  he  held  till 
his  death. 

FLANCHES,  or  FLANQUES,  in  Heraldry,  are 
composed  of  arched  linos  drawn  from  the  ujiper 
angles  of  the  esoutaheon  to  the  base  points.  The 
arches  of  the  flanchcs  almost  meet  in  the  centre  of 
the  shield.  The  Flanchoa  are  an  ordinary  little  used 
in  Scotch  heraldry. 

FLANCONNADE,  a  thrust  in  Fencing  (q.  v.). 

FLA'NDER.S  was  formerly  the  name  of  an 
extensive  and  almost  independent  territory  ruled 
by  'counts,'  and  embracing,  besides  the  present 
Belgian  provinces  of  the  same  name,  the  southern 
portion  of  the  province  of  Zealand  in  Holland,  and 
some  of  the  de])artmcnts  in  the  north-east  of 
France.  Caisar  found  this  district  inhabited  by  the 
Morini,  the  Menaiiii,  and  the  Nervii,  and  having 
oonq\iered  these  tribes,  lie  annexed  the  country. 
Under  the  nde  of  the  Franks,  the  river  Scheldt, 
whicli  flowed  throuj^h  the  district,  formed  the  boun- 
dary line  between  Joeustria  and  Austrastia,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  northern  and  south-westei-n 
part  of  the  territory  comprised  under  the  term 
F.,  although  its  population  was  decidedly  Germanic, 
came  to  belong  to  France,  while  the  south-east, 
although  to  a  large  extent  non-Germanic,  was  after 
1007  included  in  the  German  Empire.  F.  obtained 
its  name  from  the  Vliiiidcrrjau  (parjus  Flandrends, 
the  district  around  Bruges  and  Sluis),  whose  counts 


had  been  made  wardens  of  the  north-eastern  coasts 
of   France   at  the  period  of  the  inclusions  of  the 
Normans,   in   the   latter   half   ot   the   9th   c,   and 
who  extended  the  name  of  their  hereditary  posses- 
sions to  the  whole  district  which  they  governed. 
The  first  count  or  markgraf  of  the  country  is  said 
to  have  been  Baldwin,  surnamed  Bras  de  Fer  (Iron- 
Arm),  who  married  Judith,  the  daughter  of  King 
Charles  the  Bald  of  France,  and  \vidow  of  Ethelwulf, 
king  of  England,  and  afterwards  received  the  newly 
created  '  mark '  or  county,  in  864,  as  a  hereditary 
fief  from  his  father-in-law.     He  extended  his  terri- 
tories by  the  addition  of   Artois,  which  was  held 
by  his  successors   until  PhiHjipe  Auguste  reunited 
it  to  France.     He  died  in  879,  but  not  until  he  had 
inaiigur.ated  the  industrial  greatness  of  F.  by  intro- 
ducing into  it  a  great  number  of  workmen  skilled 
in   the   manufacture   of   woollen   and   other  goods. 
Baldwin  IV.,  or  the  Bearded,  one  of  the  successors 
of  Baldwin  Bras  de  Fer,  received  in  fief  from  the 
Emperor  Henry  II.  the  bur_gra\'iate  ot  Ghent,  Wal- 
cheren.  and  the  islands  of  Zealand,  and  thus  became 
a  prince  of  the  German  empire.     He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Baldwin  V.,  or  the  Pious  (1036—1067), 
who   increased  his   possessions  by  the   addition  of 
the  German  territory  between  the  Scheldt  and  the 
Dender,  belonging  to  the  duchy  of  Lower  Lorraine. 
To  this  he  added  Tournaj',  the  sujiremaey  over  the 
bishopric  of  Cambray  (to  which,  till  the   erection 
of    the    new   bishopric    of    Arras,    the    county    of 
Flanders  had  been  ecclesiastically  subordinate),  and 
the  county  of  Hainault.     During  the  Middle  Ages, 
F.   figured   prominently  in   the   political   affairs   of 
Europe — tlie    counts    of    F.    being   more    powerfid 
and  wealthy  than  many  European  kings.     Baldwin 
IX.,  the  founder  of  the  Latin  kingdom  at  Constan- 
tinojile,  died  in  1206,  lea\nng  two  daughters,  one  of 
whom  dieil  mthmit  children  ;  the  other  bequeathed 
Hainault    to    John    of   Avenues,    her    sou   by   her 
first  marriage ;    and  F.  to  Guy  Dampierre,  her  son 
by  a  second  marriage.     Meanwliile,  the   industrial 
prosperity  of  the  cities  of  F.  had  become  so  great, 
that  the  citizens  began  to  feel  their  own  power,  and 
to  claim   independence.      They  formed   repubhcan 
communities  like  the  free  cities  of  Germany,  with 
this   difference,   that    they   admitted  the    nominal 
suzerainty  of  the  counts.     But  they  were  not  afraid 
to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  liberties  against 
their  nominal  masters.      Witness  the  insurrection 
headed  by  Jakob  van  Artevelde  (q.  v.)  against  the 
cruel  government  of  Count  Louis  I.    On  the  marriage 
of  Marguerite,  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  II., 
Coimt  of  Flanders,  to  Philip  the  Bold  of  Burgimdy, 
the  coimtry  was  united  to  the  Burguntlian  terri- 
tories in  1384,  and  afterwards  shared  the  fortunes 
of  that  duchy.      The  dukes  of  Burgundy  brought 
gi-eat  part  of  the  former  duchy  of  Lower  Lorrame 
under  their  dominion,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  subsequent  union  of  the  states  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  which   F.    continued   to   form   one   main 
component  part.     On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
these  territories  passed,  in  1477,  to   the   House  of 
Hapsbiu-g,  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Mary 
to  the  Archduke  MaximiUau.     After  Burgimdy  had 
passed  with   King  Philip  II.   to  the  Spanish   line 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  the  territoi-y  of  F.  was 
considerably  diminished,  as  not  only  was  the  portion 
called  Dutch  Flanders  transferred  to   the  Estates- 
general  by  the  jieace  of   Westphalia,  but,   in   the 
time   of   Loius   XIV.,  France  seized  upon   another 
portion  of  F.,  as  also  a  part  of  Hainault,  Cambray, 
and  Artois,  and  was  confirmed  in  her  jiossession  by 
the  peace  of  Ai.x-la-Chapelle,  of  Nimeguen,  and  of 
Utrecht.     By  the  last,  and  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
concluded  at  Rastadt,  the  remains  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  House 

3G3 


FLANDERS— FLATTERY. 


of  Austria.  In  1794,  F.,  like  tlic  other  ].rovinces  of 
B(l\;iuin,  was  incoriioratoil  with  the  French  Hepublie, 
and.ifterw.inls  with  the  Empire,  and  formed  the 
deiKirtments  of  Lys  and  Escaut ;  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  however,  confciTed  those  portions  on  the 
new  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  with  which  they 
remained  united  till  the  formation  of  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium  ((i-  v.).  The  Belgian  portion  of  F.  is 
now  divided  into  the  pro\-ince3  of  E.iat  and  West 
Flanders  (q.  v.).— Compare  Praet,  llUtoiie ties  ConUes 
tie  Flandrea,  el  tie  rOriijiiie  ties  Communes  Flamandes 
(Brussels,  1828) ;  Lc  Olay,  NiMoire  ties  Comtes  tie 
Flamlres  justju'd  I'Anni'inetU  ties  Duos  de  Bour- 
i/ogm  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1843);  Kervyn  van  Letteu- 
iioVen,  JJIstoire  de  Flandres  (6  vols.,  Brussels,  1847 
—1851),  &e. 

FLANDERS.  E.\ST,  a  province  in  the  north-west 
of  Belgium,  is  bounded  on  the  K.  by  the  produces 
of  Antwerj)  and  Brabant,  on  the  S.  by  that  of 
Hainault,  on  the  W.  by  that  of  West  Flanders,  and 
on  the  N.  by  the  Dutch  produce  of  Zealand.  It 
h;vs  an  area  "of  1140  s(|nare  miles,  and  a  popul.ition 
which  amoimtcd  in  1870  to  837,720,  or  about  700  a 
square  mile.  E.ist  F.  is  the  most  populous  province 
of  the  most  populous  country  in  Europe.  See 
Bkloicm.  It  is  watered  m.iinly  by  the  Scheldt, 
and  by  its  afUuents  the  Lys  and  the  Deader.  The 
surface  is  low  and  level.  The  soil  has  been  rendered 
extremely  fertile  by  means  of  spade  cultivation  and 
an  c.Kcellent  manuring  system.  Besides  the  ordi- 
nary varieties  of  grain,  potatoes,  Hax,  hemp,  and 
hops  are  produced  in  great  quantity.  The  district 
in  tlie  north-east  of  the  pro\'ince,  between  the  towns 
of  Antwerp  and  Ghent,  is  celebrated  as  a  flax- 
growing  quarter.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
lace,  damasks,  linens,  woollens,  bobbin-net,  silk, 
and  cordage  ;  sugar-refining,  bre^ving,  and  distilling 
are  also  carried  on.  Chief  towns,  Ghent,  ^Vlost,  and 
Dendermonde. 

FLANDERS,  West,  the  most  western  pro^-ince 
of  Belgium,  is  boumled  on  the  N.  by  the  North  Sea, 
and  on  the  W.  and  S.  by  France.  Its  area  is  1237 
square  miles,  and  its  pi>piilation  in  1870  amounted 
to  C0S,976.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Lys  and  the 
Iser;  but  it  is  watered  by  numerous  smaller 
■jtreamg,  and  is  intersected  by  many  important 
cin.ils.  Its  surface  is  flat,  with  sandy  hills  in 
the  south  and  along  the  coast ;  and  its  soil  sandy, 
but  well  cultivated  aud  productive.  It  has  fewer 
products  and  manufactiu'es  than  East  Flanders. 
Chief  towns,  Bruges,  Courtrai,  and  Osteud. 

FLANGE,  a  rim  or  projection  upon  a  tube  or 
cylinder  of  metal  or  other  material,  to  serve  as  a 
bearing,  or  afford  means  of  fixing  it ;  for  ex.ample, 
the  projecting  rim  on  the  tires  of  the  wheels  of 
railway -carriages  is  called  a  flange. 

FLANK  (the  side),  a  word  used  in  many  senses  in 
military  matters.  FUtnks  of  an  army  are  the  wings, 
or  bodies  of  men  on  the  right  and  left  extremities, 
prepared  to  close  in  upon  an  enemy  who  shall  attack 
the  centre.  Flank  Jiks  are  the  soldiers  marching  on 
the  extreme  right  and  left  of  a  company  or  any 
other  body  of  troops.  Flank  comptinij  is  the  com- 
pany on  the  right  or  left  when  a  battalion  is  in 
line  ;  the  grenailier  aud  light  infantry  companies 
usually  occupy  these  positions,  and  are  known  as 
ilank  companies,  whether  with  the  remainder  of  the 
regiment  or  not.  Kflankimj  party  is  a  body  of  horse 
or  foot  employed  in  hanging  upon  and  harassing  the 
flank  of  an  enemy's  force. — Flank,  as  applied  in  For- 
tification, will  be  best  described  under  that  article 
(q.  v.).  The  flanks  of  a  frontier  are  certain  s.alient 
points  in  a  n.ational  boundary,  strong  by  n.iture  and 
art,  and  ordinarily  projecting  somewhat  beyond  the 
genefiil  line.    The  effect  of  these  flanks  is  to  protect 


the  whole  frontier  against  an  enemy,  as  he  daro 
not  pcnctr.ate  between  them,  with  the  risk  of  their 
garrisons,  reinforced  from  their  own  territories, 
attacking  his  rear,  and  cutting  off  comnmnication 
between  him  aud  his  base.  Silistria  and  Widin 
were  flanks  of  the  Turkish  frontier  during  Omar 
rash.a's  campaign  in  18.53  and  1854.  SimUarly, 
in  the  event  of  an  invasion  of  England  from  tlie 
co.ist  of  Sussex  or  Kent,  Portsmouth  and  Chath.im 
would  be  formidable  flanking  garrisons,  which 
would  .ihuost  necessarily  have  to  be  subdued  before 
the  invader  could  march  on  London. 

I  In  evolutions,  '  to  flank '  is  to  take  such  a  posi- 
tion with  troops  as  cither  to  aid  one's  own  .army  in 
an  att.ack  on  the  enemy,  by  leading  the  latter  to 
suppose  that  his  flanks  are  in  danger  in  his  present 
position,  or  to  prevent  him  from  advancing  on  one's 
comrades  by  threatening  his  flanks  if  he  should  do 
so.  To  outflank  is  to  succeed  by  manccuvres  in  com- 
manding the  flank  of  an  enemy  who  has  been,  on  his 
part,  endeavouring  to  flank  one's  own  force. 

I  FLANNEL  (Welsh,  t/wlanen,  from  pwlan,  wool, 
allied  to  Lat.  lana),  a  woollen  f.abric,  tbffering  from 
broadcloth  and  most  other  woollen  fabrics  in  being 
woven  of  yarn  more  loosely  twisted,  and  having  less 
dressing.  The  best  flannel  is  made  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Welshpool  and  Newtown,  in  Wales, 
from  the  w'ool  of  the  Welsh  mountain-sheep,  and 
is  commercially  known  .as  Welsh  flannel.  Large 
quantities  ,are  also  made  in  West  Lancasliire,  West 
Yorkshire,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Leeds.  A 
more  closely  spun  and  woven  flannel,  used  for 
cricketing  and  rowing  shirts,  &c.,  and  dyed  and 
printed  with  various  colours  and  patterns,  is  made 
in  the  west  of  England  cloth-making  district,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire.  Fine  light 
flannel  of  this  kind  is  m.ade  in  France  and  Belgium ; 
some  of  this  is  twilled,  and  approaches  nearly  in 

!  quality  to  French  merinoes,  but  is  much  softer. 
The  demand  for  this  sort  of  fancy-shirting  flannel 
has  of  late  become  considerable,  and  has  led  to  the 
production  of  many  varieties,  which,  though  bearing 
the  name  of  flannel,  vary  so  materially  from  the 
original  Welsh  flannel,  that  they  can  scarcely  be 
included  with  them   under  any  gener.al  definition. 

,  Co.arse  flannel,  called  Galways,  is  made  in  IreLand, 
and  is  chiefly  used  by  the  peasantry  of  the  country. 

FLAT,  a  musical  character,  shaped  thus  b,  which, 
when  placed  before  a  note,  lowers  that  note  half  a 
tone.  When  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece  of 
music,  it  denotes  that  aU  the  notes  on  the  line  or 
space  on  which  it  is  placed,  with  their  octaves  above 
and  below,  are  to  be  phayed  flat. 

FLAT-FISH,  a  popidar  name  of  the  fishes  of  the 
family  Plenj-onectidtt  (q.  v.),  as  the  flounder,  jdaice, 
sole,  turbot,  halibut,  <tc. ;  which  have  the  body 
much  compressed,  and  the  sides  unsymmetric.al, 
swimming  on  one  side.  It  is  sometimes  extended  in 
its  signification  so  as  to  include  skates  and  other 
fishes  of  the  Ray  (q.  v.)  family,  which  are  very 
dift'erent,  being  cartil.agiuous  lishes,  quite  symme- 
trical, and  swimming  on  the  lielly,  although,  like 

j  the  Pleuroneclldte,  generally  keeping  close  to  the 
bottom.    It  is  never  applied  to  the  much  compressed 

I  symmetrical  fishes,  such  as  the  dory,  which  swim 
in  the  ordinary  posture  of  lishes,  the  dorsal  edge 
upwards,  the  ventral  downwards. 

]      FLATTERY,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Washington 

j  territory,  on  the  Pacific  co.ast  of  the  United  States, 

1  marks  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  of  the  Str.ait 
of  Juan  de  Fuca.  It  is  in  lat.  48°  24'  N.,  and  in 
long.  124°  40'  W. — Another  headland  of  the  same 
name  is  found  on  the  east  coast  of  .\ustralia,  in  lat. 

I  14°  52'  S.,  and  long.  145°  20'  E.     It  is  about  30  miles 

I  to  the  north  of  Endeavour  Bay. 


FLATULENCE— FLAX. 


FLA'TULENCE,  distention  o£  the  stomach  or 
bowels  by  the  gases  foi-med  during  digestion.  See 
Indigestion. 

FLAVINE,  or  FLAVIX,  is  a  yellow  colouring 
matter  emjiloyed  in  dyeing,  and  imported  ill  the 
condition  of  extract.  It  is  undcrstond  to  lie  the 
colouring  matter  of  bark  (quercitron  bark),  and  is 
used  in  place  of  quercitron  bark.  When  treated 
with  hot  water,  flaWne  jnelds  a  yellow  tm-bid  solu- 
tion, which,  on  settling,  deposits  a  yellow-brown 
powder.  When  employed  in  dyeing,  the  cloth  is  first 
treated  with  an  aluminous  mordant  (see  C'.\i.ico- 
PEINTING)  ;  and  on  subsequent  immersion  in  the 
solution  of  flavine,  a  tine  yellow  colour  is  fixed  on 
the  cloth.  The  colouring  power  of  the  extract 
llavine  as  imported  is  so  great  that  one  ounce  is 
equal  in  dyeing  qualities  to  one  iiound  of  quercitron 
bark. 

FLAX  {Linnm),  a  genus  of  jilants  comprising  the 
greater  part  of  the  natural  order  Linacem ;  an 
exogenous  order  allied  to  Geraniacem  and  Oxalidca;, 
and  consisting  of  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
plants,  with  a  few  small  shrubs.  There  are  about 
ninety  known  sjiecies  of  this  order  scattered  over 
the  globe,  but  most  abundant  in  Europe  and  the 
north  of  Africa.  Their  leaves  are  simple,  entire, 
without  stipules,  and  generally  .alternate.  The 
Common   Flax  or  Lint  (L.   jisilatisnimum)    is  an 


Common  Flax  [Linnm  nsitatUsimum). 

annual ;  a  native  of  Egj^rt,  of  some  parts  of  Asi.a, 
anil  of  the  south  of  Europe,  not  truly  indigenous  in 
Britain,  although  now  naturalised,  and  often  occur- 
ring in  cornfields,  which  is  the  case  also  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  The  most  common  variety  of 
the  flax  plant  has  a  very  slender  erect  stem,  two  or 
three  feet  high,  branching  only  near  the  top,  so  as 
to  fonn  a  loose  corymb  of  flowers.  The  leaves  are 
small,  distant,  and  lanceolate ;  the  flowers  of  a 
beautiful  blue,  rarely  white,  rather  broader  than  a 
sixjicnce ;  the  ]ietals  slightly  notched  along  the 
margin  ;  the  sepals  ovate,  3-iierved,  ciliated,  desti- 
tute of  glands  ;  the  capsules  scarcely  longer  than 
the  calyx,  not  bursting  open  elastically,  but  liimly 
retaining  their  seeds,  which  are  dark  brown,  glossy, 
oval-oiilong,  flattened,  with  acute  edges,  pointed  at 
one  end,  and  about  a  line  in  length.  Another  variety, 
however,  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  many 
jiarts  of  Eurojie,  so  dilTerent,  that  some  botanists 
account  it  a  diistinct  s]iecies  (L.  humile  or  L.  crepi- 
tans), which  is  less  tall,  is  more  inclined  to  branch, 
and  is  particularly  distinguished  by  its  capsules, 
twice   as   long    as    the    calyx,    and  bursting   open 


elastically  when  rijie.  The  seeds  are  also  larger 
and  paler.  This  variety  is  called  Sprinijkin  and 
Klcni'j/eiii  by  the  Germans,  the  one  name  referring 
to  the  elastic  biusting  of  the  capsules,  the  other  to 
the  sound  which  accompanies  it.  The  former 
variety  is  known  to  them  as  Winferh-in,  being  often 
sown  in  the  end  of  autumn  in  elevated  districts  where 
the  summer  is  too  short  for  spring-sown  flax,  and 
also  as  Schliexzlein  and  Uresrldein,  from  its  close 
cajisules  and  the  thrashing  needed  to  separate  the 
seed.  The  Sprbujlein  produces  a  finer,  wliiter,  and 
softer  fibre  than  the  other,  but  shorter,  and  it  is 
therefore  not  so  extensively  cultivated.  There  are 
many  sub-varieties,  to  which  and  their  different 
qualities  no  such  attention  lias  been  paid,  in  Britain 
at  le.ast,  as  to  those  of  other  important  cultivated 
plants. 

This  plant  is  highly  valuable  both  for  the  fibres 
fif  its  inner  bark  and  for  its  seeds.  The  fibres  of 
the  inner  liark,  when  separated  both  from  the  bark 
and  from  the  inner  woody  jiortion  of  the  stem,  are 
Flax  or  Lint,  the  well-known  material  of  which 
Linen  thread  and  cloth  are  made,  and  used  equally 
for  the  finest  and  for  the  coarsest  fabrics,  for  the 
most  delicate  cambric  or  exquisite  lace,  and  for  the 
strongest  sail-cloth.  The  seeds  yield  by  expression 
the  dnjhiij  fixed  oil  called  Linseed  Oil,  so  much 
used  for  mixing  paints,  making  varnishes,  &c. ; 
whilst  the  remaining  crushed  mass  is  the  Linseed 
Cake,  or  OiL-CAKE,  gi-eatly  esteemed  for  feeding 
cattle,  and  when  ground  to  a  fine  jiowder,  becomes 
the  LiN.SEED  Meal  so  useful  for  ])oidtices.  Linseed 
is  sometimes  used  in  medicine,  as  an  emollient  and 
demidcent  in  irritations  of  the  pidnionary  and  of 
the  ui-inary  organs,  and  of  the  mucous  membranes 
generally,  derinng  its  value  for  this  puqiose  from 
a  mucilage  which  it  contains,  and  which  is  extracted 
by  hot  water,  making  linseed  tea.  The  fibre  of 
flax  is  the  ultimate  material  from  which  pajier  is 
made,  and  linseed  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
]iiTnters'  ink.  No  plant  not  yielding  food  is  more 
useful  to  man  than  the  flax  plant. 

It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  historic 
times.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Exodus  as 
one  of  the  jiroductions  of  Egyjit  in  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs ;  and  it  has  been  recently  ascertained  by 
microscopic  examination,  that  the  cloth  in  wliich 
the  mummies  of  Egypt  are  enveloped  is  linen. 
.Solomon  purchased  linen  yarn  in  Egj-^it.  Herodotus 
speaks  of  the  great  flax  trade  of  Egypt.  Great 
quantities  of  fla.x  are  grown  in  that  country  at  the 
jiresent  day  ;  its  cultivation  is  also  veiy  extensively 
carried  on  in  some  parts  of  Europe  and  of  North 
America.  The  jiroportion  of  flax  to  other  crops  in 
Britain  is  probably  smaller  at  present  than  it  was 
at  a  former  period,  but  an  increase  of  its  cultivation 
has  been  strongly  recommended  by  persons  whose 
opinion  is  entitled  to  great  regard,  and  particularly 
in  Ireland,  where,  however,  it  is  more  extensively 
cultivated  than  either  in  England  or  Scotland.  It 
has  the  advantage  of  gi\'ing  employment  not  only 
to  an  agricultural  but  to  a  manufacturing  popiJa- 
tion.  Flax  is  more  extensively  and  more  success- 
fully cultivated  in  Belgium  than  in  any  other 
Eiu'opean  country,  particularly  in  .Southern  BraViant, 
Haiuault,  and  West  and  East  Flanders,  in  which 
the  most  beautiful  flax  in  Europe  is  produced, 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  the  famous 
Brussels  lace,  and  sold  for  this  jiurpose  at  about 
i.'100  to  £180  per  ton,  the  crop  when  prepared  for 
the  market  sometimes  exceeding  in  value  the  land 
on  which  it  was  produced.  The  vill.age  of  Eebeque 
is  distinguished  for  the  production  of  this  precious 
Ha.x.  The  greatest  care  is  bestowed  on  its  culti- 
v.ation,  and  to  this  its  excellence  is  probably  in  a 
great  measiue  to  be  ascribed.     Not  a  weed  is  to  be 

36S 


FLAX— FLAX-DKESSING. 


seen,  and  the  care  and  Inboiir  are  equal  to  those 
of  ganlening.  Flax  is  extensively  crown  in  the 
couutricd  on  the  southern  shores  of  tlie  Baltic,  and 
lx)th  the  fibre  and  seed  are  largely  imported  from 
them  into  Britain.  Besides  the  ilax  raised  at  home, 
the  I'uitod  Kingdom  inii>orted  in  1S72  above  10,G'2-t 
tons,  dressed  .ind  undressed. 

Flax  has  been  ciUtivated  from  time  immemori.il, 
as  a  winter  crop,  in  India,  but  only  for  its  seed,  and 
not  at  all  for  its  libre.  Tliis  remarkable  circumstance 
is  supposed  by  Dr  Koyle  to  be  owin;,'  to  the  exist- 
ence of  the  cotton  plant  in  th.at  country,  the  tiljre 
of  which  more  rcaoily  oflers  itself  to  view  on  the 
bursting  of  the  pod.  But  Dr  Itoyle  also  states  his 
opinion,  that  the  climate  of  the  greater  part  of 
India  is  unsuitable  for  the  jiroduction  of  the  fibre 
of  flax;  .and  the  variety  cultivated  in  India  is  oidy 
about  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  in  height,  much 
branched,  and  j-iekling  a  very  worthless  fibre, 
whilst  it  is  loaded  with  capsules,  and  the  seeds 
j-ield  a  Larger  i>roportion  of  oil  than  those  of  H.ax 
grown  in  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  sown  as  .an 
edging  around  fields. 

iluch  depends  on  the  thickness  of  sowing.  Flax 
must  be  sown  thick  to  yield  a  fine  fibre  ;  but  when 
intended  to  produce  a  fibre  for  ccorser  purposes,  the 
plants  ought  to  li.ave  more  room.  For  the  finest 
fibre,  also,  the}-  must  be  pulled  before  the  seed  is 
ripe ;  but  a  coarser  fibre  and  a  crop  of  linseed  are 
often  much  to  be  preferred  by  the  farmer.  The 
crop  is  always  pulled  up  by  the  roots. 

The  diminished  cultivation  of  flax  in  Britain, 
after  agriculture  began  to  improve,  is  to  be  ascribed 
in  part  to  the  prevalence  of  the  opinion,  that  it  is  a 
very  exhausting  crop  for  the  land.  This  has  been 
said  to  be  p.articidarly  the  case  when  the  seed  is 
ripened.  But  the  introduction  of  new  manures  has 
rendered  this  objection  less  important  than  it 
formerly  was ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  refuse 
of  flax  itself  is  not  a  bad  manure,  and  that  the 
water  in  which  it  has  been  steeped  is  a  good  liquid 
maniu-e.  The  water  of  ILax-steeping  pits  or  ponds 
is  often  strong  enough  to  kiU  the  fish  of  rivers  into 
which  it  is  allowed  to  flow. 

The  capsiUes  (bolls)  of  flax  are  torn  ofi',  after  it  is 
pulled,  by  a  sort  of  combing  called  rippling  (see 
Flax-dressing).  Great  care  is  requisite  to  dry 
them,  and  to  keep  them  perfectly  dry.  For  the 
subsequent  processes,  see  Linseed. 

Besides  the  common  fla.x,  several  other  species  are 
occasionally  cidtivated  for  their  fibre,  but  are  com- 
paratively of  very  little  value. 

The  LincKae  are,  in  general,  plants  of  elegant 
appearance  and  with  flowers  of  nuich  beauty; 
some  of  them  have  flowers  larger  than  common 
flax,  and  some  are  not  unfreqiient  ornaments  of 
our  green-houses.  liadiola  miUegmna,  All-seed, 
is  one  of  the  smallest  of  British  phanerogamous 
plants. 

PuEGiNG  Flax  {Linnm  catharticum)  is  a  graceful 
little  annual  with  branching  stem,  opposite  leaves, 
and  sm:ill  white  flowers,  common  in  fields  and 
meadows  thi'oughout  Britain  and  most  parts  of 
Europe.  It  possesses  ])urgative  and  diuretic  pro- 
perties, owing  to  the  presence  of  a  substance  which 
has  been  called  linitu  As  a  domestic  medicine,  a 
handful  of  the  fresh  herb  is  often  administered, 
infused  in  whey ;  aud  it  has  a  popular  reputation  in 
rheumatism. 

FLAX,  New  Zealand,  a  v.alu.able  fibre  quite 
difierent  from  common  flax,  and  oljtained  from  the 
leaf  of  an  endogenous,  instead  of  t)ie  stem  of  an 
exogenous  plant.  The  ]ilaut  yieliling  it  is  P/iormium 
ienaXy  often  called  New  Zealand  Flax,  and  sometimes 
Flax  Lily  and  Flax  Bush.  It  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Liliaceae,  and  is  a  pereuni.al  plant,  a  native 
366 


of  New  Zeahand  and  Norfolk  Island;  its  leaves 
resemble  those  of  an  Iris,  .are  from  two  to  six  feet 
long  and  one  to  two  or  three  inches  broad.  The 
flowers  .aie  produced  in  a  tall  branched  panicle  ; 
are  numerous,  brownish  yellow,  not  very  beautiful  ; 
the  fruit  is  a  three-cornered  capsule  with  numerous 
compressed  jet-black  seeds.  The  libre  of  the  leaves 
is  both  very  fine  and  very  strong,  and  was  used 
by  the  New  Zealanders,  before  their  country  was 
illscovercd  by  Europeans,  for  making  dresses,  ropes, 
twine,    mats,   cloth,   &c.       New   Zealand   Flax  is 


New  Zealand  Flax  (Phormium  toiax), 

imported  into  Britain  for  makiug  twine  and  ropes ; 
and  the  plant  is  cultivated  iu  its  native  country. 
Its  cidtivatiou  has  .also  been  attempted  iu  some 
parts  of  Europe ;  but  the  winters  of  Europe, 
except  in  the  south,  are  too  cold  for  it.  To 
obtain  the  fibre,  the  leaves  .are  cut  when  they  have 
attained  their  fidl  size,  and  usually  m.acerated 
for  a  few  days  iu  w,ater.  But  the  New  Zealanders 
procure  the  fibre  in  its  gi-eatest  jjerfectiou,  very 
long  and  slender,  shining  like  silk,  by  a  more 
laborious  process,  and  without  maceration,  remov- 
ing the  epidermis  from  the  leaf  when  newly  cut, 
separating  the  fibres  by  the  thimib-nails,  and  then 
more  perfectly  b}'  a  comb. 

The  roots  are  purgative,  diuretic,  sudorific,  and 
expectorant ;  a  good  substitute  for  s.arsaparilla. — 
The  leaves,  when  cut  near  the  root,  exude  a  viscid 
jiuce,  wliich  becomes  an  edible  gum. — The  New 
Ze<alanders  prepare  a  sweet  beverage  from  the 
flower.s. 

FLAX-DRESSING.  When  the  seeds  are 
beginning  to  change  from  a  green  to  a  pale 
brown,  is  the  best  time  for  pidling  flax.  Where 
the  crop  grows  of  difierent  lengths,  these  lengths 
should  be  pulled  and  kept  separ.ately,  uniformity 
in  this  respect  being  of  great  value  in  the  after- 
processes. 

The  process  first  gone  through  after  pulling  is 
rippling — which  consists  in  tearing  off  the  bolls  by 


ILAX-DRESSEsG— FLAXJIAN. 


piiUing  the  stalks  through  a  series  of  iron  teeth  18 
inches  long,  placed  within  a  distance  of  half  an 
inch  of  each  other.  These  are  fastened  in  a  block 
of  wood,  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  plank  or 
long  stool  on  which  the  operator  sits. 

The  next  process  is  to  obtain  the  flaxen  fibre  or 
lint  free  from  the  woody  core,  or  huott,  of  the  stem. 
Tills  is  effected  by  steeping  the  bundles  in  water 
till  the  boon  begins  to  rot,  in  which  state  it  is 
readily  separated  from  the  fibre.  The  operation  is 
c.iUed  rotting  or  reUinrj,  and  requires  to  be  managed 
with  great  care,  as  by  continuing  it  too  long,  decom- 
position might  extend  to  the  fibre,  and  render  it 
useless ;  while  by  discontiniung  it  too  soon,  the 
separation  could  not  be  effected  with  sufficient  ease. 
The  time  is  generally  determined  by  the  nature 
and  temperature  of  the  water,  and  the  ripeness  of 
the  flax — decomposition  taking  jjlace  more  rapidly 
in  soft  stagnant  water  than  in  running  streams,  in 
which  the  retting  is  sometimes  conducted.  After 
being  sufficiently  steeped,  the  flax  is  spread  out  on 
the  grass,  to  rectify  any  defect  in  the  retting,  and 
nltimatel}"  to  dry  it  for  the  breaking.  In  some 
districts,  it  is  the  practice  to  conduct  the  rotting 
entu'ely  on  the  grass — a  jirocess  known  as  dew- 
retting,  in  contradistinction  to  water-retting.  This 
is  a  safer  and  less  offensive  method,  but  it  reqiures 
much  longer  time,  and  in  a  country  where  land  is 
valuable,  woiUd  become  very  expensive.  On  the 
whole,  the  mixed  method  of  retting  is  preferable — 
that  is,  to  steep  tdl  decomposition  of  the  boon  is 
well  advanced,  and  then  to  complete  the  process  on 
the  grass.  It  has  been  attempted  to  separ.ate  the 
fibre  by  machinery,  without  subjecting  the  flax  to 
retting  ;  but  the  article  so  produced  has  hitherto 
been  rejected  as  inferior  in  quality. 

To  avoid  the  delays  ancl  imcertainty  dependent 
upon  the  old  processes  of  retting  or  watering,  plans 
have  been  recently  introduced,  bringing  the  opera- 
tion more  under  control,  like  the  other  processes  of 
our  manufaehires.  The  methods  which  have  been 
adopted,  and  are  now  working  with  success,  are 
known  as  Schcuk's  and  Watt's.  By  the  first  of 
these,  the  flax  is  placed  in  vats,  in  which  it  is 
kept  down  by  means  of  strong  framework.  Water 
is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  vats,  to  become  absorbed 
by  the  fiax ;  steam  is  next  admitted,  till  the  tem- 
peratiu'e  of  the  water  is  raised  to,  and  maintained 
at,  about  90°.  Acetous  fermentation  ensues  in  a 
few  hours ;  and  after  being  maintained  for  about 
sixty  liours,  the  decomposition  of  the  giunmy  or 
resinous  matter  in  the  stalk  is  completed.  The 
mucilage  water  is  next  withdrawn  from  the  vat,  and 
the  flax  taken  out,  separated  and  dried  either  in 
the  open  air  or  in  desiccating  rooms,  according  to 
circumstances.  In  Watt's  process,  the  flax  is  placed 
in  a  chamber  provided  with  a  perforated  false 
bottom ;  the  top  is  double,  and  filled  with  water  to  act 
as  a  condenser.  Steam  being  admitted  to  the  case, 
the  first  result  is  the  freeing  of  the  flax  from  certain 
volatile  oils.  The  steam  rising  to  the  top  of  the 
chamber  is  condensed  by  contact  with  it,  and  falls 
in  showers  on  the  flax  beneath — a  decoction  of  the 
extracted  matter  is  thus  obtained.  In  36  hours, 
the  process  is  completed ;  and  the  flax  taken  out,  is 
passed  between  rollers  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
which  i)resse3  out  the  water  and  decomposed  gum, 
and  splits  and  flattens  the  straw.  By  this  process, 
all  that  the  plant  takes  from  the  land  is  saved — the 
seeds  being  available  as  food  for  animals,  and  the 
chaff'  and  refuse  water  as  manure. 

Prepared  by  either  of  the  plans,  the  flax  is  now 
ready  to  be  freed  completely  of  its  woody  particles. 
This  is  effected  by  scutchhtij.  Previous  to  this, 
however,  the  flax  is  passed  through  a  brake  or 
rcvohTng  rollers,  in  order  thoroughly  to  crack  the 


boon.  The  brake,  worked  by  manual  labour, 
consists  of  a  frame,  in  the  upper  side  of  which  are  a 
number  of  grooves ;  a  movable  piece  is  hinged  at 
one  end,  and  provided  with  a  similar  grooved  piece 
on  its  lower  side,  but  so  jjlaced  that  the  projec- 
tions pass  into  the  hollows  of  the  lower.  The  flax, 
placed  between  these,  and  struck  by  bringing  down 
the  hinged  part,  is  broken,  but  the  fibre  remains 
miiujured. 

In  the  flax-breaking  machine,  the  flax  is  passed 
through  a  series  of  horizontal  fluted  rollers ;  the  flutes 
do  not  touch,  thus  preserving  the  fibre  whUe  break- 
ing the  boon.  In  continental  countries,  scutching 
is  almost  invariably  performed  by  hand,  the  flax 
being  held  in  a  groove  made  in  an  U])right  stand, 
and  struck  by  a  flat  blade,  ilachiue-scutching  is 
much  more  certain  and  expeditious  than  hand- 
scutching,  and  is,  in  consequence,  fast  superseding 
it  in  this  coimtn^.  After  passing  through  the 
breaking-machine,  the  flax  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  a  series  of  knives,  attached  to  the  arms  of  a 
vertical  wheel ;  these  knives  strike  the  flax  in  the 
direction  of  its  length.  The  process  is  gone  through 
tliree  times  before  the  fiax  is  ready  for  the  market. 
Although  machine-scutching  is  expeditious,  it  is 
not  capable  of  that  pUaut  adaptation  to  the  varying 
nature  of  the  flax  to  be  operated  upon,  which  is 
obtained  in  hand-scutching.  The  effect  of  machine- 
scutchmg  is  to  produce  fineness  by  reducing  and 
impairing,  rather  than  sustaining,  the  character 
of  the  fibre — namely,  the  length  and  fineness  of  its 
'  staple '  or  fibre.  To  remedy  these  defects,  scutching 
by  means  of  revolving  brushes  has  been  introduced. 
This  divides  the  fibre  without  tearing  it.  The  sub- 
sequent manufacturing  operations  will  be  noticed 
imder  Linen  JLvnufacture. 

FLAXMAN,  John,  the  greatest  of  Enghsh  sculp- 
tors, was  bom  at  York,  0th  July  1755.  At  the  age 
of  15,  he  became  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
but  never  worked  in  the  studio  of  any  master.  La 
1782,  he  married  Miss  Ann  Denman,  a  lady  of  supe- 
rior gifts  and  graces,  who  soon  began  to  exercise  a 
beneficial  influence  upon  his  studies.  Accompanied 
by  her,  he  went  in  17S7  to  Italy,  where,  by  degrees, 
he  attracted  the  attention  of  all  lovers  of  art.  This 
was  stUl  more  the  case  after  his  return  to  London 
in  1794.  He  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1797  ;  Royal  Academician  in  ISOO;  and, 
in  1810,  was  appointed  Professor  of  SeiUpture  to  that 
institution.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1820,  he 
withilrew  from  society,  and  died  7th  December  1826. 
F.'s  most  celebrated  works  are  his  '  Outlines  to 
Homer's  Odyssey'  (Rome,  1793),  and  'The  Iliad' 
(Lond.  1795),  and  his  illustrations  of  Dante  and 
^schylus.  Many  of  his  works  display  wonderful 
grandeur  of  composition,  and  a  pure  and  noble 
style.  He  was  one  of  the  first  of  those  who, 
following  the  example  of  Winckelmann,  strove  to 
penetrate  to  the  true  spii'it  of  antique  art,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  false  taste  of  the  time.  The  study  of 
vase-paintings,  and  of  the  Pompeian  mural  pictures, 
then  just  reWved,  led  him  to  abandon  the  sickly 
mannerism  of  his  predecessors  for  the  severe 
simplicity  of  the  antique,  and  he  may  with  justice 
be  styled  the  author  of  modem  rilievo  (see  Alto- 
liiLiEvo).  His  works  are  not,  however,  all  of  equal 
value,  and,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  his  skill 
in  modelling  was  not  equal  to  his  inventive  genius. 
The  jioetry  of  his  conceptions  is  of  a  high  order. 
F.  contributed  much  towards  bringing  the  outline 
style,  now  so  popular,  into  general  use.  Of  bis 
scidptures,  the  best  known  in  England  are  his  bas- 
relief  monument  to  the  poet  Collins  at  Chichester, 
the  monument  to  Lord  Mansfield,  and  that  to  the 
Baring  family  at  Micheldean  Church,  in  Hampshire. 
His  model  for  the  shield  of  Achilles,  taken  from 

867 


FLEA-FLECKNOK 


tlic  ISth  IxHik  of  the  llitul,  is  particularly  -northy 
of  aduiirntion.  F.'s  |>rivate  collection  is  now  iu 
Vniversity  College,  Loudoii,  in  tlie  gallery  knowu  as 
I'taxinan  IIutL 

KLEA  {I'uler),  a  Luina\in  cenus  of  ajitcrous 
insects,  now  commonly  regarJeu  by  entomolomsts 
08  constitutin;,'  a  distinct  order,  ,'^uclorui.  Siphon- 
aptera,  or  Ai'/iaiiiplero.  The  species  are  not  numer- 
ous, and  little  subdivision  of  the  ccnus  has  been 
attein|it(Hl.  It  has  been  suggested  as  probable, 
that  further  investigation  may  lead  to  a  recognition 
of  the  tleas  as  belonging  to  some  of  the  larger  orders, 
with  parts  modified  to  suit  their  parasitical  life. 
All  the  species  arc  very  similar  to  the  Common' 
Flea  {P.  imlaiis),  which  is  jilentiful  in  all  parts 


wood-work  with  gaping  joints,  certain  strongly 
aromatic  plants  are  emiiloycd,  of  which  the  odours 
appear  to  be  detestable  to  them,  as  the  different 
Coniposita;  known  by  the  name  of  Heabanc,  and 
also  wormwood,  the  merits  of  which  last  arc  thus 
extolled  by  Tusser : 

I  '  "Wliile  wormwood  hath  seed,  get  a  handfull  or  twaine, 
To  save  against  JIarch,  to  nx.ike  flea  to  refraine ; 
"Where  chamber  is  swecped,  and  wormwood  is  strown, 
No  flea  for  his  life  dare  abide  to  be  known.' 

Other  species  of  tleas  infest  particular  animals,  as 
the  dog,  fox,  mole,  &c. — The  Chigoe  (q.  v.),  or  Jigger 
of  the  West  Indies,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  fleas,  is 
far  more  troublesome  than  any  of  them. 

FLEA'B.4NE  {PuHcariti),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  CompoAito',  sub-order  CorifmhtJtT<Py 
having  hemispherical  imbricated  involucres  and 
yellow  flowers  ;  the  whole  plant  emitting  a  peculiar 
aromatic  smell,  sometimes  compared  to  that  of  soap, 
which  is  said  to  be  efficacious  in  driving  away  llcas. 


Common  Flea  (Pulex  irritans),  magnified. 

of  the  world,  living  by  sucking  the  blood  of  man, 
and  of  some  species  of  quadrupeds  and  birils.  It 
abounds  particularly  in  the  nests  of  poultry,  pigeons, 
and  ."iwallows,  and  wherever  sand  and  dust  accu- 
mulate iu  the  chinks  of  floors,  &c ;  it  is  to  be 
found  also  plentifidl)'  in  beds,  wherever  cleanliness 
is  neglected.  The  abundance  of  tleas  in  some 
countries  is  an  intolerable  nuisance  to  travellers, 
and  also  to  residents.  Such  is  said  to  be  particularly 
the  case  in  many  jiarts  of  Australia,  where  the 
general  dryness  and  warmth  encourage  their  growth 
to  an  extent  against  which  the  precautionary 
measures  of  housewives  are  almost  entirely  una- 
vailing. The  female  ilea  is  rather  larger  than  the 
male,  out  the  sexes  are  otherwise  very  similar.  The 
head  is  small,  very  compressed,  rounded  above,  and 
has  on  each  side  a  small  round  eye.  The  mouth 
has  two  lancet-like  mandibles,  the  maxiUas  being 
represented  by  two  conical  scales,  the  mandibles  and 
maxillie  forming  a  suctorial  beak,  with  a  slender 
bristle-like  tongue,  the  whole  enclosed  between  two 
three -jointed  plates.  The  thorax  consists  of  three 
segments,  the  second  and  third  of  which  bear  a 
scale  on  each  side ;  the  scales  are  regarded  as 
rudimentary  wings.  There  is  no  marked  division 
between  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen,  which  con- 
sists of  nine  segments,  much  larger  than  those  of 
the  thorax,  but  much  compressed.  The  whole 
body  is  covered  with  a  tough  integimient.  The 
activity  of  the  flea,  its  power  of  leaping,  and 
its  extraordinary  strength,  are  well  known.  Its 
strength  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  draw- 
ing of  miniature  carriages,  cannon,  &c.,  which 
the  public  have  been  invited  to  witness  through 
a  m.agnifying-glass,  as  an  amusing  spectacle.  Fleas 
undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  female 
lays  about  a  dozen  eggs  of  a  white  colour,  and 
slightly  viscous.  The  larva  is  a  Uvely  little  worm, 
at  lirst  white,  afterwards  reddish,  and  destitute 
of  feet.  Wlien  about  to  change  into  a  pupa,  it 
encloses  itself  in  a  little  silk  cocoon,  from  which 
emerges  the  perfect  tiea.  Cleanliness  and  careful 
attention  are  the  princijjal  means  of  keeping  beds 
and  ho\ises  free  of  lle;is  ;  but  where  these  are 
foiuid  insultlcient,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  some 
climates,  and  in  cottages  where  there  is  much 
368 


Fleabane  {PuUcaria  djfscnterira) : 
I,  root ;  6,  top  of  stem,  with  leaves  .tnd  flowers ;  r,  nchene, 
with  pappus ;  (/,  pistil ;  c,  a  floret  of  the  disc  ;  /,  a  stamen ; 
CI,  a  floret  of  the  ray. 

Two  species  are  found  in  England,  one  of  which 
{P.  di/sentc'i'ica),  common  iu  moist  ]>laces,  with 
oblong  leaves,  stem  12 — 15  inches  high,  cottony, 
and  bearing  panicled  flowers,  has  a  considerable 
reputation  in  diarrhcea  and  dysentery.  The  Kussiau 
soldiers,  in  the  expedition  to  Persia  under  General 
Keith,  were  much  troubled  with  djseutery,  which 
was  cured  by  this  plant. — Conyza  sqnarrosa,  also 
called  fleabane,  belongs  to  a  nearly  allied  genius. 

FLECHE,  La,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Sarthe,  is  agreeably  situated  on  the  right 
liank  of  the  Loir,  24  miles  south-south-west  of  Lo 
Mans.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  and  has  three  prin- 
ci]ial  streets,  which  are  vvide  and  well  paved.  Its 
principal  building  is  the  military  school,  with  a 
lilirary  of  15,000  volumes,  destined  for  the  education 
of  the  sons  of  poor  officers,  or  of  sohliers  who  have 
highly  distinguished  themselves.  The  building  now 
oecujiicd  by  the  school  was  once  a  royal  ])alace,  and 
was  built  by  Henry  IV.  It  was  subsequently  given 
by  him  to  the  Jesuits,  and  used  by  them  as  a 
Jesuit  college.  Here  Piince  Eugene,  Descartes,  and 
Picard  the  astronomer,  were  educated.     F.  has  some 

I  trade  in  corn,  hay,  and  wine,  also  manufactures  of 

■  linen,  hosiery,  and  gloves.     Po]).  7077. 

I      FLE'CKNOE,  Richakd,  the  date  of  whose  biHh 

!  is  unknown,  is  said  to  have  been  an  Irish  Koman 


FLEET— FLEET  PRISON. 


Catholic  priest.  He  came  to  London,  mingled  in 
the  wars  of  the  wits,  and  wrote  several  plays,  all 
of  which  are  now  forgotten.  lie  died  in  1G78.  F. 
came  under  the  lash  of  Dryden,  whose  satire, 
entitled  Mac  Ftecnoe,  is  partly  the  model  of  Pope's 
Diutciad  (q.  v.),  and  will  Ije  remembered  as  long  as 
the  great  satirist  is  remembered.  From  those  who 
are  acquainted  witli  our  e.xtinct  literature,  we  have 
the  assurance  that  F.  has  been  hardly  dealt  with  ; 
that  though  he  diil  not  rise  to  the  rank  of  Drj'den 
as  a  poet,  he  was  the  author  of  several  fugitive 
]>iece3,  not  without  grace,  fancy,  and  hajipy  turns 
of  expression.  Among  his  dramatic  jiieces  are 
J^rmina,  ur  the  Chaste  Ladtf ;  Lovts  Dominion 
(printed  in  1654,  and  dedicated  to  CromweU's 
favourite  daughter,  Mrs  Claypole) ;  and  The  Mar- 
riage of  Oceanua  und  Britannia.  His  Miscellanea, 
or  Poems  of  all  Sorts,  appeared  in  1G53. 

FLEET  (that  which  floats),  a  collection  of  ships, 
whether  of  wai"  or  commerce,  for  one  object  or  for  one 
destination.  The  diminutives  of  fleet  are  '  di\'ision ' 
and  '  squadron.'  In  the  royal  navy,  a  fleet  is  ordi- 
narily the  command  of  an  admiral  or  vice-admiral. 

FLEET  MARRIAGES.  The  practice  of  con- 
tracting clandestine  maniages  was  very  prevalent 
in  England  before  the  passing  of  the  first  mar- 
riage act  (see  Marriage).  The  chapels  at  the 
Savoy  and  at  May  Fair,  in  London,  were  long 
famous  for  the  i)erformance  of  these  marriages  ; 
Init  no  other  jiiace  was  equal  in  notoriety  for 
this  infamous  traffic  to  the  Fleet  Prison.  It 
must  be  observed,  that  before  the  passing  of  the 
20  Geo.  II.  c.  3.'j,  there  was  no  necessity  in  Eng- 
land for  any  religious  ceremonial  in  tile  perform- 
ance of  marriage,  which  might  be  contracted  by 
mere  verbal  consent.  Hence  it  was  not  in  Wrtue 
of  any  special  privilege  existing  within  the  liberty 
of  the  Fleet  that  marriages  at  that  place  became  so 
common  ;  but  rather  from  the  fact,  that  the  persons 
by  wliom  they  were  performed,  having  nothing  to 
lose  either  in  money  or  character,  were  able  to  set 
at  defiance  the  penalties  enacted  from  time  to  time 
with  a  view  to  restrain  this  jiublic  nuisance.  The 
period  during  which  these  marriages  were  in  greatest 
repute  was  from  1 074  to  1754.  The  first  notice  of  a 
Fleet  marriage  is  in  161.'!,  in  a  letter  from  Alderman 
Lowe  to  Lady  Hickcs,  and  the  first  entry  in  a  register 
is  in  1674.  Up  to  this  time,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  marriages  contracted  at  the  Fleet  were 
clandestine  ;  but  in  the  latter  year,  an  order  having 
been  issued  by  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners 
against  the  performance  of  clandestine  marriages  in 
the  Savoy  and  May  Fair,  the  Fleet  at  once  became 
the  favourite  resort  for  those  who  desired  to  effect 
a  secret  marriage.  At  flrst,  the  ceremony  was 
performed  in  the  chajtel  in  the  Fleet ;  but  the 
applications  became  so  frequent,  that  a  regiUar  trade 
sjieeddy  sprung  up.  By  10  Anne,  c.  19,  s.  176, 
m.arriages  in  chapels  without  banns  were  prohibited 
under  certain  penalties,  and  from  this  time,  rooms 
were  fitted  up  in  the  taverns  and  the  houses  of 
the  Fleet  parsons,  for  the  purpose  of  performing 
the  ceremony.  The  persons  who  celebrated  these 
marriages  were  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England, 
who  had  been  consigned  for  debt  to  the  ])rison  of 
the  Fleet.  These  men,  having  lost  all  sense  of  their 
holy  caUing,  employed  touters  to  bring  to  them 
such  persons  as  required  their  <»ffice.  The  sums 
paid  for  a  marriage  varied  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  ])artie3,  from  half-a-crown  to  a  large  fee  where 
the  Uberality  and  the  purse  combined  to  aflord  a 
large  reward.  During  the  time  that  this  iniquitous 
traffic  was  at  its  height,  every  species  of  enormity 
was  jiractiscd.  Young  ladies  were  compelled  to 
marry  against  their  mil ;  young  men  were  decoyed 

180 


into  a  union  with  the  most  infamous  characters ; 
and  persons  in  shoals  resorted  to  the  parsons  to  lie 
united  in  bonds  which  they  had  no  intention  shoidd 
bind  them,  and  which  were  speedily  broken  to  be 
contracted  with  some  new  favourite.  The  sailors 
from  the  neighbouring  docks  were  steady  patrons  of 
tliis  mode  :  it  was  stated  by  the  keeper  of  one  of 
the  taverns,  that  often,  when  the  fleet  was  in,  two 
or  three  hundred  marriages  were  contracted  ui  a 
week.  Persons  of  a  more  respectable  character  also 
at  times  resorted  to  the  Fleet.  Thus  the  Hon. 
Henry  Fox  was  here  married  to  Georgina  Caroline, 
daughter  of  the  second  Duke  of  Richmond.  Pennant 
thus  describes  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Fleet  in  his 
time  :  '  In  walking  along  the  street  in  my  youth, 
on  the  side  next  the  prison,  I  have  often  been 
tempted  by  the  question  :  "  Sir,  will  you  be  pleased 
to  walk  in  and  be  married?"  Along  this  most 
lawless  space  was  hung  up  the  frequent  sign  of  a 
male  and  female  hand  conjoined,  with  "maniages 
performed  within  "  written  beneath.  A  dirty  fellow 
iinited  jou  in.  The  jiarson  was  seen  walking  before 
his  shop,  a  squalid,  dirty  figure,  clad  in  a  tattered 
plaid  night-gown,  with  a  fiery  face,  and  ready  to 
couple  you  for  a  dram  of  gin  or  a  pipe  of  tobacco.' 
— London,  p.  193.  Registers  of  these  marriages 
were  kept  by  the  various  parties  who  officiated.  A 
collection  of  these  books,  purchased  by  government 
in  18"21,  and  deposited  in  the  Consistory  Court  of 
London,  amounted  to  the  incredible  number  of 
between  two  and  three  hundred  large  registei-s,  and 
upwards  of  one  thousand  smaller  books,  called 
pocket-books.  These  registers  were  not  received  as 
evidence  in  a  court  of  law  (Doe  d  Davies  v.  Gatacre, 
8  Carr.  and  P.  578),  not  because  the  marriage  was 
invalid,  but  because  the  parties  engaged  in  the  cere- 
mony were  so  worthless  that  th'ey  were  deemed 
undeserving  of  credit.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  stop  this  practice  by  acts  of  parhament.  By  6 
and  7  Will.  III.  c.  52,  and  again  by  7  and  8  WiU. 
III.  c.  35,  penalties  were  imposed  on  clergymen  cele- 
brating any  marriage  without  banns ;  but  these 
provisions  were  without  efi'ect  upon  men  who  had 
nothing  to  lose.  At  length,  the  nuisance  became 
intolerable,  for,  owing  to  the  difficiUty  of  proving 
these  marriages,  respectable  parties,  who  in  folly 
had  entered  into  them,  found  it  often  impossible  to 
establish  their  marriage,  and  the  greatest  confusion 
was  in  consequence  produced  The  act  of  the  2Gth 
Geo.  II.  c.  33,  was  therefore  passed,  which  struck  at 
the  root  of  the  matter  by  declaring  that  all  mai'- 
riages,  except  in  Scotland,  solemnised  otherwise 
than  in  a  church  or  public  chapel,  where  banns 
have  been  published,  unless  by  special  licence, 
should  lie  utterly  void.  This  act  met  with  strenuous 
opposition  in  the  House  of  Commons,  especially 
by  Mr  Fox,  who  had  been  himself  maiTied  in  the 
Fleet,  but  ultimately  it  was  passed  into  a  law.  The 
pubUc,  however,  were  unwilling  to  sun-ender  their 
privilege,  and  on  the  26th  March  1754,  the  day  before 
the  act  came  into  operation,  there  were  no  less  than 
217  marriages  entered  in  one  register  alone.  See 
Bum's  History  of  Fleet  Marriages,  to  which  we  are 
indebted  for  many  of  the  above  particulars. 

FLEET  PRISON,  a  celebrated  London  jaU, 
which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  Farringdon  Street, 
on  what  was  formerly  called  Fleet  Market.  The 
keeper  of  it  was  called  the  Warden  of  the  Fleet. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  Fleet  ri-iiilet,  so  named 
from  its  rapidity,  which  flowed  into  the  Thames. 
By  the  Act  5  and  6  Victoria,  the  Fleet  Prison  and 
the  Mar.shalsea  were  abolished,  and  their  functions 
transferred  to  the  Queen's  Bench,  under  the  new 
name  of  the  Queen's  Prison.  The  Fleet  was  the 
kuig's  prison  so  far  back  as  the  12th  c,  and  a  recep- 
tacle for  debtors  since  about  the  same  period.     Tho 

S69 


FLEETWOOD— FLEMISH  L.\>'GUA(-iE  AND  LITERATURE. 


followera  of  Wat  Tyler  burned  it  in  the  reign  of 
Ricliani  II.  In  the  ICth  and  17th  centuries,  it 
acquired  a  high  historical  interest  from  its  having 
been  the  ijfison  of  the  religious  martyrs  of  the 
reigns  of  Mary  and  Eli/..ibetli,  and  of  the  jiohticil 
\-ictims  of  the  Courts  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High 
Commission  in  that  of  Charles  I.  On  the  aboUtion 
of  the  Star  Chamber  in  1641,  it  became  a  place  of 
confinement  for  liebtors  and  persons  committed  for 
contempt  from  the  Courts  of  Chancery,  Exchequer, 
and  Common  Pleas.  Duiing  the  ISth  c,  it  was  the 
scene  of  every  kind  of  atrocity  and  brnt.ility,  from 
the  eirtortion  of  the  keepers  and  the  custom  of  the 
warden  underletting  it.  Tlie  Fleet  w;is  several 
times  rebuilt;  the  last  building  was  erected  after 
the  burning  of  the  older  one  in  the  Gordon  riots  of 
1780,  the  pre<iecessor  of  which  had  been  destroyed 
in  the  great  tire  of  London  in  11)66.  Latterly,  it 
usually  contained  250  prisoners,  and  kept  ward  of 
about  60  outiloor  detenus  for  debt,  pri\-ileged  to 
live  within  the  rules. 

FLEETWOOD,  or  FLEETWOOD-ON-WTRE, 
a  small  but  thriving  town,  seaport,  and  niilitai-y 
station  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lancashire,  is 
situated  on  a  jiromontory  at  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Wyre,  about  20  miles  south-west 
from  Lancaster.  It  is  a  modern  town,  and  owes 
its  origin  and  importance  to  its  facilities  for  railway 
.and  steam-vessel  communication.  It  is  handsomely 
laid  out,  has  an  excellent  harboiu-,  and  is  a  favourite 
resort  for  sea-bathing.  A  government  school  of 
musketry,  which  promises  to  be  for  the  north 
of  England  wh.at  Hj'the  and  Aldershott  are  for 
the  south,  is  now  in  full  operation  here.  It  has 
a  staff  of  instructors,  and  quarters  for  300  men 
and  60  oflScers;  besides  a  substantial  hut-encamj)- 
ment.  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  for  200  men  and 
14  officers,  where  there  are  quarters  for  married 
soldiers,  hospital,  lecture-rooms,  &c.,  and  a  large 
tract  of  laud  for  rifle  practice.  About  2000  vessels 
enter  and  clear  the  port.  Fop.  (1S61)  3S31 ;  (1871) 
4428. 

FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE. The  Vlaemisch  or  Flemish  is  a  form  of 
Low  German  stUl  siiokea  in  the  Belgian  produces 
of  East  and  West  Flanders,  Limburg,  Aiitwerp, 
North  Brabant,  and  in  some  parts  of  Holland  and 
the  Walloon  provinces  of  Belgium.  So  little  change 
has  taken  place  in  this  dialect,  that  the  form  of 
speech  in  which  the  Goimcil  of  Lijjtines  drew  up  (in 
742)  the  creed,  in  which  pagans  were  made  to  express 
their  renunciation  of  idolatry  on  being  converted  to 
Christianity,  reqiurcs  only  the  alteration  of  a  few 
letters  to  make  it  intelligiljle  to  a  modern  Fleming. 
Flemish  has  much  affinity  with  the  Frisian,  and 
constitutes,  together  with  modern  Dutch  (which  was 
originally  identical  with  it,  and  now  only  diflfers 
from  it  in  a  few  ortliographical  and  otherwise 
unessential  particxdars),  the  national  tongue  of  the 
whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  most  ancient 
record  of  Flemish,  is  a  fragment  of  a  tr.anslation  in 
prose  of  the  Psalms  a  thousand  years  old.  In  the 
13th  e.,  public  deeds  began  to  be  dr.awTi  up  in  the 
vemacidar,  which  are  perfectly  intelligible  in  tlie 
present  day  (as  the  Ordinance  of  Henry  I.  of  Brabant, 
1229,  in  the  Brussels  Book  of  Privileijes).  In 
the  same  century,  i.  van  M.ierlant,  the  '  father  of 
Flemish  poets,'  author  of  The  Historical  Mirror, 
Wupen  Martin,  Ihjmhihd,  &c.,  and  W.  van  Utcn- 
hove  eompiised  numerous  poems,  and  translated 
from  the  French  anfl  German,  and  very  probably 
from  the  Latin.  Willema  and  other  critics  believe 
that  to  the  Flemish  must  be  ascribed  the  honour 
of  the  original  an<l  entire  poem  of  Beincrrt  Vott, 
the  hrst  part  of  which  they  refer  to  the  middle  of 


the  12th  c.,  while  the  second  ]xirt  is  attributed 
to  W.  van  Utcnhove,  and  sujiposed  to  have  Ijecii 
WTitten  about  1250.  The  14tn  c  was  remarkable 
for  the  numbers  and  excellence  of  the  Flemish 
Sprekkers,  Zegijcm,  and  Vinders,  or  wandering 
poets,  some  of  whose  works  have  been  published 
by  Blommaert  ;  and  for  the  origin  of  the  Chambers 
of  Rhetoric,  which  exerted  a  marked  influence  ou 
the  progress  of  literature  during  succeeding  ages, 
.and  beciune  the  arbiters  of  literary  and  dramatic 
f;mie  through  the  Netherlands  generally.  In  the 
16th  c,  the  French  element  gained  ascendency, 
and  the  old  Flemish  lost  much  of  its  original 
terseness  and  purity.  Numerous  translations  of 
the  Scriptures  appeared ;  among  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  are  the  Psalms  by  Datheuus  (1550), 
and  by  Mamix  (1580),  the  author  of  the  Boomsc/ie 
Biikorj  (15G9).  The  translation  of  the  entire 
Bible  was  not  efTccted  till  1618,  when  the  General 
Synod  of  Dort  decided  to  employ  learned  men 
capable  of  giWng  a  correct  version  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts ;  and  this  great  work  was  linallj' 
completed  by  two  Flemings,  Baudaert  and  Walons, 
and  two  Dutchmen,  Bogermann  and  Hommius. 
Strenuous  eflbrts  were  also  made,  at  this  period, 
to  give  greater  freedom  to  the  Flemish  language  ; 
and  hence  this  original  Flemish  version  of  the  Bible 
has  become  a  standard  in  regard  to  the  construction 
and  orthography  of  the  language.  Hooft,  Vondel, 
and  Cats  are  the  tlu'ee  men  whose  names  stand 
foremost  among  the  Flemish  writers  of  the  17th 
eentm-y.  Hooft  was  a  poet,  but  he  is  best  known 
by  his  liistonj  of  the  Netherlands,  which  is  held 
in  high  esteem  by  his  coimtrjTnen.  Vondel,  who 
was  one  of  the  leading  men  of  his  day,  made  his 
tragedies  the  vehicles  of  hurling  the  most  cutting 
satire  on  every  obnoxious  measure  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  and  liis  works  stiU  maintain  their  gi'omid. 
He  had  great  versatility  of  powers  ;  and  in  his  latter 
years,  his  talents  were  directed  to  the  ex.altation  of 
Catholicism,  to  which  he  had  been  converted.  Cats 
was  essentially  the  poet  of  the  peoiile  ;  and  for  200 
years,  his  works,  popularly  known  as  the  Household 
Bible,  have  been  cherished  alike  among  the  poor  and 
wealthy.  Although  Cats  was  a  skilful  lawj-er,  an 
active  statesman,  and  .a  profound  scholar,  he  found 
time  to  compose  a  great  number  of  w'orks,  as  the 
Zorgiiiet ;  Trouu-riiig  (the  Wedding  Ring) ;  Hou- 
welyck  (Mairiage),  which  exhibit  the  most  intimate 
acquaint.ance  with  the  everyday -life  of  his  country- 
men. His  Moral  Emhlerms  have  recently  (1859) 
been  translated  into  English,  and  i>ubUshed  by 
Messrs  Longman  &  Co.  The  ISth  c.  was  barren  of 
poetic  genius  in  the  Low  Countries,  but  it  produced 
several  good  philologists,  as  Stevens,  Huydecoper, 
and  Ten  Kate,  the  latter  of  whom  is  the  author  of 
a  work  on  the  Flemish  language,  which  has  served 
as  a  fundamental  authority  for  modern  ^\Titel•s. 
The  arbitrary  measures  of  the  French  government, 
under  Najioleon,  ag.ainst  the  official  use  of  Flemish, 
had  the  effect  of  crushing  for  a  time  the  very  spirit 
of  nationalism,  while  it  completely  annihilated 
native  literature ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the 
revolution  of  1S30,  th.at  the  Flemish  language 
reg.aiued  its  footing  in  the  Belgian  proWnees.  This 
revival  of  the  national  form  of  si)eeeh  is  mainly 
due  to  the  unreuutting  eli'orts  of  such  writers  as 
Willems,  Bdderdijk,  Cornelissen,  Blommaert,  Con- 
science, Delecourt,  Ledeganck,  &c.,  who.se  works 
have  imparted  fresh  vigour,  and  greater  gr.anmiatical 
precision  to  the  Flemish.  In  1841,  on  the  occasion 
of  a  lingiiistic  congi-ess  held  at  Ghent,  the  members 
of  the  government  for  the  first  time  publicly  recog- 
nised the  existence  of  the  Flemish  element  in  the 
people,  and  addressed  the  meeting  in  the  national 
dialect.     The  last  twenty  3'ears  have  conhrmed  this 


FLEMMIXG— FLESH-FLY. 


movemout ;  ami  while  the  best  foreign  works  have 
been  rendered  into  Flemish,  the  writings  of  Blom- 
maert,  Conscience  (q.  v.),  and  other  native  authors 
have  been  translated  into  many  of  the  European 
tongues.  See  Sleec.x  on  the  Histortj  of  t/ie  Flemish, 
and  its  Relation  to  oilier  Languaijas ;  Willems  (1819 
— 1824),  Verhandl.  ov.  d.  Nederdwjt. ;  0.  Delepierre, 
History  of  Flemish  LitenUure  (1860). 

FLE'MMING,  P.\ci.,  one  of  the  best  German 
poets  of  the  17th  c.,  was  born  October  15,  1609,  at 
Hartenstein,  in  the  principahty  of  Scluinburg,  where 
his  father  was  minister.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Leipsic,  but  was  induced  by  the  distractions  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  to  retire  to  Holstein  in  1633. 
In  the  same  year  he  accompanied  the  embassy 
sent  by  the  Cidce  of  Holstein  to  Russia,  and  iu 
IG35,  was  attached  to  the  more  splendid  embassy 
sent  out  to  Persia.  He  returned  in  16.39,  married, 
and  resolved  to  settle  as  a  physician  in  Hamburg, 
but  died  there  2d  April  1C40.  F.  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Gennan  IjTic  poets  of  the  17th  c.  His 
Geistliche  und  weltlichc  Poemata  (Jena,  1642)  contain 
many  exquisite  love  songs,  which,  for  more  than  a 
centurj',  remained  unequalled  in  finish  and  sweetness. 
Others  are  distingiushed  for  enthusiasm  of  feeling, 
ardent  p.atriotism,  and  manly  vigour,  while  his  sonnets 
are  marked  by  strength  and  thorough  originality. 
F.'s  longer  poems  describe  the  adventures  of  his 
journey;  occasionally  at  least  with  great  spirit, 
though  they  are  not  free  from  the  weaknesses  of  his 
time.  His  beautifid  hymn,  hi  alien  viexnen  Thaten, 
composed  before  his  journey  to  Persia,  proves  his 
genius  as  a  writer  of  sacred  songs.  His  life,  with  his 
select  poem.s,  was  published  by  Schwab  (Stiittgard, 
1820).  Compare  Knapp,  Eoangelischer  Liederschatz 
(Stuttg.  1837),  and  Miiller  in  the  Bibliothek  Deidscher 
Dichler  des  17  Jahrhundert  (3  vols.,  Leij)sic,  1822) ; 
and  Varnhagen  von  Ease,  in  the  4th  vol.  of  the 
Bioffraphisclu;  Denhnale. 

FLE'NSBORG,  the  most  populous  and  consider- 
able town  in  the  duchy  of  Slesvig,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  Fleusborg  Fjord,  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  and  19 
miles  north  of  the  town  of  Slesrig.  Pop.  18,872.  It 
is  the  capital  of  a  bailiwick  of  the  same  name,  which 
included  the  noi-th  ]iart  of  the  district  supposed  to 
have  been  the  country  of  the  Angels,  or  Angli.  F. 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  12th  c,  and 
named  from  its  foimder,  the  Knight  Flenes.  In 
1284  it  received  mimicipal  rights  from  King  Val- 
demar.  F.  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  has  a  good 
harbour.  It  has  sugar  refineries  and  distilleries, 
and  manufactures  of  cloth,  paper,  soap,  and  tiles  of 
superior  quahty.  The  trade  is  considerable.  F. 
owns  between  200  and  300  ships,  many  of  which  are 
built  in  its  ovni  yards.  A  railway,  43  miles  long, 
connects  F.  with  Tonningen  on  the  Eyder. 

FLERS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Ome,  north  oT  France,  35  miles  west-north-west  of 
Alen^on.  It  has  an  old  castle,  which  was  burned 
down  in  the  Chouan  war,  but  which  has  been  recently 
restored.  F.  has  considerable  manufactures  of  linen, 
fustian,  and  especially  of  ticking.     Pop.  5843. 

FLESH  is  the  ordinary  term  for  muscular  tissue. 
After  the  remov.al  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  con- 
nective (or  eelhdar)  tissue,  &c.,  the  flesh  is  fomid 
to  consist  of  various  textural  elements,  which  are 
described  in  the  article  Muscle  (q.  v.).  Numerous 
analyses  have  been  made  of  the  muscidar  sub- 
stance of  various  animals.  In  Dr  Day's  translation 
of  Simon's  Animal  Chemistry,  published  by  the 
Sydenham  Society,  there  are  analyses  of  the  flesh  of 
man,  the  ox,  calf,  pig,  roe,  pigeon,  fowl,  carp,  and 
trout.  The  following  table  gives  the  determinations 
of  the  indiridual  constituents  of  the  iiesh  of  o.xen,  or, 
in  ordinary  language,  of  beef  freed,  as  far  as  possible, 


from   blood-vessels,  &c.,  and  may  be   regarded   as 
fau-ly  representing  the  composition  of  flesh  generally. 


Tcr  cent      Per  cent 

Water 

varies 

from  74-0  to     800 

Solid  CODStitUCDts 

vaiy 

n        2t>0    ir      20-0 
1000         ]00  0 

The  latter  beine'  mrule  up 

of 

Miisciilur  fibre  which 

varies 

from  15-40  ..   17-70 

Gclatigenous  subetance 

„ 

..     0-GO   ..     1-90 

Albumen 

„ 

M    2-;;o  (1    300 

Creatine 

„ 

.-     007   „     0-U 

Creatinine 

undetermined. 

Inosic  acid 

do. 

Fat 

„ 

i>     1-50  to    2-30 

I.actic  acid  (CcHsOa.HO) 

,, 

1.     OGO  .,     0-CS 

Phosphoric  acid 

„ 

,.      066   n      0-70 

Potash 

„ 

M     050   M     OM 

Snda 

1, 

..     007    „     0-09 

Chloride  of  sodium 

,, 

1.     0-04   .>     0  09 

Lime 

..      0  02   ,.     003 

Magnesia 

ti 

..      0  04    „      0-08 

Long  as  the  above  list  of  substances  is,  it  does 
not  include  all  the  ingredients  of  flesh.  In  the 
freshly  expressed  muscular  juice,  which  exhibits 
a  strong  acid  reaction  (from  free  lactic  acid,  and 
fi-om  acid  phosphates  of  the  alkalies),  we  also  find 
small  quantities  of  Sarcine  or  Hyjioxanthine  (q.  v.), 
ami  of  formic,  butjTic,  and  acetic  acids — which  may, 
however,  be  mere  products  of  decomposition ;  very 
minute  quantities  of  uric  acid,  and  sometimes  a 
trace  of  iu"ea,  which,  however,  occurs  in  very  appre- 
ciable quantity  in  the  muscles  of  persons  who  have 
died  of  cholera,  and  in  very  considerable  quantity 
in  the  flesh  of  the  plagiostomous  flshes,  while  in 
other  fishes  not  a  trace  of  it  can  be  detected — an 
apparent  anomaly  to  which  at  present  we  sec  no 
clue ;  and  iu  the  juice  of  the  heart  of  mammals,  and 
in  smaller  quantity  iu  their  other  muscles,  a  kind 
of  sugar  tenued  Inosite  (q.  v.).  Bernard  has  recently 
discovered  Glycogen  (q.  v.)  in  the  muscles  of  the 
embryos  of  various  animals. 

In  regard  to  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the 
juice  f)f  flesh,  Liebig  directs  especial  attention  to 
the  fact,  that  this  fluid  '  in  all  animals  is  particu- 
larly rich  in  potash,  and  th.at  it  also  contains 
chloride  of  potassiimi,  with  only  traces  of  chloride 
of  sodium ;  while  in  the  blood  only  proportionally 
small  quantities  of  the  salts  of  potash  and  jirepon- 
derating  quantities  of  the  salts  of  soda  and  of 
common  salt,  are  i)resent.'  He  further  notices  the 
constant  excess  of  the  phosphates  over  the  cldorides, 
and  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  over  that  of  magnesia 
in  the  former  fluid,  as  points  of  physiological  im- 
portance. The  value  of  these  investigations  will 
be  shewn  in  the  ai-ticle  METjiJiOKPnosis  of  Tissue 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  in  connection  both  with 
physiolog)'  and  dietetics,  that  the  diied  flesh  of 
the  ox  is  identical  in  its  lUtimate  comjiosition  with 
dried  blood,  as  is  shewnr  by  the  following  analyses, 
which  were  made  by  Professor  Lyon  Playfair : 

Carljon, 
llydroKOn,    . 
Nitrogen, 
OxYt^en, 
Ashes,  ^    . 

This  analysis  suigulai'ly  confirms  the  statement 
made  previously  by  an  eminent  French  physiolo- 
gist, that  in  so  far  as  idtimate  organic  composition 
is  conceraed,  '  the  blood  is  liquid  flesh.' — For  further 
information  on  the  subject,  we  may  refer  to  Liebig's 
Researches  on  tlie  Cliemviiry  of  Food,  translated  by 
Gregory,  and  Lehmann's  Physioloiftcal  Chemistry, 
vol.  iii 

FLESH-FLY,  or  BLUE-BOTTLE-FLY  {Musca 
vomitoria),  an  insect  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
common  House-fly  (q.  v.),  which  it  much  exceeds 
in   size,    although   it   is   not   equal   in   size   to  the 


BceC 

OA-blo<i 

51-83 

51  11.0 

7-57 

-•IT 

1501 

15  07 

21-37 

21-39 

4-23 

4  42 

FLETA— FLETCHER. 


Blow-fly  (q.  v.).  The  forehead  is  rust-coloured,  the 
thorax  L'rayish,  the  abilouicu  blue  with  three  black 
bauds.  The  exi)ause  of  wiugs  is  uc.irly  oue  ineh.  It  is 
abuud.int  throughout  Britain  .ind  Eiirope  gcuerally, 
and  deposits  its  efws  on  llesh,  for  which  purpose  it 
ofteu  outers  houses,  having  a  remarkably  delicate 
seuse  of  smelling.  The  maggots  are  of  very  frequeut 
occurrence  on  meat  in  summer,  notwithstanding  all 
care  that  can  be  taken.— A  nearly  allied  species 
(Jf.  CVifir)  is  ilistinguished  by  its  golden  green 
colour,  and  is  also  common  in  Britain.  It  is  found 
in  houses  from  the  bcgiuning  of  spring  to  the  end  of 
autumn.  Another  [M.  lardaria),  with  silky  tawny 
face,  a  black  stripe  on  the  crown,  thorax  glittering 
white  with  four  black  stripes,  and  abdomen  bluish- 
gray,  tesselated  with  black,  is  most  common  in  the 
end  of  autumn,  frequenting  bushes  of  ivy  and  late 
llowers,  and  is  also  a  pest  of  the  larder. 

FLE'TA,  the  title  of  a  valuable  treatise  on  the 
law  of  England.  It  is  not  known  by  whom  this 
treatise,  which  is  one  of  the  earliest  authorities  on 
English  law,  was  written,  and  it  derives  its  title 
from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  WTittcn  in  the 
Fleet  jirison.  Lord  Campbell  remarks — Liven  of  the 
Chancellurs,  i.  I6G  and  note  :  '  I  shall  rejoice  if  I 
do  tardy  j\istice  to  the  memory  of  lloliert  Biirnel, 
decidedly  the  first  in  this  class,  and  if  I  attract 
notice  to  his  successors,  who  walked  in  his  footsteps. 
To  them,  too,  we  are  probably  indebted  for  the 
treatises  entitled  Flela  and  Britton,  which  are  said 
to  have  been  \TOtten  at  the  request  of  the  king,  and 
which,  though  inferior  in  style  and  arrangement  to 
Bracton,  are  wonderful  performances  for  such  an  age. 
fleta  must  have  been  \\-ritten  after  the  I.3tli  year  of 
the  king  (Edward  I.), and  not  much  later;  for  it  fre- 
quently quotes  the  statute  of  Westminster  the  second, 
without  referring  to  the  later  statutes  of  the  reign. 

FLETCHER,  Andrew,  of  Salton,  a  celebrated 
Scottish  patriot  and  politician,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Robert  Fletcher  and  Catherine  Bruce,  daughter  of 
Sir  Henry  Bruce  of  Clackmannan.  He  was  born  in 
1653.  Notwithstanding  the  strong  anti-English 
feelings  which  characterised  him  through  life,  F. 
■was  of  English  descent  by  the  father's  side  ;  his 
father  being  the  fifth  in  the  direct  hue  from  Sir 
Bernard  Fletcher  of  the  county  of  York.  But  his 
mother  was  of  the  royal  House  of  Scotland,  the 
first  of  the  Claclunannan  family  haNTug  been  the 
third  son  of  the  Lord  of  Aunandale,  Robert  de 
Bi-uce,  who  was  the  gr.andfather  of  the  gi-eat  King 
Robert.  F.'s  father,  who  died  in  his  chUilhood, 
consigned  him  to  the  care  of  Gilbert  Burnet,  then 
minister  of  Salton,  afterwards  the  well-kuown 
Bishop  of  Salisbury  ;  by  whom  he  was  instiiicted 
not  only  in  literature  and  religion,  but  in  those 
principles  of  free  government  of  which  he  afterwards 
became  so  zealous  an  advocate.  So  early  as  IG81, 
when  he  sat  in  parliament  for  the  first  time  as  com- 
missioner for  East  Lothian,  F.  offered  so  determined 
an  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  Duke  of  York 
(afterwards  James  II.),  then  acting  as  the  Royal 
Commissioner  in  Scotland,  that  he  foimd  it  neces- 
sary to  retire,  first  into  England,  and  then  into 
Holland.  He  there  entered  into  close  .alliance  with 
the  EngUsh  refugees,  who  had  assembled  in  consi- 
derable numbers;  and  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1G83,  he  shared  tlie  counsels  of  the  party  of  which 
Russell,  Essex,  Howard,  Algernon  Sydney,  .and 
John  Hamjiden  (the  giandson  of  the  still  more 
famous  p.atriot  of  the  same  name)  were  the  leaders. 
Though  usually  regarded  as  a  republican,  F.'s  ])oli- 
tical  creed,  Uke  that  of  Algernon  Sydney,  ajtproached 
far  nearer  to  aristocracy  than  to  democracy  in 
the  modern  sense;  for  though  he  was  disposed  to 
restrict  the  monarchical  element  of  the  constitution 
372 


within  the  narrowest  limits,  if  not  to  abolish  it 
altogether,  he  was  so  far  from  being  an  advocate  for 
a  universal  participation  in  political  rights,  that  one 
of  his  favourite  schemes  for  the  reformation  of  the 
hosts  of  vagrants  and  paupers  by  whom  .Scotland 
was  infested  in  his  day,  consisteil  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  slavery  in  the  form  in  which  it  had 
existed  in  the  classical  nations  of  antiquity.  On 
the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House  jilot,  F.  returned 
to  Holland.  His  next  visit  to  England  was  as  a 
volunteer  under  the  unfortunate  Duke  of  Monmouth 
in  1GS5 ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
insurgent  army,  at  the  beginning  of  the  enterjirise, 
in  conscijuencc  of  his  having  shot  the  mayor  of 
Lynn,  with  whom  he  had  had  a  ])ersonal  quarrel 
about  a  horse.  The  next  hiding-place  which  F. 
selected  was  Spain  ;  but  he  had  no  sooner  arrived, 
than  he  was  thrown  into  pi'ison  at  the  instance 
of  the  English  ambassador,  and  would  have  been 
transmitted  to  England,  to  share  the  fate  of  hia 
fellow -j^atriots,  had  he  not  been  mysteriously  deli- 
vered from  prison  by  an  unknown  friend.  From 
Sjiain  he  jiroceeded  to  Himgary,  where  he  entered 
the  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  He  returned  to  England  at  the  Revolution- 
A  few  years  later,  he  met  in  London,  accidentally, 
it  should  seem,  the  famous  AVilliam  Patersou,  the 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  the  projector 
of  the  Darien  ExjieLUtion  in  London  ;  and  it  was  at 
F.'s  solicit.ation  that  Paterson  came  to  Scotland, 
and  otlered,  to  the  acceptance  of  his  country- 
men, a  project  which  he  had  originally  intended 
should  be  carried  out  by  the  far  gie.ater  resoiu-ccs 
either  of  the  trading  communities  of  the  Hanso 
towns,  or  of  the  princes  of  the  German  empire. 
The  bitterness  caused  by  the  treatment  which  the 
Darien  colonists  received  at  the  hands  of  Kmg 
William's  government,  tended  to  confinn  F.  and 
his  friends  in  their  opposition  to  the  Union  ^rith 
England,  and  led  to  his  delivering  in  parli.araent 
those  spirited  h.arangues  in  favour  of  an  exclusive 
Scottish  nationality,  which  still  stir  the  blood  of 
his  countrjTnen.  After  the  Union,  he  retired  in 
disgust  from  public  life,  and  died  in  London  in 
1716.  F.'s  writings  originally  a))peared  in  the 
form  of  tracts,  and  anonymously  ;  they  were,  how- 
ever, collected  and  reprinted  at  London  in  1737, 
under  the  title  of  The  Political  Works  of  Andrew 
Fhkher^  Esquire. 

FLETCHER,  Giles  and  Piiineas,  were  the  sons 
of  Dr  GUes  Fletcher,  Queen  Elizabeth's  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Russia,  and  cousins  to  Fletcher  the 
ilramatist. 

Giles,  the  elder,  was  born  about  15S0  ;  he  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  died  at  liis  living  at 
Alderton  in  IG'2.3.  His  chief  poetical  work  is  a 
sacred  jjoem,  entitled  Christ's  Viclorii  and  Triumph, 
which  apjieared  at  Cambridge  in  IGIO.  This  poem, 
although  once  admired,  is  now  unknown  to  general 
readers,  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  having,  to 
some  extent,  moulded  the  majestic  muse  of  Jlilton. 

Phineas,  the  younger  lirother  of  Giles,  was  born 
about  1584,  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and 
became  rector  of  Hilgay,  in  Norfolk,  in  1G21,  and 
died  there  in  IGGO.  His  most  important  jioeni,  the 
Purple  Island,  or  the  Isle  of  Man,  was  i)ublishcd  in 
1633.  It  contains  an  elaborate  descrii)tion  of  the 
human  body  and  mind — the  former  being  given  with 
great  anatomic.il  minuteness.  The  mind  is  repre- 
sented as  beiug  beleaguered  with  the  vices,  and 
likely  to  be  subdued,  when  an  angel  comes  to  the 
rescue — the  angel  beiug  James  I.  Although  to  a 
large  extent  formal  and  pedantic,  the  Purple  Islatid 
abouuds  in  fine  pass.ages,  in  which  the  lusciousness 
of  Spenser  and  the  gravity  of  Jlilton  are  cmiously 
mingled. 


FLETCHER—FLEXURE. 


FLETCHER,     John. 

Fletcher. 


See     Beaumont     and 


FLEUR-DE-LIS.  Authorities  .ire  divided  as  to 
whether  this  celebrated  cmbleni  is  derived  from  the 
white  lOy  of  the  gardeu,  or  from  the  (lag  or  iris, 
which,  as  generally  represfiited,  it 
more  resenihlcs  botli  in  form  and 
colour.  'Ancient  heralds,'  says  Newton 
(Display,  p.  145),  'tell  us  that  the 
Franks  of  old  had  a  custom,  at  the 
proclamation  of  their  king,  to  elevate 
him  ujion  a  shield  or  target,  and  place 
Flcur-de-Lis.  in  his  hand  a  reed  or  fl.ig  in  blossom, 
instead  of  a  sceptre  ;  and  from  thence 
the  kings  of  the  first  and  second  r.ioe  in  France 
are  represented  with  sceptres  in  their  hands  like 
the  flag  with  its  flower,  and  which  flowers  became 
the  armorial  figures  of  France.'  However  this 
may  be,  or  whatever  may  be  the  value  of  the 
other  legendary  tales,  such  as  that  a  blue  banner, 
embroidered  with  golden  fleurs-de-lis,  came  down 
from  heaven ;  that  an  angel  gave  it  to  Kin" 
Clovis  at  his  baptism,  and  the  like ;  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that,  from  Clovis  downwards,  the 
kings  of  France  bore  as  theirarms  first  an  inde- 
finite number,  and  latterly  three  golden  lihes  on  a 
blue  field,  or,  as  heralds  would  say,  .azure,  three 
fleurs-de-lis.  Or — It  was  Charles  VI.  who  reduced 
what  had  hitherto  been  the  indefinite  number  of 
fleurs-de-lis  to  three,  disposed  two  and  one ;  '  some 
conjectiu-e  upon  accomit  of  the  Trinity,  others 
say,  to  represent  the  three  different  races  of  the 
kings  of  France.'— Nisljct,  i.  .383.  Many  English 
and  Scotch  families  bear  the  fleur-de-lis  in  some 
jiortion  of  their  shield,  and  generally  with  some 
reference  to  France. 

FLEURUS,  a  small  to-mi  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hainault,  is  situated  north  of  the  left  bank 
of  the  Sambre,  and  15  miles  west  of  Namur  :  pop. 
about  2200.  It  has  been  the  scene  of  several  con- 
tests, the  last  and  most  im])ortaut,  however,  being 
the  battle  of  F.,  fought  here  •26th  June  1/94,  between 
the  army  of  the  French  Republic,  consistmg  of 
89,000  troops,  imjer  Jonrdan,  and  the  allies,  who 
were  inferior  in  numerical  strength,  under  the 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  latter  leader  gave 
orders  for  a  retreat  at  the  very  moment  when  a 
resolute  advance  might  have  decided  the  victor)' 
in  his  favour,  and  the  result  was,  that  Jourdan 
was  enabled  to  unite  his  army  with  those  of  the 
Moselle,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  North,  and  that  the 
allied  forces  were  compelled  for  a  time  to  evacuate 
Flanders. 

FLEURY,  FLORY,  FLOWRY,  FLEURETTE, 

&c.,  in  heraldry,  signifies  that  the  object  is  adorned 
with  fleurs-de-lis  ;  a  cross-fleury,  for  ex.ample,  is  a 
cross,  the  ends  of  which  are  in  the  form  of  fleurs- 
de-lis.  There  are  several  varieties  in  the  modes 
of  representing  these  crosses,  which  has  led  to 
distinctions  being  m.ade  between  them  by  heralds 
too  trivial  to  be  mentioned  :  but  they  are  all  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  cross-potanoe,  or  potancee, 
incorrectly  spelled  p.atonce  by  English  heralds. 
(Mackenzie's  Science  of  Ilcrcldrij,  p.  44).  In  the 
hatter,  the  Limbs  are  in  the  form  of  the  segments  of 
a  circle,  and  the  foliation  is  a  mere  bud ;  whereas  the 
cross-fleury  has  the  limbs  straight  and  the  termin- 
ations distinctly  floriated.     Thus — ■ 


Cross-potance. 


Cross-fleurj'. 


Perhaps,  the  most  celebrated  instance  of  this  bear- 
ing, is  in  the  case  of  the  double  prepuce  flowery 
and  counter-flowery  gules  which  surrounds  the  red 
lion  in  the  royal  .arms  of  Scotland,  and  which 
Charlemagne  is  said  to  have  conferred  on  Achaius, 
king  of  Scotland,  for  assistance  in  his  wars.  The 
object,  according  to  Nisbet  (ii.  101),  was  to  shew 
that,  as  the  lion  had  defended  the  lilies  of  France, 
these  '  hereafter  shall  continue  a  defence  for  the 
Scots  lion,  and  as  a  badge  of  friendship,  which 
has  still  continued.'  Tliat  the  Idles  were  assumed 
in  conserpience  of  the  intimate  relation  which  pre- 
vaded  between  France  and  Scotland  for  so  many 
generations,  will  not  be  doubted;  but  the  special 
occasion  of  the  assumption  may  not  be  admitted 
in  our  day  to  be  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  scep- 
ticism, notwithstanding  Nisbet's  assertion  that  it  is 
so  fully  instructed  by  ancient  and  modern  writers 
that  he  need  not  trouble  his  readers  with  a  long 
catalogue  of  them. 

FLEURY,  Claude,  a  French  church  historian, 
was  born  at  Paris,  Gth  December  1640,  and  was 
educated  at  first  for  the  law,  but  preferring  an 
ecclesiastical  career,  subsequently  took  priest's  orders. 
In  167'2,  he  became  tutor  to  the  young  Prince  de 
Conti,  who  was  brought  up  along  with  the  dauphin, 
•antl  at  a  later  period,  to  the  Comte  de  Vermandois, 
natm-al  son  of  Louis  XIV.  After  the  death  of  the 
Comte  in  1GS3,  the  French  monarch  .appointed  him, 
under  Fenelon,  tutor  to  the  Princes  of  Burgundy, 
Anjou  and  Berri,  and  also  abbot  of  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Loc-Dieu.  When  the  princes  had 
completed  their  education,  F.  was  rewarded  with 
the  priorate  of  Argenteuil.  The  Didce  of  Orleans 
selected  him  for  confessor  to  the  young  king,  Louis 
XV.,  giving  as  his  reason  for  so  doing,  that  F.  was 
neither  Jansenist,  nor  Molinist,  nor  Ultramontauist, 
but  Catholic.  F.  held  this  office  tm.l722,  when 
the  infirmities  of  age  compelled  him  to  resign  it. 
He  died  14th  Jidy  1723.  F.  was  as  learned  as 
he  w.as  modest,  and  as  mild  and  kind-hearted 
as  he  was  Bimjile  in  his  manners,  and  upright  in 
his  conduct.  Among  his  numerous  works  may  be 
mentioned,  Ma-urs  des  Israelites  (Paris,  1681); 
Mceurs  des  Chretiens  (Paris,  1662) ;  Traite  du  Choix 
et  de  la  Methode  des  Etudes  (Paris,  1686) ;  Institution 
au  Droit  Kcclesiasliijue  (1687);  and,  above  all,  the 
Hisloire  Ecclesias'itpce  (20  vols.,  Paris,  1691 — 1720). 
On  this  work,  F.  laboured  thirty  years.  It  is  marked 
by  great  leanimg,  and,  on  the  whole,  by  a  judiciously 
critical  spirit.  \Vliat  may  be  called  his  professional 
.sympathies,  are  held  in  check  by  a  noble  desire  to 
be  impartial,  which  might  well  put  to  the  blush 
the  uuveracious  p.artisanship  of  many  Protestant 
WTiters.  Semler  (q.  v.),  an  eminent  German  theo- 
logical professor,  avowed  that  his  lectures  were  at 
first  mainly  extracts  from  the  Ilistoire  EcclesioMicjue. 
Even  Voltaire  praised  it.  'The  history  of  F.,' 
says  he,  '  is  the  best  that  has  ever  been  executed.' 
D'Alembert,  and  many  others,  recommend  F.'s 
style  as  a  model  of  elegant  simplicit3\  The  so- 
called  Ahrcgt'  de  Vliistoire  Ecclesiasfirjne  de  Fleurtf, 
jiublished  .at  Berne  in  1776,  is  ascribed  to  Frederic 
the  Great.  A  posthumous  work  of  F.'s,  entitled 
Discnnrs  szir  les  liberies  de  VEglise  Oallicane,  has 
always  been  very  popidar. 

FLE'XURE,  or  FLEXION,  is  the  bending  or 
curving  of  a  line  or  figure  (see  Curvature).  A 
curve  is  said  to  have  a  point  of  contrary  flexure  at 
the  point  wliere  it  changes  its  character  of  concavity 
or  convexity  towards  a  given  line.  In  the  art  of 
building,  flexure  denotes  the  bending  of  loaded 
beams.  If  a  beam,  supported  at  its  two  ends,  be 
loarli'cl,  it  bends,  its  lower  surface  becoming  convex, 
and  its  upper  concave.    In  this  bending,  the  particles 

373 


FLIES— FLINT. 


in  the  lower  surface  are  drawn  away  from  each  other, 
and  those  in  the  upper  are  more  closely  jwcked 
to'Tcthcr,  while  between  tlie  surfaces  there  is  a  line 
ea&ed  the  line  of  no  disturliance,  wherein  the  particles 
are  neither  drawn  asunder  nor  compressed,  and 
from  which  the  mathematical  theory  of  the  flexure 
of  beams  starts.  Exiieriments  shew  that  the  tlexure 
of  solid  beams,  sujiportcd  at  their  enils,  and  loaded, 
varies— (1.)  directly  as  the  load  ;  (2.)  invei-sely  as  the 
product  of  their  breadths,  and  the  cube  of  their 
dept/ii  ;  and  (3.)  directly  as  the  cube  of  tlie  distance 
between  the  supports,  while  the  Hexure,  if  the  load 
be  uniformly  distributed  over  the  beam,  is  ^ths  of 
the  amount  produced  by  the  load  placed  on  its 
centre.     See  Strexgtu  of  Materi.u.s. 

FLIES,  Spanish  or  Blisterlno.    See  Canthakis. 

FLINDERS,  Matthew,  an  adventurous  English 
navigator,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  correct 
knowled"e  of  a  great  portion  of  the  Australian 
coasts,  was  born  at  Donington,  in  Lincolnshire, 
1760.  He  entered  the  merchant  service  at  an  early 
age,  and  subseijuently  the  royal  na\-y.  In  1795, 
the  vessel  in  which  he  was  midshipman  conveyed 
the  governor  of  New  Holland  to  Botany  Bay ;  and 
while  there,  F.  determined  to  investigate  the  co.ast 
south  of  Port  Jackson,  about  250  leagues  of  which 
were  laid  do^vn  in  the  charts  as  '  unknovi-n.'  With 
an  equally  daring  and  ambitious  yoimg  surgeon  in 
his  ship,  called  Bass,  he  dej>arted  on  the  ent6q)rise 
in  a  small  deokod  vessel,  with  a  crew  of  only  six 
men.  Their  chief  discovery  was  the  straits  between 
Van  Diemen's  Land  (now  Tasmania)  and  the  main- 
land of  Australia,  which  were  named  after  Bass. 
In  1801,  F.  obtained  from  the  British  government 
the  command  of  a  scientifio  exi)edition  for  the 
investigation  of  the  Australian  coasts  and  their 
products.  Commencing  his  examination  at  Cape 
lienwin,  F.,  in  the  course  of  tw'o  years,  gi-adually 
explored  the  coast  to  Bass's  Straits,  thence  north- 
wards— lajHng  down  carefidly  the  Great  Barrier 
Keefs — to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  which  he 
thoroughly  surveyed  across  to  Tiiuur,  then  back  to 
Cape  Leuwin,  and  roimd  the  south  coast  to  Port 
Jackson.  In  ISIO  he  was  liberated  fiom  a  six  years' 
imprisonment  by  the  French  in  the  Isle  of  France, 
returned  to  England,  and  gave  the  world  the  result 
of  his  researches  in  a  work,  entitled  A  Voyage  to 
Terra  Avstralia.  He  died  in  July  1814,  the  day 
on  which  his  book  was  published. 

FLINDERS  LAND,  now  South  Australia  (q.v.). 

FLINDE'RSIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Cedrelacea;  one  species  of  which,  F.  anstralin, 
yields  timber  little  inferior  to  maiogany.  It  is  much 
used  in  Australia,  and  is  there  called  Callcedka 
Wood. 

FLINT,  a  mineral  wbich  may  be  regarded  as 
a  variety  of  quartz,  or  as  intermediate  between 
quartz  and  opal,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  silica, 
with  a  very  little  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  water,  car- 
bon, and  sometimes  even  traces  of  organic  matter. 
It  has  a  flat  shell-like  fracture,  is  translucent  or 
semi-transparent,  and  varies  in  colour  from  a  very 
dark  brown,  or  almost  black,  to  light  brown,  red, 
yellow,  and  graj-ish  wliite,  and  is  sometimes  veined, 
clouded,  marbled,  or  spotted.  Dark-coloured  (lints 
are  most  common  in  the  chalk,  in  which  prin- 
cipally F.  occurs  imbedded,  forming  nodules  of 
various  sizes,  sometimes  large  nodular  masses,  of 
irregiUar  and  often  gi-otesque  shape;  but  gravel 
formed  of  light-coloured  flints  is  very  common,  and 
it  is  disputed  whether  or  not  a  change  of  colour  has 
taken  place  by  exi)osure  to  atmospheric  and  other 
chemical  agencies.  F.  is  sometimes  foxmd  in  beds 
or  veins.  It  is  very  abundant  wherever  the  chalk 
formation  extends,  in  England  and  other  countries  ; 
3H 


rolled  F.  uodules  are  also  often  found  in  com- 
pound rocks,  and  in  alluvial  soils;  v.ast  alluvial 
tracts  being  sometimes  full  of  them.  F.  geodes 
often  contain  crystals  of  quartz.  F.  nodides  arc 
usually  moist  in  the  interior  if  broken  when  newly 
taken  from  their  beds. 

F.  is  sometimes  harder  than  quartz,  sufljcientlv  so 
to  scratcli  it.  The  readiness  with  which  it  strikes 
fire  with  steel  is  well  known,  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  sparks  are  not  all  merely  incandescent 
particles,  heated  by  the  friction,  but  that  in  some 
of  them  a  chemical  combination  of  silica  and  iron 
takes  place,  causing  great  increase  of  heat.  The 
use  of  the  F.  and  steel  for  igniting  tinder,  once  so 
common,  has  been  almost  superseded  by  that  of 
lucifer-m.atches,  and  gun-flints  have  given  place 
to  percu.ssion-caps.  According  to  Pliny,  Clias  was 
the  first  who  struck  fire  with  flint ;  or  more  pro- 
bably, he  was  the  fii-st  to  shew  its  apjdication  to 
useful  piu-poses  ;  and  he  therefore  received  the  name 
Pyrodes.  The  most  ancient  use  of  F.  was  probably 
for  sharj)  weapons  and  cutting  iu.struments ;  and  F. 
knives,  axes,  arrow-heads,  &c.,  are  among  the  most 
interesting  relics  of  nule  antiquity. 

At  present,  a  princip.al  use  of  F.  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  fine  earthenware,  into  the  com- 
position of  which  it  enters,  being  for  this  jiuqioso 
first  calcined,  then  thi'own  into  cold  water,  and 
afterwards  powdered. 

The  origin  of  F.  is  a  subject  of  considerable 
diificidty.  Silicious  deposits  are  sometimes  a  purely 
chemical  operation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  silicious 
sinter  foi-med  round  the  geysers  of  Iceland,  from 
the  evaporation  of  water  largely  charged  with  silex. 
But  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  no  evaporation 
could  take  place,  some  other  agent  than  springs  of 
water  satiu'ated  with  silex  must  have  supplied  the 
materials.  It  is  a  fact  of  considerable  importance 
in  this  inquiry,  that  almost  all  large  masses  of 
limestone  have  thin  silicious  concretions,  or  flints. 
Thus,  chert  is  foimd  in  carboniferous  and  other 
limestones,  and  menilite  in  the  tertiary  limestones 
of  the  Paris  basin.  The  conditions  necessary  for 
the  deposition  of  calcareous  strata  seem  to  be  tliose 
required  for  the  formation  of  silicious  concretions. 
The  materials  of  both  exist  in  solution  in  sea-water, 
and  as  it  needed  the  foraminifer,  the  coral,  and  the 
mollusc  to  fix  the  carbonate  of  lime  which  formed 
the  chalk  deposits,  so  the  silex  was  secreted  by 
inmmierable  diatoms  and  sponges,  and  their  remains 
most  probably  supplied  the  materi.al  of  the  ttint. 
The  discovery  by  Dr  Bowerbank  and  other  micro- 
scopists  of  the  sjiicules  of  sponges  and  the  frustules 
of  diatoms  in  almost  every  specimen  of  F.,  has 
clearly  shewn  that  F.  to  a  large  extent,  if  not 
entirely,  owes  its  origin  to  these  minute  organisms. 
It  is,  however,  difficult  to  account  for  the  changes 
that  have  taken  i)lace  in  these  materials  subsequent 
to  their  deposition. 

FLINT,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  seaport 
in  the  east  of  FUntshire,  North  Wales,  fomierly  the 
capital  of  the  county,  on  the  left  side  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Dee,  191  miles  north-west  of  London  by  rail, 
and  12^  miles  north-west  of  Chester.  It  forms 
a  rectangle  like  a  Roman  camp,  and  is  surrounded 
by  now  nearly  obliterated  ramparts  and  intrench- 
ments.  The  Dee  estuary  is  some  miles  wide  here, 
but  is  shallow  and  narrow  at  low  water.  Vessels 
of  300  tons  reach  the  town.  The  principal  exports 
are  coal  and  lead  from  mines  in  the  vicinity, 
which  aS'ord  the  cliief  employment.  Pop.  (1861) 
3540.  It  unites  with  seven  other  jilaces  in  sending 
one  member  to  jiarliamcnt.  Roman  relics  and  traces 
of  Roman  lead  smelting-works  have  been  found 
here.  On  a  low  freestone  rock  in  a  tidal  marsh  are 
the  remains  of   a,  castle,  built  by  Henry  II.,  and 


FLINT— FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS. 


dismantled  in  1647.  The  double  tower  or  keep  is  40 
feet  in  diameter,  and  includes  two  concentric  walls, 
each  6  feet  thick,  with  an  inter\'ening  gallery  8  feet 
broad  ;  within,  is  a  circle  20  feet  in  diameter,  with 
four  entrances.  Deterioration  of  the  chamiel  of  the 
Dee  has  made  F.  in  a  great  degree  a  ]>ort  of  Chester, 
and  here  larger  vessels,  especially  ^v^th  timber,  are 
discharged,  and  the  cargoes  floated  up  the  Dee  in 
smaller  vessels,  the  timber  in  rafts.  (187 1 — pop.  4277.) 
FLINT,  a  river  of  Georgia,  one  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  unites  on  its  right  with  the 
Chattahoochee,  at  the  south-west  angle  of  the  state, 
to  form  the  Appalachicola,  which,  after  a  course 
of  100  miles,  enters  the  Gulf  of  Me-xico.  The 
F.  itself  is  about  ."00  miles  long,  being  practicable 
for  steam-boats  up  to  Albany,  about  250  miles 
distant  from  the  sea. 

FLINT,  Tlmothy,  Rev.,  an  American  clerg>-man 
and  author,  was  bom,  in  1780,  at  Pleading,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  graduated  at  Har\'ard  College.  In  1802 
he  became  minister  of  the  Congregational  Church 
in  Lunenburg,  county  of  Worcester  in  that  state, 
where  he  remained  tiU  1814.  In  the  following  year, 
he  became  a  missionary  for  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, where  he  was  engaged  in  itinerant  preach- 
ing and  teaching  a  school  In  182.3,  he  returned 
to  the  northern  states;  and  in  1826,  published  his 
llecollections  of  Ten  Years  passed  in  the  Valley  of  Ute 
JI ississippi  (Boston,  8vo).  The  same  year  appeared 
from  his  pen  a  novel,  entitled  Francis  Berrian,  or 
the  Mexican  Patriot,  purporting  to  be  the  autobio- 
graphy of  a  New  England  adventurer  who  acted  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  first  Jlexicau  revolution, 
and  in  the  overthrow  of  Iturbide.  In  1828,  he 
issued  two  works :  A  Condensed  Geography  and 
History  of  tJie  Western  Slates  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Cincinnati,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  and  Arthur  Clen- 
ning,  a  novel  (Philadelphia,  2  vols.  8vo).  Another 
novel,  George  Mason,  or  Tlie  Backwoodsman,  and  a 
romance  in  2  vols.,  The  Shoshonee  Valley,  appeared  at 
Cincinnati  in  1830.  In  1833,  he  edited  several 
numbers  of  the  Knickerbocker  Maga-Jne,  and  was 
subsequently  editor  for  three  years  of  The  Western 
Monthly  Magazine.  His  other  works  are  :  Indian 
Wars  in  the  West  (1833, 12mo) ;  Lectures  on  Natural 
History,  Geology,  C'ltemislry,  and  the  Arts  (Boston, 
183.3,  12mo) ;  translation  of  Droy'a  L'Art  d'etre 
Heureuse,  with  additions  by  translator  ;  and  Bio- 
graphical Memoir  of  Daniel  Boone,  Uie  first  Settler 
of  Kentucky  (Cincinnati,  1834,  ISmo).  In  1835,  he 
contributed  to  the  London  Athenanun  a  series  of 
Sketches  of  the  Literature  of  the  United  States. 
He  died  at  Salem,  August  16,  1840. — His  son, 
MiCAH  P.  FhUTT,  published  a  volume  of  poetry, 
entitled  The  Hunter  and  other  Poems. 

FLINT  GLASS.     See  GL^iss. 

FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS, 
believed  to  have  been  used  by  the  primitive  inhabit- 
ants, have  from  time  to  time,  in  more  or  less  nxmiber, 
been  tiu-ned  up  by  the  plough  and  the  spade,  dug 
out  from  ancient  graves,  fortifications,  and  dwelling- 
jilaces,  or  fished  up  from  the  beds  of  lakes  and 
rivers,  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe.  They 
do  not  differ,  in  any  material  respect,  from  the  flint 
imjilements  and  weapons  still  in  use  among  uncivil- 
ised tribes  in  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  weapons  of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence  are  arrow-fieads  (see  Elf- arrows), 
spear-points,  dagger-blades,  and  axe-heads  or  Celts 
(q.  v.).  The  more  common  implements  are  knives, 
chisel-s,  rasps,  wedges,  and  thin  curved  or  semi- 
circular plates,  to  which  the  name  of  'scrapers'  has 
Iteen  given.  There  is  great  v.ariety,  as  well  in  the 
size  as  in  the  shape,  even  of  articles  of  the  same 
kind.     There  is  cqiul  variety  in  the  amount  of  skill 


or  labour  expended  in  their  manufacture.  In  some 
instances,  the  fiint  has  been  roughly  fashioned  into 
something  like  the  required  form  by  two  or  three 
blows ;  in  others,  it  has  been  laboriously  chipped 
into  the  wished-for  shape,  which  is  often  one  of 
no  little  elegance.  In  yet  another  class  of  cases, 
the  flint,  after  being  duly  shaped,  has  been  groimd 
smooth,  or  has  even  received  as  high  a  polish  as 
could  be  given  by  a  modern  lapidary.  Examples 
of  all  the  varieties  of  flint  weapons  and  implements 
will  be  found  in  the  British  Museimn,  in  the  Museum 
'  of  the  Koyal  Irish  Academy  at  Dublin,  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Societj'  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland 
at  Edinburgh,  and  above  all,  in  the  Museum  of  the 
'  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen,  which 
is  especially  rich  in  this  class  of  remains.  P^epre- 
sentations  of  interesting  or  characteristic  tj^es 
I  may  be  seen  in  the  Catulogne  of  the  A  7-ckceoIogical 
Museum  at  Edinburgh  in  1856  (Ediu.  1859) ;  in  Mr 
Wilde's  Catalogue  of  tlie  Antiquities  in  tlie  Mu.iemn 
^  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  (Dubl.  1S57— ISGl); 
in  Worsaae's  Nordiske  Oldsager  i  del  Kongelige 
I  Museum  i  Kjobenharn  (Copen.  1859) ;  and  in  jl. 
Frederic  Troyon's  Habitations  Lacustres  (Lausanne, 
1860). 

Geological  discoveries  have  recently  invested  fiint 
implements  -with  a  new  interest.  At  Abbe\alle,  at 
Amiens,  at  Paris,  and  elsewhere  on  the  continent, 
flint  weapons,  fashioned  by  the  hand  of  man,  have 
been  foimd  along  with  remains  of  extinct  species 
of  the  elejihant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  other  mam- 
mals, in  undisturbed  beds  of  those  deposits  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  clay  to  which  geologists  have  given 
the  name  of  '  the  drift.'  They  so  far  resemble  the 
flint  imjilements  and  weapons  found  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  but  are  generally  of  a  larger  size, 
of  ruder  workmanship,  and  less  varied  in  shape. 
They  have  been  divided  into  three  classes — round- 
jiointed,  as  in  fig.  1 ;  and  sharp-pointed,  as  in  fig.  2, 
both  being  chipped  to  a  sharp  edge,  so  as  to  cut  or 
pierce  only  at  the  pointed  end ;  and  oval-shaped,  as 
in  fig.  3,  with  a  cutting  edge  all  round.  The  first 
and  second  classes  vary  in  length  from  about  four 
i  inches  to  eight  or  nine  inches ;  the  third  class  is 
i  generally  about  four  or  five  inches  long,  but  examples 
I  have  been  found  of  no  more  than  two  inches,  and  of 
as  much  as  eight  or  niue  inches.  In  no  instance  has 
any  flint  implement  discovered  in  the  drift  been 
found  either  polished  or  ground.  The  French  anti- 
quary, M.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  was  the  first  to 
call  attention  to  these  very  interesting  remains, 
in  his  Antiquites  Celtiques  et  Antediluvieiines  (Paris, 
1847 — 1857).  But  it  has  since  been  remembered 
that  implements  of  the  same  kind  were  found  in  a 
similar  position  at  Hoxne,  in  Suffolk,  .along  with 
remains  of  some  gigantic  anim.al,  in  1797,  and  at 
Gray's  Inn  Lane,  in  London,  along  with  remains  of 
an  elephant,  in  1715.  Both  these  English  examples 
are  still  preserved — the  first  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  at  London,  the  second  in  the 
British  Museimi,  and  they  are  precisely  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  examples  more  recently  foimd 
in  France. 

To  what  age  these  remains  should  be  assigned, 
is  a  question  on  which  geology  seems  scarcel}' 
yet  prepared  to  speak  with  authority.  But,  in 
the  words  of  Mr  John  Evans,  in  lus  essay  on  '  Flint 
Implements  in  the  Drift,'  in  the  Archa:ologia, 
vol.  xxxviii.  (Lond.  1860),  '  thus  much  appears  to 
be  established  beyond  a  doubt,  that  in  a  i)eriod 
of  antiquity  remote  beyond  any  of  which  we  have 
hitherto  found  traces,  this  poriion  of  the  globe 
was  peopled  by  man  ;  and  that  mankind  has  here 
\ritnessed  some  of  those  geological  changes  by 
which  the  so-called  diluWal  beds  were  deposited. 
AVhether  these  were  the  result  of  some  \nolent  rush 


FLINTSHIRE-FLOATING  BATTERY. 


of  waters,  such  »s  may  have  taken  place  when 
*'tho  fiiuntains  of  the  great  deep  were  broken 
up,  ami  the  windows  of  heaven  were  opened," 
or  whether  of  a  more  gradual  action,  similar  in 
character  to  some  of  those  now  in  operation  along 


the  course  of  our  brooks,  streams,  and  rivers,  may 
be  matter  of  dispute.  Under  any  circumstances, 
this  iireat  fact  remains  indisputable,  that  at  Amiens, 
laud  which  is  now  lUO  feet  above  the  sea,  and  90 
feet  above  the  Somme,  has,  since  the  existence  of 


Flint  Implements  from  the  Valley  of  the  Somme — Reduced. 


man,  been  siibmergcd  under  fresh  water,  and  an 
aqueous  deposit  from  20  to  30  feet  in  thickness,  a 
portion  of  which,  at  all  events,  must  have  subsided 
from  tranquil  water,  has  been  formed  upon  it ;  and 
this,  too,  has  taken  place  in  a  country  the  level  of 
which  is  now  stationary,  and  the  face  of  which  has 
been  little  altered  since  the  days  when  the  Gauls 
and  the  Romans  constructed  their  sepidchres  in  the 
soil  overlying  the  drift  which  contains  these  relics 
of  a  far  earlier  race  of  men.' 

FLI'NTSHIRE,  a  maritime  county  of  North 
Wales,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Cheshire  and  the  river 
Dee,  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  Denbighshire,  and  on  the 
N.  by  the  Irish  Sea.  The  main  portion  of  the  county 
is  25  mUes  long  Ijy  10  broad,  and  the  larger  of 
the  two  outljang  jiortions,  which  lies  toward  the 
south-east  of  the  main  jiart,  is  10  mUes  by  5.  F.  is 
the  smallest  of  the  Welsh  coimties,  its  area  being 
only  184,905  acres,  of  which  ith  is  arable.  The 
coast,  20  miles  long,  is  low  and  sandy,  but  on  the 
Dee  estuary  fertde.  A  hill-range,  parallel  to  the 
Dee,  runs  through  the  length  of  the  county,  and  rises 
in  Garreg  to  825  feet.  Another  range  along  the  south- 
west border  of  the  county  rises  in  Moel  Famma, 
1845  feet.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Dee,  Alyn,  and 
Chvyd.  The  chief  strata  are  Permian,  Carboniferous, 
and  Devonian.  Coal,  and  ores  of  iron,  load,  silver, 
copper,  and  zinc  are  the  chief  mineral  ])rod>iut3  and 
exports.  F.  supplies  a  fourth  of  the  lead  produced 
in  Britain.      Tho   soil  is  fertile  in  the  plains  and 


vales,  and  the  staple  produce  is  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
potatoes,  cattle,  cheese,  and  butter.  Cotton  is  the 
main  manufacture.  The  London,  Chester,  and  Holy- 
head Radway  skirts  the  east  and  north  shores.  F. 
contains  5  hundreds  and  32  parishes.  Poi>.  (ISGl) 
69,870.  About  215  places  of  worship  (110  Methodists, 
41  Episcopal).  F.  sends  two  members  to  parliament. 
The  chief  towns  are  Flint,  formerly  the  county 
town  ;  Mold,  St  Asaph,  Holywell,  Rhyddlan,  and 
Hawarden.  F.  has  traces  of  Roman  lead-mines,  is 
traversed  by  Wat  and  Offa's  Dykes,  and  has  some 
ancient  castle  and  ecclesiastical  ruins.  In  F.,  in  the 
7th  c,  Saxon  invaders  massacred  1200  Christian 
monks  of  the  monastery  of  Bangor.  In  790,  the 
Saxons  defeated  the  Welsh  here  with  dreadfid 
slaughter,  which  event  gave  rise  to  the  still  popular 
plaintive  air  of  J/ojy'a  ii/ii/(WfaH.  (1S71 — pop.7G,245.) 

FLINTY  SLATE,  of  which  there  are  beds  in 
some  parts  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  other  countries, 
is  an  impure  quartz,  assuming  a  slaty  structure.  It 
contains  about  75  per  cent,  of  silica,  the  remainder 
being  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  &c.  Its  frac- 
ture is  rather  splintery  than  shell-like.  It  is  more 
or  less  translucent.  It  passes  by  insensible  grada- 
tions into  clay-slate,  with  which  it  is  often  in  most 
intimate  geological  connection.  Lydian  Stone  (q.  v.) 
is  a  variety  of  flinty  slate. 

FLOATING  BATTERY  is  a  hulk,  heavily 
armed,  and  made  as  invulnerable  as  possible,  used 


FLOATING  BATTERY— FLOATING  ISLANDS. 


in  defending  harbours,  or  in  attacks  on  marine 
fortresses.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of  their 
emi>loyment  was  by  the  French  and  Spaniards 
against  Gibraltar,  in  the  memorable  siege  which 
lasted  from  July  1779  to  February  1783,  when  ten 
of  these  vessels,  carrying  212  large  giins,  were 
brought  to  bear  on  the  fortress ;  they  had  sides  of 


Floating  Batterj-  used  in  the  r>us,^i.iii  War,  1S54 — 1855. 

great  thickness,  and  were  covered  with  sloping  roofs, 
to  cause  the  shot  striking  them  to  glance  off  inno- 
cuously. But  their  solidity  and  strength  were 
unavailing  against  the  courage  and  adroitness  of  the 
defenders,  under  the  gallant  General  Elliot,  who 
succeeded  in  destrojnng  them  with  red-hot  cannon- 
balls.  Steam  floating  batteries  of  ii-on  were  con- 
structed tor  the  war  %rith  Prussia  in  1854,  both  by 
the  British  and  French  governments  ;  but,  notwith- 
standing that  they  rendered  good  service  before 
Kinbnm,  they  have  since  been  generally  discarded 
for  other  than  purely  defensive  purposes,  as  too 
cumbrous  for  navigation,  and  too  suffocating  from 
the  smoke  that  collected  between  their  decks  dur- 
ing action. — The  iron-plated  frigates  now  made 
(such  as  the  Warrior)  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as 
floating  batteries,  being  rather  frigates  of  splendid 
build,  rendered  almost  impenetrable  by  sheets  of 
iron  overlying  their  sides. 

FLOATING  ISLANDS  exist  in  some  lakes, 
and  more  rarely  in  slow  and  placid  rivers.  Not 
mifrequently,  they  are  formed  l>y  the  detachment  of 
portions  of  the  bank  ;  the  interlaced  roots  of  plants 
forming  a  fabric  suiEcientl}'  strong  to  endui'e  the 
occasional  buffeting  of  waves,  and  to  support  soil 
for  herbage  or  even  trees  to  grow  in.  Floating 
islands  are  often  formed  by  aggregation  of  diift- 
wood  iu  the  creeks  and  bays  of  tropical  rivers,  and 
being  wafted  into  the  channel  of  the  river  when  it 
is  flooded  or  by  the  w*ind,  are  carried  down  to  the 
sea,  with  the  soil  that  has  accumulated,  and  the 
vegetation  that  has  established  itself  upon  them. 
They  are  sometimes  seen  at  a  distance  of  50  or  100 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  with  living 
trees  standing  erect  upon  them.  Portions  of  the 
alluvial  soil  from  the  deltas  of  rivers,  held  together 
V)y  the  roots  of  mangroves  and  other  trees,  are 
sometimes  also  carried  out  to  sea  after  tyj)lioons 
or  hurricanes,  and  ships  have,  in  consequence, 
been  involved  in  unexpected  dangers,  as  amongst 


the  icebergs  of  colder  latitudes.      Imagination  has 
always  invested  with  a  pecuhar  interest  the 

Straggling  plots,  which  to  and  free  doe  rome 
In  the  wide  waters ; 

and  ancient  legend  did  not  fail  to  notice  the  floating 
islets  of  the  sacred  Vandimonian  Lake,  which  were 
large  enough  to  bear  away  cattle  that  were  tempted 
upon  them  by  their  fresh  green  grass ;  and  the  island 
of  the  Cutidian  waters,  which  carried  on  its  surface  a 
dark  and  gloomy  grove,  and  was  constantly  changing 
its  place.  A  small  lake  iu  Artois,  near  St  Omer,  is 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  floating  islands,  as 
are  also  the  marshy  lakes  of  Comacchio  near  the  Gulf 
of  Venice.  Among  the  largest  in  the  world  are  those 
of  the  Lake  of  Gerdau,  in  Prussia,  which  furnish  pas- 
turage for  100  head  of  cattle ;  and  that  of  the  Lake 
of  Kulk,  in  Osuabnick,  which  is  covered  with  beau- 
tiful elms.  Loch  Lomond  was  long  celebrated  for 
its  floating  island  ;  it,  however,  can  no  longer  boast 
of  one,  as  it  has  long  since  subsided  aucl  become 
stationary'.  Floating  islands  are  found  in  some  lakes 
of  Scotland,  and  also  in  Ireland,  and  consist  for  the 
most  part  of  large  floating  masses  of  peat.  Pennant 
gives  a  description  of  one  which  he  saw  in  Breadal- 
baiie,  the  surtace  of  which  exhibited  plenty  of  coarse 
gi'ass,  small  willows,  and  even  a  little  birch  tree. 
More  interesting  to  the  scientific  inquirer,  as  pre- 
senting a  phenomenon  not  so  easily  explained,  are 
those  floating  islands  which  from  time  to  time 
appear  and  disappear  in  the  same  spot,  of  which 
there  is  one  iu  the  Lake  of  Derwentwator  in  Cum- 
berland, one  in  the  Lake  Ealang  in  the  province  of 
Smalaude  iu  Sweden,  and  one  in  Ostrogotliia.  That 
in  Derwentwater  is  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  a 
stream  called  the  Catgill ;  and  the  most  probable  of- 
the  many  theories  which  have  been  proposed  to 
account  for  it  is  that  which  ascribes  it  to  the  waters 
of  the  stream,  when  flooded  by  rains,  getting  beneath 
the  interlaced  and  matted  roots  of  the  aquatic  plants 
which  there  form  a  close  turf  on  the  bottom  of  the 
lake.  This  floating  island,  when  it  rises  above  the  ■ 
water,  is  most  elevated  in  the  centre,  and  on  its 
being  jiicrced  with  a  fishing-rod,  water  has  spouted 
up  to  the  height  of  two  feet. 

The  marshy  ground  of  the  vale  of  Cashmere,  and 
particularly  around  the  city  of  Cashmere,  containing 
many  lakes,  and  liable  to  inimdations,  exhibits  a 
peculiar  form  of  human  industry  in  its  numerous 
Floating  Gardens,  emjdoyed  chiefly  for  the  ciUti- 
vation  of  cucumbers,  melons,  and  water-melons. 
These  floating  gardens  may  be  described  as  portions 
of  the  marshy  ground  artificially  made  to  float,  by 
cutting  through  the  roots  of  the  reeds,  sedges,  and 
other  plants  about  two  feet  below  the  surface,  upon 
which  mud  is  then  spread.  The  floating  of  the 
garden  secures  the  soil  and  crop  from  destruction 
by  inimdations. 

Floating  gardens  existed  on  the  Lake  of  Mexico 
before  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  the  Sp.iniards. 
The  Mexicans  h.ad  made  great  progress  in  the  art 
of  gardening,  and  particularly  in  the  eidtiv.ation  of 
flowers,  which  were  much  used  both  in  their  festi- 
rities  and  in  their  worship.  How  they  were  induced 
to  attempt  the  formation  of  floating  gardens,  and  at 
what  period  it  was  first  done,  are  mere  matters  of 
conjecture.  The  shallowness  of  great  part  of  the 
lake  was  favourable  to  the  success  of  the  attempt, 
and  perhaps  the  gradual  receding  of  its  w'aters  may 
be  reckoned  among  the  reasons  of  the  gradual 
diminution  of  the  number  of  the  floatuig  gardens, 
which  have  almost  ceased  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  Abbe  Clavigero,  in 
his  Hidorij  of  Mexico,  describes  them  as  formed 
of  wicker-work,  water-plants,  and  mu<l ;  as  some- 
times more  than  20  poles  in   extent ;   the  largest 

377 


FLOATSTONK-FLOOK-CLOTH. 


ones  conunonly  having  a  small  tree  in  the  centre, 
and  sometimes  a  hut  for  the  cultivator;  and  as 
employed  for  the  cultivation  both  of  flowers  and 
culiuarj'  plants.  Humboldt  confinns  this  descrip- 
tion, but  states  that  the  real  floating  ganlens, 
or  diinaiH/xu,  are  rapidly  diminishin"  m  nmnber. 
The  existinj;  cltiimm/nis  arc  in  peuural  not  floating 
gardt-ns,  but  jilots  of  ground  with  very  wide  ilitclies 
between  them,  formed  by  heapini;  up  earth  from 
the  ditches  in  the  swamps  or  shallows  at  the  side 
of  the  lake. 

Great  part  of  Bangkok,  the  cajiital  of  Siam,  con- 
sists of  floating  houses.     See  B.v>gkoic. 

FLOA'TSTONE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  consisting 
of  fibres— delicate  ci-jstals— agCTegated  so  that  the 
whole  mass  is  si)onge-like,  and  so  light,  owing  to 
the  air  confined  in  the  interstices,  as  to  float  for  a 
while  on  Avater.  It  is  found  in  a  limestone  of  the 
chalk  formation  near  Paris,  in  imbedded  masses,  or 
incrusting  Hint  nodules. 

FLOBE'CQ,  a  .<!niaU  town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  Hain.iult,  20  miles  north-east  of  Tournai. 
It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  linens,  has 
breweries,  salt-works,  oQ  and  flour  mills,  and  has 
two  fairs  annually.     Pop.  5258. 

FLODDEX,  Battle  of.  On  the  24th  January 
1502,  a  '  perpetual  peace '  was  concluded  between 
Endand  and  Scotland.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  however,  a  series  of  petty  quarrels  had  done 
much  to  bring  this  jieaceablc  aiTaugement  to  a  ter- 
mination ;  and  in  1513,  on  the  invasion  of  France, 
Scotland's  ancient  ally,  by  Hemy  of  England,  a 
war  broke  out  between  the  two  coimtries.  .1  ames 
IV.,  the  chivalrous  but  rash  king  of  Scotland, 
.sunmionod  the  whole  array  of  his  kingdom  to  meet 
on  the  Borough  or  Common  Moor  of  Edinburgh, 
which  extended  frcmi  the  southern  walls  of  the  city 
to  the  foot  of  the  Braid  Hills,  and  which  was  then 
'  a  field  spacious,  and  delightful  by  the  shade  of 
many  stately  and  .iged  oaks.'  Here  an  aimy,  it  is 
said,  of  100,000  men  assembled.  With  this  force 
James  crossed  the  border  on  the  22d  August  151.S ; 
but  instead  of  advancing  at  once,  and  achieving 
a  decisive  success,  he  lingered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Tweed  imtil  his  army  had  become 
reduced  by  desertion  to  about  30,000  men.  On 
the  6th  September,  James  took  up  his  position  on 
Flodden  Hill,  the  last  and  lowest  eminence  of  the 
CheWots  toward  the  north-east.  On  the  morning 
of  the  9th,  the  Earl  of  SiuTey,  lieutenant-general 
of  the  northern  counties  of  England,  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  about  32,000  men,  advanced  from 
the  south-east,  crossed  the  Till  by  a  skilful  and 
unexpected  movement,  and  thus  cut  o&  all  conununi- 
cation  between  King  James  and  Scotland.  While 
the  English  were  crossing  the  Till,  the  Scots  might 
have  attacked  them  with  every  chance  of  success, 
and  their  not  taking  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
was  the  firet  great  mistake  of  the  battle.  Observing 
that  the  English  were  aiming  at  a  strong  posi- 
tion to  the  north-west  of  Flodden  Hill,  and  desirous 
of  prevepting  this,  James,  ha\Tug  ordered  his 
tents  to  be  set  on  fire,  advanced  against  them  in 
battle-array.  The  two  armies  were  drawn  up  in 
similar  order,  each  consisting  of  a  centre,  a  right 
and  left  wmg,  and  a  reserve  placed  behind  the 
centre.  At  about  four  o'clock  on  Friday,  9tli  Sep- 
tember, the  battle  commenced  with  cannonading  on 
both  sides.  The  Earls  of  Huntly  and  Home,  who 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Scottish  army, 
charged  the  English  right,  which  was  led  by  Sir 
Edmund  Howard,  and  entirely  defeated  it.  Instead, 
however,  of  following  uj)  tlieir  success,  Home's 
borderers  commenced  pillaging  the  baggage  of  both 
armies;  and  Huntly,  after  his  first  charge,  is  said 
:17» 


to  have  left  the  field.  On  the  Scottish  right,  the 
clansmen  uiuler  Lennox  and  .\rgylc,  goaded  to 
fury  by  the  English  archers,  rusheoT forward,  heed- 
less of  order,  and  fell  with  the  greatest  \-iolence 
u]ion  their  opi>onents,  who,  however,  received  them 
with  wonderful  intrepidity  and  coolness,  and  at 
length  ])ut  them  to  Uight  with  great  slaughter. 
Meantime,  a  desperate  resistance  was  being  made 
by  the  Scottish  centre,  where  the  king  fought  on 
foot  among  his  nobles.  Scottish  histoi-y  presents 
no  instance  in  which  the  national  valour  bm'ned 
with  a  purer  flame  than  in  this.  Hemmed  in  by 
outnumbering  enemies,  the  king  among  his  slender 
group  of  lorils  fought  manfully  until,  when  the 
night  was  closing  on  Flodden,  he  fell  pierced  by 
an  arrow,  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  head.  The 
hiU  was  lield  during  the  night  liy  the  Scots  ;  but  at 
dawn,  learning  the  state  of  matters,  they  abandoned 
their  position.  Their  loss  amounted  to  from  8000  to 
1 0.OOO  men.  '  Scarce  a  Scottish  family  of  eminence,' 
says  Scott,  '  but  had  an  ancestor  killed  at  Flodden.' 
Besides  the  king,  the  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews  and 
twelve  earls  were  among  the  slain.  The  Enghsh 
loss  amounted  to  about  6000  or  70()0 ;  but  Surrey's 
victory  was  so  nearly  a  defeat  that  he  was  vmable 
to  prosecute  the  war  with  .any  vigour.  The  sixth 
canto  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  poem  of  Mannion  con- 
tains a  magnitieeut,  and  in  the  main  an  accurate, 
description  of  the  battle. 

FLOGGING,  Arsiy  and  Navt.  Corporal 
pimishmeut  has  exi.'<ted  from  time  immemorial  iu 
the  British  army  and  navy ;  formerly  having  been 
inflicted  upon  sUght  occasion,  and  often  with  bar- 
barous severity.  In  deference,  however,  to  public 
oiiinion,  it  has  been  much  less  resorted  to  during 
recent  years,  and  jtroniises  almost  to  disappear 
imder  a  regxdatiou  of  1860.  A  man  must  now  be 
convicted  of  one  disOTaceful  offence  against  discip- 
line before  he  can  be  liable  to  flogging  for  the  next 
such  olfunee  ;  and  even  after  one  such  degradation, 
he  m.ay  be  restored  to  the  non-liable  class  by  a 
year's  good  conduct.  The  punishment  of  flogging, 
which  is  generally  administered  with  a  whip  or  •  eat' 
of  nine  tails  on  the  bare  back,  cannot,  imder  e.xisting 
rules,  exceed  fifty  lashes. 

Coqioral  punishment  is  not  recognised  in  the 
French  ai-my ;  but  then  the  soldiers  in  th.at  country 
are  di-awn  by  conscription  from  all  ranks  of  society, 
and  have,  on  an  average,  a  higher  moral  tone  than 
the  British  recniits,  who,  attracted  by  a  bounty, 
volunteer  usually  from  the  lowest  orders.  Ou  the 
other  hand,  the  discipline  in  the  French  army,  and 
especially  during  war  on  a  foreign  soil,  is  universally 
admitted  to  be  inferior  to  the  strict  rule  preserved 
among  British  troops.  Soldiers  and  sailors  being 
men  unaccustomed  to  control  their  passions,  and 
any  breach  of  insubordination  being  fatal  to  the 
atqvii  of  a  force,  unless  summarily  rej)ressed,  it  is 
considered  necessary  to  retain  the  power — how- 
ever rarely  exercised — of  inflicting  the  painful  and 
humiliating  punishment  of  flogging.  The  French 
soldier,  though  escaping  the  ignominy  of  personal 
chastisement,  is  governed  bj'  a  code  harsher  than  our 
articles  of  war  as  actually  administered  ;  and  the 
inmishment  of  death,  scarcely  known  in  the  British 
serAdce  during  peace,  is  not  unfrequently  visited  in 
France  upon  offenders  ag.ainst  discipline. 

FLOOR-CLOTH,  a  coarse  canvas  coated  on 
both  sides,  and  partly  saturated  with  thick  oil-paint, 
one  side  haWng  usually  a  eoloiu'ed  pattern  printed 
upon  it  in  od-paint.  The  canvas  basis  for  floor- 
cloth is  chiefly  manufactured  in  Dundee.  As  it  is 
required  to  be  without  seam,  and  of  sufficient  width 
to  cover  considerable  spaces  of  flooring,  special 
looms  are  required  for  weaving  it.     It  is  made 


FLOOR-CLOTH— FLOOKS. 


from  IS  to  24  feet  in  ■width,  and  in  lengths  from  100 
to  113  yards. 

Tlie  first  step  towards  converting  this  canvas 
into  floor-cloth  consists  in  stretching  it  on  a  frame. 
This  is  a  work  of  some  difficulty,  on  account  of  the 
great  size  of  tlie  pieces.  Some  of  the  frames  are  as 
much  as  100  feet  in  length  by  24  feet  in  height, 
and  the  canvas  must  be  stretched  over  it  as  tight  as 
a  drum.  The  back  or  plain  side  of  the  cloth  is 
first  operated  upon,  by  priming  it  with  a  solution 
of  size,  and  scouring  it  mth  pumice.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  ]>revent  too  much  of  the  paint  from 
])enetratuig  the  canvas,  and  rendering  it  brittle,  and 
to  make  an  even  surface  to  receive  the  }>aint,  "which 
is  mixed  'nith  linseed  oil,  vrAh.  verj'  little  or  no 
turpentine,  and  is  consequently  thicker  than  com- 
mon paint.  This  is  thrown  or  splashed  upon  the 
surface  mth  a  brush ;  and  then  with  a  long  steel 
trowel  the  workman  spreads  the  dalis  of  paint,  and 
]irodiices  a  tolerably  smooth  surface.  This  troicel- 
colour  is  left  for  12  or  14  days  to  dry,  and  then 
another  coat  is  l.iid  on  in  a  similar  manner ;  and  this 
completes  the  back  or  mider  side  of  the  floor-cloth. 

While  the  first  coat  of  the  back  is  drying,  the 
front  is  prlmfd  and  pumiced,  and  a  coat  of  trowel- 
colour  laid  on.  As  more  care  is  required  on  this 
side,  this  coat  of  colour  is  scoiu-ed  quite  smooth  with 
pumice,  and  two  more  trowel-colours  are  added,  and 
each  scoured  like  the  first.  Another  coat  is  now 
carefully  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  is  called  a  brush- 
colour.  This  forms  the  ground  upon  which  the 
pattern  is  to  be  priuted. 

The  printing  is  done  by  means  of  wood-blocks. 
The  pattern  ia  first  drawn  and  painted,  in  its 
complete  form  and  colours,  upon  a  piece  of  paper ; 
another  piece  of  paper  is  now  l.iid  under  this,  and 
the  outlines  of  that  portion  of  the  pattern  included 
in  one  colour  are  pricked  through  to  the  lower 
paper.  In  like  manner,  pricked  outlines  of  each 
of  the  other  coloiu-s  are  prepared.  Each  of  these 
pricked  sheets  is  laid  upon  a  block  of  pear-tree 
wood,  and  dusted  over  with  powdered  charcoal  or 
lampblack,  aud  thus  the  pattern  is  drawn  in  dots 
upon  the  wood ;  the  car\-er  cuts  away  the  wood 
surrounding  the  pattern,  and  leaves  it  standing  in 
relief. 

Tlie  pear-tree  blocks  are  backed  by  gluing  them 
to  a  piece  of  deal,  and  this  piece  again  to  another, 
with  the  fibres  at  right  angles,  to  prevent  warping. 

The  colours  are  spread  by  boys  upon  j)added 
cushions  covered  with  floor-cloth,  and  each  printer 
dabs  his  block  upon  that  containing  the  required 
colour,  and  then  places  it  upon  the  floor-cloth, 
and  striking  it  with  the  handle  of  a  short  heavy 
hammer,  prints  his  portion  of  the  pattern.  He 
then  proceeds  'W'ith  a  repetition  of  this,  and  as  he 
advances,  he  is  followed  in  order  by  the  printers 
of  the  other  colom's,  who  place  their  blocks  accur- 
ately over  the  pattern  the  first  has  commenced. 
The  first  printer's  chief  care  is  to  keep  the  repeti- 
tions of  the  pattern  accurately  in  line. 

The  quality  of  floor-cloth  depends  mainly  upon 
the  number  of  coats  of  paint,  the  kind  of  medium 
used  for  the  colour,  aud  the  time  given  to  drying. 
For  the  best  qualities,  a  fortnight  must  elapse  be- 
tween the  laying  on  of  each  coat,  and  finally,  several 
months'  exjiosure  in  the  drying-room  is  necessary. 
As  the  rental  of  the  space  thus  occupied,  and  the 
interest  of  the  capital  left  stagnant  during  this  time, 
amount  to  a  considerable  sum,  there  is  a  strong 
inducement  to  manufacturers  to  hasten  the  pro- 
cesses, which  may  easUy  be  done  by  using  gold  size 
or  boiled  linseed  oil,  or  other  rapid  '  dryers,'  instead 
of  raw  linseed  oil ;  but  just  in  proportion  .as  the 
drying  is  hastened  by  these  means,  the  durability 
and  flexibihty  of  the  floor-cloth  are  deteriorated.    In 


order  to  secure  the  maximum  of  durabilitj',  floor- 
cloth shoidd  stm  be  kept  three  or  four  years  after  it 
has  left  the  drying-room  of  the  manufacturer,  aud 
purchasers  should  always  select  those  pieces  which 
they  have  reason  to  believe  have  been  the  longest 
in  stock.  Narrow  floor-cloth,  for  stair-carpetmg, 
passages,  &c.,  ia  made  as  above,  and  then  cut  into 
the  required  widths,  and  printed.  It  usually  has  a 
large  pattern  in  the  middle,  and  a  border  of  a  smaller 
design. 

The  laying  of  lobbies  and  passages  with  encaustic 
tiles  h.as  latelj'  led  to  the  superseding  of  floor-cloth 
in  such  situations,  while  for  some  other  purposes, 
such  as  covering  the  floors  of  churches,  reading- 
rooms,  and  waiting-rooms  at  railway-stations,  it  is 
superseded  by  the  newly  invented  material  called 
kami)tidicon,  or  vulcanised  India-rubber  cloth,  which 
is  impervious  to  wet,  soft  and  quiet  to  the  trc;Kl, 
and  warm  to  the  feet.  This  new  material  is  made 
plain  or  figured  to  resemble  painted  floorcloth. 

FLOORS,  FLOORING,  the  horizontal  partitions 
between  the  stories  of  a  building,  the  upper  part  of 
which  forms  the  floor  of  the  apartments  above,  and 
the  lower  portion  the  ceiling  of  those  below. 

Floors  are  variously  constructed,  according  to 
their  dimensions,  and  to  the  weight  they  have  to 
sustain.  Single-joisted  floors  are  the  simi)lest  and 
most  cheaply  constructed,  and  are  used  for  ordinarj' 
buildings,  where  the  distance  between  the  bearings 
does  not  exceed  20,  or  at  most  24  feet. 

The  annexed  figure  represents  a  section  of  a  single- 
joisted  floor,  in  the  line  of  the  flooring-boards,  and 
across  the  joists.     These  joists  are  beams  laid  edge 


ff  i  ^.  '■f  '^  the  joists ;  e,  /,  the  flooring-boards ;  r^?  and  rfA, 
herring-bone  strutting. 

upwards,  and  resting  at  their  ends  upon  wall-plates 
built  into  the  walls.  Their  ■width  shotdd  not  be 
less  than  two  inches,  for  if  nan-ower,  they  would  be 
liable  to  spht  with  the  naiUng  of  the  flooring-boards. 
They  are  placed  edge  upwards,  in  order  to  economise 
timber,  as  the  strength  of  a  beam  to  bo.ar  a  trans- 
verse strain  varies  simply  with  the  breadth  and 
with  the  squ.are  of  the  depth.  See  Strength  of 
JIatekl\l.s.  When  a  deep  and  long  joist  is  used, 
there  is  danger  of  its  twisting  or  turning  over ;  this 
is  prevented  by  strutlhip,  that  is,  n.iiling  cross 
liicces  of  wood  between  them,  as  shewni  bi-twcen  the 
joists  c  and  d  of  the  figure,  or  less  eft'ectually,  by 
driving  pieces  of  planking  between  them.  Strutting 
is  required  when  the  length  of  the  joists  exceeds 
eight  feet.  The  laths  for  the  ceihng  of  the  room 
below  are  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the  joists.  In 
good  substantial  work,  the  distance  between  the 
joists  from  centre  to  centre  is  about  12  uiches,  but 
this  is  often  exceeded  in  cheaply  built  houses. 

Double-joistcd  floors  are  constructed  by  laying 
strong  timbers,  called  bi7>ding-joists,  from  wall  to  wall, 
at  a  distance  of  about  six  feet  apart  ;  and  a  double 
set  of  joists,  one  above  for  the  floor,  aud  one  below 
for  the  ceiling,  are  laid  across  these,  and  notched 
down  upon  them.  These  latter,  when  thus  pUaced, 
are  called  hridflnci-joists,  as  they  bridge  over  the 
interval  between  the  larger  binding-joists.  This  is 
adopted  when  a  more  perfect  ceiling,  free  from 
cracks,  produced  by  the  jielding  of  the  floor,  is 
required,  or  where  there  is  a  difficulty  in  obtaining 
a  sufficient  amount  of  long  timber  for  single  joistmg 
the  whole  of  the  floor. 

Tlie  framed  floor  is   one   degree   more   complex 


FLORA-FLORENCE. 


tliaii  the  douWe-joisted.  Bindin"  and  bridpng 
joists  arc  used  in  tlio  framed  tloor,  but  the  bindins- 
joists  cease  to  l>o  the  iiriniary  support,  as  for  this 
purTOse  strong  balks  of  timbers,  called  girders,  are 
used.  They  are  laid  across,  at  distances  of  from 
eight  to  ten  feet,  and  the  binding-joists  arc  framed 
into  them  by  a  lioklenon  joint.  See  CtRPK-NTEV. 
The  bridging- joists  are  notched  to  these  in  the  same 
manner  .as  for  doublejoisted  floors.  A  hai/  is 
the  general  name  for  the  sp.-ice  between  girders: 
if  between  a  girder  and  wall,  it  is  called  a  tad  bay  ; 
or  between  two  girders,  a  case  bay  ;  and  the  work 
between  is  described  as  a  bay  ofjoisting. 

AVheu  the  space  to  be  spanned  is  too  great  for 
a  simple  womlgirder,  trussed  or  built  up  wooden 
irinlers  or  iron  girders  are  used  :  the  latter  have  of 
fate  come  into  extensive  use.  even  where  simple 
wood-girtlers  are  ajiplicable.     See  Girder. 

With  a  given  quantitv  of  timlier,  and  a  moderate 
space,  the  singlejoisted  floor  is  the  strongest  of 
any.  One  of  its  disadvantages  is  the  free  com- 
munication of  sound  to  tlie  ajiartnient  below,  unless 
some  atlditional  means  of  obstructing  the  sound  be 
adopted. 

When  first  laid,  the  floor  should  be  rather  high 
in  the  centre,  to  allow  for  settling  at  the  joints; 
and  when  settled,  it  should  be  perfectly  level,  for 
if  it  risis  in  the  middle,  it  wll  exert  an  outward 
thrust  upon  the  walls,  and  if  hollow,  it  will  pull 
inwards;  but  if  level,  its  whole  strain  is  i)erj)cn- 
ilieular. 

The  flooring-boards  are  usually  nailed  to  the 
joists,  and  vary  from  1  to  IJ  inch  in  thickness; 
for  common  floors  they  are  from  7  to  9  inches  wide, 
but  for  better  floors  a  width  of  only  3  to  5  inches 
is  used.  The  adv.-uitage  of  the  narrow  boards  is, 
that  the  shrinkage  and  warping  have  not  so  much 
effect  on  the  .sjiaces  between.  This  refers  to 
the  ordinary  deal- flooring  used  in  modern  British 
domestic  buildings.  The  facing  of  the  floor  in 
many  old  mansions  is  formed  of  small  pieces  of  oak 
carefully  inlaid.  See  Parqueterie.  For  other 
kinds  oil  inlaid  fancy  floors,  see  Mos.\ic,  Encaustic 
TiLF.-i,  and  Concrete.  In  France,  and  most  of  the 
southern  continental  countries,  where  carpets  are 
rarely  used,  the  flooring-boards  of  the  better  class  of 
houses  are  made  of  hard  wood,  carefully  and  closely 
jointed,  and  these  floors  are  commonly  rubbed  with 
bees-wax,  and  polished.  In  humbler  dwellings,  even 
the  bedrooms  are  paved  with  tiles,  or  strong 
plaster,  or  concrete  ;  and  considering  the  prevalence 
of  fleas,  &c.,  in  such  places,  they  are  certainly 
better  adapted  for  them  than  our  deal-boards  and 
carjiets.  They  may  be  freely  sprinkled,  and  even 
swilled  with  water  in  hot  weather. 

For  warehouses  where  heavy  goods  are  stored,  for 
ball-rooms,  &c.,  special  construction  is  required  to 
adapt  the  floor  to  the  strain  put  upon  it. 

FLO'RA,  among  the  Romans,  was  the  name  of 
the  goddess  of  flowers  and  of  the  spring,  and  was 
latterly  identified  with  the  Greek  Chlorie.  Her 
temple  was  situated  in  the  ^-icinity  of  the  Circus 
Maximus.  The  worship  of  F.  was  one  of  the  oldest 
manifestations  of  the  Roman  religious  feeling,  and 
is  afiirmed  to  have  been  introduced  by  Numa.  The 
Fluralia,  or  festivals  in  houoiur  of  the  goddess,  were 
first  instituted  238  E.  c,  and  were  celebrated  from 
the  28th  of  April  to  the  1st  of  May,  with  much 
licentious  mciTiment,  prostitutes  plajnng  an  import- 
ant part  on  such  occasions.  On  coins,  F.  is  repre- 
sented with  a  crown  of  flowers. — In  Botany,  the 
term  Flora  is  a  collective  name  for  plants,  and  is 
used  with  regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  the 
same  way  as  the  term  Fauna  with  regard  to  the 
animal.  It  is  common  to  speak  of  the  Flora  of  a 
country   or  district ;    and  a  work  /devoted  to  the 


botany  of  a  country  or  district  is  often  entitled  a 
Flora  of  that  region. 

FLO'RENCK  (Ital.  Fikenze^  the  capital  of  the 
former   kingdom    of   Tuscany,  is    situated    in    the 
valley   of   tlic   Amo,  in  lat.  43°  4G'  N.,  and  long. 
11°  1.5'  E.     It  is  about  123  feet  .above   the   level 
of    the   sea ;    GO    miles    from    Leghorn,    40    from 
Siena,  and  44  from  Arezzo.      Pop.  US71)   107,093. 
The  Arno,  spanned  by  four  fine  bridges,  divides  the 
city  into   two   unequal  parts,  the    chief   of   which 
stands    on   the   northern   Ijank   of   the    river.      In 
shape,   an   iri-egiilar   pentagon,    F.    is   enclosed   by 
walls   of  .about  6  miles  in   extent,   and  commimi- 
cates  with  the  exterior  by  means   of  eight   gates, 
which   conduct    to    thickly   peopled    suburbs,    and 
a    lovely,    fertile,    and    salubrious    neighbourhood, 
encircled  by  sloping  hills,  and    studded  with   pic- 
turesque %-illas  and  fruitfid  vineyards  and  gardens. 
F.  and    her   environs,  viewed  from  the  heights  of 
Fiesole,  appear   but   one  vast   city.     Many   causes 
render  this   city  a  most   attractive   jilace   of   resi- 
dence to  foreigners— a  lovely  countrj'  and  healthful 
climate,  cheap  living,  and  the  univei-sal  courteous 
intelligence  of  the   peojile,   united  to  the   immense 
sources    of    interest    possessed   by  the  city  in   her 
grand  historical  monuments  and  colk'Ctions  of  art. 
The  massive  and  austere  forms  of  Florentine  .archi- 
tecture impart  an   air   of  gloomy  grandeur   to  the 
streets,  for  the  most  part  regular  and  well  koi>t ;  but 
in  the  many  feuds  and  ci\-il  convulsions  of  the  city, 
these  domestic  fortresses  were  subjected  to  severe 
regular  sieges  and  attacks,  which  lighter  and  more 
elegant  structures  coidd  have  ill  withstood.      The 
chief  monuments  of  the  city  are  II  Duomo,  or  the 
Cathedral,  the  foundations  of  which  were  Laid  •with 
great  solemnity  in  1298.      The  Florentines  having 
ambitiously  resolved  on  erecting  a  mouuraent  which 
for  architectural  splendour  and  proportions  should 
outvie  all  preceding  structures,  the  honour  of  pre- 
p.aring    the   design    w.as    intrusted   to   Aniolfo   de 
Cambio  da  CoUe.      On  his  death,  Giotto  superin- 
tended the  works;    and  many   eminent   architects 
were  cmjiloyed  before  this  splendid  edifice  was  com- 
pleted— Brunelleschi,  the  last,  conceived  and  erected 
the   grand   cupola,  so   much   admired    by   Michael 
Angelo  as  to  have  eerv'ed  him  as  model  for  that  of 
St  Peter's.     At  the  side  of  the  cathedral  springs  up 
the  light  and  elegant  bell-tower,  detached,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  times.     In  front  is  the  Baptis- 
tery of  San  Giovanni,  in  foion  an  oct.agon,  supporting 
a  cupola  and  lantern  ;  all  three  edifices  being  entirely 
co.ated  with  a   v.aried  mosaic    of   black  and  white 
marble.     Three  bronze  gates  in  b-asso-rilievo  are  a 
great  additional  adornment  of  the  Baptistery;  the 
two  by  Ghiberti  have  been  immort.alised  by  Michael 
Angelo  -with  the  name  of  Gates  of  Par.adise.      See 
SgrilU's   description.      The    church    of    the    Santa 
Croce,  the  Pantheon  of  F.  {biult  in  1294— architect, 
Arnolfo),   contains   monuments    to   Galileo,   Dante, 
MachiavelU,    Michael    Angelo,    Alfieri,    &c.       The 
church   of    San   Lorenzo  was   consecrated  as  early 
as   393   by   St    Ambrose,   and    rebuilt   by   Brunel- 
leschi in  1425,  by  command  of  Giov.aiini  and  Cosmo 
de'  Medici.     It  contains  an  interesting  monumental 
memorial  of   Cosmo   il  Vccchio,    bearing  inscribed 
the  title  Pater  Palria,  which  had  been  conferred 
on  his  memory  by  public  suffrage  the  year  follow- 
ing his   death.      In  the   Xuova  Sagrestio,  or  New 
Sacristry,     are     the    two    famous    monuments    of 
Michael"  Angelo  to  Julian  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
The   figures   of   these   two  statues    arc  m.arvels  of 
deep    and    li\ang    expression,    and    imsnrpaasable 
in   their   mute   and  eloquent  beauty.      The   Medi- 
ccan  cluapel,  gorgeous  with  the  r.arest  marbles  and 
most   costly  stones,  .agate,  lajiis  lazuli,  chalcedony, 
&c.,    stanils    behind   the   choir,    and   contains  the 


FLORENCE. 


tombs  of  the  Medici  family,  and  those  of  the 
grand  dukes  thuir  successors.  Annexed  to  the 
church  is  the  Laurentian  Library,  M-ith  its  inex- 
haustible store  of  rare  MSS.,  founded  by  Giulio  de' 
Medici.  Bandini  has  published  the  catalogue  of  the 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  MSS. ;  and  Biscioni  and 
Assemani  those  of  the  Hebrew  and  Oriental  ones. 
Amongst  the  numerous  palaces,  11  Baryctlo,  now 
converted  into  a  ])rison,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient, 
and  was  formerly  the  abode  of  the  republican 
magistrate,  the  Podesta.  In  1S41,  some  interesting 
portraits  were  brought  to  light  by  the  removal  of 
a  coating  of  whitewash  from  the  revered  features 
of  Dante,  Brunetto  Latini,  C'orso  Donati,  &c.,  in 
the  chapel  of  the  palace.  The  Palazzo  Vecchio, 
the  seat  of  the  republican  government  from  its 
establishment  tdl  1530,  when  it  was  abolished,  is  an 
imposing  mass  of  building,  siumounted  by  a  lofty 
tower  200  feet  high,  the  great  bell  of  which  used  to 
"warn  the  citizens  of  danger,  or  simimon  them  to 
defence.  Adjouiing  the  palace  is  the  Piazza  del 
Pixlazzo  Vecchio,  a  square  containing  a  Hue  collection 
of  statues,  and  a  nol)le  arcade,  the  Loggia  de'  Lanzi, 
under  the  porticos  of  which  are  magnificent  groups 
of  sculjituro  (see  Kastelli's  I Ihislruzione  Storica  del 
Palazzo  di'lla  Si'jiwria  detto  Palazzo  Vecchio)  ;  Gli 
UfEzi,  a  handsome  buikling  between  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  and  the  Arno,  founded  by  Cosmo  I.,  in  the 
first  floor  of  which  are  deposited  the  archives  of  the 
com't  of  justice  and  other  public  offices,  also  the 
Magliabechi  Library  of  150,000  volimies,  and  12,000 
MSS.  On  the  second  floor,  in  a  circular  suite  of 
23  rooms,  is  contained  the  famous  Florentine  gallery 
of  art ;  rich  in  paintings,  engra%'ings,  sculpture, 
bronzes,  coins,  gems,  and  mosaics.  A  sjJendid 
apartment,  known  as  the  Tribuna,  contains  the 
rarest  treasures  of  the  collection,  and  is  in  itself  a 
wonder  of  art,  witli  its  cupola  inlaid  with  mother 
of  ])earl,  and  its  rich  marble  pavement.  The  Palazzo 
Pitti,  the  modern  gi'and  ducal  residence,  boasts  of  a 
superb  gallery  of  jiaintings,  and  of  a  collection  of 
70,000  rare  volumes,  and  1500  MSS. 

The  Palazzo  Fdceardi,  now  public  proi)erty,  is 
much  frequented  for  its  fine  library.  The  Palazzo 
Strozzi  is  a  fine  type  of  Tuscan  architecture. 
Florence  abounds  in  other  public  edifices  and 
monuments  well  meriting  notice,  but  our  limits 
oblige  us  to  omit  all  mention  of  them.  The 
practical  and  philanthropical  institutions  are  also 
numerous  and  excellently  organised.  The  hospital 
of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  contains  a  college  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  which  enjoj'S  a  Euro])ean  fame. 
Tlie  Academj'  of  the  Fine  Arts  and  the  Musaimi  of 
Natural  Historj'  aft'ord  unlimited  resources  to  the 
public  interested  in  their  coDectious.  There  are 
three  hospitals,  one  lunatic  asylum,  nine  theatres. 
The  Academy  della  Crusca,  is  iutnasted  with  the 
care  of  sifting  and  preserving  imcorrupted  the 
Italian  language.  The  Academy  dei  Georgofili  was 
established  in  the  interests  of  agriculture,  the  pro- 
gress and  needs  of  which  it  reports  quarterly  in  the 
Giornale  Afirario  Toscano.  For  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  F.,  see  Giiida  della  Cittd  di  Firenze,  1822. 
The  chief  industrial  occui)ations  of  the  Florentines 
are  the  fabrication  of  silk  and  woollen  textures, 
and  of  straw-plaiting  for  hats,  iScc,  jewellery,  and 
exquisite  mosaics  in  rare  stones.  Education  is 
more  tliirused  in  Tuscany  than  in  any  other  Italian 
state  ;  and  the  Florentines  are  famous  for  their 
caustic  wit,  and  natiiral  gifts  of  eloquence,  as  well 
as  for  their  shrewd  thiiftiness  and  unflagging 
labour.  In  their  moral  superiority  to  other  states 
may  be  recognised  the  efieets  of  ii  l->etter  and  more 
upright  government  than  those  which  existed  in 
most  of  the  other  di^nsions  of  the  peninsula  preWous 
to  the  late  partial  imion  of  Italy. 


History  of  Florence. — The  city  of  F.  sprang 
originally  from  Fiesole  (q.  v.),  at  the  foot  of  which  it 
lies  e.xtended.  The  inconvenient  and  hilly  site  of  the 
Etruscan  Fiesole,  perched  ou  the  crest  of  an  irre- 
gular height,  rendered  the  town  so  difDcult  of  access 
to  the  traders  who  resorted  to  its  market-places 
with  their  varied  merchandise,  that  it  was  at  length 
decreed  they  shoidd  assemble  at  the  base  of  the  hill, 
in  the  fertile  plain  traversed  by  the  Arno.  The 
few  rough  shelters  erected  for  the  accommodation  of 
these  traders  maybe  considered  the  original  nucleus 
of  the  important  and  siileudid  city  of  Florence. 
Such  at  least  is  the  traditionary  history  of  its  origin 
generally  accepted  by  the  Florentine  historians.  It 
would  seem  that  as  early  as  the  time  of  Sulla  there 
had  been  a  Roman  colony  here  ;  another  was  sent 
after  the  death  of  .lulius  Cajsar,  and  it  soon  became 
a  thriving  town.  The  Florenlini  are  nientiuiicd  by 
Tacitus,  16  .4.  D.,  as  sending  delegates  to  Rome,  but 
it  was  not  till  the  time  of  CTiarlemagne  that  F.  began 
to  rise  out  of  obscurity.  It  was  now  governed  by  a 
political  head  with  the  title  of  Duke,  assisted  by 
various  subordinate  oflicers,  who  were  elected  by 
the  united  sutfrages  of  the  duke  and  citizens.  In 
the  11th  c,  F.,  and  a  great  }iart  of  Tuscany,  were 
bequeathed  to  Pope  Gregory  \'il.,  by  his  friend  and 
partisan  the  Countess  Matilda,  who  inherited  from  her 
mother,  the  Countess  Beatrix,  her  jurisdiction  over 
the  city.  Under  the  jirotection  of  Rome,  F.  speedily 
adopted  the  forms  and  institutions  of  a  free  city ; 
and  the  republican  spirit  which  then  arose  amongst 
the  people  imparted  an  impidse  to  national  and  indi- 
vidual life,  and  awoke  a  spirit  of  ardent  patriotism 
and  splenflid  enterprise.  As  early  as  the  11th  c, 
the  Florentines  were  European  traders,  and  the  pos- 
sessors of  grand  commercial  depots  iu  the  seaports 
and  cities  of  France  and  England,  and  their  skill  as 
workei-s  in  gold  and  jewels  had  grown  proverbial. 
In  proportion  as  pajial  preponderance  increased  in 
F.,  that  of  the  emjiire  sank  ;  and  in  1113  the  citizen 
forces  routed  tlie  troops,  and  slew  the  delegate  of 
the  emperor  at  Monte  Cascioli,  near  Florence.  Dur- 
ing the  bitter  wars  between  pope  and  empire,  F.  and 
all  Tuscany  seemed  to  have  been  saved  from  the 
civil  feuds  which  raged  throughout  Italy  l)etween 
the  contending  factions  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibelliues ; 
the  former,  adherents  of  the  pope ;  the  latter,  of  the 
emiiire.  But  in  1215,  F.  became  involved  in  the 
great  jiarty  struggle,  owing  to  a  private  feud  break- 
ing out  between  two  noble  families,  chiefs  of  the 
contentling  principles.  A  Guelph  noble,  Buondel- 
mouti,  mortally  incensed  the  Ghibelliue  family  of  the 
Amidei,  by  breaking  oft"  his  alliance  with  a  daughter 
of  their  house,  and  contracting  marriage  with  a 
member  of  a  Guelph  family.  To  avenge  this  insult, 
the  Amidei  appealed  to  their  powerful  kinsmen, 
the  Uberti,  and,  in  fact,  to  all  the  Ghibelline  party  of 
Florence.  Buondelmonti  was  stabbed  to  death  as 
he  crossed  the  bridge  of  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  and  was 
speedily  avenged  by  the  Guelphs  in  the  blood  of  his 
enemies.  Thus  for  33  years  was  F.  distracted  by 
the  deeds  of  bloodshed  and  violence  of  these  two 
rival  factions,  who  assumed  the  names,  and  adopted 
the  respective  causes  of  Guelph  and  Ghiljelliue.  See 
GuELPu  AND  Ghibelline.  In  12.50,  the  animosity 
of  these  parties  seemed  somewhat  bhmted,  and 
jiublic  attention  was  directed  to  wise  internal  reforms. 
Twelve  magistrates,  or  anziaui,  were  appointeil  in 
place  of  the  consuls,  each  of  the  six  sections  into 
which  the  city  was  divided  being  intrusted  to  two 
of  these  magistrates,  whose  tenure  of  office  was 
annual.  To  avoid  all  local  dissensions,  two  other 
magistrates,  strangers  by  birth,  were  elected :  the 
one,  invested  with  supreme  authority  in  civil  and 
criminal  cases,  was  called  the  podesta ;  the  other, 
with  the  title  of  captain  of  the  peoi^le,  had  the  chief 

331 


FLOKES— FLOKICULTURE. 


coiumand  of  the  militia,  in  which  were  enrolled 
all  the  youth  of  the  state,  who  were  bound,  at 
the  call  "of  this  maiiistrate,  to  join  tlioir  cnniiiauy 
fully  fijuippctl  for  tight:  20  companies  defended 
the  town,  '.»G  the  country.  After  the  death  of  the 
Kniiieror  Frederick  II.,  the  ^rcat  protector  of  the 
Uhibelliuea,  the  Guelph  or  papal  paity  ^n-adually 
rose  in  power  in  F.,  and  during  ton  years  of 
their  predominance,  the  city  ascended  in  grandeur 
aud  prosperity,  until  it  stood  not  only  the  fii-st  in 
Tuscany,  but  one  of  the  lli-st  of  all  Italy.  In 
1254,  the  Florentines  lli-st  coined  their  noble  golden 
florin,  unequalled  at  the  time  for  beauty :  in  weight, 
a  drachm,  it  bore  on  one  side  the  nation.al  emblem, 
a  lily ;  and  on  the  reverse,  the  effigy  of  the  popular 
patron,  St  John  the  Baptist.  It  commemorated 
a  jwriod  of  great  success  in  the  annals  of  F.,  whose 
forces  hail  successively  humbled  the  adjoining 
towns  of  Siena,  Arezzo,  Pisa,  and  Pistoja  in  1252, 
and  in  1254  captured  Voltcrra.  In  1260,  the 
standard  of  ci\-U  war  was  again  raised  by  the 
Ghibellines  of  F.,  who,  in  league  with  Manfred  of 
Naples,  attacked  the  Guelphs,  and  cut  their  forces 
to  j)iece3  in  the  sauguinar>-  b.attle  of  Monte  Aperto. 
The  conquerors  entered  F.  forthwith  in  the  name 
of  Manfred,  abolished  aU  trace  of  the  popular 
institutions,  establishing  an  exchisivelj'  aristocratic 
executive,  and  even  strongly  advocated  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  city,  the  hotbed  of  Guelphism. 
This  barbarous  scheme  was  indignantly  repudiated 
by  their  own  f.imous  leader,  Farmata  degli  IJberti, 
immortalised  by  Dante  for  his  patriotism.  He 
declared  his  intention  of  heading  the  Guelphs,  were 
such  a  sacrilege  perpetrated  by  his  own  j>arty. 
Pope  Urban  IV.,  French  by  birth,  summoned  again.st 
the  Ghibelline  Manfred  a  French  army,  led  by 
Charles  of  Valois,  to  whom  he  offered  the  pro- 
spective kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Manfied  was 
defeated  and  slaia  in  the  famous  battle  of  Benevento, 
and  Guelph  ascendency  was  restored  anew  through- 
out Italy  and  Florence.  Charles  fidly  restored  to  the 
Florentines  their  internal  institutions,  and  received 
their  offered  allegiance  for  ten  years,  126G.  In  1282, 
the  Priori,  a  new  executive  power,  w.as  established 
in  F. ;  and  in  1293,  by  the  consent  of  the  Priori,  a 
higher  chief  than  their  ovm  order  was  elected,  mth 
the  title  of  Oon/aloniere.  In  1300,  Dante  became 
one  of  the  Priori,  and  the  fomier  feud  was  recom- 
menced "with  new  vigour  between  two  factions, 
who  bore  the  names  of  Bianchi  {^^^litcs)  and  Neri 
(Blacks).  Their  dissensions  were,  however,  inter- 
rupted by  the  a()pearance  of  Charles  of  Valois,  sent 
by  Boniface  VIII.  to  restore  tranquilhtj-,  1301. 
Charles  espoused  the  part  of  the  Guelphs  or  Neri, 
and  sanctioned  every  outrage  on  the  Bianchi,  who 
were  plimdered  and  mmdered  barbarously,  the 
survivors  being  exiled  and  beggared ;  among  these 
were  Dante,  and  Pctracco  dell'  Ancisa,  the  father 
of  Petrarca.  In  1.30G,  Pistoja  was  besieged,  and 
taken  by  famine  with  great  barbarity.  In  1315, 
the  Florentines  met  with  a  severe  check  from  the 
Ghibellines  of  Pisa,  under  the  command  of  Uguc- 
cione  della  Faggiula  ;  and  in  1325,  were  completely 
defcate<l  by  ITguccione's  successor  in  command. 
the  valiant  Castruccio  Castracani,  in  the  battle  of 
-Vltoiiascio.  F.,  weakened  by  long  dissensions,  and 
alaiTOed  by  Castmccio's  threat  of  marching  on  the 
city,  ajipealed  to  the  king  of  Naples  for  aid.  They 
received  joyfully  an  officer  of  the  king,  entitled 
the  Duke  of  Athens,  sent  as  royal  ^dcar ;  anil  such 
was  the  public  demoralisation  of  the  moment,  they 
proclaimed  him  dictator  of  the  republic,  tmaniinously 
suppressing  the  offices  of  priori  and  gonfaloniere. 
The  intrigues  of  this  ignoble  schemer  to  overturn 
the  republic  being  discovered,  he  was  ignominiously 
expelled  by  a  general  popular  rising,  and  narrowly 


preserved  his  life.  An  attempt  to  admit  a  propor- 
tion of  the  nobles  into  the  government  sign-ally 
failed  at  this  time,  aud  oidy  led  to  reuewccl  aui- 
mosity  between  them  and  the  citizens.  This  was 
the  last  effort  of  the  nobles  to  secure  power.  Sec 
MachiavelU,  book  ii.  A  terrible  pest  decimated 
F.  in  1.34S,  sweeiiing  off  100,000  of  her  inhabitants. 
See  Boccaccio,  JJecameron.  The  chief  power  of  F. 
about  this  time  seems  to  have  been  alternately 
wielded  by  the  democratic  families,  the  Alberti  and 
the  Kicci,  and  by  their  patrician  rivals,  the  Albizzi, 
who,  for  the  si>ace  of  53  years,  guided  the  republic 
in  the  path  of  independence  and  ]irogress.  In  1400, 
the  ancient  and  illustrious  republic  of  Pisa  (q.  v.) 
fell  under  the  sway  of  F.,  after  a  most  heroic  resist- 
ance. From  1434,  the  history  of  F.  is  intimately 
bound  up  Arith  the  House  of  Medici,  whose  influence 
supi)lanted  that  of  the  AlbizzL  See  Medici.  The 
Medici  were  repeatedly  banished  fi-om  F.,  in  conse- 
(|uence  of  theii-  aiming  at  sovereign  power ;  and  to 
their  intrigues  F.  owes  her  final  loss  of  republican 
rights  and  institutions.  Pope  Clement  VII.,  of  tho 
House  of  Medici,  formed  a  league  with  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  by  which  the  liberties  of  F.  were  to  be 
extinguished,  and  the  sovereign  ])0\ver  to  be  investe<l 
in  the  ])ope's  bastard  son,  Alexander  de'  MedicL  In 
September  1529,  an  army  of  imperialists,  under  tho 
Duke  of  Orange,  entered  Tuscany ;  and  on  the  8th  of 
August  1530,  the  siege  of  F.  tcnninated,  after  a 
defence  of  unexamjilcd  devotion  and  bravery  on  the 
jiart  of  the  citizens.  Thus  fell  the  name  and  form 
of  the  repubhc  of  F.,  quenched  in  the  best  blood 
of  the  city,  a  sacrifice  to  a  renegade  pope,  who 
employed  both  foreign  robbers  aud  internal  traitors 
to  destroy  and  humiliate  the  city  of  his  birth. 
From  this  period,  F.  loses  her  distinctive  history, 
and  is  only  known  as  capital  ctf  the  grand  duchy 
of  Tuscany,  Pope  Clement  having  conferred  oil 
Cosmo  de'  Medici  the  diical  dignity.  Some  idea  of 
the  splendour  and  prosperity  of  F.  as  a  republic 
may  be  had  from  the  fact,  that  her  capitalists  were 
so  enormously  wealthy,  they  supplied  the  chi'if 
sovereigns  of  Kvu-ope  "with  funds ;  her  manufactures 
of  wool,  silk,  aud  gold  brocade  were  exported 
throughout  the  world  ;  and  besides  home  centres 
of  coumierce,  she  ])ossessed  great  commercial  estab- 
lishments in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  This 
wonderfid  [irosperity  the  Florentines  owed  solely 
to  their  indomitable  spirit  of  entei'prise.  (Florence 
was  for  a  time  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy,  but  in  1871  had  to  yield  the  honour  to 
Rome.) 

FLO'RES,  as  the  name  of  various  islands,  occurs 
in  Asi.a,  North  America,  South  America,  and  the 
Azores. — 1.  In  the  Malayan  Arcliipel.ago,  about  half 
way  between  Java  and  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  chain.  It  lies  due  south  from  Celebes,  stretch- 
ing in  S.  lat.  from  8'  to  9°,  and  in  E.  long,  from 
120°  to  12.3°.  Like  most  members  of  the  group,  it 
is  of  an  oblong  shape,  measm'ing  200  miles  in  length 
by  an  average  breadth  of  3.5.  In  common  with  the 
rest  of  the  cluster,  the  island  is  of  hilly  character 
and  volcanic  origin.  It  produces  cotton,  s.andal- 
wood,  aud  bees-wax  ;  and  its  principal  tr.a<le  is  with 
Singajiore. — 2.  The  most  westerly  of  the  Azores, 
with  a  popidation  of  about  10,000-lat.  39"  25'  N., 
and  long.  31°  12'  W. — 3.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a 
little  to  the  west  of  Vancouver  Island — lat.  49°  20' 
N.,  and  long.  12G°  W.— 4.  In  the  Plata,  about 
20  miles  below  Monte  Video,  iu  the  republic  of 
Uniguay,  in  lat.  34°  5G'  S.,  and  long.  55°  55'  W. 

FLO'RET.     See  Flowee. 

FLO'UICULTURE,  or  CULTIVATION 
OF  FLOWERS.  From  the  eariiest  times,  and 
wherever  any  considerable  progress  has  been  m:ule 


FLORICULTURE— FLORIDA. 


in  civilisation,  plants  have  been  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  their  beautifiJ  or  fragrant  flowers.  Flowers 
have  been  very  generally  employed  not  only  to 
afford  gratilieation,  and  for  the  adornment  of  the 
]>erson  and  of  houses,  j>articidarly  on  festive  occa- 
sions, but  in  many  countries  also  in  connection  with 
religious  rites.  Flower-markets  existed  in  ancient 
Athens,  as  in  the  richest  capitals  of  the  modem 
world.  India,  China,  and  Mexico  have  been  famous 
for  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  from  the  earliest 
jieriods  to  which  their  history  can  be  accurately 
traced.  Artificial  means  have  been  employed  for 
the  protection  and  cultivation  of  delicate  exotics, 
prized  only  on  account  of  their  flowers,  far  more 
generally  and  assiduously  than  for  the  ciUtivation 
of  any  fruit-bearing,  cidinary,  or  otherwise  useful 
plants.  Those  who  cannot  afford  more  than  a 
very  small  green-house,  almost  always  devote  it  to 
flowers  ;  and  those  who  cannot  attain  even  this, 
have  a  few  favoured  plants  under  a  frame,  or  at 
least  in  a  window. 

Flowers  are  either  cidtivated  in  borders  of  a 
garden  mainly  appropriated  to  fruit-trees  and 
culinary  vegetables,  or  a  separate  flower-garden  is 
formed,  consisting  generally  of  parterres  cut  out 
of  a  lawn.  Of  late  years,  the  sejjarate  flower-garden 
has  become  much  more  common  than  fonnerly. 
There  is  much  room  for  the  disjilay  of  taste  in  the 
fonn  and  grouping  of  its  parterres,  and  both  in 
it  and  in  the  humbler  Hower-border,  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  flowers  themselves.  A  common  rule 
has  always  been  to  place  the  plants  of  tallest 
gro\vth  generally  at  the  greatest  distance  from  tlie 
walks  or  alleys  from  which  they  are  to  be  viewed, 
and  those  which  scarcely  rise  above  the  ground, 
nearest  to  the  sjiectator :  it  is  also  of  evident 
importance,  except  in  extensive  gardens,  that  every 
border  or  parterre  should  be  gay  with  flowers 
during  all  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  on 
which  account  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
intermixing  of  plants  that  Uower  at  different 
seasons,  and  for  this  purpose  aimuals  are  often 
sown  amongst  perennial  plants  and  shrubs  ;  whilst 
it  is  always  necessary  to  take  care  that  the  com- 
bination of  colours  be  such  as  to  please  and  not 
offend  the  eye,  in  order  to  which  complementarij 
colours  are  brought  together — red  and  green,  blue 
and  orange,  yellow  and  \'iolet — whilst  a  judicious 
mixture  of  white  blends  and  harmonises  those 
which  woidd  otherwise  ajipcar  unjileasantly  con- 
trasted. This  nde  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
grouping  of  flowers  in  one  border,  or  of  parterres 
in  which  masses  of  the  same  colour  are  exhibited, 
often  produced  by  an  extensive  jilanting  of  the 
same  flower,  a  jiracticc  which  has  recently  become 
common,  and  by  which  the  greatest  splendour  of 
general  effect  is  prrjduced. 

The  flower-garden  requires  the  same  attention  to 
the  habits  of  particular  species,  and  the  same  assi- 
duity in  digging,  cleaning,  &c.,  which  are  requisite 
in  other  departments  of  horticulture.  Perennial 
herbaceous  plants  generally  require  to  be  not  unfre- 
quently  renewed  by  p.arting  of  the  roots  or  other- 
wise, as  the  tuft  extends  and  the  flowering  stems 
become  more  numerous,  but  weaker  and  less  pro- 
ductive. Many  plants  are  ]>Iaced  in  the  flower- 
garden  in  summer,  which  retpiire  the  protection  of 
the  frame  or  green-house  in  winter. 

In  no  department  of  horticulture  have  greater 
changes  been  effected  by  cultivation.  Even  the 
practised  eye  has  often  some  difficulty  in  recog- 
nising the  splendid  varieties  which  the  florist  has 
produced,  as  the  progeny  of  the  unjiromising 
original  form.  One  of  the  most  common  effects  of 
cultivation  is  the  production  of  double  flowers,  in 
which  the  stamens  have  been  converted  into  petals. 


as  in  roses,  so  that  if  the  flower  is  perfectly  doidjle, 
it  can  produce  no  seed  by  itself ;  or,  in  the  case  of 
com])osite  flowers,  the  florets  of  the  disc  assume  the 
same  form  with  the  florets  of  the  ray,  as  in  dahlias, 
asters,  &c.  Much  improvement  has  been  effected 
by  crossing,  not  so  frequently  by  the  real  hybridi- 
sation of  different  species,  as  by  the  intermL\tui-e 
of  artificial  varieties  already  obtained ;  and  many 
of  the  finest  varieties  are  the  mere  rosidt  of  the 
carefid  selection  and  cidtivation  of  individual  plants 
of  superior  beauty,  and  of  their  progeu}'. 

The  green-house,  conservatory,  stove,  &c.,  in  which 
exotic  flowers  are  cultivated,  are  noticed  in  separate 
articles.  But  perhaps  this  article  would  not  be 
complete  without  some  notice  of  wliulow-rjnnleniiif/, 
by  which  a  charm  is  added  even  to  the  abodes  of 
the  wealthy,  particularly  in  cities,  and  by  which 
even  the  poor  have  the  delight  of  tending  a  choice 
exotic  or  two,  and  becoming  familiar  with  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers.  The  care  requisite  in 
wijidow-gardening  is  the  same  as  for  jjlants  kept 
in  flower-pots  in  the  green-house  ;  there  must  be 
the  same  re-potting,  pruning  of  the  roots,  &c.,  from 
time  to  time,  and  at  least  as  much  attention  in 
giving  water  and  air.  Of  the  fonner,  the  most 
common  mistake  is  to  give  too  much,  and  of  the 
latter  too  little.  It  is  a  good  rule,  that  except 
immediately  after  water  is  given,  it  shoidd  never 
be  seen  in  the  saucer ;  nor  should  the  earth 
appear  very  moist.  The  situation,  however,  being 
in  many  respects  less  favourable,  many  plants,  as 
heaths,  wliich  are  frequent  in  green-houses,  cannot 
be  succes-sfidly  cultivated  in  the  windows  of  apart- 
ments. The  common  notion  that  the  burning  of 
gas  in  apartments  injures  window-plants,  does  not 
appear  to  be  wed  founded.  Wardian  Ca.se,s,  by 
means  of  which  many  delicate  plants  are  produced 
in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  ■windows  of 
apartments,  are  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 

Horticidtural  Societies  (q.  v.)  have  of  late  done 
much  for  the  encouragement  of  the  cidti\'ation  of 
flowers,  and  )iarticularly  among  the  humbler  classes 
of  society,  with  evident  increase  of  amenity  within 
and  aromid  their  abodes,  and  an  unquestionable 
tendency  to  refinement  of  habits  and  feelings. 

FLO'RIDA,  the  name  of  the  most  southerly 
and  most  nearly  tropical  member  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America.  Including  its  adja- 
cent islands  and  its  reef-like  chain  of  keys  on 
the  south-west,  it  stretches  in  N.  lat.  between 
25°  and  .SI",  and  in  W.  long,  between  80°  and 
S7°  *tt'.  The  greater  portion  of  it  forms  a  peninsula 
stretching  south-south-east  towards  the  Bahamas, 
having  the  Atlantic  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  on  the  other.  It  adjoins,  on  the  north, 
the  states  of  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Its  gi-eatest 
breadth,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  river  PertUdo,  is 
3G0  miles  ;  its  greatest  length  about  400  miles  ;  the 
average  breadth  of  the  peninsular  portion  ui)wards 
of  120  miles ;  area,  60,000  square  miles.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  St  John's,  running  north- 
east through  the  peninsula,  and  entering  the  sea 
near  Jacksonville  after  a  course  of  .'JOO  miles  ;  the 
Suwanee,  flowing  south  from  Georgia  into  the 
Mexican  Gulf  at  Vacassar  Bay ;  the  Appalachicola, 
the  Choctawhatchee,  Escambia,  and  Perdido.  The 
principal  towns  are  Tallahassee,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, situated  near  the  middle  of  the  northern 
boundary  ;  St  Mark's  on  the  Gidf ;  St  Augustine  on 
the  Atlantic,  the  S|ianish  capital,  and  the  oldest 
settlement  in  Anglo-Saxon  America  ;  and  Pensacola, 
a  port  near  the  Perdido,  in  the  extreme  west  of 
the  state,  recently  rendered  so  conspicuous  in  the 
war  of  secession. 

In  physical  character,  the  state,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  part  of  the  sandy  and  mai-shy  belt  which 

3S3 


FLOKIDA— FLOraSTS"  FLOWEIIS. 


forms  the  immediate  seaboard  bom  the  Potomac  to  ! 
the  Mississippi.     ^>ay,  far  beyond  the   average   of 
the  coDtigaoas  shorvs  in  either  direction,  it  may, 
almost  wmioat  a  metaphor,  be  described  as  am]'bi- 
Isooa.     To  say  nothing  of  inlets,  which  carrj-  the 
tide  within  titty  mili^  of  every  jioint,  the  interior 
may  literally  be'  said  to  teem  with  fresh  water,  here 
and  there  welling  up  into  coiisiderable  streams  from 
goings  ranging  to  '250  fathoms  in  dtpth.     This  is 
more  emphatically  true  of  the  south,  where    an  | 
immense  district,  known  as  Evergla^les,  exhibits,  as 
its  nOTmal  condition,  the  ordinar)'  phenomena  of  a 
casual  inondaticni.      Thoo^  the   surface  is   thus 
better  adapted  to  pasturage  than  to  tillage,  yet,  in  I 
favourable  localities,   the  soil,  rather  through  the  [ 
abondance   of  heat  and  moisture  than   frvm   any 
inherent  fertility,  largely  yields  such  productions  as 
sugar,  cotton,  and  rice.     Considering  that  the  state 
shares   with   the   Bahamas  the   dominion  of   that 
grand  highway  of  commerce,  the  Gulf  Stream  (q.  v.). 
Its  inexhaustible  growth  of  timber  for  ship-bmiding 
is  peculiarly  valuable.     Its  coasts  and  rivers  swarm  i 
with  shoals   of   fish ;    while    its   dependent    keys,  | 
periodically  crusted  with  salt  of  the  sub's  making,  ' 
furnish    the   means   of  curing  them. — florida,  so 
called  because  of  its  exuberant  vegetation,  was  first 
made  known  to  Europeans  by  Fonce  de  Leon,  who  '. 
landed  near  St  Augustine  in  1512.     In  1539  it  was 
explored  by  Fernando   de    Soto.      Originally,  the  , 
term    F.  vaguely   indicated  among   the   Spaniards  i 
the  eastern  side  of  the  new  continent  to  the  north 
of  Mexico.    Gradually,  however,  it  came  to  be  cir- 
cumscribed by  the  encroachments  of  rival  powers — 
its  first  definite  boundaries  being  established  with 
reference   to  the   claims  of  English   Georgia    and 
French   Louisiana.     Even   within   these   lunits,   it 
embraced,  in  addition  to  the  F.  of  the  present  day, 
the  maritime  borders  of  Alabama  and  MississifipL 
Thus  fixed  in  position  and  extent,  the  colony  was  ! 
ceded  to  England  in  1763.  and  recovered  by  Spain 
in    17S1.     Louisiana   having  been   bought   by  the 
IT.  S.  from  France  in  1S03..  in  1 S21  F.  was  also  annexed 
to  the  republic  by  a  mixture  of  force  and  negotiation. 

The  same  phjsical  character  of  F.  which  impairs 
its  economjcsd  worth,  has  added  materially  to  the  ', 
expense  of  its  occupation.    From  about   1S36  to 
1542,    the    Seminole    Indians,   protected  by    their 
swamps,   tasked   the    resources    of    the   American 
Union  more  than  any  other  domain  of  equal  size 
ever  tasked  them.     Xotwithstanding  every  draw-  j 
back,  the  country,  possessing  as  it  does,  a  compara- 
tively salubrious  climate,  has  made  a  reasonable  pro-  ' 
gress  in  wealth  and  population.     In  1850,  349,423  ] 
acres  were   under   cultivation ;    and   in   1 855,  the 
assessable  capital  was  estimated  at  about  50,000,000 
ddlars— nearly  14,000,000  in  lands,  fully  27,000,000 
in  stares,  and  more  than  8,000,000  in  other  descrip- 
tiODS  of  property.    Kailways  have  only  recently  been  ; 
intnidaeed :  in  1870,  of  700  mUes  projected.  4)4 
were  empleted.    The  census  of  1870  gave  2,415.209 
whites,  l,«i7,136  coloured— total,  4,373,987.     The 
slaves  became  free  January  1,  1863.     A  state  con- 
v-_:.-.!on  was  aj.j.r.ived  in  ilay  1868.     The  new  state  ' 
lt-'.;.atnre  adoj  :-i  the  'fourteenth  amendment'  of 
tiit  constitution  of  the  Cnited  States,  and  F.  was 
recognised  as  a  ttate,  and  her  representatives  ad- 
mitted to  seats  in  congress,  notwithstanding  the  veto 
of  the  president    In  ls69.  an  act  to  establish  public 
schools  was  passed,  and  200  schools  establish^ 
and  a  bnreau  of  immii'ration  formed.     In  1869,  the 
debt  of  F.  was  about  l.iXlO.iXH)  dollars. 

FLORIDA,   Ons  or,  the   name   given   to  the 
chaimel  between  Florida  and  the  Bahamas,  traversed 
by  the  Gulf  Stream  (q.  v.).     From  Florida  Beefs  on 
the  south,  to  Settlement  Point,  the  most  northern  i 
of  the  Bahamas  in  the  channel,  is  20U  miles  long ;  I 


greatest  breadth  at  the  southern  extremity,  150 
miles  ;  at  the  northern  extremity,  Co  miles. 

FLOBID.A  BL.AXCA,  Dox  Josefo  Mostno, 
CorXT  or,  prime  minister  under  Charles  IIL  of 
Spain,  was  bom  in  172S  at  Murcia,  where  his 
father  was  a  notary,  Ha>-ing  studied  at  Sala- 
manca, he  gained  soon  after  such  distinction  that 
he  was  appointed  Spanish  ambassador  to  Clement 
XrV,  of  Kome.  In  that  office,  he  displayed  great 
ability,  especially  in  the  abolition  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits  and  the  election  of  Pius  %'T.  Grimaldi, 
Sjianish  minister  of  Foreicn  .\ffairs,  on  being  dis- 
missed, was  asked  by  the  Idng  to  nominate  a  suc- 
cessor, and  accordingly  proposed  Monino.  Charles 
followed  his  advice,  created  Monino  Count  of 
Florida  Blanca,  and  intrusted  to  bim  beside^  the 
department  of  matters  of  justice  and  mercy,  as 
well  as  the  superintendence  of  posts,  highwaj-s,  and 
public  magazines.  F.  used  this  eirtensive  authority 
in  introducing  post-coaches  and  good  post-roads, 
in  improving  the  capital,  and  attending  to  other 
important  departments  of  general  police,  as  likewise 
in  actively  promoting  the  arte  and  sciences.  His 
effort  to  confirm  the  good  understanding  between 
.Spain  and  Portugal  by  a  double  marriage,  which 
would  have  secured  the  Portuguese  throne  to  a 
Spanish  prince,  was  nnsuccessml.  His  military 
undertakings  also,  the  attack  ujxin  Algiers  in  1777, 
and  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in  17S2,  issued  imfortu- 
nately.  Before  the  king's  death  in  October  1788, 
F.  presented  a  defence  of  his  administration,  with 
a  request  for  leave  to  resign.  The  defence  was 
accepted,  but  the  request  refused.  However,  under 
Charles  IV.  in  1792,  F.s  enemies  obtained  his 
disgrace.  Imprisoned  at  first  in  the  citadel  of 
Pampeluna,  he  was  afterwards  released,  and  banished 
to  his  estates.  He  appeared  again  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Cortes  in  I  SOS,  but  died  Xovember  20  of  the 
same  year. 

FLORIDE^E.    See  Ceb-axiacue. 

FLORIX  was  the  name  of  a  gold  coin  first  struck 
in  Florence  (q.  v.)  in  the  13th  century.  It  was  the 
size  of  a  ducat,  and  had  on  one  side  a  Uly,  and  on  the 
other  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Some  derive 
the  name  from  the  city,  and  others  from  the  flower. 
These  coins  were  soon  imitated  all  over  Europe. 
It  was  out  of  them  that  the  German  gold  guldens 
of  the  middle  ages  and  the  modem  guldens  arose. 
These  last  are  still  marked  by  the  letters  /7.  The 
gulden  or  florin  is  the  unit  of  account  in  Austria 
and  the  south  of  Germany.  Its  value  in  Austria  is 
2».  English ;  in  the  other  states,  Is.  Sd.  The  name 
has  been  recently  applied  to  the  English  two- 
shilling  piece. 

FLORI'XIAXS,  a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  2d  c,  so 
called  from  a  Roman  priest,  Florinus,  who,  with 
his  fellow.presbyter,  Blastus,  introduced  doctrines 
resembling  those  of  Valentinus,  into  Rome,  in  the 
pontificate  of  Elentherius  (176),  and  was  excluded 
from  communion  by  that  pontiC  See  GXOSTICISM, 
VAl.Eh"TEaASS. 

FLOTIXSTS'  FLOWERS  are  those  kinds  of 
flowers  which  have  been  cultivated  with  peculiar 
care,  and  of  which,  consequently,  there  exist  nume- 
rous varieties,  differing  very  much  in  ap]>earance 
from  each  other  and  from  the  original  flower.  Such 
are  tulips,  hyacinths,  roses,  auriculas,  carnations, 
anemones,  ranunculuses,  daldias,  &c  The  special 
cultivation  of  particular  flowers  was  first  prosecuted 
to  a  remarkable  degree  in  Euro]>e  by  the  Dutch  in 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  and  from  the  N'ether. 
lands  a  passion  for  it  extended  to  other  countries, 
particularly  to  England  and  Scotland,  when  the 
religious  persecutions  drove  many  refugees  to  the 
British  shores ;  and  to  this  day  it  prevails  most  of 


FLOEUS-FLOUIIEX.S. 


all  where  the  branches  of  manufacture  introduced 
by  the  refugees  are  carried  oil  In  the  little  gardens 
of  operatives  in  some  of  the  manuf.icturin::;  to\vns 
may  be  seen  many  of  the  finest  tidips  and  carna- 
tions in  Britain.  It  is  still,  however,  in  Holland, 
and  particularly  at  Haarlem,  that  this  branch  of 
garileuing  is  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  it 
is  from  that  quarter  that  the  market  of  the  world 
is  cliieHy  supjilied  with  bulbs,  seeds,  &c.  Between 
Alenisei  and  Leyden  are  more  than  twenty  acres 
appropriated  to  hyacinths  alone,  wliich  succeed  best 
in  a  loose  sandy  soil.  The  cultivation  of  roses  at 
Noordwyll,  in  South  Holland,  is  carried  on  in  con- 
siderable fields  situated  in  tlie  dunes,  and  affords 
sui>port  to  many  families.  Berlin  has  of  late  years 
become  the  seat  of  a  liowcr-trade,  whicli  partially 
rivals  that  of  Holland.  .Some  (lowers,  as  dahlias 
and  liollyhocks,  are  produced  in  gi-eatest  perfection 
by  British  cultivators.  The  Chinese  have  had  their 
florists'  fiowcr.-i,  camellias,  hydrangeas,  tree  peonies, 
&c.,  from  time  immemorial. 

In  tlie  years  1030  and  IB."!?,  an  extraordinary 
flower-mania  prevailed  in  Holland,  chiefly  with 
i-eference  to  tidips,  in  whicli  men  siicculated  as 
we  have  recently  seen  tlicm  do  in  radway  shares. 
Bulbs  were  sold  for  enormous  sums.  For  a  single 
Semjier  AuguMun  (a  tuhp),  13,000  florins  were  once 
paid,  and  for  three  such  together,  .30,000  florins. 
The  ownership  of  a  bulb  was  often  divided  into 
shares.  Men  sokl  bulbs,  which  they  did  not  possess, 
on  condition  of  delivering  them  to  the  buyers  within 
a  stipulated  time  ;  and  of  some  varieties,  far  more 
bulbs  were  sold  than  actually  existed.  But  these 
extravagances  soon  ceased,  although  not  till  they 
had  involved  many  persons  in  ruin. — It  was  not 
till  aliout  the  year  177G  that  the  real  flower-trade 
of  Holland  reached  its  greatest  importance ;  from 
which  time  it  has  rather  declined.  New  varieties  of 
tulips  and  hyacinths  are  sometimes  marked  in  the 
Haarlem  catalogues  at  prices  from  2.5  to  150  florins. 

FLO'RUS,  generally,  but  on  insufficient  evidence, 
called  L.  Anuajus  F.,  was  a  Homau  historian  who 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Trajau  or  Hadrian.  Of 
his  life  we  know  absolutely  notliing.  He  wrote 
an  ei)itome  of  Itoman  history  (Epitome  dc  Gestis 
Jiomanorum),  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to 
the  time  of  Augustus.  This  work,  whicl\  is  still 
extant,  is  carefidiy  and  intelligently  comjiosed,  but 
is  disfigured  by  an  inflated  and  metaphorical  style. 
Since  the  cditio  prineep.'i —il,  indeed,  it  be  such — 
printed  at  the  Sorbonue  in  1471,  F.'s  epitome  has 
been  published  times  without  number.  The  best 
modeni  edition  is  that  of  Dukerus  (Lug.  Bat.  1722, 
1744;  Leij).  1832). 

FLOTANT  (Fr.),  used  in  Heraldry  to  express 
that  the  object  is  flying  iu  the  air,  as  a  bamier- 
llotaut. 

FLO'TSAM.  Wreck,  in  the  legal  accept.ation  of 
the  word,  is  goods  which,  having  been  scattered  by 
a  shipwreck,  liave  floated  to  land.  From  goods  in 
the  position  of  wreck  are  distinguished  those  known 
fci  the  law  of  England  by  the  uncouth  expressions 
Jlof-mm,  jetsam,  and  Uijdn.  The  first  is  where  the 
goods  continue  floating  on  i^e  surface  of  the  waves ; 
the  second  is  where,  being  cast  into  the  sea,  they 
sink  and  remain  imder  water;  the  third  is  where 
they  are  sunk  in  the  sea,  but  are  tied  to  a  cork, 
bladder,  or  buoy,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
recovered.  If  no  owner  appears  to  claim  them, 
goods  in  these  various  positions  go  to  the  crown,  so 
that  by  a  royal  grant  to  a  man  of  wrecks,  things 
Jlotsam,  jetsam,  or  ligan  will  not  jiass.  See  Jet- 
sam, and  Jettison,  an  important  term  in  the  law- 
merchant,  from  which  jetsam  must  be  carefully 
distinguished. 


FLOTZ  (Ger.  level),  the  name  given  by  Werner 

to  the  secondary  rocks  of  Lchmann,  because,  in  the 
district  in  which  he  examined  them,  they  were  hori- 
zontal. He  arranged  the  rocks  wliich  fonn  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth  into  four  elo-sscs.  1.  The  jn-imi- 
tivc  beds  without  organic  remains,  such  as  granite 
and  gneiss ;  2.  The  transition  strata,  which,  from 
their  more  or  less  metamorphic  condition,  were 
related  to  the  primitive  rocks  on  the  one  side,  .and 
from  their  few  contained  org.anisms,  to  the  fltitz 
on  the  other ;  3.  The  flotz  containing  all  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  from  the  coal-measures  uj)  to  and 
including  the  chalk ;  and  4.  The  newer  strata, 
which  he  called  the  '  overflowed  land'  or  alluvium. 
When  the  followers  f>f  Werner  found  that  tlie 
horizontal  position  of  the  flotz  was  a  local  accident, 
they  abandoned  the  tenn,  and  restored  Lehmann's 
title  of  Secondary. 

FLOUNDER  {Pla/c^sa),  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 
Flatfish  family  [Plenronectida'),  having  one  row  of 
cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  generally  ])avenient- 
like  teeth  on  the  i)harynx  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  (ins 
extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  the 
dorsal  not  coming  further  forward  than  the  centre 
of  tlie  upper  eye  ;  the  tail-tin  distinctly  separated 
both  from  the  dorsal  and  the  anal.  To  this  genus 
belong  the  I'laice,  Flounder,  Dab,  &c.,  of  the  British 
shores.  The  species  generally  known  as  the  F. 
(P.  Fleaus),  is  very  common,  not  only  on  the  British 
shores,  but  on  those  of  most  jiarts  of  Europe.  Its 
Swedish  name  is  Flundra.  Its  Scottish  name  is 
FU'uk  or  Fluke,  a  name  which,  with  additions,  is 
extended  to  many  other  kinds  of  flat-fish.  The 
F.  is  often  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  Its  greatest 
breadth,  without  the  fins,  is  about  one-third  of  the 
whole  length,  rather  less  than  that  of  the  jilaice. 
It  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  plaice  by  a  row  of 
small  tubercles  on  each  side  of  the  lateral  line.  Tlic 
colour  varies  according  to  the  ground  from  which 
the  fish  is  taken.  The  F.  is  found  chiefly  in  rather 
shallow  water,  with  sandy  or  muddy  bottom,  and 
equally  in  the  most  pei'fectly  salt  water  and  in  the 
brackish  water  of  estuaries.  It  ascends  still  rivers 
into  perfectly  fresh  water,  and  may  be  kept  in  fresh- 
water ponds.  It  lives  long  out  of  water,  and  is 
easily  transferred  to  ponils. — The  F.,  like  the  other 
fishes  of  this  genus,  generally  swims  on  the  left 
side,  and  has  the  eyes  on  the  right  side;  but 
reversed  specimens  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

FLOUR  is  a  pojndar  name  given  to  the  finer 
portions  of  meal  or  pidverised  grain.  Thus,  flour, 
or  telieat-flour,  is  the  fine  part  of  ground  wheat; 
jiea-flour,  of  pease,  &c.     See  Bread.  ' 

FLOUR,  St,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  C'antal,  is  finely  situated  on  a  steep 
basaltic  plateau  at  an  elevation  of  3000  feet,  34  mUes 
east-north-east  of  Aurillac.  It  is  entirely  built  of 
lava  and  basalt.  Its  streets  are  narrow,  and  its 
houses  in  general  have  a  miserable,  dark,  and  dirty 
appearance.  The  pruiciiial  building  is  the  cathe- 
dral. A  suburb  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  and 
communicates  with  the  town  by  a  winding  road 
cut  in  the  rock.  F.  has  mauiLfactures  of  hollow 
ironware,  cloth,  and  table-linen.     Pop.  5000. 

FLOURENS,  Makie  Je,lv  Pierre,  a  cele- 
brated li\Tng  French  physiologist,  bom  in  1794  at 
Maureilhan,  HCrault.  After  having  obtained  his 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Slontpellier,  at 
the  early  age  of  19,  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  he 
soon  became  acquainted  ■with  the  CuWers,  Geoflroy 
St  Hilaire,  and  other  eminent  naturalists.  For  the 
last  forty  years,  F.  has  been  a  voluminous  writer  on 
human  and  comparative  anatomy  and  physiologj",  ou 
natural  history,  and  on  various  special  departments 
of  the  liistory  of  the  natural  and  physical  sciences. 


FLOUKENS— FL0^\'^1!. 


Amoni;  his  most  works  wo  may  mention 

liis  Ufdierdiea  K  ,  s  sur  leg  Proprid'^a  tl  ks 

J-'oiiclions  </u  i>ij«teme  A'trwux  <laiu  les  Aiiimaiix 
Verlilnvs  (1824);  with  a  sui)i)lcmontary  volinno, 
entitled  JCxpfriencr^  sur  le  Si/slime  3't;('tr(ir  (1S25); 
Itecheixlfs  sur  If  IXretoiipenimt  dts  Os  tt  iles  Dfiils 
( 1  S4'J) ;  A  natomie  Oiiitrtile de la  Pen u  rl  dexileviliranes 
Muquruses  (1S43)— .1  work  tending  to  demonstrate 
the  unity  of  the  liuman  race,  by  shewing  that  there 
are  no  essential  diflerences  between  the  structure 
of  the  skin  in  the  negro  and  the  European — and 
his  Thiurie  ExpfrimetUale  de.  la  Funimtion  des  Os 
(1S47),  perhaps  the  most  cehbratcd  of  his  works. 
Among  his  smaller  and  jmpiJar  works,  arc  his 
Analyse  HaisoniUe  des  Tramujo  de  Georges  Cuvier 
(1841);  Bufon,  Hislolre  de  ses  IdSes  et  df.  ses 
Tmvaur  (1844);  JJe  I'Inslinct  el  de  rintelligenee 
des  Animaux  (1S41);  Examen  de  la  PhrCnoloijie 
(1842);  His'.oire  de  la  Dfcouverle  de  la  Circulation 
du  Sanr;  (lSiJ4);  Ve  la  Loii(iifilu  ITumaine,  el  de 
la  QuanliU-  de  Vie  sur  le  Globe  (1834);  and  his 
Eloyes  J/isloriques—a  beautifidly  WTitten  series  of 
scientific  biographies. 

As  early  as  1821,  F.  delivered  a  coui-se  of  lectures 
on  '  The  Phj-siolodcal  Theory  of  Sensations,'  and 
presented  some  of  Tiis  first  scientific  contributions  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  into  which  body  he  was 
a^bnitted  as  a  member  in  1S2S.  About  this  date,  he 
was  aiipointed  assistant  to  Cuvier ;  and  in  1832,  he 
succeeded  to  the  fidl  duties  of  the  professorship  of 
natural  history  in  the  Jardiu  du  Eoi.  In  1833,  he 
succeeded  Dulong  as  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences — an  office  which  he  still 
continues  to  discharge ;  and  in  1840,  the  French 
Academy  elected  him  a  member.  He  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  by  Louis  Philippe  in  184G,  and 
was  a])pointed  professor  in  the  College  de  France 
in  1855.  He  is  linquestiouably  the  most  popular 
French  scientific  ^(Titer  of  the  present  day. 

FLOWER,  or  BLOSSOM,  that  part  of  a  jihaner- 
ogamous  plant  in  which  the  organs  of  reprod\ictiou 
(stamens  and  pistils)  are  situated,  and  which  cuusists 
essentially  of  a  single  group  of  these,  generally  sur- 
rounded by  Jlorcd  envelopes  (the  calyx  and  corolla). 
Both  the  organs  of  reproduction  and  tlie  floral 
envelopes  are  metamoii)hosed  leaves,  and  arise  in 
successive  whorls  from  a  much  shortened  axis, 
called  the  tlialaimis  (Gr.  a  nuptial-lied),  or  torus 
(Lat.  a  couch).  Flowere  are  sometimes  closely 
attached  to  the  stem  or  branch  fiom  which  they 
grow,  and  are  then  said  to  be  nessile  (Lat.  sitting)  ; 
but  sometimes  there  intervenes  a  flower-stalk  or 
peduncle,  either  simple  or  branched.  The  whole 
assemblage  of  flowers  of  a  plant  is  called  its  Jnflor- 
eicence  (q.  v.),  and  the  diilerent  kinds  of  inllor- 
escence,  or  modes  in  which  the  flowers  are  pro- 
duced and  grouped,  are  often  as  characteristic  as 
the  diversities  in  the  flowers  themselves,  although 
the  latter  are  in  general  more  important  with  refer- 
ence to  botanical  affinities. 

In  the  very  large  natural  order  Composite,  many 
small  flowers  are  congregated  ou  a  common  receptacle, 
and  surrounded  with  bracts  in  the  form  of  an 
involucre,  as  a  single  flower  is  surrounded  by  its 
calyx.  The  head  of  flowers  is  in  this  case  popularly 
called  a  Uower ;  and  the  individual  flowers  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  by  botanists  styled 
florets.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  individual 
flowers  in  the  spikelels  of  the  Grasses  (q.  v.),  of  which 
the  glumes  are  a  common  invohicre. 

The  order  of  the  whorls  in  flowers  is  inv.ariable  ; 
the  Caly.\  (q.  v.)  is  always  exterior  to  the  Corolla 
(q.  V.) ;  within  the  coroUa  are  the  Stamens  (q.  v.), 
or  male  organs  of  reproduction,  and  in  the  centre  of 
all  is  the  Pistil  (q.  v.),  the  fem.ale  organ  of  repro- 
duction.  An  outer  calyx,  or  whorl  of  metamorphosed 


leaves,  exterior  to  the  calyx,  and  usually  smaller, 
is  found  in  some  flowers,  as  mallows,  and  is  called 
the  epicalyx.  Within  tlie  corolla,  there  is  some- 
tinies  an  additioual  or  supplementary  corolla,  called 
the   Corona  (q.  v.),  coronet,  or  crown.      When   the 


ninstration  of  some  of  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Flower 
(from  Balfour's  Botany) : 

1,  Section  of  the  flitwer  of  IlanuncuUis,  showing  Fcpals,  pptals, 
numerous  stamens,  with  adnate  .intbers,  placed  below  the 
carpels.  2,  Anatropal  seed  of  Aconite,  cut  venicallr,  shew- 
ing: abundant  linmojreneous  albumen  and  a  small  embryo. 
3,  Diatrram  of  the  flower  of  llanunculus,  with  live  sepals, 
lire  petals,  numerous  stamens,  and  carpels.  4,  Kipc  follicle 
of  Columbine.  5,  Ripe  achenc  of  Ranunculus.  6,  Numerous 
siiKjle-scedcd  carpels  of  Kanunculus.  7,  Spurred  petal  of 
C<^lumbiuc. 

calyx  and  corolla  are  not  easily  distinguishable,  the 
term  Perianth  (q.  v.),  or  peri'jone,  is  employed,  as  in 
the  lily,  crocus,  iiis,  and  the  greater  number  of 
endogenous  plants,  although  even  in  these  there 
are  really  two- whorls  closely  imited.  In  some 
flowers,  there  are  several  whorls  of  leaves  forming 
one  or  each  of  the  flor.al  envelopes ;  and  in  liko 
raauupr,  some  have  several  whorls  of  stamens,  and 
sometimes  there  are  several  whorls  of  the  carpels 
which  form  the  pistil.  In  some  flowers,  certain 
whorls  are  entirely  wanting ;  and  thus  not  a  few 
exogenous  plants  are  destitute  of  the  corolla,  which 
is  sometimes  the  case  with  jilants — exceptional 
apetalous  species^very  nearly  allied  to  others  that 
have  it.  It  is  by  a  similar  abortion  of  a  whorl  that 
flowers  become  unisexual.  Both  stamens  and  pistils 
are  generally  jiresent  in  the  same  flower,  winch  is 
cidled  a  hermnphrodile  or  per/eel  flower  ;  but  many 
flowers  contain  only  the  male  organs  of  re])roduction, 
and  many  contahi  only  the  female  organs,  and  such 
flowers  are  described  as  unisexual,  JJidinous  (q.  v.), 
or  imperfect ;  and  respectively,  as  imile  or  staminifer- 
ous,  anA.  female  or  pistilliferous  flowers.  Male  flowers 
are  also  called  barren  or  sterile,  and  female  flowers 
fertile,  although  their  fertility  depends  on  the  com- 
munication of  pollen  from  the  staminiferous  flowers. 
When  both  male  and  female  flowers  are  jiroduced 
on  one  plant,  the  species  is  said  to  be  momecious 
(Gr.,  having  one  house) ;  but  when  they  are  on 
separate  plants,  it  is  dia>cious  (Gr.,  having  two 
houses) ;  those  which  produce  male,  female,  and 
hciTuaphrodite  flowers  ar»  called  polygamous.  Some- 
times both  stamens  and  pistils  are  wanting,  and  the 
flower  is  then  said  to  be  neuter  or  empty,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  florets  of  the  ray  in  many  compo.site 
flowers.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  both  calyx 
and  corolla  are  wanting,  and  then  the  flower  is  said 
to  be  naked  or  acldamyiteous  (Gr.,  without  covering), 
as  flowers  having  only  one  floral  envelope  are  called 
monochlamydeous,  and  flowers  having  both  cal}^ 
and  corolla  are  called  dichlamydeous.  Acldamydeons 
flowers  are  often  grouped  in  some  peculiar  mtumcr, 
and  protected  by  bracts  or  by  a  spathe. 


FLOWEK. 


Flowers  are  always  regular  in  their  ruiliinental 
state— whorls  of  elevated  points  or  papitlie  ;  some  of 
these,  however,  are  not  unfrequently  abortive,  whilst 
more  frequently,  some  acquire  a  greater  develop- 
ment than  others  of  the  same  whorl,  making  the 
whorl  and  the  flower  irregular;  and  greater  varie- 
ties of  form  are  common  in  the  metamorjihosed 
leaves  which  compose  the  Hower,  than  in  true  leaves 
themselves.  The  internodes,  or  portions  of  the  axis 
between  the  whorls,  are  sometimes  also  peculiarly 
develo|>ed  into  Disc  (q.  v.),  Gynophore  (q.  v.),  &c. 
The  different  whorls  often  differ  in  their  Estivation 
(q.  v.).  But  a  beautiful  symmetry  may  generally  be 
traced  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  flowers, 
the  whorls  consisting  of  the  same  number  of  parts, 
and  the  parts  of  each  whorl  being  placed  opposite 
to  the  sjiaces  of  the  whorl  exterior  to  it ;  and 
this  s\Tnnictrical  plan  of  the  flower  remains  mani- 
fest even  when  there  is  abortion  or  extraordinarv' 
development  of  particular  parts.  The  number  of 
]iarts  in  the  pistil  is,  liowever,  often  smaller  than  in 
the  exterior  whorls ;  and  sometimes  particular  parts 
appear  to  be  divided,  and  so  apparently  multiplied, 
as  the  long  stamens  of  the  Cruci/rrrr,  each  pair  of 
which  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  stamen  split  into 
two,  and  has  its  place  accordinglj'  among  the  parts 
of  the  flower.  The  sjTnmetry  of  flowers  may  be 
iUustrated  by  the  following  diagrams : 


niostration  of  the  Symmetry  of  Flowers  (from  Balfour's 
Botany) : 

fl,  Diagram  of  the  flower  of  Heath  {Erica)^  having  four  sepal«, 
four  divisions  of  the  corolla,  eight  stamens  in  two  rowe,  and 
four  divisions  of  the  pistil.  The  flower  is  tetramcrous,  com- 
plete, symmetrical,  and  regular,  b;  Di:igramatic  section  of 
a  symmetrical  pentamerous  flower  of  Stone-crop  (Sedum), 
consisting  of  five  sepals  externally,  five  petals  alternating 
with  the  sepals,  ten  stamens  in  two  rows,  and  five  carpels 
containing  seeds.  The  lines  on  the  outside  of  the  carpels  arc 
glands,  r.  Diagram  of  the  trimerons  symmetrical  flower  of 
Iris,  There  are  three  alternating  divisions  of  each  whorl. 
rf.  Diagram  of  the  fl(»wer  of  Flax  [LitiHin)^  consisting  of  five 
sepals,  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and  five  carpels,  each  of 
which  is  partially  divided  into  two.  It  is  pentamerous, 
complete,  symmetrical,  and  regular. 

The  development  of  flowers  in  most  coses  follows 
the  complete  formation  of  the  stem-leaves,  more 
rarely  jjrecedes  or  accompanies  it.  The  unfolding  of 
the  p.irt3  of  a  flower  is  called  its  Jloivering  or  btos- 
sominrf,  and  when  their  fimctions  are  performed,  it 
failes ;  the  floral  cnvelo])es,  the  stamens,  and  even 
the  styles,  sometimes  falling  off'  early,  and  some  of 
them  sometimes  remaining  in  a  withered  state  until 
the  riiiening  of  the  fruit ;  the  calj'x  not  unfrequently 
undergoing  such  modifications  as  to  convert  it  into 
a  part  of  the  fruit  itself. 

In  the  greater  number  of  plants,  flowering  takes 
jiLtce,  during  the  flowering  season,  indiscrimin.itely, 
at  ali   hours   of    the   day ;   and   the  flowers    once 


opened,  remain  o])en,  even  during  night,  till  they 
fade.  In  many  plants,  however,  a  st*ep  of  flowers 
takes  jJace ;  they  open  and  close  with  the  returns 
of  day  and  night.  Thus,  sunflowers  open  in  the 
morning,  and  close  at  evening  ;  whilst  there  are 
other  flowers  which  o])en  in  the  evening,  and  close 
in  the  morning.  Others  also  open  and  close  at 
certain  hours  of  the  day ;  thus  the  flowers  of  the 
common  purslane  open  about  11  o'clock  A.  M.,  and 
close  soon  after  midday;  Aiitliericuni  pomeridianum 
opens  its  flowers  about  2  p.  M.,  and  closes  them 
before  night ;  the  large  fr.agrant  blossoms  of  Cereus 
grandiflorus  open  between  7  and  8  P,  M.,  and  its 
sleep  commences  soon  after  midnight.  In  a  few 
plants,  the  sleeping  and  waking  of  the  flowers  are 
regid.ated  by  the  conditions  of  the  weather.  The 
waking  and  sleeping  of  flowers  either  continues  for 
several  d.tys  in  succession,  as  in  some  species  of 
Mesemln-yanlhemum;  or  the  brief  life  of  the  flower 
ends  when  it  first  sleeps,  as  in  the  Tiger-flower. 

The  odours  of  flowers,  extremely  various,  often 
dehghtftd,  and  sometimes  very  offensive,  are  in 
some  cases  equally  powerfiU  as  long  as  the  flower  is 
o]ien  ;  in  others,  they  v.irj'  in  strength  at  different 
times  of  the  day.  Some  flowers,  as  tliose  of  Hesperis 
tristia  and  Pe/argo/num  Iriste,  although  remaining 
open  during  the  day,  diffuse  their  fragrance  only 
when  night  comes  on.  The  Oriental  Hyacinth,  so 
commoidy  cidtivated  in  tvindows,  is  at  all  times 
perceptibly  fragrant,  but  fills  the  atmosphere  of  the 
.apartment  with  its  perfume  about  eleven  o'clock  ?t 
night. 

Tlie  coloiu's  of  the  different  parts  of  flowers,  the 
variety  and  beauty  of  which  render  many  of  them 
so  attractive,  generally  remain  unchanged,  but  some- 
times imdergo  changes  during  the  life  of  the  flower. 
The  flowers  of  Myosotis  versicolor — a  small  species  of 
Forget-me-not,  very  common  as  a  weed  in  gardens — 
are  siJphur-yellow  when  they  first  open,  and  after- 
wards change  to  blue.  The  jjetals  of  Clieiranlhus 
mutahilis,  when  they  first  expand,  are  yellow,  and 
aftenvards  pass  to  orange,  red,  and  finally  purple. 
In  Hydrangea  hortensis,  fivmiliar  as  a  window-plant, 
the  flowers  are  at  first  green,  then  rose-colour,  pur- 
pHsh  red  intermixed  with  green,  and  finally,  when 
about  to  fade,  they  are  of  a  sickly  green.  Some 
flowers  undergo  remarkable  changes  of  colour  during 
the  djiy,  as  those  of  the  common  pink  Phlox,  which, 
early  in  the  morning,  are  light  blue,  and  become 
bright  pink  as  the  day  advances ;  and  those  of 
HibUcus  variabilis,  which  are  white  in  the  morning, 
pink  at  noon,  and  bright  red  at  sunset. 

The  colours  and  odours  of  flowers  are  subjects 
in  the  investig.ation  of  which  physiolojjists  have 
not  yet  been  .able  to  go  far.  Tlic  chemical  products 
on  which  they  immediately  depend  are  jjartially 
know^l ;  but  how  the  chemical  changes  are  wrought, 
and  what  various  piuposes  they  all  serve  as  to 
tlie  plant  itself,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  even 
begun  to  be  ascertained.  Both  colours  and  odours 
are  more  or  less  owing  to  the  action  of  the  sun's 
r.ivs.  I'hey  are  also  sometimes  modified  by  soil; 
and  diversities  of  colour  have  been  obtained  in 
ciUtivatcd  flowers  by  changing  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow. 

A  few  flowers  are  edible,  although  none  are  of  any 
importance  on  this  account.  Some,  or  parts  of  them, 
are  used  in  dyeing;  but  notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  variety  of  the  colours  of  flowers,  a  very  sm.ill 
jiroportion  of  vegetable  dye-stuffs  is  obtained  from 
them ;  and  a  similar  remark  is  applicable  to  their 
medicinal  use.  For  dyeing  and  painting,  the  colours 
of  flowers  can  seldom  be  obtiiined  in  considerable 
quantity,  except  at  too  great  exi)ense,  and  seldom  of 
brilliancy  at  all  corres])onding  with  that  which  they 
exhibit  in  the  flower  itself.    They  are  also  in  general 


FLOWER-DE-LUCE— FLOWERS. 


fixed  with  great  difficulty,  some  yellow  colours  being 
till'  ouly  notable  exceptions. 

Flowore  being  subservient  to  the  roiiriHluction  of 
the   sjwcies,  .ire,  in  .ill   not   unfavourable   eirciuu- 
stances,  followed  by  Fruit  (q.  v.).     This,  of  course, 
in  monivcious  and  Aiu'cious  ]>lants,  is  the  case  only 
with   the   female   llowei-s,   the    male    (lowers  soon 
withering   away   when   they   h.iv.'   dispersed   tlieir 
l>ollen.     See  Fecind.\tion  .and  St.oien.     Kut  even 
after  the  fecundation  of  the  gcrmen,  and  when,  in 
the  language  of  gardeners,  the  fruit  is  set,  unfavour- 
able circumstances,  such  as  excessive  heat  or  cold, 
drought  or  moisture,  w.-»nt  of  due  nutriment  to  the 
plant,  or  through  excessive  niunber  of  fruits  set  at 
once,  to  the  individual  fruit  itself— often  cause  it  to 
f.iil  off  early,  long  before  it  has  attained  its  full  size. 
See  Fkuit. 
FLOWER-DE-LUCE.    -See  Inis. 
FLOWERPOTS  are  "cnerally  made   of  burnt 
clay,  ungla/ed,  tapering  a  little  tow.ards  the  bottom, 
and  having  the  bottom  jierforated  with  one  or  more 
holes.     Tliose  of  smallest  size  (thumh-pots)  are  only 
about  two   inches   deep,  and   are  used  chiefly  for 
seedlings  to  be  soon  again  transplanted.     For  plants 
which  reqnire  a  pot  of  more  than  12  inches  deep  and 
IS  inches  wiile,  wooden  boxes  or  tubs  are  generally 
provided.      The  flower-pot  is   usually  j)laced  in  a 
saucer  of  the  same  material,  when  used  in  apart- 
ments or  on  the  shelves  of  a  green-house  ;  but  when 
plants  growing  in   flower-pots    are   placed   in   the 
garilen,  the  saucer  is  dispensed  with.      For  orna- 
mental  use,  flower-pots   are   sometimes   glazed,  or 
made  in  the  shape  of  vases,  &c. — In  filling  flower- 
pots,  small   stones  or  bits   of  broken  jiottery  are 
jJaced  in  the  bottom,  to  prevent  water  from  lodging 
there,  and  munnri  the  soil  in  which  the  plant  is  to 
grow.     The   roots   of  plants   growing   in   pots   are 
generally  examined  once  or  twice  a  year,  by  turning 
them  ont  of  the  pot  with  the  whole  ball  of  earth 
attached,  when  the  roots,  which  have  often  become 
matted  round  the  outside  of  the  b.all  of  earth,  are 
pruned,  and  the  plant  is  either  restored  to  the  same 
pot  or  transferred  to  a  larger  one.     The  change  of 
soil  made  at  this  time  is,  according  to  circumstances, 
cither  complete  or  jiartial. 

FLOWERS,  AKTIFICI.4.L.  This  elegant  branch  of 
manufacture,  though  not  usually  ranked  among  the 
fine  arts,  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  holding  an  inter- 
mediate place  between  them  and  the  mechanical 
arts.  The  ItaUans  were  the  first  to  bring  it  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection,  and  it  is  now  successfully 
carried  out  both  in  England  and  France.  The  value 
of  artificial  flowers  annually  exported  from  France 
exceeds  £40,000.  j 

The  materials  used  are  very  various.      Feathers  ; 
have  long  been  used  by  the  South  American  Imlians. 
In  Italy,  the  cocoons  of  silk- worms  are  djed,  and 
extensively  usecL     Beautiful   imitations  of  flowers 
arc  made  from  shells,  either  in  their  natural  colours 
or  tinted.     Paper,  ribbons,  velvet,  thin  lamin.o)  of 
whalebone,  &c.,  are  also  used.      The   materials  of  , 
which   the  artificial  flowers  commonly  in    use  are 
made  arc  French  cambric,  Scotch  cambric,  jaconet,  ^ 
and  fine  cahco,  besides  muslin,  crape,  and  gauze  for 
particular  flowers,  and  satin  and  velvet  for  thick  | 
petals,  &c.     Wax-flower-making  is  quite  a  distinct 
branch,  and  those  who  follow  it  claim  with  justice 
the  title  of  artist.    It  will  be  treated  under  the  head 
of  Wax-flowers. 

The  petals  and  sepals  of  the  flowers,  as  well  as 
the  leaves  of  the  plant,  are  stamped  out  by  punches, 
or  '  irons,'  as  they  are  technically  termed.  A  large 
stock  of  these  irons  is  necessary,  as  special  forms 
and  sizes  are  required  for  each  flower.  The  next 
process  in  shaping  is  that  of  'goffering,'  or  'gauffer- 
398 


ing,'  by  means  of  which  the  hollow  form  is  given 
to  pet.als,  and  the  midrib  and  veins  of  leaves 
imitated.  For  hollowing  petals,  the  goffering- iron 
is  simi)ly  a  i)olished  iron  ball  mounted  on  an  iron 
wire  in  a  handle.  It  is  slightly  warmed,  and  the 
pet.al  is  placed  on  a  cushion,  and  the  iron  pressed 
against  it  A  variety  of  other  forms  of  goffering- 
irons  are  used,  such  as  prismatic  rods,  bent  wires, 
&c.  The  vernation  of  leaves  is  effected  by  dica 
made  of  iron  or  copper,  which  are  nevertheless 
ealletl  goffering-irons. 
'  The  tinting  of  petals  of  the  best  flowers  requires 
some  amount  of  delicacy  and  skiU.  In  nature, 
however,  the  tint  of  each  petal  of  a  flower  is  rarely 
uniform  ;  and  the  best  artificial  flowers  represent 
the  natural  variations  with  great  accuracy.  The 
petals  of  a  rose,  for  example,  are  dyed  by  holding 
I  each  separately  by  pincers,  and  then  dipping  it  in 
'  a  bath  of  carmine,  and  afterwards  iuto  pure  water, 
to  give  delicacy  of  tint ;  but  .as  the  colour  is  usually 
deepest  in  the  centre,  a  little  more  dye  is  added 
there  while  the  jjctal  is  still  moist,  and  this  diffuses 
itself  outwards  in  diminishing  intensity.  The  white- 
ness at  the  insertion  of  the  petal  is  produced  by 
touching  that  part  >rith  pure  water  after  the  rest  is 
dyed. 

Leaves  are  cut  and  stamped  in  like  manner  from 
green  taffeta,  cambric,  cahco,  &c.  The  glossy  upper 
surface  is  represented  by  coatiug  the  taffeta,  &c., 
from  which  they  are  stamj)ed.  with  gum-arabic  ; 
and  the  soft  tone  of  the  imder  side  is  obtained 
by  me.ans  of  starch  coloured  to  the  requisite  shade, 
and  brushed  on  when  of  the  right  consistence  to 
dry  with  the  proper  effect.  A  velvety  textm-c 
is  given  by  dusting  the  powdered  nap  of  cloth, 
which  has  been  ]ire\-iously  dyed  of  the  required 
colour,  over  the  gummed  leaf,  the  gum  ha\-ing 
been  allowed  to  partly  dry  till  it  lias  become 
'taccy.'  Tlie  superfluous  portion  of  nap  is  then 
shaken  ofl'.  Buds  are  made  of  taffeta,  tinted,  and 
stiffened,  and  stuffed  with  cotton.  .Stamens  arc 
made  of  short  pieces  of  sewing  silk  stiffened  with 
gelatine,  and  when  dry,  the  ends  are  moistened  with 
gum,  and  dipped  in  flour,  coloured  yellow,  to  repre- 
sent the  pollen.  Fine  wire  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  filament  of  the  stamen. 

The  flower  is  built  uj)  from  the  centre ;  the  pistil 
and  stamens  are  tied  in  a  bunch  to  a  piece  of  wire ; 
the  petals  are  arranged  in  order,  and  pasted ;  then 
the  sepals  of  the  calyx  are  pasted  outside  of  these, 
and  further  secured  by  winding  fine  thread  or  silk 
round  the  lower  parts.  Other  wires  are  enclosed 
with  this  thread,  and  form  the  stalk,  which  is  bound 
roimd  with  green  tissue  paj>er ;  and  at  proper  inter- 
vals the  leaves  are  inserted  by  means  of  fine  wires, 
to  which  they  are  bound,  the  ends  of  these  ^\-ires 
being  bound  in  .and  incoqjorated  with  the  stalk,  and 
concealed  by  the  green  jiaper. 

Besides  the  flow-ers  copied  from  nature,  there  is  a 
eonsider.able  demand  for  what  are  called  '  fancy 
flowers,'  most  of  which  are  invented  by  the  manu- 
facturer to  use  UJ)  w.aste  and  spoiled  fragments 
originally  designed  for  better  purposes. 

Flowers  suitable  for  mourning  are  prepared  by 
co.ating  leaves,  flowers,  &c.,  with  strong  gum,  and 
then  Ousting  upon  them  ]>owdered  galena.  This 
substance,  a  sulphuret  of  lead,  is  formed  naturally 
in  lustrous  cubic  crystals  of  a  dark-gr.ay  colour,  and 
however  finely  it  is  powdered,  the  fr.agments  still 
tend  to  retain  the  s.ame  shajie  and  surface,  and  thus 
present  a  number  of  flat  glittering  facets.  It  is  used 
in  like  manner  for  cheap  jewellery. 

FLOWERS,  in  Chemistry,  is  a  term  originally 
given  by  the  alchemists  to  the  sublimates  which 
rose,  or  appeared  to  gi-ow  from  certain  bodies  capable 
of  undergoing  volatilisation  when  subjected  tolieat. 


FLOX  ^ERIS— FLUOIl  SPAR. 


Thug,  flowers  of  an/hnony,  flowers  of  arsenic,  floicers 
of  benjamin  or  benzoin,  flowers  of  sulphur,  flowers 
of  zinc,  &c. 

FLOX  iERIS  is  a  term  applii-d  to  the  suboxide 
or  vi'd  oxide  of  copjier. 

FLUE.     See  Chimney. 

FLUID.  The  mathematical  definition  of  a  (luid 
is,  that  it  is  a  collection  of  material  jiarticles  which 
can  he  moved  among  each  other  by  an  indefinitely 
.small  force.  No  fluid  in  nature  strictly  fulfils  this 
definition,  though  very  many  do  so  sufliciently 
nearly  to  make  the  conclusions  founded  on  the 
definition  practically  correct.  Fluids  are  ilistin- 
guished  iuto  elastic  and  inelastic — the  former  being 
those  the  volume  of  which  is  cUminished  by  pressure, 
and  increases  when  pressure  is  removed ;  the  latter 
being  those  which  have  not  this  property,  e.  g., 
water  and  all  those  fluids  termed  Liquids  (cj.  v.). 
Elastic  fluids  are  also  spoken  of  as  compressible  ; 
and  inelastic  as  incompressible — which,  strictly 
speaking,  no  knowni  fluid  is,  although  all  ordinary 
licpiids  are  sufficiently  nearly  so  to  enable  ua  to 
regard  them  as  such  without  sensil>le  error.  Sec 
Vapouu.s,  Elastk.ity  and  Hr.AT,  CoiiESiox  and 
Capillary  Actio.v. 

FLUKE,  the  pointed  triangular  tcnnination  to 
each  ann  of  an  Anchor  (cj.  v.). 

FLUKE,  or  FLUKE-WORM  (Dhloma  hepnli. 
cinn),  an  entozo(in  common  in  the  liver  and  biliary 
ducts  of  rimiiuants,  particularly  of  sheep,  in  which 
it  produces  the  disease  called  Bot, 
often  causing  great  mortality  in 
flocks  during  wet  seasons  and  on 
ill-ilraiued  lands.  It  receives  its 
common  name  from  its  resem- 
blance in  form  to  the  flountler, 
of  which  flidce  is  a  Scotch  and 
old  Enghsh  name.  For  a  similar 
reason,  it  is  sometimes  called 
Plaice.  It  is  a  Trematode  (rj.  v.) 
worm,  higher  in  organisation  than 
the  cestoid  worms,  but  not  so  high 
as  the  Cmldminthn.  It  is  gener- 
ally not  quite  an  inch  in  length, 
often  much  less,  but  sometimes 
more ;  of  an  oval  form,  its 
breadth  about  half  its  length  ; 
flat,  in  colom'  not  very  different 
from  the  Uver  in  which  it  exists  : 
it  has  no  eyes  nor  other  known  organs  of  special 
sense ;  it  is  hermaphrodite,  and  the  organs  of 
reproduction  occupy  great  part  of  its  body,  the 
ovaries  being  ranged  along  the  margin ;  its  anterior 
extremity  is  furnished  with  a  sucker,  and  another  is 
situated  at  a  small  distance  on  the  ventral  sm-face, 
whence  the  name  Disloina  (Gr.  two-mouthed),  but 
the  ternnnal  sucker  alone  is  perforated,  and  serves 
as  a  month,  by  which  bile — the  food  of  the  creature 
— is  imbibed ;  the  tube  which  proceeds  from  it  not, 
however,  becoming  a  proper  intestinal  canal,  but 
soon  dividing  into  two  large  branches,  and  ending 
in  minute  ramifications  in  all  j)art3  of  the  body. 
Prodigious  numbers  of  flukes  arc  sometimes  found 
in  the  liver  of  a  single  sheep,  and  of  very  different 
^izcs,  but  they  arc  now  believed  not  by  inulti[ny 
there  as  was  formerly  supposed.  Their  eggs,  in- 
deed, arc  produced  there  in  great  q\iantity,  but 
find  their  way  iuto  the  outer  world  to  begin 
a  scries  of  transformations  not  yet  very  accur- 
ately traced  with  regard  to  this  particular  species, 
but  of  which  the  gener.al  nature  is  known.  See 
Cercaria,  Trematode  Worjis,  and  Gen'eratio.v, 
Alternation"  of.  It  seems  that  the  yoimg  flukes, 
having    entered    as    Cercariie    into    the    bodies    of 


Fluke-wonn  {Dis- 
toma  hepaticuni). 


molluscs  or  of  aquatic  insect  larvae,  are  conveyed 
into  the  stomachs  of  ruminants  feeding  on  herbage 
to  which  these  are  attached,  ami  finding  their  war 
to  the  liver,  there  attain  their  full  development. 
See  Rot. 

Instances  have  occurred  of  the  presence  of  Distoma 
kepnticum  in  the  human  Uver  and  rena  porlce ;  as 
well  as  of  a  similar  species,  /).  lanceolatum  ;  a  small 
species  of  the  same  genus,  D.  Iie/irnpln/es,  has  been 
found  in  great  nundjcrs  in  the  human  intestines  in 
Egji)t,  l)ut  its  influence  on  the  system  is  unknown  ; 
a  species  of  much  elongated  form,  D.  h<enmlobivm, 
is  very  common  in  Egypt,  infesting  the  tvna  porlte 
of  man,  and  the  walls  of  the  urinary  bladder,  and 
producing  local,  and  afterwards  general  disease  ;  a 
small  sjtecirs,  />.  nphthalmohium,  has  been  f<tuud  in 
the  human  eye,  but  probably  through  some  such 
accident  as  in  another  case  has  led  to  the  oceuiTencc 
of  the  common  fluke  under  the  skin  of  the  foot, 
where  it  caused  a  sore.  Of  all  the  known  species, 
the  Egjiitian,  D.  hfema/obium,  is  by  far  the  most 
hurtful,  as  infesting  the  human  body.  This  species 
is  also  remarkably  diirerent  from  the  others,  in  not 
being  hermaphrodite,  and  in  the  extreme  dissimi- 
larity of  the  male  and  female;  the  female  being  a 
thread-like  worm,  for  which  a  lodgment  is  provided 
in  a  furrow  [ijijnacopliorus)  on  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  male. 

The  genus  Distoma  or  Fluke  contains  a  great 
number  of  species,  infesting,  in  their  mature  state, 
diflerent  kinds  of  animals,  and  finding  their  apj»ro- 
I^riate  place  in  very  tUflerent  parts  of  the  animal 
frame.  The  wn-inkled  membrane  around  the  eyes  of 
birds  is  the  place  of  some. 

FLUOR  SPAR,  a  mineral  which  has  been  often 
described  as  chemically /"/((n^e  of  Lime,  a  compound 
of  fluoric  (hydrofluoric)  acid  and  lime,  but  which  is 
in  reality  Fluoride  of  Calcium  (CaF),  consisting  of 
4S'14  fluorine  and  51 'SO  calcium  (the  base  of  lime). 
It  occurs  both  crystallised  and  massive ;  the  massive 
varieties  exhibiting  a  crystalline  structure  ;  the 
crystals  usually  in  gi-oups,  sometimes  of  the  primary 
foiTn,  which  is  a  cnlie,  but  often  of  secondary  forms, 
of  which  there  is  great  variety,  as  the  octahedron, 
rhombic  dodecahedron,  &c.  F.  S.  is  sometimes 
colourless,  but  often  green,  blue,  yellow,  or  red,  more 
rarely  gray,  or  even  black  ;  different  shades  of  colour 
frequently  appearing  in  the  same  specimen,  and  in 
the  massive  varieties  beantifiUly  intermixed.  Its 
colours  often  rival  those  of  the  most  beautiful  gems  ; 
but  it  is  of  very  inferior  hardness,  being  scratched 
eveu  by  quartz.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3"14.  It 
generally  becomes  phosphorescent  when  heated, 
although  this  is  more  remarkably  the  case  with 
some  varieties  than  Mith  others ;  it  is  decomposed 
by  heated  suljiluiric  acid,  mth  evolution  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid  as  a  pungent  gas,  ■nhich,  having  the 
property  of  acting  upon  and  corroding  glass,  F.  S.  is 
used  with  sulphuric  acid  for  etching  on  glass.  F.  S. 
is  also  used  for  ornamental  jjurposes,  being  wrought 
into  vases,  &c.,  for  which  it  was  in  high  esteem 
among  the  ancients.  But  the  greater  abimdancc  in 
which  it  is  now  obtained  has  diminished  the  value 
of  ornaments  made  of  it.  It  is  very  commonly 
associated  with  ores  of  tin,  sdvcr,  lead,  and  copi>cr, 
occurring  chiefly  in  veins,  but  is  also  fouucl  by  itself 
in  drnsy  cavities  in  granite,  greenstone,  &c.  It  is 
found  only  in  a  few  places  in  Scotland,  and  in 
insignificant  quantity,  but  is  nowhere  more  aljund- 
aut  than  in  England,  particul.arly  in  Derbyshire 
and  in  Cornwall.  In  Cornwall,  it  is  iised  as  a  flux 
for  reducing  copper  ore.  In  Derbyshire,  the  bluo 
m.assive  variety  is  known  to  the  miners  .as  Blue 
John.  The  manufacture  of  ornaments  of  F.  S.  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent  in  Derbyshire.  F.  S.  is 
often  called  Derbysiiike  Spar. 

389 


FLUOHESCENCE— FLUSTRA. 


FLVOKE'SCENCE  is  the  term  applied  to  a 
peculiar  blue  apiwarance  cxliibitcil  .by  certain 
substances  c.\i>oseil  to  sunlight,  anil  especially 
iil>8cr%-ablo  iu  a  ililuto  solution  of  sulphate  of 
quinine. 

FLU'ORIXE  is  an  elementary  subst.mce  allied 
to  chlorine.  Its  iiriueijial  natural  source  is  the 
niineral,  lluor  si>ar  (CaF),  although  it  is  also  found 
in  minute  quantities  iu  the  igneous  rocks,  natural 
waters,  planta,  the  liones  and  teeth  of  animals,  as 
aUo  in  milk,  blo^d,  &c.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  isolate  fluorine,  but  those  have  all  failed, 
owing  to  the  e-xtremely  energetic  nature  of  the 
substance,  which  c.iuses  it  to  unite  with  substances 
the  moment  it  is  liberated  from  a  jirevious  state 
of  combination.  Thus,  if  fluorine  is  evolved  m 
glass,  gold,  platinum,  or  other  metallic  vessels,  it 
immedi.itely  acts  ujum  ami  unites  with  the  mate- 
rial of  the  vessel,  aud  ceases  to  be  free  and  pm-e. 
It  would  ai>pcar,  however,  to  be  a  gaseous  sub- 
stance, ha'i-in^'  the  equivalent  number  19,  and  with 
projierties  siiuilar  to  chlorine,  though  tliil'oring  iu 
energy  of  action.  The  cumjiounds  of  fiuorine  are 
not  numerous,  but  are  important.  JIi/ilrqHuoric 
acid,  or  Jiuorlc  acid  (HF),  is  generally  prepared 
by  heating  gently  in  a  lead  still  a  mbctiu-e  of  one 
part  of  fiuor  sjiar  (CaF)  with  two  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid(HOS03),  when  tlie  vapours  of  hydioUuoric  acid 
(HF)  are  evolved,  whilst  sulphate  of  lime  (CaOSOj) 
is  left  in  the  stilL  The  dense  acid  vapom-s  are 
conducted  through  a  lead  pipe  into  a  leail  receiver 
or  bottle,  surrounded  by  a  freezing  mi.xture  of  ice 
;md  common  salt.  The  acid  is  generally  mixed 
with  water  when  desired  to  be  kept  fm-  some  time. 
When  the  most  concentrated  hydi-otluoric  acid  is 
required,  the  still  and  receiving  vessel,  must  be 
made  of  platinum.  The  other  metals  are  not  suit- 
able for  such  ajipai-atus,  as  they  are  rapidly  cor- 
roded by  the  .iciil.  When  piei)aied  in  its  strongest 
form,  hydrofluoric  acid  has  the  density  of  KIGO 
(water  =  1000),  and  is  a  colourless,  fuming  liquid 
of  great  volatility,  which  boils  at  60°  ¥.,  aud  does 
not  freeze  at  —4'  F.  Not  only  does  hydrofluoric  acid 
corrode  and  dissolve  the  oriUuary  metals  (excepting 
lead  and  platinum),  but  when  placed  on  the  skin, 
it  jiroduces  a  severe  burn,  owing  to  its  caustic 
nature.  The  most  important  i)ropei-tj'  which  hydro- 
fluoric acid  possesses  is  its  power  of  e.ating  into 
and  dissohTng  glass,  which  admits  of  its  .ajiplica- 
tion  iu  the  etcliing  of  characters  ujjon  glass,  as  in 
thermometer  tubes,  and  for  eating  aw.ay  gi-eater 
or  less  thicknesses  of  plates  or  sheets  of  coloured 
glass,  so  as  to  produce  a  variety  of  shades.  See 
GLAS.S-KTCIIING  and  Glas.s-stai>-ino. 

FLXJO'ROTYPE,  a  ])roces3  in  which  salts  of 
fluoric  acid  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing pictures  by  tlie  agency  of  light.  It  w.is 
suggested  by  Robert  Hunt  in  1844.  Two  solutions 
are  pre|)ared  :  one  containing  20  grains  of  bromide 
of  potassium  to  an  ounce  of  water ;  aud  the  other, 
.5  grains  of  fluoride  of  sodium  to  an  oimee  of  water. 
These  are  mixed  together  just  previous  to  using, 
and  apjilied  uniforiuly  over  the  whole  surface  of 
good  j>aper,  which  is  then  allowed  to  di-y,  and 
afterwards  rendered  sensitive  by  brushing  over  it 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  sixty  giains  to  an 
oimce  of  water.  Pajiers  so  prepared  may  be  used 
for  the  production  of  ])ietiu'cs  in  the  camera  or 
]irintuig-frame  ;  they  reijnire,  however,  to  be  inten- 
sified by  development  with  protosidjjhate  of  uon, 
the  reducing  action  of  which  should  be  regiUated 
by  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  to  the  solution.  The 
sensibility  of  the  pajiers  for  camer.a-work  m.ay  lie 
much  increased  by  brushing  over  them  a  weak 
solution  of  j>rotochloriile  of  tin  previous  to  exposure. 


FLUSH,  a  term  used  iu  the  navj'  in  reference  to 
decks,  which  are  said  to  be  flush  when  extending 
without  break  on  one  level  from  the  bow  to  the 
stern.  Frigates  and  all  smaller  vessels  of  war 
(excepting  a  few  steamers)  are  now  constructnl 
with  flush  upper-decks ;  but  what  are  tecluiically 
termed  '  flush-decked  ships.'  arc  such  as  have  all 
their  guns  on  the  upper-deck,  as  corvettes,  sloops, 
bz'igs,  aud  smaller  vessels. 

FliU'SHING  (Dutch  IViWH-yen),  a  strong  fortress 
and  seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
Ze;dand,  is  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island 
of  Walclieren,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Western  Scheldt,  in  lat.  .51°  20'  N.,  and  long. 
S'  36'  E.  It  is  the  most  important  naval  station  of 
the  Netherlands,  is  well  built,  and  has  extensive 
dockyartls.  Its  harbour  is  protected  by  two  moles 
from  the  violence  of  the  sea,  with  which,  however, 
two  canals  >\-ithin  the  town,  sufficiently  large  and 
deep  to  iillow  of  the  largest  merchant-vessels  un- 
loading at  the  quays,  communicate.  F.,  with  the 
forts  of  Rammekens  and  Breskens  in  the  vicinity, 
commands  the  entrance  of  the  Scheldt.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  important  wharfs  and 
areenals.  It  also  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce 
with  India,  England,  aud  other  countries.  I'oj). 
10,000.  F.  is  the  buthplace  of  Admii-;d  de  Kuyter. 
It  was  stormed  .and  taken  by  the  English  in  the 
Walcheren  expedition  under  Lord  Chatham,  iu  ISO!). 

FLU'STRA,  a  genus  of  zooi)h}'tes,  of  the  class 
Poh/zoa  (or  Bri/ozoa),  and  order  I n/uiidibulata,  some 
of  the  species  of  which'  are  very  common  on  the 
British  shores.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been 
derived   by  Linmeus  from  the  Saxon  Jlustnaii,  to 


Portion  of  Flustra  Tnmcata  (from  Johnston's 

Zooplitjlu) : 

a,  a  few  celU  magnified. 

wp.ive,  because  of  the  mat-like  structure  of  the 
polyi>idoms,  which  in  this  genus  are  extremely  plant- 
like, and  by  uuscientiflc  obser\'ers  are  generally 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable,  and  not 
to  the  animal  kingdom.  In  some  species,  the 
polyijidom  assumes  the  api>caraiice  of  a  branch- 
ing frond,  with  poljiie  cells  cither  on  one  side 
only,  or  on  both  sides ;  in  others,  it  extends  as  an 
incrustation  on  rocks,  shells,  sea-weeds,  &c.  The 
poljlie  cells  are  arranged  quincuncially,  and  are 
in  juxtaposition,  more  or  less  ([uadrangnlar,  flat, 
and  with  a  distinct  border,  which  is  sometimes 
furnished  with  teeth  or  short  spines.  The  polj-pes 
have  the  jiower  of  moving  either  the  whole  head 


FLUTE— FLUXIONS. 


at  once,  or  the  tentacles  separately,  and  shew  no 
little  actirity,  eg  that  a  living;  F.,  seen  through 
a  maguifyiug-glass,  is  a  most  beautiful  and  inte- 
resting object.  One  of  the  most  common  British 
species  is  F.  foUacea,  whicli  grows  on  hard  gromid 
in  a  few  fathoms'  water,  and  is  continually  to  be 
foimd  torn  np  by  the  waves,  and  scattered  on  the 
shore.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  same 
species  occurs  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. — A  single  square 
inch  of  F.  carbasea^  another  common  British  species, 
has  been  found  to  contain  ISOO  cells ;  and  as  there 
are  about  ten  squai'e  inches  in  an  average  jiolyjiidom, 
a  single  specimen  may  ordinarily  contain  about 
13,0(10  polyjio  heads. 

FLUTE,  one  of  the  oldest  ^v-ind  instniments, 
well  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  has  a  soft  and 
}ile:>s.int  quality  of  tone,  is  an  important  instni- 
meut  in  orchestral  music,  and,  in  consequence  of 
its  easy  treatment,  is,  in  modern  times,  much  in 
favoiu"  "with  amateurs.  The  flute  is  commonly  made 
of  bo.\wood  or  ebony,  but  sometimes  of  ivory  or 
silver.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  taper  tube,  ma<le  in 
four  pieces,  ^rith  six  holes  for  the  fingers,  and  %vitli 
from  one  to  fourteen  keys,  which  cover  or  open 
other  holes.  The  sound  is  produced  by  blowing 
from  the  mouth  into  the  embouchure,  an  oval  kind 
of  bole  at  one  side  of  the  thick  end,  which  is  done 
by  the  lips  covering  a  part  of  the  hole,  so  that  the 
air  in  its  p:issage  from  the  mouth  is  broken  against 
the  ojiposite  edge  of  the  hole,  which  causes  the 
column  of  air  inside  the  tube  to  \-ibrate.  The  notes 
of  the  gamut  are  jiroduced  by  the  opening  or  shut- 
ting of  the  holes  by  the  fingers  of  both  hanils.  The 
comjiass  of  the  Hute  is  from  D  to  A  sharp,  nineteen 
diatonic  intervals.  For  solo-playing,  a  liute  with  a 
compass  from  G  to  C  is  sometimes  used.  For  orches- 
tral puq)Oscs,  there  are  also  the  tierce  flute,  the 
octave  (lute,  the  E  Hat  and  F  piccolo  flute  ;  and  the 
liigliest  of  all,  the  C  piccolo.  Improvements  on  the 
flute  have  been  made  from  time  tu  time  by  Quanta, 
liil>ock,  Trommlitz,  and  csjiecially  by  Bohm  in 
Genuany,  and  by  Rudell  and  Hose  in  London. 

FLUTE-WORK,  the  name  given  to  a  pai-ticular 
class  of  stops  m  organ-buililing,  in  conti'aiUstinetion 
to  reed-ioorL  There  are  also  niunerous  stops  in 
German  organs,  specially  designated  with  the  names 
of  flutes  of  lUtl'erent  kinds,  of  eight  feet  and  four  feet 
pitch,  some  of  which  have  lately  been  introduced 
into  English  organs. 

FLU'TIXG,  the  mouldings  in  the  form  of  hollows 
or  channels  cut  vertically  on  the  siu'face  of  columns. 
These  were  atlopted  by  the  Greeks  as  ornaments  to 
their  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  columns,  and  were 
retained  by  the  Romans  in  their  architecture.  The 
Tuscan  is  the  only  style  without  flutes.  In  Doric 
(fig.  1 ),  there  are  20  flutes  on  the  cu'cumf  erence,  and 


FiS.  2. 

the  curves  meet  with  a  sharp  edge.  These  curves 
are  supposed,  in  Greek  Doric,  to  be  elliptical,  and 
they  are  carried  up  across  the  necking  to  the  base  of 
the  cap.  In  the  other  styles,  there  are  24  flutes  on 
the  ciroimference  (fig.  2).      These  are  semicirciUar, 


and  are  separatetl  by  a  Bmall  fillet;  and,  before 
reaching  the  necking  and  the  base,  ai-e  terminated 
with  semicircular  top  and  bottom. 

Flutes  are  said  to  be  cabled  when  they  are  filled 
in  to  about  J  of  their  height  from  the  base  with 
a  convex  bead.  This  is  done  to  strengthen  the 
column  and  protect  the  flutes.  In  countries  where 
Roman  remains  were  abundant,  as  in  the  south 
of  France,  fluting  was  sometimes  adopted  by  the 
early  medieval  architects,  as  at  Aries  and  Autun. 
In  Italy  also,  traces  of  this  decoration  are  visible 
during  the  middle  ages ;  but  the  flutes  soon  ceased 
to  be  vertical,  and,  in  Romanesque  Architecture 
(q.  v.),  assumed  many  varieties  of  forms,  such  as 
civn-es,  zigzags,  &p.,  twisting  round  the  shafts. 

FLUX  {fluo,  I  flow)  is  the  term  given  to  the 
substances  employed  in  the  arts  which  cause  or 
facilitate  the  reduction  of  a  metallic  ore  and  the 
fusion  of  the  metal.  ^yhite  flux  is  an  intimate 
mi.rtiirc  of  ten  jm-ts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  and 
thirteen  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  pota.sh,  and  is 
manJy  instrumental  in  ^vithdrawing  the  silica  or 
combined  sand  from  mineral  substances ;  hlack  flux 
is  prepared  by  he-ating  in  close  vessels  ordinarj' 
cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate  of  ])otash),  when  an 
intimate  mi.xturo  of  finely  divided  charcoal  and 
carbonate  of  prjtash  is  o1)tained.  The  latter  flux, 
when  mixed  with  finely  divided  metallic  ores,  and 
the  whole  raised  to  a  high  temperature  in  a  furnace, 
is  not  only  usefid  in  remoWng  the  silica,  which  the 
carbonate  of  pntash  it  contains  enables  it  to  do,  but 
the  charcoal  withdraws  the  oxygen  from  the  metallic 
oxide,  and  causes  the  separation  of  the  pure  metal. 
Limestone  is  employed  as  the  flux  in  the  smelting  of 
iron  ores.  The  other  fluxes  are  fluor  spar,  borax, 
protoxide  of  lead,  &c.     See  Ikox,  Copper,  &c. 

FLUX  (Lat.  fluxus,  iroraflu'i,  I  flow),  a  discharge, 
generally  from'  a  mucous  membrane.  The  term  is 
applied  more  or  less  frequently  to  all  preternatural 
fluid  evacuations  from  the  body,  but  especially  to 
those  from  tlie  bowels,  and  from  the  uterine  organs. 
Dysentery  (ij.  v.)  was  long  termed  the  bloody  flux, 
to  distinguish  it  from  simple  di.arrhoea.  Another 
scientific  term  for  flux  is  Profluvinm,  which  gives 
the  name  to  a  large  order  of  diseases  in  Cullcn's 
Nosology.  See  also  Catabp.h,  Menstrcatiox,  and, 
u-ith  respect  to  etymology  only.  Rheumatism. 

FLUXIONS,  in  Mathematics.  The  method  of 
fluxions  invented  by  Kewton  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  notiim  of  velocity  uniform  and 
variable ;  and  extended  that  notion,  derived  from  the 
consideration  of  a  moving  point,  to  every  species  of 
magnitude  and  quantity.  It  proposed  to  determine, 
in  all  cases,  the  rate  of  increase  or  decrease  of  a 
magnitude  or  quantity  whose  value  depends  on  that 
of  another,  which  itself  varies  in  value  at  a  imiform 
and  given  rate.  If  x  and  ;/  represent  t\vo  such 
quantities,  and  y  =  F(a;)  represent  the  law  of  then- 
dependence,  and  if  a;  be  supposed  to  be  the  velocity 
with  which  x  increases,  and  y  that  with  which  y 
changes  value.  Ne\vton  undertook  by  his  method 
to  express  y  in  terms  of  x  and  of  x,  or  to  find  y 
=  F,  (a;) .  X.  The  quantities  x  and  .v,  which  in  modem 
language  we  call  the  variables,  he  called  flowing 
quantities  or  fluents,  and  x,  y,  which  we  should  repre- 
sent by  (Ix  and  dy,  and  call  dificrentials,  he  called 
the  fluxiops  of  x  and  y.  See  C'.iLCULU.s.  To  illus- 
trate his  notation  :  suppose  y  =  x",  it  may  be  she\vn 
that  ;/  =  !ix""ia-.  Eeganling  now  j/  as  a  quantity 
depending  on  x  and  x,  and  supposing  x  to  increase 

imifomdy,  in  which  case  x  is  constant,  and  (x)  its 
fluxion  zero,  AVe  observe  that  y  may  have  a  fluxion,  for 


FLY-FLYING. 


it  dei>cuils  oa  the  value  assumed  by  njc""'  .  x,  when 
X  further  changes.  Wc  find  (y)  =  n .  (n — 1 ) .  .c""' .  (xf. 

TIius,  second  fluxion  or  vclocitj"  of  ;/,  or  (ij),  Xewton 
wrote  y.  If  x  had  a  second  fluxion,  or  did  not 
change  uniformly,  then  that  fluxion  ho  wrote  x. 

The  third  fluxion  of  ;/  he  wrote  i/ ;  and  so  on,  point- 
ing as  many  points  over  the  lluciit  as  there  are 
units  in  the  onler  of  the  fluxion.  For  the  fluent,  he 
had  no  special  symbol  Instead  ol  fnxf'^dx  =  7f> 
according  to  the  moilem  notation,  he  wrote  |  nxf'^ .  x  I. 
juitting  the  expression  in  an  enclosure.  For  the 
principles  on  wliich  Leibnitz  founded  his  calculus 
and  its  notation,  see  C.vlculcs. 

FLY,  a  iwpular  name  often  given  to  insects  of  the 
onler  Diplera  (q.  v.)  generally,  sometimes  extended 
to  insects  of  other  orders,  and  sometimes  limited  to 
the  Muxiilts  (q.  v.).  It  is  often  used  with  a  prefix, 
as  house-fly,  blow-fly,  &c.,  to  designate  particular 
kinds  of  insects. 

FLY-CATCHER  {Muscicapa),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  order  Insessores,  tribe  Dentiroslres,  and  family 
Afuscicapid<e,  ha\-ing  a  moderately  long  angular  bill, 
broad  and  depressed  at  the  base,  compressed  and 
slightly  curved  at  the  point ;  the  base  surrounded 
with  liaii-s  or  bristles  directed  forwards,  and  which 
help  to  seciu-e  insect  prey.  The  legs  and  feet  are 
sm:Ul ;  the  outer  toe  the  longest,  and  attached  to  the 
middle  one  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  The  wings  are 
not  long ;  their  first  quill-feather  is  very  short ;  the 
third  is  the  longest.  The  birds  of  this  genus,  as 
now  restricted,  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  and  mostly  to  the  warmer  parts  of  it.  Of 
the  numerous  North  American  birtis  often  called 
fly-catchers,  some  belong  to  ne.irly  allied  genera,  and 
others  to  genera  not  now  ranked  even  in  the  same 
family.     The  tnie  fly-c.atchei-s  all  have  the  habit — 


Spotted  and  Pied  Fly-catchers  {Miiscicapa  prisola  and 
it.  atricapiiUi). 

characteristic  of  many  of  the  Musckaplda  besides 
this  genus — of  remaining  perched  for  a  long  time  in 
the  same  spot,  only  leaving  it  to  make  a  sudden 
dart  at  a  passing  insect,  wliich  is  seized  with  a  snap 
of  the  bill,  and  then  returning.  They  are  .almost 
never  to  be  seen  nmning  on  the  ground,  or  even  on 
the  branches  of  trees,  and  do  not  chase  insects  in 
the  air  like  swallows.  Only  four  species  arc  Euro- 
pean, two  of  which  arc  British — the  Spotted  F.  (M. 

392 


ririsola)  and  the  Pikd  F.  (M.  a/ricapilla  or  liictiiosa) ; 
birds  about  the  size  of  a  sp.vrow,  the  former  of 
which  is  common  in  most  paits  of  England,  as  a 
snmmcr  bird  of  j).-iss.ij;e,  but  rare  in  Scotland  ;  the 
latter  is  rare  in  Britain,  although  abundant  in  the 
south  of  Eiux)pc.  The  spotted  F.  is  brownish  gi'.iy 
above,  white  beneath,  the  head  and  brea-st  marked 
with  dusky  spots.  Its  voice  is  a  mere  chirp.  It  is 
rem.irkable  for  the  choice  it  makes  of  situations  for 
its  nest,  often  on  a  beam  in  an  outliouse,  on  the  side 
of  a  fagot-stack,  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  trained 
against  a  building,  and  sometimes  even  on  a  lanip- 
]K>st  in  a  street.  Mr  Durham  Weir  of  Boghead, 
who  was  a  diligent  obsen-er  of  the  habits  of  birds, 
mentions  that  he  witnessed  a  single  pair  of  spotted 
fly-c.itchcrs  feed  their  young  no  fewer  than  five 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  times  in  one  day,  and 
that  t'heir  motions  were  so  rapid  that  he  eoidd  not 
keep  his  eye  oflf  the  nest  for  a  moment. 

The  name  F.  is  often  extended  to  other  gener-o, 
and  is  sometimes  used  as  co-extensive  in  significa- 
tion with  that  of  the  family  Munciaipidiv. 

FLY'-POWDER  is  the  name  given  to  a  com- 
pound of  metallic  arsenic  and  arsenious  acid, 
obtained  by  the  partial  oxidation  of  the  metal,  on 
exposiue  to  air,  and  which  is  sold  on  the  continent 
for  the  purpose  of  killing  flies. 

FLY'-TRAP.     See  VioyiJEA. 

FLYIXG,  or  FLIGHT,  is  the  locomotion  of  an 

anim.ll  in  the  air,  by  means  of  iviiu/s,  organs  specially 
adapted  to  that  purpose.  By  means  of  these  organs, 
the  anim.al  raises  itself  from  the  ground  and  sus- 
tains itself  in  the  air,  as  well  as  moves  forward  in 
any  dii'ection  it  desires.  Birds  and  bats  are  the  only 
existing  A-ertebrate  animals  possessing  the  power 
of  true  flight ;  the  lateral  membranes  of  Flying 
Squirrels,  Flying  Lemurs,  Fljdng  Phalangei's,  and 
Flying  Dragons,  and  probably  even  the  great  pec- 
toral fins  of  Flj-ing  Fishes,  serving  only  to  sustain 
them  in  the  air  after  the  manner  of  a  parachute,  or 
.it  most  to  aid,  on  the  principle  of  a  boy's  kite,  in  an 
oblique  ascent  The  extinct  reptiles  called  Ptero- 
dactylcs  (q.  v.)  possessed,  however,  the  power  of 
true  flight,  as  their  remains  sufiiciently  testify  ;  and 
their  wings  were  constructed  i  in  a  plan  as  diff'erent 
from  those  both  of  l)irds  and  of  bats  as  these  (see 
BiKDS  and  B.iTs)  .are  from  each  other.  The  ^vings  in 
.all  verteljrate  animals  .are  the  anterior  limbs,  and  .are 
thus  homologous  to  the  arms  of  man  and  the  fore- 
logs  of  ordinary  qua<li-uped3  ;  in  bij-ils,  the  bones 
answering  to  those  of  the  hand  are  much  abbre\"iatcd 
and  consolidated;  in  b.ats,  they  are  proiligiously 
eloug.ated  ;  in  pterodactylos,  there  w.as  an  elongation 
of  a  single  finger.  Among  birds,  although  the 
power  of  flight  is  general,  there  aie  exceptions  to 
the  riUe,  the  wings  of  some  being  merely  rudiment- 
ary, and  at  most  only  helpful  to  them  in  running, 
those  of  othei-s  being  adapted  to  swimmin",  not  on 
the  surface  of,  but  imder  water. — The  only  inver- 
tebrate animals  possessing  the  power  of  flight  ai'C 
insects  ;  to  the  greater  p.art  of  which  vastly  numer- 
ous class  it  belongs  in  their  perfect  state,  although 
there  are  also  many  insects  which  are  quite  desti- 
tute of  it,  and  this  is  sometimes  the  case  with 
species  very  closely  .allied  to  others  which  possess 
it,  n.ay,  sometimes  this  great  difference  exists  between 
the  sexes  of  the  same  species.  The  wings  of  insects 
are  not  .at  .all  homologous  to  those  of  the  flying 
vertebrata,  .although  applied  to  the  same  use,  and  in 
structure  are  widely  diflerent  from  them  all.      See 

I>SECTS. 

In  flying,  the  wings  are  made  to  beat  or  strike  the 
air.  The  stroke  in  the  one  direction,  however,  must 
be  very  different  from  that  in  the  other,  or  rather 
from  that  movement  by  which  the  Aving  is  brought 


FLYING. 


back  to  its  place  for  another  stroke.  This  difference 
is  secured  partly  by  greater  force  of  musciJar  action, 
and  conscf|ueut  rapidity;  the  resistance  of  the  air 
varj-ing  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  with  which  the 
wing  moves  in  gi^ng  the  stroke.  But  it  is  also 
secured  partly  by  the  confonnation  of  the  wing 
itself,  the  quill  feathers  of  birds  being  so  placed  that 
they  stiike  tlie  air  with  their  gi-eatest  extent  of  sur- 
face in  the  projier  stroke  of  the  wing,  and  oUiqueh/ 
nti  it  rtturns  to  its  ptace.  An  imitation  of  this  is  made 
in  the  rowing  of  a  boat,  and  is  called  /(ulherhig  tlie 
oar.  The  wings  of  bats,  consisting  of  a  membrane 
extended  upon  jointed  bones,  are  probably  in  ]iart 
folded  up  in  order  to  the  return  from  every  stroke ; 
and  this  is  jierhaps  the  case  also  with  the  wmgs  of 
some  insects,  although  those  of  others — as  the  Com- 
mon Fly  and  the  Bee— are  certainly  incapable  of  it; 
yet  it  is  possible  that  even  these  may  have  a  greater 
dcOTee  of  rigidity  conununicated  to  them  by  the 
inflation  of  their  air-tubes  during  the  stroke  than 
they  have  during  the  return. 

Flying  is  an.alogou3  to  swimming  ;  but  the  differ- 
ence of  medium  is  very  great,  fresh  water  being 
about  soil  times  hearier  than  air,  and  the  density 
of  sea-water  still  greater.  The  bodies  of  animals 
intended  for  flight  are  therefore  sometimes  adajrted 
to  it  partly  by  means  which  tend  to  diminish  their 
proportionate  weight,  as  the  air-cavities  in  V)mls  and 
insects ;  which,  hi^wever,  are  still  more  important 
in  relation  to  the  increase  of  muscular  power  ;  and 
it  is  chiefly  by  the  increase  of  muscular  power  that 
the  ]>owcr  (tf  flying  is  imparted.  The  exercise  of 
strength  requisite  for  swimming  is  comparatively 
small,  about  "-J^rtk  I'-'^'t  only  of  that  which  is  requi- 
site for  fljnng.  How  wonderful,  tlien,  the  muscular 
power  of  birds  capable  of  long-sustained  flight,  far 
exceeding  in  rapidity  the  sj)ecd  of  the  swiftest 
locomotive  engine  ever  constructed  by  man  !  or  of 
insects,  which  in  respect  at  least  of  rapiihty,  is  in 
some  species  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  swiftest  birds  I 
The  muscidar  power  exerted  in  fljing  evidently 
chffers  very  nmch  both  among  birds  and  among 
insects.  The  large  wings  of  some  require  also  much 
less  frequent  muscular  action,  either  to  sustain  the 
body  in  the  air,  to  elevate  it,  or  to  move  it  forward, 
than  the  comparatively  small  wings  of  others.  The 
motion  of  the  wings  of  huimning-birds  and  of 
insects  is  too  rapid  for  the  eye  to  follow. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  jirojects  of  loco- 
motion tlirough  the  air  have  been  much  entertained 
V>y  men,  nor  that,  whilst  the  force  of  the  objections 
already  s-tated  was  unknown,  artiticial  ivings,  and 
an  imitation  of  the  flight  of  birds,  occupied  the 
ingenuity  of  inventors.  Grecian  fable  .ascribes 
success  to  the  mj-thic  D;edalus  (q.  v.),  who  is  said  to 
have  passed  safely  over  the  ^I'^gean  Sea  on  wings 
which  he  himself  had  made.  More  modern  stories 
of  similar  success,  although  in  far  shorter  flights,  are 
numerous,  but  often  resolve  themselves,  when  care- 
fully examined,  into  exaggerated  accounts  of  feats 
performed  on  ropes,  wings  haWng  been  perhaps 
em)iloyed  to  render  the  exhibition  more  attractive, 
perhaps  also  to  render  the  )ierformance  more  easy 
by  their  extent  of  surface  and  resistance  to  the  air. 
Other  instances  are  on  record  of  persons  who,  apjia- 
rcntly  by  some  parachute-like  contrivance,  descended 
obliquely  from  high  towers  to  a  consider.able  distance ; 
as,  in  the  13th  or  14th  c,  Fhnerus,  a  monk,  is  said  to 
have  flown  more  than  a  furlong  from  the  top  of  a 
tower  in  Spain,  Init  the  distance  is  probablj'  much 
exaggerated  ;  and  in  the  17th  c,  Besnicr,  a  lock- 
smith of  Sable,  in  France,  who  prudently  began  from 
windows  one  story  high,  ventured  at  last  and  safely 
to  leap  from  very  elev.ated  positions,  and  so  passed 
over  houses  or  over  rivers  of  considerable  breadth. 
All   these,  however,  were  mere   feats   destitute  of 


utility,  although  they  encouraged  the  expectation  of 
better  results,  which  was  cherished  by  some  of  the 
most  scientiflc  men  of  that  ]ieriod.  Bishop  Wilkins, 
in  particular,  devoted  much  attention  to  this  subject 
PerceiWng  the  inadequacy  of  the  human  arm  and 
the  muscles  which  move  it  to  give  sutticiently  rapid 
motion  to  wings  of  sufficient  size,  he  suggests  that 
'  it  were  therefore  worth  the  inquiry  to  consider 
whether  this  might  not  be  more  prob.ably  efl'ected 
by  the  labour  of  the  feet,  which  are  naturally  more 
strong  and  indefatigable.'  So  confident  was  he  of 
success,  that  he  anticipated  the  time  when  a  man 
shouhl  as  readily  call  for  his  wings  to  make  a  journey, 
as  he  then  did  for  his  boots  and  his  horse.  More 
recently,  in  the  end  of  the  18th  and  beginning  of 
the  10th  e..  Sir  George  Cajley  occupied  himself 
with  speculations  and  experiments  on  this  subject. 
Acknowledging  the  difficulty  which  arises  from  the 
want  of  mi^cular  strength  in  man,  he  says  :  '  It  is 
only  nccessaiy  to  have  a  flrst  mover,  which  will 
generate  more  power  in  proportion  to  its  weight, 
than  the  animal  system  of  muscles.'  But  this  hret 
mover  has  not  hitherto  been  found.  The  employ- 
ment of  steam  for  this  jmrjiose  has  been  frequently 
proposed.  Attempts  of  this  kind,  however,  have 
r.ather  for  their  object  atfrial  navigation  than  arti- 
ficial flying,  jiroperly  so  called  ;  although  the  inven- 
tions have  beeu  variou.sly  designiated  aerial  ships, 
flyiug  machines,  &c.  A  gi'cat  difficulty  has  been 
found  in  the  weight  of  the  steam-engine  audits  fuel ; 
and  experiments  which  have  cost  no  small  sums,  and 
have  excited  not  a  little  of  public  attention,  have 
signally  failed  through  miscalciUation  <)n  this  essen- 
tial point.  Not  imfreipieutly,  attempts  have  beeu 
made  to  combine  some  modiflcation  of  the  balloon 
with  the  steam-engine  or  other  means  of  propulsion, 
lu  no  instance,  hitherto,  has  there  been  the  least 
ajqiroach  to  success,  although  a  European  Aeron- 
autical Sodetij  was  fonncd,  and  issued  its  advertise- 
ments in  IS3.5 ;  and  about  eigh^ears  afterwards,  au 
Atrial  Transit  Compamj  not  only  amused  the  publie 


Flying  .M:u 


vented  by  Mr  Henson,  l&IS. 


for  a  considerable  time,  but  obtained  the  assent  of 
the  British  House  of  Commons  to  a  bill  for  its  con- 
stitution. Models  have  sometimes  been  exhibited 
of  aerial  machines  ca])able  of  being  guided  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  aeronaut,  in  a  perfectly  stdl  atmo- 
sphere, but  nothing  has  yet  been  invented  capable 
of  ser\'iiig  any  practical  or  useful  purpose.  There 
is,  however,  nothing  evidently  contrary  to  science  or 
sound  philosophy  in  projiosals  for  aerial  navig.ation, 
which,  in  this  respect,  differs  widely  from  human  or 
artificial  flying. 

Perhaps  the  aSronautic  Jish,  on  which  M.arshal 
Ney  is  said  to  have  spent  100,000  francs,  and  which 
for  a  considerable  time  occupied  the  attention  of 
some  of  the  most  ingenious  and  scientific  men  in 
France,  deserves  particular  notice.  It  w;;s  a  large 
balloon,  of  a  long  fish-like  figure,  intended  to  swim 
in  the  air,  as  a  fish  in  water,  and  to  be  propelleil 
by  wings  or  fins   working  by  cr.anks ;  au   oblique 

393 


FLYING  BRIDGE— KLYIXG  GUKXAKD. 


nnwartl  direction  was  to  be  pivcn  to  its  motion,  by 
a  weii;ht  plactd  near  the  tnd  ;  a  ilomiward  direc- 
tion by  the  same  weight  hauled  fonvanl  to  near 
the  head.  Kiit  when  launchetl,  although  it  Uoated 
and  moved  forward  a  little,  it  turned  on  one  side, 
and  this  tendency  could  not  be  corrected,  so  that  the 
eX]K'riment  proved  a  complete  failure.  For  further 
iutomiation,  see  Chambers's  K.  Jour.,  No.  227.  N.  S. 

FLYIXG  BRIDGE.    See  I-'kuky. 

FLYIXG    DKAGOX,  or    FLYIXG    LIZ.UID 
y'ljv.i    1.    a    genus    of    saurian    rojitiles,    allied    to 
i';i.iiiu<  and  stellions,  but  reni.arkalily  distinguished  | 
from  theui,  and  indeed  from  all  other  rc])tiles  now  | 
existin::,  by  lateral  memlwanes  which  sujpport  them  ^ 
in  a  parachute-Uke  manner  in  the  air,  and  enable  , 
them  to  pass  from  tree  to  tree,  even  to  considerable 
distances.     These  membranes  arc  supported  on  the 
first  si.-c  false  ribs,  which,  instead  of  encircling  the 
abdomen,  stand  out  at  right  angles  from  the  body  ] 
for  this  purj'ose.     They  are  incap.ible  of  the  move- 
ments requisite  for  true  ilyiuw;  when  not  in  use, 
they  are  folded  close  to  the  body.     There  is  also  in 
the  flying  dragons  an  inflatable  pouch  under  the 
chin,  sustained' partly  by  the  hyoid  bone  and  partly 
by  two  small  bones.     The  tail  is  long.     The  scales 
are   small   and   imbricated  ;   those  of  the  tail  and 
limbs  are  keeled.     The  tongue  is  extensile,  but  not 
greatly  so.     All  the  species  are  of  small  size,  live 
among  the  branches  of  trees,  and  feed  on  insects. 
They  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies.     The  genus  is 
subdivided  by  some  n.ituralists.     One  of  the  species 
is  figured  iu  the  article  Uuagox. 

FLYING  FISH,  a  name  given  to  all  those  fishes 
which  have  the  ]>ectoral  fins  so  very  large  that  by 
means  of  them  they  are  sustained  iu  short  seeming 
flights  in  the  air.  These  fishes  belong  to  two  very 
different  families — Scombenvocitlre  and  iSclerorjoiiclie  ; 
but  the  name  F.  F.  is  sometimes  limited  to  those  of 
the  former  family,  the  genus  Kxoccetus;  those  of  the 
latter  being  known  as  Flying  Gurnardx.  The  genus 
JCxocalus  has  the  pectoral  fins  nearly  as  long  as 
the  body,  the  dorsal  fin  placed  over  the  anal, 
the  tail  forked,  and  its  lower  di\Tsion  considerably 
larger  than  the  upi)er.  It  is  subdivided  by  some 
naturalists  into  several  genera,  characterised  bj'  the 
presence  or  absence  of  barbels,  &c.  Two  species 
have  occasionally  been  seen  ne.ir  the  British  shores, 
one  of  which  (A',  volilans)  is  very  abundant  in  the 
warmer  pai-ts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  other 
(E.  exiUens)  is  common  in  the  Mediterranean.  In 
the  former,  the  ventral  fins  are  situated  far  forward, 
and  are  short ;  in  the  latter,  they  are  situated  far 
back,  and  are  considerably  clongatetL  More  than 
thirty  species  are  knoflni,  all  inhabiting  the  seas  of 
the  wanner  parts  of  the  world,  and  ha^ig  their 
respective  geoOTa])hical  limits  pretty  exactly  defined. 

They  swim  m  shoals  ;  .and  whole  sho.als — varying 
in  nmnber  from  a  dozen  to  one  hundred  or  more — 
often  leave  the  water  at  once,  darting  iu  the  same 
direction  through  the  air,  and  after  descending  into 
the  water  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred  yards,  or 
even  more,  from  the  place  where  they  .arose,  quickly 
renewing  their  flight.  Tliese  flights  of  flying-fishes 
form  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  pleasing 
spectacles  which  relieve  the  monotony  of  a  voyage 
iu  the  tropical  seas.  Sometimes,  the  corjiiheue 
(dolphin)  may  be  seen  in  rapid  pursuit,  taking  great 
Ic.ips  out  of  the  ■v\ater,  and  gaining  upon  liis  jirey, 
wliich  take  shorter  and  shorter  flights,  vainly  try  to 
escape  by  doubling  like  the  hare,  and  sink  at  last 
exhausted :  sometimes  the  larger  sea-birds  catch 
fiying-fishes  whilst  they  are  in  the  air;  but  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  at  all  true  that  these  fishes  leave  the 
water,  as  has  been  very  generally  imagined,  merely 
to  escape  from  danger,  nor  is  there  any  good  reason 
3:11 


for  that  sentimental  pitv  which  has  been  often 
ex]>ressedwith  regard  to  them,  as  creatures  harassed 
and   jtersecuted  more  than  others,  and  peculiarly 


i'lyius  Fish  (Exocactus  rotitans). 

exposed  to  dangers  both  in  the  pea  and  in  the  air. 
They  seem  rather  to  exercise  their  powers,  like 
other  creatures,  verj'  often  merely  from  the  delight 
w-hich  they  take  in  the  exercise  of  them,  and  from 
the  exuberance  of  their  happiness. — The  qiiestiou, 
whether  or  not  the  fljTng  fishes  use  their  pectoral 
fins  at  alias  wings,  cannot  yet  perhaps  be  considered 
as  completely  decided;  some  obser\-ers,  well  entitled 
to  respect,  maintain  that  they  do,  although,  of 
course,  their  power  of  flight  is  limited  to  the  time 
th.at  the  fins  remain  quite  moist ;  but  a  great  pre- 
ponderance of  testimony  is  in  favour  of  the  op]H>site 
opinion,  which  regards  the  fins  as  acting  merely 
after  the  manner  of  a  parachute  or  of  a  kite. 
Flying  fishes  sometimes  rise  to  a  height  of  twenty 
feet  above  the  water,  although  they  more  frequently 
skim  along  nearer  to  its  surface.  They  often  fall 
on  the  decks  of  ships.  They  arc  good  food,  and 
the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  take  them  by 
means  of  small  nets  attached  to  fight  ]>oles,  like 
those  in  which  anglers  catch  miuuows  for  bait.  For 
this  pui'jiose,  they  go  out  at  night  iu  canoes,  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  coral  reefs,  with  a  torch,  ■which 
enables  them  to  see  the  fishes,  and  perhaps  both 
attracts  and  dazzles  them. 

FLYIXG  FOX.     See  Kaloxg. 

FLYIXG  GURNARD  {Dachjlopterus),  a  genus 
of  fishes  of  the  family  Sclerogeiiida;  or  Mailed 
Cheeks,  nearly  allied  to  the  Gurnards  (TriijUi),  but 
remarkably  distinguished  by  the  great  si:!e  of  the 


i'lj-iiig  Gurnard  (Dacl'jloptcrus  volitans). 

pectoral  fins,  which  they  use  for  the  same  purpose 
and  in  the  same  way  as  the  Exocoetl  See  Flying 
Fisii.  The  pectoral  fins  are,  however,  of  a  very 
different  appearance  from  those  of  the  Exocirti, 
widening  almost  to  the  end,  which  is  rounded,  and 
the  tips  of  the  rays  extending  considerably  beyond 


KLYIKG  LEMUR— FLYING  SQUIKKEL. 


tlie  membraue.     A  very  loiii;  sjiiiie  rises  from  the  '  of  time  iiiglit ;  and  their  aerial  evolutions  are  verN- 

back  of  the  head.     One  species  (D.  volitans)  is  com-  |  graceful.     They  rejiose  during  the  day,  and  become 

moil  in  tlie  Mediterranean,  aud  is  sometimes  fifteen  I  active  in  the  evening.     They  feed  on  fruits  leaves 

inches  in  length.     Its  flight  is  said  not  to  extend  to 

more  than  about  forty  yanls,  but  it  sometimes  rises 

high  enough  to  fall   on  tile  decks  of   large  ships.  ; 

*  At  particular  times,  esjiecially  on  the  apjiroach  of 

rougli  weather,  in  tlie  night,  numbers  of  tliem  may  ' 

be  seen,  by  the  phosphoric  light  which  tlicy  emit,  I 

making  their  arched  passages  in  apparent  streams  j 

of  tire.  — Another  species  inhabits  the  Indian  seas. 

■ — Some  species  of  Apist&i^  belonging  to  the  same 

family,  have   similarly  large   pectorals,   aud  make 

similar  flights.  I 


li'LYING  LEMUR,  or  COLUGO  (Galcopithecus), ' 
sometimes  also  called  Flying  Cat  and  Flvin'c;  Fox,  ' 
a  genus  of  mammalia,  generally  regarded  as  con-  | 
stituting  a  distinct  family,  Galwpilhecii/a;,  which, 
by  some  uatm-alists  is  placed,  as  by  Cuvicr,  among 
the  Cheiropti'ra  (see  Bat),  although  it  is  now  more 
commonly  associated  with  the  Lemm-s  (q.  v.),  as  by 
Linii.Tjus.  There  are,  indeed,  evident  affinities  both  ! 
to  lemurs  and  bats,  but  chietly  to  the  foi'mer,  with 
which  the  osteological  and  other  anatomical  char-  i 
acters  generally  agree.  Along  the  sides  extends 
an  ample  memlirane  or  fold  of  the  skin,  beginning 
behind  the  throat,  and  including  both  the  fore  and 
hind  legs  as  far  as  the  toes,  but  leaving  them  free, 
anil  further  stretched  along  both  sides  of  the  tad  to 
the  tip.  In  the  hist  particular,  it  diliera  from  the 
lateral  membrane  of  the  flying  squirrels  and  tij^ng 
phalangers,  and  more  resembles  that  of  bats  ;  but 
it  widely  difl'ei's  from  that  of  bats  in  being  comjiara- 
tively  thick,  and  covered  on  both  sides  with  short 
thick  hau" ;  and  still  more  in  leaWng  the  fore-feet 
free,  and  not  being  stretched  on  lengthened  finger- 
buucs.  Nor  can  it  be  used  for  true  flight,  but  only 
to  su])port  the  animal  m  the  air  like  a  parachute, 
enabling  it  to  take  enormous  leaps  of  one  hundi'ed 
yards  or  thereby  in  an  inclined  ])laue.  It  is  not  yet 
satisfactorily  determined  wiiether  the  difl'erences  to 
be  observed  between  the  s|)ecimens  of  flj'ing  lemtirs 
in  collections,  are  to  be  regarded  as  difterences  of 
species  or  of  variety.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  distinguish  several  sjiccies,  l>ut  it  is  difficult  on 
.•iccouut  of  their  great  similarity.  They  are  from 
twenty  inches  to  two  feet  in  total  length,  are  natives 
of  the  Indian  Archijielago,  inhabiting  lofty  trees  in 
«lense  forests,  and  feeding  on  small  bu-ds'  eggs  and  ' 
fruits,  as  well  as  on  insects.  They  are  noctm-nal  | 
in  their  habits.  They  are  very  inoSensive,  and 
scarcely  attempt  to  bite  a\en  when  seized.  Theu" 
voice  resemliles  the  low  cackling  of  a  goose.  They  i 
produce  generally  two  yoimg  ones  at  a  bu-th.  The 
iMew  islanders  greatly  esteem  them  as  food,  but 
they  have  a  rank  unpleasant  smell. 

FLYING  rHALA'NGEK,  or  FLYING  OPO'S- 

SUM  (Petauruii),  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds, 
containing  sever.al  sjiecics,  natives  of  New  (juinea 
and  of  Australia,  where  they  are  generally  called 
Sijuirrels  or  Flying  iSquirrels.  They  are  nearly  alhed 
t"  the  Phalangers  (q.  v.),  which  they  particidarly 
resemble  in  dentition,  but  have  not  the  tad  so  long 
.and  prehonsde,  whilst  they  .are  distinguished  l)y  a 
hairy  membrane  or  fold  of  the  skin  extending 
along  the  flanks,  and  used  as  a  parachute  to  enable 
them  to  leap  to  gi'eat  distances.  .  This  memlirane 
extends  along  both  fore  and  hind  legs  almost  to 
the  toes,  but  docs  not  appear  behind  the  hind 
legs,  nor  inchule  the  tail,  which  is  pretty  long  and 
bushy,  but  which  in  some  of  them  has  a  diilidious 
character,  the  hair  sjjreading  out  to  the  sides,  and 
so  rendering  it  usefid  in  supporting  as  well  as  in 
guiding  the  body  in  the  air.  They  are  capable  of 
mollifying   their   course    in    the   air,   although   not 


1,  Flying  Phalan^cr  (Pc/rtHr«5  Taf/nanoides)  \  2,  Flying 
House  [Pctauru^t  Ptfffnia'ug). 

insects,  &c.  ."V  New  Guinea  species  is  about 
as  largo  as  a  flying  lemiu' ;  one  of  the  Australian 
species  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  mouse.  The  fur  of 
some  of  them  is  rich  and  beautifid. — Petaui:ist 
has  beeu  proposed  as  an  English  name  for  this 
genus ;  but  is  not  much  used. 

FLYING  SQUID  {OmmaxtirpJip-i),  a  genus  of 
cephalopodous  molluscs,  allied  to  the  Calamaries 
(q.  V.)  or  squids,  but  dift'ering  from  them  in  having 
the  eyes  exposed  and  not  covered  with  skiu,  the 
flns  luiited  into  one  as  a  tail,  and  the  f/ladlus  or 
bone  furnished  with  three  diverging  ribs  aud  a 
hollow  conical  apiiendage.  The  tail  is  large,  and 
the  power  of  locomotion  gi'eat,  so  that  these  molluscs 
not  only  pass  raiiiilly  through  the  water,  but  leap 
out  of  it,  and  high  enough  sometimes  to  fall  upon 
the  decks  of  ships.  They  form  a  principal  part  of 
the  food  of  many  of  the  Cct(u'f^(i,  and  are  often  the 
prey  of  albatrosses,  petrels,  and  other  marine  liirds. 
They  are  used  as  bait  for  cod  in  the  Newfoimdlaud 
fisheries. 

FLYING  SQUIRREL  {Plei-onuj.s],  the  name 
given  to  a  considerable  numlier  of  species  of  the 
Squirrel  family  {Sciiirithc),  which  have  a  fold  of 
the  skiu  of  the  flanks  extended  between  the  fore 
and  hind  legs,  and  }>artly  supjiorted  by  bony  pro- 
cesses of  the  feet,  by  means  of  which  they  are 
enabled  to  take  extraordinary  leaps,  gliding  for  a 
great  distance  through  the  air.  The  tail  also  aids 
to  support  them  in  the  air,  as  well  as  to  direct  their 
motion,  its  hairs  extending  laterally  'in  a  sort  of 
feathery  expansion.'  The  dentition  is  similar  to 
that  of  true  squirrels,  with  which  also  the  habits 
generally  correspond.  One  species  {P.  SUjiricus)  is 
found  in  the  north  of  Enrojie  and  of  Asia ;  several 
species  are  n.atives  of  North  America,  and  others 
inhaliit  the  stmth-east  of  Asia  aud  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  The  Kuroi>ean  species  is  about  the 
size  of  a  rat,  gi'ayish-ash  colour  above,  white  below, 
the  tad  only  half  the  length  of  the  body  ;  it  lives 
solitarily  in  the  forests.  Its  fur  is  of  little  value, 
but  sldns  are  sometimes  mixed  with  those  of  the 
gray  squiiTel,  to  impose  on  the  ptu-chaser.  The  most 
common  North  American  species  (P.  volucelhi), 
abundant  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Upper  Canada, 


F  LY-  WH  EEL— FODDEK, 


is  fully  five  inches  long,  with  a  tail  of  five  inches  '  machine,  the  engine  need  not  be  nearly  of  sufficient 
Mlditional,  fur  inclmlcd.  It  is  of  a  brownish-gray  power  to  directly  force  the  i-uneli  through  the  nut al, 
colour  al>ove  white  beneath  ;  a  black  line  surrounds    and  yet  by  the  aid  of  the  fly-wheel  it  may  do  it ;  for 


Flj-ing  Squirrel  [Ptcromt/s  rolucclla). 

tlie  orbit  of  each  eye.  All  the  species  inhabit 
woods,  and  the  night  is  their  time  of  activity.  They 
feed  not  only  on  nuts  and  young  shoots  of  trees, 
but  also  on  small  birds.  They  are  extremely  easy 
of  domestication. 

In  gliding  from  tree  to  tree,  the  common  American 
tlj^ng  squirrel  descends  obliquely  and  with  very 
rapid  motion,  until  near  the  tree  which  it  seeks  to 
reach,  when  it  wheels  upwards,  and  ahghts  at 
about  a  tliird  of  the  height  which  it  was  from 
the  ground  on  the  tree  which  it  left,  the  distance 
between  the  trees  being  perhaps  fifty  feet. 

FLY-WHEEL,  a  large  heavy  wheel  ajiplicd  to  a 
steam-engine  or  other  machinery  in  order  to  cquaUse 
the  effect  of  the  mo\-ing  power.  Its  action  depends 
upon  the  principle,  that  a  body  once  set  in  motion 
retains  a  certain  amount  of  moving  force  or  viomen- 
fiiin.  This  increases  with  the  weight  of  the  body 
and  the  velocity  of  its  motion,  and  may  be  expressed 
relatively  by  multiplying  the  weight  by  the  velocity ; 
or  stated  otherwise,  the  force  required  to  destroy 
the  motion  of  a  body  is  equal  to  that  which  set  it  iu 
motion.  Thus,  a  heavy  wheel  becomes  a  sort  of 
resen-oir  of  force,  when  set  iu  motion. 

There  arc  two  ]>rincipal  cases  in  which  the  fly- 
wheel is  commonly  applied  :  first,  when  the  motive 
power  is  intermittent  or  irregidar ;  and  second,  when 
the  resistance  or  work  to  be  done  is  intermittent 
or  irregiUar.  The  crank  is  a  good  example  of  the 
first  case.  If  the  force  be  applied  only  do^\-nwards, 
as  in  the  common  foot-lathe,  it  will  be  intermit- 
tent, and  the  crank  must  rise  independently  of 
the  prime  mover.  This  is  effected  l>y  apjilying  a 
fly-wheel,  which  is  set  in  motion  by  the  descending 
pressure  of  the  foot  acting  upon  it  through  the 
crank ;  and  the  momentum  it  has  thus  acquired 
lifts  the  crank  again  to  the  point  where  it  can  be 
acted  upon  by  the  foot.  It  also  carries  the  crank 
over  the  dead  points  (see  Crank),  where  even  a 
double  action  of  jiuUing  and  pressing  woidd  be  inef- 
fective. The  case  of  a  steam-engine  turning  a  long 
shaft  which  passes  through  several  workshops,  and 
by  means  of  bands  drives  a  number  of  lathes,  ]nineli- 
ing,  drilling,  planing  machines,  &c.,  is  a  common 
example  of  the  second  case,  the  resistance  or  work 
to  be  done  being  very  variable  from  one  moment  to 
another.     In    such   work    as    that   of   a   punching- 


while  the  ])uneh  is  rising,  the  engine  is  eomnmni- 

■  rating  momentum  to  the  fly-wheel ;  and  when  the 
descending  jiunch  meets  with  the  resistance  it  li:is 
to  overcome,  this  reserved  momentum  is  addod  to 
the  direct  power  of  the  engine,  the  punch  is  forceil 
through,  and  the  speed  of  the  fly-wheel  slackened,  in 
projiortion  to  the  resistance. 

The  jirineiple  of  the  fly-wheel  is  somctimea 
apjilied   in  other  forms  than  th.at  of  a  wheel,  as  in 

■  the  hand-coining  press,  where  a  heavy  ball  is  fixed 
at  each  end  of  a  long  lever,  which  is  made  to  swing 
round  with  considerable  velocity,  antl  the  accumu- 
lated momentum  is  concentrated  upon  the  blow. 

FO.    See  Buddha. 

FO'CHABERS  (of  old,  Fochohm;  and  still  locally 
styled  Fochalier),  a  small,  neat  village  and  burgh  of 
barony  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Spey,  in  Moray- 
shire. Pop.  about  1500.  The  parish  church  stood 
formerly  at  Bellie,  in  Banffshire,  about  two  miles 
nearer  .Spcjnnouth,  and  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  an  old  encampment,  which  luus  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Tuessis  of  Ptolemy.  Gordon  Ca.stlo, 
the  old  '  Bog  of  Gight,'  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Gordon,  now  of  the  Uukc  of  Eichmonil, 
stands  between  F.  and  a  bridge  across  the  Spey, 
built  about  the  year  1803,  partly  destroyed  by  the 
flood  of  1820,  and  since  partly  rebuilt  ill  wood. 
The  site  of  F.  is  pecidiarly  flue,  lying  as  it  does  at 
the  mouth  of  a  picturesque  ravine,  watered  by  a 
mere  rill  falling  into  the  r.apid  Spey,  but  swelling 
in  times  of  flood  into  a  wider  stream  than  that 
which  it  feeds. 

FOCI'METER.   See  Ct-vrDir's  Focmeter. 

FOCUS.  Certain  points  in  the  ellipse,  hyperliola, 
and  parabola  are  called  focL  See  EtLirsE,  Hvpkk- 
BOLA,  and  Paeabola.  Focus,  in  Optics,  is  a  point 
in  which  several  rays  meet  and  are  collected  after 
being  reflected  or  refracted,  whUe  a  virtual  focus 
is  a  point  from  which  rays  tend  after  reflection  or 
refraction.  The  principal  focus  is  the  focus  of 
parallel  rays  after  reflection  or  refraction.  See 
Lexs,  JIir.KOR,  and  Catoptkics  and  Dioptrics. 

FODDER  (Ger.  fuller,  Anglo-Sax.  foddor),  the 
food  collected  by  man  for  the  use  of  the  domestic 
herbivorous  quadrupeds.  In  English,  the  term  is 
commonly  restricted  to  dried  herbage,  as  hay  and 
straw ;  liut  in  other  langu.ages^  it  is  more  compre- 
hensive, and  includes  all  the  food  of  cattle,  except 
what  they  gather  for  themselves  iu  the  field. 

The  principal  part  of  the  food  of  all  the  domestic 
herbivora  is  furnished  by  grasses,  almost  all  of  which 
are  eaten  by  them  when  fresh  and  green.  Besides 
the  supplies  which  they  receive  of  aU  the  kinds  of 
com  cultivated  for  human  food,  they  are  also,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  dejiendent  on  the  titraw  or  dried 
herbage  of  the  corn-plants  for  their  winter  proven- 
der ;  and  that  of  many  other  grasses,  cultivated  on 
this  account  alone,  is  converted  into  haij  for  their 
use.  H.ay,  being  cut  and  rapidly  dried  whilst  the 
plant  is  still  full  of  sap,  contains  more  nutritious 
matter  than  the  ripened  straw  of  the  cereals.  The 
most  important  fodder  grass  of  Britain  is  RvE  Grass, 
next  to  which  must  be  ranked  TuioTnY  Grass  ; 
but  aU  the  meadow  grasses  and  larger  pasture 
grasses  also  contribute  to  the  supply  of  h.ay. 

Next  to  the  grasses  must  be  ranked  dilTerent 
kinds  of  Leguiminosm^  aftbrding  food  for  cattle  in 
their  seeds — as  beans,  pease,  lentils,  lupines,  &c. — 
and  in  their  herbage,  on  account  of  which  many  of 
them  are  cultivated,  as  'clover,  medick,  nielUot, 
vetch,  tare,  sainfoin,  &c.,  of  some  of  which  there 


FODDER— FCETUS. 


are  numerous  species.  Some  of  these  also  often 
enter  pretty  largely  into  the  composition  of  hay, 
beinj;  cut  and  dried  with  the  grasses  along  with 
which  they  have  been  sown  ;  which  is  the  case  also 
with  some  plants  of  other  orders,  as  the  llibwort 
Plantain,  &c.  Some  of  the  Crucifrrm  are  ciilti\ated 
to  a  considerable  extent  as  forage-plants,  cattle 
being  fed  on  their  green  herbage,  although  they 
are  not  suitable  for  drj-ing  as  fodder.  Among 
these  are  kale  and  cabbage,  rape,  &c. 

In  Slime  parts  of  the  world,  cattle  are  not  unfre- 
queutly  fed  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  as  in  the  Hima- 
laya, where  the  leaves  of  different  species  of  Aralia, 
Grewia,  Elm,  and  Oak,  are  chiefly  emjJoyed  for  this 
purpose,  and  are  collected,  di-ied,  and  stacked  for 
winter  fodder. 

Roots,  although  not  fodder  in  the  English  sense, 
must  here  also  be  mentioned  as  constituting  a  large 
part  of  the  food  provided  for  cattle,  particularly 
tliose  of  the  potato,  turnip,  mangold,  and  carrot, 
and  to  some  extent  also  those  of  the  parsnip  and 
Jerusalem  artichoke. 

FODDER,  iu  Law.  It  is  generally  considered  to 
be  implied  in  the  rides  of  good  husbandry  that  the 
hay  and  straw  produced  by  the  farm  shall  be  con- 
sumed on  it.  In  Englantl,  '  in  the  absence  of  any 
agreement  respecting  the  removal  of  hay  and  straw, 
the  right  to  do  so  is  regidated  by  the  custom  of 
the  country.' — Woodfall,  j).  537.  The  custom  differs 
nut  only  in  different  coimties,  but  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  county.  In  the  narrower  sense  of 
fodder,  in  which  it  is  used  to  signify  hay  or  straw 
that  has  been  already  used  for  betiding  cattle,  or  the 
like  purpose,  there  seems  to  be  no  question  that  it 
must  be  retained  on  the  farm.  '  Whatever  question 
there  may  be  with  respect  to  hay  and  straw,  as 
before  noticed,  all  the  littor,  Judder,  dung,  manure, 
and  compost,  must  invariably  be  consimied  on  the 
lands ;  indeed,  if  this  is  not  expressly  provided  for 
by  the  terms  of  the  contract,  it  is  always  implied, 
as  a  removal  would  clearly  be  a  breach  of  good  hus- 
bandry.'— lb.  Where  the  outgoing  tenant  leaves 
fodder  on  the  premises,  he  is  entitled  to  no  compen- 
sation, except  under  an  express  stipiUation.  In 
Scotland,  where  the  rides  of  good  husbandry  are 
more  strictlj'  attended  to,  the  tenant  must  consume 
the  whole  of  the  fodder  produced  by  his  lands, 
except  the  hay  and  straw  of  his  outgoing  crop,  and 
the  same  rale  is  applicable  to  assignees  and  sub- 
tenants. In  some  counties,  fodder  used  for  making 
dung  is  considered  Steelbow  (q.  v.),  and  given  to  the 
incoming  tenant ;  but  this  is  usually  regulated  by 
express  stipulation  in  the  lease.  '  At  one  time,' 
s.ays  Mr  Hunter,  '  it  was  held  that  a  tenant  had  a 
right  to  dispose  of  the  straw  of  the  away-going  crop, 
although  the  lease  bore  a  general  clause,  binding 
him  to  consume  the  straw  on  the  farm  during  the 
lease.  But  the  rule  now  is,  that  where  there  is  an 
express  stipulation  that  all  the  manm'c,  hay  or 
straw,  shall  be  used  or  left,  it  is  strictly  inter- 
preted, without  control  from  local  usage ;  and  the 
tenant  is  not  entitled  to  take  away  or  sell,  or  have 
value  for  the  straw  of  the  last  or  away-going 
crop.' — Landlord  and  Tenant,  ii.  p.  461. 

FCE'TUS,  the  term  applied  in  Medicine  to  the 
inammaUan  embryo,  especially  in  its  more  advanced 
st-iges.  In  the  human  subject,  we  usually  speak  of 
the  embryo  at  and  after  the  end  of  the  fourth  month 
as  a  fa?tus. 

There  are  several  points  in  relation  to  the  foetus 
which  are  of  great  interest  both  to  the  physiologist 
and  to  the  medical  jurist.  It  is  frequently  of  great 
importance  in  medico-legal  inquiries  to  be  able  to 
ascertain  the  or/e  of  the  fcetus ;  and  to  facilitate 
Buch  determination,  the  physical  characters  which  it 


presents  at  different  ages  have  been  carefidly  noted 
and  described. 

In  the  foetus  of  nine  months— the  full  term — ^the 
length  is  from  17  to  21  inches  ;  weight  from  5  to  9 
lb.,  the  average  being  about  G.;  lb.  Even  at  birth, 
the  average  length  and  weight  of  the  male  infant 
slightly  exceeds  that  of  the  female.  From  numerous 
observations  made  by  Quetelet,  it  appears  that 
there  is  an  average  excess  of  length  of  i'S  lines, 
and  of  weight  of  twelve  ounces,  in  the  male  infant. 

The  average  weight  of  infants,  without  regard  to 
sex,  was  found  by  a  French  obsei-ver,  Chaussier  (who 
noted  the  weight  in  more  than  20,000  cases),  to  be 
about  6'7  lb. — the  maximum  being  ll-;{,  and  the 
minimmn  32  lb.  From  the  inquiries  of  Dr  Joseph 
Clark  {i'ltllosojihlcal  Transactions,  vol.  70),  which 
were  made  ou  00  males  and  60  females,  the  average 
iu  tliis  country  seems  rather  higher,  the  weight  of 
males  being  7  lb.  6  oz.,  and  that  of  tlie  females" being 
nearly  G  lb.  12  oz.  ;  and  Professor  Simpson  has 
arrived  at  very  nearly  the  same  result.  Clark 
observes  that  if,  at  the  full  time,  the  weight  of  the 
infant  is  less  than  5  lb.,  it  rarelj'  thrives.  Various 
instances  are  recorded  of  infants  in  which  the  weight 
at  birth  has  exceeded  twice  the  average  weight. 
Thus  a  case  is  recorded  by  Jlr  Owen,  in  the  Lancet 
for  183S,  in  which  the  child  at  delivery  weighed 
17  lb.  12  oz.,  and  was  2-t  inches  in  length ;  and  in  the 
Medico-C/iir.  Review,  October  1841,  there  is  the 
meution  of  a  ease  in  which  the  weight  was  nearly 
IS  11>. 

There  are  certain  points  iu  which  the  ftctus  at 
the  full  jieriod  differs  anatomically  from  the  child 
shortly  after  birth.  The  bony  skeleton  is  very 
incomplete,  cartilage  occurring  in  the  place  of  many 
bones.  Indeed,  complete  ossitication  (viz.,  of  the 
vertebra;)  is  not  finished  until  about  the  25th  year, 
and  the  only  bones  completely  ossified  at  birth 
are  the  minute  ossicles  of  the  car.  The  difference 
between  the  foetus  and  the  child  iu  this  respect  is, 
however,  only  one  of  degree. 

During  pregnancy,  a  temporary  organ,  termed  the 
placenta  (jiopularly  known  as  the  after-bu-th,  from 
its  being  thrown  off  shortly  after  the  birth  of  the 
child),  is  developed  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  uterus 
(see  b  in  the  figure).  This  organ  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  vessels,  and  there  proceeds  from  it  the 
structure  kno^^^l  as  the  umbilical  cord,  a,  iu  which 
lie  the  umbilical  vein,  which  conveys  arterial  blood 
to  the  f I  etus,  and  the  two  umbilical  arteries,  which 
return  the  blood  to  the  placenta.  This  umbihcal 
cord  conveys  these  vessels  to  the  imibiUcus,  or 
navel.  Before  tracing  the  course  of  the  blood 
through  the  fcetus,  we  must  notice  the  chief 
anatomical  peculiarities  presented  by  the  vascular 
or  circidating  system  before  birth. 

1,  In  the  heart,  we  find  a  communication  between 
the  two  auricles  by  means  of  an  opening  termed 
the  foramen  ovale.  2.  In  the  arterial  system,  we 
have  to  notice  first,  the  ductus  arteriosus  (see  )■  in 
the  figure),  which  is  a  large  communicating  trunk 
between  the  pidmonary  artery  and  the  descending 
aorta ;  and,  secondly,  the  branches  given  off  by 
the  internal  iliac  arteries,  which  go  under  the  name 
of  hj'pogastric  as  long  as  they  are  \\-ithin  the  body 
of  the  foetus,  and  of  umbUical  when  they  cuter  into 
the  stnicture  of  the  cord,  are  continued  from  the 
fa-tus  to  the  placenta,  to  which  they  return  the 
blood  which  has  circulated  in  the  ftetal  system. 
3.  In  the  venous  system  there  is  a  commimicatiou 
between  the  umbilical  vein  and  the  inferior  vena 
cava,  called  the  ductus  venosus. 

Pure  blood  is  brought  from  the  placenta  by  the 
umbilical  vein,  which  passes  tluough  the  umbilicus, 
and  enters  the  liver,  where  it  divides  into  several 
branches,    d,   d,   which    are    distributed    to    that 

397 


FCETOS. 


viscus,  the  main  trunk  or  tludiis  venomin,  e,  passing 
directly  hackwiinls,  auil  entering  the  inferior  vena 
cava,  /I  The  jnire  Mooil  here  becomes  mixed  with 
the  inijiuro  blood  which  is  returned  from  the  lower 
extremities  and  abdominal  viscera,  and  is  carried 
int<T  the  right  auricle.  It,  and  from  thence,  guided  by 
the  Eustachian  valve  (which  is  situated  between 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  inferior  cava,  and  the 


^  V 


The  Foetal  Circulation  (from  Wilson's  Anatomist's 
Vade  Mccum)  : 

n,  the  umbilical  cord  proceeding  from  6,  the  placenta ;  c,  the 
tinibilical  vein  ;  d,  d,  its  brandies  f;oin^  to  tlic  liver  ;  e,  the 
iixtcttu  venosus ;  /,  the  inferior  vena  cava ;  (/,  the  portal 
vein;  A,  the  ripht  auricle.  The  uppermost  arrow  indicates 
the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  fortinien  ovale,  i,  the 
left  auricle ;  A*,  the  left  ventricle.  The  arrow  coinmencinK 
in  the  left  ventricle,  and  with  its  head  on  the  ascending 
aorta,  indicates  the  course  of  the  blood  to  be  distributed  to 
the  head  and  extremities ;  /,  the  arch  of  the  aorta.  The 
arrows  m  and  ?i  represent  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the 
head  and  upper  extremities,  through  the  jugular  and  sub- 
clavian veins,  to  the  superior  vena  cava,  o,  to  the  right 
auricle,  p,  and,  as  shewn  by  the  arrow,  through  the  right 
ventricle.  A,  to  the  pulmoftary  artery,  q ;  r,  the  ductus 
artrriosus;  s,  s,  the  descending  aorta;  t,  the  hypogastric 
or  umbilical  arteries  ;  k,  «,  the  external  iliac  arteries. 

aurictilo-ventriciilar  orifice,  and  is  of  relatively  large 
.size  in  the  foetus),  passes  through  the  foramen  ovule, 
into  the  left  auricle,  i.  From  the  left  auricle,  it 
passes  into  the  left  ventricle,  and  into  the  aorta, 
whence  it  is  distributed  by  the  carotid  and  sub- 
clavian arteries  jirincipally  to  the  head  and  upper 
extremities,  which  thus  receive  comjiar.atively  ]>ure 
blood.  From  the  head  and  arms,  the  impure  blood 
is  returned  by  the  superior  vena  cava  to  the  right 
auricle ;  from  the  right  auricle,  it  is  propelled,  as  in 
the  adtUt,  into  the  right  ventricle ;  and  from  the 
right  ventricle,  into  the  ptilmonary  artery.  In  the 
adult,  it  woiUd  now  p.oss  through  the  lungs,  and  be 
oxygenised ;  but  in  the  foetus,  it  passes  tlirough  the 
ductus  arteriosus  into  the  commencement  of  the 
descending  aorta,  where  it  mixes  with  that  portion 
of  the  pure  blood  which  is  not  sent  through  the 
carotid  and  subclavian  arteries.  Some  of  this  mixed 
blood  is  distributed  by  the  external  iliac  arteries, 
u, !(,  to  the  lower  extremities,  while  the  remainder 
(probably  the  larger  jrortion)  is  conveyed  by  the 
hypogastric  or  umbilical  arteries,  t,  to  the  placenta. 

From  the  above  description  we  perceive — 1.  That 
a  considerable  qttantity  of  the  pure  blood  from  the 
placenta  is  at  once  distributed  to  the  liver,  wliieh 
accounts  for  its  large  size  at  birth  as  comjiared 
with  the  other  viscer,i.  2.  That  a  double  current 
meets  in  the  right  auricle,  one  stream,  guided  by 
the  Eustachian  valve,  passing  through  the  foramen 


ovale  into  the  left  auricle,  the  other  through  the 
auriculo-ventricidar  o])ening  into  the  right  ventricle. 
;).  That  the  comjjaratively  pure  blood  sent  to  the 
head  and  arms,  as  contrasted  with  the  impure  blood 
sent  to  the  lower  extremities,  causes  the  relatively 
greater  development  of  the  former  organs,  and 
])repares  them  for  the  functions  they  are  called 
upon  to  perform ;  the  develojiment  of  the  legs  at 
birth  being  slight  as  comjiared  with  that  of  the  head 
or  arms. 

Almost  immediately  after  birth,  ths  foramen  ovale 
becomes  closed  by  a  membranous  layer,  and  the 
ductus  arteriosus  and  ductus  vaiosus  degenerate  into 
impervious  fibrous  cords. 

The  Itmgs,  previously  to  the  act  of  insjiiration, 
.are  dense  and  solid  in  structure,  and  of  a  deep-red 
colour,  and  lie  far  back  in  the  chest.  Their  specific 
gnaNnty  is  greater  than  w.ater,  in  which  they  (or 
j)ortions  of  them)  consequently  sink,  whereas  limgs, 
or  portions  of  lungs,  that  have  respired,  float  in 
that  fiuid. 

In  the  preceding  rem.arks,  we  mentioned  nine 
months  as  the  full  period  of  fretal  existence.  The 
period  of  gestation  is,  however,  oidy  constant 
between  certain  limits,  and  it  is  of  the  greatest 
imporrance  in  reference  to  questions  of  chastity  and 
legitimacy  to  determine  these  limits. 

The  average  duration  of  gestation  in  the  human 
female  is  comprised  between  the  38th  .and  40tli 
weeks  after  conception.  It  is  comparatively  seldom 
that  the  .actual  date  of  conception  can  be  fixed  with 
positive  certainty ;  but  amongst  the  few  cases  of 
this  kind  on  record,  Kigby  mentions  one  in  which 
nattiral  labour  came  on  in  260  days,  and  lleiil 
mentions  another  in  which  it  did  not  commence 
until  the  lapse  of  203  days.  Here,  then,  we  have 
.an  tmqtiestion.able  range  of  33  days ;  and  many 
apjiareutly  .authentic  cases  are  on  record  in  which 
•a  longer  period  of  gestation  than  in  Ileid's  case 
h.as  been  observed. 

Another  important  question  in  connection  with 
this  subject,  is — ^\'^lat  is  the  earliest  peinod  at  which 
a  child  can  be  bom,  to  enable  it  to  live,  and  to 
continue  in  life  after  its  birth  ?  There  is  no  doubt 
that  children  born  .at  the  seventh  month  of  gestation 
are  capable  of  living,  although  they  usu.ally  require 
much  care  ;  and  children  may  be  born  .alive  at  any 
period  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  months,  or 
even  in  some  instances  earlier  than  the  sixth ;  but 
tills  is  rare,  .and  if  bom  living,  they  commonly  die 
soon  .after  birth.  Various  cases  of  tliis  nature  are 
collected  by  Dr  T.aylor  in  his  Medical  Jurisprudence : 
.amongst  others,  he  mentions  .a  case  reported  by  Ur 
Barker  of  Dumfries,  in  whicli  a  cliild  was  born  at 
the  158th  day  of-gestatiou,  and  (though  sm.all)  grew 
up.  In  the  celebrated  Kinghorn  case,  the  cliild  was 
born  174  days,  or  nearly  six  calendar  months  after 
marriage,  and  lived  for  more  than  eight  months ; 
and  the  majority  of  the  medical  witnesses  who  gave 
evidence  on  that  occasion  were  strongly  in  favour 
of  the  view  that  the  period  of  the  gestation  was 
circumscribed  by  the  period  of  wedlock. 

Again,  questions  connected  with  prolonged  gesta- 
tion have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  in  legal 
medicine.  Ko  period  has  been  fixed  by  law  beyond 
which  a  cliild  if  born  in  wedlock  is  to  be  decl.ared 
illegitimate.  In  the  case  of  Andcrton  r.  Gibbs,  1834, 
the  vice-chancellor  decided  th.at  a  child  born  ten 
months  or  about  forty-two  weeks  after  intercourse 
with  the  husband,  was  legitimate.  In  the  Gardner 
I'eerago  case,  which  came  before  the  House  of  Lords 
in  1825,  the  question  w.as,  whether  a  child  born  31 1 
days  (or  44  weeks  and  3  days)  after  intercourse 
could  be  legitim.atc.  Lord  and  Lady  G.ardner  sejiar- 
.atetl  on  the  30th  of  January  1802,  and  did  not  .again 
meet  tUl  the  11th  of  July.     A  full-sized  child  w.as 


FOG— FOG-SIGNALS. 


I 


born  on  the  8tU.  oi  December  of  that  year.  The 
principal  obstetric  practitioners  in  the  kingdom  were 
examined  on  this  point,  and  a  large  Jiiajority  con- 
curred in  the  opinion  that  natural  gestation  might 
be  protracted  to  such  ,i  pei'iod.  The  decision,  which 
was  against  the  legitimacy,  seems  to  have  been 
mainly  if  not  entirely  based  on  the  moral  grounds 
that  Lady  Gardner,  after  separating  from  her  hus- 
band, was  living  in  open  adultery.  lu  the  case  of 
Commonwealth  v.  Porter  (see  Amerlain  Journal  of 
Medical  Science,  1845),  it  was  recently  decided  in 
the  United  States  that  a  child  born  317  days  (or 
forty-live  weeks  and  two  days)  after  conception  was 
Kgitimate.  In  the  case  of  Cotterall  v.  Cotterall, 
<leuided  in  the  Consistory  Court  in  1847,  the  hus- 
band had  proceeded  against  his  ^^-ife  for  a  divorce 
on  the  ground  of  adidtery.  In  this  case,  if  it  were 
the  child  of  the  husband,  it  must  have  been  born 
alter  twelve  mouths'  gest.ation.  Dr  Lushington, 
without  entering  into  the  question  of  protracted 
gestation,  at  once  pronounced  for  the  divorce,  such 
a  duration  of  pregnancy  not  being  supported  by  any 
luiown  facts. 

This  article  would  be  imperfect  without  a  notice 
of  the  question — What  constitutes  live-birth?  This 
is  a  point  on  which  the  most  distinguished  obstetric 
authorities  have  differed :  some  holding  that  where 
there  is  muscular  movement,  there  is  life;  while 
others  maintain  that  where  respiration  has  not 
been  proved  to  have  taken  place,  the  child  was 
still-born.  Amongst  the  most  celebrated  lawsuits 
bearing  on  this  point,  we  may  mention  that  of  Fish 
r.  Palmer,  tried  in  1806,  and  that  of  Brook  i: 
Kellock,  tried  in  ISGl.  In  the  last-named  ca.se  it 
was  decided  by  the  Vice-Chancellor,  .Sir  .J.  .Stuart. 
that  a  child  may  live  for  some  time  after  birth,  and 
not  breathe,  the  absence  of  signs  of  breatliing  being 
held  to  be  no  proof  of  its  being  born  dead.  It  was 
given  in  evidence  that  there  was  pidsatiou  of  the 
funis  after  separation  of  the  cord,  and  the  beating 
of  the  heart  was  regarded  as  proof  of  live-birth. 
Hence  we  may  regard  it  as  now  established  in 
English  law,  that  resjiiratiou  is  not  required  to 
establish  Uvo-ljirth.  Nor  do  the  laws  of  France 
or  the  United  States  require  that  the  chUd  shall 
have  breathed.  In  Scotland,  the  law  requires  not 
only  that  the  eldld  shall  have  breathed,  but  that  it 
sb.all  have  cried ;  and  in  conformity  irith  this  law, 
a  child  which  lived,  breathed,  and  died  in  conind- 
sions  at  the  end  of  half  an  hour,  was  declared  to 
have  been  born  dead  (Dyer's  lie2Mris,  25). 

FOG,  or  MI.ST,  is  the  visible  watery  vapour 
sometimes  hanging  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  caused,  as  clouds  are,  by  the  precipitation  of 
the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  Kiis  takes  place 
■when  a  stratum  of  atmosphere  comes  in  contact 
with  a  colder  stratum,  or  with  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface,  as  a  hUl,  by  which  it  is  cooled,  so 
that  it  can  no  longer  hold  in  solution  as  much 
moisture  a.s  before.  It  takes  place  also  when  a  cold 
stratxmi  of  atmosphere  comes  above  a  moist  warm 
jKirtiou  of  the  earth's  siuface,  the  exhalations  from 
which  are  precipitated  and  become  visible  as  they 
ascend  into  it.  Thus,  fogs  are  formed  over  lakes, 
rivers,  and  marshes  in  the  evening,  because  the 
water  is  then  warmer  than  the  atmosphere  above 
it.  The  fogs  seen  in  the  morning  very  often  dis- 
ajipear  by  being  tlissolved  in  the  atmosphere  as  the 
temperature  increases. 

FOGARASY,  J.ixos  (.Jolin),  a  Hungarian  philolo- 
gist and  jiu'isconsult,  was  born  in  1801  at  Kasmark, 
in  the  county  of  Abanj.  F.  went  through  the  study 
of  philosophy  and  law  at  the  Calvinistic  college 
of  Sarospatak,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1829. 
Ui)on  entering  the  judicial  career,  F.  divided  his 


exertions  between  law  and  the  national  or  JIagj'ar 
language,  with  such  success  that  he  was  elected 
Fellow  of  the  Himgarian  Academy  in  18.'i8.  F.'s 
several  pubHcations  in  the  fields  of  Hungarian  juris- 
jirudence  and  philology  are  reckoned  to  be  standard 
works,  bearing  the  stamp  of  deej)  origin.al  research, 
and  of  great  systematic  powers.  The  following  list 
of  works,  all  published  at  Pesth,  in  the  Hungarian  or 
Magyar  tongue,  may  shew  the  fcrtihty  of  F.'s  pen  : 
Lalin-Maijyar  Lexicon  for  Lerjislalion  and  Govern- 
ment  (2d  ed.  1835) ;  The  Metaphysics  of  the  Magyar 
Tongue  (1834) ;  Maijyar-Germait  Dictionary  (1836) ; 
Elements  of  Hunijarian  Statute  Law  (18.'{9),  with  a 
valuable  Appendix  published  at  a  later  date ;  The 
Comvierciid  Law  (f  Uttixjary  (1840) ;  Hungarian 
Bank  (1848);  and  Commercial  Dictionary.  F.  has 
also  contributed  much,  by  his  Essays  on  live  Spirit  of 
the  Hungarian  Language  (1845),  towards  its  rapid 
development.  He  is  at  present  busily  engaged 
(together  with  Czuczor)  in  preparing  the  great 
diction.ary  of  the  Hungarian  Academy. 

FO'GGIA,  an  important  town  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Capitanata,  in  Southern  Italy,  is 
situated  between  the  rivet's  Cervaro  and  C'elono,  in 
a  district  .abounding  in  plantations  of  olives,  vines, 
and  other  fruit  trees,  SO  miles  e.ast-north-east  of 
Naples.  It  is  a  handsome,  well-built  t<jwn,  with 
sp.acious  streets,  good  houses,  and  large  shops. 
Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  a 
Gothic  edifice  originally,  but  jiartially  destroyed  by 
an  earthqimke  in  1731,  and  aftem'ards  rebuilt  in  a 
different  style;  numerous  chiurches,  some  of  them 
antique;  the  custom-house,  a  beautiful  building; 
and  the  theatre.  It  is  the  centre  of  all  the  trade  of 
the  province,  and  has  many  large  corn  magazines. 
Pop.  24,000. 

F.,  sujiposed  to  have  been  built  from  the  niins 
of  the  ancient  Ai-pi,  was  a  favourite  residence  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  here  died  his  wife, 
Isabella,  daughter  of  the  English  king,  John.  It 
was  also  for  some  time  the  residence  of  Ferdinand  I. 
and  his  com-t,  when  it  ranked  as  the  second  city  in 
the  kingdom. 

FOG-SIGNALS,  audible  warnings  used  on  lio.ard 
ships,  on  the  sea-coast,  or  on  railways,  dui'ing  fogs 
and  mists,  or  at  any  other  time  when  lights  or 
ordinary  daylight-sigu.als  are  not  available. 

Th^  commonest  fog-signal  on  shipboard  is  the 
continuous  ringing  ot  the  ordinary  time-bell,  or 
striking  the  anchor  with  a  hammer,  together  with 
the  occasional  discharge  of  musketry  and  heavy 
guns.  These  are  adopted,  to  prevent  colhsions, 
when  ships  are  ove;;taken  by  a  fog  in  the  British 
Channel,  or  other  places  where  shipjiing  is  abundant. 
The  blowing  of  a  horn,  the  beating  of  a  drum,  an 
empty  cask,  a  gong,  and  vaiious  otlier  unusu.al 
soimds,  are  also  adopted.  Steam-vessels  generally 
blow  a  whistle  under  these  circumstances.  These 
soimds,  however,  only  indicate  nulely  the  position 
of  the  ship,  and  not  the  direction  in  which  she  is 
sailing.  Many  plans  have  been  devised  for  a  code 
of  signals,  by  which  the  directions  north,  south, 
&c.,  might  be  indicated  by  the  varj-ing  length  of 
each  sound,  or  the  intervals  between  the  sounds  of 
a  fog-horn  or  whistle. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  some  general  code  of 
signals  of  this  kind  should  be  .adopted  for  the 
merchant  sen-ice  as  wcU  as  the  na-i-y  ;  and  that  its 
recognition  by  the  marine  of  all  other  nations 
shoiild  be  procured.  The  Admiralty  have  such  a 
code  for  the  direction  of  a  fleet  of  shii)S  of  war  in 
tlvick  weather,  but  their  application  is  limited  to 
the  n,avy.  Some  further  remar" 
will  appear  imder  Sigsals  (q.  v.). 

Fog-signals   from  the   shore   are  very   desirable, 

3a3 


FOHI— FOIX. 


especially  on  a  Jangcrous  coast  The  rinj^n;!  of 
cliurcli-bolls.  anil  of  bvlls  at  the  coastgtianl  stiitions, 
has  Ih-ou  su-Biestol:  but  t)iere  is  one  serious  ililH- 
cultv  here,  viz.,  that  when  most  neeilctl,  that  is, 
when  a  strong  wind  is  blowing  in  towanls  the 
shore,  such  S4)'uml3  would  be  heard  only  at  a  very 
little  ibstanoe  out  at  sea. 

The  foir-sigiials  usctl  on  railways  are  small  cases 
charge<l  with  detonating  )>owiler,"and  laid  upon  the 
rails!'  They  explode  loudly  when  the  wheel  of  an 
advancing  train  comes  niK>n  them.  They  are  not 
men-ly  used  in  fogs,  but  in  all  c:ises  of  danger,  from 
obstruction  of  the  line,  or  in  other  cases  of  urgency 
when  a  train  has  to  be  stojiped  without  delay. 
Station-masters  and  railway  pi^liee  are  furnished 
with  them  for  the  purpose  of  thus  stopping  a  train 
at  any  place. 

FOHR,  one  of  the  i^reater  Danish  islands  in  the 
North  Sea,  on  the  western  co.ist  of  the  proWnce  of 
Slesrig ;  its  central  point  is  in  lat  54°  42'  N.,  and  in 
Ion'.  8°  30'  E  It  has  an  area  of  about  28  square 
miles,  has  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants,  is  divided 
into  n'eslrrlan'll'uhr,  which  belongs  to  the  proWnce 
of  Jutland,  and 'O.sfer/<!«rf/'o/i)-,  whfch  belongs  to  that 
of  Slesvi".  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Frisians, 
who  live  %y  taking  fish  and  wild  fowl,  and  by  the 
mannfacturc  of  cheese  and  stocking- ware.  The 
chief  place  is  a  bathing-place,  called  Wyk,  with  n 
population  of  700. 

FOIL,  a  thin  bar  of  elastic  steel,  mounted  as 
a  Kapier  (q.  v.),  but  without  a  point,  and  addi- 
tionally blunted  at  the  end  by  the  presence  of  a 
button  covered  with  leather.  It  is  used  in  Fencing 
(q.v.). 

FOIL  (from  folium,  a  leaf),  a  general  name  for 
thin  metal  intermediate  in  thickness  between  /<=«/- 
metal,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper  leaf,  and  sliect- 
vietal. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  foil  in  common 
use — the  tin-foil  used  for  silvering  looking-glasses, 
lining  tea-caddies,  and  other  similar  purposes,  and 
for  the  conducting  coatings  of  electrical  apparatus  ; 
and  the  bright  foils  employed  by  the  jewellers  for 
backing  real  or  artificial  gems,  and  thereby  increasing 
their  lustre  or  modifying  their  colour. 

The  former  is  made  by  rolling  out  tin,  or  more 
recently,  by  the  method  of  Jlr  Wimshurst,  who 
casts  a  cylinder  of  the  metal,  and  then,  by  means 
of  a  knife  or  cutter,  shaves  it  into  a  sheet  as  the 
cylinder  rolls  to  the  knife,  which  is  gradually 
moved  inwards  towards  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
at  a  rate  proi)ortionate  to  the  required  thickness  of 
the  sheet. 

The  bright  foil  used  by  jewellers  and  for  theatrical 
and  other  ornaments  under  the  name  of  '  tinsel,'  is 
made  of  copper,  tin,  tinned  copper,  or  silvered 
copper.  The  last  is  now  chiefly  used  by  jewellers. 
The  metal  is  rolled  in  a  flatting  mill,  and  the 
requisite  brilliancy  of  surface  is  produced  by  finish- 
ing between  burnished  rollers  and  polishing.  The 
various  colours  are  produced  by  coating  the  white 
metal  with  transparent  colours  mixed  in  isinglass 
size.  A  similar  varnish  without  colour  is  laid  over 
the  white  foil,  to  prevent  tarnishing.  The  socket  or 
setting  in  which  the  stone  or  paste  is  mounted  is 
lined  with  the  foil,  and  by  reflecting  from  the  inter- 
nal facets  the  light  which  jiasses  through  the  stone, 
adds  considerably  to  its  brilliancy.  The  natural 
colours  of  real  stones  are  sometimes  heightened  or 
modified  by  coloured  foil,  and  factitious  colours  are 
thus  given  to  the  glass  or  '  paste,'  as  it  is  called,  of 
which  spurious  gems  are  made. 

There  are  two  other  mcthofls  of  foiling  gems, 
distinct  from  the  above  :  one  of  them  is  t«  line  the 
socket  of  the  setting  with  tin-foil,  then  fill  it  whilst 
•100 


warm  with  mercury  ;  after  a  few  minutes,  the  fluid 
'  mercury  is  poured  out,  and  there  remains  an  amal- 
gam of  tin,  i)recisely  the  same  as  is  used  for  b.iik- 
iug  common  mirrors ;  the  gem  is  fitted  into  this, 
and  thus  its  back  has  a  mirror  surface.  The  other 
method  is  to  j>rccipitate  a  film  of  pure  metalhc 
silver  uj)on  the  back  of  the  stone,  by  submitting  a 
solution  of  the  ammonia  nitrate  of  sdver  in  contact 
with  the  stone  to  the  reducing  action  of  the  oils 
of  cassia  and  cloves.  The  sdvering  of  looking- 
glasses  being  the  chief  use  to  which  the  ordinary 
tin-foil  is  ai)pUed,  its  purity  is  a  matter  of  great 
consideration  ;  its  employment  also  by  chemists,  as 
a  ready  means  of  forming  some  of  the  tin  compounds, 
renders  this  absolutely  neccssarj'. 

Xevcrtheless,  the  spirit  of  adulteration  has 
extended  to  the  tin-foil  makers,  and  lead  has  been 
extensively  alloyed  with  the  tin.  In  some  analyses 
recently  made,  it  has  been  shewn  that  as  much  as 
So  per  cent,  of  the  adulterant  metal  has  been  used, 
the  effect  of  which  in  the  process  of  silvering  mirrors 
is  most  injurious  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  amalgam, 
which  shoijd  consist  of  perfectly  i>iu-e  tin  and  quick- 
silver. For  chemical  purposes,  it  is  now  absolutely 
necessary  to  test  for  lead  before  using  tin-foil. 

The  foils  used  by  jewellers  for  backing  gems, 
consisting  of  small  sheets  of  silvered  copper  rolled 
very  thin,  are  coloured  with  the  foUo\ving  pre]>ara- 
tions,  to  suit  the  different  gems  under  which  they 
are  to  be  placed,  or  for  use  as  tinsel  in  the  manu- 
facture of  theatrical  ornaments,  toys,  &c.  Lake 
and  Prussian  blue,  and  pale  drj-ing-oil  finely  ground 
with  a  slab  and  midlar — for  amethyet  colour.  Prus- 
sian blue,  similarly  prepared — for  sapphire  colour. 
Dragons'  blood  dissolved  in  pure  alcohol — for  garnet 
colour.  Sesquiferrocyanide  of  iron  and  bichromate 
of  potash,  equal  parts  very  finely  groimd  and  sifted, 
then  giound  with  a  quantity  of  gum-mastic  equai  to 
the  other  two  ingredients,  until  the  whole  forms  an 
impalpable  powder ;  gradually  form  this  into  a  thin 
paste  with  j)ure  wood-spirit  (pjToxylic)  and  pre- 
serve in  stoppered  bottle ;  when  used,  a  portion  is 
diluted  with  wood-spirit  to  the  necessary  thinness — 
for  emerald  colour.  Va)-ious  shades  of  yellowish  or 
hlimh  green  can  be  produced  by  varying  l/ie  propor- 
tions ofl/ie  two  colouring  materiaU.  Lake  or  carmine 
giound  in  solution  of  isinglass — for  ruby  coloim  A 
weak  solution  of  orange  shell-lac,  sometimes  tinted 
with  saffron,  turmeric,  or  aloes — for  topaz  colour. 
Several  other  colour-varnishes  are  made  by  similar 
methods  for  various  shades  of  tinsel  and  gem  foils. 
See  SiL\'EEisG. 

FOIX,  a  small  and  unimportant  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Arifege,  and  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  of  that  name,  44  miles  south-south-east 
of  Toulouse.  It  has  a  picturesque  old  castle,  with 
three  wcU-preserved  towers  of  whitish  marble,  all 
of  different  ages,  and  all  dating  from  before  the  15th 
century.  It  has  some  trade  in  iron,  and  in  the 
vicinity  are  numerous  ironworks.  Pop.  52G0.  F. 
was  capital  of  the  old  county  of  Foix. 

.  FOIX,  an  old  French  family,  which  took  the 
title  of  count  from  the  district  of  Foix  (now  the 
department  of  Arifcge),  in  the  south  of  France.  The 
first  who  bore  the  title  was  lioger,  Comte  de  Foix, 
who  flourished  in  the  midtUe  of  the  1 1th  centurj-. 
KajTnond,  Comte  de  Foix,  figures  as  one  of  the 
knights  who  accompanied  King  Philippe  Auguste 
to  Palestine;  afterwards,  being  accused  of  heresy, 
his  estates  were  seized  by  Comte  de  Montfort.  He 
died  in  1223.  Several  members  of  the  family  sub- 
sequently distinguished  themselves  in  the  wars 
against  England.  Gaston  III.,  Comte  de  Foix,  bom 
1331,  and  called,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  his 
person,  Phoebus,  was  noted  for  his  knightly  love  of 


FOLCLAND— FOLIGXO. 


splendour  and  military  prowess.  For  his  services 
to  the  king,  he  was  made  governor  of  Langnedoo 
and  Gascony.  When  only  18,  he  married  Agnes, 
daughter  of  Philip  llf.,  king  of  Navarre.  In  13.58, 
during  tlie  insurrecti<3a  known  as  the  Jacquerie 
{(1.  v.),  he  delivered  the  royal  family  from  the 
j)ower  of  the  rebels.  When  Charles  VI.  wished  to 
dc]irivc  him  of  the  government  of  Languedoc,  he 
maintained  his  position  by  force  of  arms,  and 
defeated  the  Duo  de  Berri  in  the  plain  of  Revel.  He 
was  inordinately  attached  to  the  chase,  and  is  said 
to  have  kept  lUOO  dogs.  He  also  ^vrote  a  work  on 
the  subject,  entitled  Miroir  de  Phehus  des  dediiilz 
de  la  C/iaxse  des  Bestes  sauvaiges  et  des  Oyseaulj:  de 
Protji;  which  went  through  several  editions  iu  the 
IGth  and  17th  centuries,  and  whose  bombastic  style 
{/aire  du  P/ii'Jms]  became  a  byword.  Froissart 
o«ed  some  of  the  choicest  incidents  in  his  history 
to  liaving  lived  for  some  time  in  the  castle  (jf 
Ortlies,  Gaston's  princij)al  residence.  After  his 
death,  in  1391,  the  estates  and  title  went  to  a 
collateral  branch  of  the  family.  Gaston  IV.,  Comte 
de  Foix',  rendered  good  serWce  to  the  king  in  the 
wars  .against  England.  In  1455,  his  father-in-law, 
•lolin  II.,  king  of  Navarre,  named  him  his  successor. 
In  .addition  to  this,  (.'harles  VII.  created  him  a 
]iecr  of  France,  and  ceded  to  him  his  claims  u|ion 
Koussillou  and  Cerd.agne.  He  died  in  1472,  when 
the  family  possessions  were  again  dividecL  The 
last,  his  grandson,  Gaston  de  Foi.x,  was  probably 
the  most  heroic  member  of  the  family.  Son  of 
Jean  de  Foix,  Comte  d'Estampes,  and  Marie 
d'Orleans,  sister  of  Louis  XII.  of  France,  he  was 
born  in  148'.),  and  in  1507  received  from  his  imele, 
the  Freucli  king,  the  title  of  Due  de  Nemours.  In 
the  Italian  wars  carried  on  by  Louis,  Gaston  dis- 
played the  most  brilliant  and  precocious  genius. 
He  twice  overthrew  the  Swiss,  at  Como  and  Milan ; 
chased  Pope  Julius  II.  from  Bologna;  seized  Brescia 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  Venetians  ;  and,  to  crown  a 
series  of  splendid  triumphs,  which  obtained  for  him 
the  title  of  the  Thunderbolt  of  Ikd;/,  won  the  great 
battle  of  Kavemia  over  the  Spaniards,  11th  April 
1512,  in  wliich,  howevei',  he  fell,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty-three.  On  his  death,  the  estates  and 
title  of  the  House  of  Foix  went  to  Hem-i,  king  of 
Navarre,  whose  daughter,  .Teanne  d'Albret,  married 
Antoine  de  Bourbon,  Due  de  Vendume,  and  became 
the  mother  of  the  gre.at  Henri  Qu.atre,  who  thus 
attached  the  county  of  Foix  to  the  French  crown. 

FO'LCLAND,  or  FOLKLAND,  the  land  of  the 
folk  or  people  in  England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
The  folcland,  according  to  Turner,  was  that  portion 
of  the  kingdom  which  was  retained  in  beh.alf  of  the 
public,  and  with  a  view  to  increasing  population  and 
the  growing  wants  of  the  community,  and  not  per- 
mitted to  become  allodial  estate  or  absolute  private 
property.  Of  this  land,  the  usiifnict  or  dominium 
vdte  was  enjoyed  by  the  freemen,  for  which  certain 
rents  were  paid  to  the  state,  and  which  did  not 
become  hereditary.  On  the  contrary,  the  rights 
which  were  held  in  it  by  individuals  reverted  to 
the  community  at  the  expiry  of  a  particidar  term, 
when  it  was  again  given  out  by  the  folcgemot  or 
court  of  the  district,  either  in  conmionty  or  in 
severalty.  Certain  services  to  the  public  were 
commonly  im])osed  on  the  holders  of  folcland,  such 
as  the  re]>aration  of  the  royal  viUs  and  other  public 
works ;  the  exercise  of  hosjntality  to  the  king,  and 
to  other  personages  of  distinction  in  their  progresses 
through  the  country,  by  furnishing  them  and  their 
messengers,  huntsmen,  hounds,  hawks,  and  horses 
with  food,  and  providing  them,  when  necessary, 
with  means  of  transport.  It  does  not  seem  that 
the  folcland  was  held  exclusively  by  the  common 
people,  but  rather  that  it  was  open  to  freemen 
182 


of  all  ranks  and  conditions,  and  th.at  the  posses- 
sion of  it  was  much  coveted  even  by  those  who 
hehl  great  estates  on  the  hereditary  title  which 
was  known  as  Boddand  (ip  v.).  Folcland  was  often 
given  out  as  bockland  to  those  who  had  performed 
great  public  services,  jnst  as  Horatius  was  rewarded 
by  a  grant  of  the  Roman  aijcr  publicus — 

'  They  gave  him  of  the  corn-land 
That  was  of  public  right. 
As  much  as  two  strong  oxen 
Could  plough  from  morn  till  niglit ! ' 

It  was  also  frequently  given  to  the  church,  fur  the 
purpose  of  founding  mon.asteries  and  the  like,  a 
practice  of  which  Bede  complains  in  his  celebrated 
letter  to  Archbishop  Egbert.  '  It  is  disgracefid  to 
say,  persons  who  have  not  the  least  claim  to  the 
monastic  character,  as  you  yourself  best  know, 
have  got  so  many  of  these  spots  into  their  power, 
under  the  name  of  monasteries,  that  there  is  really 
now  no  place  at  all  where  the  sons  of  nobles  or 
veteran  soldiers  can  receive  a  grant.' — Kemble's 
Saxuns,  p.  291.  Kemble  gives  examples  of  the 
dues  i>aid  by  monasteries  for  the  folcland  which 
they  held,  which  afford  curious  information  as  to 
the  ])roduct3  of  industry  and  modes  of  living  of 
those  times.  In  883,  a  mon.astery  is  freed  from  all 
dues  which  the  monks  were  still  bound  to  ])ay  to 
the  king's  hand,  including  bright  ale,  beer,  honey, 
oxen,  swine,  and  sheep.  The  dues  of  the  monastery 
at  Taunton  were — a  feorm  (or  entertainment)  of 
one  night  to  the  king,  and  eight  dogs  and  one 
dog-keeper  ;  and  nine  nights'  keep  for  the  king's 
falconers,  and  carriage,  with  wagons  and  horses,  for 
whatever  he  would  have  taken  to  Curry  or  Wilton  ; 
and  if  strangers  came  from  other  parts,  they  were 
to  have  guidance  to  the  nearest  royal  viU  upon  their 
road.— /A.  295,  29G. 

FOLDVAR,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county 
of  Tolna,  is  situated  on  the  crest  and  slojie  of  a 
hiU  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  48  miles 
south  of  Pestii.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  high 
school,  is  a  steam-boat  station,  has  an  important 
sturgeon-fishery,  and  considerable  trade  iu  wines 
and  agricultural  produce.     Pop.  11,800. 

FO'LIA  MALABA'THRI,  i.  e.,  Malabar  Leaves, 
formerly  in  much  repute  as  a  medicine ;  an  aromatic 
tonic;  the  dried  leaves  of  Cinnamomujii  nitidum, 
and  jiartly  of  C.  Tumala,  species  of  cinnamon,  small 
Indian  trees  or  shrubs. 

FOLIA'TION,  a  tenii  restricted  by  Mr  D.arwin, 
and  subsequently  by  geologists,  to  the  alternating 
layers  or  plates  of  different  mineralogical  nature,  of 
which  gneiss  and  some  other  metamorphic  schists 
are  composed.  It  difi'ers  from  cleavage,  which  is 
ajiplied  to  the  divisi(mal  planes  that  render  a  rock 
hssile,  although  it  may  appear  to  the  eye  rpiite  or 
nearly  homogeneous;  and  from  lamination,  which 
is  the  easy  splitting  of  a  rook  into  its  original  layers 
of  deposition.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  cause 
of  foliation.  Some  hold  that  as  gneiss  is  composed 
of  the  disintegrated  ingredients  of  granite,  the  layers 
are  identical  with  the  original  lamina?,  having  been 
arranged  according  to  their  various  densities.  But 
it  can  scarcely  be  conceived  that  water  would  be 
able  to  deposit  such  materials  in  the  same  order 
over  areas  so  immense  as  those  occupied  by  gneiss 
strata.  It  seems  more  probable  that  the  arr.ange- 
ment  is  owing  to  some  -widespread  metamorphic 
and  segregating  force,  which  operated  subsequently 
to  the  deposition  of  the  beds. 

FOLI'GNO,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Perugia,  in  the  fruitful  valley  of  the 
Topino,  IS  miles  north  of  Spoleto.  It  was  foi-mcrly 
surrounded   by  walls,  which,   however,  'have  been 

4IJ1 


FOLKES-FONBLANQFE. 


'  4c. ;  on  fireside  arauscmenU,  on  superstitions  and 
What  may  he  called  a  sub-section 
the  same  time  been  amply  illus- 
Rhymes,  e<lited  by  J.  0.  Halli- 
lilnjmes  of  Scotland,  edited  by 
ia  to  be  observed  that,  while 
folk-lore  has  thus  been  engaging  the  attention  of 
literary  men,  and  put  beyond  risk  of  oblivion  by 
takinj;   its   place  in  solid  books,  it  is  everywhere 
declining  among  the  i)cople  themselves.      To  this 
effect,   the    diffusion    of    scientific   ideas,   the    dis- 
favour of  the  clergy  for  everything  connected  witli 
the  supernatural  except  religion  itself,  and  the  great 
industrial  changes  and  improvements    of    the  last 
fifty  years,  including   a   greatly  increased  shifting 
of  the  jKiople  from  one  district  to  another,  have  all 
conduced.     In  the  British  Islands,  no  effort  has  been 
made  to  generalise  folk-lore  for  any  purpose  con- 
nected with  anthropologj',  ethnology,  or  any  other 
science  ;   but  in  Germany,  as  is  well  known,  the 
learned  brothers,  Jacob  and  Wilhclm  Cirimm,  have 
turned   the   ancient   simple   us.ages   and   traditions 
of  the   peasant's   fireside   to   excellent   account   in 
illustrating  remote  periods  of  the  national  history. 

rOLKMOTE  (a  meeting  or  assembly  of  tlic 
'folk'  or  people)  was  the  term  applied  by  the 
Saxons  to  district  meetings  generally,  though 
Kenible  is  of  opinion  that  origmally  it  was  the 
great  meeting  of  the  nation,  which  was  afterwards 
converted  into  the  WitenagemOte,  or  meeting  of 
the  councillors  or  representatives  of  the  nation 
(Kemble's  Saxons  in  Unrjlaml,  ii.  p.  194). 

FOLKRIGHT,  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  King 

Edward  the  Elder,  is  nearly  synonymous  with  the 

law,  or  rather  %vith  the  rights  which  the 


I «i)H.'r,  and  wax-candles.     Pop.  SI (K). 

P.  the  ancient  Umbrian  Fuliinium,  was  called  m 
the  midiUe  ages  Fulignum.  In  1S32  it  suffered 
severely  frt>m  an  earthquake. 

FOLKES,  Maktin,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  antiquary,  bom  at  AVestmrnster  m 
IC'.H),  was  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge.  In 
ITl.-?,  he  was  chosen  a  feUow  of  the  Iloyal  Society 
of  London;  and  in  1741  he  succeeded  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  as  president  of  that  learned  body.  Ho  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and  of 
the  Koyal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Pans.  He  died 
in  1754-  F.  was  the  author  of  A  Table  of  Emjlush 
Gold  Coins  from  the  18(A  Edward  III.,  when  Gold 
teas  first  coined  in  England  (Lond.  173G,  4to),  with 
A  Table  of  Enijlish  Sillier  Coins,  from  the  Noi-man 
Conquest ;  to  whidi  is  atldal  an  Appendix,  answerinf) 
the  Coins  minted  in  Scotland  since  the  Union  of  the  ttoo 
Crowns  (Loud.  1745,  folio),  published  under  the  care 
of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  sujierintendcd  by  Dr 
Giffard  (17G3,  2  vols.).  Besides  these  works,  F.  con- 
tributed a  number  of  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions. 

FOLK-LORE,  a  tenn  recently  introduced  into 
English  from  the  German,  as  applicable  to  what 
may  be  called  a  department  of  antiquities  or  archae- 
olocy— viz.,  that  which  relates  to  ancient  observ- 
ances and  customs,  and  also  ideas,  prejudices,  and    ^^_^_ _..^  _.    __ 

superstitions  among  the  common  people.  In  England,  |  common  law  confers  on  the  people  of  England, 
the  literature  of  this  subject  may  be  said  to  have  rO'LIfSTONE  a  risin"  town  of  England  on  the 
commenced  with  the  Miscellanies  of  John  Aubrey,  g^^tj^.g^st  eoast  of  Kent,"  is  a  municipal  borough, 
published  in  1696,  in  which  we  find  chapters  on  ,  ^^^  (.  ^^^  bathing-place,  and  is  situated  83  miles 
Day   Fatality,    Omens,    Dreams,    tori>se    Candles   |  ^ast-sonth-east  of  London  by  rail,  and  five  miles 


Candles, 
Second  Sight,  and  kindred  matters,  to  which  that 
learned  but  credulous  author— an  early  member  of 
the  Royal  Society — had  given  his  attention.     Here, 
however,  the  superstitions,  rather  than  the  ordinary 
observances  and  customs  of  the  people,  were  detailed. 
The  first  book  addressed  to  the  general  subject  of 
folk-lore  was  an  octavo  volume  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
Bourne,  published  at  Newcastle  in  I7"25,  under  the 
title  of  Antiquitates  Vulgares,  or  tlte  Antiquities  of 
the  Common  People.    It  mainly  consists  of  an  account 
of  the  popular  customs  in  connection  with  the  feasts 
of  the  church.      Fifty  years  after  its   publication, 
John  Brand,  M.A.,  a  native  of  Kewcastle,  busied 
himself  in  extending  the  collections  which  originated 
with  Bourne,  and  in  1777  he  imblished  at  that  city 
the  first  edition  of  his  Observations  on  the  Popular 
AntiquHies  of  Great  Britain,   a   work   which   was 
subsequently  enlarged  by  himself,  partly  from  the 
stores  of  folk-lore  presented  in  t\ic  Staiistical  Accoimt 
of  Scotland  (edited   by  Sinclair,   1791—1795),   but 
was  left  to  be  re-issued,  under  a  thoroughly  reused 
form,  in  1813  (2  vols.  4to),  by  Henry  fcllis  of  the 
British  Museum.      Tliis   work,  in  which   Bourne's 
was  incoq)oratcd,  has  since  been  twice  reprinted, 
with  additions,  and  might  have  been  regarded  as 
an  exhaustive  work  on  the  subject,  if  it  had  not  been 
shewn  by  Hone's  Erenj  Day  Booh  and  Year  Book, 
and  the  useful  little  periodical  entitled  Notes  and 
Querie.^,  that,  after  all,  many  curious  particulars  of 
English  folk-lore  remained  to  be  gleaned.     Througli 
all"these  various  channels,  we  now  have  tolerably 
amiile  information  on  popular  festivals  of  every  kind, 
both  those  which  appear  to  have  originated  in  pagan 
times,  and  those  instituted  by  the  Christian  Church, 
on  all   observances  connected  with  the  important 
movements  of  domestic  lite,  as  marriages,  sepulture, 

102 


west-south-west  of  Dover.  It  stands  on  uneven 
groimd  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills.  The  oldest 
part  lies  in  a  narrow  valley,  crossed  by  a  magni- 
ficent railway  ^-iaduct.  It  has  rapidly  extended 
and  im])roved  smce  the  opening  of  the  South- 
eastern Railway,  and  the  establishment  of  .steam- 
packets  from  this  town  to  Boidogne,  30  miles  to 
the  south-east.  Between  the  two  places  is  a 
submarine  chain  of  rocks  only  14  fathoms  under 
low  water.  Pop.  (1861)  8528.  F.  unites  with  H)-tlie 
in  returaing  one  member  to  parliament.  In  lS6(t, 
1550  vessek,  of  226,051  tons,  entered  and  cleared 
the  harbour.  The  view  from  the  luer  extends 
from  Shakspeare  Cliff,  at  Dover,  to  Fairlight  Head, 
at  Hastings  ;  the  BoiUogne  heights  are  also  seen. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  remains  of  Roman  intreucli- 
ments.  Here  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  was  born.     (1871- pop.  12,694.) 

FOMENTA'TION  (Lat.  fomrntatio  ;  also  fotua, 
from  foreu,  I  bathe),  an  application  of  warmth  and 
moisture  to  a  part,  by  means  of  cloths  WTimg  out 
of  hot  water,  sometimes  medicated  with  vegetable 
infusions  of  substances  calcidated  to  relieve  pain 
or  stimulate  the  surface.  Thus,  opium,  belladonna, 
chamomile,  turjientine,  &c.,  are  used  in  various  forms 
in  connection  with  fomentations,  which  are  of  very 
great  serrice  in  the  treatment  of  almost  all  painful 
local  disorders. 

FONBIiAXQITE,  Albany,  journalist,  born  in 
1707,  was  intended  for  the  bar,  and  became  a 
pupil  of  C'hitty,  the  eminent  special  pleader.  Castle- 
re.igh's  Six  Acts  made  him  a  political  writer.  As 
editor  of  the  Examiner,  the  then  leading  Liberal 
weekly  journal,  F.  exhibited  a  singular  keenness  both 
of  wit  and  intellect,  and  exercised  no  inconsiderable 


FOND  DIT  LAC— FONT. 


influence  on  public  opinion  between  the  years 
1826  and  183G.  Lcitrli  Hunt,  who  was  his  pre- 
decessor in  the  editorship  of  the  K'xaminer,  says  of 
him  in  his  Autol)iography,  '  He  was  the  genuine 
successor  not  of  me,  but  of  the  Swifts  and  Addisons 
themselves  ;  profuse  of  wit  even  beyond  them,  and 
superior  in  ])ohtical  knowledge.'  The  characteristics 
of  his  political  writings  may  be  gathered  from  his 
work,  entitled  England  under  Seven  Administrations 
(1837),  which  is  simply  a  reprint  of  the  more 
historical  leading  articles  published  in  the  Examiner 
from  the  period  of  the  Canning  and  Goderich 
ministries,  to  the  return  of  the  Melbourne  ministry. 
F.'s  services  to  the  Whigs  were  rewarded  by  his 
appointment  to  the  otiice  of  secretary  to  the 
Statistical  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in 
1S.")2.  This  [lost,  which  he  still  holds  (1802),  does 
not,  it  is  understood,  interfere  with  his  occasional 
contributions  to  the  journal  with  which  his  name 
ha.s  been  so  long  associated.  (Died  14th  Oct.  1872.) 
FOND  DU  LAC  is  a  name  of  various  application 
in  that  portion  of  the  United  States  which  originally 
belonged  to  French  Canada.  Piimarily  denoting  the 
inner  extremity  of  any  great  body  of  fresh  water, 
it  has,  secondarily,  been  made  to  indicate  adjacent 
localities  of  difTerent  kinds,  chiefly  in  connection 
with  Lake  Superior,  the  grand  reservoir  of  the  St 
Lawrence,  and  Lake  Winnebago,  which  empties  itself 
from  the  westward  into  Lake  Michigau. — 1.  The 
Fond  du  Lac  of  Lake  Superior  has  lent  its  appeUa- 
tiou  to  a  \nllage  in  Minnesota,  situated  at  a  distance 
of  about  20  mUes,  on  its  navigable  tributary,  the 
St  Louis. — 2.  The  Fond  du  Lac  of  Lake  Winnebago 
designates  both  a  county  and  town  of  Wisconsin. 
The  latter  has  sprung  up  mainly  since  1845,  has  a 
pleasant  situ.ation  on  a  wooded  slope  aliove  the 
lake,  an  important  trade  in  grain,  provisions,  and 
timber,  a  great  number  of  Artesian  well.?,  and  a 
population  in  1859  of  about  8000. 

FO'NDI  (anciontl}',  Fundi),  a  small  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  north-west  of  the  pro\'ince  of  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  is  situated  si.x  miles  from  the  coast,  on 
the  Appian  W.ay,  which  now  forms  its  principal 
street,  .56  miles  north-west  of  Naples.  It  is  an 
ill-built,  dirty,  and  miserable  town,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  a  pestiferous  lake  (the  ancient  Lacus 
Fundanus) ;  the  surrounding  plain,  however  (the 
ancient  C'acubtis  A'jer,  which  produced  the  famous 
Caicuban  wine  of  classic  times),  is  very  fruitfid.  F. 
is  sui'roundcd  in  part  by  walls  of  cyclopean  struc- 
ture, and  has  a  i)opulation  of  5700,  wlio  are  said 
to  be  in  the  highest  degree  wild  and  lawless. 

FONSE'CA,  a  bay  on  the  I'acilic  coast  of  Central 
America,  lies  between  the  two  states  San  Salvador 
and  Nicaragua.  It  claims  notice  principally  as  the 
jiroposed  terminus  of  an  interoceanio  railway  from 
the  Puerto  Caballos  in  Honduras.  The  inter- 
vening country  has  been  surveyed,  and  reported  as 
favouraljle. 

FONT  [Fans  Baplismalis),  the  vessel  used  in 
churches  as  the  repository  of  the  baptismal  water. 
In  the  early  period,  whde  immersion  continued 
to  be  the  ordin.ary  rite  of  the  administration  of 
the  sacrament  of  liaptism,  the  baptistery  (see 
L.VPTI.STERY),  or  other  jilace  set  apart  for  the 
ceremony,  was  furnished  with  a  basin  sufficiently 
caitacious  to  ailmit  of  the  administration  of  the 
rite  according  to  the  then  prevaihng  form.  But 
when  it  Ijecame  customary  to  baptize  by  afl'usion — 
that  is,  by  pouring  the  water  on  the  head  of  the 
jierson  to  be  baptized — the  size  of  the  basin  was 
natm-ally  diminished,  and  eventually  it  assimied 
the  dimensions  and  the  form  which  are  now 
famihar  to  us  in  most  of  the  medieval  churches 
in   Great   Britain  and   upon   the   continent.      The 


baptismal  font,  in  its  normal  form,  consists  of 
a  basin  or  cup,  more  or  less  capacious,  hollowed 
out  of  a  solid  block,  and  supported  upon  a  stem 
or  pedestal.  It  is  ordinarily  of  stone,  but  some 
ancient  examples  of  leaden  fonts  also  occur,  and 
a  few  of  copper  or  of  bronze.  In  general,  how- 
ever, it  may  lie  said  that  the  font,  in  its  external 
form  and  character,  followed  the  prevailing  style 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture  and  ornamentation. 
From  its  connection  with  one  of  the  most  solemn 
rites  of  religion,  it  became  very  early  a  favoujite 
subject  for  the  exercise  of  the  decorative  skill  of  the 
artist,  and  there  are  sffill  preserved  in  different 
churches  fonts  which  exhiljit  chciracteristics  of  each 
and  .all  the  successive  fashions  through  which  chiu'ch 
architecture  has  passed  since  the  introduction  of 
the  font  in  its  j)resent  form.  There  is  some  doubt 
as  to  whether  any  existing  specimen  in  England 
really  belongs  to  the  Saxon  period,  J)ut  examples 
are  found  of  all  the  Later  styles,  frnm  the  Early 
Norman  down  to  the  latest  revival  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  our  own  day  ;  the  Early  English,  the 
Decorated,  of  which  a  beautifid  example  occm-s  in 
the  church  of  All  Saints,  Norwich;  and  tlie  Per- 
pendicidar,  which  is  seen  in  its  highest  perfection  at 
East  Dereham  in  the  same  coimty  of  Norfolk.  The 
annexed  engraving  exhibits  a  highly  characteristic 


Font. 

specimen  of  the  fonts  of  the  beginning  of  tlie  14th 
e.,  which  stands  in  the  church  of  Swaton,  Lincoln- 
shire, erected  about  1310. 

The  external  iigiire  of  the  basin  seems  to  liave 
been  originally  circular  or  elliptical ;  but  most  of 
the  later  fonts  are  hexagonal,  or  even  eight-sided. 
The  basin  was  commonly  supported  on  a  single 
pillar  or  stem.  Many  cases,  however,  occur  in 
which  it  rests  on  three,  four,  or  five  pillars,  or,  as  in 
the  eugra\Tng,  on  a  group  of  pillars  or  pilasters 
united  into  a  solid  stem.  The  exterior,  as  well  of 
the  basin  as  of  the  jiedostal,  was  often  highly 
decorated,  ordinarily  with  scidpture,  but  occasionally 
also  in  gold  and  coloura  ;  the  designs  on  the  basin 
commonly  representing  subjects  connected  mth 
baptism,  or  its  tyjies  and  symbols.  We  frequently 
meet  around  the  i)edestal  ligiu'es  of  the  apostles, 
sometimes  only  eleven  in  number,  Judas  being 
omitted. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  service  of 
Easter  Saturday  contains  a  solemn  form  for  the 
blessmg  of  the  ba|itismal  font.  After  a  long  series 
of  prayers,  and  amid  a  very  imposing  ceremonial,  the 
'  chrism,'  or  consecrated  oil  blessed  by  the  bishop, 
and   also   the    so-called  'oil   of   catechumens,'   aro 

•1U3 


FONTAINEBLEAU— FONTAXES. 


mingle*!  with  the  baptismal  water,  which  is  reserved 
for  suliseiiuent  use.  Witli  a  view  to  the  i)reservatiiin 
of  tlie  water  thus  reserved,  the  fout,  especially  wheu 
it  is  of  porous  stone,  is  sometimes  lined  with  lead  ; 
and  from  an  early  date,  it  ,is  furnished  with  a  lid, 
which  is  secured  by  a  lock,  and  is  often  of  a  highly 
ornamental  character. 

The  ordinary  place  of  the  font  is  at  the  western 
end  of  the  nave,  near  the  entrance  of  the  church,  but 
in  many  cases  it  stands  in  a  separate  chapel  or 
Ivaptistery,  or  at  least  in  a  compartment  screened 
ofl'  for  the  puqiose.  Even  when  it  stands  in  the  open 
nave,  it  is  jiroperly  enclosed  by  a  rail. 

The  bai)tismal  font  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  'holv- water  fount,'  which  usually  stands  near 
the  entrance  of  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  from 
which  jiersons  cuterins  sprinkle  their  forehead,  in 
recognition  of  the  inward  purity  with  which  we 
ouglit  to  enter  the  house  of  God;  nor  with  the 
piSrina  or  sncrariitm,  which  is  found  in  the  chancel 
or  the  sacristy  of  ancient  churches,  and  which  was 
intended  to  receive  ami  caiTy  away  the  ivater  used 
in  cleansin"  the  sacred  vessels,  the  altar-linens,  ami 
the  other  furniture  <ised  in  the  administration  of  the 
eucharist  See  Paley's  lUuslrations  of  Boptlamnl 
Fonts  ;  Simpson  s  Series  of  Baptismal  Fonts  ;  Wetser's 
Kiixhen-Lixicon  ;  Binterim's  Denhaiirdiglceiten. 

FONTAIXEBLEAU,  a  town  in  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seiue-et-Marue,  is  beautifidly  situated 
in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  forest,  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  35  miles  south-cast  of  Paris,  ^rith 
which  it  is  connected  both  by  steamers  on  the  Seine, 
and  by  railway.  There  are  several  line  public 
buildings,  among  others,  two  hospitals — one  erected 
by  Anne  of  Austria,  the  other  by  Madame  do  Mon- 
tespan.  It  fiu-nishes  a  great  deal  of  wine  and  fruit 
for  the  capital,  and  has  manufactures  of  porcelain. 
Its  grapes  are  famed  as  C/iasselas  de  Fontainehleau. 
Pop.  10,GG!). 

V.  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  chateau,  or  pleasure- 
palace  of  the  kings  of  France,  and  the  forest 
that  surroimds  it.  The  forest  covers  an  extent  of 
64  square  miles,  and  presents  much  fine  scenery. 
The  chateau  is  said  to  have  originally  been  founded 
by  I'obert  the  Pious  toward  the  end  of  the  Kith 
century.  It  was  rebuilt  in  the  12th  c.  by  Louis 
WX.,  of  whom,  and  of  Philippe  Auguste,  it  was  a 
favoiu-ite  residence,  and  was  enlarged  by  Louis  IX. 
and  his  successors.  After  being  allowed  to  fall  into 
decay,  it  was  repaired  and  embellished  by  Francis  I., 
who  here  received  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  with 
la\-ish  splendour,  in  1539.  Almost  every  succeeding 
Icing  added  something  in^the  way  of  enlargement  or 
embellishment,  so  that  it  bears  the  character  and 
style  of  almost  every  century. 

In  the  17th  c.,  it  was  the  residence  of  Cliristina  of 
Sweilen  after  her  abdication,  and  in  the  Oalerie  ties 
Cer/s  she  caused  her  secretary  Monaldeschi  to  be 
executed.  Under  Louis  XIV.  it  was  occupied  by 
Madame  de  Montespan,  and  under  Louis  XV.  by 
Du  Barry ;  and  here  Pope  Pius  VII.  was  detained 
a  prisoner  for  nearly  two  years  by  Napoleon.  Many 
state  transactions  and  treaties  are  dated  from  F. ; 
among  others,  the  act  of  abdication  of  Napoleon  in 
1814.  Louis  Plidippe  had  all  the  paintings  renovated, 
and  the  ap.artments  restored  in  the  taste  of  the  IGth 
century. 

FOXTA'XA,  DoMF.KTCO,  an  eminent  engineer 
and  architect,  born  in  1543  at  Mili,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Como.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  joined 
his  brother,  also  an  architect  in  Home,  and  in  a  brief 
period  achieved  a  reputation  sufficiently  brilliant  to 
attract  the  notice  of  the  magnificent  Cardinal  Mon- 
talto,  to  whom  he  was  appointed  private  architect. 
The  pomp  of  this  cardinal  seems  to  have  given 
iOl 


umbr.ige  to  Pope  Gregory  XII.,  who,  in  conscqucneo, 
tliscontinued  the  cardin.al's  ])rivate  pensions,  and 
thus  disablid  him  from  completing  the  sjilenilid 
works  he  had  intrusted  to  F. — viz.,  the  Sistina 
Chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  an  adjoining 
jalace.  In  this  emergency,  the  spirited  architect, 
out  of  liis  own  funds,  carried  on  the  noble  designs 
of  his  patron,  on  the  same  scale  of  magnificence 
in  which  they  were  commenced,  and  for  his  dis- 
interested devotion  received  later  ample  reward, 
when  the  cardinal,  under  the  name  of  Sixtus  V.,  was 
called  to  the  papal  chair.  F.,  as  jiajial  architect,  was 
employed  in  a  variety  of  important  works,  amongst 
which  stands  conspicuously  the  wonderful  removiU 
and  re-erection  of  the  colo.ssal  Egjqitian  obelisk, 
to  be  seen  now  in  the  jiiazza  of  St  Peter's,  lie 
aftcrwartls  erected  several  other  obelisks,  and  was 
intrusted  by  Sixtus  with  the  construction  of  the 
Latoran  P.alace,  and  of  the  famous  Vatican  Library. 
The  restor.ation  of  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Anto- 
ninus, and  the  constnictiou  of  the  aqueduct  known 
as  the  Aqua  Felice,  deserve  mention  amongst  the 
many  works  of  utility  executed  by  Fontana.  On 
the  death  of  his  friend  and  patron.  Pope  Sixtus, 
F.,  through  the  intrigues  of  iuvidious  enemies,  w.ia 
stripped  of  his  post  as  papal  architect  in  1592,  but 
was  immediately  profTered  a  similar  appointment  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  NajJes.  During  his  sojourn 
in  Naples,  he  executed  many  imposing  designs  ;  the 
royal  palace,  and  a  noble  promenade  along  the  bay, 
being  amongst  the  chief.  His  conception  of  a  grander 
harbour  was  carried  into  effect  by  others,  his  death, 
in  1G()7,  at  Naples,  preventing  his  personal  super- 
intendence benefiting  the  undertaking.  F.'s  son, 
Giuglio  Cesarc,  heir  to  his  father's  great  wealth,  and 
some  of  his  genius,  was  appointed  royal  architect  on 
liis  decease. 

FONTA'NA,  Felice,  a  celebrated  physiologist, 
born  at  Pomarolo,  in  the  Italian  Tyrol,  in  i  730.  At 
the  termination  of  an  elaborate  course  of  study, 
carried  on  in  the  several  universities  of  Verona, 
Parma,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  he  was  presented  to 
the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  imiversity  of  Pisa  by 
Francis  I.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  Leopold,  on 
succeeding  his  father,  appointed  F.  court  jihysiolo- 
gist,  and  charged  him  with  the  organisation  of  a 
museum  of  natur.al  history  and  ]ihysiolog}%  which 
to  this  day  is  one  of  the  scientific  marvels  of 
Florence.  It  comprises  a  superb  collection  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
kingdoms,  besides  an  exquisitelj'  elaborate  series  of 
wax  models,  representing  the  human  body  as  a 
whole,  and  each  minute  separ.ate  organ.  A  similar 
collection  was  executed  by  F.  for  the  museum  of 
Vienna,  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  H.  He 
died  9tli  March  1803.  F.'s  chief  writings  consist  of 
scientific  considerations  on  the  vai'ious  phenomena  of 
physical  irritability,  Jiicherehe  Filosojiclie  sopra  la 
Fisica  Animale  (Florence,  1781),  and  Dei  Mali  deW 
Jridc  (Lucca,  1765). 

FONTAXES,  Louis,  M.\rqui.s  de,  was  born  6th 
March  1757,  at  Niort,  and  was  sprung  from  an  old 
Protestant  family  of  Langnedoc.  After  the  com- 
pletion of  his  stuilies,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  ho 
acquired  a  reputation  by  his  poems,  Le  Cri  de  man 
Catir  (Paris,  1778),  and  Le  Verger  (Paris,  1778),  as 
also  liy  his  metrical  translation  of  Pope's  Fssai/  on 
Man,  and  his  imitation  of  Gray's  Ehy>i  vrilten  in  a 
Countni  Churchyard.  During  the  Ilevolution,  F. 
conducted  various  journals  in  the  popular  interest. 
In  1802,  he  w.as  m.ade  a  member,  and  in  1804 
Iiresident  of  the  legislative  body.  His  admiration 
of  Napoleon  was  great ;  and  his  splendid  onatorical 
talents  were  often  employed  in  eulogising  the 
emperor's   acts.      Even   when   Napoleon   was   only 


FONTEXAY-LE-COMTE-PONTINALIS. 


consul,  F.  had  irritated  the  republican  party  by 
speaking  of  the  French  people  as  sujets  (sul>jocts). 
In  1810,  he  entered  the  senate.  After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  he  jiassed  into  the  service  of  the 
restored  Bourbons,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerac;e 
by  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  17th  Jlarch  1821.  His 
various  \vritiu";s,  prose  and  jioetic,  have  been 
collected  and  edited  by  Sainte-Beuve  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1837),  and  are  regarded  as  models  of  elegance  and 
correctness. 

FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,  or  FOXTEN.W- 
VENDEK,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Vendee,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vendee,  L'7  miles  north-east  of 
La  Rochelle.  The  streets  of  the  older  portion 
of  the  town  are  nan-ow  and  tortuous.  Its  chief 
buildings  are  the  beautiful  Gothic  church  of  Notre 
Dame,  with  aspire  311  feet  high;  the  college,  the 
theatre,  and  the  fountain  from  which  the  town  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name.  F.  has  linen  manu- 
factures, taimeries,  and  a  trade  in  timber,  and  is  an 
cntrei)Ot  for  the  \-ictuals  and  commodities  of  the 
south.     Pop.  7780. 

FONTENELLE,  Eki!N.\i;d  le  Bo-\aER  de,  .an 
eminent  French  author,  was  born  at  Rouen,  11th 
February  1657.  His  father  was  an  advocate,  and  his 
mother  a  sister  of  the  gi-eat  Corneille.  He  began 
his  studies  in  the  college  of  the  .Jesuits  at  Roiien, 
and  at  the  .age  of  13,  ol>tained  the  prize  for  a  Latin 
poem.  During  the  next  three  years  he  professed 
to  study  law,  but  in  reality  busied  himself  with  the 
moi-e  interesting  subjects  of  history,  poetry,  and 
philosophy.  After  passing  as  an  advocate,  he  com- 
menced to  practise,  but  lost  the  first  cause  which 
he  conducted,  and  in  consequence  renounced  the 
bar  for  ever.  In  1074,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  upon  a  literary  career,  and  soon  attained  to 
celebrity  and  independence.  He  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies  ;  and  from  1699  to  1741, 
held  the  oihce  of  Secretary  of  the  Academic  des 
•Sciences,  but  declined  the  post  of  president.  F. 
died  at  Paris  9th  January  1757,  having  nearly 
finished  his  100th  year,  wittily  remarking  to  his 
friends,  as  he  expired :  '  .Je  ne  souffre  pas,  mes  amis ; 
mais  je  sens  une  certaine  difficulte  d'etre  '  ('  I  don't 
sutTer,  my  friends  ;  but  I  feel  a  sort  of  difficulty  in 
living  any  longer ').  The  greater  part  of  his  nume- 
rous poetical,  historical,  oratorical,  iihilosophical, 
and  scientific  writings,  though  nuich  admired  at  the 
time  of  their  publication,  have  now  fallen  into 
oblivion.  He  possessed,  however,  along  with  great 
skill  in  representation,  a  poetical  turn  of  mind,  and 
an  acute  intellect.  He  wi'ote  a  few  operas,  among 
others,  Pstjche,  Bellerophon  ;  a  musical  and  dramatic 
pastoral  entitled  ICndymion ;  several  tragedies — 
JSnifiis,  Aspar,  Iilalie ;  comedies,  fables,  fugitive 
pieces,  epigrams,  &c.  Of  his  prose  writings,  we  may 
mention  the  Lettres  dn  Cheralii-r  tCIIer,  the  DUi- 
/oi/iic.i  di's  Marts,  in  the  manner  of  Lucian ;  his 
£'iitrelieiis  sur  la  Pluralit/i  de.i  Mondea,  which, 
although  much  read  once,  has  now  become  obsolete, 
in  c<msequence  of  the  advancement  of  science  ;  and 
his  treatises  .')«?•  t Esutenr.e,  de  Dieu,  Sur  le  Bonheur, 
Sur  VUriijine  de.i  FnUes ;  and  his  Jlktnire  da  Theatre 
Franeais  jusquci  Pierre  Corneille,  which  is  still  con- 
sidted.  F.  was  particularly  celebrated  for  his  bon- 
mols;  and  for  the  manner  in  which  he  edited  the 
Memoires  de  V Aeadhnie  des  Sciences,  and  executed 
his  Eluijen.  It  is  also  perhaps  worth  mentioning, 
that  at  the  age  of  92  ho  still  wrote  madrigals ! 
His  QCurrcs  Completes  have  been  repubhshed  several 
times.  The  most  complete  edition  is  that  published 
at  Paris  (3  vols.  1818). 

FONTENOY,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
\-ince  of  Haiuaut,  5  miles  south-west  of  Tournay, 


with  a  population  of  about  800,  deserves  mention 
as  the  scene  of  the  b.attle  of  Fontenoy,  one  of  the 
most  famous  contests  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
Succession.  The  battle  w.as  fought  11th  May  1745, 
the  opposing  forces  being  the  French,  60,000  strong, 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  the  allies  (English,  Dutch, 
and  Austrians),  in  nearly  equal  force,  under  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland.  After  a  hard-fought  fight, 
the  allies  were  forced  to  retreat.  The  loss  on  both 
sides  was  stated  at  about  7000  men. 

FONTEVRAULT  (Pons  Ehraldi),  a  smaU  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Maiue-et-Loire, 
8  miles  south-east  of  Saumur,  with  a  popidation 
of  about  830,  owes  its  origin  to  a  wealthy  and 
celebrated  abbey,  now  converted  into  a  prison  for 
eleven  departments.  This  .abljey  was  founded  liy 
Robert  d'Arhrisscl,  a  Breton  monk,  in  1099,  as 
the  residence  of  a  monastic  society  composed  of 
penitents  of  both  sexes.  This  society  took  the 
name  of  the  Order  of  Fontevrmdt.  It  followed 
the  austere  nUe  of  Benedict,  but  had  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  the  monks  were  nded  by  an  abbess, 
and  not  Ijy  an  abbot.  The  order  of  F.  soon  spread 
through  France,  and  into  Spain,  and  in  the  former 
country  especially  acquii-cd  great  riches.  The 
abbesses  of  F.  belonged,  for  the  most  part,  to 
illustrious  families,  and  were  subject  only  to  the 
popes.  At  a  later  period,  the  strictness  of  the 
monastic  discipline  was  relaxed  in  favour  of  the 
nuns,  whence,  however,  in  the  14th  c.,  sprun"  great 
disorders.  Gradually,  the  order  of  F.  fell  into 
disrespect,  but  even  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution  it  possessed  57  i)riories  in  France,  which, 
however,  were  then  abohshed  along  with  the  other 
monasteries.  The  town  is  of  pecuUar  interest  to 
Englishmen,   from   the    fact   th.at    it   contains   the 

cemetery  of  several  of  the  Plantagcnet  kings  of 
England   and   of  the   comits  of  Anjou.     Of  these, 

however,  only  the  tombs 

of  Henry  II.,  of  his  queen 

Eleanor  of    Guienne,   of 

Cceiu'-de-Lion,     and     of 

Isabelle,    the    queeu    of 

John,  have  been  pre- 
served. The  old  monastic 

buildings  and  court- 
yards,    surrounded     by 

walls,  and  covering  from 

forty  to  fifty  acres,  now 

form   one   of  the   larger 

prisons     of     France,     in 

which   about   2000   cou- 

\icts  of  both  sexes   are 

confined,    and    kept    at 

industrial      occupations. 

See  an  account   of   this 

prison      in      C/iawhers's 

EdUihurrjh    Jounudj    2d 

series,  vol.  i.  p.  104. 

FONTINA'LIS.   a 

genus  of  Mosses,  aUied 
to  Jlypnum,  but  having 
the  fruit  in  the  bos-om 
of  the  leaves,  almost 
without  stalk.  Several 
species  are  British  ;  one 
of  which,  the  Greater  Greater  Vratcr-lloss  {Fonti- 
Water-moss     (F.     anli-  naVus  antipyretica) : 

jryretiea),    growing   upon  a,   spore-caso    or   capsule,    di- 
rocks  and  roots  of  trees      ''f^l"}  °t   calyptra  and   U<i, 
11  1  1         ."^liewinEr    the    peristome :    o, 

in    brooks     and     ponds,      gpore-c.se,  witu  its  involucre 
13    remarkable    for    the      of  leaf-like  scales, 
difficidty  with  wliich  it 

burns,  even  when  completely  dried ;  on  which 
account  it  is  used  in  some  parts  of  the  north  of 


FOOD  Am)  DRINK. 


Eurtipe  for  lining  chimneys,  to  protect  the  adjacent 
woo<i-«Mrk  from  tire.  Its  shoots  are  a  foot  or 
more  in  length,  and  branched  ;  they  float  in  the 
»at<r.  The" fruit  is  on  the  sides  oi  the  steins  or 
branches. 

FDOD  AND  DRIXK.  ^Uthoiigh  nearly  sixty 
elcmentiry  substances  arc  known  to  chemists,  only 
a  com|«iratively  small  number  of  these  take  jiart  in 
the  formation  of  man  and  other  animals ;  and  it  is 
only  this  small  niunber  of  constituents  which  are 
essential  elements  of  our  food.  These  elements  are 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  and  fluorine. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  are 
suiiplied  to  the  system  by  the  albuminous  group  of 
alimentary  principles  (see  Diet)— \-iz.,  albumen, 
librine,  and  casciue,  wliich  occur  both  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  the  gluten  contained 
in  vegetables.  Aiiimal  tlesh,  eggs,  imlk,  corn,  and 
many  other  vegetable  products,  contain  one  or  more 
of  these  principles.  The  gelatinous  group  also  intro- 
duces the  same  elements  into  the  system,  when 
such  substances  as  jireparations  of  isinglass,  calves' 
feet,  &c.,  are  taken  as  food.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
o-xygen  are  abundantly  introduced  into  the  system 
in  the  form  of  sugar,  starch  (which  occius  in  large 
quantity  in  the  cereal  grains,  leguminous  seeds, 
root.s,  tubers,  &c.,  used  as  food),  and  organic  acids 
(which,  as  citric,  malic,  tartaric  acid,  &c.,  occur  in 
mmierous  vegetables  employed  as  food).  Carbon 
with  a  httle  hydrogen  and  oxygen  occurs  abundantly 
in  the  oleaginous  group  of  alimentary  principles,  as, 
for  instance,  in  all  the  fat,  suet,  butter,  and  oil  that  we 
eat ;  in  the  oily  seeds,  as  nuts,  walnuts,  cocoa-nuts, 
&c. ;  and  in  fatty  foods,  as  hver,  brain,  &c.  Phos- 
phorus is  suppUed  to  us  by  the  tlesh,  blood,  and 
bones  used  as  food  (the  flesh  of  fishes  is  especially 
rich  in  phosphoric  matter),  and  iu  the  form  of 
various  jihosphates,  it  is  a  constituent  of  many  of 
the  vegetables  used  as  food.  The  system  derives  its 
sidphur  from  the  fibrine  of  flesh,  the  albumen  of 
eggs,  and  the  caseine  of  milk,  from  the  vegetable 
fibrine  of  corn,  &c.,  from  the  vegetable  albmnen  of 
turnips,  cauliflowers,  aspar.agiis,  &c.,  and  from  the 
vegetable  caseine  of  pease  and  beans.  Most  of  the 
culinary  vegetables  contain  it,  especially  the  Criici- 
ferce.  Chlorine  and  sodium,  iu  the  form  of  chloride 
of  sodium,  are  more  or  less  abundantly  contained  in 
all  varieties  of  animal  food,  and  are  taken  separately 
as  common  salt.  Potassium  is  a  constituent  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  food  :  it  occurs  in  considerable 
quantity  in  milk,  and  iu  the  juice  that  permeates 
animal  flesh ;  and  most  inland  plants  contain  it.  We 
derive  the  calcium  of  our  system  from  flesh,  bones, 
eggs,  milk,  &c.  (all  of  which  contain  salts  of  lime) ; 
most  vegetables  also  contain  lime-salts;  and  another 
source  of  our  calcium  is  common  water,  which 
usually  contains  both  bicarbonate  and  sulph.ate  of 
lime.  Magnesium  in  sm:ill  quantity  is  generally 
found  in  those  foods  that  contain  calcium.  Iron  is 
a  eonstitueut  of  the  blood  foimd  in  meat ;  and  it 
occurs  iu  smaller  quantity  in  milk,  in  the  yoke  of 
egg,  and  in  traces  iu  most  vegetable  foods.  Fluorine 
occurs  in  minute  quantity  in  the  bones  and  teeth. 
This  small  quantity  is  accounted  for  by  the  traces 
of  fluorine  found  by  Dr  George  Wilson  in  millv, 
blood,  &c. 

These  simple  bodies  are  not,  however,  capable  of 
being  assimilated  and  converted  into  tissue ;  they 
must  be  jireWously  combined,  and  this  combination 
is  primarily  conducted  by  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  number  of  combined  elements  varies :  thus 
water  contains  only  two ;  sugar,  st.arch,  fat,  and  many 
organic  acids,  contain  three  ;  caseine  contains  five  ; 
and  tibrine  and  albumen  contain  six. 

406 


It  woulil  be  impossible,  and  it  is  quite  unnecessary, 
to  mention  in  this  article  the  different  animals  and 
plants  that  are  used  as  food  by  different  nations. 
The  subject  is,  however,  an  interesting  one,  and 
those  who  TiHsh  to  study  it  may  be  referred  to 
Moleschott's  Plti/.iluhgie  der  Nalirumj/imiUel,  1850, 
and  cs)>ecially  to  Iteich's  NaJirumjs-  und  GenuumU- 
ItU-utule  (ISGO — ISGl),  which  is  the  most  learned 
and  elaborate  work  on  the  subject  in  any  language. 

Dkinks  are  merely  liquid  foods.  They  all  pertain 
to  the  aqueous  group  noticed  in  the  article  Diet. 
They  are  an'.anged  by  Pereira  iu  his  Treatise  on  Food 
and  Diet  m  the  six  following  orders : 

1.  Mucikaginous,  farinaceous,  or  saccharine  drinks 
— as  toast-water,  barley-water,  gruel,  &c.  They 
are  very  slightly  nutritive,  and  differ  but  little 
from  common  water. 

2.  Aromatic  or  astringent  drinks — as  tea,  coffee, 
chocolate,  and  cocoa.  The  action  of  the  iirst 
two  is  noticed  in  the  article  Diet.  The  last  two 
drinks  contain  a,  considerable  quantity  of  oil  and 
starch. 

3.  Acidulous  drinks — as  lemonade,  ginger-beer, 
raspberry-\-inegar  water,  &c.  They  allay  thirst  both 
by  the  acid  wliich  they  contain  and  the  water,  and 
form  cooling  antiscorbutic  drinks. 

4.  Drinks  containing  gelatine  and  osmazomc — the 
broths  and  soups.  These,  if  jiroperly  prepared, 
should  contain  all  the  soluble  constituents  of  their 
ingredients. 

5.  Emulsive  or  nulky  drinks — as  animal  milk,  the 
milk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  almond  milk,  a  drink 
prepared  from  sweet  almonds.  Animal  mUk  con- 
tains all  the  essential  ingredients  of  food;  the 
others  are  shghtly  nutritive. 

6.  Alcoholic  and  other  intoxicating  drinks — 
including  malt  liquor  or  beer  in  its  various  forms 
of  ale,  stout,  and  porter ;  wines ;  spirits  in  their 
various  foiTus  of  brandy,  rum,  gin,  whisky,  &e. 

'  Considered  dietetically,'  says  Pereira, '  beer  pos- 
sesses a  threefold  property  :  it  quenches  thirst ;  it 
stimulates,  cheers,  and,  if  taken  in  sufficient  quantity, 
intoxicates ;  and  lastly,  it  nourishes  or  strengthens. 
The  power  of  appeasing  thii-st  depends  on  the 
aqueous  ingredient  which  it  contains,  assisted  some- 
what by  its  acidulous  constituents  (carbonic  and 
acetic  acid) ;  its  stimulating,  cheering,  or  intoxicat- 
ing power  is  derived  either  wholly  or  principally 
from  the  alcohol  which  it  contains  (from  2  to  3  per 
cent.) ;  lastly,  its  nutritive  or  strengthening  quality 
is  derived  from  the  sugar,  dextrine,  and  similar 
substances  contained  in  it ;  moreover,  the  bitter 
principle  of  hops  confers  on  beer  tonic  properties. 
From  these  combined  qualities,  beerjiroves  a  refresh- 
ing and  salubrious  drink  (if  taken  in  modera- 
tion), and  an  agreeable  and  valualile  stimulus  and 
support  to  those  who  have  to  imdergo  much  bodily 
fatigue.' 

Wine  is  oitr  most  valuable  restorative  when  the 
powers  of  the  body  and  mind  have  been  overtaxed ; 
but  as  the  most  jierfect  health  is  compatible  with 
total  abstinence  from  it,  no  possible  benefit  can 
accrue  to  a  healthy  i>ersoii  from  commencing  its 
use.  The  uses  of  wine  as  a  tonic  during  conv.-vles- 
cence  after  lingering  diseases,  and  of  either  wine  or 
spirits  in  some  acute  disetises  (fevers,  &c.),  are  too 
well  known  to  require  notice. 

The  action  of  spirituous  drinks  has  been  noticed 
in  the  article  Diet,  and  will  be  further  discussed 
in  the  article  Temperance. 

We  shall  conclude  this  part  of  the  subject  with 
a  word  or  two  on  the  condiments  or  seasoning 
agents  which  are  taken  mth  foods  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  their  flavour.  Excluding  salt,  which 
must  be  considered  as  a  saline  alimentary  principle, 
the   most   common   condiments,   such   as   mustard, 


FOOD  AND  DRIXK. 


capsicum  (Cayenne  pepper),  pepper,  the  various 
spices,  &c.,  owe  their  action  to  the  presence  of  a 
volatile  oil.  Sauces  are  usually  fluid  mixtures  of 
these  condiments  with  alimentary  substances.  In 
a  healthy  state,  condiments  and  sauces  afford  little 
or  no  nutrition ;  and  although  for  a  time  they  may 
stimulate  a  debilitated  stomach  to  increased  action, 
their  continual  use  never  fails  to  induce  a  subse- 
quent increased  weakness  of  that  organ.  Salt  and 
vinegar  are  the  only  exceptions.  AVhcn  used  in 
moderation,  they  assist  in  digestion;  vinegar,  by 
rendering  muscular  fibre  more  fluid;  and  both 
together,  Iiy  jiroducing,  as  Dr  Beaumont  believes, 
a  fluid  having  some  analogy  to  the  gastric  juice 
(Experiment  and  Observations  on  Ike  Oastric  Juice 
and  tU  Physiology  of  Digestion,  p.  40,  Edin.  1838). 

The  cookery  of  foods,  although  partially  noticed 
in  the  articles  Boilixg,  Broillsg,  Cookery,  Diet, 
&c.,  requires  some  general  consideration  in  the 
present  place. 

All  foods  possessing  an  organised  structure,  as 
animal  flesh  and  amylaceous  substances,  require  to 
be  cooked  before  being  eaten,  the  only  exceptions 
being  the  oyster  and  some  ripe  fruits.  The  processes 
of  salting,  pickling,  and  smoking  harden  the  animal 
textures,  and,  as  we  shall  presently  .see  (at  aU  events 
in  the  case  of  salting),  induce  chemical  changes 
■which  render  the  meat  less  nutritious. 

The  ordinary  operations  of  cookery  are  boiling, 
roasting,  broiling,  baking,  and  frying. 

In  the  case  of  vegetables,  boiling  effects  the 
solution  of  gummy  and  saccharine  matters,  the 
rupture  and  partial  solution  of  starch  grains,  the 
coagidation  of  alljuminous  liquids,  and  the  more  or 
less  complete  exjiulsion  of  volatile  oil.  In  the  boiling 
of  flesh,  there  takes  place  a  more  or  less  perfect 
separation  of  the  soluble  from  the  insoluble  con- 
stituents, according  to  the  duration  of  the  boiling, 
the  amount  of  water  employed,  and  its  temperature 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operation.  K  we 
■wish  the  boiled  meat  to  contain  the  largest  amount 
of  nourishing  matter,  and  disregard  the  soup  or 
broth  that  is  simultaneously  formed,  we  introduce 
it  into  the  boiler  when  the  water  is  in  a  state  of 
brisk  ebullition.  We  keep  up  this  boiling  for  a  few 
minutes,  in  order  to  coagxilate  the  albumen  near  the 
surface,  and  thus  to  convert  it  into  a  crust  or  sheU, 
which  equally  prevents  the  entrance  of  water  into 
the  interior,  and  the  escape  of  the  juice  and  soluble 
constituents  of  the  flesh  into  the  water.  If  cold 
water  is  then  added,  so  as  to  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture to  about  1G0°,  and  this  temperature  is  kept  up 
for  the  necessary  time — for  which,  in  reference  to 
the  weight  of  the  meat,  see  the  article  Boilin'g — 
all  the  conditions  are,  according  to  Licbig,  united 
which  give  to  the  flesh  the  quality  best  adapted  to 
its  use  as  food. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  ■\vish  to  obtain  good 
soup  from  moat,  we  shoidd  place  it  in  cold  water, 
and  bring  this  very  gradually  to  the  boiling-point. 
The  interchange  between  the  juices  of  the  flesh  and 
the  external  water,  which  was  prevented  by  the 
former  process,  here  takes  place  ■without  hindrance. 
'  The  soluble  and  sapid  constituents  of  the  flesh  are 
dissolved  in  the  w.iter,  and  the  water  penetrates 
into  the  interior  of  the  mass,  which  it  extracts  more 
or  less  completely.  The  flesh  loses,  while  the  soup 
gains,  in  sapid  matters;  and  by  the  separation  of 
albumen,  which  is  commonly  removed  by  skimming, 
as  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  when 
coagidated,  the  meat  loses  its  tenderness,  and 
becomes  tough  and  hard;  and  if  eaten  without 
the  soup,  it  not  only  loses  much  of  its  nutritive 
properties,  but  also  of  its  digestibility.' — Liebig's 
Researches  on  the  Chemistry  of  J'ood,  p.  128. 
Roasting  is  applied  much  more  to  meat  than 


to  vegetables.  Both  in  roasting  and  broiling  meat, 
the  first  application  of  heat  should  be  considerable 
and  rapid,  so  as  to  form  an  outer  coating  of  coagu- 
lated albiunen  (just  as  in  boiling),  which  retains 
the  nutritive  mattei-s  ■within  the  cooked  meat.  In 
roasted  meat,  nothing  is  removed  but  some  of  the 
superficial  fat  and  the  gra^vy,  which  is  itself  an 
article  of  food.  The  efleet  of  roasting  on  such 
vegetables  as  apples  and  potatoes  is  to  render  them 
more  nutritive  and  digestible  than  they  would  be 
in  the  raw  state,  by  splitting  their  starch  grains, 
and  rendering  them  more  soluble. 

Baking  (q.  v.)  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  roast- 
ing, but  meat  thus  cooked  is  less  wholesome,  in 
consequence  of  its  being  more  impregnated  with 
empyrcumatic  oil. 

Frj-ing  is  the  most  objectionable  of  all  kinds  of 
cookerj'.  In  this  operation,  heat  is  usually  applied 
by  the  intermedium  of  boiling  fat  or  oil.  Various 
products  of  the  decomposition  of  the  fat  are  set 
free,  which  are  very  obno.xious  to  the  stomachs  of 
invalids. 

Liebig  has  shewn  that  salted  meat  is,  in  so  far  as 
nutrition  is  concerned,  in  much  the  same  state  as 
meat  from  which  good  soup  has  been  made.  After 
flesh  has  been  rubbed  and  sprinkled  with  dry  salt, 
a  brine  is  formed  amounting  in  bulk  to  one-third  of 
the  fluid  contained  in  the  raw  flesh.  This  brine  is 
found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  albumen, 
soluble  phosphates,  lactic  acid,  potash,  creatine,  and 
creatinine — substances  which  are  essential  to  the 
constitution  of  the  flesh,  which  therefore  loses  in 
nutritive  value  in  proportion  to  their  abstraction. 

The  preservation  of  food  requires  some  notice. 
Three  methods — viz.,  preservation  by  cold,  preser- 
vation by  the  exclusion  of  air,  and  preservation  by 
salting — are  noticed  in  the  article  Antiseptics.  The 
first  is  only  of  comparatively  limited  application : 
the  second,  known  as  Appert's  method,  has  been 
successfully  used  in  the  English  navy  for  many 
years ;  the  chief  objection  to  it  is  its  expense  :  the 
third  method  injures,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the 
character  of  the  meat,  and  renders  it  both  deficient 
in  nutritive  materials,  and  actually  injurious  if  it 
forms  a  principal  and  continuous  article  of  diet. 
To  these  methods  we  must  add  preservation  by 
smoking,  preservation  ■with  sugar,  and  ■with  vinegar, 
and  preservation  by  drying.  It  is  well  known 
that  meat  suspended  in  smoke  loses  its  tendency 
to  putrefy,  the  substance  from  which  the  smoke 
derives  its  antisej)tic  property  being  creasote,  or 
some  allied  body.  Smoked  meat  acquires  a  pecuhar 
taste,  a  dark  colour,  and  a  somewhat  hard  consist- 
ence ;  but  it  retains  all  its  nutritive  constituents, 
and  is  thus  preferable  to  salted  meat.  Sugar  and 
■vinegar  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  preservation  of 
vegetable  products.  The  most  important  mode  of 
preserving  articles  of  food,  whether  animal  or  vege- 
table, is  by  direct  diying.  Heat  is  cut  up  into 
small  slices  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
vegetables  into  smaller  pieces ;  they  are  steamed 
at  a  high  temjier-ature,  so  as  to  coagulate  the 
albumen  ;  and  they  are  then  completely  desiccated 
by  exposure  to  a  current  of  very  hot  tb-y  air.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  process,  the  shces  of  meat  are 
quite  hard,  and  present  a  shrivelled  appearance. 
Dr  Marcet  (On  the  Composition  of  Food,  185G, 
p.  174)  speaks  in  high  terms  of  this  method,  which 
he  has  himself  seen  in  operation  in  Paris.  *  Food 
thus  preserved,'  he  says,  '  whether  it  be  animal 
or  vegetable,  has  the  advantage  (1)  of  remaining 
in  a  fresh  condition,  though  freely  exposed  to  the  . 
atmosphere  for  a  great  number  of  years,  and  (2) 
of  being  reduced  to  one-fifth  of  its  original  bulk 
from  its  having  lost  all  its  water.'  He  adds,  that 
the  preserved  vegetables  rcsmne  their  bulk  when 

407 


FOOL— FOOLS,  FEAST  OF. 


boilitl  ill  water,  and  that  they  so  completely  retain 
their  aroma,  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  soups  maile  with  them,  and  others  pioiiared 
with  fresh  vei;etal)los. 

The  adulteration  of  foiul  of  almost  every  kind  is 
imfortuiiately  so  common  a  custom,  that  our  limited 
space  will  merely  allow  of  our  noticing  a  few  of  the 
leading  jwints  in  regard  to  it. 

)Vlieat_lioiir  is  not  uiifrequently  adulterated  with 
one  or  more  of  the  following  substances — tlour  of 
beans,  Indian  corn,  rj-c,  or  rice,  ]Kitato-st.irch,  alum, 
chalk,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  bone-dust,  pl.ister  of 
r.aris,  sand,  clay,  &c.  The  organic  matters— the 
inferior  flours  .ind  starch — do  little  or  no  serious 
harm  ;  most  of  the  inorganic  mattei-s  aro  positively 
injurious,  and  of  these,  alum  (one  of  the  commonest 
adulterations)  is  the  woi-st.  The  beneficial  action  of 
wheat-flour  on  the  system  is  in  part  due  to  the  large 
quantity  of  soluble  phosphates  which  it  contains. 
NNTicu  alum  is  added,  these  phosj.hatcs  are  decom- 
posed in  the  process  of  maicing  bread,  the  jihosphoric 
acid  of  the  phosphates  uniting  mth  the  ahuuina  of 
the  alum,  and  forming  an  insoluble  compound ;  the 
beneficial  effect  of  the  soluble  i)hosijhates  is  thus 
lost 

Ai'roic-root  is  adulterated  with  potato-flour,  sago, 
starch,  &e.  Out  of  50  samples  examined  by  Dr 
H.-issall,  22  were  adulterated,  and  in  10  of  the 
samj)les  there  was  scarcely  a  particle  of  the  genuine 
article. 

Sugar  of  the  inferior  kinds  is  occasionally  adulter- 
ated with  flour,  gum,  starch-sugar,  &c.  It  is  oftener, 
however,  impure  than  iutentionally  adulterated. 

Pepper  is  adidterated  with  linseed,  mustard-seed, 
wheat-flour,  &c. 

Caijenne  Pepper  is  adiUter.ated  with  red  lead, 
vermihon,  red  ochre,  brick-dust,  common  salt, 
turmeric,  &c. 

Jliislard  is  largely  adulterated  with  ordinary  and 
pea  floui',  linseed  meal,  and  turmeric  ;  and  a  little 
chromate  of  lead  is  sometimes  added  to  improve 
the  colour.  Dr  Hassall  submitted  42  specimens 
of  mustard  to  examination ;  the  whole  of  them 
contained  wheat-flour  and  turmeric. 

Ginger  is  frequently  adulterated.  Out  of  21 
samples,  Dr  Hassall  found  that  15  contained  various 
kinds  of  flour,  ground  rice,  Cayenne  pepper,  mustard 
husks,  and  turmeric,  which  in  most  cases  formed 
most  of  the  so-called  ginger. 

Out  of  26  samples  of  mixed  spices,  16  were  foimd 
by  Dr  Hassall  to  contain  sago-meal,  gi'ound  rice, 
wheat-flour,  &c. 

Curry  powder  (q.  v.)  w.os  found  by  Dr  Hassall  to 
be  very  commonly  adulterated,  oidy  7  specimens 
out  of  26  being  genuine.  In  8  of  the  samples 
red  lead  was  detected.  The  frequent  use  of  curries 
may  thus  often  give  rise  to  the  disease  known  as 
lead-palsy. 

The  adulterations  of  tea,  both  by  the  Chinese 
and  in  this  country,  are  too  nimierous  for  us  to 
mention.  See  Hassall's  Adulterations  Detected,  pp. 
65—104. 

Coffee,  in  its  powdered  form,  is  not  merely  Largely 
adidterated  with  chicory,  but  additionally  irith 
roasted  grain,  roots,  acorns,  saw-dust,  exhausted  tan 
(termed  Croats),  cofKna  (the  seeds  of  a  Turkish 
plant),  burnt  sugar,  and  (worst  of  all)  b.akcd  horses' 
and  bullocks'  liver.  In  the  Quarterly  Journal  of 
the  Chemical  Society  for  April  1S56,  there  is  an 
excellent  Keport  by  Jlcssrs  Gr.aham,  Stenhouse, 
and  Campbell  on  the  mode  of  detecting  vegetable 
substances  mixed  irith  coffee.  Even  whole  roasted 
coffee  is  not  safe  from  adulteration,  a  patent  having 
been  actually  taken  out  to  moidd  chicory  into  the 
form  of  coll'ee-bcrriea. 

Cocoa,  and  Chocolate  are   adulterated  with  flour, 
408  ' 


potato-starch,  sugar,  clarified  mutton-suet,  and 
various  mineral  substances,  such  as  chalk,  plaster  of 
I'aris,  red  earth,  red  ochre,  and  Vcuetial  cjirtli, 
the  last  three  being  use<l  as  colouring  matters. 

The  adulterations  of  beer,  wine,  and  spirits  arc 
noticed  in  the  articles  devoted  to  those  subjects. 

Vinegar  is  adulterated  with  water,  sulphuric  acid, 
burnt  sugar,  and  sometimes  with  chillies,  grains  of 
paradise,  and  pyroligncous  acid.  Tlie  English  law 
allows  one  part  of  sul])huric  acid  to  1000  of  vinegar, 
with  the  view  of  j)reserving  it  from  deeomposition, 
but  Dr  Hassall  found  that  in  many  cases  three  or 
four  times  the  legal  amount  w.os  present.  It  appears 
from  evidence  taken  before  the  p.arliamenbiry  com- 
mittee on  adulterations,  that  arsenic  and  corrosive 
sublimate  are  no  uncommon  ingredients  in  vinegar. 
In  connection  with  vinegar  we  may  place  PicJcks. 
Dr  Hassall  analysed  10  different  pickles  for  copper, 
and  discovered  that  poisonous  metal  more  or  less 
abundantly  in  all  of  them ;  '  in  three,  in  a  very 
considerable  quantity;  in  one,  in  highly  deleterious 
amount;  and  in  two,  in  poisonous  amount.'  Pro- 
served  fruits  and  vegetables  (especially  gooseberries, 
rhubarb,  gieeugages,  and  olives)  are  often  also  con- 
taminated largely  with  cojiper.  In  these  cases,  the 
copper,  if  in  considerable  quantity,  may  be  easily 
detected  by  placing  a  piece  of  ])olished  iron  or  steel 
in  the  suspected  liquid  for  24  hours,  to  which  we 
pre\"iously  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  The 
copper  will  be  deposited  on  the  iron.  Or  ammonia 
may  be  added  to  tlie  fluid  in  which  the  pickles  or 
fruit  were  h'ing,  when,  if  copper  is  present,  a  blue 
tint  is  developed.  W'e  should  be  suspicious  of  all 
pickles,  olives,  preserved  gooseberries,  &c.,  with  a 
particularly  bright  green  tint. 

Milk  is  usmuly  believed  to  be  liable  to  numer- 
ous adidterations,  such  as  flour,  chalk,  mashed 
brains,  iS:c.  It  appears,  however,  from  Dr  Hassall's 
researches  on  London  milk,  that,  as  .a  general  rule, 
water  is  the  only  adulteration.  The  results  of  the 
examinations  of  26  samples  were,  that  12  were 
genuine,  and  that  14  were  adulterated,  the  adul- 
teration consisting  principally  in  the  .addition  of 
water,  the  percentages  of  which  varied  from  10  to  50 
per  cent.,  or  one-half  water.  In  the  article  Milk 
we  shall  describe  the  means  of  testing  the  purity  of 
this  fluid. 

If  space  permitted,  we  might  extend  the  list  of 
alimentary  substances  liable  to  adulteration  to  a 
much  greater  length.  In  conclusion,  we  may 
remark,  that,  as  a  general  ride,  adulter.ations  of 
an  organic  n.ature,  such  as  floui-s  ami  starches  of 
various  kinds,  are  best  detected  by  the  microscope  ; 
whfle  chemical  analysis  is  usually  necessary  for  the 
detection  of  mineral  adulterations.  Dr  Hassall's 
Adulterations  Detected  is  a  perfect  cyclopa;dia  on 
this  subject. 

FOOL.     See  Cocet-fool. 

FOOLS,  Feast  of.  The  Romans  kept  the 
festival  of  Saturn,  in  December,  as  a  time  of  general 
licence  and  revelry.  During  the  brief  season  of  the 
Saturnalia  (q.  v.),  the  slave  reclined  ou  his  master's 
seat  at  table,  the  master  waited  upon  his  slave,  and 
society,  for  the  moment,  seemed  to  be  turned  upsiile 
down.  The  grotesque  m.asquerade  survived  the 
pagan  creed  which  gave  it  birth,  and  not  only  kept 
its  place  among  the  Christians,  but,  in  the  face  of 
solemn  anathem.as  of  fathers  and  councils,  found  its 
w.ay  into  the  ceremonial  of  the  Christian  Chureli. 
It  was  called,  at  different  times  and  places,  by 
many  difi'erent  names,  but  has  latterly  come  to  be 
best  known  as  the  Feast  of  Fools  (festu77i  Fatuorum, 
Festum  Slullorum). 

The  circumstances  of  the  observance  were  almost 
infiuitely  varied,  but  it  wjis  everywhere  marked  by 


FOOL'S  PARSLEY— FOOT. 


the  same  spirit  of  broad,  boisterous  drollery,  and 
coarse  but  not  ill-natured  caricature.  The  donkey 
played  such  a  frequent  ])art  in  the  pageant  that  it 
was  often  called  the  Feast  of  Asses  (Fi.'itum  Asino- 
rum).  In  some  places,  the  ass  of  Balaam  was  figured; 
in  others,  the  ass  which  stood  beside  the  manger 
in  which  the  infant  Saviour  was  laid;  elsewhere,  the 
ass  on  which  tlie  Virgin  and  Child  fled  to  Egj^it, 
or  the  ass  on  which  Jesus  rode  into  Jerusalem.  In 
every  instance,  there  was  more  or  less  attempt  at 
dramatic  representation,  the  theatre  being  generally 
the  chief  church  of  the  jilace,  and  the  words  and 
action  of  the  drama  being  often  ordered  by  its  book 
of  ceremonies.  Several  rituals  of  this  sort  are  still 
(ireservciL  That  which  was  in  use  at  Beauvais,  in 
France,  has  a  nibric  ordering  the  priest  when  he 
dismisses  the  congregation  to  bray  three  times,  and 
ordering  the  peojile  to  bray  three  times  in  answer. 
As  tlie  ass  was  led  towards  tlie  alt.ir,  he  was  greeted 
with  a  hymn  of  nine  stanzas,  of  which  the  first  runs 
thus : 

Orientis  partibus, 
Adventavit  .'Vsinus, 
Pulcher  et  forti.ssira«s, 
Sarcinis  aptissimus. 
He,  sire  Aite,  he  I 

[From  the  regions  of  the  East — 
Blessings  on  the  bonny  beast ! — 
Came  the  Donkey,  stout  and  strong, 
"With  our  packs  to  pace  along. 
Bray,  Sir  Donkcti,  Braii!] 

Where  the  ass  did  not  come  upon  the  stage,  the 
chief  point  of  the  farce  lay  in  the  election  of  a  mock 
poiie,  patriarch,  cardinal,  arciibishop,  bishop,  or  j 
abbot.  These  mimic  dignitaries  took  such  titles  as 
'  Po])e  of  Fools,'  '  Archbishop  of  Dolts,'  '  Cardinal  t 
of  Numskulls,'  '  Boy  Bishop,'  '  Patriarch  of  Sots,' 
'  Abbot  of  Unreason,'  and  the  like.  On  the  day  of 
their  election,  they  often  took  possession  of  the 
churches,  and  even  occasionally  travestied  the  per- 
formance of  the  church's  highest  office,  the  mass, 
in  the  church's  holiest  jilace,  the  altar.  In  some 
convents,  the  nuns  disguised  themselves  in  men's 
clothes,  chanted  mock  services,  and  elected  a  '  little 
abbess,'  who  for  that  day  took  the  place  of  the  real 
abbess. 

The   Feast  of   Fools  maintained  itself  in   many 
jilaces  till  the  Eefomiation  in  the  16th  century.    At 
Antil)es,  in  the  south  of  France,  it  survived  till  the 
year  1044,  when  we  have  it  described  by  an  eye- 
■ivitness   in   a   letter  to   the   philosopher   Gassendi.  , 
The  scene  was,  as  usual,  a  chui-ch  ;  and  the  actors, ' 
dressing  themselves  in  jiriests'  robes  turned  inside 
out,  read  prayers  from  books  turned  upside  down,  i 
through    spectacles    of    orange-peel,    using    coal    or  \ 
flour   for  incense,   amid  a  babblement  of    confused  i 
cries,   and    the    mimic    bello  wings    of    cattle,   and 
grunting  of  pigs. 

The  history  of  the  Feast  of  Fools  has  been  treated 
in  several  works  ;   the  best  is   the  Memoire  pour 
scrvir  d  Vllistoire  de  la  Fete  dcs  Foils,  by  Du  Tilhot,  , 
jiublished  at  Lausanne  in  1741 ;  reprinted  at  Paris  in  ' 
1751,  and  again  in   the  Utriieil  d''.i    CVrcmonits  tt 
Coiitume.1  licUfiieuM's  de  Tons  fc.»  Peuples,  tome  viii.  ' 
(edit.  Pnidhomme,  1S09.)  I 

FOOL'S  PARSLEY  [Aetmisa  Ci/napium),  an' 
mnbcUiferous  plant,  very  common  as  a  weed  in 
gardens  and  fields  in  Britain,  and  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  somewhat  resembling  jiarsley  in  its  foliage 
and  general  appearance,  so  that  serious  accidents  ■ 
have  occurred  from  its  being  mistaken  for  that  herb; 
it  being  a  poisonous  plant,  somewhat  resembling 
hemlock  in  its  properties.  With  the  curled  variety 
of  Jiarsley  it  cannot  easily  lie  confounded,  w-hich  is 
even  on  other  accounts  to  be  preferred ;  and  when 


in  flower  it  is  reailily  known  from  every  other  plant 
in    British  gardens  by  its  umbels   wanting  general 


] ,  Fool's  Parsley,  general  umbel ;  1,  Common  Paiiley, 

leaf  and  general  umbel : 

a,  partial  umbel  of  fool's  parsley  ;  6,  fruit  of  common  parsley  ; 

c,  flower  of  common  parsley. 

involucres,  and   haWng   partial   involucres  of  three 
slender  leaves  hanging  down  on  one  side. 

FOOT  is  the  most  common  unit  of  lineal  measure 
all  over  the  W'orld.  It  has  been  evidently  taken 
originally  from  the  length  of  the  human  foot,  and  as 
that  varies  in  length,  so  does  the  measure;  each 
country,  and  at  one  time  each  town,  ha-\-ing  a  foot  of 
its  own.  The  three  foot-measures  th.at  occur  most 
frequently  are  the  Paris  foot,  or  pied  de  roi,  the 
(German)  Rhenish  foot,  and  the  English.  Comiiared 
with  the  French  metre  (=3-28090  feet  Eng.),  they 
stand  thus  : 

Metre.  Inches  Etifilisli. 


Knslisli  foot  =  0-30479 
rari.i  .,  =  03i4S4 
Wienish  n        =     0-3I3S5 


Pnris   foot     =       127S913 
Uhenlsh  tr      =       rj-33(jj2 


In  round  numbers,  46  French  feet  =  49  English 
feet,  34  llhen.  or  (ierm.  feet  =  35  English,  and  57 
French  feet  =  59  Rhen.  The  Russian  foot  is  equal 
to  the  English.  Almost  every  German  state  has  a 
different  foot.  The  Rhenish  foot  is  that  used  in 
Pnissia.  The  longest  foot  occurring  is  the  old 
Turin  foot  =  20  inches  English.  Many  local  feet  are 
only  about  10  inches.  The  foot  has  almost  uniforndy 
been  divided  into  12  inches  ;  the  inch  into  12  lines, 
often  into  tenths.  The  French  pied  iisnel  is  the 
third  part  of  the  mfetre.     See  Y^utD,  Metre. 

FOOT,  in  Verse.     See  Metre,  Verse. 

I'OOT,  Structxtke  of  the.  In  describing  the 
structure  of  the  foot,  it  is  expedient  to  com- 
mence with  a  brief  notice  of  the  bones  which 
occur  in  it.  In  man,  these  are  26  in  nmnbcr, 
and  are  arranged  in  three  natural  groups — \'iz., 
the  tarsal  bones,  w"liieh  are  the  hindermost ;  the 
metatarsal  bones,  which  occupy  the  middle  portion  ; 
and  the  jthalanges  of  the  toes  anteriorly.  The 
tarsal  bones,  seven  in  number,  are  short  and  thick, 
and  form  the  heel  and  the  hinder  part  of  the 
instep.  The  ujipermost  (see  fig.  1)  is  called  the 
astrwjahi.i,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  the 
dice  used  by  the  Romans.  Above,  it  is  articulated 
or  is  jointed  with  the  two  bones  of  the  leg,  the 
tihiii  and  Jihuld,  and  through  these  bones  the  whole 
weight    of    the    body    is    throwni    upon    the    two 

409 


FOOT. 


astragali.  Behind,  it  is  connected  with  and  rests 
uiwii  the  OS  ealcls,  or  heel-bone,  which  is  the  l.irgest 
li'.nc  of  the  foot.  ImmciUately  in  front  of  it,  :uul 
siiiM>ortins!  it  in  this  direction,  is  the  scap/ioid  or 
lR.at-like  bone.  In  front  of  the  scaphoid  bone  are 
the  three  cuneiform  or  wetlge  bones  ;  and  on  tlie 
outer  side  of  the  cuneiform  bones,  and  in  front  of 
the  03  calcis,  is  the  cuboid  bone,  ^\'e  see  from  the 
li  lire  that  tlie  front  row  of  tarsal  bones  is  com- 
VoseU  of  the  three  cuneiform  bones  on  the  inner  side 


The  bones,  where  they  articulate  with  one  another, 
are  covered  -n-ith  a  tolerably  thick  Layer  of  highly 
el.istic  cartilage,  and  by  this  means,  together  with 
the  very  slight  movements  of  which  each  bone  is 


Fig.  1. 
The  dorsal  surface  of  the  left  foot. 
I,  the  astragalus-,  its  upper  articular  surface;  2,  its  anterior 
extremity,  ■vvhicli  articulates  with  (4)  the  scaphoiil  hone; 
a,  the  os'  calcis,  or  heel-bone ;  4,  the  scaphoid  bone ;  5,  the 
internal  cuneiform  hone;  6,  the  middle  cuneiform  bone; 
7,  the  external  cuneiform  bone;  8,  the  cuboid  bone;  9,  the 
metatarsal  bones  of  the  first  and  second  toes;  10,  11,  tlie 
first  and  second  phalaupes  of  the  great  toe ;  12,  13,  14,  the 
brat,  second,  and  third  phalanges  of  the  second  toe. 

of  the  foot,  and  of  the  cuboid  boue  externally.  There 
arc  five  metatarsal  bones  passing  forward,  one  for 
each  toe.  Each  cuneiform  bone  is  coimected  with 
one,  and  the  cuboid  bone  with  two,  of  these  mcLi- 
t.irsal  bones.  Behind,  they  are  close  together,  but 
as  they  run  forwards,  they  diverge  slightly  from 
one  another,  and  their  anterior  encls  rest  upon  the 
prouud,  and  fonn  the  haUs  of  the  toes.  They  con- 
stitute the  forepart  of  the  instep.  The  remaining 
biiiu'S  are  those  of  the  toes,  and  are  named  the 
jihalanr/es,  each  toe  having  three  of  these  bones, 
excepting  the  great  toe,  which  has  only  two.  (A 
similar  law  holds  for  the  bones  of  the  hand,  each 
linger  having  three  phalanges,  but  the  thumb  only 
two.) 

The  instep  is  composed  of  the  seven  tarsal  and 
the  five  metatarsal  bones,  which  are  so  arranged  and 
connected  (see  fig.  2)  as  to  form  an  arch  from  the 
extremity  of  the  heel-bone  to  the  balls  of  the  toes. 
This  is  called  the  jilaiitar  arch,  from  plaiita,  the 
sole  of  the  foot.  The  astriig:diis  forms  the 
summit  or  keystone  of  this  arch,  and  transmits  the 
weiglit  which  it  receives  jiosteriorly  to  the  heel, 
aiKraiiteriorly  to  the  balls  of  the  toes.  This  figure 
exhibits  the  arrangement  of  the  fibres  and  laniiiue 
in  the  interior  of  the  bones,  and  shews  that  the 
LTcati-r  number  of  them,  in  each  bone,  follow  the 
directions  of  the  two  pillars  of  the  arch,  and  thus 
give  the  greatest  strength  to  the  bones  in  the 
directions  in  which  it  is  most  required. 
410 


Fig.  2.» 
This  figure  represents  a  section  through  the  lower  end  of  the 
tibia,  and  through  the  astragalus  1),  the  heel-bone  F,  the 
scajihoid  bone  E,  the  internal  cuneiform  bone,  and  the  bones 
of  the  great  toe ;  A  represents  the  plantar  ligament,  and  IJ 
the  interior  calcaneo-scaphoid  ligament  passing  from  the 
heel-bone,  F,  to  the  scaphoid,  E  ;  C  is  one  of  two  small  hones 
called  sesamoid  bones,  usually  found  at  the  ball  of  the 
great  toe.  The  lines  shew  the  disjiosition  of  the  lamina*  or 
jilntes  of  which  the  various  bones  are  composed.  The  clear 
line  along  the  contiguous  edges  of  the  bones  represents  the 
cartilage. 

capable,  a  degi-ee  of  elasticity  is  given  to  the  foot, 
and  consequently  to  the  step,  which  woidd  be  alto- 
gether wanting  if  the  plantar  .arch  were  composed 
of  one  single  mass  of  bone.  This  elasticity  is  far 
greater  in  the  anterior  ]iillar  of  the  arch,  which  is 
composed  of  five  comparatively  long  bones  slojiing 
gi-.adually  to  the  ground,  than  in  the  posterior  pillar, 
which  is  short,  narrow,  and  composed  of  a  single 
bone,  which  descends  almost  vertically  from  the 
ankle  to  the  grountl  Hence,  in  jumping  from  a 
height,  we  always  endeavour  to  alight  upon  the  balls 
of  the  toes,  and  thus  break  the  shock  which  we 
should  feel  if,  by  accident,  we  descended  upon  the 
heels. 

A  reference  to  any  standard  work  on  anatomy 
(see,  for  example,  Gray's  Anatomy,  pp.  178 — 184) 
will  shew  that  the  ligaments  which  unite  these 
bones  to  one  another,  and  by  which  the  movements 
of  each  bone  upon  tlie  others  are  limited,  are  verj- 
numerous.  We  shall  merely  notice  two  of  these 
ligaments,  selecting  those  whose  action  is  especially 
obvious  in  maintaining  the  shape  of  the  plantar 
arch.  One,  the  plantar  ligament  (A,  fig.  2),  of  great 
strength,  passes  from  the  under  surface  of  the 
heel-bone,  near  its  extremity,  forwards  to  the  ends 
of  the  metatarsal  bones,  according  to  Dr  Humplu-y 
(Tlie  Human  Foot  and  the  Human  Hand,  1801,  (i. 
25).  Most  anatomists  do  not  trace  it  quite  so  far 
fonvards.  'In  other  words'  (we  quote  from  Dr 
Humjiliry's  volume),  '  it  extends  between  the  lowest 
points  of  the  two  pillars  of  the  arch,  girding  or 
holding  them  in  their  places,  .and  jireventing  their 
being  thrust  asunder  when  pressure  is  made  tqion 
the  key-bone  (D),  just  ns  the  "  tic-beam"  of  a  roof 
resists  the  tendency  to  outward  yielding  of  the 
sides  when  weight  is  laid  ujion  the  summit.  The 
ligament,  however,  has  an  advantage  which  no  tie- 
beam  can  ever  jiossoss,  inasmuch  as  a  quantity  of 
muscidar  fibres  are  attached  along  the  hinder  ])art 
of  its  up)ier  surface.  These  instantly  resjiond  to  any 
demand  that  is  made  upon  them.  Vicing  thrown  into 
contraction  directly  the  foot  touches  the  ground ; 
.and  the  force  of  their  contraction  is  proportionate 

'  This,  and  several  of  the  following  diagrams,  have 
been  copied,  witli  iJr  Huuipln-y's  jjcriuission,  from  Tlit 
Human  Foot  and,  the  Hmnan  Hand. 


FOOT. 


to  the  degree  of  ]ircssiire  which  is  made  upon  the 
foot.  In  addition  to  its  office  of  binding  the  bones  in 
their  places,  the  ligament  serves  the  further  purpose 
of  protecting  from  pressure  the  tender  structiu-es 
— the  l)Iood- vessels,  nerves,  and  muscles — that  lie 
above  it  in  the  hoUow  of  the  foot  Another  very 
strong  ligament  (B,  in  the  fijiure)  passes  from  the 
under  and  fore  part  of  the  ueel-bone  (F)  to  the 
uniler  parts  of  the  scaphoid  bone  (E).  It  underlies 
and  sui)i)ort3  the  round  head  of  the  astragalus,  and 
has  to  bear  a  great  deal  of  the  weight  which  is 
transmitted  to  that  bone  from  the  leg.  It  possesses 
a  quality  which  the  ligament  just  described,  and 
most  ligaments  have  not— ^iz.,  elasticity.  This  is 
very  imjiortaut,  for  it  allows  the  head  of  the  key- 
bone  (D)  to  descend  a  little,  when  pressure  is  made 
upon  it,  and  forces  it  up  again  when  the  jircssure  is 
removed,  and  so  gives  veiy  material  ;vssistance  to 
the  other  i)rovisions  for  preventing  jars,  and  for 
giving  ease  and  elasticity  to  the  step.' — Himiphry, 
op.  c'U.,  pp.  25,  2G. 

The  spot  over  which  the  ligament  B  extends  is 
the  weakest  in  the  foot,  the  astragalus  being  there 
unsupported  by  any  bones  ;  additional  .sujiport  is, 
however,  afTorded  when  it  is  most  required  by  the 
tendon  of  a  strong  muscle,  the  posterior  tibial  (tig.  3, 
B),  which  passes  from  the  back  of  the  tibia  (the 
chief  bone  of  the  leg)  round  the  inner  ankle,  to  be 
inserted  into  the  lower  jiart  of  the  inner  surface  of 
the  scaphoid  bone.  It  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  the  astr.agalns,  being  either  insufficiently  sup- 
I'orted,  or  from  its  being  overweighted,  descends 
slightly  below  its  proper  level,  causing  a  lowering 
of  the  arch,  and  a  flattening  of  the  sole  of  the 
foot.  The  defect,  when  slight,  is  known  as  '  weak 
ankle  ; '  when  more  decided,  it  is  termed  '  flat- 
foot  ; '  and  in  extreme  cases,  the  bone  may  descend 
to  such  an  extent  as  even  to  render  the  inner  side 
of  the  foot  convex,  when  it  naturally  should  be 
concave. 

The  deformity  of  which  we  are  speaking  is  of  such 
great  practical  importance,  that  we  shall  add  a  few 
words  about  its  most  common  causes. 

There  are  two  periods  of  life  at  which  flat-foot  is 
especially  liable  to  occur:  1st,  in  infancy,  if  the 
child  be  put  upon  its  feet  before  the  bones  and 
ligaments—especially  the  latter — are  strong  enough 
to  bear  its  weight ;  and  2dly,  about  the  age  of 
fourteen — a  period  at  which  growth  is  very  quick, 
and  the  body  consequently  attains  a  considerable 
and  rapid  augmentation  of  weight.  If  young 
persons  of  this  age  are  obliged  to  be  a  great  deal 
on  their  feet,  and  perhaps  additionally  t<i  carry 
weights  (as,  for  example,  butchers'  and  bakers'  boys, 
anil  yomig  nursemaids),  the  chances  that  flat-foot 
will  occur  are  increased. 

We  now  come  to  the  movements  of  the  foot  upon 
the  leg.  We  see  here  a  striking  comljinatiou  of 
variety  of  movement  with  general  security.  This 
combination  is  efl'ected  by  the  harmonious  action 
of  three  joints,  each  of  which  acts  in  a  direction 
different  from  the  others. 

The  first  of  these  joints  is  the  ankle-joint,  which 
is  fonned  by  the  bones  of  the  leg-=-the  tibia  and 
lil>ula — above,  and  the  astragalus  below.  By  this 
joint,  the  foot  is  bent  or  straightened  on  the  leg. 
The  second  joint  is  between  the  astragalus  and  the 
heel-bone,  and  it  permits  the  foot  to  be  rolled 
inwards  or  outwards ;  while  the  third  joint  is 
between  the  first  and  second  row  of  tarsal  bones 
— namely,  between  the  astragalus  and  heel-bone 
behind,  and  the  scaphoid  and  cuboid  bones  in  front, 
and  allows  the  degree  of  cur\-ature  of  the  plantar 
arch  to  be  increased  or  diminished  within  certain 
limits.  The  following  is  the  order  in  which  the 
movements  of  these  three  joints  occur  :  the  raising 


of  the  htel  (by  the  first  joint)  is  accompanied  by  a 
rolling  of  the  foot  inwards  (by  the  second  joint), 
and  by  an  increased  flexure  of  the  plantar  arcli 
(by  the  third  joiat) ;  and  the  raising  of  the  toes  is 
accompanied  by  a  rolling  of  the  foot  OM^wards 
and  a  straiijlitenimj  of  the  sole.  See  Humphry,  op. 
cit.,  p.  42. 

The  joints,  however,  merely  allow  of  movements  ; 
they  do  not  effect  them  :  this  is  the  special  function 
of  the  muscles ;  and  each  of  the  three  movements 


This  figure  represents  some  of  the  mupclcs  and  tendons  seen  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

A,  the  gastrocnemius  and  soieus  muscles,  forming  tlie  muselen 
of  llie  calf;  a,  the  Tendo  Achillis:  B,  tiie  posterior  tibial 
muscle ;  b,  its  tendon  :  D,  the  inner  anlile  :  r,  the  anterior 
tibial  muscle,  attached  above  to  the  front  of  the  tibia,  below 
to  the  internal  cuneiform  bone ;  k,  the  flexor  tendon  of  the 
great  toe. 

we  have  indicated  is  effected  by  special  groujjs  of 
muscles.  The  first  series  of  movements  is  mainly 
effected  by  three  nmscles  :  \'iz.,  (1)  the  7nu.'irles  of  the 
(■a(/"(fig.  3,  A),  attached  above  to  the  bones  of  the 
thigh  and  leg,  and  below  by  the  Temlo  Achillin  to 
the  heel-bone ;  (2)  the  jiosterior  tibial  (fig.  3,  B), 
attached  above  to  the  tibia,  and  below  by  its 
tendon   to   the   scaphoid   bone,   and    (3)    the    short 


Fig.  4. 

This  figure  represents  some  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  on  tho 
outer  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

E,  lower  end  of  fibula,  forming  the  outer  ankle;  C,  the  short 
fibular  muscle,  attached  above  to  the  fibula,  and  below  by 
its  tendon  (r)  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone;  I,  the  long 
fibular  muscle,  its  tendon  (i)  running  behind  the  outer  ankle 
and  under  the  instep  to  ttie  metatarsal  bone  of  the  great 
toe;  G,  the  anterior  or  third  fibular  muscle,  attached  above 
to  the  fibula  and  bflow  by  its  tendon  \g)  to  the  outer 
metatarsal  bone;  A,  the  extensor  tendons  of  the  toes. 

flbnlar  (fig.  4,  C),  attached  above  to  the  fibula,  and 
below  by  its  tendon  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone. 
The  calf-muscles,  whose  tendon  is  inserted  into 
the  heel-bone,  are  large  and  very  powerful,  for  in 
raising  the  heel,  thoy  have  to  raise  the  weight  of 
the  body.     The  other  two  muscles,  the  posterior 

411 


FOOT. 


tibial  and  the  short  libiUar,  turn  round  the  inner 
and  the  outer  ankle  resiwctivcly,  and  are  inserted 
into  the  inner  and  the  outer  edges  of  the  instei) ; 
the  former  being  attached  to  the  sea)>lu>id,  and  the 
latter  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone.  They  not  only 
assist  to  raise  the  aidile,  but  supjKirt  it  laterally. 
The  muscle  whose  tendon  is  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  fiHit  (the  ix>sterior  tibial),  elTects  the  two  move- 
ments which  are  associated  with  the  raisiui;  of  the 
heel-bone,  namely,  the  turnin;,'  of  tlie  foot  iuwartls, 
and  the  increased  Hcxurc  of  the  aieh. 

Tlie  second  series  of  movements— tlie  laising  of 
tlie  toes,  the  turning  of  the  foot  outwards,  and 
the  straightening  of  the  sole— .ire  effected  by  two 
muscles,  the  anlrrior  tibial  (tig.  3,  F)  and  the  third 
Jihiilar  (lii;.  4,  G),  whose  tendons  p.-iss,  one  in  front 
of  the  inner  ankle,  and  the  other  in  front  of  the 
outer  ankle,  to  the  corresponding  edges  of  the 
instep,  and  are  inserted  into  the  internal  cuneifonn 
and  the  outer  metatarsal  bones.  Tliese  nuiscles 
are  direct  Hexors  of  the  tarsus  upon  the  leg  ;  the 
former  raising  the  inner,  and  the  l.-vtter  the  outer 
border  of  the  foot. 

Another  point  in  the  an.itomy  of  the  foot  that 
requires  notice,  is  the  mode  of  union  of  the  metatarsal 
with  the  tarsal  bones.  In  these  joints  in  the  fourth 
and  lifth  toes  a  slight  revolving  motion  can  take 
l)lace,  whicli  probably  enables  the  outer  metatarsals 
to  adapt  themselves  to  inequalities  of  the  ground, 
and  to  equalise  the  distribution  of  the  weight  which 
is  thrown  ujion  the  foot ;  while,  in  the  corresponding 
joints  of  the  three  inner  toes,  scarcely  any  motion 
can  occur — a  provision  by  which  addition.ol  strength 
is  given  to  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  upon  which 
the^  weight  of  the  body  most  dii-ectly  falls. 

The  skin  of  the  sole  is  very  tough  and  strong ; 
and  inten"ening  between  it  and  the  liones  and  long 
jdantar  ligament  is  a  thick  pad  of  fat,  wliich  acts 
the  part  of  an  air  or  water  cushion  in  defending 
the  adjiicent  parts  from  iujiuious  j)ressure,  and  in 
deadening  the  jars  and  shocks  that  would  otherwise 
be  felt  in  leaping,  &c. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  subject  of  shoes  may  here 
be  added.  The  sliape  of  the  sole  of  the  natural  foot 
is  shewn  in  lig.  5,  wliile  the  shape  after  the  prolonged 
use  of  a  badly  made  shoe  is  given  in  fig.  G.     In  the 


Fig.  C. 


foot  in  its  normal  state,  the  gi-e.at  too  is  seen  to  be 
free  from  the  others,  and  the  line  of  its  axis  jiro- 
longed  backwards,  passes  through  the  centre  of  the 
heel ;  while  in  the  foot  distorted  by  tlie  use  of  the 
shoe,  the  hno  of  the  great  toe  is  quite  altered,  and 
the  toes  generally — not  being  able  to  lind  room  side 
by  side — overlap  each  other,  and  lose  their  separate 
and  individual  actions ;  corns,  bunions,  and  ingrow- 


ing toe-nails  being  the  natural  consequence  of  this 
maltreatment.  Professor  Meyer,  of  Zurich,  has  drawn 
attention  to  the  bad  treatment  which  the  fuot 
receives  from  onlinary  shoemakers,  in  a  ]>aniphlet, 
translated  by  Mr  Craig,  and  entitled  Wliy  the  tihue 
Piiichci :  a  CoiitriOution  to  Applied  Anatomy.  lie 
especially  points  out  that  the  gre.at  toe  should  be 
■allowed  to  have  its  nonn.al  position,  and  this  can  be 
done  by  making  the  inner  edge  of  the  sole  incline 
iMWards,  iiisteai  of  o«(wards,  from  tlio  balls  of  the 
toes.  The  accompanying  ligure  (7)  gives  the  out- 
line of  a  shoe  designed  under  Dr  Meyer's  super- 
intendence, and  shews  the  diflercnce  between  it 
and  the  usual  shape ;  the  latter  being  indicated 
by  tlie  dotted  outUne.  Dr  Humphry,  from  whose 
admirable  work  we  have  drawn  much  of  tliis  article, 
wliile  fully  according  in  Meyer's  views,  addition- 
.ally  protests  against  high  heel-pieces,  as  tending  to 
make  the  step  less  steady  and  secure,  to  shorten 
it,  and  to  imjiair  the  action  of  the  calf-muscles ; 
a  high  heel-piece,  moreover,  places  the  forepart  of 
the  foot  at  a  lower  level  than  the  heel ;  the  weight 
is  thus  tlu-own  too  much  in  the  dii-ection  of  the 
toes,  and  they  are  tlmist  foi-wards  and  crampeil 
against  the  upper  leather  of  the  shoe. 

The  subjects  of  Walkixo,  llrxNiNO,  .and  Jumpiko 
are  noticed  in  the  article  MovEiiEXTS,  Animal. 

If  we  compare  the  human  foot  with  the  feet  of 
other  mamni.als,  we  find  that   it  presents  cert.ain 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 

A  shoe  (iesiptipd  by  Pr  Meyer,  Foot  of  GuiiUn. 

the  (lotteii  outliue  being  the 
usual  shape. 

peculiarities,  all  of  which  have  reference  to  man's 
erect  posture.  The  chief  peculiarities  are — I.  The 
greater  rekative  size  of  the  tarsal  bones,  as  compared 
with  the  other  bones  of  the  foot,  and  the  more  per- 
fect formation  of  the  pl.ant.ar  arch,  wliich  is  higlier 
and  stronger  than  in  any  of  the  lower  animals. 
Strength  and  elasticity  are  thus  combined  in  the 
human  foot  in  the  highest  degree.  2.  The  great 
toe  is  rcmark.able  in  mau  for  its  size  and  strength, 
and  for  the  firm  manner  in  which  its  metatarsal 
lunic  is  joined  to  the  other  bones,  so  as  to  render  it 
tlie  main  su]i]iort  to  tlie  foot.  .'f.  If  we  compare 
the  huiii.an  toot  witli  that  of  tile  gorilla  or  any  other 
anthropomorphous  ape,  we  see  that  the  toes  are 
short  and  small  in  man  in  relation  to  tlio  other 
parts  of  the  foot,  while  in  the  gorilla  the  toes  fonn 
the  greater  part  of  the  foot.  Indeed,  a  reference  to 
fig.  8  shews  that  in  this  animal  (and  the  same  is  the 
case  in  all  the  genera  of  a])es  and  monkeys)  the  organ 
in  question  is  rather  a  hand  tlian  a  foot,  and  hence 
the  term  t/uadrumanoiis,  as  applied  to  this  class 
of  animals.     There  is  scarcely  any  plantar  arch,  and 


FOOT-FOOTB.\LL. 


the  weight  of  the  body  bears  chiefly  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  foot ;  the  digits  are  long  and  strong, 
and  the  inner  one  diverges  so  as  to  form  a  thumb 
ratlicr  than  a  great  toe. 

It  remains  to  notice  some  of  the  most  marked 
varieties  of  form  •\vliich  the  bones  of  the  foot 
present  in  mammals.  In  the  following  group  of 
ligures,  the  same  letters  are  attached  to  the  same 


Fig.  11. 

Kliuioccros. 


.  Fig.  12. 
Hipiiopotamus. 


Fig.  IX 
Elephant. 


bones.  Thus,  n  marks  the  astragalus ;  <■/,  the 
calcancum  or  heel-bone  (tlie  posterior  projection 
of  which  forms  the  hock  of  the  horse)  ;  e,  the 
scaphoid ;  b,  the  cuboid ;  ce,  the  ecto-,  or  outer, 
cm,  the  meso-,  or  middle,  and  ci,  the  ento-,  or 
internal  cuneiform.  Now,  as  a  general  rule  in  all 
mammalia,  the  ccto-cuneiform  supports  the  thii'd  or 
middle  of  the  five  toes  when  they  are  all  present, 
the  meso-cuneifonu  the  second,  and  the  cuboid  the 
fourth  and  fifth.  Bearing  in  mind  this  law,  we 
see  that  the  large  bone  in  the  horse,  known  as 
the  cannon-bone,  which  is  articuhated  to  the  ecto- 
cuneiform,  ce,  is  the  metatarsal  of  the  third  toe.  to 
which  arc  articulated  the  three  phahangcs  of  that 
toe,  the  last  phalanx,  3,  being  expanded  to  foi-m 
the  hoof.  The  small  bone,*  popularly  known  as  the 
splint-bone,  and  articiUated  to  the  mcso-cuneiform, 
is  the  rudimentary  or  stunted  metatarsal  of  the 
second  toe,  2  ;  and  the  outer  splint-bone,  articul.atcd 
to  the  cuboid,  i.s  the  mdimentarj'  metatarsal  of  the 
fourth  toe,  4  ;  so  that  in  the  horse  we  have  only  one 
toe,  the  third,  sufficiently  developed  to  reach  the 
ground,  with  mere  traces  of  a  second  and  fourth 
toe  on  either  side. 

In  the  foot  of  the  ox,  the  cuboid,  h,  is  relatively 

•  Tlie  bone  is  not  shewn  in  the  figure. 


larger  than  in  the  horse,  and  is  equal  in  size  to  the 
ecto-cuneiform,  cf.  The  cannon-bone  articulates 
with  both  these  tarsal  bones,  and  hence  answers  to 
the  metatarsal  bones  of  both  the  t/iiril  and  fourth 
digits ;  it  is  accordingly  found  to  consist  of  two 
distinct  bones  in  the  fa>tus  ;  and  in  the  adult  it 
is  diWded  internally  into  two  cavities,  and  its 
original  separation  is  marked  out  by  an  external 
elongated  ridge.  At  the  lower  end  are  two  dis- 
tinct joints  for  the  phalanges  of  the  third  and 
fourth  toes.  AVhile  in  the  horse  we  had  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  vpper  parts  of  two  toes  (the  second 
and  fourth),  in  the  ox  we  h.ave  the  nidiments  of 
the  lower  jjarts  or  phalanges  of  two  toes  (the 
second  and  fifth),  forming  the  '  s])urious  hoofs,' 
and  marked  2  and  5  in  the  figure.  In  the  rhino- 
ceros there  is  one  principal  toe  (the  third),  as  in 
the  horse,  with  the  second  and  fourth  toes  in  a 
less  develoj>ed  state ;  while  in  the  hij)popotamus 
there  are  two  principal  toes  (the  third  an<l  fourtli), 
as  in  the  ox;'  with  the  second  and  fifth  toes 
not  fully  developed.  In  the  ele[)hant,  tliere  is  a 
fifth  digit  added,  answering  to  our  great  toe,  and 
articulating  with  an  cnto-cuncifonn  bone,  so  that 
in  tlie  foot  of  this  animal  we  have  all  the  bones 
occurring  in  the  human  foot. 

Professor  Owen,  to  whose  works  we  are  indebted 
for  these  remarks,  concludes  from  these  and  similar 
observations  that  the  course  of  the  simplilication  of 
the  five-toed  foot  is,  first,  a  diminution  and  remov.-il 
of  the  innermost  toe  ;  next,  of  the  outermost ;  then, 
of  the  second  ;  and  lastly,  of  the  fourth  ;  the  third 
or  middle  toe  being  the  most  constant  and  (in  the 
lower  animals)  the  most  important  of  the  five. 

FOOT,  in  Music,  is  a  term  made  use  of  in  the  same 
way  as  in  poetry,  denoting  a  sliort  melotlic  figure  of 
notes  with  only  one  accent.  Foot  is  also  now  begin- 
ning to  be  used  in  speaking  of  the  ]iitch  of  soimds. 
The  Germans  have  always  used  the  word  Fusston  in 
representing  the  pitch  of  the  difl'crent  stops  of  an 
organ,  such  as  Principal  16  F.,  8  F.,  or  4  F.,  &c., 
which  practice  is  now  being  introduced  into  English 
organs,  and  is  found  very  useful  to  organists.  The 
pitch  of  the  stop  is  fixed  according  to  the  length 
of  the  lowest  C  pipe.     See  Okoax-buildixg. 

FOOTA-BOXDOU.     See  Bo.ndou. 

FOOTBALL.  This  game  has  long  been  a 
favourite  tliroughout  the  British  Isles ;  and  as  a 
winter  g.ame  iu  certain  places,  such  as  Paigby,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  the  university  of  Glasgow,  it  is 
more  popular  than  any  other.  A  large  park  or  com- 
mon is  best  suited  for  the  game,  one  of  the  most 
attractive  features  of  which  is,  that  it  m.ay  be 
simultaneously  enjoyed  by  great  numbers  of  jilaycrs 
irrespective  of  age  or  size.  Two  '  goals ' — consisting 
e.ach  of  a  couple  of  upright  poles,  ten,  twelve,  or 
even  eighteen  feet  high,  and  a  cross-bar  on  to])— are 
erected  opposite  each  other,  at  any  <listance  that  may 
be  agreed  upon,  the  game  being  carried  on  in  the 
intervening  space.  Two  side-lines,  called  goal-Unes, 
are  drawn  from  each  of  the  goals.  The  players  are 
chosen  by  two  captains,  who  arrange  their  men  in 
the  lield,  and  keep  them  to  their  respective  sides, 
and  whose  duty  it  is  besides  to  see  that  fair 
play  is  carried  on.  After  each  captain  has  posted 
a  tnistworthy  member  of  his  side  at  the  goal 
as  '  keeper,'  the  players  on  each  side  are  duly 
placed,  and  the  game  is  bcgim,  by  the  ball  being 
kicked  towards  one  of  the  goals  from  a  point  mid- 
way between  each.  Whichever  side  contrives  to 
kick  the  ball  t)i  rowjh  the  adversaries'  goal,  reckons 
either  '  game '  or  one  towards  it,  though,  where 
the  jilayers  are  equally  matched,  and  the  goals 
well  defended,  the  play  may  last  many  hours  with- 
out a  single  score  being  made.      After   each  goal 

iU 


FOOTK-KODT-KOT. 


has  bccQ  made,  tho  players  usually  change  ends, 
so  that  no  uuduo  advantage  bo  derived  by  one 
aide  from  sloping  <;round,  favouring  wind,  &c. 

The  ball  generally  used  is  made  of  an  ox-bladder 
covvred  with  strong  leather ;  india-rubber  balls  are 
considered  inferior. 

With  popular  games,  such  as  cricket,  &c.,  the 
nJes  laid  down  are  for  the  most  part  binding  all 
over  the  countr)- ;  the  same  remark,  however,  does 
not  ap])ly  to  football,  as  each  district  seems  to 
have  rides  of  its  o\ni.  Thus,  those  of  Itugby,  Win- 
chester, Kton,  &c.,  all  differ  materially,  though  the 
I'cneral  methods  of  playing  the  game  are  the  same. 
°  The  following,  which  we  borrow  from  L'lvry  Boy's 
Magaziite,  No.  1  (London,  Koutledge),  in  which 
there  is  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  game,  are 
sufficient  for  general  iiurposes.  1.  The  game  being 
essentially /uu^ball,  no  player  may  take  up  the  ball 
from  the  ground.  2.  If  a  player  can  catch  the  ball 
in  the  air,  he  may  take  a  hand-kick  without  the 
other  side  l)eing  permitted  to  interfere.  (A  baud- 
kick  consists  in  dropping  the  ball  from  the  hands, 
and  kicking  it  on  its  fall.)  3.  If  such  player  shall 
drop  the  ball  accidentally,  or  in  any  way  touch 
the  ground  with  it,  the  opposite  side  may  attack  it. 
4.  If  the  ball  pass  outside  or  over  the  goal,  and 
beyond  the  goal-line,  the  junior  player  of  the  side 
wliich  drove  it  over  shall  fetch  the  ball,  stand 
twelve  paces  to  the  right  of  the  centre  point  (mid- 
way between  the  goals),  and  throw  it  gently  to  the 
centre  without  favour  to  either  side.  This  nile  is 
used  because  it  sometimes  happens  th.it  irritable 
players,  tiuding  the  enemy's  goal  too  well  defended, 
wilfully  kick  the  ball  far  beyond  it,  hoping  to 
exhaust  their  oi>ponents,  and  thus  needlessly  pro- 
long the  game.  It  is  a  mark  of  bad  play,  as  well  as 
uninanliness,  to  drive  a  ball  where  it  can  be  of  no 
use,  and  the  penalty  deprives  the  offending  side  of 
the  junior  player  while  he  throws  in  the  ball,  and 
thus  has  the  effect  of  deterring  them  from  repeat- 
ing the  error.  5.  Any  kicking,  except  at  the  ball, 
is  prohibited.  6.  The  ball  must  be  kicked  through 
the  goal,  not  struck  or  tliro\vn,  or  touch  any  part  of 
any  jilayer  of  the  same  side,  except  the  foot  of  him 
who  kicks  it ;  otherwise,  the  ball  is  fetched  back, 
as  in  rule  4 

FOOTE,  S.i3il'EL,  actor  and  wi-itcr  of  comedy, 
was  born  of  a  good  family  at  Truro,  iu  Cornwall, 
1720.  He  was  educated  at  Worcester  College, 
Oxford,  and  about  1740  entered  the  Temple ;  but 
after  a  career  of  '  pleasure '  extending  over  four 
years,  in  the  course  of  which  he  managed  to  dissi- 
pate a  coujile  of  fortunes  which  had  been  left  him, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  stage  as  a  means  of 
support,  and  in  1744  made  an  unsuccessful  debut 
in  the  character  of  Othello.  In  1747,  he  opened  the 
Haymarket  Theatre — where  he  was  at  once  director, 
actor,  and  dramatic  author — with  a  piece  entitled 
Diversiona  of  the  Morning.  In  this  and  other  pieces, 
he  introduced  well-known  li\Tng  characters,  and, 
by  his  admirable  powers  of  mimicry,  succeeded  in 
dr.awing  large  audiences,  till  the  theatre  was  closed 
by  order  of  the  magistrates.  After  1752,  he  con- 
tiuued  to  perform  alternately  in  London  and  Dublin. 
In  17GG,  he  broke  his  leg  by  a  fall  from  his  horse, 
and  ainimtation  was  found  necessary.  He,  how- 
ever, recovered  his  health  and  spirits,  and  even 
turned  the  incident  to  account  on  the  stage,  com- 
posing parts  expressly  adapted  to  his  own  state. 
He  died  at  Dover,  21st  October  1777.  A  variety  of 
comic  anecdotes  respecting  F.  are  given  in  Cooke's 
Memoirs  of  Samvd  Foote  (London,  1S03).  His  con- 
versation must  have  been  inimitably  comical.  Dr 
Johnson,  who  had  a  power  of  refusing  to  be  ])leased 
against  his  wHl  greater  than  most  men,  met  F.  for 
the  first  time  at  Fitzherbert's,  and  assumed  his 
4H 


most  ursine  manner ;  but  it  was  no  use :  '  I  w.as 
obliged,'  he  says, '  to  lay  down  my  knife  and  fork, 
tlirow  myself  back  in  my  chair,  and  fairly  laugh  it 
out.  Sir,  he  was  irresistible.'  His  dramatic  works, 
of  which  the  best  are  An  Atidion  of  Pictures,  The 
Minor,  The  Ungli-shman  Jielurntd  from  Paris,  The 
Bunkrupt,  Tlie  Liar,  and  The  Mayor  of  Garratt, 
have  been  frequently  published,  but  never  in  a 
com|>lete  form.  Compare  Forstex-'s  essay  in  the 
Quarterly  Beriew,  1854. 

FOOT-GUARDS,  the  flower  of  the  British 
infantry,  and  the  garrison  ordinarily  of  the  metro- 
))oUs,  comprise  three  regiments,  the  Grenadier,  Cold- 
stream, and  Scots  Fusilier  Guards,  in  all  seven 
battalions,  and  0307  officers  and  men  of  all  ranks. 
For  their  history  and  a  more  particular  description, 
see  the  general  article  Guakds. 

FOOT-POUXD  is  the  unit  by  which  the  work 
done  by  a  force  is  estimated  ;  thus  (taking  1  lb.  and 
1  foot  as  the  imits  of  weight  and  distance),  if  1  lb. 
be  raised  through  1  foot,  the  work  done  is  equal  to 
1  foot-pound  ;  if  10  lb.  be  raised  9  feet,  the  work 
done  is  90  foot-pounds ;  and  generally,  if  W 
represent  the  work  done,  P  the  weight  in  pounds, 
and  h  the  height  in  feet,  then  W  (in  foot-pounds) 
=  PA. 

FOOTPRINTS.    See  Ichnology. 

FOO'T-ROT  amongst  sheep  is  of  two  varieties, 
the  commoner  consisting  of  an  inordinate  growth 
of  hoof,  which,  at  the  toe,  or  round  the  margin, 
becomes  turned  do'mi,  cracked,  or  torn,  and  thus 
atTords  lodgment  for  sand  and  dirt.  Insufficient 
wearing  of  the  hoof  is  the  obvious  cause,  and  hence 
the  prevalence  of  foot-rot  in  soft  rich  pastures,  ami 
especially  amongst  sheep  previously  accustomed 
to  bare,  rough,  or  upland  walks,  where  the  hoof  is 
naturally  worn  down  by  the  greater  amount  of 
walking  necessary  to  jirocure  sustenance.  Taken  in 
time,  when  lameness  is  first  apparent,  and  before 
the  hoof  is  cracked,  and  the  foot  inflamed,  a  cure 
rapidly  follows  the  carefid  jiaring  of  the  superfluous 
and  diseased  hoof ;  indeed,  further  treatment  is 
scarcely  necessary,  unless  any  of  the  vascidar  jiarts 
have  been  laid  liare,  when  a  little  tar  may  be 
applied  as  a  mild  astringent  and  protection  from 
flies.  Wlien,  from  inattention  or  neglect,  the  hoof 
is  separated  from  the  sensitive  parts  beneath, 
wlien  ulcers  appear  on  the  sole,  or  proud-flesh 
springs  up,  active  astringents  or  mild  caustics  are 
necessary.  The  shepherd's  old  favom-ite  butter  of 
antimony,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  tincture 
of  myrrh,  is  a  good  remedy  when  cautiously  aud 
temperately  used.  A  convenient  paste,  which  in 
inexperienced  hands  is  safer  than  a  fluid  caustic, 
may  be  made  with  equal  weights  of  flowers  of 
sulphur  and  finely  powdered  suljihate  of  eo])per, 
ruljbed  up  to  the  needful  consistency  witli  lard 
or  oil  Slauy  have  great  faith  in  a  mixture  of 
the  salt  of  copper  with  gunpowder  and  lard. — The 
second  and  more  troublesome  variety  is  allied  to 
what  is  termed  foul  in  the  foot ;  instead  of  com- 
mencing at  the  ground  surface,  it  begins  in  the 
interdigital  space,  appears  to  depend  upon  consti- 
tutional rather  than  local  causes,  and  frequently 
occurs  along  \rith  the  other  variety,  but,  unlike  it, 
occasionally  becomes  contagious.  The  foot  is  hot, 
tender,  and  swelled  around  and  immediately  above 
the  coronet.  There  are  ulcerations  in  the  inter- 
digital sjiace,  and  the  swelling,  and  subsequently 
tlie  sprouting  of  proud-flesh,  cause  a  separation  of 
the  toes.  When  the  tenderness  and  heat  are  gre.at, 
]>oultice3  are  advisable  ;  but  in  the  milder  cases  and 
earlier  stages,  the  parts  should  be  well  washed  with 
a  solution  containing  to  the  pint  of  water  half  an 
ounce  each  of  sulphuric  acid  and  oil  of  turpentine. 


FORAGE- FORBES. 


When  ulcera  appear,  they  must  be  touched  with 
Ulnar  caustic,  or  dressed  with  the  paste  akeady 
recommended. 

FORAGE  (from  Ft.  fourage,  a  contraction  of  the 
barbarous  Latin  J'odderaghim,  taken  in  its  turn 
from  the  Gothic  fo-dur,  fodder),  hay,  straw,  and 
oats  supphed  to  horses  of  officers  and  soldiers  in  the 
army.  Where  troops  are  together,  the  provision 
of  forage  devolves  on  the  commissariat ;  officers  of 
tlie  stalf,  &c.,  who  are  entitled  to  horses,  but 
whose  duties  are  at  stations  where  bodies  of  horse 
are  not  collected,  receive  a  money  allowance,  in 
lieu  of  forage  in  kind,  varying  according  to  the 
place  and  price  of  provender,  but  usually  about 
Is.  lOd.  to  '2s.  per  horse  per  day.  When  a  soldier 
is  en  route  away  from  his  regiment,  the  innkeeper 
with  whom  he  stops  is  bound,  imder  the  Mutiny 
Act,  to  provide  his  horse  with  the  specified  ration 
of  forage — •\'iz.,  10  lbs.  oats,  12  lbs.  hay,  and  8  lbs. 
straw,  for  the  i)ayment  of  Is.  9cZ.  a  day,  which  must 
also  include  stabling. 

FORAMINI'FERA,  a  group  of  marine  animals 
of  very  low  organisation,  consisting  of  a  gelatinous 
substance  enclosed  in  a  shell,  which  is  generally 
calcareous,  either  simple  or  divided  into  chambers 
variously  arranged,  and  pierced  with  pores  or 
passages  (foramina,  whence  the  name),  through 
which  long  delicate  processes  of  the  soft  animal  are 
protruded,  but  for  what  purpose  is  not  very  well 
known,  whether  to  seize  food,  to  imbibe  nutritive 
lluid,  for  locomotion,  or  for  all  these  purposes. 
Most  of  the  species  are  minute,  although  one  of 
more  than  two  inches  in  diameter  has  been  foimd  in 
Borneo,  and  fossil  forms  approaclmig  to  this  size 
are  well  kuown  imder  the  name  of  Nummulites 
(q.  v.),  from  their  resemblance  to  coins.  The 
existing  species  are  veiy  numerous,  and  have  been 
distributed  into  many  genera.  They  are  found 
among  sea-sand,  and   among   all  the   dredgings  of 


Foraniiuifura  : 

I,  Orbulina    Universa :     2,    T..^g(.■na    Striata;    .'?,    Textilavia ; 

4,  OpiTculina ;      ."i,    Faujasina;     Ct.    Kosalina     Globularis; 

7.  ('a.^si(lulina;  8,  Part  of  two  chambers  of  an  Orbiculina; 

!t,  Vertical  Section  of  fossil  Nummulite. 

deep  water.  The  fossil  species  arc  still  more  nume- 
rous, and  constitute  great  part  of  some  calcareous 
rocks,  as  of  ch:dk.  The  F.  are  of  very  beautiful 
forms.  Some  of  the  simple  ones  are  orbicidar,  some 
curiously  flask-shaped ;  those  in  which  the  animal 
is  divided  into  segments,  and  the  shell  consequently 
chambered,  sometimes  have  the  segments  arranged 
ill   a  straight  line,  sometimes  spirally,  sometimes 


alternately,  &c.  The  great  resemblance  of  some 
of  the  convoluted  chambered  shells  of  the  F.  to  the 
shells  of  the  genus  Nautilus,  led  Linnaeus  and  many 
natiirahsts  to  rank  them  with  that  genus,  and  the 
F.  were  reckoned  among  the  most  highly  organised 
moUuscs,  a  place  from  which  comparatively  recent 
discoveries  have  completely  removed  them.  They 
are  now  regarded  as  more  nearly  related  to  Sponges 
anil  to  such  animals  as  the  Proteus  or  Amafba. 
'  The  Foraminifera  are  evidently  composite  fabrics 
evolved  by  a  jirocess  of  continuous  gemmation,  each 
gemma  remaining  in  connection  with  the  body  by 
which  it  was  put  forth,  and  according  to  the  plan 
on  which  this  gemmation  takes  place  will  be  the 
configuration  of  the  shell.' — Rymer  Jones.  Repro- 
duction takes  place  by  the  detachment  of  minute 
granides  in  great  numbers,  and  is  apparently  accom- 
panied with  the  death  of  the  parent.  .See  Photozoa. 
Fossil  Foraminifera.  The  earliest  records  of 
this  order  yet  observed  are  in  sandstones  near 
St  Petersburg,  belonging  to  the  Lower  Silurian 
measures.  Scattered  through  these  santktonea  are 
numerous  green  grains,  which  have  been  shewn  by 
Klu'eiiberg  to  contain,  in  then*  mterior,  silicious 
casts  of  shells  similar  to  the  recent  genera  Oiittu- 
lina  and  Textularia.  Forms,  apparently  referrible 
to  the  last  genus  and  to  FusuUna,  constitute  a 
large  portion  of  some  beds  of  carboniferous  lime- 
stone in  Russia,  and  also  in  the  United  States. 
Among  the  Secondary  rocks,  and  especially  in  the 
Chalk,  foraminifera  are  very  abimdant.  Chalk, 
indeed,  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  perfect 
or  broken  shells  ailiotalia,  Spirulina,  Texlularia,  &c. 
(see  Chalk).  They  are  not  more  mmierous  in  the 
Tertiary  strata,  but  here  they  attain  an  enormous 
size — gigantic  compared  with  any  that  jireceded 
them,  or  with  recent  forms.  Vast  beds  of  limestone 
occur  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  com- 
jiosed  almost  entirely  of  these  largo  forms.  See 
KuMjruLiTEs  and  Nummulite  Limestone. 

FORBES,  Duncan,  of  Ciilloden,  a  celebrated 
Scottish  politician  of  the  ISth  c,  and  Lord  Presi- 
dent of  the  Court  of  Session,  was  born  either  at 
Ciilloden  or  at  Bunchrew — for  the  family  posscssoil 
both  est.ates — in  the  neighbourhood  of  Inverness,  on 
the  loth  November  11)85.  In  1704,  the  year  that 
his  father  died,  F.,  then  a  lad  of  19,  commenced 
his  legal  studies  in  Edinburgh  ;  but  the  following 
year  he  removed  to  Leyden,  then  the  great  school 
for  Scottish  lawyers  of  revolution  principles,  where 
he  studied  for  two  years  with  the  gi-eatest  dili- 
gence. In  addition  to  the  knowledge  of  the  civil 
law,  which  was  no  doubt  the  [irineijial  object  of 
his  residence  at  Leyden,  we  are  told  tliat  he  made 
considerable  progress  in  Hebrew  and  several  other 
Oriental  languages.  On  his  return  from  Leyden,  F. 
was  called  to  the  bar,  and  almost  immediately 
after  ai)pointed  sheriff  of  Jlidlothian — a  promo- 
tion the  rapidity  of  which  i.s  somewhat  incon- 
sistent with  modem  usages.  He  rose  rapitUy  into 
practice  and  into  political  inlluence  through  his 
connection  with  the  Great  Duke  of  Ai-gyle,  then 
in  the  zenith  of  his  power,  to  whom  he  was  united 
by  family  ties,  and  of  whoso  estates  he  acted  as 
a  sort  of  manager.  He  married  Mary  Rose,  the 
daughter  of  the  Laird  of  KUravoek,  a  woman  of 
beauty  and  accomplishment,  to  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  been  devotedly  attaclicd.  She  died  shortly 
.after  their  marriage,  leavin;!  him  an  only  son, 
.John,  who  eventually  succeeded  to  liis  estate,  but 
did  not  inlierit  his  abilities.  During  both  of  the 
rebellions,  Duncan  F.  acted  a  ]u-ominent  part  on 
the  side  of  the  Hanoverian  government.  In  1715, 
lie  was  in  the  north,  actively  engaged  in  opposing 
the  reliels,  along  with  his  elder  brother  John,  who 
in  said  to  have  expended  £3000  on  the  royal  cause, 

415 


FOKBES. 


not  one  shilling  of  which  was  ever  repaid  him.  But 
on  this,  as  on  all  other  occasions,  Duncan's  par- 
tisanship was  of  the  most  moderate  kinil.  After  the 
tuppn-ssion  of  the  rebellion,  he  w.as  oiiposed  to  the 
project  of  earryins  the  jirisoners  out  of  Scotland,  to 
1)0  tried  hy  En'jUsh  juries,  and  he  wrote  to  Lord 
Islay.  when  he  heard  that  it  was  proposed  to  appoint 
himlonl  advocate,  th.it  he  should  certainly  decline 
that  office.  He  wrote  to  his  brother,  proposing  a 
subscription  for  the  comfort  of  the  jirisoners.  '  It 
is  cert.ainly  Chri.stian,'  he  said,  '  and  by  no  means 
disloyal,  to  sustain  tliem  in  their  indij;ent  state  till 
they  .arc  found  guilty.'  To  the  forfeitures  also  he 
was  oji])03ed,  oil  grounds  of  jmlicy  as  well  as  of 
Immanity.  The  only  effect  of  his  moderation  w.os 
to  bring  suspicion  on  his  own  loyalty.  But  he 
w.as  too"  important  for  his  promotion  to  be  .arrested. 
In  1710,  he  W.-IS  api)oiiited  de])ute  to  the  lord  advo- 
cate ;  in  1722,  he  w.as  returned  to  sit  in  jiarliament 
for  the  Inverness  district  of  burghs;  and  in  17-25, 
he  was  lord  .advocate.  He  w.as  not  distinguished 
.as  a  debater,  but  he  w.as  largely  emi>loyed  .at  this 
period  of  his  career  in  .appeal  cases,  and  he  enjoyed 
the  friendshij)  of  Sir  Robert  Waljiole,  Lj-ttleton, 
Mansfield,  and  Hardwick.  He  seems  even  to  have 
penetrated  the  literary  circles  in  which  Swift,  Pope, 
and  Arbuthnot  were  the  ruling  stars.  In  \1S4,  his 
brother  John — Bumper  John,  na  he  was  called — 
died,  and  he  succeeded  to  the  estates  of  the  family. 
In  e.arlier  life,  Puncaii  partook  of  the  cun\'ivial 
luabits  for  which  his  f.amily  was  distinguished,  in  an 
age  th.at  was  famous  for  deep  potations.  Mr  Burton 
records  various  anecdotes  iUustr.ative  of  his  jiowers 
in  this  direction,  but  he  abandoned  the  practice 
when  his  health  began  to  siifTer,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  more  serious  if  not  more  onerous  duties. 
During  m.any  subsequent  years,  he  in  no  insig- 
nilicaut  degree  ruled  the  destinies,  and  contri- 
buted to  the  dawning  prosperity  of  Scotland  by 
fostering  and  developing  her  internal  resources. 
His  policy  was  to  extinguish  the  rebellion  by  gaining 
over  the  .Lacobites  to  the  government.  The  purity 
and  uprightness  of  F.'s  character  were  subjected  to  a 
severe  test.  His  whole  correspondence  during  these 
troubled  times  came  to  light  some  seventy  years 
after  his  death  ;  and  though  few  men  ever  -wTote  or 
were  written  to  with  less  idea  of  publication,  '  we 
have  not,'  s.ays  Mr  Chambers  [Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen),  '  to  detect  a  single 
one  of  his  advices  or  proceedings,  by  the  exposure 
of  which  even  a  private  gentleman  of  the  most 
delicate  honour,  and  the  most  reasonable  views, 
would  have  cause  to  feel  a  moment's  uneasiness.' 
Ha\-iug  freed  himself  from  the  shackles  of  party, 
his  great  object  was  to  improve  the  trade  and 
agriculture  of  the  kingdom.  But  his  views  of 
political  economy  were  not  greatly  in  adv.ance  of 
his  time  ;  for  in  order  to  encour.age  the  use  of  malt, 
he  jiresented  to  the  government  a  long  and  detaUed 
scheme  for  preventing,  or  r.ather  for  ])unishing  the 
use  of  tea.  F.  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session  in  Yi'.'Tl ;  but  he  still  continued  his 
interest  in  the  general  improvement  of  the  country. 
Though  he  was  aw.are  of  the  character,  and,  in 
general,  of  the  designs  of  the  Jacobites,  the  rebel- 
lion of  174.5  took  the  President  by  surprise.  But 
he  was  no  sooner  aw.are  of  the  danger  than  he  h.as- 
tened  to  the  north,  as  he  had  done  on  the  occasion 
of  the  former  outbreak,  and  by  his  presence  and  the 
inlbicnce  which  he  possessed  in  his  own  district, 
did  much  to  counter.act  the  proceedings  of  the 
rebels.  Lovat,  as  is  well  known,  betrayed  both 
him  and  the  governinent,  and  actually  made  an 
att.ack  on  Culloden  House,  from  which  he  was 
beaten  off  with  gi-eat  spirit  by  the  President  and 
Lis  people.     When   the   rebellion  spread,   he   was 

41G 


forced  to  abandon  his  house,  and  take  refuge  in  the 
island  of  Skye,  where  he  rem.ained  till  after  the 
battle  of  Cullolen.  On  his  return,  in  place  of 
reaping  the  fruits  of  his  services,  he  was  regarded 
with  jealousy  and  aversion  by  the  government. 
Even  the  large  sums  of  money  which  he  had 
advanced  were  never  rejiaid  him ;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  ingratitude  of  the  government,  eoU])led  with 
the  jierridy  of  many  of  his  frientls  and  neighbours, 
who  had  changed  sides  more  than  once  during  this 
miserable  afi'air,  weighed  so  heavily  on  his  spirits 
as  to  shorten  his  life.  He  dischargeil  his  judici.al 
duties,  however,  with  great  zeal  and  ability  till 
within  a  month  of  his  death,  which  took  place  on 
December  10,  1747.  There  is  a  beautifid  jiortrait  of 
the  Lord  President  F.,  who  Avas  a  man  of  great 
elegance  of  person  and  manner,  in  the  I'arliament 
House  in  Edinburdi.  The  most  recent  and  com- 
plete biograjihy  of  Forbes  is  that  of  Mr  Burton  in 
his  Lives  of  Simon  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan  Forbes, 
1848. 

FORBES,  Edward,  an  eminent  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  February  12,  1815, 
.and  died  in  Edinburgh,  November  IS,  1854.  He 
received  a  desultory  and  imperfect  education  in 
early  life,  in  consequence  of  ill  health  ;  but  when 
he  left  home  .at  the  .ago  of  IG,  he  had  already 
possessed  himself  of  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
knowledge  in  the  departments  of  botany,  zoolot^y, 
and  geology.  In  1831,  F.  went  to  London,  with 
the  intention  of  liecoming  a  student  at  the  Roy.al 
Academy  ;  but  although  he  e\'inced  much  readiness 
in  dr.awing,  his  artistic  t;dents  were  not  sufficiently 
marked  to  hold  out  any  prospect  of  success  in  the 
event  of  his  m.aking  .art  his  profession  ;  and  he  there- 
fore determined  to  turn  his  attention  to  medicine, 
and,  with  this  \ncw,  entered  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  1S3G,  he  finally  relinquished  his  special 
meciic.al  studies,  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
the  natur.al  sciences.  In  1S30 — 1837,  he  attended 
lectures  at  Paris,  where  he  studied  under  Geoffroy 
St  Hilaire,  Jussieu,  and  De  BkainWUe,  while  he  at 
the  s.ame  time  availed  himself  mth  diligence  of  all 
the  advantages  afforded  to  students  1  ly  the  museums 
and  libraries  of  Paris.  From  the  first  year  of  his 
college  life,  F.  had  spent  his  summer  vacations 
in  r.amblcs  over  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  or 
in  excursions  on  the  continent,  and  the  results  of 
the  observations  which  he  made  during  these  tours, 
which  were  published  by  him  either  in  the  form  of 
separate  works,  or  in  the  pages  of  current  scientific 
journals,  sufficiently  attest  his  dihgence  as  an 
observer,  .and  his  exact  appreciation  of  analogies 
and  difl'erences  of  forms.  F.  m.ay  almost  be  regarded 
as  the  origin.ator  of  the  use  of  the  dredge,  which  he 
employed  with  equal  success  in  investigating  the 
marine  faima  of  our  own  seas,  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  ^Egean.  In  1841,  he  joined  the  sui- 
vcjdng  ship  Beacon,  .as  n.atnralist,  and  aeeorapanied 
that  vessel  during  the  survey  of  a  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  co-operated  in  the  exploration  of  many  of  the 
Xanthian  cities.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1843, 
he  found  that  he  had,  during  his  absence,  been 
elected  to  the  chair  of  botany,  King's  College, 
London.  He  was  soon  afterwards  named  curator 
of  the  Geological  Society ;  and  from  that  period  till 
his  removal  to  Edinburgh,  he  remained  ill  London, 
living  in  a  vortex  of  scientific  labours  and  literary 
work.  In  18-44,  he  was  appointed  jLakeontologist 
to  the  Museum  of  Geology  in  connection  with  the 
Ordnance  Geological  Survey  ;  and  in  1851,  on  the 
opening  of  the  new  buildings  in  .lermyu  .Street, 
London,  he  w.is  named  ])rofessor  of  natural  history 
in  the  School  of  Mines.     In  1852,  he  was  chosen 

{)resident  of  the  Geological  Society,  an  honour  never 
lefore  conferred  on  so  young  a  man ;  and  in  1853, 


FOEBliS. 


on  the  death  of  Professor  .Tampson,  he  wag  elected 
to  the  vacant  chair  of  Natural  History  in  the  \miver- 
sity  of  EiUnljursh.     In  the  summer  of  1854,  he  deli- 
vered a  short  course  of  lectures — the  only  one  he  was 
destined  to  give — for  at  the  commencement  of  the 
winter  session  he  was  seized  with  a  severe  illness, 
which  speedily  proved  fatal,  and  terminated  his  life 
in  the  S'Jth  year  of  his  age,  in  the  very  zenith  of 
his  fame,  and  in  the  full  vigour  of  his  intellectual 
]iowcrs.     F.   had  been  a  voluminous  writer  and  a 
diligent  observer  of  nature  from  his  earliest  youth, 
and  had  collected  an  immense  mass  of  materials, 
many  of  which  were,  however,  left  at  his  death  in  a 
disorganised  condition.   He  did  much  to  advance  and 
systematise  special  departments  of  natural  history, 
both  by  his  own  labours  and  by  the  stimulus  which 
he  im]iarted  to   his  associates   and  pui)ils  ;  and  it 
would  be  difficult  to  instance  any  naturalist  who 
has  exercised  a  greater  inflnence  on  the  thought  and 
line  of  inquiry  jmrsued  by  those  who  have  cultivated 
tlie   same   branches   of  knowledge.     His   classifica- 
tion of  the  British  Slar-Jishes  opened  a  new  era  in 
that    branch    of    zoology  ;    and    his  discovery   that 
air-breathing   molluscs   lived  at   the  jjpriod  of   the 
Purbeck  beds,  has  been  the  means  of  rectifying  many 
erroneous    hjiiotheses,    and    throwing    unexpected 
light  on  several  hitherto  obscure  points  of  geology, 
while    the    inferences    which    he    drew    from    fiie 
presence  of  those  animals  have  been   fully  corro- 
borated.    His   Report  on  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  his 
observations  of  tibo  tertiaries  of  Cos,  which  have 
proved  of  great  value  to  geologj',  raised  him  to  the 
highest   rank  among  living  naturalists.     From   an 
early  period,  he  had  directed  his  attention  to  the 
distribution  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  different 
zones   of   the    sea    and  land,   and  his  observations 
in   this   path   of   inquiry   have   opened   many   new 
fields   of   research.     F.   was  a  diligent    contributor 
to    the    current    scientific    literature    of    t)ie    day, 
and   many    of   his   best   jiapers    were    wTitten    for 
the  meetings  of  the  British  Association,  of  which 
he  was    an    active    member,    and   for   the  varions 
societies  with  which  he  was  connected  ;  while  he 
also  took  a  most  efficient  share  in  the  laliours  of 
the  Ordnance   Survey  during   his   connection  with 
its  stati'.     His   separ.ate   works,  papers,  and   mono- 
graphs, of  which    upwards   of    200  are   pubhshed, 
and    many  of  which    are    copiously  illustrated   by 
his  own  beautifid  drawings,  cannot  be  indiWdually 
specified  ;    but  among  them  we  may  instance   the 
following:  On    tlw  Distrib.   of  Pulmonif.  Mollii.ica 
in  Europe.   (ISoS)  ;  ilnlacol.  Monensis   (18.38)  ;  Si'ir 
b'islies  (1841);    Tlie  Radiata   and  iloUusca    of  the 
.■EQcan  (1843) ;   Travels  in  L'jcia  (written   in   con- 
jimction   with   Lieutenant   Spratt,    1846)  ;    Naked- 
eijcd    Medusa:   (1847) ;    Brit'ish   ilollusca    (185.3,   4 
vols.   8vo,   conjointly   with   S.    Hanlcy)  ;    the  Map 
of  llomoiozoic  Belts  (.Johnston's  Plujs.  Allans,  18;>4) ; 
Collection  of  Lilernri/  Papers  hy  E.  Forbes  (18.55) ; 
&c.     Sec  Memoir  by  G.  Wilson  and  A.  Geikie,  18G1. 
FORBES,  Sir  William,  of  Pitsligo,  B.art.,  an 
eminent  Scottish  banker,  son  of  Sir  William  Forbes, 
Bart.,  advocate,  was  born  in   Edinburgh,  April  5, 
1739.      He   succeeded   his   father  when   only   foiu' 
years  old,  and  received  his  education  at  Aberdeen. 
In  his  15th  year,  he  was  introduced  into  the  bank 
at  Edinburgh  of  Messrs  John   Coutts  &  Co. ;  and 
in  17G1,  was  admitted  a  partner.     In  1703,  one  of 
the    brothers    Coutts    having   died,    while    another 
retired  on   account  of   ill  health,  and   two   others 
wero  settled  as  bankers  in  London,  a  new  company 
was  formed,  consisting  of  Sir  William  Forbes;  Mr 
Hunter,  afterwards  Sir  James   Hunter  Blair;  Mr, 
afterwards  Sir  Robert  Herries ;  and  Messrs  Stephen 
and  Cochrane.     They  at  fii'st  can-ied  on  business  in 
the  name  of  the  old  firm.     On  1st  January  1773, 
1S3 


however,  on  some  changes  in  the  partnership  takinct 
place,  the  name  was  changed  to  that  of  Sir  W^ 
Forbes,  J.  Hunter,  &  Co.,  and  of  this  firm  Sir  William 
continued  to  be  the  head  tdl  his  death.  In  1781, 
he  purchased  the  estate  of  Pitsligo,  Aberdeenshire, 
which  had  been  forfeited  by  Lord  Forbes  of  Pitsligo 
for  taking  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1745.  Animated 
by  genuine  patriotism  and  jiublic  si)irit,  he  intro- 
duced the  most  extensive  improvements  on  it,  and 
laid  out  and  built  the  village  of  New  Pitsligo.  He 
was  a  member,  with  Johnson,  Burke,  Garrick,  Rey- 
nolds, and  others,  of  the  celebrated  Literary  tJlul)  of 
London,  and  the  author  of  a  Life  of  his  friend,  Dr 
Beattie,  the  poet,  published,  wth  his  works,  in  2 
vols.  4to,  in  1805;  also  of  Memoirs  of  a  Banking 
Honse,  being  the  history  of  his  own,  edited  by  Mr 
Robert  Chambers  (Edinburgh,  1800).  He  died  at 
his  seat  near  Edinburgh,  November  12,  1800,  aged 
G8.  By  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of  Sir 
James  Hay  of  Hayston,  Bart.,  he  had  three  sons 
and  five  daughters.  Universally  esteemed  and 
respected,  his  character  is  well  described  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  in  the  introductory  address  of  one  of 
the  cantos  of  Marmion.  His  bank  became,  in  1830, 
the  Union  Bank  of  Scotland. 

FORBES,  Jajie,s  Davtd,  Principal  of  the  United 
College  in  tlie  university  of  St  Andrews,  a  grand- 
son of  Sir  W.  Forbes,  the  hanker,  was  born  at 
Colinton,  near  Edinburgh,  April  20,  1809.  He 
studied  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh  from  1825 
until  1830,  when  he  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish 
liar.  On  the  death  of  Sir  John  Leslie  (q.  v.),  he 
was  appointed,  in  1833,  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  after  a 
contest  in  which,  among  other  competitors,  he  was 
opposed  by  Dr  (afterwards  Sir  David)  Brewster  and 
Jlr  Galloway.  In  1842,  the  Institute  of  France 
enrolled  him  among  its  corresponding  members. 
He  is,  besides,  a  member  of  numerous  other  scientific 
societies  at  home  and  abroad,  has  received  the 
Royal  and  the  Rumford  medals  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  two  Keith  medals  from 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford.  In  1860,  F.  resigned  his  chair  in  Edin- 
burgh, to  become  Principal  of  the  United  College 
in  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  Among  his 
contriliutions  to  science  are — the  polarisation  of 
radiant  heat  by  the  tourmaliue,  and  also  by 
reflection  (1836),  and  its  circidar  polarisation — 
discoveries  forming  some  of  the  strongest  proofs 
of  the  identity  of  calorific  and  luminous  rays  ;  the 
unequal  polarisation  of  heat  from  different  sources 
(1844) ;  the  refrangibility  of  heat ;  the  depolarisation 
of  heat ;  &c.  This  whole  series  of  ex])erimental 
results  is  of  a  very  high  order  of  importance.  He 
is,  however,  best  known  to  the  world  in  general 
by  his  researches  on  the  motion  of  glaciers.  See 
Trnreh  in  the  Alps  (1843)  ;  Norway  and  its  Glaciers 
(1853)  ;  I'our  of  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa 
(1855);  and  Occasional  Papers  on  the  Theortj  of 
Glaciers  (1859).  He  was  undoubtedly  the  first  to 
establish  the  gi-eat  fact,  that  glacier  ice  moves  in 
its  channel  like  a  viscous  fiuid,  the  middle  moving 
faster  than  the  sides,  and  the  upper  portions  faster 
than  the  lower.  His  theortj  of  glacier  phenomena 
has  encountered  a  good  deal  of  opposition  from  some 
quarters,  and  cannot  yet  be  considered  as  settled. 
See  GiACiERs.  In  meteorology,  F.  has,  amom' 
other  things,  improved  WoUaston's  application  ol 
the  thei-mometer  to  the  determination  of  heights, 
and  has  verified i\ith  great  care  Fourier's  theoretical 
results  concerning  the  temperature  of  the  gi-ound 
at  dift'erent  depths  and  in  difierent  kinds  of  soil  and 
rock.  Besides  the  works  already  named,  nimierous 
very  valuable  papers  by  F.  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Ro'yal  Societies  if  London   and 


FOKBES— I'OUBES  MACKENZIE  ACT. 


KiUiihuryh,  in  the  Etliiihimjh  I'liiloitopliical  Journal, 
a'uil  othiT  [n'lioJicals.    (He  died  Dec.  31,  18GS.) 

FORBES,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  physician,  w.is 
born  OcUilier  18,  17S7,  at  Cuttlvbrao,  Haiitl'shiiv, 
and  died  November  l.'t,  ISGl.  After  studyin:,'  at 
Abertleen  and  Eilinbunjh,  he  entered  the  navy  in 
1S07  as  assistant-surgeon,  and  continued  on  active 
duty  till  1810,  when  he  finally  left  the  service. 
In  1SI7,  he  t.wk  the  degree  of  M.U.  at  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  afU'rwanla  settled  as  a  physician  at 
Penzance,  from  whence  he  removed  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  to  Chichester.  hi  1S4(),  F.  went 
to  London,  where  he  s|»-e<iily  obtained  a  large 
iiracticc.  He  w.as  knii;htc<l  in  1853  by  the  Queen, 
to  whose  household  he  held  the  apiiointment  of 
Physician  in  Onlinary,  while  he  was  at  the  same 
time  Physician  Extraordinary  to  Prince  Albert. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  and 
the  Koy:U  Society  of  London  ;  D.C.L.  of  0.\ford, 
and  a  inemlier  of  numerous  foreign  societies.  F., 
conjointly  with  Drs  Tweedie  and  Conolly,  was  the 
editor  of  the  Cijclopani'ia  of  Practical  Medicine, 
which,  in  addition  to  the  numerous  contributions 
of  the  editors,  included  the  labours  of  more  than 
sixty  British  jiliysicians,  of  the  first  rauk.  This 
work,  which  has  exercised  a  most  beneficial  inliueuce 
both  on  the  tlieory  and  practice  of  medicine,  was 
comiileted  in  4  vols.  Svo,  in  1835.  In  IS.'Jfi,  F. 
founded  the  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Review, 
which  he  earned  on  with  great  success  for  twelve 
years.  The  scr\-ices  which  he  thus  rendered  to 
his  brother-practitioners  placed  him  deservedly 
among  the  foremost  of  his  profession.  To  F.  in 
a  fTcat  measure  belongs  the  merit  of  having  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  stethoscope  in  England,  and 
of  havin"  successfidly  directed  the  attention  of 
British  pr.actitioners  to  the  art  .and  practice  of 
physical  diagnosis.  In  1S31,  he  pubUsheil  the  first 
edition  of  his  translation  of  Laennec's  Trtutine  on 
Auscultation;  and  in  1838,  when  the  fifth  edition 
appeared,  the  new  method  was  alreaily  exten- 
sively used.  F.  w.as  a  ready  and  pleasant  writer, 
as  is  amply  shewn  by  the  various  records  of  his 
summer  nambles ;  among  whicli  we  in.-iy  instance 
his  Physician' .1  Jfolidai/  U84!)),  and  his  Si'jht-seeing 
in  German;/  and  the  Tiirol  (ISoU).  His  Last  profes- 
sional work,  entitled  Mature  and  A  rt  in  the  Cure  of 
Diseases  (1857),  contains  a  system.itic  exjiosition  of 
his  medical  opinions  and  doctrines. 

FORBES  MACKENZIE  ACT.  The  statute, 
popularly  known  by  the  name  of  the  gentleman 
(Mr  Forbes  Mackenzie,  M.P.  for  Peeblesshire)  who 
introduced  the  bill,  is  the  16  and  17  \'ict.  c.  07, 
entitled  '  An  Act  for  the  better  Reg\dation  of 
Public  Houses  in  ScotlantL'  This  act  retained 
in  general  the  jirovisions  of  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  58,  by 
which  the  granting  of  certificates  by  justices  of 
the  ]ic.ace  and  magistrates,  authorising  jiersons 
to  keep  common  inns,  ale-houses,  and  \nctnalling- 
houses  in  Scotland  was  regulated.  But  it  ]>ro- 
hibited  the  granting  of  certificates  for  excisable 
liquors  to  be  '  drunk  on  the  premises,'  luiless  on 
the  express  condition  that  no  groceries  or  other 
provisions  to  be  consumed  elsewhere  shoiUd  be  sold 
in  the  house  or  jiremises  with  respect  to  which 
such  certificate  is  granted.  The  object  of  this  i»or- 
tion  of  the  cn.actment  being  to  jirevent  grocers  from 
becoming  in  reality  the  keepers  of  tippling-hoiises, 
those  j>crsons  c(uitinucd  to  be  ]>emiittcd  to  sell 
lifpiors  liy  refciil,  ]irovided  that  they  were  not  con- 
sumed in  their  shops.  In  accordance  with  the  )irin- 
ciple  of  distinguishing  between  the  different  cla.sses 
of  houses  in  which  the  trade  of  a  8pirit-<lealer 
shoidd  be  carried  on,  three  dilferciit  grades  of 
Lcences    were    introduced:   those    applicable,    viz., 


I ,  to  inn  oi"  hotel  keepei-s ;  2,  to  public-house  keepers ; 
and  3,  to  grocers  and  iirovision-dealers.  As  regards 
the  first  cliiss,  it  is  en.acted  that  they  shall  not 
'  keep  open  house,  or  jiermit  or  suffer  any  drinking 
in  any  Jiart  of  the  ])remises  belonging  thereto,  or 
sell  or  give  out  therefrom  any  hiiuors  before  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  or  after  eleven  o'clock  .at 
night  of  any  day,  with  the  exception  of  refresh- 
ments to  travellers,  or  persons  re<piiring  to  lodge  ia 
the  sjiid  house  or  ]iremises  ;  and  further,  that  they 
shall  not  open  their  houses  for  the  sale  of  any 
liquors,  or  sell  or  give  out  the  same  on  Sun<lay, 
cxce])t  for  the  accommodation  of  lotlgers  and  iMind^ 
tide  travellei-s.'  The  same  restrictions  are  imposed 
on  the  second  class  of  ]>ersons — viz.,  the  keepers  of 
public-houses,  with  this  addition,  that  no  exception 
is  made  in  their  cose  in  favour  of  travellers  or 
lodgers ;  whilst  grocers  and  provision-dealers,  in 
addition  to  the  prohibition  to  open  on  Sundays,  and 
that  already  mentioned  with  reference  to  the  con- 
sumption of  spirits  on  the  premises,  are  forbidden 
'to  sell  or  give  out  any  liipioi-s  before  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  or  .after  eleven  o'clock  at  night.' 
Separate  licences  were  also  introduced  for  the  sale 
of  malt  liquors  from  those  ajiplicable  to  the  sale  of 
wine  and  spirits,  all  of  which  had  formerly  been 
included  under  one  licence.  By  this  statute,  also, 
for  the  first  time  in  Scotland,  the  very  formidablo 
])ower  was  conferred  on  the  ])olice  of  entering  at 
any  time  any  public-house,  or  house  where  refresh- 
ments are  sold  to  be  consumed  on  the  jjremises,  and 
penalties  were  awarded  against  tliose  who  refused  to 
.admit  them,  or  who  obstriicted  their  entrance.  These 
l>rovisions  having  given  rise  to  much  discussicm,  a 
Koy.al  Commission  to  in(|uire  into  the  working  of  the 
act  w.as  issued  on  the  25th  April  1850.  The  result  of 
the  commission  was  the  issue,  as  usual,  of  two  enor- 
mous volumes  of  printed  evidence,  and  of  a  rejiort, 
more  distinguished  for  its  length  than  for  the  value 
of  the  suggestions  which  it  contains.  The  commis- 
sioners .arrived  at  the  conclusion,  that  'although 
iiitemiiei-ance  still  prevails  to  a  lament.able  extent, 
it  would  seem  that  this  vice  has  lieen  for  some  time 
gradually  descending  in  the  scale  of  society,  and 
that  it  is  now  chiefiy  confined  to  the  lowest  class 
of  the  pojuilation.'  This  efl'ect  the  conrniissiouers 
ascribe  to  sever.al  causes,  of  which  the  first  and 
iiiost  important  is  the  increase  of  the  duty  on 
excisable  liquoi-s  from  is.  i^d.  jicr  imperial  gallon,  at 
which  it  stood  in  1823,  to  S«-.,  to  which  it  was 
finally  raised  in  1855.  Nor  do  they  deny  to  the 
Forbes  Mackenzie  Act  its  share  of  merit.  '  The  bene- 
ficial effect  of  the  act,'  they  say,  '  is  proved  l>y  the 
evidence  which  we  received  .as  to  the  tlimiuution  of 
crime,  and  the  change  for  the  better  in  the  lial)its  of 
the  people,  immeiliately  after  the  p.assing  (^f  the  act, 
when  its  provisions  were  strictly  enforceil,  and  by 
the  tendency  in  an  opposite  dii'ection  whicli  in  some 
[ilaces  luis  followed  its  less  rigorous  enforcement 
during  the  last  tw'o  years.  In  some  towns,  there  has 
been,  on  the  jiait  of  the  m.agistrates,  great  remiss- 
ness in  administering  the  law.  The  result  seems 
to  have  been,  if  not  an  increase  of  crime  in  these 
jilaccs,  at  least  the  absence  of  the  improvement 
witnessed  elsewhere.'  Whilst  thus  generally  approv- 
ing of  the  act,  the  commissioners  suggest  a  number 
of  alterations,  mostly  with  the  view  of  enabling 
the  ]iolice  to  carry  out  its  provisions  with  greater 
efficiency.  In  reference  to  the  difficulty  experienced 
by  hotel- kee]icrs  in  .ascertaining  wh.at  persons  came 
under  the  descriptions  of  tioml-fide  travellers,  the 
cummissioners  recommend  that  in  future  ']iei'Son3 
inducing  hotel-keepers  to  sell  or  give  out  excisable 
licpiors  to  them  on  Sundiiy,  by  falsely  re]ireseiiting 
themselves  .as  travellers,  should  be  guilty  of  an 
offence,  and  be  liable,  on  conviction,  to  a  fine.'      In 


FORBIDDEN  FKUIT— FORCE;  ENERGY. 


these  circumstances,  it  becomes  important  to  know 
tliat  it  has  been  decided  in  Enyland  that  to  con- 
Btitute  a  'traveller'  within  the  meaning  of  the 
corresponding  Act  18  and  1!)  Vict.  c.  118,  s.  2,  it 
is  a  matter  of  inilifference  whether  the  parties  be 
travelbni;  for  business  or  pleasure,  and  that  a  walk, 
ride,  or  drive,  for  exercise  and  amusement  of  such 
Icnj.'th  as  to  render  refreshments  desiralple,  is  a  suffi- 
cient journey.  In  Atkinson  v.  .Sellers  (o  C.  B.  N.  S. 
442),  Chief  Justice  Coekbum  remarked,  that  '  a  man 
could  not  be  said  to  be  a  traveller  who  goes  to  a 
place  merely  for  the  purpose  of  taking  refreshment. 
But  if  he  goes  to  an  inn  for  refrestiment  in  the 
course  of  a  journey,  whether  of  business  or  of  plea- 
sure, he  is  entitled  to  demand  refreshment,  and  the 
innkeeper  is  justified  in  supplying  it.'  See  also 
Tayhir  v.  Humphreys,  C.  P.  70.5  ;  4  L.  T.  N.  S.  .314. 
The  first  was  in  the  case  of  a  drive  from  Liverjiool 
of  5.1  miles,  the  second  of  a  walk  from  Biiniingham 
of  4  miles. 

FORBI'DDEX  FRUIT,  a  name  f.ancifiUly  given 
to  the  fruit  of  different  species  of  Citrun.  In  the 
shops  of  Britain,  it  is  a  small  variety  of  the 
Shaddock  (tj.  v.)  which  generally  receives  this  name. 
But  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  a  different  fruit, 
regarded  by  some  as  a  variety  of  the  orange,  and  by 
some  as  a  distinct  species  {Citrus  Paradi^-i),  is  known 
as  the  Forbidden  Fruit,  or  Adam's  A]iple.  Like 
some  other  fruits  of  the  same  genus,  it  was  recently 
introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe  from  China. 
The  tree  has  broad,  tapering,  and  pointed  leaves, 
the  leaf-stalks  winged  ;  the  fruit  is  large,  some- 
what pear-shaped,  greenish-yellow,  of  very  uneven 
surface,  having  around  its  base  a  circle  of  deeper 
depressions,  not  unlike  the  marks  of  teeth,  to  which 
it  probably  owes  its  name.  It  is  chietly  the  rind 
wliich  is  the  edible  part;  the  rind  is  very  thick, 
tender,  melting,  and  pleasant;  there  is  very  little 
pulp;  the  pulp  is  acid. 

The  name  Forbidden  Fruit  has  also  been  given  to 
the  fruit  of  TaberiMmontana  dic/iotoma,  a  tree  of 
Ceylon,  of  the  natural  order  Apoq/iiacece.  The 
shape  of  the  fruit — which  is  a  follicle,  containing 
pull)— suggests  the  idea  of  a  piece  ha\-ing  been 
bitten  off,  and  the  legend  runs  that  it  was  good 
before  Eve  ate  of  it,  although  it  has  been  poisonous 
ever  since. 

FORCE;  E'NERGY.  TiU  we  know  what  Matter 
(q.  V.)  is,  if  there  be  matter,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word,  at  all,  we  cannot  hope  to  have  any  idea 
of  the  ab.solute  nature  of  force.  Any  speculations 
on  the  subject  could  only  lead  us  into  a  train 
of  hypotheses  entirely  metaphysical,  since  utterly 
beyond  the  present  powers  of  exjierimental  science. 
If  we  content  ourselves  with  a  definition  of  force 
b.ased  on  experience,  such  a  definition  will  say 
nothing  of  its  nature,  but  will  confine  itself  to  the 
effects  which  are  said  to  be  due  to  force,  and  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is  almost 
preposterous  to  aim  at  more. 

Our  first  ideas  of  force  are  evidently  derived  from 
the  e.xertion  required  to  roll,  or  lift,  bend,  or  com- 
press, &c.,  some  mass  of  matter ;  and  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  in  all  such  c.-tscs  where  muscidar  contraction 
is  employed,  matter  is  moved,  or  tends  to  move. 
Force,  then,  we  may  say  generally,  is  any  cause  which 
produce.^,  or  tendjs  to  produce,  a  change  in  a  hodtja  stale 
of  rent  or  motion.  See  MoTlox,  Laws  of.  The 
amount  or  magnitude  of  a  force  may  be  measured  in 
one  of  two  ways  :  1.  By  the  pressure  it  can  produce, 
or  the  weight  it  can  support ;  2.  By  the  amount  of 
motiim  it  can  produce  in  a  given  time.  These  are 
called  respectively  the  St.atical  and  Dynamical 
me.isures  of  force.  The  latter  is,  as  it  stands,  some- 
wiuit    ambiguous.      What    shall    we    take    as   the 


quantity  of  motion  proiluced?  Does  it  depend  merely 
on  the  velocity  produced  ?  or  does  it  take  account  of 
the  amount  of  matter  to  which  that  velocity  is  given  ? 
Again,  is  it  proportional  to  the  velocity  itself,  or  to 
its  square?  This  l.i,st  question  w;ui  very  fiercely 
discussed  between  Leibnitz,  Huygliens,  Elder,  Mac- 
laurin.  the  Bernouillis,  &c. ;  Leibuitz  being,  as  usual 
with  him  in  physical  questions,  on  the  wrong  side. 
Newton,  to  whom  we  owe  the  third  law  of  motion, 
h.ad  long  before  given  the  true  me.isure  of  a  force  in 
tenns  of  the  motion  produced.  This  law  is  an  experi- 
mental result — that  when  pressure  produces  motion, 
the  niomenlum  jiroduced  (see  Momentu.m)  is  jiropor- 
tional  to  the  pressure,  and  can  be  made  (numerically) 
equal  to  it  by  emplojnng  proper  units.  Hence 
momentum  is  the  true  dynamic.il  measure  of  force, 
which,  therefore,  is  proportion.al  to  the  ^/irxt  power 
only  of  the  velocity  produced.  What  "is  properly 
measured  in  terms  of  the  tiiptare  of  the  velocity, 
we  shall  presently  sec.  For  various  properties  of 
force,  statical  and  dynamical,  see  the  following 
articles :  Co.mpcsitiox  of  For.CES,  C'ouri,E!3,  Ce.ntrb 
OF  GBA\Trv,  Central  Forces,  Falli.so  Bodies, 
Mechanical  Powers,  Virtual  Velocities. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  order  to  produce  any  eCTect  at 
all,  or  to  do  work,  as  it  is  technically  called,  a  force 
must  produce  motion,  i.e.,  must  move  its  jioint  of 
a]i))lication.  A  weight  laid  on  a  table  produces  no 
effect  whatever  imless  the  table  yields  to  the  pres- 
sure, i.e.,  unless  the  weight  descends,  be  it  ever  so 
little.  We  do  no  work,  however  much  Ave  may 
fatigue  ourselves,  if  we  try  to  lift  a  ton  from  the 
floor;  if  it  be  a  hundredweight  only,  we  may  lift  it 
a  few  feet,  and  then  we  shall  have  done  work — and 
it  is  evident  that  the  latter  may  be  measured  as 
so  many  pounds  raised  so  many  feet — introducinf 
a  new  unit,  the  Foot-pound,  which  is  of  great 
importance,  as  we  shall  shortly  see,  in  modern 
physics.  See  Work.  This  is  evidently,  however, 
a  statical  measure  of  work,  since  no  account  is 
taken  of  velocity.  Have  we  then  for  work,  as 
we  had  for  force,  a  dynamical  measure  ?  Let  us 
take  a  simple  case,  where  the  mathematical  inves- 
tigation is  comparatively  very  easy,  and  we  shall 
find  we  have.  We  know  (see  Velocitv  ;  Motio.n, 
Laws  of)  that  if  a  particle  be  moving  along  a 
line  (straight  or  not),  and  the  distance  moved  (in 
the  time  ()  along  the  line  from  the  jioiut  where  its 

ds 

motion  commenced  be  called  «,  its  velocity  is  »  =  -j-. 

Also  we  know  that  the  force  acting  on  it  (in  the 
direction  of  its  motion)  is  to  be  measured  by  the 
increase  of  momentum  in  a  gi%'en  time — this  gives 

(just  as  the  last  equation  was  obtained)  F  =  m  -7-. 

dt 
From  these  two  equations,  we  have,  immediately, 
tnvdu  =  Fds,  or,  as  the  rucUments  of  the  differential 


•mV 
"2~ 


=  fFds 


if   the 


calculus   give   at  once, 

force  be  unlfonn. 

The  quantity  on  the  right-hand  side  is  the  sum  of 
the  products  of  each  value  of  F,  by  the  corresjiond- 
ing  s|iace  ds,  through  which  the  particle  moved  under 
its  action.  It  is  therefore  the  whole  work  done  by 
the  force.  On  the  left  hand,  we  find  half  the  product 
of  the  m-Tss,  and  the  square  of  the  velocity  it  has 
acquired;  in  otherwords,the  Vis-viva  (q.  v.).  Hence, 
in  this  case,  the  vis-viva  acquired  equals  the  amount 
of  work  expended  by  the  force. 

It  appears  from  a  general  demonstr.ation  (founded 
on  the  ex]ierimental  laws  of  motion,  and  therefore 
true,  if  they  are),  but  which  is  not  suited  to  the 
present  work,  that  if,  in  any  system  of  botlies.  e.ach 
be  made  u])  of  2>articlc3  or  atoms,  and  if  the  foi-ces 
these  mutually  exert  be  in   the   line   joining  each 

419 


FOKCE;   ENEKUY. 


two,  niul  di'|)cnd  merely  on  the  (Ustaucc  between 
them,  thin  we  c;ui  cxjuesa  the  required  proposition 
in  the  lollowini;  fonu  : 

Any  ihanije  of  vis-iira  in  Oie  syshm  corresponds 
to  an  n/iial  amount  of  wort  yaintd  or  lost  by  Qte 
attractions  of  the  parlUlfs  on  each  othtr. 

Wliat  is  8i)ent,  then,  in  work,  is  stored  up  in  vis- 
viv.t ;  and  convereely,  the  system,  by  losing  some  of 
its  vis-viva,  will  recover   so   much  work-producing 

J>ower.  If  we  call  the  former,  as  is  now  generally 
lone.  Actual,  and  the  latter  Potential,  Energy,  we 
may  express  the  above  by  saying,  that  iu  any  system 
of  bodies  where  the  before-mentioned  restrictions  are 
complied  with.  Me  sum  of  the  actual  and  potential 
enerijies  cannot  he  altered  by  tlif  mutual  action  of  the 
bodies.  The  most  simjile  and  evident  illustrations  of 
this  proposition  .ire  to  be  fo\ind  in  the  cise  of  the 
force  known  as  gravitation.  The  potential  energy  of 
a  m.as3  on  the  earth's  surface  is  zero,  because,  not 
being  able  to  descend,  it  has,  iu  common  langu.age, 
no  work-producing  power.  If  it  be  raised  above 
the  surface,  anil  then  dropped,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  work  expended  in  raisinij  it  vnll  be  exactly 
recovere<l  as  vis-viva  after  its  fall.  For  (see  Fall- 
ing Bodies)  a  mass  falling  through  a  space,  h,  to 
the  earth  acquires  a  velocity  v,  such  that  v-  =  2ijh, 

or  if  m  be  the  mass,  — -  =  mg.h.     The  left-hand 

side  gives  the  vis-\'iva  acqtiired  by  the  fall — the 
right  is  the  product  of  the  weight  (mrj)  and  the 
height  fallen  through — or  is  the  work  required  to 
elev.ate  the  mass  to  its  origiu,il  .-dtitude. 

Hence  we  may  calculate  the  amoimt  of  work 
which  can  be  obtained  from  a  head  of  water  in 
driving  water-wheels,  &c.,  remembering,  however, 
that  there  is  alwivys  a  luss  (as  it  is  usually  called) 
due  to  friction,  &c.,  in  the  machinery.  That  there 
is  a  loss  in  uscfid  power,  is  tnie,  but  we  shall  find 
presently  tli.it  in  energy  there  is  none,  as  indeed 
our  general  result  has  already  shewn.  Where  the 
aijparcntly  lost  energy  goes,  is  another  question. 

Another  good  example  of  potential  energy  is  th.it 
of  the  weights  in  an  ordinary  clock.  It  is  the 
gradual  conversion  of  iiotential  into  actual  energy 
in  the  driving  weight  which  maintains  the  motion 
of  the  clock,  in  spite  of  friction,  resistance  of  the 
air,  &c. ;  and  we  have  iu  the  actual  energy  of  sound 
(wliich  is  motion)  a  cousideraMe  portion  of  the 
cxjiended  potential  energy  of  the  striking  weight. 
A  coiled  w.itch-spring,  a  drawn  bow,  the  charged 
receiver  of  an  air-gim,  are  good  examples  of  stores 
of  potential  energy,  which  can  be  directly  used  for 
mechanical  purposes. 

The  chemical  arrangement  of  the  different  com- 
ponents of  g\mpowder,  or  gun-cotton,  is  such  as 
coiTesponds  to  enormous  poteutial  energy,  which  a 
single  spark  converts  into  the  equivalent  active 
amount.  But  here,  lieal  has  a  considerable  sh.ire 
in  the  effects  produced;  it  may  then  be  as  well, 
before  proceeding  further,  to  consider  how  we  can 
take  account  of  it,  and  other  jihysical  forces,  as 
forms  of  energy. 

Correlation  of  Phystcal  Forces. — So  far  as  we  yet 
know,  the  physical  forces  m.iy  be  thus  cLissified  : 
I.  Gravitation  (q.  v.) ;  II.  Molecular  Forces — 
ConF-siON  (including  C^vpill^vrity),  Ela-sticity, 
Chemic.vl  Affinity-;  III.  Heat  and  Light;  IV. 
Electricity  (including  Magnetism)  ;  V.  Animal 
Force;  VI.  Vital  Force,  having,  as  some  uiost 
irrationally  suppose,  an  analogue  in  inorganic  masses, 
which  may  be  called  Crystalline  Force.  (This  idea 
is  examined  further  on.)  Of  these,  1.,  II.,  and  some 
forms  of  III.,  are  more  immediately  connected  with 
matter  than  the  others— th.it  is  to  say,  that  the 
remainder  almost  necessitate  the  hyjiothesis  of  the 
existence  of  some  medium  unlike  ordinary  matter,  or, 


in  ])opuIar  language,  an  imponderable.  The  almost 
universal  opinion  of  jihysicists,  however,  seems  to 
be,  that  even  the  former  must  be  accounted  for  in 
some  such  way.  Kewton,  iu  his  second  letter  to 
Beutley,  says,  with  respect  to  gravitation  (and  it 
is  obvious  that  similar  language  is  applicaljle  tci 
molccidar  forces  generally) :  '  You  sometimes  speak 
of  gravity  as  essential  and  inherent  to  matter. 
Tray,  do  not  .iscribe  that  notion  to  me,  for  the 
cause  of  giavity  is  what  I  do  not  pretend  to  know.' 
And  again  in  the  third  letter;  'It  is  inconceiv.iblo 
that  inanimate  brute  matter  should,  without  the 
mediation  of  something  else,  which  is  not  material, 
operate  on,  and  alTect  other  matter  without  mutiiiU 
contact,  as  it  must  do,  if  gravitation,  in  the  .sense 
of  Epicurus,  be  essential  and  inherent  in  it ;  and 
this  is  one  reason  why  I  desired  you  would  not 
ascribe  innate  gravity  to  me.  Th.it  gr.i«ty  shoidd 
be  innate,  inherent,  .ind  essential  to  ni.itter,  so  that 
one  body  m.iy  act  upon  another  at  a  distance 
through  a  vacuum,  without  the  mediation  of  any- 
thing else,  by,  and  through  M'liiuh  their  action  and 
force  may  be  conveyed  from  one  to  another,  is  to 
me  so  great  an  absurdity,  that  I  believe  no  man 
who  has  in  philosophical  m.itters  a  competent 
faciUty  of  thiukinn;,  can  ever  f.ill  into  it.  GraWty 
must  be  caused  by  an  agent  acting  constantly 
according  to  certain  laws ;  but  whether  this  agent 
be  material  or  immaterial,  I  have  left  to  the  con- 
sideration of  my  readers.'  Of  what  th.it  medium 
may  consist,  we  cannot,  of  course,  hazard  even  a 
conjecture ;  but  if  it  be  composed  of  separate  atoms 
— i.  e.,  not  continuous — it  is  eviilent  that  a  second 
medium  will  be  required  to  help  the  particles  of 
the  first  to  act  on  each  other  (for  without  this,  the 
first  medium  would  be  merely  obstructive),  aud  so 
on.  This  must  stop  somewhere  ;  why  not,  then,  at 
the  first  ?  But  in  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge of  mechanics,  a  continuoiis  medium  is  barely 
conceivable,  and  its  motions,  &c.,  present  consider- 
able chfiiculties  to  even  plausible  mathem.itical 
treatment.  If  we  t,ike  the  view  opposed  to  New- 
ton's, as  Mosotti  and  others  have  done  (their  ideas 
are  considered  further  on),  we  can,  in  a  very  arti- 
ficial manner,  however,  accoimt  for  gravitation  and 
molecular  action ;  but,  as  before  said,  the  founda- 
tions of  this  attempt  at  explanation  are  hardly 
tenable. 

Just  as  sound  depends  on  the  elasticity  of  the 
air  and  vibrations  thereby  maintained  and  propa- 
gated, light  and  r.idiant  heat,  which  are  certainly 
identical,  most  jirobably  consist  iu  the  \'ibr.itions 
of  some  very  elastic  fluid.  This  has  been  provi- 
sionally named  Ether  (q.  v.).  If  it  be  continuous,  it 
may  help  us  to  account  for  the  first  two  categories 
of  force  .also,  as  we  have  ah'eady  seen  ;  if  not  so,  as 
is  more  likely,  fresh  difficulties  arise.  Light  and 
lie.it,  however,  are  undoubtedly  forms  of  motion, 
and  correspond,  therefore,  to  so  much  \ns-viva  or 
actual  energy.  Even  he.it  in  a  liquid  or  solid  body 
must  correspond  to  some  vis-viva  in  the  m,iteri,il 
particles,  since  a  hot  body  can  give  out  both  light 
and  heat,  and  a  body  m.iy  be  heated  by  luminous  or 
calorific  rays  which  are  vibratory,  as  we  have  seen. 

(^lass  IV.  contains  perhaps  tile  most  puzzling  of 
all  these  forces.  That  there  is  something  in  com- 
mon in  aU  the  forms  of  electricity,  and  that  mag- 
netism is  nearly  related  to  them,  is  certain ;  it  Is 
prob.ible,  also,  th.it  frietion.il  electricity,  when  st.it- 
ical,  consists  in  something  analogous  to  a  coiled 
S|iring,  or  is  a  form  of  potential  energy — the  others 
being  forms  of  actu.il  energy.  Some  have  supposed 
m.ignetism  to  be  also  a  form  of  potential  energy, 
Init  Ampbre's  discoveries  have  materially  lessened 
the  probability  of  the  truth  of  tliis  hypothesis.  We 
shall  consider  this  again. 


FORCE;  ENERGY. 


Class  V.  may  be  deferred  for  the  present. 

As  to  Class  VI.,  it  seems,  from  the  observations  of 
physiologists  as  to  the  formation  of  cellular  matter, 
and  the  production  in  living  organisms  of  comiioimds 
which  have  not  yet  been  made  by  ordinary  chemical 
processes,  that  the  vital  force,  if  there  be  such,  is 
not  a  force  which  does  work,  in  the  mechanical 
sense  of  the  term,  but  merely  dircct^^  as  it  were,  the 
other  natural  forces  hoxo  to  opply  their  energies. 
Wore  a  railway  train  running  on  a  smooth  horizontal 
line  of  rails,  it  woiild  retain  for  ever  its  original 
velocity  ;  but  in  turning  a  curve,  it  woiUd  be  acted 
on  by  deflecting  forces,  without  which  its  path 
would  be  straight.  These  forces  do  no  work,  as  is 
erident,  since  this  would  be  shewn  in  alteration  of 
the  vis-viva,  and  none  takes  place.  They  modify, 
however,  the  direction  in  which  the  train  moves. 

When  gangs  of  labourers  and  masons  are  at  work 
building  an  edifice,  the  former  are  employed  raising 
stones,  mortar,  &c.,  the  latter  in  laying  them  ;  but 
there  is  present  an  overseer  with  a  plan,  who,  doing 
no  (mechanical)  work  himself,  guides  and  directs 
the  proper  expenditure  of  force  by  the  working 
body.  In  this  \iew  of  the  case,  the  labourers  are 
the  physical  forces,  and  the  overseer  the  vital  force. 
It  is  quite  certain  th.at  the  so-called  crystalline 
force  cannot  properly  be  jiut  in  this  category,  as 
liresenting  even  an  analogy,  however  slight ;  it  is 
]>roliably  an  eflect,  not  a  cause,  and  due  to  the 
different  forms  of  simple  or  compound  ]>ai"ticles  of 
matter,  and  the  conseipient  variations  in  their 
molecidar  forces  in  different  directions. 

So  far,  then,  for  the  possiljle  nature  of  the  forces, 
which,  \vith  the  probable  excejrtion  of  VI.,  can  be 
considered  .as  various  forms  of  energy.  Can  they  be 
transformed  one  into  another,  as  the  different  kinds 
of  mechanical  energy  can  ?  Take  the  potential 
energy  of  gravitation  to  begin  with.  We  can  em]iloy 
it  to  drive  a  water-wheel.  This  turns  a  shaft,  to 
which,  if  a  tight  break  be  applied,  heat  will  be 
produced  by  friction,  and  light  also,  if  a  rough 
wheel  on  the  shaft  be  made  to  rotate  against  a 
piece  of  flint  or  pyrites ;  or  electricity  may  be 
produced  by  employing  the  moWng  power  to  turn 
an  ordinary  electrical  machine,  or  a  magneto- 
electric  one  ;  and  from  the  electricity  so  prodiiced, 
electrical  attractions  and  currents  may  be  derived  ; 
from  them  heat  and  light  again.  Or  the  currents 
may  be  employed  to  magnetise  a  needle  or  a  piece 
of  soft  iron,  or  to  produce  chemical  decomposition. 

Again,  heat  may  be  employed  by  means  of  a 
steam-engine  as  a  substitute  for  the  water-power  or 
jjotential  energj'  of  gravitation,  and  the  al)ove  eti'ects 
be  produced.  It  may  also  be  employed  in  raising 
weights,  and  therefore  in  producing  the  potential 
energy  in  question  ;  or  it  may  be  employed  to  pro- 
duce Tliermo-electric  Currents,  and  thence  all  the 
ordinary'  effects  of  electricity,  including  the  motion 
of  a  magnetic  needle. 

Light  may  be  employed  to  produce  chemical 
comliination  or  decomposition,  as  we  see  in  photo- 
graphy ;  it  may  also  by  the  same  means  be  made  to 
produce  electric  currents,  and  consequent  vwtioii  of 
a  neetUe.  It  is  not  yet  proved  that  light  can  pro- 
duce magnetism  directly,  though  there  can  be  httle 
doubt  that,  if  properly  applied,  it  is  capable  of 
doing  so. 

Chemical  action  in  a  voltaic  btittery  can  be  made 
to  produce  motion,  heat,  light,  electricity,  electrical 
attractions  and  magnetism,  and  to  overcome  other 
chemical  afhnity. 

Capillary  action  has  been  employed  to  produce 
electricity,  and  mech.anical  effects,  &c.,  but  we  need 
not  go  through  the  whole  category. 

In  these  experimental  results,  then,  consists  what 
is  called  the  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces — 


i.e.,  the  transmutability  of  one  of  the  latter  into 
another  or  others.  The  idea  is  old,  but  the  jjroofs 
of  its  truth  have  only  become  numerous  within 
the  last  half-century.  Grove  has  iniblished  an 
excellent  treatise  with  the  above  title ;  to  this 
we  refer  the  curious  reader  for  further  detail  on 
this  interesting  subject. 

Conservation  of  Energy. — But  a  far  more  import- 
ant principle,  being,  in  fact,  the  precine  statement  of 
the  preceding — which  is  somewhat  v.ague— is  that 
of  the  Conservation  of  Force,  or  rather  Energy.  It 
is  simply  the  extension  (to  all  the  physical  forces)  of 
the  principle  which  we  have  given  in  full,  and 
proved  in  a  particular  case,  .at  the  beginning  of  this 
article — i.  e.,  that  the  sum  of  the  potential  and 
actual  energies  of  any  set  of  mf)ving  bodies  cannot 
be  altered  by  their  mutual  action.  Let  us  now 
suppose  heat,  light,  &c.,  to  consist  in  viliratory 
movements  of  particles,  and  in  their  relative  states 
of  distortion,  &c.,  .and  make  the  sup])Osition  that 
these  particles  act  on  each  other — no  matter  by 
what  means— in  the  line  joining  each  two.  and  with 
forces  which  deiiend  on  their  distance,  and  we  have 
at  once  the  theorem,  that  the  svnii  of  the  potential 
and  actual  energies  is  a  quantity  unalterable  in  any 
system,  save  by  external  influences.  Hence,  when 
mechanical  power  is  5.aid  to  be  lost,  as  it  is  by  the 
unavoidable  friction  in  machinery,  &c.,  it  is  really 
only  changed  to  a  new  form  of  energy — in  general, 
heat.  Thus,  when  a  savage  lights  his  lire,  he 
expends  animal  force  in  rubbing  two  pieces  of  dry 
wood  together.  If  these  pieces  of  wood  were  not  in 
contact,  no  force  would  be  required  to  move  them 
past  each  other — more  and  more  is  required  as 
they  are  more  strongly  pressed  together.  The  equi- 
valent of  this  force  so  expended  is  found  in  the 
he<at  produced.  Davy  shewed  that  two  pieces  o£ 
ice  might  be  melted  by  rnljbing  them  together.  A 
skilful  smith  can  he.at  a  mass  of  iron  to  redness  by 
mere  h.ammering.  Here  the  actual  energy  employed 
is  partly  given  out  in  the  shajie  of  heat,  and  partly 
stored  up  in  the  iron  as  potential  energy  due  to  the 
compression  of  the  mass,  or  the  forcible  appro.xi- 
m.ation  of  its  particles.  Amongst  the  earliest,  .and 
certainly  the  best  experiments  on  this  subject,  are 
those  of  JoiUe  ((j.  v.).  He  determined  the  relation 
between  the  units  of  heat  and  iiotential  energy  of 
gra\'itation,  by  various  methods,  which  gave  very 
nearly  coincident  results.  One  of  these  we  m.ay 
mention.  A  padcUe-wheel  is  so  fixed  as  to  revolve  in 
a  closed  vessel  full  of  water.  The  wheel  is  driven 
by  the  descent  of  a  known  weight  through  a 
measured  space,  and  jirecautions  are  taken  against 
losses  of  energy  of  all  kinds.  The  water  agitated 
liy  the  paddle-wheel  comes  soon  to  rest,  as  we 
know ;  Vjut  this  is  due  to  friction  between  its 
particles ;  and  the  final  result  is  the  heating  of 
the  water.  The  quantity  of  water,  and  also  the 
number  of  degrees  by  which  its  temperature  is 
raised,  being  measured,  a  simple  proportion  en.ables 
us  to  find  how  many  foot-pounds  (see  Foot-pocnd) 
of  mech.anical  energ'y  corres]}ond  to  the  raising  by 
one  degree  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water. 
The  result  is.  that  the  heating  a  pound  of  water 
one  degree  Fahrenheit  is  eUected  by  772  foot- 
pounds— and  this  number  is  called  Joule's  Equi- 
valent. In  other  words,  if  a  pound  of  water  fall 
to  the  ground  through  772  feet,  and  be  then 
suddenly  arrested,  its  temperature  will  be  raised 
one  degi-ee  ;  and,  conversely,  the  heat  th.at  would 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  j)ound  of  w'ater  one 
degi'ee,  would,  if  applied  by  a  steam-engine  or 
otherwise,  raise  772  poimds  one  foot  high.  Now 
(see  Heat  of  Comeination),  we  know  the  amount 
of  heat  which  is  produced  by  the  burning  (in  air) 
of    any    material    whose    composition    is    known. 

4:11 


FORCE;  ENERGY. 


It  follows,  tlion,  tliat  from  the  mere  quantity  and 
coni|H)sition  of  a  substance,  we  can  tell  the  amount 
of  mechanical  work  due  to  its  combustion ;  that  is, 
BUii]Kising  it  all  to  be  effective.  As  we  h,ave  been 
led  to  the  mention  of  heat  of  combustion,  let  us 
consider  what  this  is  due  to.  Combustion  (in 
air)  is  merely  a  chemical  combination  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  burning  body  with  oxygen — the 
heat  and  light  which  arc  develojied  are  therefore, 
by  the  couser\-ation  of  eucrgj-,  equivalent  to  the 
excess  of  potential  energy  of  the  iincombiued,  over 
the  combined,  oxygen  and  combustible. 

That  this  is  tlie  real  state  of  the  c.-ise — and  that 
the  original  setting  tire  to  the  combustible  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  matter,  as  is  frequently 
imagined — will  be  made  evident  by  considering  any 
siiontaneous  combination,  say  that  of  chlorine  and 
copper  filings,  or  of  mercury  and  sodium,  &c.,  in 
which  cases  the  jiotential  cnerg)'  lost  by  the  com- 
pound appears  as  heat,  light,  and  sometimes  sound. 

The  equivalents  of  the  other  physical  forces  have 
not  been  even  approximated  to.  with  the  exception 
of  that  of  li"ht.  Thomson  has  determined  the 
energj'  of  a  cubic  mile  of  smihght  at  the  earth  to  bo 
somewhere  about  12,000  fool-pounds,  giving  about 
10,000  as  the  I/orse-power  (q.  v.)  of  each  square  foot 
of  the  smi's  surface.  There  ai'e  some  additional 
difficulties  in  the  way  when  we  seek  the  equivalent 
of  electricity,  for  here  the  question  arises :  '  Is  there 
a  special  substance  which  is,  or  whose  motions  are, 
electricity,  or  is  it  merely  another  mode  of  motion 
of  the  luminiferous  ether?'  for  we  can  scarcely 
suppose  it  to  be  due  to  motions  of  the  particles  of 
matter.  If  the  first,  we  have  as  yet  no  means  of 
estimating  its  energy;  if  the  latter,  we  may  con- 
sider it  as  within  the  reach  of  experiment.  It 
may  merely  be  remarked  here,  that  Weber's  exqui- 
site theoretical  statement  of  djTiamical  electricity 
— resting  on  the  fundamental  assumption  that  there 
arc  two  electric  Jluidg — requires  the  admission  of 
mutual  forces,  which  vary  with  the  relative  velocity 
of  its  ]iarticles,  and  for  which,  therefore,  the  con- 
ser\'ation  of  energy  does  not  hold. 

Helmholtz,  in  an  admirable  paper  ( Veher  die  Er- 
Jtaltuiifj  der  Kraft,  translated  in  Taylor's  Scientific 
Memoirs,  New  Series,  i.).  starting  from  the  assump- 
tions above  explained,  has  applied  the  principle  of 
conserA-ation  of  force  to  the  investigation  of  many 
recondite  problems  cormected  wdth  most  of  the 
physical  forces.  We  cannot,  of  course,  enter  into 
his  work  in  detail,  as  it  is  somewhat  analytical, 
but  we  may  freely  borrow  such  of  its  contents  as 
we  have  not  already  alluded  to,  at  least  such  as 
will  suit  the  plan  of  this  article. 

A  very  good  example  of  the  conservation  of  energj' 
is  found  in  the  increasing  velocity  of  a  planet  or 
comet  as  it  aiq)roache3  the  sun,  and  thus  loses  poten- 
tial ener^ ;  and  also  in  the  fact,  that  in  the  case  of 
these  bodies  the  mere  distance  from  the  sun,  and  the 
velocity  at  that  distance,  enable  ns  to  tell  at  once 
the  nature  of  the  orbit  described — i.  e.,  which  of  the 
conic  sections  it  is. 

Latent  heat  is  a  form  of  potential  energy,  depend- 
ing on  the  physical  state  of  the  substance  in  which 
it  is  stored  up.  The  same  may  be  said  of  those 
substances  which,  when  mixed,  jiroduce  heat  or  cold, 
as  water  and  sidphuric  acid,  or  nitrate  of  ammonia. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  here  the  heat  or  cold  depends 
n])on  a  change  of  molecular  arrangement  of  some 
kind  ;  that  is,  a  change  of  the  potential  energy. 

In  m.agnetism  and  statical  electricity,  of  course, 
the  conservation  of  energy  holds,  as  we  know  that 
all  the  ])henomena  can  be  explained  by  attractions 
and  rejiulsions,  following  the  law  of  gravitation. 
In  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  battery,  the  potential 
energy  lost  is  reproduced  as  heat  in  the  connecting 


w  ires,  and  as  light,  heat,  and  sound  with  the  disruii- 
tive  spark.  In  charging  a  Leyden  jar  by  means  of 
the  clectrojihorus,  the  charge  is  directly  produced 
by  the  cxjienditure  of  mechanical  force  in  over- 
coming the  attraction  of  the  negative  electricity  of 
the  resinous  plate  for  the  positive  electricity  of  the 
cover. 

In  the  ordinary  voltaic  battery,  the  excess  of  loss 
of  potential  energy  in  the  cells,  by  the  chemical 
union,  say  of  zinc  .and  oxygen,  and  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  oxide  of  zinc,  over  that  gained  by  the  decom- 
position of  water,  produces  the  actual  energy  of  the 
current,  which  may  be  transformed  into  heat,  light, 
magnetism,  or  motion,  or  two  or  more.  Or  it  may 
be  employed  to  reproduce  potential  energy  by  cliem- 
ical  decomposition,  say  that  of  water.  This  again, 
by  a  spark,  can  be  reconverted  into  actual  energy  as 
an  explosion  accompanied  by  heat,  light,  and  sound. 
When  an  electric  current  causes  the  motion  of  a 
magnetised  needle,  our  general  jirinciple  should  lead 
us  to  infer  that  the  current  itself  will  be  weakened. 
This  is  fomid  to  be  the  case,  but,  as  it  should  l)e, 
only  during  Ike  motion  of  the  needle.  The  needle  in 
a  permanent  state  of  detiection  produces  no  eil'eet 
whatever.  Now,  the  diminution  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  simply  equivalent  to  the  addition  of  a  weaker 
current  ji.assing  in  the  op]insite  direction.  We  should 
expect,  then,  that  the  motion  of  a  magnet  near  a 
conducting  wire  will  in  general  produce  a  cunent  in 
the  latter,  and  this  is,  in  fact,  Faraday's  great  dis- 
covery of  magneto-electric  induction.  In  this  case, 
the  current  ceases  so  soon  as  the  magnet  ceases  to 
move  relatively  to  the  wire. 

If  a  mass  of  copjier  or  other  good  conductor  be  set 
in  rapid  rotation  near  a  powerful  magnet,  the  motion 
produces  electric  ciurents  in  the  co]i]ier,  which,  being 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  soon  bring  the  mass  to 
rest.  It  is  not  so  clear  in  this  case  into  u/i<it  the 
mechanical  energy  of  the  rotation  has  been  trans- 
formed, especially  as  the  electric  cm-rents  cease  with 
the  motion;  but  if  we  keep  up  the  rotation  forciiily, 
we  lind  in  a  short  time  the  copper  growing  warm  ; 
in  other  words,  the  motion  has  been  transformed 
into  electricity,  and  the  latter  into  heat.  This  very 
beautiful  exjieriraent  is  due  to  Joule,  and  has  been 
repeated  in  a  striking  popid.ir  form  by  Foucault. 

Advant.age  has  been  taken  l-iy  Faraday  of  the 
]ihenomcna  of  inductii>n,  to  produce  electric  curi'ents 
by  aid  of  the  earth's  magnetism.  His  apparatus  is 
sim])ly  a  revolving  disc  of  metal,  and  the  terminal 
wires  touch,  one  its  axis,  the  other  its  edge.  The 
force  which  is  here  transformed  into  electricity  is 
the  additioucal  efibrt  requisite  to  turn  a  conditetlnij 
disc,  instead  of  an  equal  non-eonductinfj  one.  It  is  a 
curious  consequence  that  in  all  metallic  machinery 
a  portion  of  the  energy  of  the  prime  mover  is  lost  in 
]troducing  electricity,  and  finally  heat,  in  the  moving 
jiarts,  so  that  heat  in  such  cases  is  not  entirely, 
thtmgh  very  nearly,  due  to  friction  alone. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  singular  of  these  trans- 
formations of  energy  is  that  already  referrf;d  to  of 
heat  into  electricity.  Certain  crystals,  such  as  tmir- 
maline,  become  electrified  by  heat  ;  but  electric 
currents  can  be  produced  by  sini])ly  heating  a  junc- 
tiun  of  two  wires  or  bars  of  different  metals,  the 
other  ends  also  being  in  contact.  Now,  if  we  were 
to  heat  the  other  junction,  it  is  obvious  that  as  at  it 
the  metals  are  arranged  in  the  o]tjiosite  oriler,  we 
should  ju'oduce  a  contrary  cun'ent ;  ctjnversely,  l)y 
cooling  them  we  should  strengthen  the  first,  lint 
the  conservation  of  force  re(iuires  that  such  a  junc- 
tion shouhl  be  heated  or  cooled  according  to  the 
direction  in  which  a  current  passes  through  it.  This 
was  discovered  by  Peltier. 

,\nimal  force,  again — or  rather  its  actual  energy 
— is  simply  a  transformation  of  the  potential  energy 


FORCE;  ENEI5GY. 


of  food.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  increased 
diet  which  is  required  when  man  or  beast  abruptly 
changes  from  a  state  of  inactivity  to  one  of  toil,  as 
"witli  a  polar  bear  after  his  winter's  sleep  ;  or  by  the 
greater  amount  and  better  quality  of  food  which 
are  necessary  for  criminals  suliject  to  hard  labour, 
than  for  those  who  are  merely  imjirisoned. 

Since,  then,  as  far  as  we  have  yet  seen,  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  gain  or  loss  of  energy  anj^vhere, 
while  it  appears  that  the  idtimate  transformation  of 
such  energy  is  heat,  and  that  the  latter  tends  to 
a  imiform  diffusion  or  dissijiation,  in  which  it  is 
unavailable,  as  far  as  we  know,  for  further  trans- 
formation (see  Heat),  whence  do  we  procure  the 
snp]>lies  of  energy  which  are  requisite  to  maintain 
the  economy  of  life  ?  We  answer  :  Chiefly,  or  indued 
entirely,  from  the  sun,  whence  they  come  as  light  and 
radiant  heat,  perhaps  in  other  forms.  Without  the 
sun,  where  wouM  be  vegetation  ? — without  the  latter, 
whci'e  animal  life  ?  Where  would  be  our  stores  of 
fuel,  whether  wood  or  coal  ?  It  is  entirely,  then, 
we  may  say,  to  tlie  directly  supplied  energy  of  the 
Bun  that  we  look  for  the  maintenance  of  life  ;  and  this 
leads  to  a  question  not  of  much  importance  to  our- 
selves, to  be  sure,  but  of  vast  future  consequence  to 
the  human  race  :  Is  this  supply  linitc  ?  Will  the 
sun  in  time  have  given  off  all  its  energy,  or  is  it 
continually  receiving  accessions  itself,  and  if  so,  has 
it  an  inexhaustible  store  to  draw  from  ? 

Now,  whether  the  snn  be  a  hot  mass,  or  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  in  an  intense  state  of 
conibustiou,  or  whether  it  derives  the  main  part  of 
its  heat,  as  Thomson  sujiposcs,  from  gi'avitation 
(in  a  way  presently  to  be  considered),  it  is  certain 
that,  as  far  as  we  know,  it  must  at  some  period 
be  exhausted.  Such  is  the  apjiareutly  inevitable 
verdict  of  the  conservation  of  euergj'. 

The  gravitation  theory  of  the  origin  of  energj- 
generally  may  be  given  in  some  such  foi-m  as  this  : 
The  matter  in  the  imiverse,  in  a  state  of  coarser 
or  finer  dirision,  originally  filled  all  space,  and 
possessed,  therefore,  by  viituo  of  gravitation,  a 
certain  amount  of  potential  energy.  As  jiarticles 
gradually  moved  up  to  each  other,  and  became 
slowly  agglomeratecl  into  masses,  more  and  more 
of  this  energy  was  realised  in  its  act\ial  form;  some 
as  heat  (that  of  the  sun,  or  the  internal  heat  of  the 
earth,  &c.),  some  as  vis-viva  of  axial  or  orbital  rota- 
tion, &c.  There  still  remains  uuagglomerated  in 
space  (see  Zodiacal  Liout,  Aerolites,  Nebula) 
much  of  this  original  matter  still  falbng  mainly 
towards  the  larger  masses,  as  the  sun  and  stare,  and 
exchanging  its  potential  for  actual  energy.  But  the 
latter,  as  we  have  seen,  tends  idtimately  to  become 
heat,  and  to  seek  a  unifonn  diffusion.  This,  then,  it 
appears,  is  to  be  the  last  scene  of  the  great  mystery 
of  the  universe — chaos  and  darkness  as  'in  the 
beginning.' 

An  immediate  consequence  of  the  truth  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  is  the  impossibility  of  what 
is  usually  understood  by  I'erpetual  Motion  (q.  v.)  ; 
for  it  is  to  be  carefully  remembered  that  perpetual 
motion,  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  words,  is  not 
only  possible,  but  very  generah  If  there  were  no 
such  thing  as  friction,  or  if  we  had  a  perfectly 
smooth  body,  in  the  form  of  a  teetotum,  for  example, 
it  would  si)in  for  ever  in  vacuo  with  undiminished 
speed.  The  earth  in  its  axial  rotation  affords  a 
good  example.  Were  it  a  perfect  sjiliere,  and  of 
uniform  material,  the  other  masses  of  the  system 
could  produce  no  effect  whatever  on  its  rotation, 
and  the  latter  woiUd,  as  indeed  it  docs,  as  far  as 
■we  can  determine,  remain  for  ever  imchanged.  And 
even,  as  we  have  already  seen,  when  one  motion,  as 
electricity,  or  ordinary  vis-viva,  is  lost,  we  find  it 
reappearing  in  other  forms  of  motion,  such  as  heat 


and  light.  But  this  is  not  the  technical  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  perjietual  motion  ;  it  is  popularly 
understood  to  mean  a  source  of  motion  which  will 
not  only  preserve  its  own  vis-Wva  unchanged,  but 
also  do  V!ork.  This  is,  of  course,  incompatible  with 
the  conservation  of  energy,  for  wherever  work  is 
done,  ecpiivalent  energy  in  some  form  or  other  is 
consumed.  As  we  have  not,  however,  an  absolute 
ciTttihitij  of,  though  very  powerful  evidence  indeed 
for,  the  truth  of  the  jirinciiile,  it  woidd  be  imphilo- 
so)ihical  to  conclude  that  iierjietual  motion  is  abso- 
lutely impossible.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  it 
camiot  be  attained  by  any  mechanical  arrangement ; 
ami  neither  heat,  light,  nor  magnetism  can  give  us 
any  assistance.  If  we  knew  more  than  we  do  at 
present  about  electricity,  we  should  probably  add  it 
also  to  the  category.  The  ordinary  attemjits  which 
are  still  being  made  in  thousands  by  \nsionaries, 
are  simply  absurd,  based  as  they  are  for  the  most 
part  on  ignorant  a]i|ilications  of  mechanics.  There 
is  absolute  impossibUity  here;  and  a  'perpetual 
motionist'  of  the  common  herd  is  far  more  infatu- 
ated than  a  '  squai-er  of  the  circle  ; '  for  the  latter's 
problem  ma>i  be  solved,  though  certainly  not  by  the 
means  usuaUy  employed,  or  in  the  form  usually 
sought  for. 

We  may  now  briefly  consider  the  theories  of  the 
physical  forces  which  have  been  advanced  of  late 
times,  and  we  may  take  such  as  are  worth  notice 
together.  All  of  them  assume  at  the  outset  forces 
of  attraction  or  rejuilsion  between  particles,  or  else 
a  highly  elastic  fluid,  or  rather  solid,  if  we  may 
so  c;dl  it,  in  which  the  particles  of  matter  float, 
or  are  imbedded.  We  have  already  considered  the 
difficulties  attending  the  latter  sujiposition;  but  it 
is  the  only  one  which  does  not  refer  force  back  to 
force,  thus  ajijiarently  learing  the  question  where 
it  found  it.  We  may  dismiss  it  with  the  remark, 
that  a  fluid  or  quasi-solid  absolutely  continuous 
and  alike  in  every  part  is  dithcult  to  conceive ; 
and  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  motion  can  be 
propagated  through  it.  If  it  be  not  continuous, 
forces  must  be  supposed  to  be  exerted  by  its  parts 
on  each  other,  else  the  motion  of  one  part  woidd  not 
affect  the  others.  There  is  one  way  in  which  the 
latter  dilficulty  has  been  attacked,  which  seems 
plausible  enough  ;  and  that  is,  tliat  the  particles  of 
this  fluid  are  in  a  state  of  rapid  motion,  and  con- 
tinually impinging  on  each  other  and  on  the  particles 
of  matter,  no  forces  being  exerted  except  those  of 
pressure  at  the  impact.  But,  unless  these  particles 
be  supposed  elastic,  and  what  is  elasticity  but  a  form 
of  molecular  force  {/vrce  again),  their  motion  woidd 
be  lessened  at  every  impact,  and  destroyed  com- 
pletely if  the  impact  were  direct.  This  objection 
seems  to  be  a  very  strong  one.  The  first-mentioned 
theory,  that  of  Epiuus  and  Mosotti,  assumes  that 
material  particles  float  in  a  general  atmosphere 
of  ether,  that  the  particles  of  each  repel  one 
another,  but  that  a  particle  of  matter  attracts 
one  of  ether.  From  these  suppositions,  and  an  hj'po- 
thetical  law  connecting  ])re5sure  with  density  in 
such  an  ether,  Mosotti  has  deduced  gra\ntation  and 
the  molecular  forces  ;  but  to  apply  the  hypothesis 
to  the  other  physical  forces,  other  su]>positions  are 
necessary.  These  have  been  su])plied  by  Clausius 
and  Kcdtcnbacher,  who,  -with  the  a.ssumptions  of 
particles  of  matter  and  of  ether  as  before,  imagine 
those  of  matter  to  attract  each  other,  and  also  those 
of  ether,  but  the  latter  to  be  mutually  repulsive. 
Light  and  radiant  heat,  according  to  this  theory, 
are  •(•ibrations  of  the  ether  which  fills  all  space 
between  the  particles  of  matter,  or  rather,  between 
the  atmospheres  of  ether  which,  by  the  foregoing 
assumptions,  the  particles  of  matter  will  collect 
about   them.     Heat    consists   of   vibrations   of   the 

423 


FOKCE;  EXEKGY— FORCE  AND  FEAR. 


uioleculi-s  of  matter,  or  of  the  giouiis  of  atoms  (see 
Atomic  '1"ueoky)  of  which  the  molecule  of  a  com- 
iwudJ  Ixxlv  is  built  up,  toijcther  with  their  atmo- 
spheres.  £lectricity,  magnetism,  &c.,  are  exi>laiiieil 
to  be  rotations  iu  the  atmospheres.  Kedteubacher 
ami  Clausius  are  not  quite  agreed  as  to  the  physiciU 
forces  corresiwuding  to  each  of  these  forms  of  motion, 
but  the  above  sketch  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
nature  of  their  speculations. 

But  the  most  startling  of  all  the  reflections  on 
force,  and  its  ultimate  nutme,  which  have  perhaps 
ever  been  made,  are  those  of  FaraiKiy.  A\  ithout 
cUliug  in  question  iu  ordinary  cnses  the  truth  of  the 
conservation  of  energy,  he  h;is  endeavoured,  by 
experiment  (the  only  genuine  test  in  a  question  so 
novel  and  so  jirofound),  to  prove  what  may  be  called 
the  Consenation  of  Force,  if  we  understand  force 
it^lf,  and  not  eiienji/.  He  argues  thus  :  two  masses, 
according  to  the"  undisputed  law  of  gr.avitatiou, 
attract  with  four  times  their  mutual  force  if  their 
distance  be  diminisheii  to  half  ;  and  with  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  s.amc,  if  their  distance  be  doubled. 
He  asks  wlienee  comes  the  additional  force  in  the 
former,  and  uhat  becomes  of  the  lost  force  iu  the 
latter  case  ? 

Xow,  it  is  evident  that  this  is  a  new  question, 
totally  distinct  from  any  we  have  yet  considered. 
To  answer  it,  we  must  know  w/iat  force  is.  Wouid 
fTa\'itation  have  any  existence  if  there  were  but  one 
particle  of  matter  in  the  vmiverse,  or  does  it  suddenly 
come  into  existence  when  a  second  pai-ticle  a|>pears  ? 
Is  it  an  attribute  of  matter,  or  is  it  due  to  somethin" 
between  the  particles  of  matter  ?  Farailay  has  tried 
several  experiments  of  an  exceedingly  delicate  kind, 
in  order  to  get  at  some  answer  to  his  question.  A 
slight  sketch  of  one  of  them  must  suffice.  A  pound- 
weight  is  not  so  heavy  at  the  ceiling  of  a  room  as  it 
is  when  on  the  floor ;  for,  in  the  former  case,  it  is 
more  distant  from  the  mass  of  the  earth  than  iu  the 
hitter.  The  difference  for  a  height  of  30  feet  is 
(roughly)  about  xsxs.jnreth  of  a  poimd.  Now,  if  a 
mass  of  metal  be  di-opped  through  such  a  space,  an 
.additional  force,  ■3-55,^5*1'  "^  ^^  weight,  is  called 
into  play,  .and  the  object  of  the  experiment  was  to 
detect  whether  electrical  effects  accompanied  this 
apparent  creation  of  force.  The  mass,  therefore,  was 
a  long  copper  >vire,  whose  coils  were  insulated  (see 
Electricits")  from  each  other,  and  whose  extremities 
were  connected  with  those  of  the  coil  of  a  delicate 
Galvanometer  (q.  v.).  Had  any  trace  of  an  electric 
current  been  produced,  the  needle  of  the  galvan- 
ometer woiUd  have  been  deflected,  but,  when  all 
disturbing  causes  were  avoided,  no  such  deflection 
was  detected.  Other  experiments  with  a  view  to 
the  detection  of  other  physical  forces,  were  also  tried, 
but,  like  the  first,  with  negative  results  only.  We 
must  not,  however,  conclude  that  such  can  never  be 
found,  as  this  would  be  assiuning  the  absolute  truth, 
in  all  cases,  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  which  is 
no  doubt  thoroughly  borne  out  bj'  experiment  in 
many  cafes,  but  not  even  approximately  in  others  ; 
while  even  in  the  former  class  more  delicate  instru- 
mental means  may  enable  us  to  trace  small  but  most 
important  deviations  from  absolute  exactness  ;  and 
it  is  to  the  results  of  such  trials  that  we  must  look 
for  further  information  as  to  the  7iature  of  force,  and 
the  generality  of  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy. 

There  are,  in  mechanics,  several  other  quantities 
which  retain  a  fixed  value  under  certain  circ\im- 
stances.     We  may  briefly  consider  a  few  of  them. 

Conservation  of  Areas.  Invariable  Plane. — We 
have  seen  (Central  Forces)  that  if  a  particle 
move  abput  a  centre  of  force,  its  motion  is  con- 
fined to  a  plane,  and  its  radius  vector  traces  out 
equal  areas  in  equal  times.  Similar  theorems  hold 
in  anv  system  of  particles  acted  on  only  liy  their 
i24 


mutual  attractions.  If  in  such  a  system  we  suppose 
the  ]iositious  of  the  respective  particles  to  be  con- 
tinually projected  (orthogonally,  see  Projectio.n)  on 
any  fixed  ]ilane,  and  radii  vectores  to  be  dra\ra  from 
ani/  point  in  that  plane  to  the  projections — the  sum 
vfOie  areas  swept  out  by  all  tJiose  radii  tyctores  will  be 
equal  in  equal  times.  Also,  this  being  true  of  all 
planes,  there  is  one  for  which  this  sum  is  a  maxi- 
mum, and  this  plane  is  fixed  in  space.  It  is  thence 
Civlled  the  invariable  plane  of  the  system.  .Similar 
propositions  hold  for  a  system  of  bodies  each  of  finite 
size,  their  several  .axi.al  rotations  being  taken  into 
account ;  hence  what  is  called  the  Invariable  Plane 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Solar  System. 

Conserration  of  Momentum. — When  two  masses 
attrjvct  or  impinge,  the  forces  they  exert  on  each 
other  are  evidently  equal  and  opposite.  Now,  the 
measure  of  a  force  is  the  momentimi  it  produces ; 
hence  equal  and  opposite  momenta,  iu  a^ldition  t»-> 
their  original  quantities,  will  be  commimicated  to 
the  masses,  .and  therefore  the  siuu  of  the  momenta 
of  the  two,  resolved  in  any  direction,  will  be 
unaltered ;  hence,  l/ie  sum  of  llie  momenta  of  any 
number  of  bodies  will  be  unaltered  by  mutiuil  actions 
either  of  the  nature  of  attraction  or  impiact. 

Conservation  of  the  Motion  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity. 
— Again,  in  such  a  system,  the  momentiun  of  the 
centre  of  graWty  of  the  whole  in  any  assigned 
direction  is  the  sum  of  the  momenta  of  the  separate 
bodies  in  that  direction  ;  hence,  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  a  system,  subject  to  none  but  live  mulaal  actions 
of  il.s'  com])onents,  either  remains  at  rest,  or  moves 
uniformly  in  a  straight  line. 

FORCE  AND  FEAR.  As  consent  is  of  the 
essence,  or  rather  is  the  essence  of  all  contracts, 
and  as  consent  implies  not  only  intelligence,  but 
xmfettered  ])Ower  of  action  in  the  consenting  parties, 
contracts,  by  the  laws  of  all  civilised  nations,  will 
be  invalidated  if  it  shall  be  proved  that  they  were 
entered  into  under  the  influence  of  force  or  fear. 
Circimistances  which  constrain  the  will  have  the 
same  effect  .as  those  which  blind  the  understanding, 
and  the  law  of  force  and  fear  is  consequently 
closely  .analogous  to  that  of  Fraud  (q.  v.),  including 
under  that  head  misrepresentation,  concealment, 
and  consequent  Error  (q.  v.).  But  it  is  not  every 
degree  of  constraint,  however  exercised,  which  will 
have  this  effect  in  law.  On  the  contnary,  it  must 
be  of  such  a  description  as  may  be  reasonably  sup- 
posed to  influence  the  wall  of  the  party  in  the 
circumstances  in  which  he  is  placed  at  the  time. 
In  determinmg,  therefore,  whether  there  really  has 
been  force  or  fear  in  the  legal  sense,  the  law  will 
take  into  account  the  age,  sex,  education,  and  other 
personal  characteristics  of  the  part}',  along  with  the 
accidental  circumstances  in  which  he  w.as  placed, 
e.  g.,  the  state  of  his  health  and  spirits  at  the  time, 
whether  he  was  alone,  what  anxiety  he  may  have 
felt  for  the  life  or  interest  of  others,  and  the  like. 
But  '  where  there  is  no  peculiar  weakness  of  age 
or  sex,  or  condition,'  saj-s  Mr  Bell,  stating  in  this 
respect  not  the  law  of  Scotland  alone,  but  of 
most  other  countries,  '  law  will  require,  in  order  to 
annul  a  contract,  such  fear  and  compidsion  as  may 
reason.ably  shake  a  mind  of  ordinary  constancy  and 
resolution,  and  will  not  listen  to  the  pretence  of 
every  vain  and  foolish  fear.' — Com.  i.  p.  22,  Shaw's 
ed.  As  a  contract  which  is  invalid  on  the  ground 
of  force  and  fear  is  not  only  incapable  of  being 
enforced  after  its  invalidity  has  been  ascertained  by 
legal  process,  but  from  the  absence  of  consent  w.as 
invalid  ab  initio — i.  e..  no  contract,  in  a  legal  sense, 
at  all — the  object  of  the  law  is  to  restore  the  parties 
to  the  position  in  which  they  were  before  it  was 
entered  into.  All  moneys  which  have  been  paid 
under  the  provisions  of  the  extorted  contract  must 


FORCELLINT— FORD,  FORDrNG. 


consequently  be  repaid,  and  reparation  in  as  far  as 
possible  must  be  made  by  the  payment  of  damages 
for  such  personal  injuries  as  tlie  party  who  was 
dragged  into  it  may  have  suffered  from  the  enforce- 
ment of  its  provisions.  See  Reduction.  By  the 
law  of  England,  Duress  (q.  v.)  which  will  invalidate 
a  contract  must  amount  to  fear  of  the  loss  of  life 
or  limb  (Mayhem,  q.  v.).  '  Whatever  is  done  by  a 
man  to  save  either  life  or  member,'  says  Black- 
stone,  '  is  looked  upon  as  done  upon  the  highest 
necessity  and  compulsion.  Therefore,  if  a  man, 
through  fear  of  death  or  mayhem,  is  prevailed  upon 
to  execute  a  deed,  or  do  any  other  legal  act,  these, 
though  accompanied  with  all  other  the  lequisite 
solemnities,  may  be  aftcrvvai'ds  avoided.'  But  '  a 
fear  of  battery  or  being  beaten,  though  never  so 
well  grounded,  is  no  duress ;  neither  is  the  fear  of 
having  one's  house  burned,  or  one's  goods  taken 
away  and  destroyed,  because  in  these  cases,  should 
the  threat  be  perfomied,  a  man  may  have  satisfac- 
tion l;iy  recovering  equivalent  damages.' — Stephen's 
Com.  i.  p.  142.  The  avoidance  of  such  a  contract 
is,  however,  dejieudcnt  on  the  will  of  the  injured 
party.  'A  contract  made  under  duress  may  be 
avoided  by  the  person  whose  free-will  was  thus 
restrained,  though  he  has  also  an  election,  if  he 
thinks  proper,  to  insist  upon  it  as  a  binding  trans- 
action' [lb.  vol.  ii.  p.  G2).  But  the  parties  who  are 
entitled  to  treat  a  contract  either  as  a  nidlity  or  a 
subsisting  contract,  must  make  their  election,  and 
cannot,  after  treating  the  contract  as  rescinded,  set 
it  up  as  a  subsisting  contract  {Addison  on  Conlracts, 
pp.  -.'TS,  436,  and  1074). 

FOKCELLINI,  iioiDio,  an  Itali.an  philologist  of 
great  attainments,  was  born  on  the  "iGth  of  August 
1US8,  in  a  village  near  Padua.  Owing  to  the  limited 
means  of  his  family,  F.  was  deprived  of  the  benefit 
of  early  instruction,  and  was  already  verging  towards 
manhood  when  enalileil  to  commence  a  regular 
course  of  study  in  the  seminary  at  Padua.  His 
zealous  industry,  combined  with  unusual  powers  of 
learning,  singled  him  out  from  his  companions, 
and  won  the  admiration  of  the  learned  principal, 
Giacomo  Facciolati,  who  even  associated  him  with 
some  of  his  own  scientific  labours.  The  pu]>d 
rendered  his  teacher  valualtle  service  in  the  com- 
pilation of  a  higlily  important  lexic(m,  a  work 
which  jirobably  inspired  both  with  the  project  on 
wliich  F.'s  literary  repute  is  based — viz.,  the  com- 
pilation of  a  vast  and  comprehensive  vocabulary  of 
the  Latin  language.  The  work  was  puljlished  after 
F.'s  death,  and  pronounced  by  public  vr)ice  as  one 
of  the  most  valuable  actpiisitions  to  jtliilological 
science  of  the  age.  In  addition  to  the  Italian  and 
Greek  signification  of  the  Latin  word,  the  literal  and 
ligurative  application  of  each  expression  is  given  in 
a  collection  of  examples,  in  themselves  a  perfect 
compendium  of  knowledge,  embracing  the  customs, 
laws,  arts,  sciences,  religion,  anil  history  of  the 
Romans.  This  immense  work  was  published  in  4 
vols.,  folio,  under  the  title,  Totius  Lattnltatui  Ltixicon^ 
consUio  el  cura  Jac.  Faccioliili,  opiTa  H  tstvilio  Aeg. 
Forcellini  Lucuhratum  (Padua,  1771).  Furlanetto's 
appendix  appeared  in  1810  (Padua),  and  a  new 
edition  of  the  complete  work  was  published  in 
182S  (Padua).     F.  died  in  17CS. 

FORCENE,  said,  in  Heraldry,  of  a  horse  when 
rearing,  or  standing  on  his  hinder  legs. 

FO'RCEPS  (Lat.  a  pair  of  tongs  or  jiincers),  the 
name  given  by  sm-geons  to  an  instrument  of  great 
antiquity,  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  lingers,  and 
consisting  of  two  level's  of  metal  jointed  together 
crosswise,  nearer  to  one  end  than  the  other.  The 
hand  grasping  the  longer  ends  of  the  levers  or 
handles,  closes  the  shorter  ends,  which  are  shaped 


so  as  to  seize  firmly  the  intende<l  object.  There  is 
scarcely  a  surgical  operation  in  which  it  is  not 
applied  ;  and  it  is  made  of  various  forms,  to  suit 
different  cases.  In  adtUtion  to  the  forms  used  in 
Dentistry  (q.  v.),  there  is,  e.  g.,  the  dissecting ioTceys, 
which  has  roughened  points,  to  lay  hold  of  small 
portions  of  tissue  which  are  to  be  divided  by  the 
knife ;  the  lifholonii/  forceps,  again,  has  blades 
concave  like  spoons  ;  and  fenestrated  forceps  have 
apertures  in  the  blades,  and  as  the  soft  tissues  pro- 
ject into  these,  a  firm  hold  is  obtained  witli  less  risk 
of  tearing  the  parts.  Bj'  means  of  Liston's  cutting 
forceps,  a  powerful  hand  can  cUvide  a  great  thick- 
ness of  bone.  But  the  most  important  of  all  is  the 
midwifiry  forceps,  an  invahiable  invention,  in  cases 
of  cUfficidt  dehvery,  which  daily  rescues  from  suffer- 
ing and  danger  numerous  mothers  and  infants.  It 
was  gradually  brought  to  its  present  perfection ;  but 
the  name  of  Chamberlen,  an  accoucheur  of  the  time 
of  James  II.,  is  associated  with  it,  as  one  of  its  chief 
improvers.  It  consists  of  two  concave  fenestrated 
blades,  forming  a  cavity  into  which  the  head  of  the 
child  fits.  The  blades  are  api)lied  separately,  one 
to  each  side  of  the  head,  and  then  locked  together. 
Holding  by  the  handles,  the  accoucheur  aids  the 
natural  efforts  of  laliour.  The  instrument  does  not 
necessarily  or  generally  injure  cither  mother  or 
child. 

FORCING,  in  Gardening,  is  the  artificial  ajipli- 
cation  of  heat  to  accelerate  vegetation.  The  term 
is  not  usually  applied  to  the  cidtivation  of  exotic 
plants  in  hothouses,  where  the  object  is  to  imitate 
as  much  as  possible  their  native  climate ;  but  it 
is  strictly  api>licable  to  the  system  usually  pursued 
with  vines  and  pine-apples,  to  secure  the  productioa 
of  fruit  at  desired  seasons,  and  by  different  plants 
of  the  same  kind  in  succession  through  a  consider- 
able period,  the  heat  being  increased  for  one  set 
of  plants  sooner  than  for  another.  Many  of  the 
fruits  and  vegetables  which  grow  well  in  the  open 
air,  are  very  commonly  forced^  in  order  that  they 
may  be  procured  at  seasons  when  they  could 
not  without  artificial  means.  Thus,  sea-kale  and 
rhubarb  are  forced  by  means  of  the  heat  produced 
by  heaps  of  fennenting  litter,  by  which  at  the 
same  time  they  are  blanched,  and  to  this  we  owe 
their  appearance  in  the  market  very  early  in  the 
season.  Potatoes,  pease,  kidney-beans,  asparagus, 
salads,  fee,  are  often  forced  by  means  of  hotbeds, 
or  in  fined  pits ;  or  a  place  is  found  for  them  in 
hothouses.  Strawberries  are  cultivated  in  pots, 
and  forced  in  hijthouses  ;  and  some  kinds  of  fruit- 
trees  are  often  treated  in  the  same  way,  particu- 
larly cherries  ;  and  very  diminutive  trees  may  be 
seen  richly  loaded  with  fruit.  Certain  varieties  are 
regarded  by  gardeners  as  particularly  suitable  for 
forcing.  The  system  pursued  in  the  Orchard-house 
(q.  V.)  cannot  be  called  forcing. 

FORD,  FORDING.  When  a  river  or  rivu- 
let is  crossed  without  the  aid  of  either  a  bridge 
or  ferry,  it  is  said  to  be  forded,  and  an  established 
place  for  this  crossing  is  called  a  ford.  Thus,  wo 
have  Oxford,  Stratford,  Dcptfonl,  Hungcrford,  &c., 
towns  Ijuilt  around  ancient  fords.  To  the  military 
engineer  and  the  traveller  in  wild  countries,  the 
selection  of  the  safest  place  for  fording  a  river  is 
a  matter  of  some  practical  imjiortance.  In  the 
first  place,  the  wide.it  part  of  the  river  should  be 
chosen,  as,  wherever  a  certain  quantity  of  water  is 
fiowing,  the  wider  its  bed— the  rapidity  of  the 
How  being  the  same — the  shallower  it  must  be.  At 
the  bend  of  a  river,  the  line  of  .shallow  water  does 
not  run  straight  across,  but  extends  from  a  pro- 
montory on  one  side  to  the  nearest  promontory  on 
the    other.      The  stream   usually  runs   deep   along 


FORD— FOREIGN  ATTACHMENT. 


hollow  ciin-cs,  nml  licneatli  stocp  pcqiendicular 
and  overUan)ri"g  l>ank3,  whilst  it  is  always  slioal  in 
front  of  promontories,  unless  the  jironiontory  is 
formed  by  a  jutting  rock.  For  safe  fording  on  foot, 
the  deptii  of  water  should  not  exoeeil  three  feet ; 
on  horseback,  four  feet ;  or  a  foot  less  for  each,  if 
the  current  be  very  strong.  The  bottom  of  a  ford 
should  be  firm  and  even  ;  weeds,  blocks  of  stone,  &c., 
are  serious  obstacles,  especisJly  for  cattle.  When  a 
caravan,  a  number  of  troops,  or  of  cattle,  have  to 
cross,  a  sandy  bottom  is  very  bad,  for  the  sand  is 
stirred  up  and  carried  away  by  the  stream,  and 
renders  the  ford  impracticable  "for  the  hindmost. 
For  a  small  paity,  hard  sand  or  gravel  is  the  safest 
bottom. 

The  inhabitants  of  a  district  generally  know  the 
s.ifest  fords,  and  their  experience  aflords  a  better 
guide  than  the  liest  rules  that  can  be  jjiven.  Fords 
are  contiuiilly  varying,  either  from  the  swelling  of 
the  river  or  the  shifting  of  its  bed  or  banks,  and 
therefore  it  does  not  follow  that  the  place  set  down 
by  one  traveller  as  a  safe  ford,  will  continue  so  for 
the  next  that  succeeds  him. 

FORD,  Joiix,  an  English  dramatist,  was  the 
second  son  of  Thomas  Ford  of  Ilsington,  in  the 
county  of  Devon.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not 
known,  but  he  was  bapti/.ed  iu  Ilsington  Church, 
17th  April  15SG.  His  family  was  connected  with 
the  famous  Lord  Chief  Justice  Popham,  and  lie 
became  a  member  of  the  MidiUe  Temple  in  Novem- 
ber IGO'2  ;  his  cousin,  a  John  Ford  also,  at  the  same 
period  being  a  member  of  Gr.ay's  Inu.  Uidike 
many  members  of  the  poetic  trilje,  F.  seems  to  have 
adliered  to  his  studies,  and  to  have  attained  some 
professional  success.  His  first  poem  was  an  elegy 
on  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  entitled 
/'ome's  MtmorkiJ.,  and  subsequentl^y  he  assisted  in 
the  composition  of  various  Jtlays  ;  ])crhaps,  from  his 
conjunction  with  Webster  and  Decker,  in  this  w.iy 
he  acijuired,  or  at  least  whetted,  his  apjietite  for 
tragic  horrors.  In  1G29,  he  produced  The  Lover^t; 
Melanclujli/ ;  and  four  years  after.  The  Brokni  llmrt, 
and  Lovds  Sacrifice  Next  year  came  Perkin  War- 
heck  ;  and  in  IG.'iS— 1030,  The  Fancies  Chaste  and 
JS^oble,  and  The  Lady's  Trial.  After  this,  F.  drops 
out  of  literary  history.  Some  think  that  he  died 
soon  after;  others,  that  he  retired  to  his  native 
place,  married,  and  lived  to  an  old  age,  with  sons 
and  daughters  m-owing  up  around  him. 

F.  takes  higli  position  as  a  dramatist,  and  this 
position  he  attains  more  by  general  mental  force 
than  by  dramatic  instinct,  or  by  what  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  coll  poetic  genius.  In  his  comjiositions, 
there  is  a  sense  of  eflort ;  his  "WTiting  looks  like  task- 
work ;  and  one  can  hartlly  suppose  that  he  enjoyed 
his  work.  His  versitication — even  when  the  subject- 
matter  is  distinctly  noble — is  hard  and  prosaic. 
He  has  no  humour.  He  has  been  praised  for  his 
pathos,  but  in  his  pathetic  scenes  effort  is  apparent. 
He  cannot  '  flatter'  you  to  tears,  as  Shakspeare 
and  the  greater  poets  do.  An  edition  of  his  works, 
published  by  Edward  Moxon  of  London  {1840),  is 
enriched  by  a  biograjjliical  notice  and  critical 
estimate  from  the  pen  of  Hartley  Coleridge. 

FORDUN,  Jonx  07.  Nothing  more  is  cert.ainly 
known  of  this  early  Scottish  chronicler,  than  that 
he  was  a  secular  priest,  and  wrote  about  tlie  year 
1380.  It  has  been  inferred  from  his  name  that  he 
was  bom  at  Fordun,  in  Kincardineshire,  and  it  h.-is 
been  said  that  he  was  a  canon  of  tlie  cathedral 
church  of  Aberdeen.  HaWng  j)roposed  to  himself 
the  compilation  of  a  chronicle  of  Scotland,  he  is 
said  to  have  travelled  on  foot  through  Britain  and 
Ireland  in  search  of  materials.  He  lived  to  write 
only  five  books  of  his  Scotic/ironicon,  bringing  the 


history  down  to  the  death  of  King  Darid  I.  in  1153. 
He  left  collections  extending  to  the  year  1385,  about 
whii-h  time  he  is  supjiosed  to  have  died.  The  work 
which  Jiilin  of  !•'.  had  left  unfinished  w;is  resumed  in 
the  year  1441  by  Walter  Bower,  abbot  of  the  nion.as- 
tery  of  Austin  Canons  Regular,  at  Inch  Colm,  or  St 
Colni's  Inch,  in  the  Firth  of  Forth.  He  enlarged 
the  live  books  which  F.  had  completed,  and  making 
use  of  his  collections  so  far  as  they  went,  wrote  eleven 
new  books,  bringing  the  Hcotichronicon  do\\*n  to  the 
murder  of  King  James  I.  in  1437.  The  dearth  of 
other  annals  has  given  more  importance  to  the  work 
than  it  could  claim  from  its  literary  merits,  which 
are  scanty  enough.  It  has  been  jirinted  more  than 
once,  the  most  complete  edition  being  Walter  Good- 
all's,  jiublished  at  Edinburgh  in  1759,  in  two  folios. 
Tliis  includes  both  F.  and  IJower.  The  best  edition 
of  F.'s  work,  as  it  was  left  by  himself,  is  Thomas 
Hcanie's,  published  at  Oxford  in  17"2'2.  There  is 
room  for  a  new  edition,  which  should  give  a  collation 
of  the  best  manuscrijits,  and  distinguish  what  is  F.'s 
own,  what  he  copied  from  others,  and  what  Bower 
interpolated  into  his  text. 

FORE  (i.  e.,  first),  a  tci-m  applied  to  the  front 
or  foremost  part  of  a  ship.  The  forehold  is  that 
part  of  the  hold  intervening  between  the  cutwater 
and  the  foremast.  The  forecaMe  is  that  portion  of 
tlie  upper  deck  extending  from  the  foremast  to  the 
bow  ;  it  is  the  part  to  which  the  common  sailors 
have  free  access,  and  probably  derives  its  name  from 
a  small  turret  or  castle  placed  near  the  prow  in 
ancient  vessels,  from  which  darts  and  other  ]irojec- 
tiles  could  be  most  conveniently  hurled  uiion  an 
enemy.  Foremast  is  the  first  of  the  tlu-ee  masts,  or 
of  the  two,  when  only  that  number  are  present.  It 
is  surmounted  by  the  foretoi>-niast,  foretojigallant- 
mast,  and  foreroyal ;  its  sails  being  foresad,  fore- 
topsail,  &c.  ;  between  it  and  the  bow  flies  the  fore- 
staysail,  hoisted  on  the  forestay,  a  massive  rojie 
jiassing  from  the  foretop  to  the  bow,  and,  with  the 
backstays  and  shrouds,  maintaining  the  mast  in  a 
perjtendieidar  position.  The  Jorchraces  are  rojies 
passing  from  the  extremities  of  the  foreyard  into 
the  maintop,  whence  they  descend  through  judlcys 
to  the  deck,  where  they  serve,  when  necessary, 
to  alter  the  direction  presented  by  the  foresail  to 
the  wind. 

FORECLO'SURE,  in  English  Law,  the  process  by 
which  a  mortgagor  failing  to  repay  the  money  lent 
on  the  security  of  an  estate,  is  compelled  to  forfeit 
his  right  to  redeem  the  estate.  Every  person  ha\'ing 
moi-tgaged  his  estate,  is  entitled  to  an  equity  of 
redemption,  which  can  only  be  cut  off  by  a  formal 
jirocess.  For  this  puqiose,  the  mortgagor  files  a  bill 
of  foreclosurr,  pr.\ying  that  an  account  may  be  taken 
of  the  principal  aud  interest  due  under  the  mortgage, 
and  that  the  mortgagor,  on  failing  to  p.ay,  may  for- 
feit his  equity  of  redemption.  If  on  the  day  fixed 
for  pajTnent,  the  money  be  not  forthcoming,  the 
mortgagor  will  be  declared  to  have  forfeited  his 
equity  of  redemption,  and  the  mortgagee  will  be 
allowed  to  retain  the  estate  in  perpetuity.  See 
Mortgage. 

FOREHAND  RENT.  In  Scotch  Law,  rent  is 
said  to  be  forehand  when  it  is  made  payable  before 
the  crop,  of  wliich  it  is  the  rent,  has  been  reaped. 
After  the  period  when  it  is  due  and  exigible,  fore- 
hand rent  is  in  bonis  of  the  lessor,  and  passes  to  his 
executor,  not  his  heirs  (Bell's  Law  dictionary). 

FO'REIGN  ATTACHMENT  may  have  refer- 
ence either  to  jierson  or  ]iroperty.  A  defendant  who 
has  been  arrested  or  attached  in  a  foreign  country, 
may  be  again  arrested  in  England  on  the  same 
ground  of  action.  Thus,  where  a  defendant  had 
been  arrested  abroad  on  an  English  judgment,  and 


FOREIGN  AUXILIARIES— FOREIGN  COURTS. 


escaped  and  came  to  England,  the  Court  of  Queen's 
Bench  decided  that  he  may  be  holden  to  bail  in  an 
action  on  the  judgment.  But  after  an  an-est  in 
Ireland  or  Scotland,  the  defendant  cannot,  in  general, 
be  again  arrested  in  England  for  the  same  debt, 
neither  of  these  countries  being  deemed  foreign  to 
that  effect  (Wharton's  Die).  Under  the  same  name, 
a  proceeding  for  securing  the  debts  due  to  the 
defendant  has  been  inunemori.aUy  used  in  the  cities 
of  London  and  Bristol  (Stephen's  Coni.  iii.  p.  G63, 
note) ;  and  by  the  C.  L.  P.  Act  of  1S54,  a  similar  pro- 
ceeding has  been  adopted,  but  'n-ith  this  difference, 
that  whereas  by  a  foreign  attachment  in  the  Lord 
Mayor's  Court,  debts  are  attached  for  the  purpose 
of  compelUng  the  defendant  to  appear  and  put  in 
bail  to  the  action,  no  such  proceeding  can  take  place 
in  the  common-law  coui-ts  till  after  jiidgment.  See 
Garnishment.  In  Scotland,  where  a  creditor  may 
both  incarcerate  a  debtor  and  attach  his  effects, 
an  English  creditor  may  attach  the  property  of  his 
debtor,  though  he  has  imprisoned  him  in  England. 
See  Attachment,  Apprehend,  Arrest,  Foreign 
Courts.  The  corresponding  phrase  in  Scotland  is 
Arrestment,  which  has  reference  both  to  jierson 
and  goods,  and  is  a  proceeding  at  common  law 
applicaljle  to  the  whole  country.  As  to  the  validity 
of  a  Scotch  arrestment,  ad  fundandam  jurisdic- 
tionern,  to  enable  the  Scotch  courts  to  proceed 
against  a  foreigner  though  absent,  see  the  recent 
appeal  case  of  the  London  and  North  Western 
Railway  Co.  v.  Lindsay,  Macqueen,  iii.  p.  99. 

FOREIGN  AUXILIARIES.  In  the  early 
periods  of  English  liistory,  foreign  auxiliaries  were 
by  no  means  uncommon.  Harold  had  a  body  of 
Danes  in  his  army  when  he  defeated  the  Non\'e- 
gian  king  ;  and  to  their  refusal  to  march  against 
the  kindred  Normans  he  owed  not  the  least  among 
the  complications  which  idtimately  overwhelmeil 
him.  Passing  to  modem  times,  William  III.  had 
for  some  time  a  body  of  Dutch  troops  in  his  pay  as 
king  of  England:  throughout  the  18th  c.,  Hessian 
and  Hanoverian  regiments  were  constantly  in  the 
pay  of  the  EngUsh  government  for  temporary  pur- 
poses. Hessians  fought  for  us  in  the  first  American 
war ;  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  who  sold  his 
troojis  at  so  much  a  head,  received  upwards  of  half 
a  million  for  soldiers  lost  in  the  camjiaign.  During 
the  Irish  rebellion,  again,  in  1798,  many  Hessian 
troops  were  employed. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  continental  war  in  179.3, 
it  was  determined  to  recruit  the  British  army  by 
the  addition  of  a  large  body  of  foreigners ;  and 
accordingly,  in  1794,  an  act  passed  for  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  '  King's  German  Legion,'  consisting  of 
15,000  men.  These  troops,  who  were  increased  in 
the  course  of  the  war  to  nearly  double  that  number, 
distinguished  themselves  in  various  engagements, 
and  formed  some  of  the  regiments  on  which  our 
generals  coidd  best  rely.  Coq>s  of  French  emtfjr^s, 
as  the  York  Rangers  and  others,  were  also  organised. 
The  whole  of  the  foreign  legions  were  disbanded  in 
1815,  the  officers  being  placed  on  h.ilf-pay. 

During  the  Russian  war,  in  1854,  the  British 
government  again  had  recourse  to  the  enlistment  of 
foreigners ;  special  pro\'ision  being  made  in  the 
act  authorising  their  cmpIojTnent,  that  the  arms 
of  the  legionaries  were  in  no  case  to  he  used 
against  British  subjects,  in  the  event  of  internal 
discoriL  The  numljers  to  be  raised  were  10,000 
Germans,  5000  Swiss,  and  5000  Italians  ;  the  pay  to 
be  the  same  as  to  British  troops,  but  temporary 
service  to  convey  no  claim  to  half-pay.  Aljout  half 
the  number  of  men  were  enrolled,  and  were  said  to 
have  reached  great  efficiency,  when  the  stoppage  of 
hostihties  arrested  their  progress,  and  caused  them 
to  be  disbanded  at  a  great  cost  for  gratuities,  &c 


An  attemjit  was  made  to  locate  the  Germans  as 
military  settlers  on  the  frontier  of  Cape  Colony, 
where,  they  should  at  once  be  .a  protection  against 
the  Kafirs,  and  a  valuable  addition  to  the  labour  in 
the  eastern  proWnces ;  but  partly  from  the  iiaucity 
of  females  in  their  community,  and  partly  from  the 
temptation  to  abscond,  offered  by  the  high  wages 
in  other  parts  of  the  colony,  Stutterheim,  as  the 
settlement  was  called,  has  had  inditi'erent  success. 
Many  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Italian  legion  subse- 
quently turned  their  training  to  good  account 
under  Garibaldi. 

Troupes  etrangeres  form  a  penn,anent  portion  of 
the  French  army,  where  they  are  held  in  good 
esteem  ;  they  are  usually  Swiss,  who  are  always 
wilhng  to  sell  their  services  to  anj-  power,  whatever 
the  cause,  pro\'ided  only  that  the  pay  is  good.  The 
throne  of  the  late  Neapolitan  monarchy  was  latterly 
upheld  chiefly  by  Swiss  mercenaries. 

FOKEIGN  BILL  OF  EXCHANGE  is  a  bill 
which  is  either  both  dra\^^l  and  accepted  abroad  ; 
or  drawn  by  a  person  residing  abroad  on  a  jierson 
in  this  country,  or  the  reverse.  It  a  bill  be  dra^^^l 
abroad,  and  accepted  in  England,  it  does  not  require 
a  stami> ;  but  if  drawn  in  this  comitry  upon  a  cor- 
respondent abroad,  or  a  foreign  house,  it  unist  be 
stamped  ( 1 9  and  20  Vict.  c.  97,  ss.  G  and  7) ;  and  when 
drawn  abroad,  it  must  be  stamped  by  the  holder, 
before  he  can  jiresent  it  for  pajTnent,  or  indorse, 
transfer,  or  otherwise  negotiate  it  within  the  United 
Kingdom  (Chitty  on  Bills  of  Ezchunrie,'i1).  It  has, 
however,  been  decided  that  the  stat.  17  and  IS  Vict, 
c.  S.'i,  s.  3,  does  not  render  a  stamp  necessary  where 
a  bill  drawn  abroad  has  been  indorsed  abroad  to  a 
person  in  England,  and  presented  by  him  for  accept- 
ance in  England  (PhiUimore,  Internationnl  Law,  iv. 
G09).  Formerly,  a  bill  di-awn  or  payable  in  Scot- 
land or  Ireland,  was  foreign  in  England ;  but  such 
bills  were  made  inland  by  the  statute  just  men- 
tioned ;  and  the  same  regidation  was  e.xtended  to 
the  islands  of  Man,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  AhU-rney, 
and  Sark  (s.  7).  See  Bill.  It  has  been  established 
as  a  rule  in  England,  that  the  liabilities  of  the 
drawer,  the  accejiter,  and  indorser,  shall  be  governed 
by  the  laws  of  the  countries  in  which  the  drawing, 
acce]>tance,  and  indorsement  respectively  took  place 
(Phillimore's  International  Law,  iv.  p.  GOG  and  50G). 
In  the  ease  of  bills  which  are  both  drawn  and 
accepted  abroad,  and  which  are  thus  in  reality 
foreign  contracts,  but  of  which  the  accepter  is  a 
native  of  this  coimtrj',  and  which  are  sought  to  be 
enforced  in  the  courts  either  of  England  or  Scot- 
laud,  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  contract 
and  the  remedy :  '  ^\^latever  relates  to  the  nature 
of  the  obligation — ad  valorem  contractus — is  to  be 
governed  by  the  law  of  the  country  where  it  is 
made — the  lex  loci ;  whatever  relates  to  the  remedy, 
l>y  suits  to  compel  performance,  or  by  action  for  a 
breach — ad  decisionem  litis — is  governed  by  the  fear 
fori — the  law  of  the  country  to  whose  courts  the 
ajiplication  is  made  for  jierfoi-mance  or  for  damages.' 
— Lord  Brougham  in  Don  v.  Lippman,  House  of 
Lords,  2Gth  May  1837;  Shaw  and  Maclean,  ii. 
p.  723. 

FOREIGN  COURTS.  Kent,  after  stating  that 
in  cases  not  governed  by  the  constitution  and  laws 
of  the  United  States,  the  doctrine  of  the  English 
law,  as  to  the  force  and  effect  to  be  given  to  foreign 
judgments,  is  the  law  of  his  own  country  also, 
observ-es,  that  the  law  thus  common  to  En"land  and 
America  '  is  e.xceedingly,  if  not  pecidiarly  lilieral,  in 
the  res]iect  which  it  pays  to  foreign  judgments,  in 
all  other  cases  except  the  case  of  a  foreign  divorce 
or  an  EngUsh  marriage.  A  distinction  was  early 
taken  by  Lord  Nottingham,  and  is  now  recognised 


FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT— FOKKST  FLY. 


both  in  Euglaiul  and  America,  and  indeed  almost 
evemvlicre  else,  between  a  suit  brought  to  enforce 
a  fori-isjn  judinnent,  and  a  plea  of  a  foreign  judgment 
in  bar  of  a  fresh  suit  for  the  same  cause.  As  the 
efifect  to  be  given  to  a  foreign  judgment  is  alto- 
gether a  matter  of  comity,  in  cases  where  it  has  not 
been  regulated  by  positive  treaty,  and  no  sovereign 
is  bound  to  execute  within  his  own  dominions  a 
sentence  given  out  of  it,  the  rule  adopted,  where  a 
suit  is  brought  to  enforce  a  foreign  judgment,  is 
that  the  foreign  judgment  is  to  be  received,  in  the 
tirst  instance,  as  jirimd  facie  evidence  of  the  debt, 
but  that  the  defendant  is  entitled  to  im])e.-icli  the 
justice  of  it,  or  to  shew  that  it  was  irregularly 
and  unduly  obtained.  Hut  the  case  is  <liH'erent 
where  the  losing  party  come.s  forward  and  wishes  to 
institute  a  new  suit  upon  the  same  m.atter,  and  to 
open  up  a  foreigu  judgment  dismissing  the  action, 
pronounced  by  a  comiieteut  court.  In  this  case,  to 
interfere  with  the  foreign  judgment  would  be  to 
assume  the  attitude  of  a  court  of  re%'ie\v,  and  the 
rule  in  Englaml,  consequently,  is  that  such  a  decision, 
when  given  by  a  foreign  court,  is  final  and  conclu- 
sive. So  obvious,  indeed,  is  the  convenience  and 
necessity  of  this  rule,  that  it  has  been  rerarded  as 
forming  a  portion  of  general  jurisprudence.  — Kent's 
Com.  ii.  lol,  102.  As  regards  the  enforcement  of 
foreign  decrees  and  judgments,  the  usages  of  nations 
have  differed  considerably,  and  the  subject  is  far  too 
wide  and  too  dilficiUt  to  admit  of  being  satisfactorily 
discussed  in  this  work.  The  distinction  between  the 
recognition  of  the  judgment  of  a  foreign  court,  as 
determining  the  validity  of  a  foreign  contract,  and 
the  apjJication  of  a  foreign  remedy  by  the  courts  of 
this  country,  has  been  pointed  out  under  Foreign 
Bill  of  E.xchange  (q.  v. ).  For  practical  purposes, 
however,  it  may  be  convenient  that  we  should  state 
that,  contrary  to  the  popular  belief  in  England,  the 
French  courts  are  in  the  habit  of  giving  eH'ect  to 
judgments  obtained  in  England,  and  that  debtors 
cannot  escajjc  from  their  creditors,  as  is  too  gene- 
rally supposed,  by  simply  crossing  the  Channel.  The 
difficulty,  no  doubt,  still  exists  where  the  debtor 
has  esca])ed  before  any  proceedings  could  be  taken 
against  him  in  this  coimtry,  and  where  no  judgment 
can  be  obtained.  But  if  he  has  once  been  served 
with  process  in  England,  or  cited  either  eLlictally  or 
otherwise  in  Scotland,  the  creditor  may  go  on  with 
his  action  against  him  though  he  be  personally 
absent  from  the  country,  and  ultimately  enforce  his 
decree  against  him  by  the  interposition  of  a  French 
court.  The  same  observations  apply  to  Belgium. 
In  England,  there  is  no  regular  office,  as  in  Scot- 
land, for  the  publication  of  citations  to  persons 
abroad  (see  Ed]CT.4.l  Citation),  but  leave  to  sub- 
stitute service  at  the  last  jdace  of  abode,  in  place 
of  personal  service,  may  now  be  obtained  in  some 
cases  from  the  courts,  or  leave  may  be  granted  to 
serve  out  of  the  jurisdiction.  In  most  countries, 
the  rule  as  to  two  foreigners  resident  but  not 
domiciled  is,  that  they  may  sue  each  other  in  the 
ordinary  courts,  as  natives  do.  To  this  the  French 
courts  are  an  exception,  and  hold  themselves  in- 
competent to  entertain  suits  between  nndomiciled 
foreigners  relating  to  personality,  except  in  matters 
of  commerce  (Phillimore,  International  Law,  iv. 
045).  See.JuRisDioTio.v;  Domicile;  International 
Law,  Private  ;  Conflict  of  Laws,  &c. 

FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT.  In  the  law 
of  England,  there  is  a  statutory  prohibition  of 
enlistment  in  the  service  of  a  foreign  jirince  in 
3  Jac.  I.  c.  4,  s.  IS ;  but  the  statute  commonly 
known  as  the  Foreign  Enhstment  Act  is  59  Geo. 
III.  c.  G9.  It  provides  that  if  any  natural-born 
Englishman  shall  enter  into  the  service  of  any 
foreign  state,  cither  as  a  soldier  or  a  sailor,  without 


the  licence  of  his  majesty,  or  an  order  in  council 
or  royal  i)rocl.am.ation,  or  if  any  person  within 
the  British  dominions  hire  or  attempt  to  hire  any 
person  to  enlist  in  the  service  of  a  foi-eign  state, 
such  jierson  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 
The  officers  of  the  customs,  on  information  on  fiath, 
in.ay  detain  any  vessel  having  persons  on  board 
destined  for  unlicensed  foreign  service.  Masters  of 
vessels,  knowingly  having  such  pei-scms  on  board, 
are  subjected  in  a  penalty  of  £50  for  each  indi- 
vidual. Pei-sons  fitting  out  any  vessel  for  foreign 
sernce,  without  licence,  are  guilty  of  a  high  mis- 
demeanour, and  the  ship  and  stores  are  forfeited. 
Even  to  assist  a  foreign  state  with  warlike  stores, 
without  licence,  is  a  misdemeanour  punishable  with 
fine  and  imprisonment.  These  penalties  are  irre- 
spective of  any  consequences  that  may  follow  to 
the  mdividual  for  having  committed  a  breach  of 
international  law. 

FOREIGNER.    See  Alien. 

FO'RELAND,  North  and  South,  two  promon- 
tories on  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  between  which  are 
the  Downs  and  Goodwin  Sands.  North  F.,  the 
CantiuM  of  Ptolemy,  forms  the  north-east  angle  of 
the  county  and  of  Thanet  Isle,  in  lat.  51°  22'  N.,  and 
long.  1°  2G'  E.,  two  miles  east  of  Margate.  It  consists 
of  chalky  cliflfs,  nearly  200  feet  high,  jirojeoting  into 
the  North  Sea,  and  has  a  light-house  with  a  fixed 
light,  184  feet  high,  and  seen  24  miles  olT.  .South  F., 
also  composed  of  chalk-cUffs,  is  10  miles  south  of 
North  F.,  3  miles  north-east  of  Dover,  in  lat.  51°  8' 
N.,  and  1  22'  E.  It  has  two  fixed  lights,  respec- 
tively 380  and  2/5  feet  above  the  sea,  and  seen 
from  a  distance  of  25  and  22  miles.  From  this 
point,  there  is  often  a  magnificent  view  of  200  to 
300  merchantmen  passing  by,  after  h.aving  been 
detained  by  contrary  winds  in  the  Downs. 

FO'RELOCK  is  a  flat  wedge  driven  through  the 
end  of  a  bolt  to  prevent  its  withdi-awal :  it  is  used 
princijjally  on  board  ship. 

FORESHO'RTENING,  a  term  in  P.aintiug  or 
Drawing,  applied  to  signify  that  a  figure,  or  a 
portion  of  a  figure,  which  is  intended  to  be  viewed 
by  the  spectator  directly  or  nearly  in  front,  is  so 
represented  as  to  convey  the  notion  of  its  being 
projected  forward ;  and,  though  by  mere  comparative 
measurement  occu])ying  a  much  smaller  space  on 
the  surface,  yet  to  give  the  same  idea  of  length  or 
size  as  if  it  had  been  projected  laterally.  In  compo- 
sitions of  figures  and  groups  on  ceilings,  and  in  the 
interior  of  domes,  &c.,  numerous  examples  will  be 
foimd  in  which  this  art  has  been  put  in  practice ; 
in  the  works  of  llaphael,  foreshortening  is  prac- 
tised with  most  judgment  and  correctness  ;  those 
of  M.  Angelo,  Correggio,  and  Tintoretto  display  the 
greatest  boklness ;  but  the  three  last-named  artists 
have  been  censured  for  introducing  foreshortening 
too  frequently  into  their  compositions,  for  the 
purpose  of  parading  their  skill  in  practising  it. 

FOREST  FLY  {Hippobosca  equina),  an  insect  of 
the  order  Diptera.  It  receives  the  name  F.  F.  from 
its  frequent  oooun'cnce  in  forests,  and  particularly 
in  the  New  Forest,  Ham])shire.  It  is  also  some- 
times called  Horse  Fly,  from  the  annoj'ance  which 
it  gives  to  horses.  It  is  a  small  insect,  about  four 
lines  long  ;  its  wings,  two  in  number,  much  exceed- 
ing the  length  of  the  abdomen.  When  at  rest,  the 
wings  are  laid  flat  on  the  back,  one  oveiiapjiing  the 
other.  The  general  colour  is  brown,  the  thoraic 
varied  with  pale  yellow,  the  legs  ringcil  with  yellow 
and  Ijrown.  The  legs  terminate  in  hooked  claws. 
The  skin  is  leathery  and  remarkably  tough,  so  that 
the  insect  cannot  be  killed  by  any  ordinary  amount 
of  squeezing.  The  structure  of  the  mouth  diflfers 
much  from  that  of  ordinary  dipterous  insects,  and 


FOREST  FLY— FOREST  LAWS. 


bears  no  inconsiderable  resemblance  to  that  of  fleas. 
The  F.  F,  lives  by  sucking  the  bloud  of  quadrujieds, 


Forest  Fly  (Hippohosca  equina),  magnified  : 
I,  natural  size  ;  2,  the  pupa,  as  deposited  by  the  mother. 

horses.  High-bred  horses  with  smooth  hair  are 
most  liable  to  this  annoyance.  The  female  F.  F. 
does  not  deposit  her  eggs  until  they  have  reached 
the  pupa  stage  in  her  abdonu>n.  One  ouly  is  pro- 
duced at  a  time,  enclosed  in  a  to)igh,  strong  skin, 
egg-like,  black,  and  shining  like  a  bead,  wonderfidly 
large  when  the  size  of  the  abdomen  from  which  it 
came  is  considered ;  the  perfect  insect  finally  emerges 
by  bursting  open  a  kind  of  lid  or  caj). 

FOREST  LAWS,  iu  England,  laws  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  royal  forests.  Forest  is  dehned  by 
Lord  Coke  to  Ije  a  safe  yiri'serve  for  wild  animals 
(fenv)  of  the  chase,  whence  comes  the  term  forcita, 
by  the  change  of  e  into  o  (Co.  Lilt.  233  a).  Both 
words  probably  spring  from  the  same  root  as  the 
Latin  /orw  and  the  French  hors,  aod  signify  that 
which  is  without  the  range  of  the  peo]ded  or  cidti- 
vated  country.  Hence  the  Italian  formtie.re  and 
fore.ito,  and  the  Spanish  forcstero,  signify  strange, 
foreign,  wild,  and  the  like.  A  forest,  in  the 
sense  of  the  law  of  England,  is  a  large  tract  of 
open  ground,  not  necessarily  covered  with  wood, 
but  usually  containing  wootliand  interspersed  with 
pasture,  and  forming  part  of  the  projierty  of  the 
monarch,  and  governed  by  a  special  code,  called 
the  forest  law.  This  particular  law  had  reference 
not  only  to  matters  connected  with  hunting  and 
the  like,  but  generally  governed  the  persons  living 
'v\'ithin  the  forest  in  all  their  relations.  A  chase  is 
a  smaller  forest,  in  the  hand  of  a  subject,  but  not 
governed  by  forest  law.  Though  the  privilege  of 
forest  belongs  of  right  to  the  sovereign  alone,  it 
may  be  granted  liy  him  in  favour  of  a  subject,  who 
becomes  entitled  to  exercise  the  privileges  of  forest 
in  the  district  assigned.  This  right  was  exercised 
by  the  Saxon  kings,  who  reserved  large  tracts  of 
country  for  the  royal  pastime  of  hunting,  and  a 
charter  of  the  forest  was  said  to  have  been  passed 
by  Canute  at  Winchester  in  the  year  lOlG.  But 
the  authenticity  of  this  document  is  doubted  by 
Lord  Coke  {In.it.  iv.  S'itI).  William  the  Conqueror 
greatly  extended  the  royal  forests,  by  laj-ing  desert 
vast  tlistricts  in  Hampshire  ami  Yorkshire ;  he 
also  introduced  penalties  of  the  severest  kind  for 
ofl'ences  against  the  game.  The  penalty  fur  killing 
a  stag  or  boar  was  loss  of  eyes  ;  for  William  loved 
the  great  game  as  if  he  had  been  their  father  {S'ltx. 
Chronicle).  It  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Ueiu'V  III. 
that  the  laws  of  the  forest  were  reiluced  into  a  regidar 
code.  In  the  reign  of  that  monarch  was  |iassed  the 
charter  of  the  forest,  9  Henry  III.  (a.d.  1224).  The 
right  of  the  sovereign  to  create  a  forest  is  by  the 
con^mon  law  confined  to  lands  of  his  own  demesne. 
Henry  II.  had  arbitrarily  exercised  his  power  by 
afforesting  the  lands  of  his  sultjeets  ;  but  by  the  1st 
and  3d  chapters  of  the  charter  of  the  forest,  it  is 
pruvided  that  all  forests  so  made  should  be  dis- 
afforested. At  a  subsequent  time,  Mheu  Henry  VIII. 


created  Ham|)ton  Court  Forest,  he  was  obliged  to 
obtain  the  consent  of  the  freeholders  before  he 
could  erect  a  chase  or  forest  over  their  grounds 
(Coke, /h«<.  iv.  301).  Mr  Hallam  remarks  :  'It  is 
well  known  that  Charles  I.  made  Richmond  Park 
by  means  of  depriving  many  proprietors  not  only  of 
their  common  rights,  but  of  their  freehold  lands. 
It  is  not  clear  that  they  were  ever  compensated ; 
but  I  think  this  jirobable,  as  the  matter  excited  no 
great  clamour  in  the  Long  Parliament.' — Hallam, 
Const.  Jlist.  i.  403,  note,  1st  ed.  By  the  charter  of 
the  forest,  the  penalties  for  destroying  game  are 
greatly  mollified.  By  cap.  10,  it  is  i)ro\nded  that 
no  man  shall  lose  life  or  limb  for  slaying  deer, 
but  that  the  punishment  shall  be  restricted  to  fine 
or  imprisonment  for  year  and  day.  Caji.  II  con- 
tains the  following  curious  privilege :  '  Whatsoever 
archbishop,  bishop,  earl,  or  baron,  coming  to  us  at 
our  commandment,  jiassing  by  our  forest,  it  shall  be 
lawfid  for  him  to  take  and  kill  one  or  two  of  our 
deer  by  view  of  our  forester  if  he  be  present ;  or  else 
he  shall  cause  one  to  blow  an  horn  for  him,  that 
he  seem  not  to  steal  our  deer  ;  and  likewise  they 
shall  do  returning  from  us.'  This  law  is  still  unre- 
pealed ;  so  that  a  bishop  may  kill  the  Queen's  deer 
when  summoned  to,  or  returning  from  parliament. 
Charles  I.  attempted  to  HU  his  empty  exchequer 
by  imposing  penalties  and  exacting  fines  for  alleged 
encroachments  on  the  ancient  boundaries  of  the 
forests,  though  the  right  to  the  lands  thus  taken 
was  ft)rtified  by  possession  for  several  centuries. 
This  was  one  of  the  first  grievances  with  which 
the  Long  Parliament  dealt,  and  since  the  passing 
of  the  act  for  the  'certainty  of  forests'  (16  Car. 
I.  c.  16),  the  laws  of  the  forest  have  practically 
ceased.  In  Coke's  time,  there  were  sixty-nine 
royal  forests,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception 
of  the  New  Forest  and  Hampton  Court  Forest, 
had  been  created  before  the  period  of  record.  Of 
these,  the  principal  were — the  New  Forest,  Sher- 
wood, Dean,  Windsor,  Epping,  Dartmoor,  Wich- 
wood,  in  Oxfordshire,  Saleey,  Whittlebury,  and 
Rockingham,  in  Northamptonshire,  Waltham,  in 
Lincolnshire,  and  Riclimoml,  in  Yorkshire.  Dur- 
ing the  }iresent  reign,  several  of  the  royal  forests 
have  been  disafforested  by  act  of  parliament — 
Hainaidt,  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  43;  Whittlewood,  16 
anil  17  Vict.  c.  42 ;  Wichwood,  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  32. 
Public  necessitj'  is  the  plea  on  which  these  spots, 
long  so  famous  for  their  silvan  scenery,  have  been 
condemned.  The  jilea  is  one  which  cannot  be 
altogether  disregarded  ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will  not  be  suffered  to  prevail  to  the  entire 
destruction  of  our  royal  forests,  some  of  which, 
from  their  vicinity  to  large  towns,  afford  resorts  for 
public  recreation  highly  prized  by  the  citizens, 
and  which  never  can  be  equalled  in  beauty  and  in 
healthfulness  by  any  new-made  pleasure-ground. 

The  royal  forests  of  Scotland,  in  ancient  times, 
seem  to  have  been  nearly  as  numerous  as  those  of 
England.  In  Perthshire,  there  were  the  forests  of 
Athole,  Mamlorn,  Glenartnej',  Glenfynlas,  Glen- 
almond,  Birnam,  Cluny,  AlN-th,  &c.  In  Forfarshire, 
there  were  Platan,  ilontrethmont,  Kilgerry  ;  in 
Kincardineslure,  C'owie  and  Durris  ;  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, the  Stoeket,  Dyce,  Kintore,  Benachie,  Drum, 
Birse,  Braemar ;  in  IJanffshire,  the  Boyue  and  the 
Enzie;  in  Morayshire,  Darnaway,  &c.  .South  of 
the  Forth,  there  were  the  forests  of  the  Torwood, 
Caclzow,  Ettrick,  Selkirk,  Jedburgh,  Traquair,  the 
New  Forest  iu  Dumfriesshire,  &e.  The  Leiie.i  Forest- 
arum — the  Scotti.sh  Forest  Laws — have  been  printed 
more  than  once  ;  the  best  edition  is  in  The  Acts  of 
thf.  Parliaments  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  pp.  323 — 328 
(Edin.  18-14).  The  forest  code  of  Scotland,  though 
neither  so  complete  nor  atbninistered  with  the  same 

4;'0 


FOREST  MARBLE— FORFAE. 


rigour  as  that  of  England,  was  still  generally  com-  | 
plainwl  of  for  its  severe  ])cn.iltics  or  vexatious 
restraiuts.  The  grant  of  a  riijht  of  forestry  con- 
ferrtd  the  same  privilege  as  if  the  ground  over 
which  it  exteudetl  had  been  originally,  and  had 
continued  to  be,  a  king's  forest.  Hence  arose  great 
oppression  and  annoyance  to  neighbouring  proprie- 
tors, and  in  IGSO  the  supreme  civil  court  suggested 
that  a  representation  should  be  made  to  the  king 
against  the  granting  of  new  forests.  From  a  case 
which  h.is  just  been  decided,  it  woiJd  seem  that  the 
high  pretensions  of  royal  foresters  have  in  some 
places  survived  to  the  ])resent  day.  The  Dukes  of 
Athole  still  hold  the  extensive  moimtainous  district 
called  the  forest  of  Athole,  either  in  their  own  right 
or  iis  foresters  for  the  crown.  In  witue  of  his  rights 
of  forestry,  the  present  duke  chimed  the  power  of 
preventing  his  neighbour,  the  LiLrd  of  Lude,  from 
killing  deer  on  his  own  lands,  and  maintained  tliat 
he  was  bound  to  allow  the  duke  and  his  keepers  to 
enter  on  his  lands,  and  drive  back  any  deer  that 
might  stray  upon  them  from  the  forest  of  Athole. 
Bui  the  co"urt  decided  (March  1,  1SG2)  against  the 
duke  on  both  points. 

Forest  Courts  were  courts  established  for  the 
purjiose  of  enforcing  the  forest  laws  in  the  royal 
forests.  Of  these  eoiu-ts,  there  were  in  England 
(our — ^Tz.,  the  Coiu-t  of  Attachments,  the  Court  of 
Regard,  the  Court  of  Swainmote,  and  the  Court 
of  the  Lord  Justice  in  Eyre  in  the  Forest,  or  Justice 
Seat.  The  last  Court  of  Justice  Seat  that  was  held 
where  business  was  transacted  was  in  the  reign  of 
Chai-les  I.,  before  Lord  Holland. 

FOREST  MARBLE,  a  member  of  the  Lower 
Oolite,  so  called  because  of  the  occurrence  of  the 
typical  beils  in  Wichwood  Forest,  Oxfordshire. 
The  principal  bed  is  a  fissile  limestone,  containing 
large  numbers  of  dark-coloured  shells,  and  capable 
of  sustaining  a  line  polish.  On  this  account,  it  is 
used  to  some  extent  as  '  marble.'  It  is  inter- 
stratified  with  blue  marls  and  shales,  and  fine 
oolitic  sandstones.  The  whole  thickness  of  the 
group  seldom  exceeds  forty  feet. 

FOREST    OAK,    a    name   sometimes   given   in 
commerce  to  the  timber  of  Casuarhta  toriilosa,  and 
other  species  of  Casuarina  (q.  v.),  Australian  trees. 
This  timber,  which  is  light  yellowsh  brown,  and 
prettily  marked  with  short  red  veins,  is  imported 
into  Britain,  and  used  for  ornamental  work. 
FORESTAXLIXG.     See  Engrossiso. 
FORESTS.     See  Akboeicultuke. 
FORESTS,  Fossil,  have  been  frequently  observed 
in  the  coal  measures.     The  seams  of  coal  having  in 
general   been    formed  from   the  vegetation  of   the 
locality  where  they  occur,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
when  the  coal  is  removed,  the   stools  and  roots  of 
the  trees  would   be   observed   in   the   immediately 

subjacent  bed  of 
shale — the  ancient 
soil.  Such  a  forest 
was  laid  bare  in  an 
open  work  at  Park- 
field  Colliery,  near 
Wolverhamjiton,  in 
1844.  In  the  space 
of  about  one-fom-th 
of  an  acre,  the 
stumps  of  73  trees. 
Ground-plan  of  the  Fossil  Forest  w-ith  their  roots 
at  I'arkfield  CoUicry.  attached,      appeared 

as  shewn  iu  the 
annexed  ground-plan.  The  trunks,  broken  off 
close  to  the  root,  were  lying  prostrate  in  every 
direction,  often  crossing  each  other.  One  of  them 
measured  15,  another  30  feet  iu  length,  but  they 


were  generally  shorter.  They  were  invariably 
converted  into  coal,  and  flattened  to  the  thickness 
of  1  or  2  inches.  The  upright  stems  shew  that 
some  of  them  had  a  circiunference  of  more  than  8 
feet.  Similar  fossil  forests  have  been  observed  in 
tlie  coal-lields  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  have  been  care- 
fully described  by  Lyell,  Logan,  and  Dawson.  The 
usual  height  of  the  trees  observed  by  Lyell  was 
from  G  to  8  feet;  but  one  tree  was  about  2.5  feet 
high,  and  4  feet  in  diameter.  Brogniart  describes 
the  remains  of  a  fossil  forest  preser^•ed  in  an 
upright  position,  in  strata  of  micaceous  sandstone, 
belonging  to  tlie  coal  measures  at  St  Etienne, 
near  Lyon.  Though  most  abundant  in  strata  of 
the  carl>oniferous  periotl,  fossU  forests  have  been 
observed  in  other  formations.  Tlie  Dirt-bed  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Lower  Purbeck  series  is  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  forest.  Instances  are  .also  abundant  in  the 
pliocene  strata.  Sometimes,  as  on  tlie  coast  o£ 
Devonshire  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Firth  of  T.ay, 
they  are  exjiosed  on  the  surface,  stretching  from 
high-water  mark  to  far  below  the  furthest  limit  of 
low  water  ;  or  they  are  exhibited  in  section,  as  in 
the  cliffs  of  E.astern  Norfolk,  where,  resting  on 
the  ch;Uk  or  crag,  there  is  a  stratum  in  which  the 
stools  and  roots  of  the  trees  stand  in  their  natural 
jiosition,  the  trunks  having  been  broken  short  off, 
and  imbedded  with  their  branches  and  leaves.  This 
stratum  is  covered  witli  fresh-water  beds  and  drift. 
The  position  of  these  forests  indicates  a  variation,  in 
recent  geological  time,  of  the  relative  level  of  land 
and  water.  The  instances  in  Devonshii-e  and  Fife- 
shire  may  imply  a  simple  subsidence  of  the  land  ; 
at  Norwich,  however,  a  considerable  depression 
must  have  taken  [iLaee,  to  admit  of  the  dejmsition  of 
the  fresh-water  beds  and  the  til],  and  a  subsequent 
elevation,  to  expose  the  beds  so  high  above  the 
sea-level. 

The  remains  of  ancient  forests,  belonging  to  a 
yet  later  period,  are  to  be  found  iu  beds  of  peat. 
There  is  good  e\-idence  that  some  kinds  of  peat 
had  their  origin  in  the  destruction  of  forests. 
Trunks  and  branches  of  beech,  hazel,  fir,  &c.,  are 
found  in  them,  and  their  roots  may  be  traced  in  the 
underclay.  The  rapidity  ■with  which  this  peat  is 
formed  is  very  remarkable.  At  Blair-Drummond, 
the  stratum  of  peat  is  eight  to  ten,  and  in  some 
places  even  twenty  feet  in  thickness.  Many  of  the 
trees  here  have  been  feUed  with  the  axe,  and  that 
this  was  done  while  the  Romans  were  in  possession 
of  the  coimtry,  is  proved  by  the  discovery  of  '  cor- 
duroy roads,'  leatling  from  one  camp  to  another,  and 
;  the  finding  of  camp-kettles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
peat. 

FO'RFANG,  or  FOREFANG  (Sax.  fore,  before, 

and  fanijen,  to  take),  the  taking  of  provisions  from 

i  any  one  in  fairs  or  markets,  before  the  king's  pur- 

■  veyors  were  served  with  necessaries  for  his  majesty. 

(Charter  of  Henry  L  to  the  hosjiital  of  St  Bartholo- 

:  mew  in  London,  anno  1133,  referred  to  in  Tomlin's 

Die.)     It   is   also  used   to   signify  the   rescuing  of 

stolen  or  stnayed  cattle  from  a  thief,  or  from  those 

having  illegal  possession  of   them  ;    or  the  reward 

fixed  for  such  rescue  (Wharton's  Vic). 

i  FO'RFAR,  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Orrea,  the 
county  town  of  Angus  or  Forfarshire,  situated  near 

I  a  small  lake  of  the  same  name,  on  a  rising-ground 
of  no  great  height,  in  tlie  fertile  valley  of  Strath- 
more.  Pop.  (1871)  11,031.  It  has  been  a  royal 
burgh  since  the  reign  of  King  David  I.  (1124 — 
1K">3).     It  had  a  royal  castle,  of  which  no  vestige 

I  remains,  said  to  have  been  situated  on  a  round 
hill,  on  the  north  side  of  the  town,  and  to  have 
been  destroyed  by  order  of  King  Robert  Bruce,  in 

I  the   year   1307.     Its   staple   manufacture   is   linen. 


FOKFAESHIUE— FORFEITURE  AND  CORRUPTION  OF  BLOOD. 


It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Aberdeen,  Arbroath, 
and  the  south.  It  joins  with  Montrose,  Arbroath, 
Brechin,  and  Bervie,  in  sending  a  representative  to 
parliament. 

FORFARSniUE,    or   ANGUS,  is    a  maritime 
county  in  the  east  of  .Scotland,  beinc;  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  N.  by  Kincar- 
dine and  Aberdeen  shires,  on  the  W.  bj'  Ferthshiie, 
and  on  the  S.  by  the  Firth  of  Tay.     It  extends  from 
north  to  south  38  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  '27 
miles,  with  45  miles  of  coast.      There  are  several 
T.allevs  of  considerable  extuut,  the  principal  of  which 
arc  (jlcn   Ishi,  Glen  Prosen,   Glen  Esk,  Clova,  and 
Lethnot,  which  are  all  well  watered,  and   mostly 
productive.      The   surface    of    the   county   is    irre- 
gidar,  and  it  is  intersected  with  lulls,  the  Sidlaw 
being    UOO    feet    high,   and   Catlaw,   the    highest, 
2*264  feet.     The  soil,  which  is  various,  ranging  from 
the  linest  alluvial  to  the  moorish,  rests  mostly  on 
the   old    red    sandstone    and  the  trap.      Devonian 
paving-stones,    limestone,    pori)liyry,    and    jas])er, 
occur.     Tlie  chief  rivers  are  tlie'Tay,  North   Esk, 
South  Esk,  and   Isla ;    and  there  are   some   small 
lochs.      F.  is  the   chief  seat   of   the   Scotch   linen 
manufacture.      Cattle,   corn,  salmon,   and    paving- 
stone  are  the  principal  exports.     The  climate  par- 
takes   of    the  tpualitics  conmion  to  the  east  coast. 
The  averai^e  of  tlie  fall  of  rain  is  about  25  incliea. 
The  valued  rent  of  the  county  in  1G74:  was  £171,440 
Scots,  or  £14,287  sterling.     The  valuation  for  1872 
— 1S73  was  £022,935  sterling,  incluiUng  £98,492  of 
railways.     In    1872,    the   last    year   in   which   the 
agricultural  statistics  were  taken,  the  total  acreage 
in  the  county  of  all  kinds  of  crojis,  bare  fallow,  and 
grass,  was  241,493;    under  corn  crops  there  were 
93,807  acres;  undergreen  crops,  51.237;  and  of  clover, 
sanfoin,    and    grasses    under    rotation    there   were 
69,529.     The  total  number  of   cattle  returned   f( 
1872  was  49,320;  sheep,  116.109;  pigs,  7127.     The 
number  of  horses  used  solely  for  agriculture,  &c.,  re- 
turned by  occupiers  of  land  in  the  same  year,  was 
9324.     Pop.  (1871)  2.37,528,  being  an  increase  over 
th.at  of  1861   of  30,832.     The  chief  towns  are  Dun- 
dee, Arbroath,  Montrose,  Forfar  (the  county  town), 
Brechin,     and     Kirriemuir.      The     county    returns 
one  member  to  parliament,  and  the  boroughs  two. 
Angus    was    the  province   of   a   Mormatr    during 
the    Celtic     period    of    Scottish    history.      It    aji^ 
pears   as   an   earldom   in   the    12th   century.       Its 
tirst  earls  -n-ere  probably  the  descendants'  of  the 
old    Mormaers ;    it    passed    subsequently    to    the 
IJmphravilles,  the    Stewarts,    and    the    Douglases. 
The  ciistle  of   Forfar  was  the  residence  occasionally 
of  some  of  the  kings,  untd  the  time  of  Alexander 
III.     The  chief  anti<iuities  are  some  Roman  c;mi]is, 
the  \-itritied  fort  of  Finhaven,  the  remarkable  stone 
forts   of   the  White  Caterthun,   near   Brechin,  and 
of  the   Laws,  near  Dundee;   the  sculiitured  stone 
pillars  at  ileiijlc,  Aberlemno,  St  Vigean's,  Glammis, 
Kirriemuir,  Aldljar,  InvergowTie,   &c. ;  the  fortitied 
island  of  St  Margaret's  Inch  in  the  Loch  of  Forfar, 
the   round  tower   and    cathedral    of    Brechin,    the 
niins   of   Restennet   Priory  and  Arbro.ath  Abbey; 
and    the    old    liaronial    castles    of    Glammis,   Red 
Castle,   Edzell,   Melgund,   Finhaven,   Au-lie,   Cares- 
ton,  Inverquharity.     At  Stracathro,  it  is  said  Baliol 
resigned  the  crown  to  Edward  I.     Several  eminent 
men   were    born    in    this    county— Hector    Boece, 
Andrew  Melville,  the  Marquis  of  Montrose,  Joseph 
Hume,   Sir  Alexander  Burncs,  Robi  rt  Brown   the 
botar.ist,  James  Mill  the  historian  of  British  India ; 
and  Graham  of  Claverhouse  had  a  seat  at  Fmtry 
Mains. 

FORFEITURE    AND    CORRUPTION    OF 
BLOOD   are  penjdties    consequent  on  convictions 


for  treason   or  felony.      The  jienalty  of  forfeiture 

for  treason  is  foundeil  on  this  consideration,  that  he 
who  hatli  tluis  violated  the  tirst  ]irinci|i]es  of  govern- 
ment, and  broken  his  part  in  the  original  contract 
between  king  and  people,  hath  abandoned  his  con- 
nection with  society,  and  hath  no  limger  any  right 
to  those  advantages  which  before  belongeil  to  him 
purely  as  a  member  of  the  community  (Stephen's 
Cum.  iv.  497).  The  penalty  of  forfeiture  for  treason 
prevailed  in  England  liefore  the  Conquest,  as  is 
clear  from  the  fact,  that  lands  held  in  gavelkind, 
which  is  a  Saxon  tenure,  may  be  forfeited  for  treason. 
But  after  the  Couque-st,  forfeiture  of  lands  and 
goods  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  peculiar  punish- 
ment of  felony,  of  which  treason  against  the  sovereiga 
w.as  the  highest  kind,  and  was  denominated  high 
treason,  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  felonies, 
which  were  called  [letty  treason.  In  cases  of 
treason,  the  ott'ender  forfeits  all  his  lands  abso- 
lutely to  the  crown.  In  felony,  according  to  the  old 
law,  the  oH'ender  forfeited  to  the  crown  the  protits 
of  all  estates  of  freehold  during  his  life,  and  all  liis 
estates  in  fee-simple  for  a  year  and  a  day,  after 
which  they  became  escheat  to  the  lord.  The  crown, 
during  the  year  of  occupancy,  was  entitled  to  com- 
mit iqion  the  lands  what  Waste  (q.  v.)  it  pleased. 
By  Alut/na  Charla,  this  power  of  committing  waste 
was  restrained  But  by  17  Ed.  II.  c.  10,  the  king's 
title  to  waste  was  again  recognised.  As  the  law 
now  st.ands,  murder  is  the  only  felony  by  which 
forfeiture  for  year  and  day  is  incurred.  In  all 
felonies,  the  goods  and  chatties  of  the  otfeuder  are, 
on  con\-iction,  forfeited  to  the  crown  ;  but  uutU 
conviction,  forfeiture  of  the  goods  does  not  operate. 
Where,  therefore,  a  person  has  dis]iosed  of  his  goods 
before  conviction,  the  crown  cannot  reach  them. 
Forfeiture  of  lands  does  not  take  effect  until  sentence 
of  Attainder  (([.  v.)  h.as  been  pronounced.  So  that 
a  person  committing  Ftlo  de  se  (q.  v.),  or  a  rebel  dying 
before  sentence,  or  kUled  in  ojien  rebellion,  does  not 
forfeit  his  lands.  But  sentence  of  attainder,  as 
soon  as  pronounced,  has  a  retro-active  effect,  and 
annuls  all  conveyances  made  between  the  act  of 
treason  or  felony  and  the  pronouncing  of  sentence. 
Conveyances  made  before  the  act  of  treason  are  not 
affected.  Hence,  a  wife's  jointure  is  not  forfeited, 
because  settled  on  her  before  the  commission  of  the 
act.  But  dower  is  forfeited  by  5  and  6  Ed.  VI. 
c.  11.  Coimtcrfeiting  the  coin  w'as  formerly  treason ; 
but  by  various  statutes,  it  is  provided  that  the  wife's 
dower  should  not  b6  forfeited,  and  that  the  lamb 
shoidd  be  forfeited  oidy  for  the  life  of  the  offender. 
Forfeiture  for  treason  and  felony  is  accompanied  l)y 
coiTuption  ofbioud,  whereby  the  offender  is  incaiiable 
of  inheriting  any  lands  or  of  transmitting  any  title 
to  an  heir.  But  where  the  lands  were  not  vested 
in  the  offender  at  the  time  of  the  act,  they  are  not 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  but  to  the  overlord.  In 
England,  this  lUstinctiou  is  of  little  moment,  except 
in  copyhold  lands,  the  crown  lieing,  in  fact,  the 
overlord  of  nearly  all  the  freehold  land  in  the  king- 
dom. By  7  Anne,  c.  21,  it  w.as  enacted  that,  after 
the  death  of  the  Pretender  and  his  sons,  no  attainder 
for  treason  should  ojierate  to  the  prejudice  of  other 
than  the  olfender  himself;  but  this  provision  w.as 
repealed,  39  Geo.  IIL,  c.  9;J.  But  in  Sontlaiul, 
where  suljinfeudation  still  subsists,  the  distinction 
is  of  practical  importance.  In  Scotland,  before 
the  Union,  forfeiture  of  estate  was  incurred  on 
account  of  treason  and  certain  other  crimes,  as  theft 
by  a  landed  man,  and  uttering  false  coin.  Lord 
Stair  is  of  opinion  that  the  doctrine  of  corruption 
of  blood  did  not  prevail  in  Scotland  to  exclude 
those  claiming,  through  a  [lerson  attainted,  where 
the  offender  was  only  apiiarent  heir  (Stair,  iii.  3, 
38).     Since  the  Union,  the  law  of  Scotland  in  regard 

431 


i'OKFKlTUKK  OK  LANDS -FOUUKRV. 


to  forfeiture  for  treason  has  been  assimilated  to  that 
of  Euijlauii. 

In  America,  forfeiture  of  estate  for  crimes  is  verj- 
much  reiluced,  auj  the  corniiition  of  blood  is 
universally  abolished.  Several  of  the  state  consti- 
tutions have  ])rovided  that  no  attainder  for  treason 
or  felony  shall  work  oorrujitiou  of  blood  or  forfeiture 
of  estate,  except  duriu^;  the  life  of  the  offender, 
and  some  of  them  have  taken  away  the  power  of 
forfeiture  absolutely,  without  any  such  exemption. 
Every  pei-son  convicted  of  any  manner  of  treason, 
mulei-  the  laws  of  New  York,  "forfeits  his  goods  and 
chattels,  and  also  his  lands  and  tenements,  during 
his  lifetime ;  but  the  righU  of  aU  third  persons  exist- 
ing at  the  time  of  tlie  commission  of  the  treason, 
are  preserved.     Kent's  Coinmeithiries,  ii.  505. 

FORFEITURE  OF  LANDS  w.is  originally 
a  ])enalty  of  the  feudal  law,  incurred  on  account  of 
some  act  by  the  tenant  inferring  disloyalty  to  his 
overlonL  The  acts  inferring  forfeiture  might  be 
of  either  a  civd  or  a  criminal  nature.  Forfeiture 
for  crimes  w.is  incurred  by  treason  or  felony.     See 

FORFEITTRE    AND    COBRUPTION     OF     BlOOD.        Civil 

forfeiture  m.iy  be  incurred  in  England  in  three 
ways — ™.,  by  tortious  alienation,  by  \vTongful  dis- 
claimer, and  by  alienatiim  in  mortmain  ;  the  first 
two  of  these  modes  were  incidents  of  the  feudal 
tenure,  the  latter  was  introduced  by  statute.  It 
must  be  observed  that,  according  to  the  earliest 
feudal  customs,  a  gift  of  lands  was  always  made  in 
favour  of  a  particular  person,  and  that  alienation, 
without  consent  of  the  overlord,  involved  a  forfeiture 
of  the  fee.  But  this  strictness  having  by  degrees 
ceased  to  be  oliserved,  forfeitiu"e  was  only  incui-red 
in  case  of  a  tortious  alienation.  Tortious  alienation 
was  where  the  owner  of  a  particular  estate  conveyed 
by  common  law  conveyance,  as  feoffment,  fine,  or 
recovery,  a  greater  estate  than  that  to  which  he  was 
himself  entitled,  as  where  a  teuant-for-lLfe  made  a 
feoffment  in  fee.  The  immediate  effect  of  this  act 
was  the  forfeiture  of  the  land  to  the  remainder  man 
or  reversioner.  By  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  7-1,  abolish- 
ing fines  and  recoveries,  and  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  lOG, 
s.  4,  declaring  that  a  feoffment  should  not  have  a 
tortious  operation,  forfeiture  by  tortious  alienation 
has  ceased  to  h.ave  a  practical  importance.  For- 
feiture by  wTongful  disclaimer  was  where  a  tenant 
holding  xmder  a  superior  lord,  on  being  summoned  in 
any  court  of  record,  either  disclaims  his  allegiance, 
or  does  any  act  which  amounts  to  a  disclaimer. 
Since  the  abolition,  by  the  statute  of  quia  emplorex. 
of  subinfeudation,  this  species  of  forfeiture  can  only 
arise  in  lands  held  of  the  crown.  Forfeiture  by 
alienation  in  moi-tmain  is  incuiTed  by  the  convey- 
ance of  lands  or  tenements  in  favour  of  anj'  Cor- 
poration (q.  v.),  sole  or  aggregate,  ecclesiastical  or 
temporal.  As  by  vesting  the  land  in  a  tenant  of 
this  description,  the  overlord  was  deprived  of  all  the 
duties  and  services  due  by  his  vassal,  this  act  w.is 
dechared  by  various  acts  of  parliament  to  infer  the 
forfeiture  of  the  lands.  See  JIortmaix.  ForfeiUire 
of  copyholds  was  incurred  by  committing  waste,  and 
by  other  acts  of  a  wrongful  kind  inconsistent  with 
the  fealty  due  to  the  lord.  See  Blackstone,  Com. 
ii.  284.  Forfeiture  on  breach  of  condition,  subsequent 
is  where  an  estate  is  held  xipon  a  conilition  contained 
in  the  grant  itself.  On  failure  of  the  condition,  the 
grantor  or  his  heirs  may  enter  upon  the  lands. 

In  Scotland,  ci\-il  forfeiture  may  arise  either  from 
statutory  enactment,  at  common  law,  or  by  agree- 
ment. By  15'J7  c.  246,  it  is  enacted  that  vassals 
fading  to  p.ay  their  feu-duties  for  two  years  shall 
forfeit  their  right.  This  forfeitiu-e  nmst  be  estab- 
lished by  an  action  to  recover  the  feu-duties  in 
arrear,  and  may  be  avoided  by  pajnnent  at  the  bar. 
At  common  law,  a  vassal  forfeited  his  land  by  dis- 


clamation or  purpresture.  The  former  is  antilogous 
to  the  English  disclaimer,  and  consists  in  the  denial 
by  a  viissal  oi  his  lawful  sui>erior.  Purpresture  was 
incurred  by  the  v.assal's  encro.aehment  on  the  streets, 
highways,  or  commouties  belonn;ing  to  the  crown  or 
other  superior.  These  forms  of  forfeiture  are  fallen 
into  disuse.  Forfeiture  on  special  agreement  depends 
wholly  u]uin  the  terms  of  the  condition  inserted 
in  the  titles  to  the  land.  The  condition  must  be 
fortified  by  irritant  and  resolutive  clauses,  and  must 
enter  the  sasine,  in  order  that  it  may  be  effectual 
against  juirchasers  of  the  lands  (Erskine,  ii. .'!,  s.  13). 
Of  this  Idnd  of  forfeiture  are  breaches  of  Entails  (q.  v.). 

FORGE,  FORGING.  The  process  of  hammer- 
ing red-hot  iron  or  steel  into  any  required  shape  is 
called  Forging,  and  the  workshop  in  which  the 
operation  is  ])erformed,  a  Forge.  The  principal 
tools  of  a  common  smitli's  forge  are  the  forge-fire  or 
hearth,  with  its  bellows,  the  anvil,  and  the  various 
hammers,  swages,  &c.  For  large  work,  an  air- 
furnace,  blown  by  steam-bellows,  supplies  the  place 
of  tlie  simple  hearth  of  the  blacksmith,  powerfid 
cranes  swing  the  work  to  its  place  on  the  anvil, 
and  a  steam-hammer  (see  H.vm.mer)  strikes  the 
blows  that  squeeze  the  red-hot  mass  into  shape. 
Besides  these,  there  are  portable  forges  of  various 
sizes  and  forms,  used  for  military  and  other  pur- 
poses. They  usually  consist  of  an  iron  frame,  to 
which  a  bellows,  worked  by  the  foot,  is  attached  ; 
and  above  the  bellows  is  an  iron  tr.ay,  with  a 
hearth,  &c.,  upon  which  the  fire  is  made ;  and  the 
anvil  is  either  attached  to  this  frame,  or  has  a 
separate  stand. 

Under  Ci'TLERV,  the  gener.al  method  of  forging 
small  work  is  described.  For  the  largest  work  to 
which  hand-hammers  are  still  ai)i>lied,  such  as 
anchor-forging,  two  gangs  of  from  six  to  twelve 
hammermen  are  employed ;  they  swing  the  large 
hammei-s  with  such  wonderful  precision  and  regu- 
larity, that  the  instant  one  hammer  is  \vithdrawu, 
another  falls  u])on  the  same  jdace.  A  foreman,  with 
a  wand,  cUrects  the  hammering.  The  two  gangs 
relieve  each  other  alternately,  on  account  of  the 
great  severity  of  the  labour.  Shovels,  spades, 
mattocks,  and  many  other  tools  and  imidemeuts,  are 
partly  forged  imder  the  tilt-hammer.     See  Steel. 

In  all  processes  of  forging,  it  is  of  primary 
importance  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  r,apidity 
in  the  succession  of  the  blows.  There  is  a  double 
reason  for  this :  first,  and  simply,  that  the  work  is 
cooling,  and  the  more  slowdy  it  is  forged,  the  more 
frequently  it  must  be  re-heated  ;  and  secondly,  that 
percussion  generates  actual  heat,  and  if  the  blows 
are  sufficiently  heavy  and  rapid,  the  temperature  of 
the  work  may  be  fully  maintained  out  of  the  fire 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  hammer 
used  for  tilting  steel  not  only  maintains  the  heat 
of  the  bar,  but  raises  it  from  a  didl  to  a  bright  red 
heat. 

FORGERY  (Fr.  fortjn;  to  form  met.al  into 
shape  ;  to  fabricate),  the  cninen  falsi  of  the  Roman 
law,  is  held  in  England,  .at  common  law,  to  be  the 
fraudiUent  making  or  altering  of  a  wi-iting  or  seal, 
to  the  i>rejudico  of  another  man's  right,  or  of  a 
stamp  to  the  jirojiulice  of  the  revenue.  As  regards 
writings,  the  instrument'  forged  must  be  executed 
with  such  skill  or  in  such  circumstances  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  mistaken  for  a  genuine  dociunent 
by  a  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  and  obser- 
vation. It  is  not  necessary  th.at  there  shoidd  be 
even  an  attempt  at  imitation.  If  there  was  inten- 
tion to  deceive,  and  the  circumstances  were  such 
as  to  render  deception  possible,  the  crime  h.ns  been 
committed,  and  it  has  consequently  been  held  in 
Scotland   th.at   it    is   possible    to    forge    the   name 


FOEGET-ME-NOT— FORKS. 


of  a  person  who  cannot  WTite   (1   Alison,  p.   372), 
and   furtlier   tliat  the    crime    may    be    committed 
by  the  adhibition  of  a  cross  or  mark  (llacmillan, 
January  24,  1859).     Any  material  alteration,  how- 
ever slight,  is  a  forgery  just  as  much  as  the  sub- 
scription of  the  name  of  the  pretended  maker,  or 
the   fabrication   of    the   entire   deed.      It   will   not 
lessen  the   crime,  though   the  whole   deed   should 
be   genuine,   the  name   only   being   forged,    or   the 
name  being  really  the  handwriting  of  tlie  party  to 
whom  it  belongs,  but  appended  to  a  forged  deed. 
Even  if  the  name  be  a  fictitious  one,  but  appended 
for  the   purpose  of   deceiving,   a  forgery  has   been 
committed  just  as  much  as  if  it  belonged  to  a  real 
person.      Long   before   the   recent   extensions  took 
place  in  the  law  of  evidence,  by  which  parties  were 
admitted  as  witnesses  in  their  own  causes,  it  was 
provided  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  32,  that  the  party  whose 
name  had  been  forged  might  be  a  witness  to  the 
effect  that  the  writing  Wiis  not  his.     But,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  an  established  rule  of  law  that 
the  proof  of  forgery,  by  a  mere  comparison  of  hand- 
writing,   is    incompetent    (Tailor    on    Epidencc,   p. 
1428,  n.  5,  2d  ed.).     Identification  of  handwriting  is, 
if  possible,  more  difficult  than  identification  of  the 
person,  which  so  often  forms  the  chief  difficulty  in 
criminal  trials.     '  As  illness,  strange  dress,  unusual 
attitude,  and  the  like,  cause  mistakes  in  identifying 
tlie   individual,    so   a   bad   pen,   or  rough  paper,  a 
shaking  hand,  hurry,  and  many  other  things,  change 
the  appearance  of  a  person's  handwriting.' — Dickson 
on   Evidence,    p.   474.      There    are    besides    resem- 
blances   in    handwritings    proceeding    from    many 
accidental  causes,  so  that  much  caution  is  neces- 
sary in  weighing  this  kind  of  evidence.     '  It  ought 
never,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  full  jirnof    by 
the    crown   in   criminal    trials,   and   even   in    ciWl 
cases,   corroborative  evidence   shoidd    be  required, 
unless  the  proof  of  handwriting   is   so  clear  as  to 
shift  the  otms  prohandi.'     Though  wTiting-mastei-s, 
engravers,  bankers'  clerks,  and  other  persons  in  the 
habit  of  examining  handwritings  are  often  adduced 
as  witnesses  in  trials  for  forgery,  their  evidence  is 
really  of   very  Uttle  value,   and    generally  so  con- 
flicting that  it  can  be   produced  \vith  equal  effect 
on  cither  side.     The  best  witness  is  one  who  has 
often  seen  the   party  write,  through  whose   hands 
his  writing  has  been  continually  passing,  and  whose 
opinion   is   not   the   result  of   an  inspection   made 
on  a  particular  occasion  for  a  special  purpose.     The 
act  11  Geo.  IV.,  and   1  Will.   IV.  c.  66,  makes  the 
forging  of  the   great   seal,   the  pri\'y  seal,   or  any 
privy  signet,  the  sign-manual,  the  seals  of  Scotland, 
or   the    great    seal   and    privy   seal    of    Ireland — 
treason.     The  same  statute  declares  the  offence  of 
fori'ing,  or  uttering  «-ith  intent  to  defraud,  stamps, 
excbequcr  biUs,   Bank   of   England   notes,  bills   of 
exchange,  promissory   notes,  deeds,  receipts,  orders 
for  the  pajTnent  of  money,  transfers  of  stock,  wills, 
&c.,    to   be   felony.     Capital   punishment  was  first 
abolished  with  regard  to  special  cases  of  forger)'  by 
2  Geo.  IV.,  and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  and  2  and  3  Will. 
IV.  c.  123  ;   and  then  altogether  done  away  with  by 
7  Wai.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c."84.     The  offender  is  now 
liable  to  jicual  ser\-itude,  the  length  of  which  is  at 
the  discretion  of  the  court ;  but  whicli  cannot  be  for 
less  than  three  years,  or  he  may  be  imprisoned  tor 
not  more  than  four,  or  less  than  two  years,  with 
or  without   hard   labour   and  soUtude.     As  to  the 
forgcrj-  of  Bank  of  England  notes,  see  16  Vict.  c.  2. 
As   to  obtaining  property  by  false   pretences,    see 
Fracd. 

FORGET-ME-NOT,   or    SCORPION    GRAvSS 
(Mi/osofi^),    a   genus    of    annual    or    biennial    her- 
baceous   plants,    of    the    natural    order    Borarjinecv, 
with  5-clcft  calyx  and  salver-shaped  corolla ;   the 
IS4 


flowers  small,  and  generally  blue.  The  genus  is 
diffused  over  the  temperate  zone  in  all  quarters 
of  the  world,  and  a  number  of  species  are  common 
in  Britain,  chiefly  growing  in  ditches  and  damj) 
meadows— as  Myosotis  palustris,  \rith  crooked 
creeping  perermial  roots — an  angular  stem  of  a  foot 
in  height,  and  calyx  covered  with  appressed  bristles. 
M.  sylvatka,  with  calyx  covered  ivith  stiff  spreading 
hairs,  grows  in  bushy  places  and  woods,  and  is  often 
planted  in  flower-gardens.  The  dark  blue  F.  of  tlie 
Azores  (M.  Azorka)  has  of  late  begun  to  be  culti- 
vated in  Europe,  but  requires  the  green-house.  The 
genus  is  a  favourite  one  with  most  persons,  both 
because  of  the  brilliancj'  of  the  flowers,  and  because 
throughout  Europe  it  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
eniblem  of  friendship.  The  Englisli  name  Scor- 
pion Grass  is  now  seldom  heard.  The  German 
name  Verfjisznieinnicht  corresponds  with  the  Eng- 
lish Forrjel-me-not. — M.  versicolor,  very  common  in 
Britain,  often  as  a  weed  in  gardens,  is  remarkable 
for  the  change  of  colour  in  the  flowers,  wliich  are 
Hrst  yeUow,  then  blue.  They  are  very  small. — M. 
a/peslris,  found  on  some  of  the  moimtains  of  Scot- 
land, is  especially  admired  for  the  size  and  briUiancy 
of  its  flowei-s. 

FORIO,  a  thri%nng  town  of  Italy,  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Ischia, 
which  stands  at  the  northern  side  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  central  portion  of  the  town 
consists  of  very  narrow  streets,  but  the  suburbs 
are  composed  of  charming  white  cottages.  It  has 
three  highly  decorated  chm-ches,  a  good  harbour, 
and  some  trade  with  Leghorn,  Naples,  and  Genoa. 
Pop.  6500. 

FORISFAMILIA'TION  (literally,  the  putting 
forth  from  or  beyond  the  family)  is  the  separation 
of  a  child  from  the  family  of  his  father.  A  child  is 
said  to  be  forisfamdiated,  either  when  he  marries 
or  when  he  receives  from  his  father  a  separate 
stock,  the  profits  of  which  are  enjoyed  by  himsehf, 
though  he  may  still  reside  with  his  father,  or  when 
he  goes  to  Live  in  another  family  with  the  consent  of 
his  father.  The  same  result  is  also  brought  about 
when  a  chUd  renounces  his  legitim,  i.e.," his  legal 
share  of  the  father's  free  movable  property  due  to 
him  on  the  death  of  the  latter.  See  Bell's  Die.  oj 
tlie  Law  of  Scotland. 

FORKS.  These  table  instruments  are  only  about 
three  centuries  old.  The  Greeks,  Romans,  and 
other  ancient  nations  knew  nothing  of  forks.  They 
had  large  forks  for  hay,  and  also  iron  forks  for 
taking  meat  out  of  pots,  but  no  instruments  of  the 
nature  of  tablfe-forks.  In  ancient  times,  as  is  the 
practice  still  in  the  East,  meat  was  commonly  pre- 
jiared  as  stews ;  or  if  roasted,  it  was  cut  into  small 
pieces  by  a  carver,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken  in 
mouthfuls  by  the  guests,  who  used  their  fingers  and 
a  krdfe  for  the  purpose.  It  certainly  is  a  strange 
fact,  that  the  use  of  an)'  species  of  forks  at  table  was 
quite  imknown  till  the  loth  c,  and  they  were  then 
known  only  in  Italy,  which  has  the  merit  of  this 
invention.  None  of  the  sovereigns  of  England  had 
forks  till  after  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  all,  high  and 
low,  used  their  fingers.  It  was  accordingly  a  part 
of  tlie  etiquette  of  the  table  to  employ  thefi'ngers  so 
dehcatcly  as  not  to  dirty  the  hand  to  any  serious 
degree ;  but  as  even  by  the  best  management  the 
fingers  were  less  or  more  soiled,  it  was  the  custom 
to  wash  the  hands  immediately  on  the  dishes  being 
removed  from  the  table.  Hence,  in  the  royal  house- 
hold, there  was  a  cUgnitary  called  the  Ewrar  or 
Ewarij,  who  with  a  set  of  subordinates  attended  at 
meals  with  basins,  water,  and  towels.  'The  office 
of  Ewary  suri-ived  after  forks  came  partially  into 
use.     We  learn  that  when  James  I.  entertained  the 

433 


rOKLI-FOKMA  PAUPERIS. 


Snnnish  nmbassatlor  at  dinner,  very  shortly  after 
his  accession,  '  tlieir  nuijestics  washeil  their  haniU 
with  water  from  tlie  same  ewer,  the  towels  being 
presented  to  the  king  by  tlie  lord  treasurer,  and  to 
the  (ineen  bv  the  loixl  higli  admiral.'  The  Prince 
of  A\  ales  had  a  ewer  to  himself,  which  was  after 
him  nsed  by  tlie  •■unbassador.— Ellis's  Leitrrx.  The 
lirst  royal  personage  in  England  who  is  known  to 
have  had  a  fork  wai  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  but  although 
several  were  presented  to  her,  it  remains  doubtful 
whether  she  used  them  on  ordinary  occasions. 
From  the  inventory  of  her  m.ijesty's  ajiiiointnients 
in  Kichols's  Pnxjrinscs,  it  would  ap]iear  that  these 
forks  were  more  for  ornament  than  use.  '  Item,  a 
knife  and  a  sjioune,  and  a  forke  of  christall,  garnishe<I 
with  golde  sleiglitly,  and  s|iarcks  of  garuett.s  :  given 
by  the  Countess  of  L.\nicohie.  Jinn,  a  forke  of 
corall,  sli^itly  garnislied  with  golde  :  given  by  JIi-s 
Frances  Drury.  Jlein,  one  s)iouue  and  forke  of 
golde  ;  the  forke  garnislied  with  two  lyttle  rubyes, 
two  Ij-ttle  jierles  jiendaiit,  and  a  lyttle  corall  :  given 
by  the  Countess  of  Warwicke.'  These  ornamental  \ 
forks  had  doubtless  been  [iresented  to  the  queen 
as  foreign  curiosities  of  some  value,  and  were  prob- 
ably never  nsed  at  table.  jVs  yet,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable time  aftenvards,  forks  were  not  in  common  , 
use,  a  circumstance  less  attributable  to  ignorance  of  ! 
the  invention,  than  to  prejudice.  So  far  was  this 
prejuilice  carried,  by  even  e<luc.ated  ]ieisons,  that 
one  divine  preached  against  the  use  of  forks,  as  I 
being  an  insult  to  Providence  not  to  touch  one's 
meat  with  one's  lingers  !  [ 

Italy,  as  has  been  said,  claims  the  merit  of  this 
useful  inveutitui.  This  fact  is  explicitly  learned 
from  an  account  of  a  tour  in  Italy  by  a  traveller 
named  Thomas  Coryate,  who  visited  that  country 
in  1608.  His  travels,  styled  f^rmlitiex,  were  pub- 
Lshed  first  in  IGU,  and  re]iublished  in  1776.  In 
these  CniJilii's  appear  the  following  jiassages 
respecting  the  Italian  towns  :  '  I  observed  a  custom 
in  all  those  It.alian  cities  and  townes  through  which 
I  passed,  that  is  not  used  in  any  other  country  that 
I  saw  in  my  travels  ;  neither  do  1  think  that  any 
other  nation  of  Christendom  doth  use  it,  but  only 
Italy.  The  Italian  and  also  most  strangers  do 
alw.ays  .at  their  meals  use  a  little  forke  when  they 
cut  their  meat.  For  while  with  their  knife,  which 
they  hold  in  one  hand,  they  cut  the  meate  out  of 
the  dish,  they  fasten  the  forke,  which  they  hold  in 
their  other  hand,  npon  the  same  dish ;  so  that 
whatsoever  he  be  that  sitting  in  the  company  of 
others  at  meals,  shcmlii  unadvisedly  touch  the  dish 
of  meat  with  his  lingers,  from  which  .ill  the  table 
doe  cut,  he  will  give  occasion  of  offence  unto  the 
company,  as  having  transgressed  the  laws  of  good 
manners,  in  so  much  that  for  his  error  he  shall  be  at 
the  least  browbeaten,  if  not  reprehended  in  wordes. 
This  form  of  feeding,  I  understaiul,  is  generally 
used  ill  all  places  of  Italy  ;  their  forks  being  for 
the  most  jiai't  made  of  yron,  Steele,  and  some  of 
silver,  but  these  are  used  only  by  gentlemen.  The 
reason  for  this  curiosity  is,  because  the  Italian  can- 
not by  any  means  imlure  to  have  his  dish  touched 
wth  fingers,  seeing  that  all  men's  fiuirers  are  not 
alike  cleane.  Hereupon,  I  myself  thought  gooil  to 
imitate  the  Italian  f;i.shion  by  this  forked  cutting 
of  meate,  not  only  while  I  w.as  in  Italy,  Vmt  also  in 
Gennany,  and  oftentimes  in  England  since  I  came 
home  ;  being  once  ipiipped  for  that  frequent  using 
of  my  forke,  by  a  certain  learned  gentleman,  a 
familiar  friend  of  mine,  Mr  Laurence  Whitaker, 
w-ho  in  his  merry  humour,  doubted  not  to  call  me 
at  table /((cc/rt-r,  only  for  using  a  forke  at  feeding, 
but  for  iKj  other  cause.'  The  term  here  employed 
jocularly,  w.as  in  its  serious  meaning  one  of  repro.ach, 
having  been  ajiplied  by  the  Komans  to  those  shaves 


who  as  a  punishment  bore  a  forked  frame  or  yoke 
{/iirca),  resembling  an  inverted  ^ — hence  the  Italian 
/urea  and  /orr/ietta ;  the  latter  (little  fork)  being 
followed  in  the  French  term  fimrcIuUe,  while  the 
former  is  the  root  of  the  English  word  fork. 

Forks  came  so  slowly  into  use  in  England,  that 
they  were  employed  only  liy  the  higher  classes  at 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  About  the  period 
of  the  revolution,  few  noblemen  had  more  th.an 
,a  dozen  forks  of  silver,  along  with  a  few  of  iron 
or  steel.  At  length,  for  general  use,  steel  forks 
became  an  article  of  manufacture  at  Shetlield  :  at 
first,  they  had  but  two  prongs,  and  it  w.as  onlj'  in 
later  times  that  the  throe-pronged  kind  were  made. 
As  late  .OS  the  early  part  of  the  18th  c,  table-forks, 
and  we  may  .add  knives,  were  kejit  on  so  meagre  a 
scale  by  country  inns  in  Scotland  (and,  jierhaps,  also 
in  some  parts  of  England),  that  it  was  customary 
for  gentlemen  in  travelling  to  carry  with  them  a 
portal)le  knife  .and  fork  in  a  shagreen  case ;  and 
till  this  day  a  small  knife  and  fork  form  part  of  the 
ornamental  equi))ment  in  the  Highl.and  dress.  The 
general  introduction  of  silver  forks  into  Great 
Britain  is  quite  recent ;  it  can  be  dated  no  further 
back  than  the  opening  of  the  continent  to  English 
tfnirists  at  the  termination  of  the  French  war  in 
1814.  The  extensive  use  of  these  costly  instni- 
nients  in  the  present  day,  marks  in  an  extraordinary 
degree  the  rajiid  progress  of  wealth  and  refined 
taste  throughout  the  United  Kingdom. 

FORLI,  an  interesting  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  the  Ajiennines,  in  a  jtlcasant 
and  fertile  jilain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Montone, 
16  miles  south-west  of  Ravenna.  It  is  a  well-built, 
handsome  city,  is  surrounded  with  walls,  and  con- 
tains many  striking  sjiecimens  of  architecture,  of 
which  the  Guerini  Palazzo,  built  after  the  designs  of 
Michael  Angelo,  the  Palazzo  Comnnale,  the  Monte 
di  Pietil,  the  cathedral,  a  majestic  building,  and  the 
churches  of  S.  Philijio  Neri,  of  .S.  Girohamo,  and  of  S. 
Mercuriale,  are  the  most  notable.  The  ecclesiastical 
buildings  of  F.  contain  some  of  the  best  pictures  of 
Cignani,  Carlo  Mar.atti,  Guide,  and  other  masters. 
The  citadel,  founded  in  1361,  is  now  used  as  a  prison. 
Pop.  18,04.'?,  who  carry  on  sillc-spinning  and  salt- 
reHning,  with  a  considerable  ti-ade  in  corn,  linen, 
hemp,  carthamus,  wo.ad,  &c.  F.  (the  ancient  Foi-um 
Liv'n)  is  s.aid  to  have  been  founded  by  Marcus 
Liviiis  Salinator,  after  his  \nctory  over  Hasdrubal, 
on  the  Metaurus,  207  B.C.,  and  to  have  received 
its  name  from  him.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  formed  a 
republic,  and  exchanged  its  rulers  frequently  during 
the  struggles  of  the  Gueljilis  and  Ghibellines.  In 
ISO.'J,  it  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  the  Church, 
and  so  remained  till  1860,  when  it  w.as  placed  with 
the  ..ijnilian  provinces  imder  the  sceptre  of  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

FORLO'RN-HOPE,  the  body  of  men  selected  to 
attempt  a  breach,  or  to  lead  in  scaling  the  wall  of  a 
fortress.  The  name  (which  in  the  ireucli,  enfanta 
perduft,  is  even  more  expressive)  is  given  on  account 
of  the  extreme  danger  to  which  the  leaders  of  a 
storming-party  are  necessarily  exposed.  As,  how- 
ever, the  honour  of  success  is  proportionate  to  the 
jierU  of  the  undertaking,  there  is  ordinarily  no  lack 
of  volunteers  for  this  arduous  service.  The  forlorn- 
hope  is  called  by  the  Germans  Die  verlonicn  Fasten. 

FORMA  PAU'PERIS,  the  phr.ase  usually  em- 
ployed  both  in  England  and  Scotland  to  signify  the 
arrangements  liy  which  an  actittn  m.ay  be  carried 
on  by  one  who  is  too  poor  to  sue  in  the  ordinary 
way.  In  England,  the  statutes  11  Heurj'  VII.  c  12, 
and  2.3  Heury  VIII.  c.  15,  jjrovide  that  such  as 
will  swe.ar  themselves  not  worth  £5    except  their 


FORMATION— FORMS  OF  ADDRESS. 


wearing  apparel  and  the  matter  in  question  in  the 
cause,  shall  be  exempt  when  plaintilfs,  but  not 
when  defendants,  from  the  payment  of  court-fees, 
anil  sliall  be  entitled  to  have  counsel  and  attorney 
assigned  to  them  by  the  court  without  fee.  They 
are  further  excused  from  costs  wlien  unsuccessful ; 
a  priNnlege  which,  according  to  Blackstone,  amounted 
in  former  times  only  to  the  rather  uncomfortable 
alternative  of  choosing  between  pajTng  and  being 
whipi)ed.  In  the  event  of  success,  however,  a 
lierson  suing  in  this  form  is  entitled  to  his  costs, 
because  his  counsel  and  agent,  and  the  officers  of 
court,  though  they  are  bound  to  give  their  labour 
gratis  to  him,  are  not  bound  to  give  it  on  the  same 
terms  to  his  antagonist,  unless  he  too  be  a  pauper. 
To  ]irevent  the  al)use  of  suing  in  the  superior  courts 
at  Westminster  in  this  form  in  mattei-s  of  small 
amount,  it  is  provided  (19  and  20  Viet.  c.  KIS,  s.  30), 
suljject  to  cei-tain  exce|itions,  that  any  plaintiff  who 
resorts  to  one  of  these,  in  a  case  falling  within  the 
cognizance  of  a  county  court,  and  recovers  no  more 
than  £20,  or  in  some  cases  £5,  shall  have  no  costs, 
unless  he  satisfies  the  court  or  a  judge  that  he  had 
sutficient  reason  for  taking  that  course.  There  are 
some  other  exceptions  to  the  rule  (see  Stephen's 
torn.  iii.  p.  G-Ui). 

in  Scotland,  this  benevolent  arrangement  was 
introduced  by  statute  more  than  half  a  century 
before  the  date  of  the  English  act  we  have  men- 
tioned. In  1424,  the  statute  (c.  45),  which  we  have 
already  quoted  under  Advocate  (q.  v.),  was  passed 
for  the  pui-pose  of  securing  professional  as.sistance, 
gratis,  to  the  i)Oor,  and  for  giWng  to  them  and  those 
who  assisted  them  their  costs  in  the  event  of  success. 
Tlie  more  special  arrangements  applicable  to  litiga- 
tion in  this  form  in  Scotland  ^vill  be  detailed  imder 
Poor's  Roll  (q.  v.). 

FORMATION,  in  Geology,  is  applied  to  a  group 
of  strata  united  by  some  character  which  they  have 
in  ctimmon,  whether  of  age,  origin,  or  composition, 
as  the  coal  or  chalk  formation. 

FORMEDOX,  an  old  form  of  action,  in  the 
Law  of  England,  whereby  an  heir  of  entail  or 
remainder  man  who  had  been  ousted  by  a  discon- 
tinuance, was  entitled  to  vindicate  his  claim  to  the 
lands  from  which  he  had  been  ousteiL  By  21  James  I. 
c.  l(i,  it  was  enacted  that  WTit  of  formedon  should 
be  brought  within  twentj'  years  of  the  time  when 
tlie  cause  of  action  arose.  Writ  of  formedon  is  now 
abolished,  together  with  other  real  actions. 

FO'RMIC  ACID  (C,H03,H0)  derives  its  name 
from  the  circumstance  of  its  ha^■ing  been  first 
obtiiined  from  the  Formica  rii/ci,  or  red  ant.  In  a 
concentrated  state,  it  is  a  fuming  liquor  with  an 
irritating  odoiu',  and  occasions  vesication  if  dropped 
niion  the  skin.  It  crj'stallises  at  a  temperature 
below  32°,  and  boils  at  about  212°,  jnelding  a  vapour 
which  burns  with  a  blue  flame.  It  is  a  strong 
reducing  agent,  at  a  boiling  temperature  reducing  the 
Baits  of  sUver,  mercury,  platiniun,  and  gold. 

It  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways,  as,  forexample : 
1.  By  the  distillation  of  red  ants  with  water  (a 
j)roceeding  never  adopted  now).  2.  By  the  distilla- 
tion of  a  mixture  of  starch,  binoxide  of  manganese, 
sulphuric  acid,  and  water  ;  this  is  the  usual  method, 
and  vjirious  organic  matters,  as  sugar,  chaff,  bran, 
saw-dust,  &c.,  may  bo  substituted  for  the  starch. 
3.  By  the  distillation  of  oxalic  acid  mixed  with 
sand,  or  far  better  (according  to  Berthelot),  with 
glycerine  ;  1  equivalent  of  oxalic  acid  (C40,.2H0) 
yielding  1  equivalent  of  formic  acid  (CjH03,H0)  -|-  2 
equivalents  of  carbonic  acid  (200,). 

Berthelot  has  recently  obtamed  it  synthetically  by 
keejiing  carbonic  oxide  g.is  for  a  prolonged  period 
in  contact  with  hydrate  of  potash,  at  a  temperature 


of  212°.  The  gas  becomes  gradually  absorbed,  and 
fonnate  of  potash  is  the  result,  the  reaction  being 
exhibited  by  the  formida,  1  equivalent  of  hydrate 
of  potash  (KO.HO)  +  2  equivalents  of  carbonic 
oxide  (200)  =  1  equivalent  of  formate  of  potash 
(K0,C,H03). 

Formic  acid  is  a  very  common  product  of  the 
oxidation  of  organic  bodies  ;  thus,  for  example,  the 
albuminates,  glycine,  sugar,  starch,  &c.,  j-ield  it  in 
association  with  other  jiroducts,  when  acted  on  by 
chromic  acid  ;  the  fats  and  Satty  acids  yield  it  when 
acted  on  by  nitric  acid;  and  it  is  a  product  of  the 
action  of  ozone  on  glycerine,  fats,  fatty  salts,  acetic 
acid,  and  sugar,  provided  a  free  alkali  is  present. 
Hence,  we  can  readily  explain  its  occurrence  as 
a  jiroduct  of  oxidation  in  tlie  animal  organism,  in 
which  it  not  unfrequently  occurs,  either  free  or  in 
combination.  Thus  we  find  it  not  only  in  ants,  but 
in  the  poison  of  the  bee  and  wasp,  and  in  the  hairs 
of  the  procession  caterpillar.  It  has  been  detected 
by  various  chemists  in  the  sweat,  in  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  spleen,  pancreas,  thymus  gland,  and 
muscles,  in  the  brain,  the  blood,  and  the  urine. 

The  salts  of  formic  acid,  which  are  termed  by 
some  chemists  formates,  and  by  others  fonniates, 
require  no  siiecial  notice.  Tliey  .^.re  all  soluble,  and 
yield  a  red  colour  with  pers;dts  of  ii-on. 

FORJII'CA     See  A.nt. 

FORMING'S  ISLAND  is  a  speck  on  the  bosom 
of  the  Pacific,  lying  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Sand- 
wich Group,  or  Hawaiian  Archi])elago,  in  lat.  30^  49' 
N.,  and  long.  159°  20'  W.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
recent  additions  to  the  British  empire,  having  been 
formally  occu[iied,  mainly  on  account  of  its  excellent 
harbour,  towards  the  close  of  1860. 

FORjNIO'SA  (Cliinese  name,  Tai-tmn),  a  large 
island  on  the  south-east  coast  of  China,  opposite 
the  pro\-ince  of  Fu-keen,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  90  miles.  It  lies  between  21°  53' — 2.5°  16' 
N.  lat.,  and  120°  15'— 122°  4'  E.  long. ;  and  for  admini- 
strative puriioses,  is  included  in  the  pro\'uice  before 
mentioned,  of  which  (together  with  Pang-hoo  group) 
it  forms  a  department.  The  length  "of  F.,  from 
north  to  south,  is  about  237  miles,  and  its  average 
breadth,  from  east  to  west,  is  about  70  miles.  A 
chain  of  moiuitains  ninnmg  north  and  south  nearly 
bisects  the  island,  and  diWdes  it  into  an  eastern 
and  western  jiro^-ince.  Chinese  settlers  occujiy  tho 
Latter,  but  the  other  section  is  held  by  the  abori- 
gines. Tai-wan  (q.v.),  the  capital,  in  23°  N.  lat.,  and 
on  the  western  coast,  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce 
by  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin,  June  2G,  1S5S.  F.  has  a 
fertde  soil,  and  jiroduces  rice,  maize,  sugar,  tobacco, 
cinnamon,  pepper,  &c.  ;  oranges,  pine-apples,  guavas, 
cocoa-nuts,  pomegranates,  as  well  as  grapes,  peaches, 
and  other  European  fruits,  are  abundant.  The 
aboriginal  inhabitants  are  still  in  a  very  rude  state. 

FORMS  OF  ADDRESS.  Many  persons  are 
exjiosed  to  inconvenience  from  their  ignorance  of 
the  formal  modes  of  addressing  letters  to  jiersons 
of  title ;  we  shall  therefore,  in  the  present  article, 
give  an  enumer.ation,  taken  mainly  from  Mr  Dod's 
Peernge  and  Baronage,  of  the  usual  ceremonious 
modes  of  written  address.  Previous  to  their 
employment,  the  ^vl■iter  must,  of  course,  learn 
either  from  the  peerage-wTiters,  or  from  some  other 
source,  the  precise  rank  of  the  person  whom  he 
wishes  to  address,  as  well  as  the  hereditary,  per- 
sonal, or  official  distinctions  by  which  that  rank  is 
often  modified. 

1.  ArcJilii^hop — Letters  are  addressed  :  '  His  Grace, 

the  Lord  Archliishop  of ,'  and  commence  :  '  Jly 

Lord  ^Vrchbishop.'  Jlore  formal  documents  are 
addressed  '  The  Most  Reverend  Father  in  God 
(John  Bird),  by  Divine  Providence,  Lord  Archbishop 

43j 


I'OHMS  OF  ADDllESS. 


oC  Canterbury;'  other  arclibisbops  and  su6fragan 
bishops  bein^  '  by  Diviue  permission.'  Wheu 
por-iouiUly  relcrreil  to,  an  archbislioj)  is  styled 
'  Your  Grace,'  not  '  Your  Lonlship.'  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Arniagli  is  adiliesscd  as  '  His  Grace  the 
Lord  rrim;»te  of  Ireland.' 

Archbishops'  wives,  and  the  other  members  of 
their  fiimdies,  enjoy  no  titles,  as  such. 

2.   i/aron— Addressed  :    '  The  llight  Honourable 

Lord ; '  referred  to  as  '  His  Lordship,'  or  '  Your 

Lordship.' 

Baron's  Daughter— '  The  Honourable  Mary ;' 

or,  if  married, '  The  Honourable  Mrs .'     Letters 

coiumence, '  Mailam.' 

iJarort'«-SoM— 'The Honourable Johu .'  Letters 

commence,  'Sir.' 

Jiaron's  Sons  H'i/d— ' The  Honourable  Mrs .' 

Letters  commence,  '  Madam.' 

Baron's   Wifi,  and  Baronexa  in  her  own  right— 

'The  Right  Honourable  Lady ;'  in  strictness, 

but   more   commonly,  '  The   Lady  .'      Letters 

commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as  '  Yoiu- 
Ladyship.' 

Baronet — '  Sir  John  ,  Bart.'  Letters  com- 
mence, '  Sir.' 

Baronet's  Jfi/e — '  Lady  .'    Unless  she  has  a 

title  as  the  daughter  of  a  peer,  no  Christian  name  is 
useil.     She  is  referred  to  as  '  Y'oiu-  Ladyship.' 

Bishop — '  The  Eight  Reverend  the  Lord  Bishop 
of  .'  Letters  commence,  '  My  Lord.'  Fre- 
quently the  adch-ess  is  simply,  '  The  Lord  Bishop 

of .'     The  style  in  formal  dociunents  is,  '  The 

Right   Reverend   Father  in   God   (John   ),  by 

Divine  permission,  Lord  Bishop  of  .'     Scotch 

bishops  are  addressed  'The  Bishop  of ,'  some- 
times as  '  The  Right  Reverend  Bishop  {e.  g.,  C.  H. 
Tcrrot)',  and  letters  commence,  '  Right  Reverend 
Sir.'  The  colonial  bishops  are  addressed  by  their 
territorial  titles,  like  those  of  England. 

Bishops'  ]Vipes  and  Children  have  no  titles. 

Countess — '  The  Right  Honourable  the  Coimtess 

of  .'     Letters  commence,   '  Madam,'   and  refer 

to  her  as  '  Y'our  Ladyship.' 

Duchess — '  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of .'  Let- 
ters commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as  '  Y'our 
Grace.' 

Duke — '  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  .'     Letters 

commence,  '  My  Lord  Duke ; '  and  he  is  referred 
to  as  '  Your  Grace.' 

Duke's  Daughter — '  The  Right  Honourable  Lady 

Mary ,'  or  less  foi-mally,  '  "The  Lady  Mary .' 

Letters  commence,  '  Madam,'  and  refer  to  her  as 
'  Your  Ladyship.'  If  she  is  married  to  a  person  of 
inferior  rank,  her  surname  only  is  changed. 

Duke's  Eldest  Son  — Uses  the  second  or  some  other 
title  of  his  family  by  courtesy,  and  he  is  addi'essed 
as  if   he  held  the  title  by  law,  though   in  formal 

documents  he  is  called  ' ,  Esq.,  eoinmonly  called 

the  Marquis  or  Earl'  (as  the  case  may  be). 

Duke's  Younger  Son — '  The  Eight  Honourable 
Lord  John  Russell,'  or  less  formally,  '  The  Lord 
John  R .'     '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Y'oiu-  Lordship.' 

Duke's  Younger  Son's  Wife — 'The  Lady  John ,' 

unless  where  she  has  a  title  in  her  own  right. 
'  Madam,'  and  '  Your  Ladyship.' 

JJarl — '  The  Right  Honouraljle  the  Earl  of  ,' 

or  less  foi-mally,  '  The  Earl  of .'   '  My  Lord,'  and 

'  Y'our  Lordship.' 

Earl's  Daughter — Like  Duke's  Daughter  (q.  v.). 

EarVs  Eldest  Son  is  addressed  as  if  the  title 
■which  he  holds  in  eoiu-te.sy  were  a  title  in  law. 

EarVs  Younger  Son — Like  Baron's  Son  (q.  v.). 

EarCs  Younger  Son's  Wife — Like  Baron's  son's 
wife,  unless  of  superior  rank  to  her  husband. 

EarCs  Wife.     See  Countess. 

King— 'The   King's   Most  Excellent   Majesty.' 


'Sire,'  and  '  Y'our  Majesty  ;'  or,  in  less  formal  notes, 
thus  :  '  Mr  Pill  presents  his  duty  to  your  Majesty.' 

Knight  Bachelor — Like  Baronet  (q.  v.),  except  that 
the  word  '  Bart.'  is  omitted. 

KniglU  Bachelor's  Wife— Like  Baronet's  Wife 
(q.v.). 

K night  of  the  Garter — K.G.  is  added  to  the  name 
or  other  title  of  the  bearer. 

Knight  of  St  Patrick — K.P.  used  in  the  same 
manner. 

KniglU  of  tlie  Thistle— K.T. 

Knight  of  the  Bath—il  a  Knight  Grand  Cross, 
K.G.C.B. ;  if  a  Knight  Commander,  K.C.B. 

Knight  of  the  Bath's  Wife — Like  the  wife  of  a 
Baronet  or  Knight  Bachelor.  * 

Eord  Adrocate  {of  Scotland) — '  The  Eight  Honour- 
able the  Lord  Advocate '  by  courtesy  ;  but  in  official 
documents  he  is  styled  '  Her  Majesty's  Advocate  for 
Scotland.'    Letters  ought  strictly  to  commence, '  Sir,' 
not  '  My  Lord,'  though  the  latter  mode  of  address  is 
the  more  usual. 
I      Lord  Lieutenant   [of  Ireland) — 'His  Excellency 
the   Lord   Lieutenant ; '   and   luttera   commence   in 
accordance  ■\\ith  his  rank  in  the  peerage  or  other- 
[  wise.     If  a  duke,  he  is  styled  '  His  Grace  the  Lord 
Lieutenant.' 
I      Lord  Mayor — '  The  Right  Honourable  the  Lord 
Jlayor.'     '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Y'^our  Lordship.'      There 
are   only   tliree   Lord    Mayors — those    of    London, 
^  Y'ork,  and  Dublin. 

;  Lord  rrorost—Thn  Provost  of  Edinburgh  is  'The 
!  Right  Honourable  the  Lord  Provost ; '  of  Glasgow, 
'The  Honourable  the  Lord  Provost;'  of  Perth  and 
of  Aberdeen,  '  The  Lord  Provost.'  There  are  no 
other  Lord  Provosts.  Perhaps  the  distinction  in 
the  title  of  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  Scottish 
cajiital  is  traceable  to  his  having  been  always  a 
member  of  the  Pri\'y  Council  of  Scotland,  from  at 
least  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

Lord  of  Session  (in  Scotland) — '  The  Honourable 
Lord .'     '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Lords  of  Her  Majesty's  Treasury — These  in  their 
collective  capacity  are  addressed  as  'The  Honour- 
able the  Lords  Commissioners  of  Her  Majesty's 
Treasury;'  individually  they  have  no  title  from 
their  connection  with  the  Treasury. 

Maid  of  Honour — '  The  Honourable  Miss ; '  and 
'  Madam.' 

Marchioness — 'The  Most  Honourable  the  Mar- 
chioness of .'     '  Madam,'  and  '  Y'our  Ladyship.' 

Marquis — '  The   Most   Honourable   the    Marquis 

of ,'  not  '  The  Most  Noble.'     Letters  commence 

'  My  Lord  Marquis ; '  but  when  personally  addi-essed, 
he  is  styled  '  My  Lord,'  and  '  Y'our  Lordship.' 

Marquis' s Daughter — Like  Duke's  Daughter  (q.  v.). 

Marquis's  Eldest  Son — Like  Duke's  Eldest  Sou 
(q.v.). 

Mairjuis's  Younger  Son,  like  Duke's  Younger  Son 
(q.v.). 

Mayors — In  formal  documents,  '  The  Eight  Wor- 
shipful the  Mayor ; '  but  in  letters,  simply '  The 

Mayor.' 

Members  of  Parliament — The  letters  M.P.  are 
added  to  their  usual  address. 

Officers  in  the  JS^ary  and  j4r;n?/— Their  rank  in  the 
service  is  alw.aj's  prefixed  to  any  other  title  they 
may  possess,  thus  :  'Captain  the  Lord  John .' 

Prince — 'His   Royal   Highness   Prince ;'    or 

'  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of ,'  when  the 

Prince  is  also  a  Duke.  In  practice,  the  initials 
H.R.H.  are  usually  substituted  for  the  words.  A 
letter  begins  'Sir,'  not  'My  Lord  Duke;'  and  the 
mode  of  reference  is  '  Y'our  Royal  Highness.' 

Princess — '  Her  Royal  Highness  the  Princess ,' 

or  '  The  Duchess '  (as  the  case  may  be).  '  Madam,' 
and  '  Y'our  Royal  Highness.' 


FORMS  OF  PROCKDURE— FORSTER. 


Prince's  Wife,  though  of  inferior  rank,  like  a 
Princess  by  birth. 

Priutj  Councillor — 'The  Right  Honourable  John 

Privy  Councillor's  Wife  and  Children  have  no 
title. 

Queen — 'The  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty.' 
'  Madam,'  and  '  Your  Majesty ; '  or,  '  The  Lord  John 
R presents  his  duty  to  your  Majesty.' 

Viscount — '  The  Right  Honourable  Lord  Viscount 

,'  or  less  formally,  '  The  Lord  Viscount.'     '  My 

Lord,'  and  '  Your  Lordship.' 

Viscmmtess — '  The  Right  Honourable  the  Vis- 
coimtess,'  or  less  formally,  'The  Viscountess.' 
'  i\Iadani,'  and  '  Your  Ladyship.' 

Viscount's  Daupliler,  like  Baron's  Daughter  (q.  v.). 

Viscount's  Hon,  like  Baron's  Son  (q.  v.). 

Viscourtt's  Son's  Wife,  like  Baron's  Son's  Wife 
(q.v.). 

The  formality  of  these  modes  of  address  experi- 
ences considerable  modifications  when  employed 
by  persons  of  equal  rank.  Between  friends  and 
relatives,  they  are  either  entirely  dispensed  with 
(except,  of  course,  in  addressing  letters),  or  adapted 
to  the  feelings  and  caprices  of  the  writers.  In  this, 
as  in  many  other  respects,  we  of  the  present  gener- 
ation are  far  less  ceremonious  than  our  fathers,  and 
still  more  than  our  grandfathers  were.  In  most  old 
letters,  it  will  be  found  that  the  titles  of  the  writers 
are  preser\'ed  even  where  there  is  the  freest  and 
most  familiar  interchange  of  thought  and  feeling. 
Wives  address  their  husbands,  and  husbands  their 
wives,  chil(h-en  their  jiarents,  and  occasionally  even 
parents  their  children,  as  '.Sir'  or  'Madam,'  'My 
Lord,'  or  '  Your  Royal  Highness,'  as  the  case  may  be. 

FOEMS  OF  PROCEDURE.     See  Pkocess. 

FORNICA'TION  (fornicatio,  from  fornix,  an 
arch-vaidt,  and  by  metonymy,  a  brothel,  because 
brothels  at  Rome  were  in  cellars  and  vaults  under 
ground).  In  most  countries,  this  crime  has  been 
brought  within  the  pale  of  positive  law  at  some 
period  of  their  history,  and  prohibited  by  the  impo- 
sition of  penalties  more  or  less  severe  ;  but  it  has 
always  been  foimd  ultimately  to  be  more  expedient 
to  trust  to  the  restraints  which  public  opinion 
impose  on  it  in  every  community  which  is  guided  by 
the  principles  of  morality  and  rehgion.  In  England, 
in  IC50,  during  the  ascendency  of  the  Puritan  party, 
the  repeated  act  of  keepiag  a  brothel  or  committing 
fornication  was  made  felony  without  benefit  of 
clergj'  on  a  second  conWetiou.  At  the  Restoration, 
when  the  crime  of  hy|)Ocrisy  seemed  for  a  time  to  be 
the  only  one  which,  under  the  influences  of  a  very 
natural  reaction,  men  were  willing  to  recognise,  this 
enactment  was  not  renewed  ;  and  though  notorious 
and  open  lewdness,  when  carried  to  the  extent  of 
exciting  public  scandal,  continued,  as  it  had  been 
before,  an  incUctable  offence  at  common  law,  the 
mere  act  of  fornication  itself  was  abandoned  '  to  the 
feeble  coercion  of  the  spuitual  court,  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  canon  law,  a  law  which  has 
treated  the  offence  of  incontinence  with  a  great  deal 
of  tenderness  and  lenity,  owing  perhaps  to  the  con- 
strained ceUbacy  of  its  first  compilers.' — Blackstone. 
The  ])roceedings  of  the  spiritual  court  were  regu- 
lated by  27  Oeo.  III.  e.  44,  which  enacts  that  the 
suit  must  be  instituted  within  eight  months,  and 
that  it  cannot  be  maintained  at  all  after  the  mar- 
riage of  the  parties  offending.  But  proceedings  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  for  this  offence  have  now 
fallen  into  entire  desuetude  (Stephen's  Com.  iv. 
347).  In  Scotland,  shortly  after  the  Reformation, 
fornication  was  prohibited  by  what  Baron  Hume 
caUs  '  an  anxious  statute  of  James  VI'  (l.'5()7  c.  1.3), 
entitled  '  Anent  the  Filthie  Vice  of  Fornication,  ami 


Punishment   of  the   samin.'     This    act,  which   was 

passed  in  the  same  parliament  by  which  incest  and 
adultery  are  punished  with  death,  provides  that  the 
oS'ender,  whether  male  or  female,  shall  pay  for  the 
first  offence  a  fine  of  i'40  Scots,  and  shall  stand 
bareheaded,  and  fastened  at  tlie  market-place,  for 
the  space  of  two  hours  ;  for  the  second,  sliall  pay 
a  fine  of  100  merks,  have  the  head  shaven,  and  shall 
be  exposed  in  the  same  public  manner  ;  and  for  the 
third,  pay  a  fine  of  £100,  be  thrice  ducked  in  the 
foidest  pool  of  the  parish,  and  be  banished  the  town 
or  parish  for  ever.  There  is  but  one  instance  of  this 
statute  having  been  enforced  by  the  Court  of  Justi- 
ciary, which  occurs,  as  might  be  supposed,  during 
the  government  of  the  Protector  in  Scotland.  The 
offence  of  keeping  a  house  of  notorious  ill-fame  and 
scandalising  the  neighbourhood,  is  punishable  in 
Scotland  as  a  police   offence.     See  Nuisance  and 

PRO.STITnTION. 

FORRES,  a  royal  burgh  in  the  county  of  Elgin 
or  Moray,  situated  on  a  well-marked  old  sea-teiTace 
and  jiromontory,  distant  about  twomdes  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Findhoru  (q.  v.).  Pop.  (1S61) 
3508.  It  was  a  royal  burgh  in  the  reign  of  King 
David  I.  (1124 — 1153),  and  was  subsequently  the 
seat  of  the  Archdeacon  of  Moray,  who  had  as  his 
prebend  the  church  of  Forres,  dedicated  to  St  Lau- 
rence the  martj'r,  and  the  church  of  Logynfythenach 
(now  Edinkillie),  dedicated  to  St  John  the  Baptist. 
A  painting  of  St  Laurence  holding  in  hia  hand 
the  gridiron  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  been 
roasted,  is  preserved  at  Brotlie  House  near  Forres. 
The  antiquities  of  the  place  are  the  remains  of 
its  castle,  at  the  west  end  of  the  town,  now  sm-- 
mounted  by  a  monument,  erected  to  the  memory  of 
Dr  Thomson  (a  native  of  Cromarty,  distmguished 
by  his  eminent  medical  services  in  the  Crimean 
war),  and  the  remarkable  sculptured  pUlar — 25  feet 
high — sometimes  called  Sueno's  Stone,  but  more 
commonly  '  the  Stan'in'  Stane,'  which  stands  about 
a  mUe  to  the  eastward.  A  monastery  of  black 
fi-iars  is  said  to  have  stood  formerly  on  the  site  now 
occupied  by  Anderson's  or  the  FoiTes  Academical 
Institution.  F.  Ues  at  the  foot  of  a  curiously  formed 
OTOup  of  four  gravelly  hiUs,  named  the  Cluny  or 
Cleeny  Hills,  evidently  water-made,  on  the  highest 
of  which,  the  site  of  an  old  encampment,  an  octagonal 
tower  66  feet  high,  was  erected  to  the  memory  of 
Nelson  in  1806.     (1871— pop.  3959.) 

FORSTER,  JouN,  an  Enghsh  political  and 
historical  writer,  was  bom  at  Newcastle  in  1S12. 
He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  early,  like 
so  many  other  law-students,  devoted  himself  to 
periodical  writing.  In  this  sphere  of  Hteratiue  he 
displayed  more  than  usual  ability;  and  his  political 
articles  in  the  London  Examiner,  for  which  he 
commenced  'wTiting  in  1834,  attracted  more  atten- 
tion than  is  usually  bestowed  on  newspaper  leaders. 
There  was  a  vigour  and  point  about  them,  coupled 
with  a  truth,  consistency,  and  outspoken  honesty 
(the  three  latter  qualities  being  more  rare  in  news- 
paper writers  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  than  they 
are  now),  which  obtained  a  wide  renown  for  the 
paper.  F.  became  editor  of  the  Examiner  in  1846, 
an  office  which  he  still  discharges.  He  is  the  author 
of  many  admirable  biographical  and  historical 
essays,  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  much 
new  and  valuable  information  tending  to  elucidate 
obscure  points,  and  correct  erroneous  notions  about 
the  times  and  statesmen  of  the  Enghsh  Common- 
wealth. It  is  to  tills  period  of  history  that  F.  has 
chiefiy  directed  his  studies,  and  no  person  desirous 
of  properly  understanding  it,  should  neglect  his 
History  of  tlie  Grand  Remonstrance,  Arrest  of  the 
Eive  Members,  and   Lives  of  the  i>tates>7ien  of  the 


FOKSTKU-FOUT  AUGUSTUS. 


Commonmalth.  \l\a  literary  memoirs  arc  also  excel- 
lent, ami  Iiis  most  elaborate  effort  in  this  way,  Tlie 
Lift  aii'l  Times  of  Ulirer  GoUlsmilh,  is  a  charming 
piece  of  biograi>hy.  F.'s  style  is  clear,  forcible, 
and  clcgaiit  lie  was  apiwiutcd  Secretary  to  the 
Commissioners  in  Lunacy  in  1S5G  ;  auJ  in  ISGl,  a 
Commissioner  in  Lunacy. 

FOKSTEK,  JoiiANK  Reixiioi.d,  .1  German 
traveller  and  nat\iralist,  was  born  in  Dirschau,  in 
Prussia,  in  1729,  and  died  at  Halle  in  1798.  He 
was  educated  at  Halle  and  Danzig  for  the  clerical 

Erofession,  and  in  175;J  became  jiastor  at  Nassen- 
uben,  near  Danzig ;  but  he  seems  to  have  devoted 
most  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  mathematics, 
natural  jihilosophy,  natural  history,  and  ^eo^aphy. 
In  1765,  he  .iccepted  an  offer  made  to  him  by  the 
Bussian  government,  to  inspect  and  report  upon  the 
new  colonies  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga; 
and  the  matter  of  his  report  is  said  to  have  been 
80  good  as  to  have  given  to  the  Emjn-ess  Catharine 
suggestions  for  her  great  code  of  laws.  His  irritable 
temjwr  soon  involved  him  in  difficulties  with  the 
Kussian  goveriimeut ;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
repaired  to  England,  where  the  exertions  of  some 
of  his  scicntitic  friends  in  London  soon  procured 
for  him  tlie  office  of  teacher  of  natural  history, 
and  of  the  French  and  German  languages,  at  an 
educational  institution  for  dissenting  clergymen  at 
Warrington,  in  Lancashire.  He  retained  this  post 
until  1772,  when  he  received,  through  the  influence 
of  Mr  Banks,  the  offer  of  naturalist  to  Captain 
Cook's  second  expedition  to  the  South  Seas.  In  the 
course  of  the  voyage,  his  temper  seems  to  have 
frequently  brought  him  into  unpleasant  collision 
with  the  other  officers;  and  after  the  return  of 
Captain  Cook's  vessels  in  July  1774,  a  controversy 
arose  between  F.  and  Lord  Sandwich  on  the 
question  as  to  who  should  -nTite  the  narrative  of 
the  voyage.  It  was  iinally  settled  that  F.  should 
write  the  philosophical,  and  Cook  the  nautical  parts 
of  the  work;  but  fiu^her  difficidties  arose,  and 
Cook's  journal  appeared  alone.  In  1770,  in  .associa- 
tion with  his  son,  he  published  a  work  (in  Latin) 
on  the  botany  of  the  expedition ;  and  in  1778  his 
Observation  faiies  dans  tin  Voijacje  aulour  du  Monde 
sur  la  Oeo(iraphie  Physique,  VHistoire  Katurelle,  et 
la  Plulosopli  ie  Morale  appeared.  In  the  latter  year, 
he  returned  to  Germany,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
made  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Mineralogy 
at  Halle,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  In 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  he  published 
De  Bysso  Anli/juorum,  1775 ;  Zooloifia  Indira, 
1781 ;  Geschidde  der  Eiitdeckungen  und  Sddfffahrten 
im  Kordm,  1784  (translated  into  English  and 
French),  &c. 

FORSTER,  JoHANX  Georg  Ad.vm,  commonly 
known  as  George  F.,  eldest  son  of  Johann  Reinhold 
Forster  (q.  v.),  a  German  traveller  and  naturalist, 
■was  born  at  Nassenhuben,  near  Danzig,  in  1754, 
and  died  at  Paris  in  1794.  When  only  17  years 
of  age,  he  accomjianied  his  father  in  Captain  Cook's 
second  voyage;  and  shortly  after  his  return,  he 
published,  with  the  assistance  of  his  father,  an 
account  of  the  expedition.  His  book,  which  does 
not  differ  materially  in  its  facts  from  Cook's 
narrative,  was  well  received  by  the  public,  and 
was  translated  into  French,  German,  Swedish,  and 
other  languages.  Humboldt  speaks  of  this  work 
and  of  its  author,  '  my  celebrated  teacher  aud 
friend,  George  Forster,'  in  the  highest  terms  in  the 
Cosmos  (see  vol.  ii.  p.  437,  Bohn's  ed.).  F.  havin^ 
returned  to  the  continent,  was  made  Professor  of 
Natural  History  at  Cassel,  and  afterwards  at  Wiliia. 
Having  there  no  access  to  books,  in  1788  he  gladly 
accepted  the  office  of  librarian  to  the  Elector  of 
439 


Mayence.  After  Maycnce  was  t;iken  by  the  French 
in  1792,  F.,  who  had  become  an  ardent  re|iublican, 
was  sent  .as  a  deputy  to  Paris,  to  request  the  incor- 
poration of  Mayence  with  the  French  re|iul)lic. 
While  he  was  in  Paris  on  this  mission,  the  Prussians 
retook  Mayence,  and  F.  lost  all  his  ])roperty, 
including  his  books  and  manuscri])ts.  He  then 
writes  to  a  friend  :  '  If  I  could  only  scrajie  togetlier 
£40U,  I  woiUd  learn  Persian  and  Arabic,  and  go 
overland  to  India  to  gather  new  experience ; '  but 
.about  this  time  he  seems  to  have  been  suffering 
fioni  rheumatic  gout,  which  gradually  increaseil  in 
severity,  aud  which  terminated  his  life  on  the  12th 
of  January  1794.  Besides  niunenws  translations, 
and  the  account  of  Captain  Cook's  voyage,  bis 
most  important  works  are  Kleiiie  Scliri/lfii,  lin 
Beilraij  zur  Ldndea-  und  Volkerkunde,  A'atiiri/c- 
schidite  und  Philosophie  dcs  Leiien  (6  vols.,  Berlin, 
1789 — 1797),  and  Ansichlen  vom  Siedenlwin,  toih 
Brabant,  F/andcrn,  Holland,  Emjland,  und  Frank- 
reich  (3  vols..  Berlin,  1791 — 1794).  His  widow,  the 
daughter  of  Heine,  but  ]>erhaps  more  widely  known 
as  Therese  Huljer,  published  a  collection  of  his 
Letters,  in  2  vols.,  in  1828—1829  ;  and  a  complete 
edition  of  his  works,  in  9  vols.,  was  published  by 
his  daughter  and  Ger\'inu3,  in  1843. 

FORSTER,  Thomas  Ignatius  Maria,  an  English 
meteorologist  and  physicist,  born  in  London  in 
1789,  and  died  in  1850.  In  1812,  he  entered  the 
university  of  Cambridge ;  in  the  following  year,  he 
produced  an  annotated  edition  of  Aratus,  and  in 
ISIU  he  edited  .an  edition  of  Catullus.  In  1817,  he 
[lublished  Observations  on  t/ie  Influence  of  Particular 
states  of  the  Atmosphere  on  Human  Health  and 
Diseases;  in  1824,  Tlie  Perennial  Calendar;  in  1827, 
TIte  Pocket  Encydopcedia  of  Natural  Plumimrna, 
a  work  which  h.as  elicited  the  commendation  of 
Quetelet  and  Humboldt;  in  1836,  Observalinns  nur 
T Influence  des  Comites;  and  in  18.'50,  Annates  d'un 
Physicien  Voyarjeur.  A  work  entitled  Ei>ixlAilarinni 
Forsterianum,  consisting  of  a  collection  of  original 
letters  from  eminent  men,  preseired  in  the  Forster 
family,  was  published  after  his  death,  at  Brussels, 
in  1852. 

FORT,  a  term  of  peculiar  meaning  in  British 
North  America,  applied  to  a  tr.ading-post  in  the 
wilderness  with  reference  to  its  indis|iensable 
defences,  however  sbght,  against  the  surrounding 
barbarism.  It  has  tnus  been  often  employed  to 
designate  merely  a  palisaded  log-hut,  the  central 
oasis  of  civilisation  in  a  desert  larger,  it  may  be, 
tlian  Scotland. 

FORT,  FORTRESS  (from  L.at.  fortis,  strong),  a 
stronghold,  made  secure  by  walls,  and  generally 
further  protected  by  a  ditch  and  jiarapet.  For  the 
construction  of  forts,  see  Fortification'. 

FORT  ADJUTANT,  an  officer  holding  an 
appointment  in  a  fortress — where  the  garrison  is 
often  comjiosed  of  drafts  from  different  cor|is— 
analogous  to  that  of  adjutant  in  a  regiment.  He  is 
resjiunsible  to  the  commandant  for  the  internal 
discipline,  and  the  appropriation  of  the  necessary 
duties  to  particular  cor)>s.  Fort  adjutants,  of  whom 
there  are  at  present  (1S62)  ten,  are  staff-officers,  and 
receive  4s.  Qd.  a  day  in  addition  to  their  regimental 
pay. 

FORT  AUGUSTUS,  a  vilLage  at  the  south  end 
of  Loch  Ness,  29  miles  south-west  of  Inverness.  A 
fort,  intended  to  overawe  the  Highlands,  was  built 
here  soon  after  the  rebellion  of  1715,  on  a  small 
eminence  on  the  loch.  It  can  accommodate  .'JdO 
men,  but  is  commanded  by  neighbouring  heights. 
It  was  taken  by  the  rebels  in  1745,  and  became 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  after 
the  battle  of  Cullodeu.     It  is  a  quadrangle,  with 


FORT  GEORGE— FORTH. 


a.  Ijastioii  at  each  of  tlie  four  comers.  The  twelve 
six-pounders  formerly  mounted  here  have  been 
removed,  but  a  few  soldiers  are  generally  stationed 
at  the  fort. 

FORT  GEORGE,  a  fortification  in  the  uorth-east 
of  Inverness-shire,  on  a  low  sandy  jirojoction  into 
the  Moray  Firth,  here  only  one  mile  broad,  oi)|)osite 
Fortrose,  and  nine  miles  north-east  of  Inverness.  It 
is  the  most  complete  fort  in  the  kingdom,  and  was 
built,  at  a  cost  of  £160,000,  soon  after  the  rebellion 
of  174.5,  to  keep  the  Highlanders  in  subjection.  It 
covers  twelve  acres,  and  can  accommodate  2(XJ0  men. 
It  is  an  irrejidar  polygon,  with  six  bastions,  and 
Ui)waril3  of  70  gims.  It  is  defended  by  a  ditch, 
covert-way,  a  glacis,  two  lunettes,  and  a  ravelin.  It 
has  caseniated  curtains,  27  bomb-proof  rooms,  bomb- 
proof magazines,  and  is  supplied  with  water  from 
eight  pump-wells.  It  is,  however,  only  secure  from 
attack  by  sea. 

FORT  GEORGE  (lyDiA).    See  Madras. 

FORT  MAJOR,  the  next  officer  to  the  governor 
or  commandant  in  a  fortress.  He  is  expected  to 
understand  the  theory  of  its  defences  and  works, 
and  is  responsible  that  the  walls  are  at  all  times 
duly  protecteii  He  is  on  the  staff,  and  receives 
9.9.  dd.  a  day  in  addition  to  his  half-pay. 

FORT  ROYAL,  a  fortified  seaport  of  the  French 
island  of  Martinique,  in  the  West  Indies,  is  the 
capital  of  the  colony.  It  stands  on  the  west  coast, 
in  a  bay  of  its  own  name,  in  lat.  l-t°  .35'  N.,  and 
long.  61°  4'  W.  It  has  a  population  of  about  12,000, 
and  contains  offices  for  the  local  government,  bar- 
racks, arsenal,  and  hospitaL 

FORT  ST  DAVID,  on  the  Coromandel  or  east 
coast  of  Hindustan,  belongs  to  the  ilistrict  of  South 
Arcot  and  presidency  of  Madras.  It  is  three  miles 
to  the  north  of  Cuddalore,  aud  100  to  the  south 
of  Madras,  iu  lat.  11°  45'  N.,  and  long.  79°  50'  E. 
The  place  became  British  in  1091.  It  occujiied  a 
prominent  position  in  the  gi-eat  straggle  for  aujire- 
macy  between  England  and  France.  From  1740  to 
1758,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  settlements  of  the 
former  power  on  the  Camatic ;  but  soon  afterwards, 
its  fortifications  having  been  demolished,  it  sank 
into  comparative  insignificance. 

FORT  WILLIAM,  a  village  in  Invempss-.shire, 
near  the  west  base  of  Ben  Nevis,  63  miles  soiith- 
west  of  Inverness,  and  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Caledonian  Canal.  A  fort  was  originally  huUt 
here  by  General  Monk,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  on 
a  smaller  scale  by  William  III.  It  is  an  irregular 
work,  with  ditch,  glacis,  ravelin,  bomb-proof  maga- 
zine, and  barracks  for  100  men.  It  resisted  sieges 
by  the  Higlilanders  in  1715  and  1745.  It  was  one 
of  the  old  keys  to  the  West  Highlands,  and  is  now 
only  inferior  to  Oban  as  a  centre  for  tourists  to 
explore  these  romantic  regions. 

FORT  WILLIAM  (India).    See  Calcutta. 

FO'RTE,  in  JIusic,  the  Italian  term  for  loud ; 
/orllssimo,  as  loud  as  possible. 

FORTESCUE,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  judge  and 
writer  on  English  law,  descended  from  a  Devonshire 
family,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Fortescue,  Lord 
Chief- justice  of  Ireland,  and  w.as  bom  some  time  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  Educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  in  1441  w'as  made  serjeant-at-law.  The  follow- 
ing year,  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chief-justice  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench.  In  the  struggle  for  the 
crown  between  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  he 
steadily  adhered  to  the  latter,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  for  a  time  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England. 
Lord  Campbell,  in  his  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors 
(vol.  L  p.  367),  under  date  February  17, 1401,  says  : 


*  If  Sir  John  Fortescue  ever  was  de  facto  chancellor, 
and  in  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  the  office,  it  must 
have  been  now,  after  the  second  li.ittle  of  St  Albans, 
and  at  the  very  conclusion  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.' 
In  March  of  that  year,  he  fought  at  the  battle  of 
Towton  for  that  monarch,  and  was  attainted  by  the 
parliament  under  Edward  IV.  He  accomjianied  the 
queen,  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  her  young  son.  Prince 
Edward,  on  their  flight  into  Scotland,  and  whde 
there  wrote  a  treatise  in  support  of  the  claim  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster  to  the  English  crown.  In  1463, 
he  embarked  with  the  queen  and  her  son  for  Holland, 
where  he  remained  for  several  years,  intrusted  with 
the  education  of  the  young  prince.  During  his  exile, 
he  wrote  his  celebrated  work,  De  Laudihua  Leijum 
Angitce,  for  the  instruction  of  his  royal  pui)iL  Iu  the 
introduction,  and  throughout  the  dialogue,  he  desi"- 
nates  himself  '  Cancellarius.'  It  was  when  he  was 
in  Scotland  that  the  title  of  Chancellor  of  England 
is  said  by  some  to  have  been  conferred  upon  him  Ijy 
the  dethroned  monarch.  He  jirobably  had  the  titular 
ofiice  of  chancellor  in  partihus  during  his  exile,  but 
never  exercised  the  functions  iu  England.  In  1471, 
he  returned  with  Queen  Margaret  aud  her  son  ;  but 
on  the  final  defeat  of  the  Lancastrian  party  at  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
taken  prisoner,  finding  that  parliament  and  the 
nation  had  recognised  the  title  of  Edward  IV.,  he 
submitted  to  that  monarch,  and,  as  a  condition  of 
his  pardon,  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour  of  the  claim  of 
the  House  of  York.  He  was  allowed  to  retire  to  his 
seat  of  Ebrington,  in  Gloucestershire,  where  he  died 
in  his  90th  year.  His  male  representative  was,  in 
1789,  created  Earl  Fortescue  and  Viscount  Ebrington 
in  the  peerage  of  Great  Britain. 

FORTH,  a  river  of  Scotland,  rises  in  the  north- 
west of  Stirhngshire,  in  the  mountains  bet\veen 
Loch  Katrine  and  Loch  Lomond,  from  two  main 
branches,  the  Duchray,  16  miles  long,  fi-om  the  east 
side  of  Ben  Lomond,  and  the  Avendhu,  12  mUes 
long,  flowing  through  Lochs  Chon,  Dhu,  and  Ard. 
These  streams  \mite  at  Aberfoyle,  and  issue  from  the 
mountains.  The  F.  then  runs  east  and  south-east 
along  the  borders  of  Perth  and  Stirling  shires,  with 
uumerous  windings,  in  a  wide  valley  aboimding  in 
picturesque  scenery.  It  passes  Stirling,  and  a  little 
above  Alloa  it  widens  out  into  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
The  F.  is  only  30  miles  long  in  a  straight  line  from 
its  source  to  the  mouth  of  the  Devon  ;  but,  owing 
to  its  sinuosities,  its  real  course  is  more  than  twice 
that  length.  It  is  na^^gable  for  vessels  of  100  tons 
to  Stirling.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Teith,  the 
Allan,  and  the  Devon.  The  ujiper  parts  of  the  F. 
and  Teith  traverse  some  of  the  most  romantic  lake 
and  mountain  scenery  in  Scotland. 

FORTH,  FiRTn  of,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  the 
estuary  of  the  river  Forth,  hes  between  the  counties 
of  Clackmannan,  Perth,  and  Fife  on  the  north,  and 
those  of  Stirling,  Linlithgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Had- 
dington on  the  south.  It  first  extends  6  miles 
south-east  from  where  the  Devon  joins  the  Forth ; 
then,  with  an  average  breadth  of  2i  miles,  it  runs  10 
miles  to  Queensferry ;  and  finally,  it  extends  36 
miles  north-east,  gradually  ex])anding  iu  width  to 
15  miles  between  Fife-ness  and  Tautallon  Castle  on 
the  coast  of  Haddingtonshire.  Its  watei-s  are  from 
7  to  30  fathoms  deep,  and  encircle  the  Isle  of  May, 
Bass  Rock,  Inchkeith,  Inchcolm,  Cramond  Isle,  &c. 
On  the  coast,  are  many  fine  harbours.  St  Margaret's 
Hope,  above  Queensferry,  is  one  of  the  safest  road- 
steads in  the  kingdom.  The  chief  rivers  -which  fall 
into  the  firth  are  the  Forth,  Carron,  Avon,  Almond, 
Esk,  and  Leven.  The  counties  along  its  shore  are 
the  most  fertile  and  best  cidtivated  in  Scotland, 
and  include  the  maritime  towns  of  North  Berwick, 

433 


FORTHCOMING— FORTIFICATION. 


MussoIlnin;h,PortoK'llo,  Leith,  Qut-ensferry,  Grangc- 
luoutli,  Culri>9s,  ISiiriitislanil,  Kirkcaldy,  &c  i 

FOKTHCOMING,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  an 
action  liy  wliich  an  arrestment  is  made  available  to 
the  arrester.  The  arrestment  secures  the  goods  or 
debts  in  the  hau.ls  of  the  creditor  or  holder ;  by 
the  forthcoming  the  arrestee  and  common  debtor 
are  c.-Uled  before  the  judi^e  to  hear  sentence  given, 
orderini;  the  debt  to  be  paid,  or  the  etTects  to  be 
delivered  up  to  the  arresting  creditor.  (Bell's 
Law  Dictionary.)  | 

FORTIKIC.-V'TION,  a  term  derived  through  the  j 
Italian   from   the   Latin  Jhiiis   and  jacere,  means  [ 
litenilly  the  'making  strong'  of  any  i>lace  whatever, 
be  it  a  towni,  an  arsenal,  a  camp,  a  mere  house,  or  j 
the  extende<l  ix>sition  of  an  army  occupying  a  tract 
of  country,  a  province,  or  even  a  kingdom.    In  eiiect,  , 
the  term  is  limited  to  strengthening  by  means  of  , 
walls,    ditches,    or    other    station.iry   obstructions,  ' 
aided"  more  or  less  by  artillery,  which  m.ay  impede 
hostile  advance.  ] 

Fortification  cannot  pretend  to  render  strongholds 
impregnable,  for  no  works,  however  skUfuUy  deWsed, 
will  withstand  the  continued  tire  of  well-directed 
artilery,  backed  by  energy  and  discretion  on  the 
part  of  assailants  :  its  aim  is  to  enable  a  beleaguered 
garrison  to  hold  out,  wdthout  losing  ground,  until  it 
can  be  relieved  by  the  advance  of  allies  operating  in 
the  Held.  In  fortifying  a  place,  the  engineer  usually 
proceeds  upon  sorne  iefiued  system  of  entoux-age  ; 
but  if  he  hope  for  success,  his  science  must  be  suffi- 
ciently elastic  to  adapt  itself  to  .all  the  natural 
features  of  the  locality ;  and  from  this  it  follows  that 
a  system  perfect  in  theory,  and  of  universal  applica- 
tion, wLU  in  practice  have  to  undergo  modifications, 
differing  in  almost  every  instance. 

The  origin  of  the  art  is  involved  in  an  obscurity 
which  history  need  not  hope  to  penetrate.  The 
earliest  records  of  all  nations  speak  of  walled  cities 
and  forts. 

The  jirime  element  of  all  fortification  is  the  para- 
pet (from  Italian  para,  before ;  petto,  the  breast), 
which  may  be  a  wooden  stockade,  a  wall  of  masom-y, 
or  a  mound  of  earth,  and  is  intended  to  give  more 
or  less  cover  to  the  defender  from  the  projectiles  of 
his  adversary,  while  he  is  stLU  able  to  use  his  own 
weapons  against  the  latter.  The  simplest  form  of 
parapet  being  the  mound  of  earth,  the  ground 
adjoining  it  would  probably  be  dug  up  for  its  for- 
mation, and  from  this  woiUd  almost  unconsciously 
ensue  the  ditch,  as  an  additional  means  of  separating 
the  assailant  and  the  assaUed.  Starting,  then,  from 
this  parapet  and  ditch  or  fosse,  as  the  elementary 
fonns  of  defence,  it  will  be  well,  before  proceeding 
to  describe  the  ancient  and  modern  systems,  to  give 
concise  practical  definitions  of  the  parts,  adjuncts, 
and  technical  names  of  a  fortification. 

I'he  first  duty  of  a  defender  is  to  prevent,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  enemy's  near  approach  to  any  of  his 
works.  In  developed  systems,  this  is  sought  to  1  ir 
done  by  bastions,  &c.  (of  which  hereafter),  whirli 
sfcind  out  at  angles  to  the  general  hue,  so  as  to 
afford  a  fire  commanding  all  parts.  But  as  cases 
occasionally  happen  of  troops,  defended  by  a  mere 
straight  parapet  and  ditch,  haNong  to  withstand  the 
advance  of  the  enemy,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  every 
measure  which  can  obstruct  his  path,  harass  his 
iulvance,  .and,  if  possible,  aid  in  cutting  off  his  retreat 
in  the  event  of  failure. 

Abaltia  (q.  v.)  are  among  the  simplest  obstacles  to 
be  improvised,  consisting  of  trees  cut  down,  shorn 
of  their  leaves  and  smaller  twigs,  having  their 
branches  pointed,  and  then  laid  close  together,  in 
one  or  more  lines  parallel  to  the  works,  branches 
outward,  and  trimks  imbedded  or  pinned  down  in 
440 


the  earth.  Accoutred  troops  must  remove  these 
before  they  can  pass,  and  the  operation  of  removal 
luuler  lire  from  the  besieged  is  a  very  serious  one 
indeed. 

Vhemux-de/risc  (q.  v.  for  derivation  and  illustra- 
tion) are  pointed  iron  or  wooden  rods  fixed  ero.sswise 
in  a  wooden  beam,  and  until  removed  offering  a 
complete  obstacle  to  progress.  They  are  very  useful 
in  a  breach  or  other  unclosed  portion  of  a  work, 
and  are  now  made  in  pieces,  so  as  to  be  portable, 
and  yet  ready  for  inmiediate  putting  together.  A 
cheval-de-frise  is  usually  12  feet  long,  with  a  beam 
9  inches  square. 

Chausse- trapes,  or  Caltrops  (q.  v.),  give  serious, 
annoyance  to  troops  advancing,  and  are  especially 
dangerous  in  cases  of  night-attack.  Their  use  was, 
however,  more  general  formerly  than  it  is  now. 

Trous-de-loup  (wolf-traps),  -Hhich  are  deep  holes 
dug,  and  armed  at  the  bottom  with  s[iikes,  young 
trees  cut  doMTi  and  theii'  stumps  pointed,  inverted 
harrows,  broken  sword-blades,  bayonets,  or  any 
similar  annoyances,  are  resorted  to  as  expedients  to 
gain  time,  and  thereby  insure  a  more  deadly  lire  on 
the  assailants.  They  are  frequently  constructed  in 
the  glacis  of  a  work. 

Fraises  and  Stockades  represent  another  form  of 
adtlitional  defence,  and  are  stout  posts  driven  hori- 
zontally or  perpendicidarly  into  the  earth,  in  long 


\c 


Fig.  1. — Praise  and  Stockade  (in  section): 

AB,  parapet ;  C,  escarp  ;   D,  fraise  ;   E,  stockade  ;    F,  glacis  ; 

G,  ditch  ;  H,  couuterscarp. 

close  rows.  Fig.  1  shews  the  use  of  both  these 
defences  in  the  ditch  of  a  fortress,  and  it  \\'ill  be  per- 
ceived at  once  how  formidable  to  an  attacking  party 
solid  lines  of  these  jiosts  must  be.  The  stockade 
forms  hke%vise,  at  times,  a  good  substitute  for  the 
parapet  itself,  particularly  when  the  direct  fire  of 
artillery  is  unlikely  to  be  brought  agaiust  it,  as  in 
warfare  with  barbarous  tribes,  or  in  a  work  at  the 
very  crest  of  a  steep  hUl.  In  this  case  it  is  usually 
constructed  of  two  rows  of  strong  pjdis.ades  iirmly 
imbedded  in  the  ground  :  the  outer  nearly  a  foot 
square,  planted  with  three-inch  intetrals  between  ; 
the  second  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  closing  these 
spaces  behind.     Every  second  small  palisade  is  cut 


v^;^■^v 


;i^ 


I. 


r^jiuckadc. 


Fig.  3.— Double  Stockade. 


short  a  few  inches,  so  as  to  leave  a  loophole  for 
musketry-fire  (as  in  fig.  2).  A  hill  protected  in  this 
manner  is  shewn  in  fig.  3. 

Construction    of    the    Parapet. — The    object 
of  the  parapet  being  to  defend,  or  defilade  a  certain 


FORTIFICATION. 


portion  of  ground  behind  it,  its  height  must  be 
calculated  so  that  missiles  passing  acioss  its  crest 
shall  faU  to  strike  the  troops  mustered  behind. 
The  minimum  width  defiladed  to  allow  of  safe  com- 
munication for  troops  behind,  and  actually  defend- 
ing, is  .'iO  feet;  but  if  the  men  have  to  be  drawn 
up  in  line,  not  less  than  90  feet  will  sufhce.  The 
mode  of  ascertaining  the  height  of  parapet  neces- 
sary in  particular  cases  "will  be  seen  from  the  next 
diagram  (fig.  4).  Let  A  be  the  position  at  which 
the  parapet  is  to  be  made,  and  AB  the  space  which 


t 


rD' 


Fig.  4. 

it  is  required  to  defilade  to  a  height  throughout 
equal  to  BC.  D,  D,,  D,,  are  three  points,  accord- 
ing to  the  supposed  country  round,  from  which  fire 
could  ha  had  at  the  parapet — one,  1>,  being  on  the 
level,  the  others  on  ground  respectively  higher  and 
lower  than  the  parapet :  if  lines  be  now  drawn 
from  these  points  to  C,  their  intersection  with  a 
perpendicular,  raised  on  the  point  A,  will  shew 
the  elevation  necessary  for  the  para])et  protecting 
the  space  AB  to  the  height  BC.  From  this,  the 
disadvantage  will  be  apparent  of  constructing  a 
parapet  within  range  of  higher  ground,  as  for 
every  extra  foot  of  elevation  in  the  commanding 
rise  a  proportionate  addition  must  be  made  to  the 
height  of  the  parapet.  In  practice,  the  ordinary 
parapet  for  a  level  is  eight  feet  high,  which 
allows  for  the  depressed  trajectory  of  a  spend- 
ing baU.  See  Projectiles.  If  the  jiarapet  be 
raised  on  ground  above  the  attacking  position,  it 
may  be  lowered,  according  to  the  angle,  to  about  six 
feet  six  inches,  the  height  necessary  for  a  man 
standing  up  to  be  thoroughly  protected.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  position,  A,  be  lower  than  the 
point  occupied  by  the  assailant,  the  parapet  must 
be  raisctl ;  as  12  feet  forms  the  limit  to  which 
a  parapet  can  conveniently  be  thrown  up,  further 
height  necessary  for  protection  is  obtained  by  sinking 
the  ground  to  be  defiladed  before  the  parapet's  base. 
In  measuring  for  these  heights,  the  instruments  used 
are  bonhifi-rods,  which  are  fixed  in  the  ground  at  D 
and  B,  with  the  normal  height  of  a  man  marked 
on  them  ;  a  third  rod  at  A  is  then  marked  at  the 
point  where  the  line  of  sight  between  the  normal 
points  on  the  two  others  intersects  it,  and  so  shews 
the  heii'ht  of  the  parapet. 

The  foregoing  parapet  has  been  pro^^ded  only  as 
a  straight  brc;ujtwork,  deriWng  its  safety  solely  from 
its  own  fire  in  a  direct  Hne  upon  the  besiegers  ;  but 
in  practice  such  a  rampart  would  be  exposed  to  the 
disadvantage  of  holding  but  httle  command  over  the 
scarp  or  escarp  (part  cut  away)  at  its  foot ;  so  that, 
if  approached  under  cover,  an  enemy  coidd  readily 
lodge  liimsclf  therein.  To  guard  against  this  a  work 
isjianked,  so  that  the  fire  of  one  part  shall  take  in 
flank  an  enemy  advancing  against  another  part.  See 
fig.  5,  where  ABCDE  is  a  flanked  or  rcciprocaUy 
defensive  parapet,  in  which  it  is  e\'ident  that  the 
fire  from  AB,  DE,  must  take  in  flank  any  force 
moving  on  BC  or  CD,  while  the  latter  also,  in  like 
manner,  flank  AB,  DE,  themselves.  In  a  flanked 
defence  of  this  sort,  the  angles.  A,  C,  E,  which 
project  towards  the  country,  are  technically  termed 
xalieiit  angles  ;  those  at  B  and  D,  re-enterhig  angles. 
The  flanked  jiarapet  has  often,  likewise,  the  power 
of  defilading  larger  spaces  than  the  simple  line  of 


parapet,  since  the  sahent  angles  can,  perhaps,  be 
brought  on  elevated  ground  ;  while  the  re-entering 
angles,   though  with   less   elevation,   may  in  some 


Kg.  5. 

degree  compensate  that  defect  by  greater  distance 
from  the  front.  A  disadvantage  of  Hanked  defences 
is,  that  the  hostile  fire  crosses  the  parapet  at  a  less 
angle  than  in  the  straight  line,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  more  deadly;  indeed,  the  object  of  the 
assailant  will  always  be  to  obtain  an  enfilade  fire 
along  one  or  more  parapets  of  the  defence,  as  (in 
tig.  5)  an  enemy  posted  at  F,  would  be  able  to 
sweep  the  complete  line  of  the  parajiet  CB.  To 
avoid  this,  the  engineer  who  constructs  the  works 
must  ascertain  minutely  the  elevation  of  the  sur- 
rounding points,  and  make  his  sahents  at  such 
angles  that  the  prolongation  of  his  parapets  towards 
the  enemy  shall  always  fall  on  low  ground,  whence 
no  command  can  be  obtained. 

Now,  where  the  saKent  angle  becomes  somewhat 
acute,  and  there  is  an  enemy  on  both  fronts,  the 
soldiers  defending  the  right  parapet,  and  standing 
on  its  banquette,  would  be  exposed  to  a  reverse  or 
back  fire  from  the  enemy  in  frunt  of  the  left  parapet, 
beyond  the  defilading  of  which  they  would  doubt- 
less be.  As  a  remedy,  an  internal  parapet,  called 
a  traverse,  or,  from  its  duty,  a  parados,  is  raised 
between  the  parapets  of  the  salient,  its  height  being 
determined  on  precisely  the  same  principles  as  were 
made  use  of  in  reg.ard  to  the  original  parapets. 

Where  both  the  faces  of  the  sahent  are  unavoid- 
ably so  placed  as  to  be  enfiladed,  a  small  work,  called 
a  bonnet,  is  constructed  at  the  angle,  which  consists 
in  the  parapet  being  so  raised  up  to  an  extra  height 
of  twelve  feet  if  necessary,  and  .it  the  same  time 
widened,  that  the  banquette  shall  be  defiladed.  If 
a  height  of  twelve  feet  is  insufficient  to  defilade  the 
whole  length  of  the  banquette,  traversing  parapets 
must  be  raised  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the 
work,  and  within  it,  at  such  distances  that  the 
whole  may  be  safe  :  of  course,  the  height  of  the 
bonnet  and  of  the  traverses  must  be  decided  on 
rules    analogous 

to       those      ex-  o .E 

plained  in  fig.  4. 

The      increased 

height     of     the 

parapet    of    the 

bonnet    renders 

it   necessary    to 

have      two      or 

more  banquettes 

at   that    portion 

of  the  work,  with  steps  to  aid  the  ascent  (see  section 

in  fig.  6) ;  as  AB,  the  crest  of  the  general  panapet, 

with  banquette  at  C;   and  DE,  the  bonnet,  with 

banquettes  at  F  and  G. 

In  enclosed  works — i.e.,  in  works  entirely  sur- 
roimdcd  by  parapets — the  position  of  the  parados  is 
of  vital  importance ;  and  they  have  often  to  be 
devised  with  great  ingenuity,  so  as  to  protect  the 
defenders  from  reverse  fire  in  any  direction,  and  at 
the  same  time  not  to  prevent  necessary  communica- 
tion between  different  portions  of  the  fortress. 

Relief  me.ans  the  height  of  any  point  in  a  work 
above  the  plane  of  construction,  which  may  be  the 
line  of  sight  or  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  relief  of  the  parapet  is  an  important 

HI 


C. — Bonnet. 


FOirni'ICATION. 


item  in  cstim:itin^  the  resisting  power  of  a  work,  as 
it  represents  the  vertieal  equivalent  of  the  obstacle 
which  will  be  offered  to  a  foe. 

When  the  relief  of  the  jiarapet's  crest  has  been 
determined,  its  thickness  becomes  the  next  con- 
sideration. The  dimensiona  arc  laid  down  on  the 
grouniC  and  depend,  first,  on  the  angle  at  which  the 
material   to   be  used  will  pile;   and  then,  on  the 


J--^,_ 


nature  of  the  missiles  against  which  the  ])arapet  i^ 
to  ati'ord  protection.  For  example,  an  earthwork  of 
fi'om  three  to  foiu'  feet  suilices  to  resist  musketry  ;  a 
thickness  of  IS  feet  is  impcrWous  to  the  24-iiounilor; 
while  larger  guns  can  pound  through  even  more 
solid  obstnietioDS. 

Taking  tig.  7  as  an  example,  in  which  a  is  the 
crest  of  the  parapet,  then  the  banquette  c  should. 


Pig.  7. — Section  of  Parapet,  Ditch,  and  Glacis. 


for  convenient  firing,  be  foiu-  feet  three  inches 
below  a  ;  its  width  three  feet,  if  for  a  single  line 
of  soldiers ;  four  feet  six  inches  for  a  double  rank  ; 
its  slo[ie  should  be  one  in  twelve,  that  water  may 
run  freely  oir.  The  base,  be,  of  the  slope,  uji 
which  the  men  mount  to  the  banquette,  should 
be  twice  its  height  6c,  and  cut  into  steps  with 
inclined  sides,  to  allow  of  easy  ascent ;  and  where 
the  height  is  considerable,  a  supplemental  ban- 
quette (on  which  reUe\ang-men  can,  if  necessary, 
reload),  is  desirable.  The  interior  slope,  ac,  of 
the  parapet  should  be  one  in  four ;  tlie  exterior 
slope,  or  plo»;iee,  ail,  intended  for  the  direction  of 
the  g)ins  on  an  assailant,  one  in  six,  a  de%-iation 
being  permitted  between  one  in  nine  and  one  iu 
four  ;  but  the  crest  being  more  liable  to  destruction 
as  the  slojic  of  ah  is  augmented,  it  is  best  to  keep 
it  as  small  as  circurflstances  will  allow ;  one  in  six 
is  the  orilinary  slope  in  English  fortification,  the 
angle  of  the  interior  slope  being  constant.  In  some 
continental  serWces,  however,  the  angle,  cad,  is  kept 
constant  at  1011°,  hy  increasing  the  deviation  of  the 
interior  slope  of  the  parapet  from  the  peq)endicidar 
as  the  plunge  of  the  exterior  is  greater.  The  Hatter, 
however,  the  crest  of  the  parapet  is  the  better,  as 
sand-bags  are  in  certain  cases  ranged  on  it  to  form 
cover  for  the  men,  while  they  fire  through  loopholes 
left  in  this  additional  defence.  Earth  of  medium 
tenacity  maintains  its  position  properly  when  sloped 
at  an  angle  of  45° ;  and  this  is  the  greatest  angle 
which  can  be  counted  on  tor  the  outer  slope  of  the 
parapet.  The  scai-p,  I,  and  counterscarp,  m,  of  the 
ditch  need  not  have  so  great  an  incline,  as  the 
ground  in  which  they  are  cut  has  usually  had  time, 
and  the  footste[)s  of  ages,  to  consolidate  it.  In  such 
cases,  the  base  of  the  triangle  is  frequently  made 
equal  to  half  the  perpendicular.  Cases,  of  course, 
occur  in  which  steeper  banks  are  considered  indis- 
pensable ;  and  then,  to  prevent  slips,  the  earth  must 
have  a  coating  to  keep  it  up,  which  m.ay  be  of 
fascines,  hurdles,  planks,  or  sand-bags,  for  temporary 
works,  or  those  constructed  in  the  midst  of  action  ; 
while  the  most  soUd  masonry  performs  the  same 
function  in  fortresses  of  a  more  i>ermanent  n.ature. 
This  outer  co.ating  is  denominated  a  revitiincnt. 

In  tig.  7,  .'//i',  is  the  i/kicis,  formed  during  the 
excavation  of  the  ditch,  and  having  for  object  the 
bringing  of  an  advancing  enemy  into  the  best  line  of 
fire  from  the  parapet.  The  base  and  perfjendicular 
of  its  interior  slope,  f/h,  should  be  equal ;  the  slope  of 
the  outer  face  should  be  one  in  twelve,  unless  the 
sloi)e  of  the  grocmd  render  some  different  angle 
desirable.  An  advanced  glacis,  k  in  fig.  7,  is  some- 
times adopted,  in  oriler  that  the  enemy  may  the 
sooner  be  brought  under  fire.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  crest  of  the  parapet  should  be 
five  and   a  half  feet  higher  than  the  crest  of  the 


glacis,  as,  otherwise,  an  assailant  having  reached  tho 
latter,  would  be  able  to  pour  a  musketry-fire  over 
the  fonner  into  the  work.  Ko  ]iart  of  any  glacis, 
whether  near  or  advanced,  should  be  more  than 
two  feet  below  the  line  of  fire  from  the  parapet — 
i.e.,  the  line  joining  the  crests  of  the  parapet  and 
glacis  continued ;  if  more  depth  be  allowed,  the 
enemy  may  advance  iu  a  crouching  jiosture,  without 
being  liable  to  be  hit.  Advanced  glacis  are  usually 
made  of  earth  thrown  up  in  prolonging  beneath  tho 
ground  the  plane  of  the  preceding  glacis.  They 
may  be  defended  entii-ely  from  the  parapet,  in 
which  case  palisades  or  abattis  are  often  fixed  (as  iu 
fig.  7)  to  delay  the  advancing  enemy  when  at  the 
point  of  greatest  exposure.  On  the  other  hand, 
these  advanced  glacis  are  occasionally  defended  as 
a  series  of  advanced  intrenchments,  and  only 
abandoned,  one  by  one,  as  the  defenders  are  driven 
in  towards  their  main  work. 

The  dimensions  of  the  ditch  depend  in  some 
measure  on  the  amount  of  e.u-th  requii-ed  for  the 
parapet  and  glacis  ;  but  in  addition  to  being  the 
mine  whence  the  materials  for  the  latter  works 
are  drawn,  the  ditch  must  also  oppose  a  consider- 
able obstacle  to  any  hostile  advance.  To  do  this 
effectvially,  the  minimimi  width  across  the  top  is 
IS  feet ;  its  depth  need  only  be  limited  by  the 
trouble  of  raising  the  earth  ;  but  in  practice  12 
feet  is  found  the  greatest  which  can  be  conveniently 
arrived  at.  Having  ascertained  the  profile  of  the 
parapet,  with  its  banquette  or  banquettes,  bonnets, 
traverses,  glacis,  &e.,  it  becomes  a  mere  matter  of 
mensuration  to  compute  the  area  of  a  section,  to 
multiply  it  by  the  length,  and  so  to  obtain  the 
cubic  feet  of  earth  required.  With  the  length  of 
the  ditch  known,  a  very  simple  calculation  then 
exhibits  its  width  and  depth — a  small  allowance 
being  made  for  the  fact  that  the  earth,  dug  out  from 
the  ditch,  where  it  has  probably  been  long  com- 
pressed, will  occupy  somewhat  more  space  when 
thrown  up,  and  broken  into  clods,  for  forming  the 
parapet. 

The  scarp,  or  inner  face  of  the  ditch,  is  most 
difficult  of  ascent  by  the  assailant,  when  in  a  con- 
tinuous line  with  the  parapet  (as  in  fig.  7) ;  but 
sometimes  it  would  be  d.angcrous  to  construct  the 
work  with  this  continuity,  as  damage  to  the  scarp 
woidd  jeop.-u'dise  the  stability  of  the  parapet.  In 
these  cases  a  narrow  step,  called  a  Bcnii  (q.  v.)  of 
from  two  to  four  feet,  is  made  to  intervene  between 
the  foot  of  the  jiarapet  and  top  of  the  scarp  :  as  a 
precaution,  it  is  covered  with  all  possible  obstacles 
to  any  lodgment  being  effected  on  it  by  the  enemy. 
Wlien  a  berm  is  employed,  greater  steepness  is 
usually  given  to  the  scarp. 

The  countemcarp,  or  outer  sloping  side  of  the 
ditch,  shoidd  be  somewhat  steeper  than  the  scarp. 


FORTIFICATION. 


The  bottom  of  the  ditch  shouUl  slope  from  both 
sidea  towards  the  centre,  to  carry  otf  the  water ; 
and  obstacles  shoidd  l>e  scattered  about  to  prevent 
an  enemy  from  forming  his  troo])s  in  the  ditch. 

Earthworks  in  Fikld  Fortificatios. — As  the 
most  readily  constructed,  earthworks  naturally 
recommend  themselves  to  the  engineer,  who,  in 
tlie  Held,  is  called  upon  to  defend  the  position  of 
au  army  against  sudden  attack.  Their  utility  has 
been  shewn  in  their  employment  from  the  earliest 
times ;  and  modern  experience  tends  to  prove  that 
earth-parapets  are  of  all  fortifications  among  the 
most  diificidt  to  overcome.  An  army  manoeuvring 
before  a  sujtcrior  force,  can  scarcely  hope  to  avoid 
battle  being  thrust  upon  it,  mUess,  strengthened 
by  fieldworks,  it  be  rendered  more  nearly  equal 
to  the  adversary.  Napoleon,  Marlborough,  Engine, 
WeUinrton,  have  given  their  names  as  witnesses  to 
the  indispensability  of  such  works.  The  Russian 
parapets  at  Borodino  made  the  French  victory  so 
sanguinary  a  triumph  that  it  was  useless  to  the 
victors.  A  few  redoubts  at  Pultowa  saved  Peter 
the  Great  from  total  defeat  by  his  formidable 
Swedish  rival.  The  world-famed  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras  enabled  Wellington  with  50,000  troops,  half 
of  whom  were  untried  Portuguese,  to  \vithstand  for 
five  months,  and  ultimately  to  drive  back,  the 
hitherto  victorious  army  of  70,000  French,  under 
such  commanders  as  Masseua,  Ney,  and  Junut. 
The  earthworks  surrounding  Sevastopol  partook 
greatly  of  the  nature  of  fieldworks  for  the  protec- 
tion of  a  large  army,  and  history  will  not  forget  to 
recount  the  resistance  they  ofi'ercd  for  almost  a 
year  to  the  best  troops  of  the  civilised  world. 

For  a  line,  whether  of  earth  or  masonry,  to  be 
efficient,  it  must  combine  artdlery  fire  with  that  of 
musketry.  The  guns  will  generally  be  so  placed  as 
to  command  some  specific  line  of  approach,  such  as 
a  ravine,  a  line  of  abattis,  or  some  portion  of  the 
glacis.  They  shoidd  themselves  be  as  little  exposed 
as  possible,  nor  should  the  gunners  be  imcovered 
more  than  is  absolutely  requisite.  To  effect  this, 
the  gim  is  generally  made  to  fire  through  au  nnhra- 
sure  (q.  v.)  in  the  parapet,  instead  of  over  the  latter. 
The  embrasiu'e  is  a  cutting  through  the  solid  para- 
pet, 20  inches  wide  at  its  inner  extremity,  and 
outwards  half  as  much  as  the  width  of  the  parapet. 
In  cases  where  it  is  necessary,  for  proper  command, 
that  the  line  of  fire  shoidd  not  be  lower  than  the 
top  of  the  parapet,  the  embrasure  is  made  through 
an  additional  parajjet — raised,  as  in  the  prerious 
case  of  the  bonnet,  above  the  original  one.  The 
bottom  of  the  embrasure  is  called  the  sole,  and 
slopes  downward  sufficiently  to  allow  of  a  certain 
depression  being  given  to  the  gun.  The  remainder 
of  a  parajiet  below  the  sole  is  the  r/euouUlerd  (from 
(fehutt,  a  kneel,  and  in  field  fortification  shoidd  be 
three  and  a  half  feet  high ;  the  portion  between 
two  embrasures  is  the  merlin  (ItaL  meiione,  battle- 
ment) ;  and  an  embrasure  need  not  cut  the  parapet 
perpendicidarly,  an  angle  being  admissible,  when 
an  oblique  tire  is  necessary.     When,  however,  the 

obliquity    woidd 
exceed  70°,  it  is 
usual,    in    order 
that   the    thick- 
ness of  the  para- 
pet   should    not 
be      too      much 
diminished,      to 
form  a   project- 
ing angle  in  it, 
through  which  the  embrasure  is  cut  (as  in  tig.  S). 
The  sides  of  the  embrasures  are  cliecka,  and  require 
revfiting. 

A  barbette  is  a  platform  raised  behind  a  parapet, 


view  to 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9.— Eedan. 


higher  than  the  general   interior,  with 
gims  being  tired  from  it  over  the  parajiet. 

There  are  certain  fixed  rules  in  all  fortification, 
such  as  : — 1.  The  length  of  lines  must  never  exceed 
musketry  range,  or  the  flanking- works  would  become 
inefTective  for  their  object.  2.  The  angles  of  defence 
should  be  about  right  angles.  3.  Salient  angles 
slioiUd  be  as  obtuse  as  possible.  4  Ditches  should 
have  the  best  possible  flanking.  5.  The  relief  of  the 
flanking-works  must  be  determined  by  the  length 
of  the  lines  of  defence.  6.  The  value  of  almost 
every  detached  work  depends  on  the  support  it  can 
give  to  or  receive  from  an  army  or  other  work  or 
works.  7.  The  reduction  of  every  fortified  work 
is  merely  a  question  of  time  ;  and  a  work  fairly 
siuTouiuled  is  sure  to  fall,  unless  relieved  from 
without. 

Fieldworks,  which,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are 
intended  merely  to  support  or  strengthen  an  army, 
may  either  have  a  complete  circidt  of  parapets,  or 
may  be  open  at  the  gorge  in  the  rear.  The  latter 
are,  of  course,  the  simplest ;  but 
they  are  only  avaUable  in  posi- 
tions which  the  enemy  cannot 
turn,  or  where  protected  by  the 
sweeping  lire  of  other  works 
behind.  Of  tliis  class  the  licdan, 
a  mere  salient  angle  (see  tig.  9), 
is  the  simjilest  and  the  repre- 
sentative form.  Of  the  closed  forts,  there  are 
Jialouhls,  usually  square ;  Star-forts,  now  considereil 
oljjectionable  ;  bastioned  forts,  as  in  fig.  10,  which 
flank  their  own  ditches  almost  perfectly,  while 
scarcely  susceptible  of 
being  flanked  them- 
selves. To  under- 
stand the  nature  of 
a  single  bastion,  see 
A  (flg.  10),  which 
rejiresents  one  at  the 
corner  of  a  square 
work ;  ab  is  the  left 
jlank,  be  the  left/utr, 
cd  the  right  face,  de 
the  right  Jtank  ;  ae  is 
the  gorge;  af  fe  are 
the  dcmi-^orijes,  being 
continuations  of  the 
sides,  or  ciu'taius,  of  the  work ;  a  and  e  are  the 
left  and  right  curtain  angles ;  b  and  </,  the  left  and 
right  sliouider  angles,  and  c  is  the  Jlanked  angle. 

Continued  lines  are  simple  parapets,  either  con- 
necting fortified  posts,  or  covering  the  front  or  flank 
of  an  anuy.  Redans 
joined  by  curtains  (as  in 
fig.  11)  are  those  most 
easily  constructed  ;  but 
as  the  ditches  can  only  be 
defended   by  an  oblique 


Bastioned  Fort. 


^V\_ 


Fig.  11. — Continued  line  of 
Kedans. 


fire,  the  curtains  are  occasionally  so  broken  as  to 
form  nearly  right  angles  with  the  faces  of  the 
redan,  as  in  the  dotted  line ;  they  then  become 
lines  of  tenailles. 

Lines  en  Crcmailliere  have   long  faces  with  per- 
pendicular  flanks.     Lines  tvith  intervals  are   often 


_o 


o„ 


a 


o 


b 


Fig.  12. — Line  with  intervals. 


as   effective   as   continued   lines.      They  consist  of 
detached    woi'ks,   in    two    lines,   withiii   musketry 

413 


FORTIFICATIOX. 


fire  of  eacU  other.  The  re-entering  anj-Ie,  abc  (fig. 
12),  should  as  uearly  as  practicable  be  a  right 
angle.  The  cclebraU-il  lines  of  Tories  Veilras,  before 
adverted  to,  consisted  of  l.'iO  detached  forts. 

Tlte-da-pont,  is  a  work  constructed  to  cover  the 
approaches  to  a  bridge,  and  will  be  found  described 
under  Bridge-head. 

A  leiiaiUe  is  the  reverse  of  a  redan,  and  consists  of 
two  faces  forming  a  re-entering  angle :  it  can  only 
be  used  in  connection  with  some  other  work. 

A  Jleche  is  a  breastwork  of  two  faces,  forming  a 
s,-dient  angle,  constructed  on  the  exterior  of  a  glacis, 
usually  at  its  foot,  in  order  to  defend  the  ground 
before  a  bastion  or  ravelin. 

Having  now  explained  the  principal  forms  which 
elemental  works  of  fortification  are  made  to  assume, 
we  proceed  to  describe— very  briefly,  of  course— 
the  systems  into  which  these  have  been  incorpor- 
ated for  the  defence  of  fortresses,  towns,  and  other 
permanent  purposes.  It  will  merely  be  necessary 
to  state,  ui  adtUtion  to  what  has  been  already 
written,  that  a  ramparl  is  a  raised  stnicture  of 
earth  or  stone,  above  the  mean  level  of  the  country, 
on  which  the  pai'apets,  &c.,  can  be  thrown  up,  and 
which  affords  to  the  to\vn  or  space  protected  the 
extra  cover  of  its  height,  while  it  elevates  the 
inner  works  sufficiently  to  enable  them  to  command 
and  fire  over  those  situated  exteriorly  to  themselves. 
It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  a  line  which  can  be 
made  of  earth  may  equally  be  constructed  of  any 
other  material  which  circumstances  may  render 
desirable,  the  maximum  resistance  and  minimum 
liability  to  sjJinter  being  the  qualities  to  be  chiefly 
considered. 

SYSTEiLiTIC       FOKTIFICATIOJf       FOR      PERMjiNENT 

Works. — Adverting  to  the  most  ancient  fortifica- 
tions mentioned  in  history,  we  find  Greek  cities 
surroimded  with  walls  of  brick  and  nibble,  and  occa- 
sionally of  stone  ill  huge  blocks.  Babylon  had  a 
■wall  of  prodigious  circuit — 100  feet  high,  32  feet 
thick,  and  surmounted  by  towers.  Jerusalem,  at  the 
time  of  Vespasian's  siege,  had  similar  walls  with 
masonry  of  enormous  solidity.  These  seem  to  rejjre- 
sent  fortification  as  it  stood  from  the  time  of  that 


emperor  to  the  introduction  of  caniicui  for  Itreacliing 
purposes.  Then  the  scjuare  and  round  towers,  whicii 
ha<l  formed  sufficient  flanking  defence  against 
arrows,  proved  useless  when  cannon-balls,  fired  from 
a  distance,  were  the  instruments  of  assault.  At  the 
same  time,  the  walls,  which  had  resisted  battering- 
rams,  crumbled  to  atoms  under  the  strokes  of 
artillery. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  art  of  defence  has 
always  made  equal  progress  with  that  of  attack ; 
and,  early  in  the  loth,  if  not  late  in  the  14th  c, 
the  Italians  had  commenced  to  flank  their  walla 
with  small  bastions.  The  bastions  at  Verona,  built 
by  Mieheli  in  1523,  are  usually  looked  upon  as  the 
oldest  extant  specimen  of  modern  fortificatiou- 
TartagUa  and  Albert  Diirer,  painter  and  engineer, 
were  early  in  the  field.  In  most  of  the  earlier  systems 
the  face  of  the  bastion  was  perpendicular  to  its  flank. 
The  first  principles  were  successively  improved  by 
Marclii,  an  Italian,  who  died  1599,  by  Errard  Bois- 
le-Duc,  and  De  ViUe,  under  Henry  IV.  and  Louis 
XIII.  of  France.  The  Count  de  Pagan,  whose 
treatise  appeared  in  1045,  chd  much  towards  demol- 
ishing previous  errors,  and  laid  the  basement  of  that 
science  which  Vaubau  subsequently  wrought  almost 
to  perfection.  Born  in  1633,  Vauljau  had  a  genius 
which  penetrated  in  every  direction,  equally  in  the 
ways  of  war  and  in  those  of  jieace.  He  might  pos- 
sibly have  taught  how  fortresses  coidd  be  rendered 
impregnable,  had  not  the  restless  ambition  of  his 
master,  Louis  XIV.,  led  him  to  demonstrate,  first, 
that  the  reduction  of  any  work  was  a  mere  question 
of  time  and  powder.  His  talent  so  improved  the 
system  of  attack,  that  even  he  himself  could  not 
construct  a  rampart  that  should  withstand  the  fire 
conjured  up  against  it  l)y  his  discoveries.  He  con- 
structed 33  new  fortresses,  improved  above  100,  and 
conducted  personally  more  than  50  sieges.  To 
him  are  soldiers  indebted  for  the  sweeping  fire  of 
ricochet,  and  to  him  in  a  degree  for  the  traverses 
which  endeavour  to  render  it  harmless.  Coehoom, 
director-general  of  the  fortresses  of  the  United 
Provinces,  was  the  contemporary,  rival,  and  opponent 
of   Vauban;    his  master-piece   is  Bergen-op-Zoora. 


Fig.  13. — Vauban's  First  System  ;  Ground-plan  : 
A,  bastion  ;  B,  curtain  ;  C,  tenaillc ;  D,  caponnWre  ;  K,  ditch  ;  F,  ravelin  ;  G,  covert-way  ;  II,  salient  pbcc  of  arras ; 

I,  re-entering  jjiacc  of  arms ;  K,  glacis. 


Cormontaigne,  Belidor,  ilontalcmbert,  Bousmard, 
and  Carnot  may  also  be  mentioned  as  conspicuous 
masters  in  the  science. 

Irrespective  of  irregularities  in  the  form  of  the 
place  to  be  defended,  a  particular  polygon  is  selected 
as  that   on  which   the  lines  of   defence  are  to  be 

4I( 


drawn.  Each  side  of  this  is  a  face  of  defencr,  and 
the  length  of  a  side  is  rarely  made  greater  than  360 
yards. 

VavharCs  first  system  is  shewn  in  fig.  13  as  regards 
the  outline  of  its  gi-ound-jilan ;  fig.  14  displaying  the 
same  m  profile. 


FORTIFICATION. 


In  this  instance,  the  polygon  taken  is  an  octagon. 
Let  ah  (fig.  13)  be  a  side  of  this  polygon ;  bisect 
this  in  c,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  to  ab.  On  this, 
inwards,  mark  off  cC  one-sixth  of  06 ;  join  aC,  bC, 
and  produce  the  lines  ;  then  from  a  and  b  respec- 


tively mark  off  ad,  bg,  each  equal  to  t  ab,  for  the 
faces  of  the  bastions.  Next,  from  a  and  b  as  centres, 
with  radius,  oj,  describe  arcs  cutting  aC,  bC,  pro- 
duced in  /  and  e ;  join  df,  fg,  for  the  flanks  of 
bastions,  and  ef  for  the  curtain  of  the  work.     The 


m 


mmi. 


CtACIS 


W,  ^^^^M^iPS^^^^^^^^^m^lF"' 


Fig.  14. — Vauban's  First  System ;  Profile : 
a,  h,  banquettes  ;  c,  parapet ;  d,  ravetemeat ;  e,  escarp  ;  /,  counterscarp. 


first  line  of  defence  is  then  complete,  the  necessary 
parapets,  &c.,  being  of  coiu^e  raised  on  the  site  laid 
out.  From  an  examination  of  this,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  whole  space  in  the  front  is  covered.     The 


faces  of  the  bastions  and  the  curtain  command  more 
or  less  the  entire  front,  wliile  the  bastion  flanks  sweep 
along  the  faces  of  adjoining  bastions  and  along  the 
curtain.      In  front,  however,  of  the  apex  of  each 


bastion,  the  line  of  advance  is  only  covered  by  an 
extremely  oblique  fire.  To  obviate  this,  a  ravelin, 
F,  is  constructed  on  the  further  side  of  the  main 
ditch,  which  commands  the  doubtful  fronts,  and,  at 


the  same  time,  forms  an  outwork  capable  of  assist- 
ing in  the  general  scheme  of  defence.  To  trace  the 
main  ditch,  describe  from  the  flanked  angle  of  the 
bastion,  a  or  6,  an  arc  with  radius  30  yards  (if  dry 

4!5 


FORTIGUEIIRA— FORTUNATUS. 


(litch,  3C  if  wet),  and  from  these  arcs  draw  tangents 
to  the  slioulilors,  d  and  g,  of  the  opposite  bastions. 
Tliose  Uiugents,  meeting  in  the  line  cC,  form  the 
coiuiterscarp  line  of  the  main  ditch.  From  h,  the 
re-eiittring  angle  of  the  comiterscarp,  set  off  100 
yards  along  the  pcrpcndiciUar  to  i,  whicli  wiU  be 
the  apex  of  tlie  Hanked  angle  of  the  ravelin.  From 
I,  draw  lines  to  points  situated  in  the  faces  of  the 
bastions,  10  yanls  from  the  shoidder  angles ;  these 
lines  to  the  jjoints  intersecting  the  counterscarp 
give  the  faces  of  the  ravelin.  The  ditch  of  the 
ravelin  is  20  yanls  wide,  with  counterscarp  parallel 
to  the  escarp.  The  zigzag  line  now  aniveu  at  gives 
the  inner  side  of  the  covert-way — 10  yanls  wide 
— behind  the  glacis,  which  last  slopes  gradually 
towards  the  country,  and  is  ortlinarily  the  outer 
work  of  all.  The  tenaille  is  a  comjjaratively  low 
parajjct  sweeping  the  de|)ressed  interior  of  the  ravelin, 
and  commanded  by  the  bastions  and  curtain. 

The  caponier,  forming  a  communication  between 
the  tenaille  and  the  ravelin,  consists  of  a  passage 
between  two  low  parapets,  each  with  a  glacis 
sloping  towartls  the  ditch,  which  is  swept  fi-om  the 
work. 

Nine  feet  clear  are  allowed  roimd  the  traverses 
on  the  covert- way ;  at  the  re-entering  angles  of  the 
covert- way,  places  of  arms  are  formed  by  setting  off 
30  yards  on  each  side,  and  with  this  as  gorge, 
advancing  faces  inclined  to  each  other  at  100°.  If 
the  polygon  had  been  a  square,  cC  would  have  been 
i  ab ;  il  a  pentagon,  -J-  ab  ;  and  for  any  polygon  of 
more  sides  than  seven,  ^  ah. 

Vauban's  sucond  and  third  systems  were  those  in 
which  he  adai>ted  old  walls  to  his  modern  improve- 
ments. Availing  himself  of  the  works  already 
formed,  he  added  coimterguards  in  front  of  the 
corner-towel's,  thereby  making  hollow  bastions,  and 
avoiding  the  necessity  of  entirely  rebiiiliUng. 

Coehoorn^s  sifstem  had  coimterguards  in  front  of 
the  bastions  and  parallel  to  them.  The  flanked 
angle  of  his  ravelin  had  a  fixed  value — ■\'iz.,  70^ 

Cormontal'pie  M'idened  the  gorge  of  his  ravelin, 
therel>y  reducing  the  length  of  the  bastion  face 
available  for  breaching  from  without.  He  also 
revived  the  step-like  formation  of  the  covered  way, 
originally  seen  in  Speckle  in  the  IGth  c,  and  which 
gives  defenders  a  continued  line  of  fire  from  each 
traverse  along  the  covert-way. 

The  modern  sy-'teHS  differs  liut  little  from  that  of 
Cormoutaigne.  The  re-eutering  places  of  arms  have 
circular  fronts  instead  of  angidar  ;  the  angle  of  the 
ravehu  is  fixed  at  60",  and  all  the  best  points  of 
older  styles  are  associated. 

Fig.  15  is  intended  to  present  at  one  view  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  systems  in  force  since  artdlery 
came  into  conunon  use,  as  well  as  the  gradual 
transition  from  square  towers  on  castle  walls  to 
flanked  bastions  on  modern  lines.  The  elements  of 
fortifying  against  shipping  will  be  found  under 
Mahine  Foktification  ;  the  principles  of  attack- 
ing fortresses  generally,  under  Siege,  and  Mine.s, 
Military. 

FOHTIGUERRA,  Xicolo,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  at  Pistoja.  November  7,  1674.  Destined  from 
youth  for  the  cliurch,  lie  proceeded  to  Rome  at  an 
early  period,  where  the  power  of  the  prelate  Carlo 
A.  Fabroni,  who  was  his  relative,  speedily  secured 
him  advancement,  and  where  he  was  ultimately 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  prelate  and  papal  cham- 
berlain by  Clement  XI.  An  ardent  cultivator  and 
protector  of  letters,  it  must  be  owned  that  F.'s  own 
compositions  are  more  ]>rized  for  a  certain  rich 
joviality  of  imagery,  and  profuse  facility  of  laiigiiage, 
than  for  any  salient  beauty  of  style  or  conception. 
His  chief  work,  II  Ilicciardetto,  was  originally  com- 
menced in  confutation  of  friends,  who  maintained 
446 


that  the  striking  case  and  fluency  of  Ariosto, 
Berni,  and  other  poets  of  a  similar  school,  were  but 
ai>parent,  and  in  reality  the  fruit  of  deep  art  and 
severe  labour.  F.,  in  a  few  hours  threw  off  an 
entire  canto  of  11  Ricciardetto,  strikingly  in  imita- 
tion of  the  above  poets,  and  continued  the  work  at 
random  much  beyond  its  originally  designed  limits. 
It  was  published  in  1738,  two  years  after  his  death, 
and  met  with  unequivocal  favour,  notwithstanding 
the  incredible  incidents  and  licentious  images  with 
which  it  is  replete.     F.  died  7th  Febniary  1735. 

FORTROSE,  or  FOETROSS,  a  parliament.iry 
and  royal  bur^h,  seaport,  and  watering-place  in  the 
e:ist  of  Ross-shire,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Moray 
Firth,  opposite  Fort  George,  ten  miles  north-north- 
east of  Inverness.  Pop.  (1871)  Oil.  It  unites  with 
Inverness,  Forres,  and  Nairn  in  sending  a  member 
to  parliament.  F.  had  a  fine  cathedral  and  .a 
bishop's  palace  ;  but  both  of  these  buddings  were 
jiartially  destroyed  under  Cromwell,  and  the  stones 
sent  to  Inverness,  to  be  used  in  budding  a  fort  there. 
It  has  a  good  trade  in  various  kintls  of  produce,  as 
pork,  eggs,  all  sorts  of  gi'ain,  and  potatoes.  In  the 
16th  c,  F.  had  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  scat  of  arts,  science,  and  divinity 
in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Chanonry,  with  which 
it  was  imited  in  1444,  was  formerly  the  see  of  the 
bisho]is  of  Ross. 

FO'RTS  AND  FORTALICES.  The  military 
power  of  the  state  is  intrusted  by  the  constitution 
of  this  country  to  the  sovereign.  After  having  been 
unconstitutionally  claimed  by  the  Long  Parliament 
in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  it  was  again  \Tndicated  for 
the  crown  by  2  Car.  II.  c.  6.  This  branch  of  the 
royal  prerogative  extends  not  only  to  the  raising  of 
armies  and  the  construction  of  fleets,  but  to  the 
building  of  forts  and  other  places  of  strength.  Sir 
Edward  Coke  lays  it  down  (1  liist.  5),  that  no  subject 
can  build  a  house  of  strength  embattled  without 
the  licence  of  the  king ;  and  it  was  enacted  by  1 1 
Henry  Vll.  c.  IS,  that  no  such  place  of  strength 
could  be  conveyed  without  a  special  gi-ant. 

FORTU'NA,  called  by  the  Greeks,  Tijclie,  w.as 
in  classical  mythology  the  Goddess  of  Chance. 
According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a  daughter  of 
Oceanus  ;  according  to  Pindar,  a  sister  of  the  Parcie. 
She  differed  from  Destiny  or  Fate,  in  so  far  that 
she  worked  without  law,  giving  or  taking  away  at 
her  own  good  pleasure,  and  dispensing  joy  or 
sorrow  indifferently.  She  had  temples  at  Smyrna, 
Corinth,  and  Elis.  In  Italy,  she  was  extensively 
worshipped  from  a  very  earl}'  period ;  and  had  many 
names,  such  as  Patricia,  Plebeia,  Equealris,  Virilis, 
Primigetiia,  PuUica,  Privata,  Muliebris,  Virginensis, 
&c.,  indicating  the  extent  and  also  the  minuteness  of 
her  superintendence.  Particular  honours  were  ]iaid 
to  her  at  Antium  and  Prajneste  ;  in  the  temple  of  the 
former  city,  two  statues  of  her  were  even  consulted 
as  oracles.  Greek  poets  and  scidptors  generally 
represented  her  idth  a  rudder,  as  a  symbol  of  her 
guiding  ]>ower ;  or  with  a  ball,  or  wheel,  or  wings, 
as  a  sjinbol  of  her  mutability.  The  Romans  proudly 
affirmed  th.it  when  she  entered  their  city,  she  threw 
away  her  globe,  and  put  off  her  wings  and  shoes, 
to  indicate  that  she  meant  to  dwell  with  theiu  for 
ever. 

FORTUNATE  ISLANDS.     See  Canaries. 

FORTUNA'TtrS  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  best 
people's  books  (Volkshiicher)  ever  WTitten.  It 
originated  about  the  middle  of  tlie  1.5tli  c,  though 
many  of  the  tales  and  legends  included  in  it  are  of 
much  older  date.  The  opinion  that  it  was  worked 
uj)  into  German  from  a  Spanish  or  English  original 
may  be  considered  as  set  aside.  The  substance  of 
the  book  is  that  F.,  and  his  sons  after  him,  ai-e  the 


FORTUNE-TELLER— FOSCOLO. 


possessors  of  an  inexhaustible  purse  of  gold  and  a 
wishing-cap,  which  however,  in  the  end,  prove  the 
cause  of  their  ruin.  The  moral  is,  that  worldly 
prosperity  alone  is  insufiicient  to  produce  lasting 
happiness.  The  oldest  jirinted  edition  of  the  book 
now  extant  bears  the  date  Frankfurt  am  Maine, 
1509.  Later  German  editions  mostly  bear  the  title, 
Fortunatus,  von  Stinem  Sfckd  und  Wunxdi-hiMein 
(Fortunatus :  Story  of  his  Purse  and  Wishing-cap. 
Augsb.  1530;  Numb.  1G77;  and  Basel,  IG99).  It 
has  lieen  reprinted  in  Simrock's  DeuUclw.  Volkshiicher 
(.3  vols.,  Frankt.  am  Maine,  1S46).  Various  French 
versions  of  the  German  story  have  appeared  from 
time  to  time,  as  the  Histoire  de  Fortunatus  (Rouen, 
1670) ;  which  ser\-ed  as  the  groundwork  of  the 
Italian  Avennimenti  de  Fortunatus  e  de'  Suoi  Figli 
(Naples,  1076).  From  the  German  original,  have 
al.so  sprung,  among  others,  the  Dutch  version  Fen 
Nknni'e  Jflstorie  mn  Fortunatun  Borse  en  van  Zijnen 
n'enseh  hoed  (Amst.  1796) ;  later,  the  English  Bintory 
of  Fortunatus  ayid  his  TwoSons  (London,  no  date)  ; 
the  Danish  Fortunati  punrj  oq  onsMiat  (Kopen. 
1664,  1672,  1695,  1756,  1783) ;  the  Swedish  Fortu- 
natus (1694) ;  and  about  1690,  two  Icelandic  versions, 
one  in  verse  and  another  in  prose.  The  first  to 
dramatise  the  subject  was  Hans  Sachs,  in  his  Der 
Fortunatus  mit  detn  Wunsehsf.clcel  (1553),  after 
wliom  comes  the  English  Thomas  Decker  \\ith  his 
Pleasant  Comedie  of  Old  Fortunatus  (1600),  a  work 
which  had  the  honour  to  make  its  reappearance  in 
Genuan  about  the  year  1620.  The  most  poetical 
edition  of  the  story  is  that  given  by  Tieck  in  his 
PImntasus  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1816).  See  Griisse's  Die 
Sagenkreise  des  Mittelalters  (Drcsd.  and  Leip.  1842), 
and  Ersch  and  Gniber's  Encijclopcedie  (first  sect, 
vol  46). 

FORTUNE-TELLER.  Under  the  designation 
Vagabouds,  in  the  Scottish  Act  1579  c.  74,  are 
included  all  who  go  about  jiretending  to  foretell 
fortimes.  The  punislunent  inflicted  on  them  by  the 
statute  is  scourging  and  burning  on  the  ear. 

FO'RUM,  a  Latin  word,  which  originally  signified 
an  'open  place,'  and  is  probably  connected  with 
Joras,  '  out-of-doors.'  The  Roman  fora  were  places 
where  the  markets  and  courts  of  justice  were  held. 
The  former  were  termed  fora  venalia,  and  the  latter 
fora  judicialia.  Of  the  yi>ra  judicialia,  the  most 
ancient  and  celebrated  was  the  forum  Romanormn, 
or,  j)ar  excellence,  the  forum  rnafjnum,  occupying  the 
quarter  now  known  as  the  campo  vaccino  (or  cattle- 
market).  It  stretched  from  the  foot  of  the  Capito- 
line  Hill,  where  the  arch  of  Septimius  Sevenis  stands, 
to  the  temple  of  the  Dioscuri,  was  seven  jut/era  in 
extent,  and  was  surrounded  by  streets  and  houses. 
The  boundary  on  the  east  and  north  was  the  Sacra 
via,  of  which  the  side  nearest  the  forum  was  left 
open ;  whde  on  tlie  other  were  corridors  and  halls, 
such  as  those  of  the  arr/enlarii  (bankers  or  money- 
changers). At  a  later  period,  the  site  of  these  was, 
for  the  most  part,  occupied  by  basilicas  and  temples. 
In  the  eastern  portion  of  this  space,  were  held  the 
earliest  Comitia  (f[.  v.)  of  the  Romans — the  comitia 
curiata  ;  hence  this  part  took  the  name  of  the  comi- 
tium,  and  was  distingiiished  from  the  forum  strictly 
so  called.  Here  were  hung  up  for  the  benefit  of  the 
public  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  ;  and,  after  304 
B.  c,  the  Fasti  written  on  white  tables  to  inform 
the  citizens  when  the  law-courts  were  open.  Tlie 
Forum,  in  the  narrower  usage  of  the  word,  probably 
ceased  to  be  employed  as  a  market-place  about  472 
B.  c,  when  it  became  the  place  of  assembly  of  the 
Comitia  Tributa.  Of  the  later /ora  venalia,  the  jirin- 
cipal  were  the  forum  boarium  (the  cattle-market), 
the  forum  suarium  (pig-market),  piscatorium  (fish- 
market),  olilorium  (vegetable-market),  &c.     Public 


banquets  for  the  populace,  and  the  combats  of  the 
glailiators.  were,  in  the  time  of  the  repubhc,  usually 
held  iu  the  great  forum,  which  also  contained 
monuments  of  various  kinds,  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  famous  Columna  liustrata  of  C 
Duilius,  erected  in  memory  of  his  N-ictfjry  over  the 
Carthaginians.  The  rostra,  or  ]iIatforms  from  which 
public  orations  were  ilelivered,  formed  the  boundary 
between  the  fonim  in  its  narrower  usage  and  the 
comitiura.  After  the  time  of  Julius  C»sar  and 
Augustus,  the  Fonim  Romanonun  lost  the  imjiort- 
ance  it  had  previously  derived  from  being  the 
central  point  of  Roman  jiolitical  life.  The  other 
two  fora  judicialia  were  the  Forum  Julii  and  the 
Forum  Auipisti.  Compare  Becker,  Ilandbuc/i  der 
liiiin.  Alterlhiimer  (1  vol.,  Leii>sic,  1843). 

FORUM  CO'MPETENS,  in  Law,  is  the  court  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  which  the  party  is  amenable. 

FOSCARI,  Franxesco,  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1423  to  1457,  a  brilliant  period  of  conquest  and 
prosperity  to  his  country,  aud  of  unexamjiled  afflic- 
tion to  himself  and  family.  Bom  about  1370,  his 
aspiring  ambition  soon  fired  him  with  passionate 
eagerness  to  exalt  his  reign  by  the  glory  of  con- 
quest, and  speedily  involved  the  state  in  a  severe 
condict  ■nith  the  Dukes  of  Milan  ;  which,  how- 
ever, the  doge's  great  military  ability  in  the  end 
turned  into  a  source  of  glory  aud  aggrandisement  to 
Venice.  His  triumjih  was  embittered  by  the  suc- 
cessive loss  of  three  sons ;  and  the  one  who  remained 
to  transmit  the  name,  and  succeed  to  the  inheritance 
of  the  family,  was,  in  1445,  denounced  for  ha\'ing 
received  bribes  from  the  hostile  generals,  to  use  his 
influence  \vith  the  doge  in  i)rocm"ing  less  rigorous 
terms.  Tried  for  this  grave  crime  before  the  Tribu- 
nal of  the  Ten,  and  racked  cruelly  in  view  of  his 
father,  Giacojio  Foscari  was  l)anished  for  life,  under 
])aiu  of  death  should  he  attempt  to  revisit  his  native 
land.  In  1450,  the  assassination  of  one  of  the 
'Coimcil  of  Ten,'  Hermolao  Uonati,  was  unputed,ou 
what  seem  most  unfoimded  grounds,  to  Giacopo, 
who  was  conseijueutly  summoned  from  his  exile, 
tried,  tortured,  and  banished  a  second  time  on  still 
more  rigorous  terms  to  tlie  island  of  Caudia.  Grown 
reckless  through  suffering,  aud  longing  to  see  his 
home  and  comitry  on  any  tenns,  Giacopo  petitioned 
the  Duke  of  Milan  to  iuterceile  in  his  behalf  with 
the  senate,  a  step  which,  by  Venetian  law,  was 
punished  as  a  high  crime,  and  led  to  the  unfor- 
tunate Giacopo  being  for  the  third  time  subjected 
to  torture  and  renewed  lianishment,  on  entering 
into  which  he  died  of  grief.  The  doge  had  vainly 
besought  permission  to  resign  a  dignity  grown  loath- 
some to  him,  from  its  imposing  the  barbarous 
obligation  of  witnessing  his  son's  torture  ;  but  in 
the  end  he  was  deposed,  and  ordered  to  vacate  the 
palace  in  three  days.  At  the  age  of  87,  decrepit 
from  years,  and  bowed  by  sorrow  and  humihation, 
Francesco  F.,  sup])orted  by  his  venerable  brother, 
descended  the  (iiant's  Staircase,  and  passed  out  for 
ever  from  the  ducal  palace,  the  scene  of  such  vain 
pomp  aud  bitter  misery.  Pasqual  Malapieri  was 
elected  in  his  stead  in  1457,  and  at  the  first  pe.al 
I  of  the  bells  in  honour  of  his  elevation,  F.  expired 
from  the  ru])ture  of  a  blood-vessel.  Bj-ron  has 
written  a  tragedy  on  the  subject,  entitled  llie  Two 
Foscari. 

\      FO'SCOLO,  Ugo,  an  Italian  author,  was  boni 

;  about  1778,  at  Zante,  one  of  the  Ionian  isles,  aud 
proceeded  to  Venice  in  his  16th  j'ear,  where  for 
a  time   he  jiursued    his   studies,   repairing   later  to 

j  Padua  to  enjoy  Melchiore  Cesarotti's  noble  course 
of  classic  literature.  His  earliest  efforts  at  poetical 
composition  were  strictly  modelled  on  his  favourite 

I  Greek  classics;  and,  as  early  as  1797,  his  tragedy, 

417 


FOSS— FOSSIL  FERKS. 


//  Tiesle,  was  received  -n-itli  favour  by  a  critical 
Venetian  audience.  The  dismembermeut  of  the 
Venetian  states,  decreeil  by  the  treaty  of  Canipo 
Formio.  liitterly  incensed  F.'s  patriotic  sinrit,  and 
insi)ind  him  «-ith  one  of  his  most  remarkable 
works,  Le  Ltttere  ili  Jacopo  Orlis,  which,  owing 
to  the  tierce  political  excitement  then  prevailins; 
throughout  the  entire  (leninsula,  was  received  with 
immense  popuhiritv.  F.  repaired  to  Milan  on  its 
being  declared  the  capital  of  the  Cisalpine  n'publio, 
and 'there  obtained  the  grade  of  otfieer  in  the 
Lombard  legion.  On  the  downfall  of  the  republic, 
he  retreated  with  the  French  into  Genoa,  where, 
in  the  midst  of  the  terrors  of  a  rigorous  siege,  he 
composed  two  exquisite  odes  to  Luigia  Pallavicmi 
Cadula  da  Caivllo,  and  AlC  Arnica  rkanaia.  F. 
subsequently  entered  France  with  the  intention  of 
joining  Kajxileon's  expedition  against  England, 
and  prepared  a  much  admired  version  of  Sterne's 
Sentimental  Journey,  to  exercise  himself  in  English. 
On  the  failure  of  "the  plan,  he  returned  to  JIUan, 
and  prepared  a  splendid  etlition  of  Montecuculi's 
works,  with  notes  and  historical  references — 
Opere  di  RaimonJo  Monlecucidi,  per  Luigi  Mussi 
(Milan,  ISO" — 1808),  a  very  rare  edition.  At  this 
time,  he  also  published  his  exquisite  poem,  in 
blank  verse,  7  Hepolcri,  which  at  once  placed  him 
among  the  classic  authors  of  his  countn,-.  In 
the  same  year,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
eloquence  in  Pa\ia,  and  continued  to  occupy  the 
post,  to  the  delight  and  benefit  of  his  students, 
until  the  professoi-ship  was  suppressed  in  all  the 
colleges  of  Italy.  His  inaugurative  address,  VelF 
Origine  e  delV  Ufficio  della  Letteratura,  is  a  master- 
piece of  beautifid,  noble,  and  patriotic  ^^Titing. 
From  the  time  F.  lost  faith  in  the  sincerity  of 
Bonaparte's  intentions  to  his  country,  he  not  only 
ceased  to  worship  his  early  idol,  but  employed  the 
full  powers  of  his  -BTath  and  sarcasm  in  denouncing 
his  treachery.  After  various  -sncissitudes,  F.  finally 
sought  refuge  in  Britain  about  1816,  and  soon 
mastered  the  language  sufficiently  to  contribute  to 
the  Quarterly  and  Edinburgh  Jferieies.  In  London, 
some  of  his  best  writings  were  published — ^^z., 
Essays  on  Petrarca  and  Dante,  Discorso  sid  testo  del 
Decamerone,  Discorso  storico  sid  testa  di  Dante,  and 
various  minor  compositions.  He  died  October  10, 
1827,  of  dropsy,  at  Turnham  Green  near  Loudon. 
His  works  in  jirose  and  verse  were  published  in 
Milan,  18-2'2,  by  Silvestri. 

FOSS,  or  FOSSE  (Lat.  fossa,  from  fodio,  I  dig), 
in  Fortification,  is  a  ditch  or  moat,  either  with 
or  without  water,  the  excavation  of  which  has 
contributed  material  for  the  walls  of  the  fort  it  is 
designed  to  protect.  The  foss  is  immediately 
without  the  wall,  and  offers  a  serious  obstacle  to 
escalading  the  defences. 

FO'SSA  ET  FURCA,  or  PIT  and  GALLOWS, 
was  an  ancient  privilege  granted  by  the  cro^ni 
to  b.arons  and  others,  which  implied  the  right  of 
drowning  female  felons  in  a  ditch,  and  hanging 
male  felons  on  a  gallows. 

FOSSA'NO,  a  to-n-n  of  Piedmont,  in  the  admini- 
strative division  of  Coni  or  Cuneo,  is  situ.ated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Stura,  on  a  hill  surmounted  by  an 
old  castle,  14  miles  north-east  of  Coni.  It  is  sur- 
rounded -tt-ith  old  waUs,  and  is  well  Iniilt  ;  Imt  the 
houses  are  erected  over  arcades,  under  which  run 
the  footways,  and  thus  the  streets  have  a  some- 
what gloomy  appearance.  It  has  a  handsome 
cathedral,  ten  churches,  a  royal  college,  and  nume- 
rous minor  educatiou.al  institutions,  silk-factories, 
paper-miUa,  and  tanneries.     Pop.  16,423. 

FO'SSIL  (Lat.  foasilia,  dug  out  of  the  earth), 

448 


a  term  formerly  applied,  in  acconlaiice  with  its 
derivation,  to  whatever  was  dug  out  of  the  earth, 
whether  mineral  or  organic,  but  now  restricted  to 
the  remaijis  of  plants  and  animals  imbedded  in  the 
earth's  crust.  They  were  formerly,  and  are  some- 
times still,  called  petrifactions.  They  occur  in  nearly 
all  the  stratified  rocks,  which  have,  on  this  account, 
been  called  Fossiliferous  strata.  It  is  difficult  or 
im])ossible  to  detect  them  in  the  metamorphic 
rocks,  for  the  changes  that  altered  the  matrix  have 
also  affected  the  organisms,  so  as  either  almost  or 
altogether  to  obUterate  them.  In  the  fundamental 
mica-schist  and  gneiss  they  have  escaped  notice,  if 
ever  they  existed  ;  and  it  is  only  within  the  last 
few  years  that  their  presence  has  been  detected  in 
the  gneiss  and  other  rocks,  which  are  the  greatly 
metamoi-phosed  representatives  of  the  Lower  Silu- 
rian Measures  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 

The  conditions  in  which  fossils  occur  are  very 
various.  In  some  Pleistocene  beds  the  organic 
remains  are  but  slightly  altered,  and  are  spoken  of 
as  sub-fossil.  In  this  st.ate  are  the  shells  in  some 
raised  sea-beaches,  and  the  remains  of  the  huge 
struthious  birds  of  Kew  Zealand,  which  still  retam 
a  large  portion  of  the  animal  basis.  In  the  progress 
of  fossilisation,  every  trace  of  animal  substance 
disappears ;  and  if  we  find  the  body  at  this  stage, 
^^^thout  being  affected  by  any  other  change,  it  is 
fragile  and  friable,  like  some  of  the  shells  in  the 
Loudon  clay.  Most  frequently,  however,  a  petrify- 
ing infiltration  occupies  the  ca\-ities  left  in  the  fossd 
by  the  disappearance  of  the  animal  matter,  and  it 
then  becomes  hardened  and  solicUlied.  Sometimes 
the  whole  organism  is  dissolved  and  carried  off  by 
water  percolating  the  rock,  and  its  former  presence 
is  indicated  by  the  mould  of  its  outer  surface,  and 
the  cast  of  its  inner  in  the  rocky  matrix,  leaving 
a  cavity  between  the  cast  and  the  mould  agreeing 
with  the  size  of  the  fossil.  This  cavity  is  occasion- 
.ally  tilled  up  Mith  calcareous  spar,  flint,  or  some 
other  mineral ;  and  we  thus  obtain  the  form  of  the 
organism,  with  the  markings  of  the  outer  and  inner 
surfaces,  but  not  exhibiting  the  internal  structure. 
The  most  advanced  and  perfect  condition  of  fossilisa- 
tion is  that  in  which  not  only  the  external  form, 
but  also  the  most  minute  and  complicated  internal 
organisation  is  retained ;  in  which  the  organism  loses 
the  whole  of  its  constituents,  particle  by  particle, 
and  as  each  little  molecide  is  removed,  its  place  is 
taken  by  a  little  molecide  of  another  substance,  as 
sdica  or  iron  pjTites.  In  this  way  we  find  calcareous 
corals  j)erfectly  preserved  in  flint,  and  trees  exhi- 
biting in  their  sihcified  or  calcified  stems  all  the 
details  of  their  microscopic  structure — the  cells, 
spiral  vessels,  or  disc-bearing  tissue,  as  well  as  the 
medullary  rays  and  rings  of  growth. 

FOSSIL  FERNS.  As  far  as  has  been  yet  deter- 
mined from  the  rocky  tablets  of  the  earth's  crust, 
ferns  first  appeared  in  the  Devonian  period,  but  then 
only  sparingly,  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  species 
having  been  observed.  In  the  immediately  suc- 
ceeding Coal-measures,  they  suddenly  reached  their 
maximum  development.  The  dense  forests  and  the 
moist  atmosphere  of  this  period  were  so  suited  to 
their  growth  that  they  formed  a  large  bulk  of  the 
vegetation.  Upwards  of  350  species  have  been 
described,  some  of  them  tree  ferns  of  a  size  fitting 
them  to  be  the  companions  of  the  immense  SigU- 
larias  and  Lepidodenilrons  whose  remains  are  found 
associated  with  theirs  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks. 
Twenty-three  species  have  been  found  in  Permian 
strata.  Many  new  forms  appear  in  the  Trias, 
and  their  number  is  increased  in  the  Oolite.  The 
fresh-water  be<ls  of  this  period  contain  numerous 
beautifid  ferns,  upwards  of  fifty  species  having  been 
I  described.      The    marine    beds    of    the   Cretaceous 


FOSSILIFEROUS  ROCKS— FOUCH^. 


period  contain  very  few  forms,  and  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  they  are  equally  rare. 

FOSSILrFEROUS  ROCKS  are  those  which 
contain  organic  remains.  If  we  except  the  lowest 
nietamorphic  rooks,  in  wliich,  as  yet,  no  fossils 
have  been  found,  the  term  is  equivalent  to  tlie 
'  stratified  rocks,'  when  used  comprehensively  ;  but 
it  may  also  be  applied  to  a  particular  bed,  as  when 
we  speak  of  an  unfossiliferous  sandstone  compared 
ivith  the  neighbouring  fossiliferous  shale  or  lime- 
stone. 

FOSSOMBRO'KE,  a  sm.all  episcopal  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Urbino  and  Pesaro,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  left  bauk  of  the 
Sletauro — which  is  here  spanned  by  a  fine  modern 
bridge — U  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Urbmo.  It 
rose  in  the  14th  c,  from  the  ruins  of  Fo7-um  Sem- 
prnnii,  destroyed  by  the  Goths  and  Lombards.  Some 
interesting  Roman  inscriptions  and  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  are  contained  in  the  cathedral  of  St 
Aldobrando.  F.  is  celebrated  for  its  tine  manufac- 
tures of  carpets  and  woollen  cloths,  and  particularly 
for  the  excellent  silk  of  its  neighbourhood.  Three 
miles  from  F.  is  II  Monte  d'Asdrubale,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  the  engagement  in  which  the  Cartha- 
ginian general  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the 
Romans  in  207  E.  c. — See  Laiiro  Jacomo,  Hisloria 
e  Pianta  di  Fossombrone, 

FOSTER,  JoHX,  a  wcll-kno-s^-n  English  essayist, 
was  born  in  the  parish  of  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1770.  He  was  educatecl  for  the  ministry 
at  the  Baptist  College  at  Bristol,  but  after  preach- 
ing for  several  years  to  various  small  congregations 
with  very  indifterent  success,  he  resolved  to  devote 
himself  mainly  to  literature.  His  Essays,  in  a 
Series  of  Letters,  were  published  in  ISOo,  while  he 
was  officiating  as  pastor  of  a  Baptist  chapel  at 
Frome,  in  Somersetshire.  They  were  only  four  in 
number — On  a  JIan's  Writing  Memoirs  of  Himself ; 
On  Decision  of  Character ;  On  the  Application  of 
the  Epithet  Romantic ;  and  On  some  of  the  Causes 
by  which  Evangelical  Religion  has  been  rendered 
less  acceptable  to  Persons  of  Cultivated  Taste  ;  yet 
Sir  James  Mackintosh  did  not  hesitate  to  affirm 
that  they  shewed  their  author  to  be  '  one  of  the 
most  profound  and  eloquent  writers  that  England 
has  jiroduccd.'  They  have  been  remarkably  popu- 
lar, especially  among  the  more  thoughtfid  of  the 
community,  and  have  gone  through  upwards  of 
twenty  editions.  In  ISOS,  F.  married  the  lady  to 
whom  his  essays  were  originally  addressed,  and 
retired  to  Bourton-on-the-Water,  in  Gloucestei-shire, 
where  he  lived  a  quiet,  studious,  literary  life, 
preaching,  however,  in  the  villages  round  about  on 
Sundays.  In  1S19  appeared  his  celebrated  Essay 
on  the  Evils  of  Popular  Jrjiiorance,  in  which  he 
urges  the  necessity  of  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation. He  was  long  the  principal  ^vriter  in  the 
EcUctic  Jiei'ieir,  and  a  selection  from  his  contribu- 
tions to  that  magazine  was  published  by  Dr  Price  in 
184-t.  He  died  at  Stapelton,  near  Bristol,  October 
1.5,  1S43.  F.  was  a  man  of  deep  but  sombre  piety. 
Tlic  sh.adows  that  overhmig  his  soul  were,  however, 
those  of  an  inborn  melancholy,  and  had  nothing 
in  common  ■with  the  repulsive  gloom  of  bigotry  or 
fanaticism.  His  thinking  is  rugged,  massive,  and 
original ;  and  at  times,  when  his  great  imagination 
roiLses  itself  from  sleep,  a  splendour  of  illustration 
breaks  over  his  pages  that  startles  tlie  reader  both 
by  its  beauty  and  its  suggestiveness.  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned,  F.  published  several 
others,  of  which  the  most  important  is  an  Intro- 
ilnclor;/  Essay  to  Doddridge's  Plie  and  Progress 
of  lleU'iion  (1825).  Compare  the  Life  and  Corres- 
pondence of  F.  (2  vols.  1846),  edited  by  J.  E.  Ryland, 

185 


and  repubUshed   in   Bohn's    Standard  Library  in 
1852. 

FO'THERGILL  PROCESS.  This  is  one  of  the 
numerous  dry  processes  in  Photography  (q.  v.) 
which  have  for  their  object  the  preservation  of 
sensitive  plates  ready  for  exposure.  It  is  named 
after  the  inventor,  and  consists  in  the  partial 
removal  of  the  free  nitrate  of  silver  which  adheres 
to  the  collodion  film  on  withdrawing  it  from  the 
sensitising  bath  by  washing  with  water,  and  the 
subsequent  conversion  of  the  remaining  free  nitrate 
of  silver  into  albiuninate  and  chloride  of  silver  by 
pouring  over  the  plate  dilute  albumen,  containing 
chloride  of  ammonium,  the  excess  of  albumen  being 
finally  washed  oil'  by  violent  agitation  with  a  copious 
supjily  of  water.  The  plates  being  set  aside  to 
drain  on  folds  of  blotting-paper,  are,  when  dry, 
ready  for  use.  For  details  of  manipulation,  see 
Hardwich's  Pliotographic  Chemistry. 

FOUCUE,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto,  the  son  of 
a  sea-cajjtain,  was  born  at  Nantes,  29th  May  1763, 
and    educated    at    the    Oratoire.      He   haded    the 
Revolution  with  enthusiasm,  and  in  1792  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention.     He  voted  for 
the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  Committee  of  Pubhc  Safety  sent 
to  Lyon  in  1794  to  reduce  that  city  to  obedience. 
In  1795,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Convention  as 
a  dangerous  Terrorist,  and  kept  in  confinement  for 
a   short  time.      After  the   revolution  of   the  ISth 
Brimnaire  (oth  November  1799),  in  which  he  took 
a  part,  F.,  as  minister  of  poUce  (an  office  to  which 
he  had  been  appointed  on    the   31st   Jidy  of   the 
same  year),  organised  an  extraorilinary  pohce.     He 
restrained    the    new    government    from    deeds    of 
violence,  and  by  his  advice  the  list  of  emigres  was 
closed,  a  general  amnesty  proclaimed,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  moderation  and  conciliation  steadily  adhered 
to.      His  remark  upon  the  execution  of  the  Duke 
d'Enghien  was  very  happy:    '  C'est  bien  2>is  rju'un 
crime,  c'est  nnefaute '  (It  is  much  worse  than  a  crime ; 
it  is  a  blunder).     In  Jidy  1804,  he  was  again  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  police.    His  chief  endeavours  were 
directed,  as  before,  to  attaching  the  royalists  to  the 
imperial  throne  liy  prudent  moderation,     lu  1809, 
the  Emperor  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Otranto,  along  with  large  grants  from  the  revenues 
of  the  Neapolitan  territory.     An  imguarded  expres- 
sion,  however,   in   a   proclamation,    lost    him    the 
favour  of  Napoleon,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
was  forced  to  resign.     In  the  campaign  of  1813,  the 
Emperor  summoned  F.  to  head-quarters  at  Dresden, 
and  sent  him  thence  as  governor  of  the  Illyrian 
provinces,  and,  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  to  Rome 
and  Naples,  in  order  to  keep  a  watch  upon  Mur,at's 
proceedings.     Being  recalled  to  Paris  in  the  spring 
of  1814,  he  predicted  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  even 
before  his  arrival  in  France.     After  the  Emperor's 
abdication,    F.    ad\ised    him    to    abandon   Europe 
altogether.      On   his   return   from   Elba,   Napoleon 
again  nominated  him  minister  of  pohce;  but  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  F.   placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  provisional  government,  brought  about 
the    capitidation   of   Paris,   drew   back    the    army 
behind  the  Loire,  and  thereby  prevented  unneces- 
sary bloodshed.     At  the  Restoration,  Louis  XVIII. 
reappointed  him  minister  of  pohce ;  but  he  resigned 
his  office  in  a  few  months,  and  went  as  ambassador 
to  Dresden.     The  law  of  the  12th  January  1816, 
banishing  all  those  who  had  voted  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.,   was  extended  to  F.  also,   who  from 
that   time    resided   in   different   parts   of   Austria. 
He  died  at  Trieste,  26th  December  1820,  leaving 
an  immense  fortune.    Napoleou,  at  St  Helena,  called 
F.  '  a  miscreant  of  all  colours ; '   and   Bourrienne 

419 


FOUGERES— FOULIS. 


declares  that  he  '  never  reganleil  »  benefit  in  any 
other  light  than  as  a  means  of  injiiring  lus  bene- 
factor'—statements  which  are  far  too  exaggerated 
to  bo  worth  much.  The  simple  truth  appears 
to  be,  that  F.  was  a  man  whoso  highest  principle 
was  self-interest,  but  whose  sagacity  was  not  less 
conspicuous,  and  who  never  tailed  to  give  the 
governments  which  ho  served  the  soundest  political 
a<lvice.  It  is  true,  however,  that  he  wm  unscru- 
pulous in  passing  from  one  party  to  another,  and 
that  he  was  as  destitute  of  political  morality  as 
>'ai>oleon  himself.  In  1824,  appeared  a  work 
entitled  Mniwires  de  FoucM,  Due  d'OtrarUe,  edited 
by  A.  Beauchamp,  which,  though  declared  to  be 
spurious  by  the  sons  of  F.,  is  generally  held  to  kive 
been  based  on  genuine  documents. 

FOUGERES,  a  handsome  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  lUe-et-Vilaiue,  stands  on  a  hill  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Couesnon,  28  miles  north-east 
of  Uennus.  It  is  a  well-biult  town,  with  wide 
streets,  and  in  the  old  quarter  retains  traces  of  the 
middle  ages  in  tlie  ancient  arcades  which  still 
obtrude  in  some  places  upon  the  streets.  The  castle 
of  F.  is  pictm-esque,  but  being  commanded  by  other 
parts  of  the  town,  forms  but  a  feeble  defence.  In 
the  neighbourhood  is  a  great  forest  containing 
Uniidical  remains.  A  famous  engagement  took 
place  here  between  the  Vendean  royalists  and  the 
Eepublicans,  November  15,  1793.  F.  has  manu- 
factures of  sail-cloth,  canvas,  tape,  flannel,  lace, 
hats,  &e. ;  and  dyeworks,  principally  for  the  dyein" 
of  scarlet.  In  the  vicinity  are  important  glass  and 
paper  works.    Pop.  9344. 

FOXJLA,  a  solitary  isle  in  the  Atlantic,  25  miles 
west  of  the  Mainland  of  Shetland.  It  is  3  by  l.J 
miles  in  extent,  and  consists  of  live  bills  (highest, 
1300  feet),  rising  steeply  out  of  the  water.  The  sea- 
clifls  are  sublime,  and  covered  with  sea-birds.  The 
isle  is  seen  from  Orkney  in  fine  weather,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Ultima  Thule  of  the  ancients. 
It  has  only  one  landing-place.  It  is  inhabited  by 
about  250  fishermen.  F.  consists  of  s.indstone,  with 
a  small  patch  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate  and 
clay-slate  in  the  north-east  corner. 

FOULD,  ACHILLE,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the 
31st  of  October  1800,  and  was  educated  at  the 
LycC'C  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
establishments  of  Paris.  He  originally  belonged  to 
the  Jewish  creed,  his  family  being  wealthy  Jew 
bankers,  but  now  adheres  to  the  Protestant  faith. 
Early  in  life,  he  was  initiated  into  financial  trans- 
actions by  his  father,  and  his  natural  talents 
were  developed  by  travel  in  Eiurope  and  the  East. 
In  1842,  he  began  his  political  career,  being  then 
chosen  as  a  member  of  the  coimcil-general  of  the 
Hautes  PjTeuees,  and  immediately  after  elected  a 
deputy  for  Tarbes,  the  chief  town  of  that  depart- 
ment. He  soon  acquired  a  high  position  in  the 
Chamber  of  Dejiuties  for  the  pecidiar  talent  with 
which  he  haniUed  questions  of  finance  and  political 
economy.  In  1844,  he  was  appointed  reporter  to 
the  commission  on  stamps  on  newspapers,  and 
his  views  were  adopted,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
party,  he  bcin^  at  that  period  a  stanch  supporter 
of  M.  Guizot's  nome  and  foreign  policy.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848,  F.  accepted  the  new  rggime  of 
the  republic,  and  offered  his  services  to  the  pro- 
visional government.  In  July  1848,  he  was  elected 
representative  for  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
and  continued  to  rise  in  public  estimation  by  the 
elev.ated  views  he  expressed  in  the  chamber,  while 
opposing  among  other  things  a  proposed  issue  of 
assignats.  During  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon, 
F.  was  four  times  Rlinister  of  Finance,  and  his 
repeated   resignations    for    state    reasons  did  not 


prevent  him  from  being  again  appointed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  <■<)«;>  d'etat,  2d  December  1851.  Uo 
once  more  resigned  liis  position  on  the  25th  January 
following,  in  consequence  of  the  decree  ordering 
the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  the  Orleans 
family.  The  same  day,  however,  he  was  created  a 
senator,  and  shortly  afterwards  returned  to  power  as 
minister  of  state.  In  this  capacity,  he  supenntended 
the  Universal  Paris  Exhibition  in  1855,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  palace  of  the  Louvre,  and  other  great 
measures.  He  remained  one  of  the  most  confidential 
ministers  of  Napoleon  III.  till  December  18G0,  when 
he  was  succeeded  as  minister  of  state  by  Comto 
Walewsky.  He  was  out  of  office  up  to  the  14th 
November  1S61,  at  which  date  he  was  reappointed 
finance  minister,  his  long  experience  and  well-known 
abihty  as  a  financier  pointing  him  out  as  the  man 
to  manage  the  crisis  of  the  French  finances  at  that 
time. 

FOULIS,  Robert  and  A>T)REW,  two  eminent 
jiriuters  of  Glasgow,  brothers,  whose  names  are 
usually  classed  together. — Robert,  the  elder,  born  in 
that  city,  April  20,  1707,  was  bred,  and,  like  AUan 
Ramsay,  for  some  time  practised  as  a  barlier — in 
those  daj's  of  flowing  periwigs,  a  profitable  and 
respectable  profession.  Ha\'ing  attended  for  several 
years  the  lectures  of  the  celebrated  Dr  Francis 
Hutcheson,  then  Professor  of  Moral  Plulosophy  in 
Glasgow  University,  he  was  advised  by  that  gentle- 
man to  become  a  bookseller.  In  winter,  he  and 
liis  brother  Andrew  (born  November  23,  1712) 
employed  themselves  in  teaching  languages ;  and  in 
sximmer,  they  made  short  excui'sions  to  the  conti- 
nent, and  thereby  acquired  a  considerable  amoimt 
of  learning  and  knowledge  of  the  world.  Andrew 
seems  to  have  been  designed  for  the  church.  In 
1727,  ho  entered  as  a  student  at  the  miiversity  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  undergone  a 
regiUar  course  of  study.  About  the  end  of  1739, 
Robert  began  business  in  Glasgow  as  a  printer,  his 
firet  pubUcations  being  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature. 
In  1742,  he  published  an  elegant  edition  in  4to  of 
Demetrius  P/ialereiis  on  Elocution,  supposed  to  be 
the  first  Greek  work  printed  in  Glasgow.  In  1743, 
he  was  appointed  printer  to  the  imiversity.  In 
1744,  he  brought  out  his  celebrated  immaculate 
edition  of  Horace,  12mo,  each  printed  sheet  of 
wliich  was  hung  up  in  the  college  of  Glasgow,  and 
a  reward  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any  inac- 
curacy. Soon  after,  he  took  his  brother  Andrew  into 
partnership ;  and  for  thirty  years  they  continued 
to  l)riug  out  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  correct 
and  elegant  printing,  particularly  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  classics,  which  the  ISth  c.  produced, 
either  in  this  coimtry  or  on  the  continent.  Among 
them  were  Cicero's  works,  in  20  vohunes ;  Cajsar's 
Comment;iries,  folio ;  Homer's  works,  4  vols. ; 
Herodotus,  9  vols.,  &c. ;  also  an  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  ;  Gray's  poems  ;  Pope's  works  ; 
a  folio  edition  of  Jlilton,  and  other  publications 
in  English.  With  the  view  of  jiromoting  the 
cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  in  Scotlanil,  Robert 
Foulis,  after  a  two  years'  risit  to  the  continent  in 
preparation,  commenced,  in  1753,  an  academy  at 
Glasgow,  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  painting 
and  sculpture.  The  great  ex])ense  attending  this 
institution  led  to  the  decline  of  the  prmting 
business,  which,  however,  continued  to  be  carried  on 
till  the  death  of  Andrew,  September  18,  1775.  In 
1770,  Robert  exhibited  and  sold  at  Christie's,  Pall 
Mall,  London,  the  remainder  of  his  paintings,  when, 
after  all  expenses  were  defrayed,  the  balance  in  his 
favoiu-  amounted  only  to  fifteen  shillings.  He 
died  the  same  year  at  Edinburgh,  on  his  return  to 
Scotland.  He  was  twice  married,  and  left  several 
children.    One  of  them  was  a  jirinter  in  G  lasgow  as 


FOUNBATION— FOUNDING. 


late  as  1S06.  His  Virgil,  printed  in  1778,  and  his 
^schylus,  1795,  for  beauty  and  exactness,  were  not 
unworthy  of  the  name  of  Foulis. 

FOUNDATION.  This  term  may  be  applied 
either  to  the  surface  or  bed  on  which  a  building 
rests,  or  to  the  lower  part  of  the  building  which 
rests  on  the  natural  bed.  1.  Foimdation"  as  the 
bed. — The  best  that  can  be  had  is  solid  rock,  or  any 
kind  of  resisting  incompressible  stratum,  free  from 
water.  AVTiere  there  is  no  clianco  of  water,  sand 
forms  a  solid  foimdation.  'WTieu  the  soil  is  soft, 
loose,  and  shifting,  a  solid  bearing  can  be  obtained 
only  by  driving  pile^  or  long  beams  of  wood,  sharp- 
ened at  the  end,  through  the  soft  soil,  till  they 
reach  a  hard  bottom.  This  is  then  planked  or  laid 
with  cross-beams,  on  which  the  superstructure  is 
biult.  The  piers  of  many  bridges  are  formed  in 
this  manner.  Where  the  soU  is  soft,  but  not 
shifting,  as  in  the  case  of  made  or  deposited  earth, 
the  method  of  Concretin;/  (q.  v.)  is  adopted — i.  e.,  a 
large  surface  is  laid  with  broken  metal  or  gravel, 
and  nm  together  with  hot  lime,  so  as  to  form  a 
broad  sohd  artificial  rock,  on  which  the  buililing 
may  rest.  2.  Foundation  as  the  base  of  the  building. 
— The  broader  and  larger  the  lower  courses  of  the 
mason-work,  the  stronger  the  wall.  The  stones 
should,  if  possible,  extend  through  and  through,  and 
project  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

In  the  best  periods  of  art,  the  foimdations  have 
always  been  most  attentively  considered.  The 
Komans  formed  solid  bearings  of  concrete  as  above 
described,  and  paid  great  attention  to  secure  the 
stabihty  of  their  buildings.  In  the  dark  ages,  when 
there  was  want  of  knowledge  combined  Nrith  want 
of  materials  and  means,  many  buililings  fell  from 
the  yielding  of  the  foundations.  Some  of  the 
earlier  Gothic  buildings  also  suffered  from  the  same 
cause.  But  knowledge  came  with  experience,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  later  Gothic  buildings,  during 
the  14th  and  loth  centuries,  were  buQt  with  extreme 
care,  and  on  the  %'irgin  soil — the  stones  being  as 
Imely  dressed  as  those  above  ground,  where  neces- 
sary to  resist  a  strong  thrust.  And  where  the 
weight  is  tlirown  imequally  on  piers  and  walls, 
these  detached  points  are  all  carefidly  imited 
below  the  floor  mth  a  net-work  of  solid  walls. 

Bad  foundations  have  been  the  cause  of  the  ruin 
of  many  modern  buildings.  This  has  arisen  from 
the  costly  nature  of  making  a  good  foundation, 
when  the  soil  is  not  naturally  suitable.  But  it 
is  clear  that  no  expense  should  be  spared  to  make 
the  foundation  good,  as  the  value  and  stabihty  of 
the  supcrstructiu-e  dei)end  entirely  on  the  security 
of  the  foundation. 

FOU'NDER,  also  called  LAinNiTis,  consists  of 
inflammation  of  the  vascular  sensitive  lamina  of  the 
horse's  foot.  It  is  rarely  met  with  in  cattle  or 
sheep,  owing  to  the  corresponding  structures  being 
in  them  greatly  less  developed.  Occasionally,  the 
lamina;  are  strained  from  severe  exertion  ;  more 
frequently,  they  suffer  from  the  morbid  effects  of 
cold,  which  is  especially  injurious  after  the  excite- 
ment and  exhaustion  of  labour.  Very  commonly 
also,  they  become  inflamed  from  their  close  sympathy 
with  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  often  follow  iu^ 
engorgement  of  the  stomach,  or  inflammation  of 
the  bowels.  AU  four  feet  are  sometimes  affected, 
more  usually  the  fore  ones  only.  They  are  hot 
and  tender ;  the  animal  stands  as  much  as  possible 
ujion  his  heels ;  trembles  and  groans  when  moved  ; 
and  is  in  a  state  of  acute  fever  and  pain.  Except 
when  following  superpurgation  or  internal  disease, 
bleeding  is  useful.  The  shoes  must  at  once  be 
removed,  and  the  toes,  if  long,  reduced,  but  no 
further  rasping  or    cutting    is    penuissible.      The 


feet  must  be  enveloped  in  hot  bran  poultices,  and 
kept  off  the  hard  ground  by  a  plentifid  supply 
of  short  litter.  Soap  and  water  clysters,  rejjeated 
if  necessary  every  hour,  usually  suffice  to  oi)en 
the  bowels,  which  are  very  irritable,  and  physic, 
if  required,  must  therefore  be  used  with  extreme 
caution-  Two  drachms  of  aloes  is  an  ample 
dose  in  founder.  Have  the  strain  taken  off  the 
inflamed  lamina;  by  getting  the  animal,  if  possible, 
to  lie  down,  or,  where  this  is  impracticable,  by 
slinging  him.  ^Vheu  the  inflammation  continues 
so  long  that  serum  and  lymph  are  poured  out 
between  the  sensitive  and  horny  laminse,  they 
must  have  free  exit  provided,  by  making  an  opening 
through  the  toe  with  a  small  drawing-knife.  This 
may  prevent  the  pumiced  and  disfigured  feet  that 
are  apt  to  follow  severe  and  repeated  attacks.  After 
the  acute  sjTuptoms  pass,  cold  applications  to  the 
feet,  and  a  nuld  blister  round  the  coronet,  help  to 
restore  the  parts  to  their  natural  condition. 

FOUNDING,  or  METAL-CASTING,  is  the  art 
of  obtaining  casts  of  any  desired  object  by  means  of 
pouring  melted  metal  into  moidds  j)repared  for  the 
piu^iose.  It  has  risen  to  great  importance  in  recent 
times,  on  account  of  the  many  new  applications  of 
iron.  Iron-founding,  brass-founding,  type-founding, 
as  well  as  casting  in  bronze  and  zinc,  are  the  jirin- 
cipal  divisions  of  the  art.  The  casting  of  the  flner 
metals  and  alloys,  as  gold,  silver,  and  German  silver, 
is  necessarily  conducted  on  a  smaller  scale. 

'WTien  the  casting  of  an  object  is  required,  it  is 
necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  a  pattern. 
Suppose  it  to  be  a  plain  roimd  iron  pillar,  such 
as  is  used  for  hanging  a  gate  upon.  A  pattern  of 
this  is  turned  in  some  wood  which  can  be  reatUly 
made  smooth  on  the  surface,  such  as  pine,  and  then 
varnished  or  painted  so  as  to  come  freely  out  of  the 
moidd.  This  wooden  jiillar,  or  any  sinular  pattern, 
is  always  made  in  at  least  two  pieces,  the  division 
being  lengthwise,  for  a  reason  which  we  shall  pre- 
sently see.  The  next  step  is  to  prep.are  the  mould- 
The  moidds  used  by  the  iron-foimder  are  either  of 
sand  or  loam,  but  more  generally  of  fine  sand.  Pro- 
ceeding with  the  preparation  of  the  moidd,  the 
foimder  takes  a  moidding-box,  which  is  composed  of 
two  open  iron  frames  with  cross-bars,  the  one  fitting 
exactly  on  the  other,  by  means  of  pins  in  the  upper, 
dropping  into  holes  in  the  lower  frame.  One- 
half  of  the  box  is  first  filled  with  damp  sand,  and 
the  pattern  laid  upon  it,  a  little  dry  parting  sand 
being  sprinkled  on  the  surface.  The  upper  half  of 
the  box  is  then  put  on,  and  sand  firmly  ranamed  aU 
round  the  pattern.  The  box  is  then  carefully 
opened,  and,  when  the  pattern  is  removed,  its  im- 
pression is  left  in  the  sand.  The  moidd  at  this  stage, 
however,  is  generally  rough  and  broken.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  give  it  a  better  finish,  which 
is  done  by  taking  each  half  of  the  mould  separately, 
repairing  it  with  a  small  trowel,  and  re-introducing 
the  corresponding  half  of  the  pattern  till  the  impres- 
sion is  firm  and  perfect.  Finally,  the  surface  of  the 
mould  is  coated  with  charcoal-dust,  which  gives  a 
smooth  surface  to  the  future  casting.  These  columns 
being  made  hollow,  there  is  yet  another  matter  to 
arrange  before  the  casting  can  be  made — namely,  the 
core.  In  the  instance  before  us,  it  woidd  simply  be  a 
rod  of  ii-on,  covered  with  straw  and  loam  to  what- 
ever thickness  the  internal  diameter  of  the  column 
happened  to  require.  The  core  of  course  occuiiies 
the  centre  of  the  mould. 

The  cast  iron  is  melted  with  coke  in  a  round  fire- 
brick furnace,  called  a  cupola,  the  heat  being  urged 
by  means  of  a  powerfid  blast,  created  by  fanners 
revolving  at  a  l'»gh  speed.  The  molten  metal  is  run 
from  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  into  a 
malleable  iron  ladle,  lined  with  clay,  from  which  it 

4S1 


FOUNDING— FOTJXBLING  HOSPITALS. 


is  wnrcd  into  the  mould  through  holes  caUed  runners 
oroalf.0.  AVhcn  the  mould  is  newly  tilled,  numerous 
iet3  of  Mue  flame  issue  from  :is  many  small  holes 
pierced  in  the  sand.  These  perfor.itions  arc  neces- 
sary for  the  escai-e  of  air  and  other  ,t;ases  produced 
bv  the  .action  of  the  hot  metal  on  the  mould.  Care 
nmst  also  he  t.aken  not  to  have  the  mould  too 
damp,  otherwise  steam  is  generated,  which  may 
c.iuse  holes  in  the  easting,  and  even  force  p.art  of 
the  met-al  out  of  the  mould.  The  casting  remains 
coven-d  ui*  for  a  time,  in  order  to  cool  slowly,  and 
is  then  removed  by  breaking  away  the  sand,  and 
drawing  out  the  core.  , 

In  the  case  of  a  fluted,  or  otherwise  ornamented 
pilliir,  the  patU-rn  would  require  to  be  in  at  least  four 
pieces  instead  of  two,  because  it  is  only  a  plain 
p.attcrn  that  will  come  out  of  tlie  mould  m  halves 
without  tearing  away  the  sand.  When  a  pattern 
is  neeessai-ily  inade  in  several  jiieces,  it  is  ib-awn 
out  of  the  mould  bit  by  bit,  to  the  right  or  left, 
as  the  case  ni.ay  be,  and  so  parts  from  the  sand 
without  breaking  it. 

Suppose  that  a  small  ornamental  vase  was  to 
surmount  the  pillar,  the  foimder  would  prejiarc  the 
pattern  of  this  in  a  more  elaborate  manner.  He 
would  flrst  mould  it  in  wax  or  clay,  from  which  a 
cast  in  plaster  of  Paris  is  made  ;  from  that,  again,  a 
cast  is  taken  in  an  .alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  which, 
after  being  sharply  ch.ased,  and  divided  into  the 
required  number  "of  pieces,  is  used  as  a  pattern 
to  east  from.  All  ornamental  jiattcms,  such  as 
iigures,  scrolls,  leaves,  enriched  mouldings,  and  the 
like,  are  made  in  this  way,  whatever  metal  the 
lUtiraate  casting  is  to  be  produced  in. 

Very  large  engine  cylinders,  p.ans,  and  such 
vessels,  .arc  "cast  in  loam-moulds,  which  arc  built  of 
brick,  pl.astcred  with  loam,  then  coated  with  coal- 
dust,  and  finally  dried  by  means  of  a  Arc.  This 
method  is  adopted  with  large  plain  objects,  where  a 
pattern  would  be  expensive,  and  when  few  castings 
of  one  kind  are  required. 

Iron  moulds,  co.ated  with  blacklead  or  plumbago, 
have  recently  been  introduced  for  casting  pipes 
into  ;  they  are  greatly  move  expensive  than  any 
other  kind,  but  they  enable  the  founder  to  tlispense 
■n-ith  a  p.attern,  as,  when  once  made  into  the  required 
form,  they  are  not  destroyed  like  moidds  of  sand  or 
loam  at  each  casting. 

Bronze  and  brass  .are  cast  in  moulds  prepared 
with  liner  sand  than  that  used  for  iron.  _  Pewter 
and  similar  soft  metallic  alloys  .are  cast  in  brass 
moulils.  The  type-fomider,  on  the  other  hand,  uses 
moulds  of  steel,  which  are  now  worked  to  a  gi-eat 
extent  by  a  machine. 

The  v.ariety  of  articles  produced  by  founding  or 
casting  are  very  numerous,  among  others  we  may 
mention  cylinders,  cisterns,  paper-engines,  beams, 
boilers,  pumps,  and  the  heavy  parts  of  machinery 
generally,  g.ates,  railings,  lamps,  gi-ates,  fenders, 
cooking- vessels,  and  the  Uke,  in  iron  :  cannon,  many 
portions  of  machinery,  and  numerous  ornamental 
objects,  in  brass  :  sculpture  and  other  works  of 
art  in  bronze  and  the  more  costly  metals.  One  of 
the  most  rem.arkable  castings  yet  executed  for  the 
requirements  of  modern  engineering,  was  the  cylinder 
of  the  hydraulic  press  used  for  raising  the  tubes  of 
the  Britannia  Bridge.  It  measured  9  feet  x  3  feet  G 
inches,  the  met.al  being  10  inches  thick,  and  weighed 
njiwards  of  twenty  tons.  It  remained  red  hot  for 
three  days,  and  it  w.as  seven  days  more  before  men 
eoiUd  approach  it  to  remove  the  s.and.  Sole  plates 
for  ste.am-h.ammers,  and  for  other  purposes,  have 
been  c.a,st  more  than  double  this  weight,  but  the 
same  care  was  not  required  in  their  execution.  In 
reg.ard  to  sculpture,  perhaps  the  most  wonderful 
casting  known  is  the  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria  at 
Hi 


Munich,  finished  in  IS.'JO,  which  stands  54  feet 
high,  the  face  being  cqu.al  to  the  height  of  a  m.an. 
It  took  eight  yeai-s  to  cast,  and  the  cost  of  the 
bronze  used  w.as  about  £10,000. 

FOUNDLING    HOSPITALS,    est.abUshments 
in  which  children   th.at   have   been  abandoned  l)y 
their  jiarents  and  foimd  by  others,  are  nurtured  .at 
the  public  expense.     Amongst  the  ancient  nations, 
these    institutions   were   not   unknown,  though  as 
the  law  usually  placed  the  power  of  life  and  death 
in  the  hands  of  the  f.ather,  and  permitted  him  to 
sell   his   children   into   slavery,   it   is  to   be  feared 
th.at   infanticide,  as   among  eastern  n.atious  at  the 
present   d.ay,  was   the   usual    mode  of  solving  the 
difficulty  which  foundling  lu)Spitals  .are  intended  to 
meet.     "Desertion,  however,  and   exposure   as   less 
atrocious,  were  still  more  frequent  crimes  ;  and  to 
meet  these,  the  reception  and  education  of  found- 
lings were  enjoined   on   private  persons,  to  whom 
they  were  assigned  in  property.     \Vhen  this  means 
of  sujiport  failed,  they  were  protected  by  the  state 
The   Egyptians   and   Thebans   are  praised   by  the 
classical   historians   for   discour.aging  the  exposure 
of  infants.     The  practice  of  exposing  infants  ]<rob- 
ably  prevailed  even  amongst  the  Germanic  nations 
previous  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity ;   and 
though  T.acitus  says  that  infanticide  was  forbidden, 
in  Iceland,  in  particular,  it  is  s.aid  to  have  reached 
a    fearful    height.      From    the    period    .at    which 
Christianity  became  the  state  religion  of  the  Fioni.an 
empire,  .a  sensible  change  in  the  spirit  of  legisl.ation 
on  the  subjects  both  of   infanticide  and  exposure 
is  app.arent ;  and  though  the  latter  is  spoken  of  by 
Gibbon    as   one   of   the   most    stubborn    remnants 
of    heathendom,   it   gradually   gave   w.ay,   and   the 
Christian  church,  ,at  a  very  early  period,  lent  its 
encouragement   to   the  establishment   of  foundlin" 
hospitals.      So   early   as   the   Uth   c,  a   species   of 
foimdling    hospital    is    s.aid    to    have    existed    at 
Treves.  "  The  bishop  permitted  the  chUdren  to  be 
deposited  in  a  m.arble  basin  wliich  stood  before  the 
cathedi-al,  and   gave  them  in   charge  to   members 
of    tlie   church.     But   the   first   wetl-.authcuticated 
one  is  that  of  Milan,  established  in  787,  prob.ably 
in  obedience  to  the  70th  .article  of  the  Council  of 
Nice,  which  enjoined  that  a  house  should  be  estab- 
lished in  each  town  for  the  reception  of  chiUlrcn 
abandoned  by  their  p.arents.      It  is  prob.able,  how- 
ever, that  foundling  hospitals  existed  pretty  exten- 
sively .at  an  earUer  period,  .as  mention  is  made  of 
them    in   the  capitularies   of  the  Prankish    kin'js. 
In    1070.  a   foundling   hospital   w.as    established  in 
Montpellicr;  in  liiOO,  in  Eimbeck;  in  l'21i!,  in  l!ome  ; 
in  Florence,  in  1317 ;  in  Nurnberg,  in  1331 ;  in  Paris, 
in  1362  ;  in  Vienna,  in  1380.     In  Fr.ance,  the  utility 
of   these    establishments,   which   were  the   special 
labour  of  Vincent  de  P.aul  (q.  v.),  was  early  called 
in  question;    and  letters-patent  of  Charles  VII.,  in 
1445,  affirmed  th.at  '  many  ]iersons  would  make  less 
difiicidty   in  abandoning   themselves   to   sin  when 
they  s.aw  that  they  were  not  to  h.ave  the  charge  of 
the  upbringing  of  their  infants.'     In  Germ.any,  the 
system  of  foundling  hospitals  was  soon  abandoned, 
the  duty  of  rearing  the  childi-en  being,  .as  in  England, 
imposed  by  Law,  iirst  on  the  parents,  then  on  more 
distant  relatives,  whom   failing,  on  the  p.arish,  and 
Last  of  .all,  on  the   st.ate.     The  reproach  made   by 
Roman  CathoUe  countries  against  this  more  n.atural 
arrangement — that  it  tends  to  promote  infanticide 
— is  said  to  have  been  in  no  degree  est.ablished  by 
st.atistical  investigations.   The  revolutionary  govern- 
ment of  France   not  only  adopted   the   system   of 
foiuidling  hospit.als,  as  it  had  been  handed  down  to 
it,  but  in   1790   declared  all  children  foimd  to  be 
children  of  the  st.ate  (aifmits  de  kipatrie).     N.ay,  as 
a  still  further  premium  on  immorality,  it  declared 


FOUNDLIIs-G  HOSPITALS— rOUXTAIX. 


that  every  L'ii'l  who  should  declare  her  pregnancy 
shoulil  receive  a  premiiini  of  l'2fl  francs!  The 
imperial  government,  in  1811,  abolished  this  insane 
enactment,  continuing,  however,  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  foundling  hospitals  had  become  govern- 
ment establislmients,  and  the  children,  chihlren  of 
the  state.  The  system  is  still  adhered  to  in  France, 
where  foundling  hosjiitals  exist  in  most  of  the  large 
towns  to  the  number  of  about  141  ;  in  Spain, 
where  the  number  is  estimated  at  70 ;  and  gener- 
ally in  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  ;  and 
figures  are  brought  for%vard  to  prove  that  it  has 
not  exhibited  what  would  seem  to  be  its  obvious 
tendency.  The  numl>er  of  children  deposited  in 
the  revolving  cradle  at  the  Hospital  in  Paris,  in 
place  of  increasing,  is  said  by  the  advocates  of 
the  system  to  have  chminished  in  projjortiou  to  the 
population  ;  but  the  statement  is  utterly  denied 
by  German  and  Protestant  WTiters.  The  expense 
of  rearing  a  child  to  the  age  of  twelve  in  the 
Hospital  at  Paris  is  0.52  francs  42  centimes,  or  a 
tritle  less  than  i'40.  The  moment  th.at  the  child  is 
received  it  is  w'eighed,  and  if  its  weight  be  less  than 
six  jiounds,  it  is  considered  that  its  chance  to  live  is 
very  small.  It  is  then  inscriljed  in  a  register,  and  a 
formal  statement  is  tlrawn  up  of  any  name  which 
may  have  been  given  along  with  it,  or  of  any  par- 
ticiUar  mark  which  it  beai"S  either  on  its  person  or 
otherwise ;  of  the  hour  at  which  it  was  deposited, 
its  sex,  and  its  dress.  It  is  then  inspected  by  a 
medical  man,  and  handed  over  to  the  nurses.  x\t 
Paris,  each  child  is  committed  to  a  special  nurse, 
m.any  of  whom  are  retained  on  the  premises,  and 
paiil  40  centimes  a  day.  Other  nurses  are  brought  in 
from  the  country  in  carriages  kept  by  the  Hospital, 
which  return  convej-iug  the  children  along  with 
their  new  mothers.  The  children  thus  bo.avded  out 
are  inspected  twice  a  year  by  local  medical  meu 
appointed  for  the  purpose  ;  but  the  surveLUance  is 
too  often  negligent,  and  conscc|uentIy  the  treatment 
of  the  children  by  no  means  such  as  to  conduce  to 
their  health.  The  parents,  and  indeed  the  relations 
of  the  children,  .are  permitted  to  reclaim  them  at 
any  period,  or  they  may  be  legally  adopted  by  any 
French  citizen  who  is  in  a  condition  to  maintain 
them.  Notwithstanding  the  precautions  of  which 
French  ^vriters  boast,  the  mortality  amongst  these 
'  infants  of  the  state '  is  very  appalling.  Their 
average  life,  it  is  said,  does  not  exceed  four  years  ; 
52  per  cent,  djing  during  the  first  year,  and  78  per 
cent,  during  the  first  twelve  years.  Only  22  out 
of  100  foundlings  thus  reach  the  age  of  twelve, 
whereas  in  the  general  population  !>0  out  of  100 
live  to  twenty-oue.  As  might  naturally  be  sup- 
jKised,  those  who  do  survive,  and  are  ushered  into 
the  worlil  without  friends  <ir  means,  constitute  a 
large  proportion  of  the  thieves  and  prostitutes  of 
the  country.  Of  the  male  convicts  and  prisoners 
of  France,  1.3  per  cent,  are  foundlings,  and  female 
foundlings  form  one-lifth  of  the  inmates  of  the 
public  houses  of  prostitution.  The  question  of 
the  propriety  of  encouraging  secrecy  by  the  use  of 
the  turning-box,  or  of  causing  the  parents  openly 
to  deposit  the  children  in  the  hands  of  an  officer, 
has  been,  and  is  still  discussed  with  much  keenness 
in  France.  The  argument  in  favour  of  the  turning- 
box  is  that  by  which  the  whole  institution  is 
defended,  viz.,  th.at  it  tends  to  discourage  infanticide, 
and  statistics  are  said  to  be  rather  in  favour  of  it 
in  this  point  of  view.  But  there  are  many  other 
obvious  considerations  of  morality  and  jiublic  policy 
to  be  taken  into  account,  which  would  serve  to 
counterbalance  this  advantage,  even  sui)posing  it 
to  be  real.  Many  Protestant  states  have  estab- 
lished foundling  hospitals ;   and  those  of  Moscow 


and  St  Petersburg  are  among  the  largest  iu  tho 
world. 

The  Foundling  Hospital  in  London  was  estab- 
lished by  Captain  Thomas  Coram,  a  benevolent  sailor, 
in  1739,  as  '  an  hosj>ital  for  exposed  and  deserted 
children.'  The  ground  in  Guildford  Street  was 
jturchased  from  the  Earl  of  Salisbury  for  £7000,  and 
the  architect  of  the  hospit.al  was  Theodore  Jacob- 
son.  The  system  of  foimdling  hospitals  never  having 
been  approved  in  England,  the  London  hospital  was 
changed  in  1760  to  what  it  now  is — Wz.,  an  hospital 
for  poor  illegitimate  chiklreu  whose  mothers  are 
known.  The  committee,  previous  to  admitting  the 
child,  must  be  satisfied  of  the  previous  good  character 
and  i>rcsent  necessity  of  the  mother.  The  rpialilica- 
tion  for  a  governor  is  a  donation  of  £50.  The  great 
Handel  was  one  of  the  chief  benefactors  of  the 
hospital.  He  endowed  it  with  a  magnificent  organ, 
and  frequently  ])crtornied  his  oratorio  of  the  Mfssiali 
in  the  chapel,  which  is  still  celebrated  for  its  music. 
Though  every  attention  is  paid  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  tho  children  at  the  Foundling — to  such 
an  extent,  inileed,  as  very  often  to  unfit  them  for  the 
hardships  which  many  of  them  must  encounter  in 
after-life — we  have  been  informed  by  the  physician 
that  they  do  not  attain  to  the  height  of  average 
English  men  and  women.  There  are  no  foundling 
hospitals  in  the  United  States ;  but  they  exist  in 
Mexico,  and  iu  almost  all  the  states  of  South 
America. 

FOUNTAIN,  a  basin  or  jet  for  the  supply  of 
fresh  running  water.  There  are  fountains  of  every 
form  and  variety,  from  the  simple  spring  with  its 
natural  basin,  to  the  most  elaborate  and  ornamental 
structure  for  the  display  or  supply  of  water.  In  all 
ages,  fountains  have  been  considered  as  public 
monuments  of  the  greatest  importance;  and  where 
the  source  for  their  supply  has  not  been  provided  by 
nature  on  the  spot,  immense  labour  and  expenditure 
have  often  been  incurred  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiency.  The  splendid  Aqueducts  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Romans  are  instances  of  the  important  light  in 
which  they  regarded  the  fomitains  of  their  cities. 
Every  Roman  town  had  at  least  one  aqueduct,  the 
water  from  which  was  distributed  to  as  many  foim- 
tains  as  the  population  required. 

Utility  is  the  first  object  of  a  fountain,  and 
although  they  are  frequently  made  subjects  of  great 
display  and  magnificence,  the  finest  foimtaius  are 
those  where  the  water  is  the  greatest  ornament. 
In  the  middle  ages,  fountains  of  gi'eat  beauty  .and 
variety  of  form  were  built,  but  the  useful  n.ature  of 
the  stnicture  was  never  lost  sight  of.  Sometimes 
a  spring  was  arched  over  for  protection,  with  a 
beautifid  vault,  .and  a  statue  of  the  patron  saint 
phaced  in  a  niche,  with  a  b.osiu  lielow  to  contain  the 
water.  In  towns  where  a  number  of  persons  might 
require  to  di'aw  at  one  time,  a  Large  basin  was 
erected,  ^vith  a  pillar  in  the  centre,  from  which 
pipes  r,adi.atcd  .all  round — each  with  its  sep.arate  jet 
to  sujiply  the  running  water — while  the  basin  wivs 
used  for  w.ashing  the  pitchers.  Many  examples  of 
this  kind  of  fountain  remain.  On  the  following  page 
is  represented  a  fountain  at  Viterbo,  in  the  Papal 
States,  where  there  are  many  of  the  s.ame  descrip- 
tion. The  pillar  is  sometimes  simnounted  by  a 
stiatue,  or  has  one  or  more  sm.aller  b.asins,  with 
oniament.al  streams  and  jets  of  w.atcr  falling  from 
tier  to  tier.  A  beautiful  fovmtain  of  this  nature 
existed  in  the  royal  ]i.alace  .at  Linlithgow,  and  a 
copy  of  it  has  recently  been  erected  in  front  of 
Holyrood  Palace. 

In  modern  times,  the  French  have  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  magnificent  fountains,  those 
of  Paris  and  N'ersaiUes  being  .almost  unrivalled.     In 

4^3 


FOUNTAIN— FOURIER. 


Ensland,  the  fountains  at  Chatswortli  (q.v.)  and 
thMe  at  the  Crystal  I'alace  are  among  the  finest, 
and  are  remarkable  for  the  great  height  to  which 


fontana  Grandc,Vitcibo. 

the  water  is  thrown.  Althoiigh  Rome  has  lost  four- 
fifths  of  the  aqueducts  •which  so  lavishly  supplied 
her  with  fresh  water  in  the  times  of  the  Empire, 
she  is  still  imsurpasscd  for  the  mmiber,  beauty,  and 
utUity  of  the  public  fountains  which  adorn  her 
streets  and  places. 

Modern  fountains  are,  for  the  most  part,  entirely 
ornamental.  This  arises  from  the  modern  mode  of 
distributing  water  in  pipes  through  the  houses, 
malcing  the  street-foimtains  to  a  great  extent 
useless.  It  is  foimd,  however,  that  our  to\\ni  popu- 
lations— both  man  and  beast — require  some  public 
supphes  of  water,  aud  these  are  now  largely  supplied 
by  the  numeroius  drinking-fountains  which  are  being 
constructed  in  all  our  principal  towns. 

FOUNTAIN.    Water  is  represented  heraldicaUy 
by  a  round  ball,  haring  wavy  stripes  of  blue  aud 
.  white,  barways,  called  a  fountain. 

FOUQU:^,  Friedrich  HELsnicn  Ivael,  Baron  de 
t\  MoTTE,  a  modern  German  author,  was  gi-andson 
of  the  Prussian  general  of  this  name,  distinguished 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Born  at  Brandenburg, 
12th  February  1777,  F.  served  as  Prussian  officer 
in  the  campaigns  of  1792  and  1S1.3.  The  interval 
between  these  campaigns  was  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits  in  the  country,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
6))ent  alternately  in  Paris  and  on  his  estate  at 
Nennhausen,  and  subsequently  at  HaUe.  He  died 
in  Berlin,  23d  January  184.3.  F.  apjiearcd  iirst 
under  the  name  Pellegrin,  as  translator  of  Cervantes's 
Nmnancia,  and  author  of  some  effusions  in  the  spirit 
of  Spanish  poetry.  But  the  Norse  legends  and  old 
German  poetry  attracted  him  most  strongly ;  this 
was  evinced  in  niunerous  romances,  in  prose  and 
verse,  which  picture  the  old  life  of  medieval  Eurojie. 
Among  the  best  knowTi  of  these  are  Si(}urd^  tier 
SchUuvinntudler  (1809) — the  Iirst  work  to  which  F. 
attached  his  real  name — Dtr  Zauherring,  Die  Fahrttm 
T/dodolfs,  and  Undine,  Successful  in  exhibiting 
many  of  the  beauties  of  the  romantic  school,  he  is 
yet  chargeable  \vith  all  its  extravagances.  Straining 
too  often  after  fantastically  unnatural  conceits,  he 
seems  fascinated  by  the  antique  life  which  ho  ]>ic- 
tures,  rather  merely  from  its  quaint  contrast  with 
modem  manners,  than  as  a  form  into  which  the  life 
of  actually  li\-iiig  meu  had  shaped  itself  in  former 


times.  He  has  himself  edited  a  selection  of  his 
works  (,Ause}-wtVdte  llVrfe,  12  Bde.,  Halle,  1841).— 
F.'s  first  wife,  ICakoline  von  Bkiest,  is  also  knowu 
in  Germany  as  a  productive  authoress. 

FOUQUIEK-TINVILLE,  Antoi.ne  Quentix, 
the  notorious  pubUc  accuser  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, was  born  in  the  village  of  Herouelles,  in  the 
deiiartmeut  of  Aisnc,  in  1747.  His  early  career  was 
immoral,  but  insignilieaut.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution,  he  figured  as  one  of  the  iiercest  demo- 
crats. By  Robespierre,  he  was  a]q)ointed,  first,  a 
member,  then  director  and  ]>ublic  accuser,  of  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal.  Without  education,  con- 
science, or  sense  of  justice,  he  executed  with  brutal 
apathy  the  bloody  orders  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety.  In  reference  to  this  feature  of  his 
character,  his  countrymen  say  that '  he  had  no  soul 
— not  even  that  of  a  tiger,  which  at  least  pretends 
to  be  pleased  with  what  it  devours.'  Incapable  of 
friendship,  or  of  anything  even  remotely  allied 
to  generosity,  he  systematically  abandoned  his 
successive  coadjutors  in  their  hour  of  need,  and 
sent  to  the  scaffold,  without  the  slightest  com- 
punction, BaUly  and  Verguiaud,  Danton  and  Hebert, 
iiobespierre  and  St  Just.  He  himself  died  by  the 
guillotine,  in  a  cowardly  manner,  7th  May  1795. 

FOUR  EVANGELISTS,  part  of  a  larger  group 
of  islands  Icnown  as  the  7'welve  Apostlrs,  He  off  the 
west  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  They  are 
about  lat.  52°  34'  S.,  and  long.  75°  5'  W.  The  eight 
other  islands,  ■w'ith  which  they  are  classed  as  above, 
nm  about  15  miles  further  out  into  the  Pacilic. 

FOUR  LAKES,  a  chain  of  connected  sheets  of 
water  in  Wisconsin,  United  States,  are  fed  chiefly 
by  springs,  and  form,  thi'ough  their  outlet,  the  Cat- 
fish, a  north-eastern  soiu'ce  of  the  Mississippi. 
They  are  navigable  for  steam-boats,  and  drain  a 
beautiful  country.  Madison,  the  capital  of  the 
state,  stands  on  the  strip  of  land  which  separ.ates 
the  uppermost  of  the  series  from  the  next  in  order. 

FOURCRO'YA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Amaryllidcce,  nearly  allied  to  Agave  (cj.  v.), 
but  with  stamens  shorter  than  the  corolla.  The 
species  are  all  tropical.  The  leaves  of  some — 
perhaps  of  all — of  them  yield  a  fibre  similar  to 
the  Pita  Flax  obtained  from  those  of  species  of 
Agave. 

FOURIER,  Jean  Baptiste  JosErn,  Baron,  a 
distinguished  French  mathematician,  was  bom  of  a 
respectable  family  at  Auxerre,  21st  March  1768. 
He  became  a  pupil,  aud  at  the  ago  of  18,  a  professor, 
in  the  military  school  of  liis  native  jilacc.  He  was 
aftcnvards  removed  to  the  normal  school  in  Paris, 
and  then  to  the  Polytechnic,  and  accompanied  Gene- 
ral Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  Besides  performing  jioUticai 
services  on  this  occasion,  he  was  secret.iry  to  the 
Jn.iiilut  d'Egijple,  and  an  active  contributor  to  the 
Description  de  I'Egypte,  the  masterly  historical 
introduction  to  which  is  from  his  jien.  On  retm-n- 
ing  to  France,  he  was  made  prefet  of  the  department 
of  Is6re  in  1802,  an  office  which  he  held  till  1815, 
and  was  created  baron  in  1808.  As  jirCfet,  he 
succeeded  in  draining  the  marshes  in  Bourgoin,  near 
Ijyou,  which  had  for  centuries  baffled  all  attemjits. 
On  tlie  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  F.  issued  a 
royalist  proclamation ;  notwitlistamliug  which  he  was 
appointed  by  Napoleon  prefet  of  the  department  of 
the  Rhone,  but  was  shortly  after  removed.  He  now 
took  up  liis  abode  in  Paris,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  science.  The  Academy  of  Sciences, 
wliich  in  1807  had  crowned  his  essay  on  the  propa- 
gation of  heat  through  solid  bodies,  chose  him  a 
member  in  1815,  and  afterwards  secretary  for  life, 
conjointly  with  Cuvier.     He  died  IGth  May  18.30. 

His  most  famous  work  is  the  'I'heorie  Anahjti(jue 


rOUEIER— FOUEIErjSM. 


de  la  Chaleiir  (Par.  1822),  in  which  he  applies  new 
methods  of  mathematical  investigation.  An  allied 
subject  is  discussed  in  his  ilemoire  sur  les  Tempera- 
tures du  Globe  Terrestre  et  des  Espaces  Planeiaires 
(Par.  1827).  Besides  heat,  he  occupied  himself 
with  the  theory  of  equations,  which  received  from 
him  important  improvements.  His  work,  Analyse 
des  Equations  Detemiinees,  distingxiished  both  for 
its  substance  and  manner  of  exposition,  was  left 
uu  finished,  and  was  pubLshed  after  his  death  by 
Navier  (Par.  1831). 

FOUllIER,  Francois  Makie  Ciiap.les,  a  French 
Socialist,  was  born  at  Besanson,  April  7,  1772.  His 
father,  a  merchant,  h.ad  him  educated  in  an 
academy  at  Besanson  for  his  own  profession.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  perseverance  and 
success  in  study,  and  excelled  in  geography,  mathe- 
matics, music,  and  the  natural  sciences.  Ho  left 
his  studies  with  regret  to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  a 
merchant's  clerk,  which  he  performed  vnth  zeal  and 
integrity  at  Lyon,  Rouen,  Marseille,  and  Bordeaux. 
He  also  traveUed  in  the  interest  of  his  employers, 
not  only  in  France,  but  in  HoUaud  and  Germany. 
In  these  joiirueys  and  residences,  nothing  escaped 
his  obsen-ation ;  he  noted  climate,  culture,  popu- 
lation, public  and  private  edifices,  and  remembered 
even  the  topography  of  \Tllages,  and  the  dimensions 
of  buildings,  with  astonishing  accuracy.  His  father 
died  in  1781,  leaving  him  about  £5000,  which  he 
became  possessed  of  m  1793,  and  invested  in  trade 
at  Lyon.  This  was  lost  in  the  Revolution  ;  and  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  compelled  to  serve  two 
years  as  a  cavali-y  soldier.  Discharged  on  account 
of  illness,  he  obtained  employment  in  a  mercantile 
house  at  Marseille,  where  he  was  employed  to 
superintend  the  destruction  of  an  immense  quantity 
of  rice,  held  for  higher  prices,  in  the  midst  of  a 
scarcity  of  food,  until  it  had  become  vmiit  for  con- 
sumption. This  circumstance  called  his  attention 
to  the  frauds  and  duplicities  of  commerce,  and  he 
devoted  his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  social  prob- 
lems, Tintil  he  developed  the  system  of  Socialism 
to  which  his  name  is  commoidy  given.  This 
system  is  contained  in  several  works,  written  and 
published  under  discouraging  circumstances.  In 
1808,  he  published  his  Theorie  des  Quatre  Movve- 
menls,  et  des  DeslinCes  Generates  (Theory  of  the 
Four  Movements,  and  of  the  General  Destinies  of 
the  Human  Race).  In  1822,  he  produced  his  Traite 
d^ Association  Domestvpie  Agrieole  (Treatise  on 
Domestic  and  Agricultural  Association) ;  in  1829, 
Le  Nouveau  Monde  Industricl  et  Soci^taire  (The 
New  Industrial  and  Social  World) ;  in  1831,  Pieges 
el  Charlatani-sme  des  Deux  Sectes  Saint-Simon  et 
Otcen,  promeltant  VAssocialion  et  Progris  (Snares 
and  Quackeries  of  the  Two  Sects  of  St  Simonians 
and  Owenites,  promising  Association  and  Pro- 
gress) ;  in  1835,  La  Fau^se  Industrie,  Morcelie, 
liepugnante,  Mensongere,  el  VAntidote,  VInduslrie 
Naturelle,  Comhinie,  AUrayanle,  Veridigue,  donnant 
Quadruple  Produil  (False  Industry,  Fragmentarj', 
Repulsive,  and  Lying,  and  the  Antidote,  a  Natural, 
Combined,  Attractive,  and  Truthful  Industry,  giving 
Qu.adruple  Products).  These  works,  -OTitten  in  the 
midst  of  commercial  pursuits,  and  published  at  long 
intervals,  by  means  of  his  small  sa\Tngs,  found  for 
manj'  years  few  readers,  and  no  tlisciples.  Towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  a  small  group  of  intellectual 
men  accepted  his  views,  and  gathered  round  him, 
to  learn  the  details  of  his  social  system  from  his 
ovra  lips.  He  was  unwearied  in  his  efforts  to 
interest  men  of  power  or  capital,  who  could  give 
his  theories  the  test  of  practical  realisation,  and  for 
many  of  the  last  years  of  his  life  waited  patiently  at 
a  certain  hour  every  day,  expecting  to  be  visited  by 
Buch  a  patron.     His  less  patient  disciples  probably 


hastened  his  death  by  immature  and  partial  efforts 
at  reaUsation.     He  died  in  Paris,  October  8,  1837- 

FOURIERISM,  the  Social  System  invented  by 
Charles  Fourier,  is  contained  in  his  jmblished 
works,  in  a  large  collection  of  unpublished  M.SS., 
and  iu  the  ■writings  of  Considerant,  Lechevalher, 
Bri.sbane,  and  others  of  his  disciples.  It  differs 
materially  from  the  systems  of  Comnninism  strictly 
so  called,  and  all  other  social  theories,  .and  jiro- 
fesses  to  be  based  upon  natural  laws,  and  capable 
of  being  carried  out  on  mathematical  principles, 
as  fixed  and  certain  as  those  of  geometry,  music, 
or  colours.  Tlie  earth  and  human  society,  Fourier 
taught,  are  in  their  crude  and  infantile  stage.  The 
period  of  the  race  will  be  80,000  years,  the  latter 
portion  of  which  wUl  be  its  declining  phase,  as  the 
present  is  its  ascending.  The  middle  term  will  be 
a  long  period  of  maturity,  prosperity,  and  hai)pi- 
ness.  What  we  call  civilisation,  Fourier  considers 
a  false  and  imperfect  condition,  with  poverty,  crime, 
ignorance,  idleness,  repugnant  toU,  disease,  wasting 
wars,  genenal  antagonism,  oppression,  and  misery. 
He  believed  that  Association  would  produce  general 
riches,  honesty,  attractive  and  varied  industry, 
health,  peace,  and  universal  happiness.  Consider- 
ing attractions  and  repidsions  the  governing  forces 
of  all  nature,  and  that  God  has  distributed  them 
for  the  happiness  of  all  His  creatures,  he  held  that 
'attractions  are  proportional  to  destinies,'  or  that 
the  desires  or  passions  of  men,  their  aptitudes  and 
inclinations,  if  they  could  have  free  scope,  would 
inf.aUibly  produce  the  highest  condition  and  greatest 
hajipiness  of  which  they  are  capable.  He  believed 
in  a  universal  harmony,  flowing  from  and  centering 
in  God,  the  author  of  all  harmonies,  and  that 
there  is  therefore  a  principle  of  '  universal  analogy.' 
Seeing  that  all  things,  from  suns  and  planets  to 
atoms,  range  themselves  in  groups  and  series,  accord- 
ing to  certain  fixed  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion, 
he  laboured  to  discover  the  kind  of  human  society 
that  must  eventually  form  itself  in  obedience  to 
those  laws.  This  is  the  Association  or  Phalansterj', 
which  is  to  consist  of  400  families  or  1800  per- 
sons, which  number  he  found  included  the  whole 
circle  of  human  capacities.  These  should  live  in 
one  immense  edifice,  in  the  centre  of  a  large  and 
highly  cultivated  domain,  and  furnished  with  work- 
sho[)S,  studios,  and  aU  the  appliances  of  industry 
and  art,  as  well  as  all  the  sources  of  amusement 
and  pleasure.  ^Vhen  the  earth  is  covered  with 
palaces  of  attractive  industry,  the  associations  will 
also  unite  in  groups  and  series,  under  a  unitary 
government.  There  wUl  be  but  one  language  and 
one  government,  and  the  only  armies  will  lie  the 
great  industrial  armies,  which  will  drain  swamps, 
irrig.ate  deserts,  plant  forests,  and  effect  the 
amelioration  of  climates.  The  system  of  Fourier 
does  not  propose  to  destroy,  but  rather  to  conserve 
property,  position,  and  hereditary  rights,  nor  does  it 
war  directly  with  morals  or  religion.  The  property 
of  the  Association  is  to  be  held  in  shares,  and  the 
whole  product  of  the  industrial  and  artistic  grouia 
is  to  be  divided  into  twelve  parts,  of  which  five 
parts  are  due  to  labour,  four  to  capital,  and  three 
to  talent.  The  apartments  are  to  be  of  various 
prices,  and  the  styles  of  living  to_vary  in  luxury 
and  cost ;  but  the  poorest  jierson  in  the  Association 
is  not  only  to  be  secure  of  comfort,  but  his  mini- 
mum of  enjoyments  will  be  greater  than  the  present 
social  arrangements  can  give  to  princes  and  million, 
aires ;  while  these  will  have  opened  to  them 
pleasures  of  which  they  can  now  scarcely  have  a 
conception.  The  economics  of  the  large  scale  in 
the  Phalanstery  reduce  by  two-thirds  the  expenses 
of  li^g,  while  an  attractive  and  scientific  industry 
would  quadruple  the  products  of  civilisation. 

Hi 


FOrRXI  ISLANT)S-FOWL. 


The  |«issiou3  of  tl>e  human  soul  to  which  the 
Bystoni  of  Fourier  would  j;ivc  full  scope,  he  ilescribeJ 
ns  the  live  sensitive— sij;ht,  hoarin;;,  taste,  smell, 
touch ;  four  affective— friendslii|i,  love,  ambition, 
anil  iiaternity  ;  three  distributive — the  emulative, 
■ilteruating,  and  composite.  In  these  he  found  the 
springs  of  industry  and  true  society.  EmiUatiou, 
the  desire  of  success,  honours,  rew.ards,  is  the 
great  stiuuJaut  to  exertion  ;  alternation  of  employ- 
ments makes  work  a  recreation ;  and  the  com- 
posite passion  requires  combinations  of  charm  and 
enjojTueut  which  only  Association  can  give.  Many 
attempts  have  beeu  made — a  few  in  France,  and 
more  in  America — to  carry  the  ideas  of  Fourier  into 
practical  realisation  ;  but  they  have  all  been  on  a 
small  scale,  and  with  inadequate  means,  and  have 
resulted  in  failure.  Whatever  we  may  think  of  the 
system,  in  its  princiiiles  or  its  theoretical  develop- 
ment, nothinj;  can  be  founded  upon  the  failure  of 
such  experiments.  It  remains  to  be  proved  whether 
human  n.atme,  in  its  present  state,  is  capable  of 
cari-j-ing  out  successfully  a  social  system  so  widely 
varying  from  all  existing  social  conditions.  The 
moral  olijections  to  Fom-ierisra  are,  that  it  ajipears 
to  make  luxury,  ambition,  and  sensual  delights  the 
end  of  existence — the  incentives  and  rewards  to  all 
exertions ;  and  that  the  passions  of  men,  when  left 
in  the  perfect  freedom  which  this  system  requires, 
would  lead  to  ruinous  demoralisations.  The  answer 
is,  that  '  attractions  are  jiroportioual  to  destinies,' 
and  that  these  excesses  belong  to  the  present  state, 
and  are  incident  to  the  poverty  and  repressions  of 
civilisation,  but  could  not  exist  in  a  true  society ; 
which  raises  the  question — WTiat  is  a  true  society  ? 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  practicability  of 
the  sj'stem,  its  study  in  the  works  of  Fouiier  is  fidl 
of  suggestions  to  the  student  in  sociology. 

FOUKXI  ISLANDS  (auc.  Cordssia:  or  Cdrseae), 
a  group  of  about  20  small  islands  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  between  Nicaria  and  .S.-mios,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  largest  of 
these  islets  is  abovit  five  miles  in  circuit. 

FOWEY,  or  FOY,  a  borough  town  on  the  south 
coast  of  Cornwall,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Fowey,  25  miles  south-south-west  of  Launceston. 
It  is  sheltered  by  hills,  and  Ues  amid  jiicturesque 
scenery,  rude  sea-clifls,  and  promontories.  The 
harboiu-  admits  large  vessels  at  all  states  of  the 
tide,  and  its  entrance  is  guarded  by  three  forts. 
The  chief  business  is  catching  and  ciu-ing  pil- 
chards, which,  with  '  china-stone'  and  iron-ore,  form 
the  main  exports.  F.  sent  47  ships  and  770  men  to 
the  siege  of  Calais  by  Edward  III.  in  1347.  It 
was  burned  by  the  French  in  1457,  and  taken  bv 
Fairfax  in  IC-IU.     Fop.  (1801)  1450. 

FOWL  (Ger.  voijcl ;  allied  to  the  Lat.  root  /uy-, 
to  tlee,  and  perhaps  to  tt'cij-),  a  word  originally 
ajTionyinous  with  bird,  and  still  employed  in  that 
signification,  but  also  in  a  much  more  restricted 
sense,  as  the  designation  of  the  genus  of  Birds 
{Gallus)  to  which  the  common  Domestic  Fowl  (0. 
domesticas)  belongs.  This  genus  gives  its  name  to  the 
important  order  of  Gallinaceous  Birds,  also  called, 
from  their  weU-known  habit  of  scraping  the  earth 
in  search  of  food,  Jiasores  (Lat.  Scrapers)  ;  and  is 
included  in  the  family  Phasianidcc,  with  pheasants, 
tragopans,  &c.  The  general  form,  and  the  charac- 
ters of  the  bill,  feet,  &c.,  agree  with  those  of  the 
pheasants  ;  but  the  crown  of  the  head  is  generally 
naked,  and  furnished  with  a  fleshy  comb,  the  b;uie  of 
the  lower  mandibles  also  bearing  fieshy  lobes  or 
wattles,  characters  which  are  most  conspicuous  in 
the  m.ales ;  and  the  tail  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  jtheasants,  and,  indeed,  very  singiUarly  formed, 
being  composed  of  fourteen  feathers  in  two  nearly 
4JC 


vertical  planes,  or  as  if  a  horizontal  taU  were  folded 
together,  so  as  to  m.ake  a  sharp  angle  at  to]i,  the 
two  middle  feathers  being  the  uppermost,  and  m  the 
males  elongated  beyond  the  rest,  and  gracefully 
arched.  The  tail-coverts  of  the  male  arc  also  very 
ample,  and  the  feathers  of  the  back  of  the  head  and 
of  the  neck  are  either  elongated  and  loosely  webbed, 
forming  the  hackles,  so  much  valued  by  anglers  for 
dressing  artificial  files,  or  are  otherwise  modified  to 
serve  the  purjwse  of  adornment ;  characters  which 
are  also  sometimes  exhibited  in  a  very  inferior 
degree  in  the  female  sex.  The  legs  of  the  male  are 
armed  with  spurs,  as  in  the  pheasants,  of  which 
much  use  is  made  in  the  combats  of  these  birds 
among  themselves,  all  of  them  being  very  pugna- 
cious. They  are  all  polyg.amous,  and  unable  to 
endure  the  presence  of  a  rival.  They  are  all  natives 
of  the  East  Indies  and  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 
From  what  country,  and  at  \\'hat  period  the  Domestic 
Fowl  was  originally  introduced  into  Europe,  is 
uncertain.  The  remains  of  Egyjjtian  antiquity 
carry  us  back  to  a  period  when  it  was  apparently 
unknown  in  Egj'pt,  and  there  is  no  distinct  allusion 
to  it  in  the  Old  Testament ;  but  it  seems  to  have 
been  common  in  the  south  of  Eiu'0])e  from  the 
earliest  ages  of  Eurojiean  civiUsation.  The  cock  was 
sacred  to  Apollo,  to  Mercury,  to  Mars,  and  to 
.■Esculapius.  It  was  figiu-ed  on  Grecian  and  Iloraau 
coins  and  gems ;  it  was  highly  valued  for  its  courage 
and  pugnacity,  and  the  sport  of  cock-fighting  was  a 
favourite  one  both  with  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans, 
as  it  is  amongst  the  Chinese,  the  Malaj-s,  and  many 
other  nations  at  the  present  day,  and  in  former 
times  was  amongst  all  classes  of  society  even  in 
Britain.  See  CocK-FiGnriNG.  The  Domestic  Fowl 
appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Britons 
before  the  Roman  invasion ;  and  when  the  South 
Sea  Islands  were  first  visited  by  Europeans,  it  was 
found  there  in  the  same  domesticated  state,  and 
there  also  cock-fighting  was  foiind  to  be  a  fasliiou- 
able  amusement  of  the  savage  natives.  The  native 
couuti-y  of  the  Domestic  Fowl  is  not  cei-tainly  known, 
nor  is  it  certain  what  the  species  is  in  its  original 
state.  The  ancient  Greeks  sometimes  called  it  the 
Persian  Bird,  and  hence  it  has  been  supposed  to  be 
a  native  of  Persia ;  but  there  is  nothing  else  to  sup- 
jiort  this  opinion,  and  it  seems  likely  enough  th.at 
this  apjiellation  may  at  most  only  indicate  its  intro- 
duction into  Greece  from  Persia.  The  Jungle  Fowl 
of  India,  the  first  species  of  Galhis  known  in  its 
wild  state  to  natuKihsts,  was  for  some  time  supposed 
to  lie  the  origin  of  the  Domestic  Fowl,  but  to  this 
opinion  there  are  strong  objections  in  the  very 
peculiar  ch.aracter  of  some  of  the  feathere  which 
distinguish  the  Jimgle  Fowl,  and  of  wliich  no  tr.ace 
ever  appears  in  the  Domestic  Fowl.  More  recently, 
the  Bankiva  Fowl  and  other  species  have  been 
discovered  in  Java  and  other  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  more  nearly  resembling  the  Domestic 
Fowl,  and  the  distribution  of  the  latter  through 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  favourable  to 
the  belief  that  it  derived  its  origin  from  that 
region  ;  Init  still  the  identification  of  the  species 
rem.ains  difficult,  and  some  naturalists  inchue  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Domestic  Fowl  may  be  derived 
from  intermixture  of  distinct  \\ild  races. 

The  BANKrv.v  Fowl  (6'.  Banhiva),  native  of  Java, 
is  extremely  similar  to  some  of  the  domestic 
varieties ;  indeed.  Sir  William  Jardine  says :  '  Many 
Bantams  so  nearly  resemble  this  bird,  that  there 
would  be  great  difficulty  in  making  a  distinction. 
Tlie  comb  is  large  and  lobed,  or  dentelated  ;  the 
colours  arc  brilliant,  steel-blue  and  chestnut,  black 
and  yellowish  brown,  the  hackles  abundant  and 
golden  orange ;  some  parts  of  the  phmi.age  exhibit- 
ing a  very  fine   play   of   colours.     A   very  similar 


FOWLER'S  SOLUTION— FOWLIXO. 


species,  or  a  variety  of  the  same,  but  rather  larger, 
is  found  in  some  j)arts  of  continental  India.'  Very 
similar  also  is  the  liRONZEU  Fowl  {U.  cpiwus),  found 
in  Sumatra,  a  bird  res]]k'n(lent  in  metallic  green, 
puriile,  and  lake  ;  but  of  which  the  comb  has  the 
ujjper  margin  unbroken  ;  tlie  wattles  arc  combined 
into  one  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  throat ; 
and  the  neck  feathei-s  do  not  assume  the  hackle 
character,  which  appeare  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  tail  alone.  These  peciUiarities  also  beloui:;  to 
the  FoKK-TAILF.D  Fowi,  ((/.  furcalus  or  Javankus), 
a  species  very  abimdant  in  the  jungles  of  Java,  and 
often  to  be  seen  on  their  outskirts,  nearly  two  feet 
in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity 
of  the  tail.  A  still  larger  species — if,  indeed,  these 
are  not  r.ather  varieties  than  si»ecie3 — is  the 
Gigantic  Fowl,  Jago  Fowl,  or  Kulm  Fowl  (O. 
tjlijanteufi)  of  Sumatra,  with  double  wattle  under 
the  throat,  alnmdant  hackles  on  the  Iiead,  neck,  and 
upper  jiart  of  the  back,  green  and  reddish  yellow 
the  principal  colours,  and  the  height  considerably 
more  than  two  feet. — The  .Jungle  Fowl  (0.  Son- 
nerulii),  abimdant  in  the  higher  wooded  districts  of 
India,  where  it  is  much  sought  after  by  European 
sjiortsmeu,  is  aliout  equal  in  size  to  an  ordinary 
l)omestic  Fowl,  but  is  more  .slender  .and  gracefid  in 
its  form  ;  the  comb  of  the  male  is  large,  and  its 
margin  broken ;  the  coloure  are  rich  aiul  beautiful ; 
but  a  remarkable  jjcculhai'ity  is  c."diibited  in  the 
h.ackle  feathers,  which  are  terminated  by  Hat  horny 
plates  of  a  golden  orange  colour,  into  which  the 
shaft  expands,  or  the  shaft  thickening  and  termi- 
nating abruptly  gives  rise  to  a  battledore-like  stem 
and  disc,  in  substance  like  the  tips  of  some  of  the 
feathers  of  the  wax-wing. 

Of  the  Domestic  Fowl  there  are  some  very  ciuious 
varieties,  of  which  some  naturalists  have  attempted 
to  constitute  distinct  species,  particularly  the  Negro 
Fowl  ((/.  moriu),  rarely  seen  in  British  poidtry- 
yards,  remarkable  for  the  black  colour  of  the  perios- 
tiuim  (the  outer  covering  of  the  bones),  and  the  dull 
purple  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and  skin  ;  the  Silky 
Fowl  ((?.  lanatus),  very  common  in  China  and 
Japan,  with  periosteum  and  skiu  of  the  same  dark 
colour  as  the  Negro  Fowl,  b\it  the  Hesh  remarkably 
white,  the  comb  and  wattles  pui-jile,  the  feathers 
with  webs  disimited  and  silky  ;  and  the  Fuiesland 
(l>robably  a  mistake  for  Frizzled)  Fowl  [G.  crlspus), 
which  has  all  the  feathers  standing  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  the  body. 

There  are  also  varieties  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 
remarkable  for  what  m.ay  bo  considered  monstro- 
sities— as  the  want  of  a  tail  and  of  some  of  the  last 
vertebrae,  the  presence  of  an  additional  spur  on  each 
leg  (Dorkings,  &c.),  superabundant  combs,  crests  or 
tufts  of  hackle  feathers  instead  of  combs,  tufts  of 
feathers  springing  from  the  lower  jaw  (the  Siberian 
Fowl),  &c.  ;  and  there  are  many  varieties  esteemed 
by  keepers  of  poultry,  of  which  the  most  important 
are — 1.  The  G.t.ME  Fowl,  with  erect  and  slender 
l)od}'  and  shewy  colours,  v.alued  .also  for  the  deUcacy 
of  the  tlesh  and  of  the  eggs,  although  the  eggs  are 
rather  small.  It  is  this  breed  which  is  used  for 
cock-  fighting ;  and  so  excessive  is  the  pugnacity 
which  char.acterises  it,  that  broods  scarcely  feathered 
are  occasion.ally  found  to  have  reduced  themselves 
to  utter  blindness  by  their  combats.  Some  poultry- 
keepers  think  it  good  to  h.ave  a  game-cock  in  their 
poultry-yard,  on  account  of  the  imjirovement  of  the 
quahty  of  the  fowls  sent  to  the  table ;  but  it  is 
almost  needless  to  say,  he  must,  like  the  jirototype 
of  Kobinson  Crusoe,  be  sole  monarch  of  all  he 
surveys.  2.  The  Dorkino  Fowl,  so  named  from 
Dorking,  in  Surrey,  where  it  has  long  been  bred 
in  great  numbers  for  the  London  market — a  breed 
characterised  by  an  adilitional   spur  on  each  leg; 


often  of  a  wliite  colour,  with  short  legs  ;  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  all  breeds,  both  for  excellence  of 
flesh  and  for  abundance  of  eggs.  3.  ITie  Polish 
Fowl,  lilack,  with  a  white  tuft,  a  breed  very  exten- 
sively reared  in  France,  Egyjrt,  &c.,  little  inclineil 
to  incubation,  but  valued  for  an  almost  uninter- 
ru])ted  laying  of  eggs.  4.  The  SpANlsn  Fowl, 
Very  similar  to  the  Polish,  but  larger,  and  laying 
larger  eggs,  on  account  of  which  it  is  now  much 
valued,  and  very  common  in  Britain  ;  black,  with 
white  cheeks  and  large  red  conili.  5.  The  Malay 
Fowl,  tall  and  handsome,  very  pugnacious,  but 
little  esteemed.  G.  The  H^oiei'kg,  of  very  beau- 
tiful plimi.age,  and  much  valued  for  the  quality 
both  of  flesh  and  eggs,  as  also  for  extreme  ])roduc- 
tiveness  of  eggs.  7.  The  Cochin  Chin.\  Fowl,  a 
large,  tail,  ungrtvceful  varietj%  with  small  tail  and 
wings,  for  ^^•llich  there  was  a  great  r.age  among 
poultry-fanciers  when  it  was  newly  iutroilueed  into 
Britain,  and  jiarticularly  about  the  year  1S52,  and 
which  is  valuable  chiefly  on  account  of  its  feeumlity, 
eggs  being  laid  even  during  winter,  and  the  hens 
incub.ating  frequentlj'.  8.  The  Bant.ym  Fowl 
(q.  v.),  a  diminutive  variety,  r.ather  curious  than 
useful — Of  most  of  these  there  are  many  sub- 
varieties  and  faiu'i/  breeds  —  gold-jiencilled,  silver- 
jicncillcd,  &c.  The  common  Dunghill  Fowl  is 
apparcntlj'  a  breed  produced  by  the  intermixture 
of  others,  and  perhaps  chiefly  a  less  graceful,  less 
spirited,  and  less  pugnacious  race  of  the  Game 
Fowl. 

Concerning  the  treatment  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 
in  the  poultry-yard,  the  diseases  to  which  it  is 
bable,  &c.,  see  Poultry.  The  .artificial  hatching 
of  eggs  is  noticed  in  the  article  Incubation.  Con- 
cerning the  eggs  of  the  Domestic  Fowl  as  an  article 
of  commerce,  &c.,  see  Egg. 

The  readiness  with  which  the  Domestic  Fowl  can 
be  induced  to  go  on  laying  eggs  far  beyond  the  num- 
ber proper  for  a  brood,  is  not  nearly  equ,alled  in  the 
ease  of  any  other  domesticated  bird,  and  greatly 
enhances  the  usefulness  of  this  species  to  mankind, 
whether  the  eggs  are  used  for  food,  or,  by  artificial 
hatcliing,  made  to  produce  chickens,  as  is  common 
in  Egypt  and  some  other  countries.  Few  hens 
incubate  oftener  than  once  a  year,  but  some  lay  in 
the  course  of  a  j'e.ar  even  more  than  200  eggs. 

FOWLER'S  SOLITTION.     See  Arsenic. 

FOAVLING— the  killing  or  t.aking  of  birds  for  the 
sake  of  their  flesh,  feathers,  &c. — is  very  variously 
ju-actised  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  some 
places,  it  is  one  of  the  principal  employments  of  the 
people,  who  greatly  depend  on  it  for  their  subsistence, 
and  prosecute  it  with  the  greatest  toil  and  danger  ; 
elsewhere,  it  is  in  some  of  its  forms  a  recreation, 
for  the  sake  of  which  much  expense  is  incurred  by 
the  opident.  The  modes  in  which  it  is  practised 
de]iend  jiartly  on  the  habits  of  dill'erent  kinds  of 
birds,  and  jiartly  on  the  progress  of  ci^^lis.ation  and 
the  arts.  The  peculiar  habits  of  some  birds  render 
it  very  easy  to  take  or  kill  them.  Nets  are  much 
used  in  the  ca]iture  of  many  kinds  of  birds,  jiarti- 
cularly  of  small  birds  intended  for  the  table  :  liird- 
lime  is  employed  for  the  same  jmi^pose,  and  birds 
are  taken  by  means  of  it  in  greatest  numbers  near 
their  cb-inking-plaees,  particularly  in  hot  and  tlry 
weather ;  gins,  springes,  and  traps  of  various  kind-i 
are  also  emitloyetl. 

The  numerous  kinds  of  ducks,  geese,  and  other 
Aimtuhr,  are,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  among 
the  most  important  of  birds ;  and  the  methods 
employed  for  their  capture  are  very  various  and 
interesting.  These,  however,  we  reserve  for  a 
separate  article.  Wildfowl  ;  and  refrauiiug  also 
here    from  any  notice  of   the   amusements    of  the 


rowLiNG— Fo^^'Ls  of  w.uuiex. 


sportsman,  we  shall  iirocecd  to  describe  the  metliwla 
adoi>teJ  ill  I!ock-/uulin'j,  on  which  the  inhabitants  of 
many  northern  coasts  and  islands  in  a  great  measure 
depend  for  their  means  of  siil>sistence.  Of  all  kinds 
of  fowling,  it  is  by  far  the  most  adventurous.  The 
objects  of  pursuit  are  ganneta  or  solan  geese,  gidls, 
terns,  guillemots,  and  other  sea-birds,  which  fre- 
quent the  most  lofty  ])reciiiiccs,  and  breed  on  their 
shelves  and  ledges.  The  tlesh,  even  of  the  best  of 
them,  is  generally  coarse,  and  of  a  fishy  taste,  yet 
it  forms  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor  i>eopIe, 
both  fresh,  and  salted  for  winter  provisions.  The 
flesh  of  the  young  is  more  tender  and  jilcasant  than 
that  of  adult  birds.  The  eggs  of  some  species  are 
sought  after  by  the  same  perilous  means  as  the  birds 
themselves,  the  feathers,  too,  are  an  article  of 
commerce.  The  people  of  St  Kilda  pay  part  of  their 
rent  in  feathers;  and  the  rocks  of  that  island 
are  apiwrtioned  among  its  inhabitants  as  exactly 
as  its  soil.  Almost  every  m.in  in  the  island  is  a. 
cragsman  or  rock-fowler,  which  is  pretty  nearly 
the  case  also  in  many  other  northern  isles.  The 
miUtitudes  of  sea-fowl  around  many  of  the  rocky 
northern  co-asts  is  jirodigious,  resembling  at  a  dis- 
tance— as  may  be  seen  at  the  Bass  Rock  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth — the  bees  around  a  busy  hive. 
Uninhabited  islets  are  annually  \isited  by  fowlers, 
as  Borrera  V>y  the  people  of  St  Kilda  ;  and  the 
'  stacks,'  or  high  insiUar  rocks  near  the  shore,  are 
often  extremely  productive.  These  are,  of  course, 
reached  by  means  of  a  bo.at ;  and  whilst  lauding  is 
often  both  difficult  and  dangeroxis,  the  climbing  of 
the  precipice  is  still  more  so.  The  Norwegian 
fowlers,  or  '  bird-men,'  cany  on  such  expeditions 
■\rith  a  bird-pole  or  fowling-staff,  about  live  or  six 
yards  long,  and  a  rope  of  several  fathoms.  The 
bird-pole  lias  an  iron  hook  at  one  end  :  it  has  also  a 
flat  head  ;  and  by  means  of  it  the  fowler  is  pushed 
and  gxiided  by  his  comrades  below  as  he  ascends  a 
rery  steep  or  precipitous  cUlT ;  by  means  of  it,  also, 
he  strikes  down  or  draws  in  birds.  The  rope  is 
used  to  fasten  two  fowlers  together,  being  attached 
to  the  waist  of  each  :  they  aid  one  another  in 
climbing,  pushing,  and  drawing  one  another  up  the 
rocks,  the  safety  of  the  one  often  depending  on  the 
strength  and  courage  of  the  other.  The  bird-pole  is 
also  used  with  a  small  net  attached  to  it,  in  the 
capture  of  birds  that  are  flying  aroimd.  The  Nor- 
wegian fowlers  sometimes  remain  for  days  on  ledges 
where  birds  are  abimdant,  sleeping  in  holes  or 
clefts,  and  having  food  let  down  to  them  by  a 
rope  from  above. 

Still  more  perilous,  if  possible,  is  the  mode  of 
fowling  practised  where  the  precipices  c.innot  be 
scaled.  The  fowler  is  let  downi  by  a  rope,  and 
hangs  ill  mid-air,  often  at  an  elevation  of  several 
hundred  feet,  above  rough  rocks  or  roaring  waves  ; 
and  by  means  of  his  feet  or  of  a  pole,  throws  himself 
out  to  such  a  distance  from  the  face  of  the  rock  as 
to  obtain  a  view  of  all  its  ledges  and  crannies,  to 
which,  witli  astonishing  coolness  and  dexterity,  he 
directs  his  course,  often  also  catching  the  birds 
that  tly  ne.ir  him  in  the  air.  Speaking  of  the 
fowlers  of  St  Kilda,  Wilson  {Voijage  Round  the 
Coasts  of  Scotland  and  the  Isks)  remarks  :  '  How 
one  man  (for  such  is  the  case),  himself  stand- 
ing with  the  points  of  his  toes  upon  the  verge 
of  a  precipice  many  hundred  feet  deep,  can,  ^nth 
such  secure  and  unerring  strength,  sustain  the 
entire  weight  of  another  man  bounding  from  point 
to  point  below  him  with  irregular  and  frequent 
spnngs,  is  what  a  stranger  cannot  understand.  .... 
But  we  ascertained  that  there  is  never  more 
th.an  a  single  man  above  supporting  the  weight  of 
the  one  below.  Each  of  these  couples  has  two 
ropes.    The  rope  which  the   upper  man  holds  in 

4SS 


his  hands  is  fastened  round  the  body  and  beneath 
the  arms  of  him  who  descends,  while  another  rojie 
is  pressed  by  the  feet  of  the  up]>er  man,  and  is 
held  in  the  hand  of  the  lower.'  The  second  rope 
is  for  giving  signals,  and  for  sending  up  birds  when 
captured.  The  priiicii)al  rope  is  made  of  raw  cow- 
hide, cut  into  thongs  and  twisted ;  it  is  so  durable 
as  to  last  for  two  generations,  and  is  bequeathed 
as  valuable  pro]ierty  by  father  to  son.  Otlier 
materials,  however,  are  used  elsewhere ;  and  the 
practice  differs  also  as  to  the  number  of  comrades 
hohling  the  rojie  above.  In  tlie  Faroe  Isles,  where 
some  of  the  precipices  are  1400  feet  in  height,  the 
rope  is  usually  helil  by  a  number  of  men.  In 
some  of  tho  Scottish  islands,  fowlers  have  been 
adventurous  enough  to  descend  the  clifl's  unaided, 
fastening  the  rope  for  them.selves  to  a  stake  driven 
into  the  ground  above.  The  fowlers  of  the  Faroe 
Isles  sometimes  use  the  pole  with  net  at  the  end, 
whilst  sus])cnded  in  the  air.  It  is  not  imusual  for 
the  fowler,  when  he  linds  a  ledge  or  recess  in  the 
precipice  abounding  in  birds,  to  disengage  himself 
from  the  rope  whilst  he  pursues  his  labours  there  ; 
but  when  the  jirecipice  overhangs  above,  he  is 
exposed  to  a  great  danger  of  the  rope's  escaping 
from  his  reach.  A  case  is  on  record  in  which  the 
only  resource  of  the  fowler  was  to  make  a  de-sperate 
spring  and  catch  the  rope,  which  hung  a  few  feet 
before  hijn  in  the  air ;  and  this  he  succeeded  in 
doing. 

The  cut  represents  rock-fowling  at  the  Holm  of 
Koss,  a  precipitous  insular  rock,  separated  from  Noss, 


The  llolm  of  Noss,  Shetland. 

one  of  the  Shetland  Isles,  by  a  chasm  of  Co  feet 
\vidc,  and  IGO  feet  deep,  over  which  roi>os  have  been 
stretched,  so  that  a  cradle  or  sparred  box  can  be 
made  to  jiass  along  them,  affording  access  to  the 
grassy  suuunit  of  the  Holm,  where  a  few  sheep  now 
feed,  and  w  here  innumerable  sea-birds  make  their 
nests. 

FOWLS  OP  WARRElf.  Lord  Coke  says  they 
are  'the  ]iartridge,  quaU,  rail,  &c.,'  'pheasant,  wood- 
cock, &c.,'  and  the  '  mallard,  heron,  &c.,'  lea\-ing  the 
etca_>teras  without  expLanation  (Co.  Lilt.  233).  jSIan- 
wood,  again,  lays  it  down  that  there  are  only  two 
fowls  of  warren,  the  jiheasant  and  the  partridge 
(Manw.  95).  In  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  v.  Lodge 
(7  B.  and  C.  36),  it  was  decided  that  grouse  are  not 
birds  of  warren. 


FOX. 


FOX,  CiiAKLES  Jmie«,  a  celebrated  Whig  states- 
man, was  the  second  son  of  Henry  Fox,  iirst  Lord 
Holland,  by  Lady  Georgiana  Carolma,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  born, 
according  to  Lord  John  Kussell's  memoir,  on  the 
24tU  January  1749  (N..S.),  and  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford,  spending  his  vacations  on  the  continent 
in  the  gayest  and  wittiest  circles  of  the  French 
capital,  and  -vasiting  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Not- 
withstanding the  irregidar  life  which  he  led  even 
as  a  school-boy,  he  was  very  distinguished  for  ability 
both  at  school  and  college ;  and  so  high  was  his 
father's  opinion  of  his  talents,  that  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  had  him  brought  into  parliament  as 
member  for  the  borough  of  Midhurst,  a  step  to 
which  he  is  said  to  have  been  further  incited  by 
the  fact,  that,  even  at  this  early  age,  F.'s  energies 
had  found  an  outlet  in  gambling  and  various  other 
forms  of  dissipation.  iriis  precocity  in  vice,  as 
well  as  in  intellectual  development,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  result  of  the  injudicious  fondness  of  his 
very  unprincipled  but  very  gifted  father.  Till  he 
attained  his  majority,  F.  pnidently  kept  silent  in  the 
House,  but  immediately  thereafter  he  appeared  as  a 
supporter  of  the  administration  of  Lord  iVorth,  and 
was  rewarded  ■nith  the  office  of  one  of  the  lords  of 
the  Admiralty.  In  1772,  he  resigned  that  office,  and 
the  follo\ving  year  was  named  a  commissioner  of 
the  Treasurj'.  From  that  post  he  was  dismissed,  in 
consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Lord  North,  and 
passed  over  to  the  ranks  of  the  opposition.  During 
the  whole  course  of  the  American  war,  he  was  the 
most  formidable  opponent  of  the  coercive  measures 
which  were  adopted  by  the  government,  and  the 
most  powerful  advocate  of  the  claims  of  the  colo- 
nists ;  acting,  to  this  extent  at  least,  in  accordance 
with  the  views  which  for  many  years  before  had 
been  urged  U2)ou  the  country  by  the  great  Lord 
Chatham,  the  father  of  his  future  rival  Mr  Pitt. 
The  difference  between  them  was,  that  whereas 
Lord  Chatham  urged  conciliation,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  connection  between  the  two  countries,  F. 
foresaw  and  foretold  the  necessity  and  the  advan- 
tages of  complete  separation.  In  17S2,  on  the  do\\Ti- 
fall  of  Lord  North,  F.  was  ajipointed  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  state,  wliich  office  he  held  till  the 
death  of  the  M.arquis  of  Rockint'ham,  when  he  w;is 
succeeded  by  the  Earl  of  Shelburne,  afterwards 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  On  the  dissolution  of  the 
Shelburne  administration,  the  North  and  Fox  coali- 
tion was  formed,  and  F.  resumed  his  former  office  ; 
but  the  rejection  of  his  India  Bill  by  the  House  of 
Lords  soon  after  led  to  the  resignation  of  his  govern- 
ment. It  was  now  that  Mr  Pitt  came  into  power, 
and  that  the  long  and  famous  contest  between  him 
and  F.,  who  occupied  the  position  of  leader  of 
the  opposition,  commenced.  In  17SS,  he  enjoyed  a 
short  respite  from  his  public  labours.  Accompanied 
by  his  wife,  he  ^nsitcd  the  continent,  and  haWng 
spent  a  few  days  at  Lausanne,  in  the  company  of 
Gibbon,  who  was  there  engaged  in  writing  his 
famous  history,  he  set  out  for  Italy.  The  sudden 
illness  of  the  king,  however,  and  the  necessity  of 
constituting  a  regency,  rendered  it  undesirable  that 
he  shoiJd  he  longer  absent  from  England,  and  he 
hastened  back  to  his  post.  The  regency,  the  trial 
of  AVarren  Hastings,  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
events  which  followed  it,  gave  ample  scope  to  the 
talents  and  energies  of  F.,  and  on  all  occasions  he 
employed  his  inlluence  to  modify,  if  not  to  coim- 
teract,  the  policy  of  his  great  rival.  He  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  war  with  France,  and 
an  advocate  of  those  non-intervention  views  which 
find  greater  favour  in  our  day  than  they  did  in  his. 
After  the  death  of  Pitt,  F.  was  recalled  to  office, 
and  endeavoured  to  realise  his  doctrmes  by  setting 


on  foot  negotiations  for  a  peace  with  France,  the 
resiUts  of  which  he  did  not  live  to  witness.  He  died 
on  the  l.'Jth  September  1S06,  in  his  59th  year.  In 
private  life,  Mr  F.  was  a  genial  companion,  kindly 
and  sincere  in  the  closer  relations  of  friendship, 
whilst  his  conduct  to  those  to  whom  he  was  opposed 
in  ])ublic  was  generous,  and  free  from  every  trace  of 
malignity  or  enmity.  Lord  John  Russell,  in  the 
preface  to  his  Memorials  and  Correspondence,  speaks 
of  the  singidar  candour,  boldness,  simplicity,  and 
kindness  of  his  character ;  and  of  his  oratorical 
powers  it  is  enough  to  record,  that  Burke  called 
him  '  the  greatest  debater  the  world  ever  saw,'  and 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  'the  most  Demosthenian 
speaker  since  Demosthenes.'  His  remains  were 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey,  so  near  to  those  of 
Pitt,  as  to  suggest  to  Sir  W^alter  Scott  the  well- 
known  couplet- 
Shed  upon  Fox's  ^ave  the  tear, 
'TwUl  trickle  to  his  rival's  bier. 

FOX,  George,  the  originator  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  (q.  v.),  commonly  called  Quakers,  was  born 
at  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire,  in  1624,  and  at  an  early 
age  was  employed  in  keeping  sheep.  Subsequently, 
he  was  a]>prenticed  to  a  country  shoemaker  ;  but 
when  about  19  years  of  age,  his  religious  impressions 
produced  such  a  sti-ong  conviction  in  him,  that  he 
believed  himself  to  be  the  subject  of  a  special  Divine 
call ;  and  abandoning  his  usual  avocations,  wandered 
solitarily  through  the  coimtry,  dressed  merely  in  a 
leathern  doublet  of  his  own  making,  and  absorbed 
in  spiritual  reveries.  After  some  time,  liis  friends 
induced  liim  to  return  home,  but  F.  stayed  with 
them  only  for  a  short  period,  and  finally  adopted 
the  career  of  an  itinerant  religious  refonuer.  About 
1646,  he  left  off  attending  ehm-ch  for  divine  worship, 
but  did  not  scrujile  to  interrupt  the  services  when 
conducted  by  '  professors,'  i.  e.  formalists,  or  persons 
whom  he  believed  not  to  be  genuine  Christians. 
His  first  efforts  at  proselytism  were  made  at  Man- 
chester in  164S.  The  excitement  caused  was  very 
great,  and,  in  consequence,  F.  was  imprisoned  for 
some  time  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace.  It  may  be 
proper  to  mention  here,  that  his  leading  doctrines 
or  convictions  were  the  futility  of  learning  for  the 
work  of  the  ministry,  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
heart  as  the  '  inner  Ught,'  supersecUng  all  other  lights, 
and  the  necessity  of  trying  men's  opinions  and  reli- 
gions by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  liot  by  the  Scriptures. 
F.  next  travelled  thi'ough  various  of  the  mid- 
land counties,  Derby,  Leicester,  and  Northampton, 
exhorting  the  people  in  public  places  to  forsake 
all  vicious  practices,  drimkenness,  swearing,  itc, 
and  to  cidtivate  the  Christian  graces.  He  had  a 
winning  manner,  resulting  from  his  extreme  earnest- 
ness and  simplicity  of  jiurpose,  and  made  many 
converts.  His  followers  were  first  contemptuously 
called  '  Quakers'  at  Derby,  in  1650,  by  Justice 
Bennet,  for  what  reason  is  not  exactly  known, 
but  it  may  be  conjectured  that  it  possibly  arose 
from  the  agitation  exhibited  in  their  speech  when 
they  believed  themselves  '  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.'  In  1655,  F.  was  brought  to  London,  and 
examined  before  Cromwell,  who  quickly  saw  that 
there  was  nothing  in  Quakerism  to  excite  his 
apprehensions,  and  pronounced  the  doctrines  and 
the  character  of  its  founder  to  be  irreproachable. 
Nevertheless,  for  some  years  after  this,  F.  had  a 
hard  struggle  with  his  Puritan  antagonists.  In  an 
age  of  dogmatism  and  fanaticism,  it  was  not  to 
be  e-xpected  that  the  half-mystical  spirituahties  and 
grotesque  practical  crotchets  of  the  Leicestershire 
shoemaker  coiild  meet  with  any  official  toleration. 
F.  was  constantly  %'ilified  and  frequently  imprisoned 
by  country  magistrates.      In  1609,  he  married  the 

ib'J 


FOX. 


•wiiliiw  of  Judge  Fell.  ]{e  tlicn  went  to  Aineric.i, 
wluro  lio  si>nit  two  years  in  i)riip.i^:itiii>;  Ins  views 
with  iiiuoli  success.  On  Lis  return  to  Knglaiul 
in  1073,  he  was  imprisoned  for  some  time  in 
Worcester  jail,  wmlcr  the  eh.irse  of  having  '  held  a 
meeting;  from  all  jiarts  of  the  u.ition  for  terrifyini; 
the  king's  subjects.'  tin  his  rclca.<e,  he  visited 
Holland,  and  afterwards  Hamburi;,  Holstein,  and 
Danzig,  always  cndeavourini;  to  persuade  men  to 
listen  "to  the  voice  of  Christ  within  them.  He 
died  in  London,  January  1.'!,  lO'Jl.  1''.  was  not 
a  man  of  broad  and  ]iliiloso|ihio  ycnius  ;  he  did 
not  enrich  the  world  with  tlie  multitude  of  his 
thoughts  ;  in  fact,  there  is  a  conspicuous  jioverty  of 
intellect  and  sentiment  manifested  in  his  writings, 
but  (as  often  h.ippons  in  the  c;ise  of  a  mystic) 
the  earnestness  and  clearness  with  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  many,  one  great  truth  of  Christianity  was 
realised,  imparted  a  power  and  efficacy  to  his 
words  that  genius  itself  might  envy.  His  doctrine 
of  the  univers.il  'inner  light' — defended  in  a  more 
learned  fjishion  by  Barclay  (q.  v.)  in  his  Apulo;/i//or 
the  Qiialers — may  be  regarded  .as  a  protest  .igainst 
the  narrow  or  at  least  excessive  '  scripturalism '  of 
his  age,  but  his  understanding  was  not  sulKcieutly 
clear  and  strong  to  guide  him  safely  in  all  tlie 
consequences  which  he  ventured  to  deduce  from 
it  Hence  have  sprung  most  of  the  iiiaiscrks  of 
Quakerism.  His  writings  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  3  vols.,  1G04 — 1700.  An  edition  in  8  vols, 
has  been  published  at  Philadelphia,  United  .States. — 
Comp.are  jewel's  JliMoni  of  t/if.  (Quakers  :  Neal's 
Fui-itans;  Marsh's //yt(i/'i''ox-(  1848) ;  and  Janney's 
Life  of  Fox,  with  Dissertations,  &c.  (Phila.  1853). 

FOX,  'William  Johnson,  orator  and  political 
writer,  the  son  of  a  small  Suffolk  farmer,  who  after- 
wards settled  as  a  weaver  at  Norwich,  was  born  in 
1780.  He  gave  early  promise  of  talent,  and  was 
sent  to  Homerton  College,  to  be  trained  for  tlie 
ministry  of  the  Independents.  He  suliscquently 
seceded  to  Uiiitariauism,  but  ultimately  shaking  oil' 
all  allegiance  to  existing  Christian  churches,  he 
delivered  a  series  of  prelections  at  his  chapel  in 
South  Place,  Fiiisbury,  which  marked  him  out  as 
the  leader  and  organ  of  English  ratioualisiu.  When 
the  Anti-eorn-law  League  enlisted  the  ablest  plat- 
form orators  of  the  d.ay  in  the  ser\'ice  of  free  trade, 
his  bold  and  impassioned  rhetoric  gi'eatly  contributed 
to  arouse  and  intensify  public  feeling.  M.  Guizot 
quotes  his  speeches  as  the  most  finished  examples  of 
or.atory  which  the  great  conflict  produced.  Their 
effect  upon  the  vast  metropolitan  audiences  to  which 
thej'  were  addressed  was  electric.  F.  also  con- 
tributed by  his  pen  to  the  success  of  free  trade,  and 
his  Letters  of  a  Norwich  Wearer  Boy  were  largely 
quoted  and  read.  After  the  .abolition  of  the  Coru 
Laws,  he  was  invited  to  stand  for  Oldliani,  which 
borough  he  has  continued  to  represent,  with  a  brief 
interval,  since  1847.  Like  most  men  who  enter  the 
House  of  Commons  hate  in  life,  F.  did  not  .altogether 
realise  the  oratorical  promise  of  his  platform  and 
pulpit  career.  His  best  jiarli.amentary  speeches 
were  upon  the  education  of  the  people.  As  a 
politician,  he  has  been  a  consistent  member  of  the 
advanced  Liberal  party.  A  succession  of  illnesses, 
of  late  years,  has  interfered  with  his  attendance  in 
Iiarliamcnt.  He  was  among  the  earliest  contributors 
to  the  Wi'stiiiiitster  Jievieio,  edited  for  many  years 
the  Moiithlu  Repositonj,  .and  has  largely  contributed 
to  various  other  organs  of  public  ojiinion.  His 
Lectures,  chief ji  addressed  to  the  Workinij-Classes, 
have  been  published  in  3  vols.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  jihilosophical  dissertation  on  Jlelirjious  Ideas, 
and  other  theological  works. 

FOX  (Vuliies),  a  genus  of  Canida  (q.  v.),  paiticu- 


l.aily  distinguished  from  dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  &c., 
by  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracting  vertically,  and 
in  the  form  of  the  section  of  a  lens,  not  circul.arly. 
This  tidces  place  whenever  the  eyes  are  turned  to 
a  strong  light,  and  foxes  are  all  nocturnal  aiiiin.als. 
Foxes  are  also  generally  of  lower  stature  in  pro- 
portion to  their  length  than  the  other  Canidas  ;  they 
liave  a  roundish  heail,  with  a  very  pointed  muzzle, 
short  triangular  ears,  slender  limbs,  .and  ,a  bushy 
tail.  They  dig  burrows  for  themselves  in  the  earth, 
or  take  jiossessioii  of  holes  already  e.visting.  'I'hey 
are  famous  for  their  cunning,  which  tliey  exhibit 
both  in  their  artifices  for  obt;viniiig  ]irey,  and  for 
escaping  from  danger.  They  feed  on  small  qu.adru- 
peds,  bhals,  eggs,  &c. ;  some  of  them,  however,  also 
])artly  on  fruits  and  other  vegetable  substances. — 
The  Co.AiMON  Fox  ( W  mdiiaris),  a  native  of  most 
parts  of  Kurope,  is  the  only  British  species,  and  is 
still  pretty  abundant  in  most  parts  of  the  country, 
although  from  many  parts  it  would  jirobably  have 
been  extirpated  ere  iiow%  unless  it  had  been  in  some 
measure  protected  with  a  view  to  the  sport  of  fox- 
hunting. The  common  fox  is  reddish  brown  above, 
wliite  beneath ;  the  outside  of  the  ears  black,  a 
black  line  extending  from  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye 
to  the  mouth ;  the  legs  mostly  black,  the  cud  of  the 
tail  generally  white,  although  specimens  sometimes 
occur  ui  which  it  is  gray,  or  even  black.  There  are 
at  least  three  varieties  known  in  Britain,  pretty  well 
marked  by  difference  of  size  and  form — the  Ore;/- 
hound  Fox  being  more  slender  and  longer-limbed, 
aud  the  Cur  Fox — frequent  in  upland  moorish 
ilistricts — being  smaller  than  the  common  variety. 


The  Common  Fox  [t'ulpcs  vulgaris). 

Other  v.arieties  occur  in  the  north  of  Europe.  The 
fox  has  a  gland  under  the  tail,  which  secretes  a  very 
fetid  substance,  communicating  to  the  whole  animal 
its  weU-known  smell.  It  breeds  once  in  a  year, 
having  usually  four,  five,  or  six  young  ones  in  a 
litter.  Its  usual  voice  is  a  kind  of  yelp.  Its  senses 
of  sight,  hearing,  and  smelling  .are  very  acute. 
Innumer.able  anecdotes  are  on  record  illustr.ativc  of 
its  cunning.  The  difliculty  of  setting  traps  so  that 
they  shall  not  be  detected  .and  avoided  by  it,  is  well 
known.  Foxes  are  said  to  have  been  observed 
approaching  water-fowl  liy  swimming  slowly  with 
a  turf  in  tlie  month,  so  as  to  reniaiu  concealed. 
A  most  trustworthy  person  assured  the  writer  of 
this  article,  tli.at  he  saw  a  fox  ajiproach  a  group  of 
hares  that  were  feeding  in  a  field,  with  a  slow, 
lim])ing  motion,  and  having  his  head  down  as  if 
eating  clover,  till  he  was  near  enou"h,  by  a  sudden 
rush,  to  secure  very  different  food.  Foxes  captured 
in  hen-roosts  have  often  been  known  to  simulate 
death,  and  to  submit  to  being  dr.aggcd  about  and 
very  roughly  treated  without  a  sign  of  life,  till 
an  oiiportunity  of  escape  presented  itself.     When 


FOX— FOXE. 


tlioy  are  driven  to  their  holes,  and  these  are 
surrniindcd  with  traps,  they  not  unfrcquently  shew 
such  a  jiist  appreciation  of  the  dan:;er,  that  they 
will  endure  starvation  for  days  and  even  weeks 
rather  than  come  ont.  Kven  when  taken  young, 
the  common  fox  can  hardly  be  tamed ;  and  very 
few  instances  are  on  record  of  its  shewinj;  even 
a  little  of  that  attachment  to  man  of  wliich 
so  many  animals  are  cajiable,  and  for  which  the 
dof;  is  so  remarkable.  The  improbability  of  any 
of  the  domestic  races  of  dog  beinj;  at  all  derived 
from  the  fox,  is  noticed  in  the  article  Dog. 
The  French  renard  appears  in  English  in  rri/iiard, 
the  familiar  appellation  of  the  fox. — The  south  of 
Europe  produces  foxes  of  smaller  size  tlian  the 
common  fox,  having  the  fur  of  the  belly  black, 
resanled  by  some  as  a  mere  variety,  by  others  as  a 
distinct  species  ( ('.  vielaiwgaxter).  They  are  less 
carnivorous,  and  to  them  some  of  the  allusions  and 
fables  relate — as  of  the  fox  and  grapes,  &c. — which 
do  not  accord  well  with  the  habits  of  the  foxes  of 
Britain  and  of  Northern  Europe. — The  Himalaya 
motmtains  produce  a  species  of  fox  ( I'.  Ilimataicus) 
very  similar  to  tlie  eonunon  fox,  Init  of  superior 
size  and  brilliancy  of  colours.  The  fur  is  rich  and 
fine. — The  Black  Fox  of  Northern  Asia  is  also  very 
similar  to  the  common  fox,  but  is  entirely  of  a 
velvety  black  colour,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
which  is  white  ;  its  fur  is  greatly  esteemed,  brings  a 
high  price,  and  forms  an  article  of  exjiort  from 
Kamtchatka  to  China. — The  Coal  Fox  ( I',  aloper) 
of  some  parts  of  Europe,  as  Switzerland  and  Bavaria, 
is  by  some  naturalists  regarded  as  distinct  from  the 
common  fox.  It  is  of  inferior  size,  more  timid,  and 
less  troublesome ;  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  black. — 
North  America  has  several  species  of  fox,  of  "which 
the  Red  Fox  {]'.fulvus)  very  nearly  resembles  the 
common  fox  of  Europe,  but  is  of  rather  larger  size, 
has  a  shorter  muzzle,  eyes  nearer  each  other,  and  a 
more  copiously  bushy  tail.  Its  fur  is  also  longer, 
liner,  more  brilliantly  coloured,  and  much  more 
valuable,  forming  a  consider,able  article  of  export 
from  the  fm-  countries  ;  in  which,  as  well  as  in 
(^'anada,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United 
8t,ates,  this  species  is  abundant.  The  Cross  Fox  is 
a  variety  of  it,  distinguished  by  a  longitudinal  dark 
band  along  the  back,  crossed  by  a  transverse  band 
over  the  shoulders.  The  burrow  of  this  fo.x  '  at  first 
inclines  downwards  for  four  or  five  feet  at  an  angle 
of  about  twenty- live  degrees,  it  then  inclines 
upwards  a  little,  which  is  a  security  against  inunda- 
tions, and  is  continued  at  a  depth  of  aliout  three  or 
four  feet  from  tlie  surface,  until  it  reaches  a  point 
where  it  is  divided  into  two  or  three  galleries.' 
Great  nimibers  of  these  foxes  are  annually  tracked 
to  their  Inirrows,  and  digged  or  smoked  out  of  them 
by  American  fanncns. — The  Gn.iY  Fox  ( I'.  Vir<iin- 
uniu.i)  is  the  most  abundant  species  of  the  southern 
states,  extending,  however,  as  far  north  as  Canad.a, 
where  it  is  rare.  It  is  of  a  gray  colour,  varied  with 
black,  is  about  the  size  of  the  common  fox,  but  not  so 
bold,  and  sometimes  eats  vegetable  substances,  such 
as  ears  of  maize.  The  gray  fo.x  exhibits  not  a  little 
of  that  cunning  for  wliich  the  common  fox  is  cele- 
brated, and  when  pursued  by  hunters  and  hounds, 
has  been  known  to  escape  by  getting  upon  the  rail 
of  a  fence  and  nmning  along  it  for  some  distance,  so 
that  the  scent  was  lost.  This  was  on  one  occasion 
done  on  the  newly-laid  raU  of  a  railroad  elevated 
.above  a  swamp.  It  is  not  unfrequent  for  the  gray 
fox,  when  hard  pressed,  to  take  refuge  in  a  tree, 
particularly  if  one  which  has  somewhat  fallen  from 
the  perpendicular  presents  itself. — There  are  a  nimi- 
ber  of  other  species  of  fox,  Asiatic,  African,  and 
American ;  but  the  most  deserving  of  notice  is  the 
Arctic  Fox  ( V.  lar/opus),  which  inhabits  the  most 


northern  jiarts  of  E)iroj)c,  Asia,  and  America.  It  is 
very  plentiful  in  Iceland,  feeding  nuich  on  ptar- 
migans, and  sometimes  on  young  laml)S.  Great 
numlicrs  are  found  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Baj', 
particularly  during  ^vinter,  and  they  have  been 
supposed  to  migrate  thither  from  still  more  northern 
regions;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  animal 
spends  the  winter  even  in  the  most  northern  regions 
that  have  ever  been  ^'isited  by  man,  braving  the 
cold  of  jSIelville  Island  and  Banks's  Land,  and  finding 
abundance  of  food  in  the  hares,  marmots,  ptanuigans, 
and  other  animals  which  also  remain  there.  The 
Arctic  Fo,x  is  rather  smaller  than  the  common  fox  ; 
it  is  more  densely  clothed  with  a  woolly  fur, 
which  on  some  parts  is  two  inches  in  length  ;  the 
tail  is  extremely  bushy  ;  and  even  the  soles  of  the 
feet  are  thickly  covered  with  hair.  The  colour  is 
jaire  white  in  winter,  at  least  in  very  cold  climates  ; 
varying  to  a  brownish  or  bluish  colour  in  summer. 
It  is  gregarious,  and  many  burrows  are  often  found 
together.  It  is  extremely  cleanly  in  its  habits,  and 
is  cpiite  devoid  of  the  oflcnsive  smell  which  belongs 
to  most  of  the  fo.xes ;  it  is  also  much  less  cunning, 
and  much  more  easily  trapped,  as  well  as  mucli 
more  gentle  and  capable  of  being  tamed.  Its  flesh 
has  been  sometimes  eaten  by  arctic  voyagers,  ■with 
a  relish  due  to  the  extreme  cold  of  the  climate,  and 
the  consequent  demand  of  the  system  for  animal 
food.  Its  fur  is  not  nearly  equal  in  value  to  that 
of  the  red  fox. 

FOXE,  Jonx,  the  martjTologist,  was  born  of 
respectable  parents  in  1517,  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire. 
In  1533,  he  entered  as  a  student  at  Br.asenose 
College,  O.xford  ;  in  1538,  he  took  his  Bachelor's, 
and  in  1543,  his  Master's  degree,  and  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  JIagdalen  College.  He  displayed  at  an 
earl3'  period  an  inclination  for  Latin  poetr3%  and 
wrote  several  plays  in  that  language  upon  scriptural 
subjects.  Of  these,  the  only  one  that  remains, 
entitled  De  Christo  Triumphantc,  was  printed  at 
London  in  1551,  and  at  Basel  in  155G,  8vo,  and 
1672.  The  religious  movements  of  the  times  led 
him  to  study  the  great  controversy  between  Popery 
and  Protestantism,  and  becoming  a  convert  to  the 
principles  of  the  Keformation,  he  was,  Jidy  22, 1545, 
expelled  from  his  college  for  heresj'.  His  father 
being  dead,  and  his  mother  married  again,  his  step- 
father refused  him  any  further  aid,  and  he  was,  in 
consequence,  reduced  to  great  distress.  For  a  short 
time,  he  was  employed  as  tutor  to  the  childi-cn  of 
Sir  Thomas  Lucy  of  Charlecote,  Warwickshire,  and 
aftenvards  was  engaged  by  the  Duchess  of  Kich- 
mond  as  tutor  to  the  children  of  her  brother,  the 
Earl  of  Surrey,  then  a  state  prisoner  in  the  Tower. 
In  this  capacity  he  rem.ained  during  the  whole  reign 
of  Edward  VI.,  but  was  never,  notwithstanding 
Anthony  .'i  Wood's  assertion  to  the  contrary,  restored 
to  his  fellowship  .it  Magdalen.  On  .June  23,  1550, 
he  was  ordained  deacon  by  Eidley,  Bishop  of  London, 
and  preached  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  at 
Reig.ate.  During  the  reign  of  Marj-,  he  retired  to 
the  continent.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
he  returned  to  England  in  October  1559 ;  and  in 
May  1.563,  he  was  inducted  into  the  canonry  and 
prebend  of  Shipton,  in  the  cathedral  of  .Salisbury. 
He  also  enjoyed  the  living  of  Cripplegate,  which  he 
soon  resigned,  and  for  a  year  he  held  a  stall  at 
Durham.  In  157.5,  when  some  Dutch  Anabaptists 
were  condemned  to  the  flames  in  London,  F.  inter- 
ceded for  them  "with  Queen  Elizabeth  and  other 
jjersons  in  authority,  but  ■n-ithout  effect.  He  WTote 
nimierous  controversial  and  other  works,  but  the 
one  that  has  immortalised  his  name  is  his  History 
of  the  Acts  find  Monuments  of  the  Church,  popularly 
known  as  Fores  Book  of  3fartifrs,  the  first  part  of 
which  was  published  at  Strasbui'g  in  1554.     The 


FOXES— FOX-HUNTING. 


first  English  edition  appeared  in  1563,  in  one  vol. 
folio.  Sanctioned  by  tue  bishops,  it  was  ordered, 
by  a  canon  of  the  Anglican  Convocation,  to  be 
nlaced  in  the  hall  of  every  episcojial  p;Jace  in 
England,  and  has  gone  through  innumerable  editions. 
It  Ts  not  a  very  critical  work,  as  might  naturally 
bo  supposed,  and  Koman  Catholics  deny  its  trust- 
worthmess.  F.  died  in  1587,  in  his  70th  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  chancel  of  St  Giles's,  Cripplegate, 
London. 

FOXES  AND  FOX-HUNTING.  The  law  -irith 
reference  to  fox-huntmg,  which  is  a  matter  of  a 
good  deal  of  importance  in  many  parts  of  tlie 
country,  seems  to  stand  thus  in  England  :  '  Though 
in  gener.al  all  persons  wlio  go  upon  another's  lauils 
without  pennission  are  trespassers  in  the  eye  of  the 
law,  yet  there  are  some  cases  where  the  trespass  is 
s;ud  to  be  justifiable,'  says  Mr  Faterson,  the  most 
recent  wi-iter  on  tlie  subject,  and  he  quotes  Black- 
stone's  dictum  to  the  cflcct  that  '  the  common  law 
warrants  the  hunting  of  ravenous  beasts  of  prey,  as 
badgcra  and  foxes,  in  another  man's  land,  because 
tlie  destrojHng  such  creatures  is  said  to  be  profitable 
to  the  public'  (3  Black.  Com.  212).  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  that  no  damage  be  done  beyond 
wh.at  is  necessary  for  the  public  good,  for  that  is  the 
groimd  on  which  alone  the  legal  character  of  fox- 
huntmg  can  Ije  maintained.  It  was  found,  more- 
over, iu  the  Earl  of  Esse.x  v.  Capel  (1  Chitt.  Game 
L.  114),  that  though  pursuing  a  fox  on  another's 
land  be  justifiable,  yet,  if  it  take  to  earth,  or  to  a 
house  there,  it  is  not  justifiable  to  dig  or  break  doors 
for  it.  Iu  Scotland,  where,  from  the  character  of 
the  coimtry,  fox-hunting  is  often  impossible,  it 
never  has  become  a  national  sport  to  the  same 
extent  as  iu  England ;  and  consequently,  the  rule 
that  one  is  entitled  to  cuter  on  the  lands  of  another 
for  the  purpose  of  killing  a  fox,  has  been  confined  to 
those  cases  in  which  he  is  pursued  simply  as  a 
no.xious  beast,  and  fox-hunting  for  sport  -ndthont 
leave  has  been  held  to  be  punishable  as  a  trespass, 
and  the  trespasser  held  liable  for  whatever  surface- 
damage  he  may  occasion.  In  Ireland  (by  1  and  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  32,  s.  35),  persons  pm'suing  with  hounds 
any  fox,  hare,  or  deer  which  has  been  started 
elsewhere  on  another's  land,  are  exempted  from 
summary  proceeiUngs  for  trespass. 

FOXGLOVE.     See  Digit.vlis. 

FOXHOUND,  a  kind  of  dog  much  used  in 
Britain  for  the  sport  of  fox-hunting.  It  is  not  qiute 
so  large  as  the  staghoimd,  and  is  perhaps  a  mi.\ed 
breed  between  the  staghound  or  the  bloodhouml 
and  the  greyhound.  The  colour  is  commonly  wliite, 
vni\i  large  patches  of  bhack  and  tan  colour.  Their 
speed  and  perseverance  are  remarkable  ;  they  have 
been  known  'to  run  hard  for  ten  hours  before  they 
came  up  with  .ind  killed  the  fox,  and  the  sportsmen 
were  either  thro%vn  out,  or  changed  horses  three 
times.' 

FOX-HUNTING,  from  its  exciting  nature,  as 
well  as  from  the  qualities  of  daring  courage  and 
cool  calculation  requisite  in  those  who  thoroughly 
foUow  and  appreciate  it,  has  long  been  termed  the 
king  of  British  national  sports. 

In  Great  Britain,  there  are  upwards  of  100 
hunting  establishments,  of  wliich  by  far  the 
greater  proportion  belong  to  the  counties  south  of 
the  Tweed.  Fox-hunting  establishments — which 
are  in  most  instances  sujiported  by  subscription, 
though  sometimes  owned  by  private  gentlemen  of 
wealth  and  influence — arc  organised  and  maintained 
at  a  very  considerable  annual  cost,  tlie  jirice  of  a 
singlo  jiack  of  foxhounds  sometimes  amounting 
to  several  thousand  guineas.  Every  establishment 
452 


is  under  the  direct  superintendence  and  control  of 
one  experienced  gentleman,  the  master,  and  under 
him  again  rank  the  huntsman,  whippers-iu,  earth- 
stopper,  kcnnel-8erv.ants,  &c.  A  '  pack '  is  comjioscd 
of  from  20  to  GO  coujiles  of  hounds,  the  number 
greatly  depending  upon  the  freipieney  of  hunting- 
days  :  thus,  some  packs  hunt  six  d.ays,  some  five 
days,  others  four,  and  many  only  two  days  a 
week ;  30  couple  of  hoimds  is  a  good  average ; 
these  are  carefully  reared,  fed,  and  otherwise 
attended  to.  The  master  himself,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  has  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
sen'ants,  hminds,  and  horses  ;  and  in  the  hunting- 
field  is  genenJ  director  of  the  proceedings.  Next 
to  him  come  the  huntsman  and  ouo  or  two 
'  whippers-in '  ('whips').  The  huntsman,  who  is 
practically  the  most  important  personage  in  the 
field,  requires  to  see  that  his  hounds  are  pro- 
perly managed  and  fed  in  their  kennels ;  duly 
led  to  the  place  of  meeting  on  lumting-days ; 
and,  what  is  of  more  consequence  still,  that  they 
receive  fair-play  in  the  field,  and  find  and  hunt 
their  foxes  iu  true  style.  The  huntsman  requires 
to  be  a  man  of  great  nerve  and  much  activity : 
he  shoidd  also  have  a  good  head,  a  clear  ringing 
voice,  a  keen  eye,  and  above  all  he  must  l>e  a  first- 
rate  horseman,  and  luiow  thoroughly  every  point 
in  the  country  over  which  he  hunts.  He  has  often 
to  restrain  heedless  riders,  and  'keep  the  field 
back  ; '  a  duty  requiring  firmness  of  character,  with 
a  quiet  and  ei\'il  manner.  With  these  necessary 
qualifications,  and  h.aving  so  many  resjionsible 
duties  on  his  shoiJders,  he  is  treated  with  great 
respect  by  those  for  whom  he  provides  sport :  he 
is  moimted  on  the  best  horses  his  m.aster 
can  produce,  and  m.ay  be  said  to  conduct  and 
direct  the  hunt  from  the  moment  the  fox  is 
found  till  the  moment  of  its  death — from  '  find 
to  finish.' 

The  duties  of  the  first  whipper-in,  though  not  so 
responsible  as  those  of  the  huntsman,  are  stiU  con- 
siderable :  for  instance,  he  takes  a  certain  manage- 
ment of  the  hounds  in  kennel,  assists  in  conducting 
the  hounds  to  the  '  meet,'  and  aids  the  huutsnian 
in  various  ways  during  the  run.  His  knowledge 
of  the  management  of  hoimds,  and  of  fox-himtiug 
generally,  must  at  the  same  time  be  such  .as  to 
en.able  him  to  occupy  the  huntsm.an's  place  in  an 
emergency.  The  '  second  whip's '  principal  duty  is 
that  of  bringing  up  and  urging  on  lagging  hounds 
in  the  field,  by  lashing  and  '  rating.'  In  many 
hunts,  however,  a  second  whipper-in  is  dispensed 
with. 

A  considerable  range  of  country  is  necessary  for 
the  full  enjoyment  of  fox-hunting,  the  best  being 
that  which  is  diversified  by  jiasturage  and  )ilanta- 
tion.  Being  a  nocturnal  feeder,  the  fox  quits  his 
burrow  or  '  e.arth ' — which  is  generally  in  a  gorse 
lirake,  or  a  plant.ation  or  covert  of  underwood — 
during  the  night,  and  returns  to  it  in  the  morning, 
and  this  fact  is  taken  advant.ige  of  by  those  who 
hunt  him  for  sport.  The  day  and  place  of  'the  meet' 
are  duly  advertised,  .and  on  the  night  before  the 
himt,  the  coverts  to  be  'dr,a\vn  '  next  day  arc  visited 
either  by  a  duly  ajipointed  earlli-xloppcr  or  by  the 
gamekeeper,  who,  knowing  that  the  foxes  are  from 
home,  proceeds,  spade  in  hand,  from  one  hole  to 
another,  filling  them  up  with  earth  and  brush- 
wood as  he  goes.  Thus,  the  fox,  upon  returning 
.at  dawn  to  his  '  earth,'  finds  ingress  denied,  and  so 
betakes  himself  to  some  neighbourmg  thicket,  or  to 
some  unenclosed  cover  of  gorse,  rushes,  &c.,  where 
he  makes  a  temporary  lair  or  'kennel.'  When 
the  earths  li.ave  lieen  carefidly  closed,  the  earth- 
stopjur  returns  hnnie  and  infonns  the  liimtsman, 
or   first  '  whip,'   as   to   their   umuber  and  locahty. 


FOX-HUNTING. 


aud  that  infnnnation  forms  a  guide  for  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  foUowiiif;  day.  (After  the  himt 
is  over,  the  earths  are  reopened,  and  as  little  trace 
as  possible  left  of  the  work.)  The  hour  of  '  the 
meet '  is  usually  ten  or  eleven  o'clock  A.  M.,  and 
at  the  appointed  place  assemble  the  whole  field, 
including  master,  huntsman,  whippers-in,  hounds, 
and  those  gentlemen  (and  frequently  ladies)  who 
intend  either  to  participate  in  the  day's  sport, 
or  merely  to  see  the  'hounds  tlirow  off.'  When 
a  covert  is  reached,  the  huntsman,  by  a  wave  of 
his  hand,  or  a  few  familiar  words,  such  as  '  Eu 
in !  eu  in  there !  good  don^s ! '  '  throws  in '  his 
hounds,  following  immediately  after  with  the  first 
'  whi]).'  The  mounted  gentlemen  usually  remain 
outside,  and  take  their  directions  as  to  stance,  &c., 
from  the  master,  who  from  this  time  forward 
does  his  best  to  conti'ol  and  direct  their  move- 
ments. In  fact,  the  master  may  be  said  to  have 
the  control  of  the  'field' — that  is,  the  riders — 
and  the  huntsman  that  of  the  hounds  aud  hunt. 
The  second  whip  being  posted  at  the  covert 
side,  near  where  it  is  e,\pected  a  fox  may  burst 
through  or  'break,'  one  or  two  of  the  more  eager 
riders  are  sometimes  permitted  to  jump  their 
horses  into  the  covert,  if  it  be  large,  to  assist  in 
the  finding  of  the  fox.  Those  who  remain  outside 
then  prepare  themselves  for  their  work,  and  eagerly 
listen  for  the  first  token  of  the  presence  of  rey- 
nard ;  this  is  betrayed  by  a  slight  but  anxious 
whimper  or  whine  fiom  the  ' challenging '  hoimd — 
that  is,  the  hound  (usually  an  old  aud  experienced 
one)  that  first  perceives  or  '  hits '  the  scent  of  a  fo.x 
— and  is  soon  followed  by  others,  who  instantly 
rush  to  his  side.  The  huntsman,  if  he  be  tolerably 
certain  that  the  game  scented  is  no  other  than 
a  fox,  at  judicious  intervals  urges  on  his  hounds 
by  familiar  expressions,  such  as  '  Yoicks,  yoicks, 
have  at  him  ! '  '  Push  him  up  ! '  &c.,  till  the 
fox  is  fairly  roused  fi-om  his  kennel,  and  goes 
away.  It  u<tt  imfrequently  happens  wlule  drawiug 
coverts,  that  hounds  will  come  suddenly  upon  a 
fox,  and  seize  him  before  he  has  time  to  escajie. 
This  is  termed  '  chopping,'  aud  is  always  to  1)0 
prevented  if  possible.  If  the  covert  bo  very  thick, 
a  fox  may  leave  his  kennel  imperccivcd  ;  aud  when 
he  does  so,  he  usually  nms  tlu'ough  or  round 
the  covert  for  a  considerable  distance  before 
quitting  it  for  the  open  fields.  lie  may  also  '  run 
his  foil,'  by  doubling  back  and  fonvard  on  the 
same  path  or  track,  imd  thus  possibly  baffle  the 
hounds,  even  when  they  '  own  his  scent.'  lu  large 
coverts,  too,  a  fox  frequently  '  hangs ; '  that  is,  he 
remains  in  it  for  a  long  time  before  going  away. 
The  person  who  first  sees  the  fox  '  break  cov£r,'  or, 
in  other  words,  '\-iews  him  away,'  shoiUd  always 
allow  hmi  a  certain  'law'  before  giving  the  'view 
halloo,'  as  a  fox  vciU  frequently  turn  or  '  head 
back '  into  covert  if  he  hears  any  imusual  noise  at 
the  instant  of  his  quitting  it.  AVlien,  however,  the 
person  or  persons  who  are  watching  see  that  the 
fox  is  really  olF,  notice  is  instantly  given  to  those 
within  the  thicket,  aud  those  without,  by  the  cry 
of'Hou — y!  hou — y!  Tallyho  !  Gone  away!  Gonk 
AW — AV  !  ! '  upon  which  the  huntsman  blows  his 
horn  to  collect  his  hounds ;  the  whipper-in  drives 
out  lagging  members  of  the  pack,  either  «ith  his 
whip  or  by  some  cry ;  the  master  restrains  the 
more  impatient  of  the  riders  till  the  huntsman 
and  hovmds  have  'settled  to'  their  fox;  and  then 
ho  and  the  entire  field  join  in  the  chase,  and  the 
first,  and  frequently  the  most  exciting,  part  of  the 
day's  proceedings  has  commenced — the  fox  has 
'  broke  cover,'  the  hounds  have  been  '  laid  on,'  and 
the  field  has  entered  on  its  impetuoiLS  '  first  burst.' 
A  certain  etiquette  is,  however,  absolutely  necessary 


in  allowing  tlie  hoimds  and  huntsman  to  get  away 
Jtrsl ;  but  after   that,  each   rider,   with  3   certain 


ioi-huiitiug — '  Cunu  awuy  1' 

deference  to  the  master,  chooses  his  own  place 
in  the  hunt,  and  does  his  best,  independently 
of  his  neighliours,  to  keep  at  a  certain  distance, 
not  directly  in  the  line,  but  to  one  side  and  in 
the  rear  of  the  hounds.  When  a  rider  hapjiens 
to  be  near  the  pack  at  the  first  bui-st,  and  gets 
a  good  position  in  foUowuig  them,  he  is  said 
to  '  get  well  away  with  the  hounds ; '  and  if  well 
mounted  and  a  skilfid  rider.  Iris  chances  of  both 
Wewing  the  hunt  and  being  '  in  at  the  death '  are 
very  considerable.  And  now,  as  we  have  already 
said,  begins  the  grand  excitement  of  the  day ;  the 
fox  being  fresh,  races  away  at  tremendous  speed, 
followed  by  perhaps  upwards  of  twenty  couple 
of  hounds  at  full  crj'.  If  the  day  is  jiropitious 
(a  'southerly  wind  and  cloudy  sky'  having  long 
retained  favour),  the  scent  of  the  retreating  fo.x 
lies  well,  especially  at  first,  when  it  is  called 
'  burning'  or  '  breast  high,'  and  is  for  many  minutes 
'  owned'  by  at  le;ist  all  the  leading  hounds  in  the 
pack,  though,  perhaps,  the  object  of  jiursuit  itself 
is  far  ahead,  and  out  of  sight ;  and  away  streams 
the  hunt  over  hedges,  tlitches,  and  gates,  across 
rivers,  railways,  arable  laud,  and  grass  pastures, 
perhaps  for  several  miles  before  a  single  chnk 
occurs.  Now,  the  foxhound  himts  almost  entirely 
by  scent,  and  does  not,  like  the  greyhound,  depend 
upon  the  eye.  The  fact  of  sceut  failing,  there- 
fore, at  any  time  during  the  hunt,  tlirows  out  the 
hounds,  and  prevents  them  from  renewing  it,  until 
the  scent  is  recovered,  or  'liit  off.'  'NVlicn  the 
scent  is  '  biu-ning,'  hoimds  run  almost  mute,  though 
at  first,  and  at  intervals  afterwards,  they  usually 
'  tlu-ow  their  tongues '  pretty  freely.  AVlieu  all  the 
hounds  arc  giving  tongue,  they  are  said  to  be  at 
'  f idl  cry,'  and  '  carry  a  good  head,'  the  scent  being 
on  such  occasions  so  thoroughly  diffused  as  to  be  felt 
or  'owned'  breast  high  by  probably  every  member  of 
the  pack.  Sometimes  scent  becomes  so  faint  as  to  be 
hardly  perceptible,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the 
energy  of  the  hounds  abates  considerably ;  they  then 
nm  with  their  heads  close  to  the  ground,  and  are  said 
to  hunt  a '  cold '  scent.  Here,  however,  a  little  timely 
as.sistance  from  the  huntsman  is  of  the  gi-eatest 
moment  in  restoring  animation  to  the  pack.  He 
waves  his  cap,  blows  his  horn,  and  eucom-ages  his 
hoimds  by  well-known  expre.'isions,  to  renewed 
exertions.  When,  as  frequently  hapi)ens  from 
various  causes,  the  scent  fails  entirely — such  as  the  fox 

4C3 


FOX-HUNTING. 


crofsing  wator,  ninninj;  tlimiiKh  a  drove  of  sheep, 
'  lic.iiliiis  l>ack '  in  another  direction,  running  along 
or  lying  "l>fn  *•«'  t"!'^  of  walls  or  thick  hedges, 
4e. — the  lioiinila  cease  'giving  tongue,'  suddenly 
stop,  throw  up  their  heads,  and  arc  'at  fault.' 
In  tliis  emergency,  the  '  field '  remains  at  a  respectful 
(li.stanee  behind,  .ind  the  huntsman  knowing,  or 
at  Ic.ist  guessing  by  ex])crionoe  which  w.iy  the  fo.x 
has  taken,  or  the  special  means  lie  h.-is  adopted 
for  foiling  the  scent,  allows  his  hounds  at  first,  for  a 
few  moments,  themselves  to  attcmjit  to  regain  it ; 
irtit  failing  that,  and  finding  that  his  interference 
and  a.ssistance  are  nceessarv,  he  instantly  Wows  his 
horn,  and  calls  or  'lifts  his  hounds'  from  the  place, 
and  'takes  a  cast'  round  and  round  about  the  spot 
where  the  scent  failed,  cheering  them  on  the  while. 
Thus,  by  gradually  widening  his  cists,  the  scent  is 
very  frequently  recovered  or  'hit  off,'  a  circum- 
st.-uice  which  is  soon  made  apparent  by  the  whimper 
of  recognition  given  by  the  hound  that  first 'owns 
it,'  followed  by  the  answering  tongues  of  the  whole 
p-ack.  When  the  hounds,  however,  fail  to  'hit  off' 
the  scent,  if  the  day  be  far  .advanced,  they  !vre 
taken  home,  or  they  are  trotted  on  to  some  neigh- 
bouring covert,  which  is  drawn  for  a  fresh  fox. 

AVhen  the  fox  is  killed,  either  in  '  the  open  '  or 
elsewhere,  the  rider  who  is  first  in  at '  the  death ' — 
usually  the  huntsman — springs  off  his  horse,  ^vith  a 


'  WTioo  !  whoop ! '  lashes  the  hounds  off,  and  cuts  off 
the  head,  feet  {jxidn),  and  tail  (the  lirunh).  He  then 
flings  the  carc.ias  to  the  hounds,  who  tear  it  to 
pieces,  and  devour  it  in  a  very  few  minutes.  The 
iinish  is  usu.ally  presenteil  to  any  la^ly  who  m.ay 
happen  to  be  in  at  the  death,  or  is  claimed  .as  a 
trophy  liy  one  or  other  of  the  gentlemen  present. 
The  jyada  likewise  are  distributed  amongst  those 
who  may  wish  to  p^eser^•c  mementos  of  the 
chase.  As  a  gener.al  nile,  the  huntsman,  and 
several  of  the  best  mfiunted  in  the  field,  manitge 
to  lie  in,  either  at  or  immediately  .after  the  deatu, 
though  instances  are  nut  wanting  when,  during 
unusually  protracted  runs,  the  hounds  h.%ve  left 
every  rider  f.ar  behind,  and  have  followed  and 
killed  their  fox  miles  away  from  the  spot  where  the 
Last  horseman  had  given  in.  A  strong  fox  will 
'live'  before  hounds  on  an  aver.agc  for  an  hour  or 
an  hour  and  a  half ;  but  cases  have  been  known 
when  this  h.as  been  far  exceeded,  and  when  the 
run  h.as  extended  to  thirty  or  even  forty  miles, 
■and  h.as  hasted  .all  d.ay,  and  even  into  the  night. 
Yoimg  foxhoimds  begin  their  career  by  what  is 
termed  cuh-lmntinri ;  but  this,  however  necessary 
it  may  be  for  teaching  them,  is  considered  inferior 
sport  to  regular  hunting. 

The  midland  counties  of  EngLand,  such  as  Leicester, 
Northampton,  Warwick,  Yorkshire,  &o.,  are  the  beet 


Blood  Hunter  clearing  a  stone  wall  in  good  style  (from  Blaine's  Encyclopccdia  of  Rural  Sports). 


for  hunting  purposes  in  Great  Britain  j  and  owe 
their  superiority  in  a  great  measure  to  two  causes  : 
lut,  the  strict  preservation  and  consequent  number 
of  foxes ;  and  2rl,  the  extensive  tr.acts  of  p.asturagc 
being  favourable  both  for  running  and  scent. 
The  instinct  of  the  fox  leads  him,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  ran  doivii  wind,  that  his  scent  may  not  be 
blown  lo  the  hounds  ;  he  also  takes  .advant.age  of 
every  peculiarity  in  a  country  likely  to  offer  him 
an  advantage  over  his  foe.s. 

The  fox-hunter  must  be  possessed  of  consider- 
able courage,  united  with  coolness,  and  must  be 
a  judge  of  pace  and  have  a  good  eye  in  'riding  to 
hoimds,'  to  avoid  tiring  or 'overmarking'  his  horse 
unnccoss.arily.  Mucli  of  the  excitement  and  ])lcasure 
of  the  fox-hunter  consists  in  his  successfully  leaping 
461 


the  various  hedges,  ditches,  fences,  &c.,  encountered ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  a  re.ally  skilful  and  humane 
rider,  however  well  momited,  will  never  knowingly 
urge  his  horse  at  a  fence  or  leap  of  any  kind,  )uiles8 
he  is  positively  certain  it  is  within  his  horse's  power ; 
and  if  he  finds  his  horse  betrays  symptoms  of 
distress,  he  will  rather  turn  its  head  homew-ards, 
and  forego  the  chase,  than  overtax  its  courage  and 
strength. 

Much  useful  and  entertaining  information  on  fox- 
hunting occurs  in  Blaine's  Jinci/rlopaidia  of  Jliiral 
Sports  (London,  Longmans) ;  British  liurcd  Sports, 
by  Stonehenge  ;  Beckford's  Thovr/hts  on  Ihmtinq ; 
Hnmininrencrx  of  a  Jluntaman;  JS'imrod;  Tlie  Field 
newsjiaper ;  &c. 

Fox-hunting  is  not  practised  after  the  English 


FOX  ISLANDS-FOYIiE. 


fasliion  in  the  nortliern  states  of  America,  but  in  the 
soutlKTii  states  fruiu  Maryland  to  Florida,  it  is  a 
favourite  amusement.  The  object  of  pursuit,  how- 
ever, is  the  Gray  Fox  (  V alpia  V injimamis),  and  the 
cliase  is  not  so  severe,  and  seldom  lasts  so  long  as 
that  of  the  common  fox. 

FOX  ISIjANDS,  another  name  for  the  Aleu- 
tian I.SLAXDS  (rj.  v.). 

FOX  KIVER  is  the  name  of  two  considerable 
streams  in  the  United  States  of  America,  both  of 
tliem  rising  in  Wisconsin. — 1.  The  F.  K.,  or  Pislilaka, 
is  an  afiluent  of  the  Illinois,  which  is  itself  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  200  miles  long,  and  is 
valuable  chieliy  for  its  water-power.  -  2.  'I'lie  F.  11., 
or  iVet'iiah,  after  a  course  of  about  tlie  same  length, 
falls  into  Orecn  Hay  in  Lalie  Michigan.  It  is 
divided  into  two  sections  by  Lake  Winnebago,  the 
ujiper  one  being  connected  by  a  canal  with  the 
Wisconsin,  so  as  to  link  together  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Great  Lakes  of  the  St  Lawrence. 

FOX  SHARK,  or  THRESHER  (Alopia.^  or 
Ah/jrcias),  a  genus  of  sharks,  containing  only  one 
known  species  (A.  viilpee),  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  of  the  Atlantic,  and  occasionally 


Fox  Shark  {Alopias  vulpes). 

seen  on  the  British  coasts.  The  snout  is  short  and 
conical ;  tlie  spout-lioles  are  very  small  ;  (he  mouth 
is  not  so  large  as  tluat  of  the  white  shark,  nor  the 
teeth  so  formidable ;  but  the  F.  S.  is  extremely 
)>old  aiul  voracious,  readily  attacking  grampuses  or 
dol|iliin3  nnieh  larger  than  itself.  Its  most  renuirk- 
alile  peculiarity  is  the  great  elongation  of  the  upi)er 
lobe  of  the  tail-fin,  whicli  is  nearly  e(jual  in  length 
to  the  whole  Ijody,  anil  into  whieli  the  vertebral 
column  extends.  Of  this  it  makes  use  as  a  weapon, 
striking  with  great  force.  It  is  said  to  be  not 
imcommon  for  a  whole 
herd  of  doli)hins  to  take 
(light  at  the  first  si)lash 
of  the  tail  of  a  fox 
sliark.  From  the  use 
which  it  makes  of  its 
tail,  it  has  acqnired  the 
name  of  Thresher.  It 
attains  a  length,  tail 
included,  of  13  feet. 
Tlie  body  is  spuitUc- 
shaped. 

FOXTAIL  GRASS 
(Alopeciirun),  a  genus  of 
Grasses,  distinguislu'd 
by  a  spiked  ]>aniele,  two 
ijlnmes  nearly  eijual,  and 
generally  united  at  the 
l).ase,  enclosing  a  single 
J  tloret  which  has  a  single 
ji'dea,  with  an  awn 
rising  from  the  base. 
The  species  are  chiefly 
natives  of  temperate 
countries,  aiul  al)out  six 
are  British.  Meadow 
FoxTATL  Grass  {A.  }>raknsU-),  which  has  an  erect 
smooth  cidm  about  I  i — 2  feet  high,  and  a  cylindrical 

18C 


Foxtail  Grass  {Ahpccuriis 

pratcnsix] : 

a,  glumes;  6,  ((arct. 


obtuse  panicle  abundantly  covered  with  sdvery  hairs, 
is  one  of  the  best  meadow  and  pasture  grasses  of 
Britain,  but  does  not  aniveat  fidl  perfection  till  tlie 
third  year  after  it  is  sown.  It  bears  mowing  well, 
and  is  reckoned  a  good  grass  for  lawns.  It  bears 
drouglit  Well.  The  Jointku  Foxtail  G  iias.s  {A.i/i  ni- 
culatan),  with  an  ascending  culm  bent  at  the  joints, 
is  very  common  in  moist  jdaces,  and  cattle  are  fond 
of  it,  hut  it  is  a  small  grass.  The  Slknukii  Foxtail 
GR/V.S.S  (^1.  U'jroitli)  is  an  annual  or  biennial,  of  little 
value  except  for  light  sandy  soils,  on  which  it  is 
sometimes  sown.  A  foreign  species  [A.  nhjricans)^  a 
native  of  the  continent  of  Europe  anrl  of  Siberia, 
has  been  introduced  into  Britain,  and  ai>pears  likely 
to  prove  valuable.  It  has  somewhat  creeping  roots, 
is  a  little  larger  and  stronger  than  A.  j>rate>uiui, 
and  is  rather  earlier. 

FOy,  Maximimen  SfiuASTiEN,  a  distinguished 
French  general  and  orator,  was  born  at  Ham,  .'id 
February  1775.  In  1701,  he  was  one  of  the  volun- 
teers who  h.astened  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  tlieir 
country  against  foreign  invasion,  and  during  tlie 
next  nine  years  served  with  distinction  under 
Uunuiuriez,  Moreau,  and  Massena.  In  1801),  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  adjutant-general  in  the 
division  of  Monccy,  in  the  amiy  of  the  Khine, 
which  marched  through  Switzerland  into  Italy, 
where  he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  army 
in  1801.  In  18(1.5,  he  commanded  the  artillery  of 
the  sec:ond  division  in  the  Austrian  camjiaigu.  In 
1807,  Napoleon  sent  him  to  Turkey  at  the  head  of 
1200  artillerymen,  to  assist  Sultan  Selim  against 
the  Russians  and  British.  After  the  revolution  in 
whii'h  Selim  was  detlu-oned,  F.,  under  the  direction 
of  the  French  ambassador,  (Jener.al  Sebasfiani, 
defended  Constantinople  and  the  Strait  of  the 
Dardanelles  so  etiectively,  that  Duckworth,  the 
British  admiral,  was  obliged  to  retire  with  loss. 
From  1808  to  1812,  F.  was  general  of  division  of 
the  army  in  Portugal.  His  talents  were  exhibited 
to  advantage  in  conducting  the  retreat  of  the 
French  army  across  the  Donro.  F.  was  present 
at  all  the  battles  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  at  Urthez, 
in  1814,  was  dangerously  wounded.  In  the  cam- 
liaign  of  1815,  he  commanded  a  division  on  the 
field  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wo\uided  for  the 
fifteenth  tmie.  In  1819,  he  was  elected  dejiuty  by 
the  department  of  Aisne.  In  the  chandler,  he  was 
the  constant  advocate  of  constitutional  liberty,  and 
shewed  great  rhetorical  talent  and  knowledge  of 
political  economj-.  He  distinguislied  himself  par- 
ticularly by  liis  eloquence  in  op])osing  the  war 
against  Spain  in  182.'i.  F.  died  at  Paris,  November 
2S,  182.1.  Madame  Foy  jiublished,  in  1827,  from 
her  luisband's  papers,  a  /lialoire.  de  Iti  (iiierre  dii 
la  PininKuh;.  In  the  jircvious  year  appeared  his 
Diimurs,  with  a  biography. 

FOY'ERS,  a  stream  rising  in  the  Monadlcadh 
Mountains,  in  the  middle  of  Inverness-shire.  It 
runs  12  miles  north,  and  falls  into  the  east  side  of 
Loch  Ness,  nearly  oiijiosite  Mealfourvounie  Moun- 
tain. It  has  two  celebrated  falls  witliin  a  mile 
and  a  half  of  its  mouth,  where  the  stream  rushes 
through  a  deep,  narrow  ravine  in  the  liills,  skirt- 
ing the  east  side  of  the  loch.  The  up)ier  fall  is  .'iO 
feet  high.  The  stream  then  descends  30  feet  in  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  The  lower  fall  (y)ecia!ly  called 
The  F<dl  of  Fuijers)  is  90  feet  higiL  It  is  the  finest 
cascade  in  Britain. 

FOYLE,  Louaii,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
north  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties  of  Derry 
and  Donegal.  It  is  triangular  in  form,  1(!  mUes 
long  from  north-east  to  south-west,  1  mile  wide  at 
its  entrance,  and  9  miles  broad  along  its  south  side. 
A  great  part  is  dry  at  low  water,  aiid  its  west  side 


FllA  BARTOLOMEO— FRACTIONS. 


alone  is  na\-igablc.  Vessels  of  600  tons  ascend  the 
west  side  of  the  lough,  anil  its  chief  tributary  the 
Foyle  (which  comes  16  miles  from  the  south),  to 
Louilontlcrry.  Ou  the  east  shore  is  a  flat  strand  with 
a  sandy  beach,  on  which,  in  1827,  was  measured  a 
liue  of  41,040,  which  was  afterwards  extended  by 
triani^ul.ition  to  about  53,200  feet,  and  formed  the 
base  Tine  of  the  Oriliiance  Survey  of  Ireland. 
FRA    BARTOLOMEO.      See    Eaccio    della 

PORT.V. 

FHACASTORO,  Giuolamo,  an  Italian  savant 
.and  philosopher,  famous  for  the  universality  of  his 
learnms,  w.as  born  of  an  ancient  family  at  Verona 
in  14S.'{.  At  the  age  of  19,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  lorio  in  the  university  of  Padua,  But 
his  v;ist  knowledge  embraced  the  most  divergent 
sciences,  and  on  account  of  his  eminence  in  the 
practice  of  medicine,  he  was  elected  physician  of  the 
Couucil  of  Trent.  His  Latin  verse  also  exhibits 
remarkable  elegance.  He  died  in  1553.  A  bronze 
statue  was  erected  in  his  honoiu-  by  the  citizens  of 
P.-ulua,  while  his  native  city  commemorated  their 
gre.it  compatriot  li}'  a  marble  statue.  His  ^^Titings 
in  prose  and  verse  are  numerous.  The  chief  are — 
Si/p/iilUlU:,  give  Mcirhi  Oallici  (Verona,  1530,  in  4to  ; 
Paris,  1531  and  1539,  in  8vo  ;  London,  1720,  in  4to, 
and  1746,  in  Svo ;  Italian  edition,  Verona,  1739, 
in  4to,  by  Tir.abosclii  ;  Naples,  1731,  by  Pietro 
Belli) ;  De  rini  TempenUura  (Venice,  1534,  in 
4to) ;  Homocejitricorum  sive  de  Stellis,  De  Cmisis 
Critkonan  Dierum  Libellus  (Venice,  1535,  in  4to)  ; 
De  Stfnipal/na  el  Antipalhia  lierum,  De  Contagi- 
onibus  et  Contagiosis  Morliis,  et  eonim  Curatione 
(Venice,  1540,  in  4to  ;  Lyon,  1550,  1554,  in  Svo). 
The  collective  works  of  F.  appeared  for  the 
first  time,  Venice,  1555,  in  4to. 

FRA'CTED,  heraldically,  signifies  broken  asunder. 

FRACTION.  In  Ai-ithmctic,  a  fraction  is  any 
part  or  parts  of  a  unit  or  whole,  and  it  consists  of 
two  members,  a  denominator  and  a  numerator, 
whereof  the  former  shews  into  how  many  Jiarts  the 
unit  is  divided,  and  the  latter  shews  how  many  of 
them  are  t.aken  in  a  given  case.  Thus  f  denotes 
that  the  unit   is  divided  into  four  pai'ts,  and  that 

three   of  them   are  taken;   and   more   generally  -j 

denotes  that  the  unit  is  diwded  into  ft  parts,  and 
that  a  of  them  are  taken.  A  fraction  is  called 
jjroper  when  the  numerator  is  less  than  the  deno- 
minator, and  improper  when  the  numerator  is  greater 
than  the  denominator.      In  Algebra,  any  quantity 

=-  ia   called  a  fraction,   although   a  and  ft   are  not 

neoess.arily  represent.itives  of  whole  numbers,  as 
they  woidd  rerjiure  to  be  if  the  fraction  be  an  aritli- 

metical  fraction.     The  algebraical  fraction  ■=-  just 

means  that  any  quantitj'  affected  by  it  is  to  be 
■multiplied  by  a,  and  divided  by  ft.  This  definition, 
however,  tlu'ough  the  greater  geuerality  of  algebra, 
includes  that  of  an  .arithmetical  fraction.  The  rules 
for  the  addition  and  multiplication  of  fi'actions  are 
the  same  iu  algebra  and  arithmetic.  To  add  two  or 
more  fractions  together,  we  must  bring  them  to  a 
common  denominator,  and  .add  the  nuiner.ators  for  a 
new  numer.ator,  and  take  the  conunon  denominator 

for  the  new  denominator.     Thus   if  -,  —   be   two 

0    d 
a       c  _ad      cb  _  ad  +  be      . 
"ft  "^  d~  bd'^bd~       tS""' 


fractions,    then 


fractions  being  brought  to  ,a  common  denominator 
by  (as  a  general  nde)  multiplying  each  numerator 
by  every  denominator,  except  its  own,  aud  midtiply- 


ing  all  the  denominators  for  the  common  denomi- 
njitor.  To  subtract  two  fractions,  we  bring  them  to 
a  common  deuouiin.ator,  and  subtr.act  tlieir  numera- 
tors for  the  new  numerator.  Thus  r  — ;  =  — ^^^~^. 

b      d  bd 

To  midtiply  two  fractions  toj^ether,  the  nJe  is,  to 
nndtii>!y  the  numerators  togetlier  for  a  new  numer- 
ator, and  the  denominators  together  for  the  new 


denominator. 


^.       a       c       ac 


The  reasons  for 


all  these  rules  are  ob\-ious.  The  rule  of  di^■^sion 
is  to  invert  the  di%-isor,  and  proceed  .as  in  mijti- 
Iilication.  This  follows  from  the  consideration, 
that  to  divide  is  the  inverse  of  to  multiply,  and 

that  to  divide  by  7  must  be  the  same  thing  as  to 


midtiply  by  -. 
FRACTIONS,  CoNTDnJED. 


.and  —  =  ft  -f  —    .and  -—  =  c  -(-  7^,  and.. 
«!  ii  ft. 


,.  A  a, 

"  B  =  "  +    B' 


/  =  m  + 


m  +  \ 

n+. . . . 
A 
This  expression  for  the  v.aluc  of  =  is  called  a  con- 

15 


tinned  fraction.      If  we  consider  the  fractions  (1) 


,-,  1        aft  +  1    ,.,,        ,   1 


r 


(aft  +  l)c  4-  g, 
bc+  I 


formed  by  taking  into  account  parts  only  of  the 
denominator  in  the  continued  fraction,  we  obtain  a 

A 
series   of  fractions  converging  to  the  value  of  =. 

These  converging  fractions  are  always  approximat- 
ing to  the  value  of  =,  .and  are  altern,ately  greater  and 

less  th.an  it.  Throughout  the  series,  the  1st,  3d,  5th, 
7th,  &c.,  are  each  below  the  true  value,  while  the  2d, 
4th,  &c.,  are  above  it;  or  viee  versa,  .according  as 
the  original  fi-action  is  improper  or  proper.  It  can 
be  shewn  that  the  successive  converging  fr.actions 
approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  true  value  of  the 
continued  fraction.  Converging  fractions  are  of 
gre.at  use  in  the  summation  of  infinite  series. 

In  illustration  of  the  above  general  statement,  let 

us  take  the  numerical  fraction  ,^Yrl,  which  we  first 

reduce   to   a   continued   fr.action   in   the   following 

6935        „        482         „  1 

manner:   2151  =  3  +  ^^  _^_ 

=     (by    continuing    the    same    process) 


commonly  written, 


5-1-  1_ 

7     or,    as    it    is    now 
.•511111 

l-f4   +    2H-6-f5  +   T 


FEACTIOXS— FKACTUEE. 


Here  the  first  convergent  is  3;  the  second, 

13     ,,.,.,.     3        1        1        „        2 

=  -j;  the  third  i3j_^-^-  =  3  +  ;;  = 


3       1 

1  +  4 
29 
9  9' 
and  finding  the  other  convergents  in  a  similar 
manner,  we  have  the  following  apj)roximation3  to 
the  value  of  the  original  fraction  : 

13    29     187     9G4    G035 
'    4'     9'    58'    299'    2151' 
The  differences  between  the  successive  convergents 
and  the  original  fraction  are, 
6935  482   /,    .      ,       ^,  1     . 

2l5l  -  3  =  2l5l  ^^"""2  less  than  j-^), 
13      6935-      223   /,    .      ,       ^,  In, 

T  -  2T5l  =  8604  ^'^''"S  less  than  ^^g),  &c. ; 

and  in  general  the  difference  between  any  convergent 
and  the  original  fraction  is  less  than  a  fraction  = 

1 

denom.  of  convergent  x  denom.  of  conv.  next  greater' 
consequently,  the  differences  grow  less  as  we 
proceed,  owing  to  the  denominators  of  the  conver- 
gents always  increasing.  If,  by  actual  subtraction, 
we  find  successively  the  difference  between  each 
convergent  and  the  original  fraction,  we  shall  also 
find  that  they  are  alternately  greater  and  less,  or 
less  and  greater,  according  as  the  original  fraction 
is  proper  or  improper. 

FRACTIONS,  Va>ji.shino.  In  some  algebraical 
fractions,  the  substitution  of  a  particular  value  for 
the  unknown  qu,antity  will  make  both  the  numer- 
ator and  denominator  of  the  fraction  vanish ;  such 
fractions  are  called  vanishing  fractions.  Thus  the 
X-  —  I 

fraction  v  assumes  the  form  i  when  a;  =  1. 

a;  —  1  ° 

The  ascertainment  of  the  value  of  such  a  fraction 
for  the  particular  value  of  the  unknown  quantity 
which  gives  it  the  form  $,  may  in  all  cases  be 
effected  by  a  general  method  furnished  by  the 
differential  calculus.  But  frequently  that  value 
may  be  determined  by  simpler  means,  as  the  form  ~ 
.irises  from  the  existence  of  a  factor  common  to  both 
numerator  and  denominator,  which  becomes  zero  for 
a  particular  value  of  x ;  if,  then,  we  can  discover 
this  factor,  either  by  finding  the  greatest  common 
measure  or  other\vise,  and  divide  it  out,  then  by 
substitution  we  obtain  the  value  of  the  fraction 
corresponding  to  the  particidar  value  of  x.  Thus,  in 
the   example  given,  we  find  that  both  terms   are 

x' 1 

divisible  by  a;  —  1,  so  that r  =  x  -|-  1.  There- 
fore, when  X  =  1,  and  the  fraction  becomes  5,  its 
value  must  equal  2.  This  is  an  example  of  the 
application  of  the  method  of  Limits  to  the  determin- 
ation of  the  value  of  such  a  fraction,  for  it  is  clear 
that  for  every  value  of  x  ■p'  I,  the  value  of  the 
fraction  is  P'  2,  and  continually  aj^proaches  2  as  a; 
approaches  1.  Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as 
to  whether  vanishing  fractions  have,  properly  speak- 
ing, values  or  not ;  but  this  is  not  the  place  for 
noticing  speculations  on  the  subject.  See  Limits, 
Theoky  OF;  and  Xothing,  and  Ixfi:jit\'. 

FRACTURE  of  a  bone  may  be  the  result  of 
accident,  muscular  action,  or  disease.  The  long 
bones  of  the  limbs  are  more  subject  to  the  latter 
two  causes  than  those  of  the  head  or  spine.  Pre- 
disposing  causes  to  fracture  are  frosty  weather, 
old  age,  cancerous  disease,  a  morbidly  brittle  con- 
dition called /Va_7i7(ta«  ossium. 

Some  bones,  as  the  kneepan  and  heel-bone,  are 
liable  to  give  way  from  sudden  contraction  of  the 
muscles  which  arc  inserted  into  them.  The  subject 
of  the  injiuy  then  falls,  and  attributes  the  accident 


to  the  fall,  whereas  it  is  the  reverse.  A  medical 
man,  some  few  years  ago,  awoke  with  a  fit  of 
cramp,  and  almost  immediately  his  left  thigh-lponc 
broke  with  a  snap.  It  reunited  in  the  usual  time. 
The  sufferer  from  cancer  of  long  standing,  some- 
times feels  a  bone  give  way  under  no  special  strain. 
In  such  cases,  there  is  seldom  any  attempt  at  repair. 
The  bones  of  old  people  are  brittle  from  the  excess 
of  earthy  materials  (see  Bone),  and  so  readily 
give  way.  The  bones  of  the  feeble  patient,  with 
fragilitas  or  mollities  ossium,  are  soft  and  friable, 
and  when  examined,  are  found  saturated  with  a 
greasy  substance. 

There  are  some  persons  who  seem  liable  to 
fracture  without  any  such  reason.  Professor  Gibson 
of  America  mentions  a  boy  who,  though  apparently 
healthy,  had  broken  his  collar-bones  ei^ht  times,  his 
arm  and  forearm,  while  his  leg  and  thigh  were 
broken  if  he  but  tripped  his  foot  on  the  caqiet. 
An  old  lady  once  broke  both  thigh-bones  kneeling 
down  in  church.  There  is  one  predisposing  cause  to 
fracture  fortunately  now  but  seldom  seen — viz., 
scurvy.  Not  only  did  it  make  the  bones  brittle, 
but,  as  was  seen  in  Lord  Anson's  expedition,  which 
was  manned  chiefly  by  pensioners,  old  fractiu'es 
again  became  disunited. 

Repair  of  a  broken  Bone. — Of  course,  as  the 
bone  lies  in  the  midst  of  soft  parts,  any  injury 
to  the  one  must  tear  the  other,  and  cause  an 
infusion  of  blood ;  but  the  latter  is  speedily 
absorbed,  and  is  of  no  ser^nce  in  the  process  of  re])air. 
After  the  first  excitement  has  passed  off,  a  Uuid 
is  effused  around  the  fragment,  which  in  a  short 
time  becomes  converted  into  bone.  The  amount 
of  this  new  material  depends  upon  the  position  of 
the  fragments ;  should  they  be  far  apart,  or,  as  it 
is  technically  tenued,  riding,  then  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  new  bone  is  thrown  out.  We  see  this 
in  animals  to  such  an  extent  that  the  materials  for 
repair,  or  '  callus,'  may  be  divided  into  two  separate 
parts — a  provisional  callus  to  act  as  a  wrapper  to 
the  bones  until  the  permanent  callus,  or  that  which 
imites  the  ends,  however  far  apart,  becomes  suffi- 
ciently hard  ;  then  the  prorisional  callus,  being  no 
longer  necessary,  is  removed  by  absorirtion. 

Symptoms  of  Fracture. — A  broken  Umb  hangs 
loose,  and  is,  as  a  general  rule,  no  longer  under  the 
control  of  the  muscles,  which,  however,  are  pricked 
by  the  broken  ends  of  bone,  and  stimulated  into 
painfid  spasms,  which  still  further  displace  and 
deform  the  limb.  Should  there  be  any  doubt,  the 
limb  may  be  carefully  raised,  and  turned  gently 
fi-om  side  to  side,  when  a  pecuUar  rough  feelin" 
termed  crepitus  removes  all  doubt.  Each  bone, 
however,  when  broken,  exhibits  symptoms  pecuhar 
to  itself,  and  requires  a  separate  treatment. 

Fractures  are  diWded  into  Siinpk,  when  there  is 
no  wound  in  the  skin  which  communicates  with  the 
fracture  ;  Compound,  when  there  is  such  a  woimd ; 
Comminuted  being  prefixed  to  either  of  these  terms 
when  the  boue  is  broken  into  several  pieces ;  Im- 
pacted,  when  one  fragment  is  driven  into  the  other ; 
and  Compiiicaled,  when  a  neighbouring  joint  or  large 
blood-vessels  participate  in  the  accident. 

Treatment  of  Fracture. — Replace  the  fragments  as 
near  as  possible  to  their  former  positions  oy  gentle 
extension,  retain  them  in  place  by  substituting  an 
external  rigid  skeleton,  made  of  any  unyielding 
material  which  will  be  firm  enough  to  resist  the 
spasms  already  alluded  to,  but  is  not  fastened  with 
very  great  tightness  to  the  limb.  Splints  are  gene- 
rally of  wood  or  pasteboard  ;  but  of  late  years  gutta 
percha  has  been  much  used.  In  simple  fractures,  it 
is  often  sufficient  to  adapt  a  bandage  to  the  hmb, 
which  ^^■ill  harden  on  drj-ing,  and  form  a  shell  for  it ; 
for  this   purijose,  starch,  dextrme,  and   plaster  of 

467 


FRA  DIAVOLO— FKAMIXC. 


Paris 
uiiulo 


are  geucrally  used.     A\Tiatevcr  tbe  splint  be 

of,  It   must   ktH-p  the   bones   in    a    state   of 

cuwplflf  rrsi,  otlierwise  tbc  lymjih,  wbieh  woiilil  be 
formed  into  bone,  sto|)3,  as  it  were,  half  way,  and 
beeonies  libruus  tissue,  wbieh  allows  tlie  fraiinients 
to  move  ou  eaeh  other,  and  is  termed  a  fiUse  joint. 

FRA  DIA'VOLO,  iiroperly  MicnELE  Pezz.v,  a 
celebrated  brigaud  and  renejjade  monk,  born  in 
Calabria  in  1760.  Of  plebeian  orijrin,  he  .at  first 
followed  the  trade  of  stoekinu- weaver,  then  cnteml 
the  Neapolitan  iirmy,  and  sulisecjucntly  the  service 
of  the  i>ope  ;  tinally,  he  abandoned  military  life,  and 
became  a  monk,  "but  being  expelled  for  miscon- 
duct, he  withdrew  to  the  mountains  of  Calabria, 
where  he  headed  a  baud  of  dosper.adoes,  whose 
stronsholds  lay  chietly  iu  the  district  between  Itri 
and  Terra  di  Lavoro.  I'ill.age,  bloodshed,  and 
atrocious  cruelties,  sil.^lalised  his  career.  For  yeara 
he  evaded  the  pursuit  of  justice  by  retiring  to  his 
haunts  amidst  mountains  and  forests,  and  skil- 
fully defe.itiug,  with  much  inferior  numbers,  .all 
the  armed  forces  despcatched  ag.ainst  him.  He 
became  at  length  known  .among  the  peasantiy 
of  the  neighbourhood  as  Fra  Diavolo.  Ou  the 
advance  of  the  French  into  the  Ne.apolit.an  st.ates, 
F.  D.  and  his  band  espoused  warmly  the  royal 
interests,  and  in  return  were  not  only  jiardoned 
and  rcinst.ated  in  ci\-il  rights,  but  promoted  to  the 
grade  of  ofhcers  in  the  royal  army,  F.  D.  himself 
becoming  colonel.  In  1S06  he  .attempted  to  excite 
Cal.abria  against  the  French,  but  was  t.aken  prisoner 
at  San  Severiuo,  and  was  executed  at  Naples  in 
JS'ovembcr  of  the  s.anie  j-ear.  The  opera  of  Auber 
h.as  nothing  in  conmion  with  F.  D.  but  the  name. 
He  died  uttei-ing  imprecations  on  the  queen  of 
Kaples  and  the  British  admiral,  Sidney  Smith, 
whose  influence  had  not  sulBced  to  rescue  him 
from  death,  although  on  his  capture  he  jjroduced 
papers  bearing  the  royal  se.al,  which  vouched  for 
Lis  right  to  the  ranlc  of  colonel  in  the  royal  forces. 

FEAGA'RIA.    See  Strawberry. 

FEAJME,  in  Gardening,  the  covering  of  any  kind 
of  hotbed,  flued  pit,  or  cold  pit,  used  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  plants  not  sufficiently  h.ardy  for  the  opeu  .air. 
Frames  are  of  various  materi.als,  but  generally  of 
wood  or  iron  and  glass,  and  arc  made  iu  one  piece  or 
iu  Slashes  according  to  the  size  of  the  hotbed  or  pit. 

FKAME-BRIDGE,  a  bridge  built  of  timbers 
framed  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  amoimt  of  strength  with  a  given 
quantity  of  material. 

Tlie  fundamental  principle  upon  which  all  such 
constniction  is  based,  is  that  the  timbers  sh.aU 
be  so  arranged  that  the  weight  put  upon  them 
shall  exert  a  pulling  or  a  crushing  strain,  instead 
of  a  transverse  strain,  and,  if  possible,  that  the 
greatest  strain  sh.atl  act  as  a  direct  pull  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood.  The  con- 
struction of  a  fr.ame-bridge  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  a  roof,  excepting  that  in  the  bridge  a  consider- 
able outvv.ard  thrust  upon  the  abutments  is  gener- 
ally permissible,  while  the  walla  of  a  house  will 


desirable  Fig.  1  represents  a  simple  and  useful 
form  of  frame-bridge.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  a 
weight  upon  the  bridge  will  exert  a  pulling  strain 
upon  the  horizontal  timber  <ib,  and  a  crushing 
strain  ui)on  he  and  ad,  as  well  ,as  upon  the  upiHT 
timbers,  and  that  the  main  support  is  in  ah,  winch 
must  be  torn  asunder  before  ad  and  be  can  be  bent 
or  displaced  to  any  considerable  extent. 

The  celebrated  frame-bridge  of  Schaffhausen, 
constructed  in  IT.")"  by  Grubenmann,  a  village 
carpenter,  was  built  exactly  in  the  manner  of  a 
roof  with  a  horizontal  pathway  superadded.  It 
w.as  composed  of  two  arches,  one  193  feet,  the 
other  172  feet  span.  It  w.as  merely  laid  upon  the 
piers,  and  did  not  abut  .against  them  to  exert  any 
outward  thrust,  as  will  be  seeu  by  fig.  2.     The 


not  stand  this ;  and  that  for  the  bridge  a  nearly 
level  w.ay  on  the  top  is  desirable,  while  for  a 
roof  a  steep  incline  is  not  objection.able,  or  is  even 


weight  on  the  bridge  is  transmitted  by  the  oblique 
beams,  which  by  analogy  we  m.ay  call  ra/lers,  to 
the  tie-beam  ab,  where  it  exerts  a  horizontal 
pulling  strain.  These  rafters  are  fr.amed  into  the 
tie-beam  so  as  to  abut  firmly  against  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  Koof-rafters  (see  Eoor).  Tliis  kind 
of  frame-bridge  is  very  common  in  Switzerland, 
where  timber-bridges  abound ;  and  it  has  doubtless 
originated  from  the  fact,  that  most  of  the  bridges 
have  been  built  by  the  local  carpenters,  who  are 
■accustomed  to  the  construction  of  roofs  of  consider- 
able span  for  the  commodious  sqiiare-built  wooden 
cottages  with  overhanging  roofs,  so  common  in  that 
coimtry.  Frame-bridges  of  more  complex  structure 
are  sometimes  built;  in  some  of  these,  the  timbers 
are  framed  so  as  to  present  an  arched  foi-m.  In 
these  cases,  the  structure  is  very  similar  to  those 
described  and  figured  under  Centering.  The  serious 
defect  of  all  such  bridges  is  their  liability  to  decay 
from  exposure  to  moisture,  &c.,  especially  at  the 
joiuts,  where  water  is  apt  to  lodge  and  remain,  from 
want  of  free  circulation  of  air  to  evaporate  it.  In 
the  bridge  of  Schafl'hausen  above  described,  it  was 
foimd  that  when  it  had  stood  but  26  years,  the 
oak-beams,  where  they  rested  on  the  m.asonry  at  a 
and  6,  fig.  2,  were  rotted,  and  the  frames  began  to 
settle.  This  was  remeilied  by  a  carpenter  named 
Spengler,  who  raised  the  whole  structiu'e  upon 
piles  by  means  of  screw-jacks,  and  replaced  the 
decayed  wood.  Means  should  be  adopted  to  .admit 
the  free  circulation  of  air  in  those  parts  where  the 
timber  rests  upon  the  masonry,  and  to  prevent 
water  from  settling  in  the  timber  jomts.  The 
covered  bridges  of  Lucerne  and  other  ]).arts  of 
.Switzerland  are  well  known  as  objects  of  speci.al 
interest  to  toiu-ists,  who  usually  imagine  th.at  the 
roofs  are  made  for  the  comfort  of  travellers,  but 
their  ni.ain  object  is  the  preservation  of  the  bridge. 

FRAMING,  the  jointing,  putting  together,  or 
building  up  of  any  kind  of  artificers'  work.  The 
framing  of  timber  generally  is  described  under 
Carpentry,  and  special  kinds  of  framing  luider 
Centering,  Dock,  Floors,  Frame-bridge,  Taiiti- 
TiON.s,  Roofs,  &e.  In  such  trades  as  mathem.atical, 
ojrtical,  philosophical,  and  other  complex  instrument- 
making,  the  workman  who  does  fiat-filed  work,  and 
fits  .all  the  ji.arts,  and  puts  the  whole  instrument 
together,  is  called  the  /miner,  and  his  vrork/iaming. 


h 


Q 


FRAMLINGHAJI— FRANCE. 


In  the  watch-trade,  the  man  who 
frames  all  the  parts  together,  and 
builds  up  the  watch,  is  called  a  lin- 
isher,  and  his  work  is  called  tiuishinj;, 
thouf;h  it  corresponds  with  what  is 
called  framing  in  other  trades. 

FRA'MLINGHAM,  or  'Stranjjers' 
Town,'  a  town  in  the  east  of  Suffolk, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ore,  14  miles 
north-north-east  of  Ipswich.  It  con- 
sists of  a  large  market-place,  from 
which  a,  few  streets  irregidarly  branch 
o\it.  The  chvirch  is  built  of  black 
flint  and  stone,  and  contains  the  monu- 
ments of  Thomas  Howard,  third  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  and  of  his  duchess,  and  of 
the  unfortunate  Henry  Howard,  Earl 
of  [Surrey,  and  of  his  coimtess.  Here 
are  the  remains  of  a  castle  with  thirteen 
srpiare  towers,  where  Queen  Mary  re- 
tired after  the  death  of  her  brother, 
Edward  VI.     Pop.  (1871)  2509. 

FRANC,  a  French  silver  coin  and 
money  of  account,  which  (since  I'fo, 
when  it  supplanted  the  livre  Toumois) 
forms  the  unit  of  the  French  monetary 
system,  and  has  also  been  adopted  as 
such  by  Belgium  and  Switzerland.  The 
franc  is  coined  of  silver,  nine-tenths 
tine,  and  weighs  five  grammes,  its  value 
being  about  9\il.  One  pound  sterling 
=  2r)-2  francs.  The  franc  is  divided 
into  100  centimes,  but  the  old  division 
into  20  sous  is  still  made  nse  of  in 
common  life.  There  are  in  France 
silver  coins  of  j,  -1,  1,  2,  and  5  francs  ; 
and  gold  pieces  of  20  and  40  francs. 
Italy  has  also  adopted  the  French 
money-system,  only  that  the  franc  is 
called  ii'ra  luiova. 

FRANCAVI'LLA,  a  town  of  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Otranto,  is  situated 
on  an  elevation  22  miles  south-west  of 
Brindisi.  It  is  well  built,  has  a  college, 
three  hospitals,  and  several  convents  ; 
has  manufactures  of  woollens,  cottons, 
and  earthenware,  and,  with  its  depen- 
dent villages,  has  a  population  of 
15,300. 

FRANCE,  the  most  westerly  por- 
tion of  Centnal  Europe,  extends  from 
42'  20'  to  51°  5'  N.  lat.,  and  from  8° 
15'  E.  long,  to  4°  54'  W.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Channel  and 
the  Straits  of  Dover,  which  separate 
it  from  England,  by  Belgium,  the 
grand  duchy  of  Luxembourg,  and  the 
Ithenish  provinces  of  Prussia ;  on  the 
E.  by  the  newly  annexed  German 
provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  by 
several  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  and  by 
Italy  ;  on  the  S.  bj'  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  dominions  of  Spain,  from  which 
it  is  separated  l)y  the  Pvrenees ;  and  on 
the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  (the  Bay  of 
Biscay).  The  greatest  length  of  F., 
measured  from  Dunkirk  in  the  north  to 
the  Col  do  Falgueres  in  the  south,  is 
about  620  miles ;  and  its  greatest 
breadth,  from  east  to  west,  measm-ed 
from  the  new  boundary  line  in  the 
Vosges  to  Cape  St  Matthieu,  in  Finis- 
terre,  is  .about  550  miles.  Its  circum- 
ference, inclusive  of  sinuosities,  is  esti- 
iu.atud  at  ne.irly  3100  miles,   or  5U0U 


Old  Province!.; 

Chief  Towns. 

Depnrunents. 

Area  In 
Hoctarei. 

*opulatioD 
lu  IH73. 

/ 

1.  Seine,    . 

47,500 

2,220,060 

1.   Ile         he) 

JtlUNCE.      J 

2.  Scine-et-Oise,    , 

560,337 

530,130 

Paris.             -l 

3.  Seinc-et-Marne,     . 

558,575 

341,490 

4.  Oise,  . 

583,(167 

396,804 

5.  Aisne,    .        ,        . 

735,747 

652,439 

f 

6.  Ardennes,  .        • 

5J5.747 

3211,217 

2.  CuAwrAOSE.  1 

Chalons-sur-J 

7.  Marne,    . 

818,038 

380,157 

Maine,       | 

8.  .Marne  (Uaute), . 

625,403 

251,190 

9.  Aubc,     . 

602,212 

255,687 

? 

10.  Jleuse, 

621,618 

284.725 

3.    LORBAINE. 

Nancy.          -; 

11.  Jleurthc-et-Mosello, 

650,000 

365,137 

I 

12.  Vosges, 

550,000 

392.988 

4.  Fl-ANDERS.       '\ 

5.  AUTOIM.                J- 
G.    TlCAEUr.          J 

( 

13.  Nord, 

567,863 

1,447,764 

LiUc.             ■{ 

14.  Pas  de  Calais, 

060,426 

761,158 

\ 

15.  Somme, 

61.i,983 

557,015 

IG.  Seine-Iiifoiicure,  . 

603,403 

790,022 

17.  Eure,  . 

691,261 

377,874 

7.    NottMANDT. 

Rouen.         -{ 

18.  Calvados, 

551,766 

4.54,012 

19  La  MancUe, 

577,178 

544,776 

20.  Orne,     . 

010,068 

398,250 

} 

21.  Finisterre, . 

607,068 

642,963 

22.  Morbihan, 

681,704 

490,352 

8.  Brittany. 

Kcnncs. 

23.  C6tes-du-Nord,  . 

744,073 

622,295 

21.  lUe-et-Vilainc,       . 

672,848 

589,532 

25.  Loire-lnfurieure, 

687,441 

602,206 

/ 

26.  Vendue,  . 

671,023 

401,446 

9.  FoiTou, 

Nante?.         < 

27.  Sims  (Deux;, 

659,'J!)5 

331,243 

\ 

28.  Vienne, 

697,301 

32I1,5J8 

10.  Anjou. 

Angers. 

-9.  Mainc-et-Loire,     . 

712,563 

51S,47l 

11,  Maine. 

Le  Mans.      J 

30.  Mayenne,  .        . 

31.  Sarthe,  . 

516,200 
020,397 

350,037 
446,603 

12.  ANG0UM013,    *\ 

AuNis,  and  \- 
St  Ange.   J 

13.  TOUUAINE. 

La  Roche  lie.  | 

33.  Charente,  . 

33.  Charente-Inferieure, 

588,803 
716,814 

367,520 
41.5,053 

Tours. 

34.  Indre-et-I.oire,  . 

611.309 

317,027 

c 

35.  Loir-et-Cher, 

035.0U2 

268,801 

14.    Om-tANNAIB. 

Orleans.        -< 

36.  Kure-et-Loir,     . 

586,921 

282,622 

\ 

37.  Loiret, 

676,612 

353,021 

15.    NlVBRNAI''. 

Nevcrs. 

38.  NiOvre,  .    . 

686,619 

339,917 

16.    IJOURUONSAIS. 

Moulins. 

39.  Allii-r,    . 

742,272 

390,813 

17.  Maecub. 

Gui-ret. 

40.  Creuse,       .        . 

5;a,455 

274,663 

13.  Berry. 

Bourges. 

41.  Cher,      . 

42.  Inilie, 

740,125 
701,661 

335,392 
277,693 

19.  Limousin. 

Limoges. 

43.  Vienne  (llautc),    . 

44.  Corri>2e,     . 

651,733 
58D,G21 

322,447 
302,746 

20.    AfVERGNE. 

Clermont     ■ 

45.  Cantal,  . 

46.  Puy-de-DOnie,  . 

674,146 
800,079 

231,867 
506,463 

21.  Ltunnais. 

Lyon.            i 

47.  Loire,     . 

48.  Rhone, 

477,018 
281,356 

550,611 
670,247 

V 

49.  Aiti, 

684,822 

363,290 

22.  Burgundy. 

Dijon.           ■< 

50.  Saone-et-Loire,  , 

51.  Cutc-d'Or,      . 

855,018 
876,956 

59S,34i 
374,510 

[ 

52.  Yonne, 

730,916 

36;J,(i08 

23.    Franchei 

COMTE.         / 

Besan^on.    -< 

63.  Sa6ne  (Haute),      . 
54.  Jura,  . 
65.  Doubs,  . 

631,000 
603,364 
622,895 

303,088 
287,634 
291,251 

24.  Alsace. 

Bclfovt. 

56.  Khiii  (BelfortDist.),* 

250,000 

56,781 

f 

57.  Is^re,     . 

841,230 

675,734 

25.  DAurniNE. 

Gi-enoble.     -I 

58.  Drome, 

653,557 

320,417 

\ 

59.  Alpes  (Uautes),     . 

553,418 

]1»,S98 

> 

00.  Ardeche,     . 

651,227 

330,277 

61.  Loire  (Haute), 

495,784 

308,732 

62.  Lozere, 

516,666 

135,190 

2G.  Langubdoc.  i 

Montpcllier. 
louluuse. 

63.  Gard,      . 
61.  HC-iault,     . 

532,867 
630,905 

4211.131 
429,878 

65.  Tarn,      . 

576,821 

352,718 

G6.  Garonne  (Haute), 

629,601 

479.362 

67.  Aude, 

631,667 

285,927 

; 

68.  Avcyron, 

832,171 

402,474 

69.  Lot,     . 

398,406 

281,404 

27.    GCIE-\NE. 

Bordeaux.     < 

70.  Doi-dogne,     , 

71.  Tarn-et-Garonne, 

915,000 
371,764 

430,141 
221,610 

72.  Lot-et-Garonne,    . 

634,628 

319,289 

[ 

73.  Gironde,     . 

1,082,532 

705,149 

FCngaeux.  -j 

74.  Les  Landcs,  . 

985.273 

3f0,528 

28.  Gascont. 

75.  Gers,  . 

627,870 

284,717 

76.  Pyr«n(Ses  (Haute), 

464,531 

235,156 

29.    Beahn    and ) 
Navarre,  i 

Pau. 

77.  PyrdntJes  (Basse.-), 

752,513 

426,700 

30.  Foix. 

Foi.t. 

78.  AriOge,  . 

478,401 

216,293 

3!.    ROUSSILLO*. 

I'cipignan. 

79.  PyienC-cs (Ciientales) 

411,370 

191,856 

32.  A  V  iONON.\ 

'     V  E  N  A  I  S  3 1 S  A 

Avignon. 

80.  Vaucluse, 

359,640 

263,451 

and  Orakob.J 

Marseille,     -l 

81.  Rhone  (Bouchcs-du-), 

601,960 

554,911 

ZZ.  FnovESCE. 

82.  Alpes  (Basses),      . 

690,919 

139,333 

83.  Var,    . 

729,628 

293,767 

31.  Corsica, 

Bastia. 

84.  Corse,    . 

994,741 

353,507 

35.  Savoy. 

Chambeiy.    | 

85.  Savoie, 

86.  Savoie  (Hautel, 

642,074 
451,482 

267,958 
273,027 

36.  Nice. 

Nice. 

87.  Alpes  Maritimes, 

429,874 

199,037 

*  Accortlinpr  to  tho  most  recent  official  departmental  subdivision  of  France, 
Eelfort  is  to  bo  incorporated  wiih  ilaute-Saone,  and  henceforth  the  number 
of  the  departmeuti  is  to  be  SG. 


FRANCE. 


kiloniMres,  of  which  m-arly  the  half  is  coinposcJ  of 
maritime  coast-lines,  which  are  subdiviiUd  iu  the  pro- 
portion of  about  GOO  kilom.  on  the  Mcilitcrranean, 
930  kilom.  oa  the  Atlantic'auJ  about  UiO  kilom.  on 
the  northern  frontiers.  The  siH)erlici;J  area^  of  F., 
including  the  two  Savoy  ])roviuce3,  aud  Corsica, 
a  department  of  the  republic,  but  e.\cludin;j;  the 
departments  of  the  B:ui-lvlun  and  the  other  terri- 
tories lost  to  F.  liy  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded 
with  Germany  in  1S71,  is  reckoned  at  about  SOl.l'iOO 
sq.  miles.  The  possessions  of  F.  which  arc  situ- 
ated iu  non-European  parts  of  the  world,  have  a 
totiU  superficial  area  of  -163,827  sq.  miles,  and  the 
largest  is  Al;;eria,  with  an  area  of  -.'oS.SlO  sq.  miles. 
F.  13  divided  into  cij;hty-six  departments  (inclusive 
of  Savoy  and  Nice),  most  of  which  have  been 
named  from  the  rivers  or  mountains  by  which  they 
are  intersected.  The  foregoing  table  gives  the 
names  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  F.,  with  the  cor- 
responiling  dciiartments,  their  chief  towns,  areas  in 
hectares,  and  the  population  for  1S7'2,  according  to 
the  BMdiii  dcs  Lois  dc  la  Itc'jmhUque  Fi-ai>i-aise. 

By  the  treaties  with  Germany  of  February  and 
May  1S71,  F.  lost  1,447,-lGG  hectares  of  laud,  aud 
1,597,228  inhabitants,  comprised  within  1GS9  com- 
munes, and  distributed  over  five  departments. 
These  losses  included  the  whole  of  the  old  depart- 
ment of  the  Bas-Ehin,  two  arroudissements  with  a 
fraction  of  the  third  (Belfort)  of  the  deiiartmeut  of 
the  Haut-Uhiu,  the  gi-eater  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Jloselle,  together  with  a  number  of 
cantons  and  communes  iu  the  department  of  the 
Meurthe  and  Vosges.  The  portions  of  the  two 
departments  of  the  Meurthe  and  filoselle  remain- 
ing to  F.  have  been  incorporated  into  one.  The 
area  of  F.  is  now  (1S73)  given  at  52,875,100  hectares, 
and  the  total  population,  exclusive  of  Algeria  and 
her  colonies,  at  36,102,921. 

Clikf  Cities. — The  following  tabic  gives  the  popu- 
lations of  some  of  the  largest  cities  of  F.  in  1872  : 

P.-ins,  the  capital, 1,800.000 

Lyon, 32:i,l)UO 

Marseille 300,000 

Bordeaux 194,000 

Lille 154,000 

Toulouse 129,000 

Nantes 111,000 

Eouen,       ....               .  100,000 

The  provinces  of  Savoy  and  Nice  were  ceded  to 
F.  by  Sanlinia,  in  accordance  -n-ith  a  treaty  between 
the  two  governments,  signed  in  1861.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  non-European  dependencies  of 
France : 


Area  in 

PonulaVion 
ill  1872. 

Hectares. 

In  Africa— 

Algeria 

39,000,000 

3,000,000 

SencRul  and  its  Dependencies, 

undetined 

2('0,000 

He  de  RC'union  and  Ste  Marie,    , 

230,000 

170,000 

Nossi-BC  and  Mayoltc,   . 

50,000 

45,000 

In  Aiia— 

East  Indian  Possessions,    . 

50,000 

170,000 

Cochin  China, .... 

2.200,000 

1,000,000 

In  Amrrica— 

Martinique,         .... 

98,00() 

125,000 

Guadeloupe  and  its  Dependencies, 

105,000 

161,000 

Guiana, 

1,000,000 

25,000 

St  Pierre  and  Mlquclon, . 

20,000 

3,000 

In  Oceania — 

Marquesas  and  other  islands,     . 

117,000 

10,000 

New  Caledonia, 

900,000 

30,000 

The  total  superficial  area  of  the  French  colonies, 
including  Algeria,  and  reckoning  the  districts  under 
Freiich  protection,  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  50 
millions  of  hectares,  aud  the  popidatiou  at  about  -il 
millions;  but  of  the  latter  number  more  than  ?,\ 
millions  are  natives  and  savages,  or  belong  to  only 


half-civilised  races.  The  methods  employed  in 
tiikiug  the  census  are,  moreover,  so  ditierent  in  the 
diU'ercnt  colonies,  that  the  results  are  not  entirely 
beyond  question  ;  while  the  Umits  of  French  ])ro- 
tectorate  authority  have  been  very  considerably 
diminished  of  late  years  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
and  in  Africa  also,  if  we  except  Algeria. 

Population. — The  population  of  F.  has  not  exhi- 
bited the  same  rate  of  increase  as  other  lirst-class 
European  jiowers  diu'ing  the  present  century,  for 
while  the  jiopulation  of  Great  Britain  has  nearly 
doubled  within  the  last  fifty  years,  that  of  F. 
scarcely  shews  an  increase  of  40  per  cent,  for  tho 
same  periotL  At  present  it  is  almost  stationary, 
the  births  shewing  a  tendency  to  decrease  rather 
than  increase. 

The  following  table  shews  the  condition  of  the 
population  from  the  beginning  of  the  century  to  the 
date  of  the  latest  census : 


Year  of 

Annunl 

Ceiisul. 

Foitulatloo. 

IncrcBio. 

1801,        . 

27,349,003 

149,941 

1800, 

.     29,107,425 

351,685 

1821,       . 

30,461,875 

90.393 

1S26, 

.    31,8.i8,937 

279,415 

1831,       . 

32,509,223 

171.787 

1838, 

.     33,540,901 

194,337 

1841,       . 

34,217,719 

135,363 

1846, 

.     35,400,486 

236,553 

1851,       . 

36,783.170 

76,587 

1856, 

.     36,039,304 

61,238 

1861,       . 

37,382,225 

268,572 

1866, 

.     38,067,094 

136,186 

1872,       . 

30,102,921 

The  decline  of  popidation  between  the  census  of 
May  1S6G  and  of  May  1872  is  1,0(;4,273,  of  which 
1,597,219  is  due  to  the  loss  of  the  different  territories 
annexed  by  conquest  to  the  German  empire.  Tho 
remainder  is  due  partly  to  losses  in  the  war,  and 
partly  to  an  absolute  decrease  in  the  pojitUation  of 
73  dejiartments,  no  increase  being  perceptible  in 
more  than  13  of  the  present  86  dejiartments  of  F. 

Coast,  Islands,  and  Frontier. — The  north-north- 
west coast  is  generally  iiTegular,  indented  with 
numerous  bays,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Bay  of 
St  Malo,  the  archipelago  of  Brehat,  &c.  The  west- 
south-west  coast  is  more  lofty  and  precipitous,  and 
is  interspersed  with  isolated  rocks  aud  promontories ; 
while  south  of  the  Loire  it  is  low,  and  lined  with 
salt  marshes  to  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  where  it 
again  assumes  a  rocky  character.  Here  lie  tho 
islands  of  Ushant  (Ouessant),  Belleisle,  Noirmoutier, 
Isle  d'Yeu,  B.6,  Oleron,  &c.  The  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, which  is  broken  by  lagoons  or  shore-lakes, 
is  low  till  it  has  passed  Toulon,  after  which  it 
becomes  bolder.  The  only  islands  off  the  shore 
ai-e  the  Hyftres,  near  Toulon ;  the  larger  island  of 
Corsica  (q.v.)  lies  north  of  Sardinia.  The  Mediter- 
ranean here  forms  two  bays  or  gulfs,  as  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons  aud  the  Gtdf  of  Genoa,  which  belonj^ 
only  in  part  to  France.  The  land  frontiers  of  F. 
are  formed  on  the  side  of  Spain  by  the  Pyrenees ; 
on  that  of  Italy  aud  Switzerland,  by  the  Alps  and 
Jura  chain  ;  on  the  north-east,  the  frontier  line  is 
unprotected  by  natural  boimdaries,  and  since  the 
loss  of  Alsace  aud  Lorraine  is  no  longer  defended,  as 
before  the  war  of  1870—1871,  by  strong  fortresses. 
:"  Plains. — The  chief  plains  are  those  of  Burgundy, 
and  of  the  oceanic  district,  embracing  the  lower 
basins  of  the  Seine,  Loire,  aud  Garonne.  There  are 
four  great  mountain  chains  belonging  to  France — 
the  Pyrenees  (q.  v.),  which  separate  tho  French 
territory  from  Spain  ;  the  Ccvenno-Vosgian  range, 
formed  of  the  Ccveunes  (q.  v.),  running  e.ast  and 
west  between  the  llhone  and  Loire,  and  the  Vosges, 
running  north  and  south  between  the  Moselle  and 
the  new  boundary  line  ;  the  Alps  (q.  v.),  which 
separate  the  Swiss  territory  fiom  the  provinces  of 


FRANCE. 


Savoy  and  Nice ;  and  the  Sardo-Corsican  range, 
■which  belongs,  as  the  name  implies,  to  the  islands 
of  Sardinia  and  Corsica.  The  highest  peaks  in  the 
Pyrenees  are  the  Maladettaand  Mont  Perdu  (10,886 
feet  and  10,994  feet* ;  in  the  Ceveuno-Vosgian 
range,  the  greatest  height  (the  Widilerkalm)  does 
not  greatly  exceed  700U  feet.  The  French  portion 
of  the  Alps  now  includes  several  of  the  highest 
mountains  and  most  elevated  passes  of  the  range, 
as  Mont  Blanc,  15,744  feet ;  Mont  Iseran,  13,272 
feet;  Mont  Cenis,  11,457  feet;  and  the  pass  of 
Little  St  Bernard,  7190  feet,  &c.  In  Corsica,  the 
highest  peak  rises  to  an  elevation  of  9000 
feet.  The  grand  water-shed  of  F.  is  the  Cevenno- 
Vosges  chain,  which  determines  the  direction  of 
the  four  great  rivers,  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the 
Garonne,  and  the  Rhone  ;  the  first  three  of  which 
flow  north-west  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  or  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  and  the  fourth  iuto  the  Gulf  of 
Lj'ons.  Besides  these,  the  more  important  streams 
are  the  Moselle,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt  or  Escaut  (all 
of  which  soon  leave  France,  and  flow  into  the 
Netherlands,  or  Germany) ;  the  Somme  and  Orne 
(belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Seine) ;  the  Vilaine 
and  the  Charente  (belonging  to  the  basin  of  the 
Loire) ;  the  Oise,  the  Aube,  the  Yonue,  and  the 
Marne,  which  are  the  chief  affluents  of  the  Seine  ; 
the  Sarthc,  the  Loirct,  the  Allier,  aud  the  Maine,  of 
the  Loire ;  the  Dordogne,  the  Lot,  the  Tarn,  aud 
the  Adour,  of  the  Garonne ;  and  the  Saonc,  the  Isere, 
and  the  Durance,  of  the  Rhone. 

The  entire  extent  of  river  navigation  in  F.  amounts 
to  5500  miles,  or  8,900,000  metres,  while  the  99 
larger  canals,  which  have  been  constructed  either 
to  connect  these  river-courses  or  to  supply  entirely 
new  chaimels  of  water-communication,  extend  over 
a  length  of  2900  miles,  or  4,700,000  metres.  The 
most  important  of  these  works  are  the  canals 
connecting  Nantes,  and  Brest,  and  the  Rhone  with 
the  Rhine,  and  those  of  Ben-y,  Nivernais,  and 
Bourgogne.  F.  possesses  only  one  lake  of  any 
importance,  Le  Grand-Lieu,  a  little  to  the  south 
of  Nantes,  which  has  an  area  of  about  14,300 
acres ;  but  the  country  abounds  in  salt  marshes  or 
ponds,  more  especially  iu  the  districts  of  Gascony, 
Roussillon,  and  Languedoc. 

F.  is  peculiarly  rich  in  mineral  springs,  of  which 
there  are  said  to  be  nearly  1000  in  use.  Of  these, 
more  than  400  are  situated  iu  the  group  of  the 
Pyrenees,  where  there  are  93  establishments  for 
their  sj'stematic  use.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
are,  moreover,  fully  4000  springs  not  hitherto 
employed. 

Geology,  ir. — F.  presents  a  great  variety  of 
geological  formations,  but  although  we  meet  with 
an  almost  complete  succession  of  all  the  stratified 
and  non-stratitied  formations,  they  are  distributed 
with  gi-eat  inequality.  Thus,  for  instance,  while 
nearly  one-third  of  the  sod  is  composed  of  tertiary 
formations,  a  mere  fi'actioual  jiart  only  is  made 
up  of  coal-beds.  A  belt  of  primary  rocks,  forming 
the  skeleton  of  some  portions  of  the  Vosges,  Alps, 
and  Pyrenees,  and  of  the  great  plateaux  of  Brittany 
and  La  Vendee,  encircles  the  great  central  basin 
iu  which  rises  the  volcanic  formation  of  the  moun- 

EXTEKT  OF  LAND  OCCUPIED  IN  1315,  1330,  1845,  AND  1869. 


tains  of  Auvergne,  with  their  extinct  craters,  lava- 
streams,  &c.  The  spaces  between  this  external 
breast-work  and  its  volcanic  nucleus  is  occupied 
by  secondary  and  tertiary  formations.  Alluvial 
deposits  are  met  with  in  all  the  valleys,  but  they 
occur  in  extensive  beds  only  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Dunkirk  and  Xiort,  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
ilediterranean.  According  to  il.  Maurice  Block's 
estimate,  the  physical  and  agricidtural  character 
of  the  soil  of  F.  may  be  comprised  imder  the 
following  heads : 


Mountninoos  districts,  heaths,  and  commons, 

Kich  land, 

Clialk  or  lime  (Hetricts 

Gravel,  stony,  and  pandy, 


Hectitrci. 
9.944,839 
7,276,369 
^1,788,197 
lo, 951, 018 


Clay,  marshy,  miscellaneous,     ,       .       .       ,     9,807,577 

52,768,600 

The  same  writer  further  subdivides  the  soil  of  F. 
according  to  its  actual  employment  under  the 
following  heads ; 

Per  cent,  of 
tlio  whole  nrvjL 

Arable  lands 48-3 

Mealow  lands,    .......  97 

Vineyards, 37 

Cultivated  lands, 17'8 

Roads,  streets,  public  walks,  &c-,          .        .        .  3*7 

Forests  and  unproductive  lands,       •        .        .  16'3 

Climate. — F.  possesses  one  of  the  finest  climates 
in  Europe,  although,  owing  to  its  great  extent  of 
area,  very  considerable  diversities  of  temperature 
are  to  be  met  with  ;  thus,  for  instance,  the  north- 
east parts  of  the  country  have  a  continental,  and 
the  north-west  parts  an  oceanic  climate,  resem- 
bling those  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain ;  while 
the  Mediterranean  districts  are  exposed  at  times 
to  the  ravages  of  the  burning  winds  which  have 
passed  over  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and  to  the 
destructive  north-west  wind  known  as  the  vtislral, 
which  often  does  great  injury  to  the  fields  near 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  and  Var.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  different  parts  of  F.  has  been 
estimated  as  follows  by  Humboldt :  Toulon,  62° 
F. ;  MarseUle,  59-5°;  Bordeaux,  56°;  Nantes,  55-2°; 
Paris,  51-2'' ;  Dunkirk,  50-5°. 

Products. — Of  the  vegetable  products  of  F.,  which, 
from  varied  climatic  and  geognostic  relations,  are 
necessarily  characterised  by  great  abundance  and 
diversity,  the  most  generally  cultivated  are  the 
cereals,  the  vine,  chestnuts,  olives,  culinary  fruits 
and  vegetables,  hops,  beet-root  for  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  tobacco,  madder,  chicory,  flax,  &c.  In 
1802,  the  yield  of  wheat  in  F.  was  116  millions  of 
hectolitres,  the  maximum  annual  quantity  .as  yet 
on  record.  During  the  last  50  years,  the  import- 
ation of  cereals  has  so  far  exceeded  the  supplies  for 
home  consumption  and  exportation,  as  to  leave  F. 
the  loser  by  850  milhons  of  francs.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat  has  gradually  increased  during  the 
last  fifty  years,  but  that  of  rye,  barley,  and  maize 
has  exhibited  little  variation ;  while  the  growth  of 
potatoes  has  been  most  extensively  .augmented 
during  the  same  period.  The  following  table  shews 
the  fluctuations  to  which  these  aJimentary  sub- 
stances have  been  subjected  : 

QUiXTITV  YIELDED   IS  1815,  1830,  1845,  AND  1369. 


1815. 
Heciarei. 

1330. 
Bectarei. 

1845. 

HcctarM. 

1869. 
Hccurcf. 

By  Wheat,     . 
M  Rye,    .  —    . 
„  Barley  and  Oats, 
<r  5I:iize, 
11  Potatoes, 

4,591.677 

2.500,000 

1,100,000 

514,!;i3 

600,000 

5,011,704 

2,500,000 

1,100,000 

693,000 

800,000 

5,743,135 

2,500,000 

1,200,000 

730,000 

925,000 

6,900,000 

2,100.000 

1,400,000 

600,000 

100,000 

1816. 
ncctolltrei. 

39,460,971 
25,700,000 
14,600,000 
5,630,000 
21,600,000 


1830. 
Hectolitres. 
52,782.093 
32,440,000 
17,600,000 
6,600,000 
54,835,167 


1845. 
Hectolitres. 
71,963.-280 
30,000,000 
13,400.000 
8,000,000 
"7,900,000 


18G9. 
Hectolitres. 

108,000,000 
24,000.000 
90.000,000 
10,000,000 

100,000,000 


The    mean   annual    yields   of    these    productions 
may  be  estimated  as  follows  :    Wheat,   73,000,000 


hectolitres ;     rj'e,     22,000,000    hectolitres ;    barley 
and  oats,  40,000,000  hectolitres  ;   maize,  9,100,000 


FKANCE. 


hectolitres;  potatoes,  95,0(X),000  hectolitres.'  The 
sulnlivision  of  farms,  the  short  leases  (of  less 
than  10  years)  on  which  the  majority  are  let,  and 
the  small  number  of  the  great  laiul-owners  who 
resiilc  on  their  estates,  have  hitherto  tended  to 
chock  the  progress  of  agriculture  in  France.  Agri- 
cultural exhibitions  have  been  hold  since  ISJO; 
3Gl),000  francs  are  annually  given  in  prizes,  &c.  ; 
and'  there  are  now  ne.irly  one  thousand  agricultural 
associations  in  different  parts  of  France. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  beet-root,  which 
took  its  origin  during  the  great  wars  of  the  early 
part  of  the  century,  lias  been  prosecuteil  with  much 
vigour  during  the  last  50  years,  and  about  loD 
millions  of  kilogrammes  t  are  annually  manufactured. 
Since  the  appearance  of  the  vine-disease,  beet-root 
has  been  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol;  and  in  1S57,  the  quantity  prepared 
amounted  to  429,()00  hectolitres.  The  cultivation  is 
almost  limited  to  the  north  and  east;  hemp  and  flax 
arc  grown  chietly  in  the  northern,  but  also  in  the 
south-western  departments.  The  entire  produc- 
tion of  hemp  was  estimated  in  1S42  at  67,507,076 
kilogrammes,  worth  86,287,300  francs  ;  and  that  of 
flax  at  36,875,400  kilogrammes,  worth  57,507,400 
francs.  Since  that  period,  there  has  been  little 
difference  in  the  home  production,  but  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  importation  of  foreign  flax  and 
hemp ;  the  average  annual  value  of  llax,  for  the 
period  between  1857  and  1S66,  being  46  millions, 
and  of  hemp  S  millions  of  francs.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  mulberry-tree  derives  importance  from 
its  bearing  on  the  production  of  silk.  In  1858, 
the  department  du  Gard  had  monopolised  nearly 
half  the  culture  of  these  trees,  which  in  its 
aggregate  amount  has  continued  unchanged.  From 
its  connection  with  the  mulberry,  we  here  refer  to 
the  production  of  silk,  which  began  at  the  opening 
of  the  17th  c,  and  which  iu  1790  had  reached  such 
Tast  dimensions,  that  the  produce  at  that  period 
was  already  6V  million  kilogrammes  of  cocoons, 
worth  16^  million  francs.  Since  that  period,  it  has 
exhibited  great  variations.  From  1840  to  1853,  the 
production  continued  steadily  to  increase  from  17 
to  26  millions  of  kilogrammes  ;  but  the  diseases 
to  which  the  silkworm  has  been  liable  since  that 
period  have  reduced  the  yield  of  silk  to  so  great 
an  extent,  that  in  1857  it  scarcely  amounted  to 
7  millions  of  cocoons.  Raw  silk,  since  the  abate- 
ment of  this  disease,  has  again  assumed  its  place 
among  the  chief  sources  of  industrial  wealth  in  V. ; 
and,  besides  the  enormous  quantity  consumed  in 
home  manufactures,  the  annual  exports  for  the 
period  between  1857  and  1866  amounted  on  an 
average  to  69  millions  of  francs. 

The  vine  has,  from  a  very  early  period,  consti- 
tuted one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  agricultural 
wealth  of  France.  The  choicest  mnes  are  grown  in 
the  Burdelais,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  but  some 
excellent  kinds  are  produced  on  the  banks  of  the 
Loire,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  departments. 
The  breadth  of  soil  devoted  to  this  culture  fluctu- 
ates, but  may  be  stated  at  about  2,000,000  hectares. 
The  mean  produce  for  every  hectare  was,  in  1788, 
21  hectolitres  21  litres  ;  iu  1829,  27  hectolitres  20 
litres ;  in  1850,  32  hectolitres  35  litres.  In  recent 
times,  the  fungus  known  as  the  oidium,  which  has 
attacked  the  vme,  has  inflicted  such  serious  damage 
on  the  plant,  that  in  1854  (the  worst  year),  the 
hectare  yielded  5  hectolitres,  instead  of  the  average 
quantity  of  23  hectolitres.  The  following  table  will 
shew  some  of  the  annual  yields  between  the  years 
1808  and  1869 : 

*  Tlic  hectolitre  equals  2'75  bushels. 

+  The  kilogramme  equals  2'2  lbs.  avoirdupois. 


rnont'cnoN  op  wise. 


1808, 
18-^9 
1S13, 


.    28,000,000 

30.973,000 

.    61,6J3,150 


1 85 1, 

1S58, 
18G9, 


npclolitrfi, 
10.7.S;i.8'19 

45,Slir).nO0 
Cl'.OUU.OOO 


The  average  yearly  produce  of  the  vineyards  of 
F.  is  estim.atcd  at  about  50  millions  of  hectolitres 
(about  1000  millions  of  g.allons).  Of  this,  about  Jth 
is  made  into  brandy.  F.  consumes  nearly  all  the 
wine  raised  on  her  soil;  the  annual  exports  being 
on  an  average  little  more  than  2  millions  of  hecto- 
litres, valued  at  about  218  millions  of  francs,  for 
the  years  between  1S57  and  1860— the  Latest  period 
in  regard  to  which  we  possess  offici.al  information. 

The  principal  forest-trees  are  the  chestnut  and 
beech  on  the  central  mountains,  the  oak  and  cork 
tree  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  lir  in  the  Landes.  The 
destruction  of  the  national  forests  has  been  enormous 
within  the  last  two  centuries,  but  measures  have 
been  taken  in  recent  years  to  pl.ant  wood,  in 
order  to  protect  those  mountain  slopes  which  .are 
exposed  to  inundations  from  .alpine  torrents,  and  to 
provide  a  supply  for  the  ever-increasing  demand  of 
wood  for  purposes  of  fuel.  About  one-seventh  of 
the  entire  territory  of  F.  is  still  covered  with 
wood.  Turf  taken  from  the  marshy  lands  is  exten- 
sively used,  more  especially  in  the  rural  districts, 
for  fuel. 

Animals. — F.  is  not  so  well  stocked  with  domestic 
animals  as  her  gi-eat  resources  might  warrant  ns  in 
assuming  that  she  ought  to  be.  During  the  50 
years  intervening  from  1812  to  1S02,  the  numbers 
of  horned  cattle  have  almost  doubled  in  France. 
According  to  the  census  of  1866 — the  most  recent 
in  regard  to  animals — there  were  in  F.  ,3,312,037 
horses,  518,000  asses,  330,000  mules,  12,733,000 
horned  cattle,  30,386,000  sheep,  5,500,000  swine, 
and  1,680,000  goats.  There  were,  according  to  the 
Statistique  A'jrkole  for  1858,  about  3  millions  of 
bee-hives,  valued  at  rather  more  than  24  millions 
of  francs  ;  the  mean  annual  returns  are,  for  honey, 
6,670,000,  and  for  wax,  1,020,000  kilogrammes. 
Poultry  constitutes  an  important  item  of  farm- 
produce  in  F.,  estimated  at  451  millions  of  francs  ; 
wliile  the  eggs  and  feathers  yield  351  millions  of 
francs.  The  wild  animals  are  fast  diminishing 
from  the  soil  of  F. ;  the  lynx  is  rarely  seen,  even 
among  the  higher  alpine  regions,  but  wolves  are 
still  numerous  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the 
central  departments ;  while  the  chamois  and  wild- 
goat,  as  well  as  the  marmot,  ermine,  and  hamster, 
are  found  among  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  Vosges. 
The  wild-boar,  roebuck,  fox,  squirrel,  polecat,  and 
marten  .arc  to  be  met  with  in  the  woods.  The 
red  and  fallow  deer  are  scarce  ;  hares  and  rabbits 
abound,  and  game  generally  is  plentiful.  The 
wanton  destruction  of  small  (singing)  birils  having 
been  found  to  be  conducive  to  the  excessive  increase 
of  noxious  insects,  stringent  munieijjal  enactments 
are  now  being  put  into  force  for  the  protection  of 
those  birds. 

Fisheries. — The  French  government  expends  be- 
tween three  and  four  millions  of  francs  annually 
in  aiding  those  engaged  in  the  great  fisheries.  The 
value  of  the  exports  of  fish  from  F.  (12  millions  of 
francs)  is  little  more  than  half  the  value  of  the 
imports.  There  are  no  official  reports  of  river  and 
other  fresh-water  fishing  in  F.,  or  of  the  minor 
fisheries  carried  on  along  the  co.asts,  which  con- 
stitute the  principal  means  of  occup.ation  and  sni> 
port  of  the  majority  of  the  local  population.  Pil- 
chards and  mackerel  are  caught  in  largo  quantities 
off  Normandy  and  Brittany.  The  west  coasts  have 
extensive  oyster  and  mussel  beds ;  tunnies  and 
anchovies  are  caught  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean.    The  following  table  shews  the  condition 


FRANCE. 


of  the  principal  branches  o£   the   tishing-trade   in 
1870: 


Cod  fisheries,    . 
Herring  fi^llerie8, 


Numhen  nf  men  cm... 

cmclojed.  Ship.. 

13,189  Ol 

.      9,709  G31 


Qnnnfilifj  in 

Metric  lj<ilii(.>li. 

359,016  * 

244,615 


Mineral  Products. — The  chief  mineral  protluets  of 
R  are  coal  and  iron,  in  the  excavation  of  which 
nearly    250,000    men     were    employed     in     I8GS. 
Although  F.  is  not  rich  in  coal,  it  jiossesses  several 
very   considerable    coal-beds,   which    are    situated 
princijially  in  the  east-south-east  and  north.     The 
supply   hitherto    has    not    equalled    the    demand ; 
although  in   ISGS — the  latest  period  determined — 
it  rose  to  the  enormous  amount  of  132  millions  of 
quintals.      Notwithstanding    this   home-supply,   it 
was    found    necessary   to    import    77    millions    of 
cpiintals   to   meet    the    increased    annual   demand, 
which,  before  the  late  war,   Iiad  risen   above  200 
millions  of  quintals,  while  in  1S.J2  it  was  stUl  inider 
120  millions.     The  iron  mines  of  F.  are  of  exceUent 
quality,  but  their  distance  from  the  fuel  necessary 
for  the  working  of  the  mineral,   renders  them  of 
relatively  small   value.     In   1S6S,   there  were    150 
mines   in   operation,    from   which    ',H\   millions   of 
quintals  were  taken ;  more  than  half  of  this  quan- 
tity being  obtained  from  the  five  departments  of 
Haute-Marne,    Haute-Saone,    Cher,    iSIoselle,    and 
Nord.     F.  imports  iron  from  Switzerland,  Germany, 
Belgium,   and   England.     Argentiferous    galena,    a 
little  silver  and  gold,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  anti- 
mony, and  tin  occur,  but  hitherto  their  working  has 
not  proved  very  jirodnctive.     iThe  department  of 
Charente-Inferieure  yields   the   largest   amount   of 
salt,   the   mean   annual   produce   being   li    million 
of  quintals   (25   millions  of  francs),  which  is  fully 
one-third  of  the  entire  annual  produce  of  the  whole 
country.     F.  derives   about   41    millions   of   francs 
from  its  quarries  of  granite  and  freestone,  its  kaolin, 
marbles,  sands,  lithographic  stones,  millstones,  &c. 
Granite  and  syenite  are  found  in  the  Alps,  Vosges, 
Corsica,   Normandy,   and   Burgundy;    porphyi-y   in 
the  Vosges,  and  basalt  and  lava  for  pavements  in 
the  mountains  of  Auvergne.    Marble  is  met  with  in 
more    than   40   departments;    alabaster   occurs   in 
the  Pyrenees;  the  largest  slate-quarries  are  situ- 
ated near  Cherbourg  aud  St  L6. 

The  following  list  gives  an  approximative  esti- 
mate of  the  value  of  the  chief  products  of  French 
industry : 


Millions  of  Francs. 

Linen  fabries, 

250 

Cotton      .,            

C50 

Woollen 

950 

Silk          

lOOO 

Mixed       

330 

Jewellery,  walebmaking,    . 

35 

Gilt-warea 

13 

Minerals,  mines,  salt,  itc.,    . 

COO 

Articles  of  food—as  sugar,  \\ines,  &c, 

361 

Sliins,  leather,  oils,  lob  icco. 

656 

Bone,  ivory,  isinglass,  itc,, 

30 

Chemical  products,       .        ,        ,        . 

80 

Ceramic  arts 

86 

Paper,  printing 

60 

Forests,  fisheries 

88 

Iiidustri/,  Trade. — ^The  principal  seats  of  industry 
are  as  follows  :  For  textile  fabrics,  the  depart- 
ments Le  Nord,  La  Sarthe,  JIaiue-et-Loire,  Seine- 
Inferieure,  Le  Calvados,  8eine-et-0ise,  llle-et- Vilaine, 
&c.  F.  stands  unrivalled  for  her  sUk  manufac- 
tories, the  finest  of  which  are  at  Lyon,  Tours,  and 
Paris ;  while  .St  Etienne  is  the  special  seat  of  the 
ribbon  trade.  Alen^'on,  Bailleul  (fabricating  the  so- 
called  ruleiicieiine),  Lille,  Arras,  Caen,  and  Bayeux  are 
all  famous  for  their  laces  and  blonds,  which  alone 

•  The  quintal  equals  1-97  cwt. 


occupy  2.50,000  persons.  P.heims  stands  conspicuous 
for  its  merinos  and  fine  flannels;  Amiens  and  Nancy 
for  their  fine  printed  woollen  goods;  Lodfeve  anil 
Elbceuf  for  ai-my  cloths.  Gloves  are  made  at 
Grenoble,  Paris,  &c.  The  best  carpets  are  made  at 
Aubusson,  Abbeville,  aud  Amiens.  Paris  is  the 
seat  of  industry  for  some  of  the  most  costly  fabrics, 
as  Golrelins  tapestry,  shawls  of  great  value,  watches, 
clocks,  articles  of  vertv,  carriages,  philosophical 
instruments,  &c.  S6vi-e3  stands  unrivalled  for  its 
china  and  glass.  St  Gobain  and  St  Quirin  manu- 
facture looking-glasses  of  the  largest  size. 

The  trade  of  F.  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  England 
and  the  United  States.  The  great  emporiums  of 
trade  are  Paris,  Lyon,  St  Etienne,  Lille,  Kheims, 
Nlraes,  Toulouse,  St  Quentin,  Orleans,  Avignon,  llont- 
pelher,  &c. ;  and  the  most  active  maritime  ports  are 
Jlarseille,  Cette,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  Kouen, 
Calais,  Dunkirk,  Boulogne,  Diepjie,  &c.  These 
centres  of  trade  have  all  suS'ered  at  different  periods 
during  the  present  century,  from  the  political  dis- 
ttirbances  under  successive  governments ;  but  not- 
withstanding these  drawbacks,  the  commercial 
activity  of  the  country  had  made  rapid  strides 
within  the  last  30  years  before  the  war  of  1870 — 
1871.  The  following  table  shews  the  condition  o£ 
trade  during  four  years  of  the  old  monarchy  : 


Years. 

1787, 
1788, 
1789, 
1792, 


Value  of 

Imii'^ns 

iD  n.iilions 

ol  frauc*. 

551 

517 

577 

929 


Value  of 
Esi'ons  in 
iu:tli..i,t  of 
francs. 
410 
466 
441 
803 


991 
•J83 
1018 
17:2 


While  the  rate  of  this  progress  during  five  years 
preceding  1872  has  been  as  follows  : 


of  francs. 

of  francs. 

3026 

2825 

5851 

3303 

2789 

C0<J2 

3153 

3074 

6'-'27 

2781 

2860 

5641 

3393 

2635 

6078 

Imports 
Years.  i„  m.mons 

1867,      . 
1868, 
1869,     . 
1870, 
1871,     . 

The  transit  trade  of  F.  is  effected  by  maritime 
navigation  between  foreign  and  French  ports,  by 
coasting  traffic,  or  cabotage,  between  various  French 
ports,  and  by  railways.  The  merchant  navy,  which 
has  increased  extensively  of  late  yeai-s,  numbered, 
in  1870,  exclusive  of  small  fishing-vessels — '  bateaux 
de  la  piiche  cotiSre' — 15,778  vessels,  having  a 
tonnage  of  1,074,056 ;  of  the  latter  number,  454 
were  steamei-s  of  142,949  tons  and  57,523  horse- 
power. The  cahotarje,  or  internal  and  coasting 
traffic,  is  a  great  source  of  financial  wealth  to  the 
state,  to  whicli  aU  rivers  and  canals  belong.  There 
is  a  length  of  13,155  kilometres  available  for  inland 
navigation  in  France,  but,  according  to  official 
reports,  three-fourths  of  the  entire  traffic  is  con- 
centrated upon  ISUO  kilomtltres  of  this  distance.  Of 
this  numbei-,  73  per  cent,  belonged  to  the  ocean 
ports,  and  27  pur  cent,  to  the  Jlediterranean. 

Railways,  li-c. — According  to  the  latest  official 
report  for  December  1871,  the  railways  in  operation 
measure  22,500  kilom&tres,  or  about  14,000  miles. 
With  the  exception  of  less  than  200  miles,  the 
railways  of  F.  are  held  by  six  companies,  which  are 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  state,  from  which 
they  receive  the  following  subsidies  as  defined  by 
the  budget  for  1873 


Francs. 

57,900,000 

.     62,000,000 

92,416,000 

.  189,233,333 

45,300,000 

North; 45,300,000 

The  total  receipts  of  all  the  lines  were,  for  1S5S, 

473 


Eastern  line, 
Western  line, 
Orleans  line, 
Lyons,  . 
Suath, 


FRANCE. 


334,769,469  francs  ;  ami  the  total  number  of  passen- 
gers conveyed  by  rail,  37,9j'2,39S.  In  1S65,  the  num- 
ber was  81,533,061 ;  and  in  1S09,  the  latest  period  for 
which  any  return  is  published,  111,104,284.  By  a 
clause  in  the  treaty  of  1871,  the  whole  of  the  lines 
of  the  Eastern  Company  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  about 
700  kilometres  in  length,  were  sold  to  the  imperial 
government  of  Germany  for  325  millions  of  francs. 

The  creation  of  the  first  highroads  in  F.  is  referred 
to  Philijipe  Auguste  ;  and  their  more  perfect  organi- 
sation in  the  Kith  and  17th  centuries,  to  Henry  IV. 
and  Louis  XIV.  Under  Napoleon  I.  there  were  125 
highroads,  extending  in  all  over  30,000  kilometres  ; 
and  at  the  present  time  there  are  upwards  of  600 
national  roads  (35,000  kilom.),  265,000  departmental 
roads  (45,000  kilom.). 

Postal  Service. — The  postal  service  in  P.  goes 
back  to  the  year  1404,  when  Louis  XI.  placed  it 
under  the  direction  of  the  state.  Since  1848,  a 
system  of  low  prepayment  for  letters  has  been 
established.  At  the  present  time,  letters  weighing 
from  under  10  to  under  100  grammes  require 
stamps  from  15  centimes  to  1  franc  20  centimes, 
according  to  weight.  The  whole  receipt  of  the 
postal  service  was  for  the  year  1871,  91,242,000 
francs ;  while  for  1869,  before  the  war,  it  was 
94,199,359  francs  ;  the  e.'cpenses  iu  the  meanwhile 
have  risen  from  63  million  francs  iu  18G9,  to  nearly 
67  millions  of  francs  in  1871. 

Electric  Telegraph. — The  first  electric  telegraph 
was  constructed  in  F.  iu  1844,  and  F.  is  now  inter- 
sected by  a  close  network  of  wires,  which  flash 
communications  between  Paris,  as  the  central  focus, 
and  eveiy  part  of  the  empire.  At  the  close  of  1871, 
there  were  43,811  kilometres  of  liues,  comprising 
122,653  kilometres  of  wire.  The  number  of  tele- 
graphic messages  sent  in  1871  was  7,447,466,  of 
which  about  Jth  were  international. 

Constitution,  Government. — On  September  4,  1870, 
the  emperor,  Napoleon  III.,  was  declared  to  be  no 
longer  the  head  of  the  state,  and  France  was  pro- 
claimed a  republic.  At  the  close  of  1872,  the 
supreme  power  was  vested  iu  a  National  Assembly, 
with  whom  rests  the  nomination  of  the  chief  oflneer 
of  the  state,  bearing  the  title  of  '  President  of  the 
French  Eepubhc  ; '  and  nominated  for  an  undeter- 
mined period.  This  officer,  as  chief  of  the  executive 
power,  but  imder  responsibility  to  the  National 
Assembly,  is  authorised  to  promidgate  and  insure 
the  proper  execution  of  all  laws  and  ordinances 
transmitted  to  him  by  the  president  of  the  As- 
sembly. The  National  Assembly  is  composed  of 
750  deputies,  or  members,  elected  by  imiversal 
suffrage,  and  eligible  without  fiurther  conditions  than 
those  of  citizenship  as  Freuchmeu,  and  qualifications 
of  character  and  age,  besides  that  of  not  being  either 
prelet  or  sous-pretet  of  the  department  for  which 
the  candidate  wishes  to  be  elected.  The  budget 
(for  1873)  is  charged  8,624,000  francs  for  the  ad- 
ministrative expenses  of  the  National  Assembly  and 
the  authorised  indemnities  of  the  deputies.  To  the 
President  of  the  Republic  belongs,  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  that  have  regulated  the  respective 
domains  of  legislative  and  executive  power  in  F. 
under  aU  forms  of  government,  the  right  of  appoint- 
ing the  judges,  commanding  the  forces,  and  main- 
taining relations  and  settlmg  treaties  with  foreign 
states,  in  respect  to  which  acts  he  is  responsible  to 
the  assembly.  He  appoints  and  dismisses  the 
ministers  of  state,  -vvho  are  also  responsible  to  the 
assembly,  and  he  may  reside  at  the  seat  of  the 
National  Assembly,  and,  jirovided  he  gives  notice  of 
his  intentions,  may  take  part  in  its  deliberations. 
His  salary  is  fixcl,  at  the  present  date  (1873),  at 
600,000  francs,  with  an  extra  allowance  of  102,000 
francs  for  household  expenses.  The  office  of 
474 


president  is  held  by  General  MacMahon,  who  suc- 
ceeded the  first  president  of  the  republic,  SI.  Louis 
Adolphe  Thiers,  in  the  present  year,  1873. 

The  ministry  is  presided  over  by  nine  ministers 
of  state,  each  of  whom  has  a  definitely  limited 
sjihere  of  administrative  duty  and  authority ;  and 
iu  addition,  the  president  is  assisted  in  the  govern- 
ment by  a  Council  of  State,  '  Conseil  d'Etat,'  which, 
according  to  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  is 
to  consist  in  all  of  43  members,  15  of  Avhoni  may  be 
nominated  by  the  president,  while  the  remaining  2S 
are  selected  by  the  Assembly.  The  functions  of  this 
body  are  restricted  to  giving  advice  on  bills  pre- 
sented to  the  National  Assembly  by  the  president 
or  the  ministers. 

Department.':,  <£-c. — F.  is  at  jiresent  divided  into 
SO  de}Xirt)nents,  comprising  302^  arronclissements, 
2805  cantons,  and  35,985  communes.  Each  depart- 
ment is  presided  over  by  a  prefet,  nominated  by  the 
president  of  the  republic  on  the  presentation  of  tho 
minister  of  the  interior ;  each  arrondissement  by  a 
sub-prefet ;  each  canton  by  a  member  at  the  general 
council  of  the  departement,  which  meets  annually 
for  whatever  period  may  be  decreed  by  the  head  of 
the  state  ;  and  every  commune  has  its  maire  and 
municipal  council.  Every  chief  town  of  a  canton 
has  its  commissary  of  pohce  ;  in  the  larger  towns, 
there  must  be  one  of  these  officers  to  every  10,0t)0 
inhabitants.  The  administration  of  justice  is  pre- 
sided over  by  a  special  minister  of  state,  who  is 
keeper  of  the  seals.  A  supreme  tribunal  serves  as 
a  court  of  appeal  from  the  lower  courts.  The 
tribunals  of  commerce  and  police,  together  with 
those  of  the  several  departments,  take  cognizance 
of  the  various  civil  and  criminal  cases  specially 
falling  within  their  several  spheres.  There  are  357 
tribunals  of  the  arrondissements,  or  tribunaux  tie 
prcmiire  instance,  which  are  divided  into  six  classes ; 
2681  poUce  courts  ;  216  tribunals  of  commerce ;  26 
courts  of  appeal,  divided  into  four  classes;  a  Courde 
Cassation,  diWded  into  three  chambers,  which  con- 
fimis  or  annuls  the  sentences  of  the  pohce  and 
assize  courts  ;  and  a  Haute  Cour  de  Justice,  which 
gives  final  judgment  in  all  cases  of  offence  against 
the  state.  Assizes  are  held  every  three  months  in 
59  towns ;  and,  independently  of  the  ordinary 
judicial  magistrates,  the  courts  of  assize  are  com- 
posed of  juries  of  twelve  men,  chosen  in  accordance 
with  certain  prescribed  regulations.  In  the  mari- 
time and  commercial  towns  there  were,  under  the 
empire,  85  councils  of  prurVhommes  (experienced 
men),  with  summary  jimsdiction  in  matters  to  the 
amount  of  200  francs.  These  councils,  which  are 
composed  of  master-workmen  elected  annually, 
decide  on  causes  of  dispute,  chiefly  in  regard  to 
questions  of  wages,  and  differences  between  masters 
and  men.  The  state  is  charged  33i  millions  of  francs 
annually  for  the  expenses  incident  to  the  ministry 
of  justice,  according  to  the  budget  for  1873.  There 
are  387  departmental  prisons,  21  central  houses 
of  detention,  2  political  prisons  at  DouUens  and 
Belleisle,  and  numerous  penitentiaries  and  refor- 
matories for  the  young.  AU  these  prisons,  except- 
ing the  two  for  political  ofl'enders,  are  in  part 
self-supporting.  The  only  hulks,  bagncs,  still 
remaining  are  at  Toulon,  where  convicts  of  a  certain 
class  undergo  their  sentences,  Ijut  the  pi-incipal 
penal  settlement  is  in  French  Guiana  (q.  v.). 

Ueliijion,  Churches. — No  person  can  be  molested 
in  F.  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions,  provided 
the  manifestation  of  them  does  not  disturb  the 
public  peace  as  established  by  law.  The  public  exer- 
cise of  any  special  form  of  religion  must,  however, 
be  preceded  by  the  oflicial  authorisation  of  the  jire- 
fet,  or  iu  special  cases,  by  higher  authority.  The 
recognised  forms  of  faith  are — the  Roman  CathoUc, 


FRANCE. 


the  Protestant  {including  the  Reformed  and 
Lutheran),  the  Jewish,  and,  for  Algeria,  the  Moham- 
medan. The  clergy  attached  to  these  religions 
receive  their  pay  from  the  state,  and  are  exempt 
from  militai-y  service.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
embraces  the  great  majority  of  the  peo[ile.  Of  the 
36,000,000  which  constitute  the  present  jiopulation 
of  F.,  1,500,000  appertain  to  the  two  Protestant 
churches,  150,000  to  the  .Jewish  persuasion ;  and 
25,000  to  non-recognised  but  tolerated  denomina- 
tions, the  Anabaptists  comprising  nearly  one-third 
of  this  number. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  the  annual 
revenues  of  the  church  amounted  to  150,000,000  of 
livres,  and  its  debts  to  133,000,000.  The  state 
appropriated  to  itself  the  funds  of  the  church  in 
17S9,  and  assumed  the  responsibility  of  maintaining 
I)ublic  worship.  The  following  table  gives  a  sum- 
mary of  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  st.ate  for  the 
maintenance  of  religion  since  the  Consulate. 


Year,. 

Cntholic 

Protettant 

Jcwisli  fonn  of  Sloliara.  Rcl.in 

Religion. 

CUiirch.; 

Faitii. 

Alycria. 

Pranci. 

Fraiic 

fraoca. 

1303,    .      . 

4,059.006 

22,363 

1813,     .      . 

16,628,868 

695,000 

1823,  .     . 

26,138,445 

B77,S29 

1835,     .     . 

33,52),319 

840,763 

79,995 

3,000 

1847,  .     . 

37,630,008 

1,240,229 

108.836 

3,000 

1854,     .     . 

42,223,329 

1,328,891 

149,428 

668,024 

1859,  .     . 

44,994,100 

1,408,436 

189,400 

630,200 

1S73,     .     . 

51,500,000 

1,400,000 

273,000 

500,000  . 

The  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  church  of  F. 
are  to  be  nominated  by  the  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and  canonically  inducted  by  the  pope.  There 
are,  according  to  the  budget  of  1873, 18  archbishops 
and  69  bishops.  The  archbishop  of  Paris  receives 
50,000  francs  per  annum ;  the  other  archbishops. 
20,000  francs;  the  bishops,  15,000  francs.  .Six 
French  prelates  hold  the  rank  of  cardinals,  to  which 
tlignity  they  are  nominated  by  the  pope  on  the 
presentation  of  the  president.  Every  archbishojiric 
Las  3,  and  every  bishopric  2  vicai's-general,  the 
■whole  number  being  190.  Their  salaries  vary  from 
3500  to  4500  francs.  There  are  709  canons  belonging 
to  the  various  cathedral  chapters,  receiving  from 
1600  to  2400  franca  per  annum ;  3437  cures  or 
parochial  beneficed  clergy,  who  are  canonically 
inducted  by  the  bishops,  under  the  approviil  of  the 
state  ;  and  31,586  curates  or  desseroants.  The  cur(5s 
receive  from  1200  to  1500  francs  ;  the  curates,  200 
francs.  The  cures  may  be  assisted  by  a  certain 
number  of  vicariats,  who  receive  from  ."50  to  500 
francs  ;  there  are  at  present  9000  authorised  by  the 
state.  There  .are  in  F.  105  Reformed  consistories, 
and  44  belonging  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  The 
central  council  of  the  Reformed  churches  holds 
its  sittings  at  Paris.  Synods  composed  of  the  dele- 
gates of  five  churches  may  assemble  with  the 
authority  of  the  state  to  regiilate  the  celebration  of 
the  services  of  their  church ;  but  their  meetings 
cannot  last  longer  than  six  days,  and  their  decisions 
must  be  submitted  for  the  approbation  of  the  govern- 
ment. There  is  a  Protestant  seminary  for  the  Re- 
formed at  Montauban.  Besides  the  sums  inscribed 
in  the  budget  for  the  maintenance  of  religion,  the 
tlepartments  are  charged  with  special  atmual  subsi- 
dies, which  have  risen  of  late  years  in  a  rajiid  ratio, 
and  amounted  in  1868  to  upw.ards  of  717,000  francs. 
Public  Iiiiflruclioii. — Public  instruction  is  presided 
over  in  F.  by  a  special  ministry.  Nearly  h.ilf  the 
expenses  connected  with  it  are  defrayed  by  the  st.ite, 
and  the  remainder  by  the  departments.  There  are 
15  academics  located  in  the  following  towns — 
Aix,  Besan^on,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon, 
Douai,  Grenoble,  Lyon,  Jlontiiellier,  Nancy,  Paris, 
Poitiers,   Rennes,   ToiUou.      These   academies   are 


diWded  into  the  five  faculties  of  theology,  law, 
medicine,  sciences,  and  hterature,  and  supplemented 
by  various  superior  and  preparatory  schools.  The 
professors  are  paid  partly  by  the  st.ate,  and  partly 
by  fees.  There  are  81  normal  schools  intended  to 
train  teachers  for  the  higher  departments  of  instruc- 
tion. .Second.ary  instruction  has  received  an  immense 
impetus  during  the  present  century.  In  1866,  there 
were  41,800  free  and  public  schools  for  boys,  and 
14,000  communal  schools  for  the  use  of  girls,  and 
the  entire  number  of  scholars  exceeded  foiu"  mil- 
lions. In  1S6.3,  the  number  of  children  over  eight 
and  under  eleven,  w-ho  had  never  been  to  school, 
amounted  to  .about  200,000.  In  1860,  about  30  per 
cent,  of  the  military  conscripts  were  unable  to  read. 
The  different  departments  share  very  uuecpially  in 
the  diffusion  of  education,  and  it  may  be  generally 
observed  that  the  proportion  of  the  educated  is 
highest  in  the  northern  and  eastern  districts  of  F. 
F.  supports  numerous  colleges  and  schools  for 
instruction  in  special  branches  of  knowledge  :  as 
L'Ecole  des  Chartes  ;  des  Langues  Orient.ales  ;  des 
Beaux-Arts,  founded  in  1071  by  Loius  XIV.;  de 
Dessin,  founded  in  1700  by  Louis  XV. ;  the  Conser- 
vatoire de  Musique,  founded  in  1784 ;  L'Eeole  de 
Rome,  founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  L'Ecole 
d'Athfenes,  founded  in  1846 ;  L'Ecole  des  Ponts  et 
Chaussees,  for  the  instruction  of  engineers  of  public 
works  ;  L'Ecole  des  Mines  (1783) ;  the  Conservatoire 
Niitional  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  for  the  application  of 
science  to  the  arts  and  trades  ;  the  Central  School 
des  Arts  et  Metiers ;  and  the  national  schools  for 
arts  and  trades.  There  are  numerous  agricultural, 
forest,  farming,  and  veterinary  schools,  besides  the 
Eeole  Polytechuique,  specially  designed  to  prepare 
youths  for  the  public  services  ;  and  military  and 
naval  colleges  at  St  Cjt,  Saumur,  Paris,  Vinceunes, 
Brest,  Toulon,  and  St  Denis. 

Literartj  and  Scientific  Institutions. — Among  the 
literaiy  .and  scientific  institutions  of  F.  the  first  is 
L'Institut  de  France  (q.  v.).  The  Museiunof  Natural 
History,  known  formerly  as  the  Jardin  du  Roi, 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  Bureau  des 
Longitudes  and  the  Observatoire,  at  Paris  and 
Marseille,  have  occupied  the  first  rank  among 
scientific  institutions  since  their  foundation.  These 
establishments  are  all  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the 
state.  Paris  possesses  several  libraries  belonging 
to  and  su])ported  by  the  state,  but  freely  opened 
to  the  pubhc.  The  most  important  of  all  is  that 
now  known  as  La  Bibliothiique  N.ationale.  .See 
LiERAKiES.  There  .are  338  public  libraries  in  the 
provinces,  to  all  of  which  access  is  afforded  in  the 
most  liberal  spirit.  F.  is  rich  in  public  galleries  of 
painting,  st.atu.ary,  and  articles  of  vcrtu.  The  ex- 
penses of  secondary  and  primary  elucation,  literary 
and  scientific  institutions,  national  archives,  &o.,  are 
charged  in  the  budget  for  1873  at  40,700,000  francs. 

T/ieatres. — The  theatre,  like  all  other  pubhc 
institutions,  is  imder  the  surveillance  of  the  state, 
which  charges  the  annual  budget  for  the  m.aiute- 
nance  of  theatrical  companies  ;  about  6 J  millions  of 
francs  being  inscribed  on  the  budget  of  1873  for  the 
sujiport  of  theatres,  the  fine  arts,  &c. 

Ckarilahlc  Inslilntions. — F.  is  rich  in  institutions 
of  ch<arity,  many  of  which  are  remn.ants  of  the  old 
system  of  chm'ch  relief ;  but  the  crichcs,  of  which 
there  arc  sever.al  hundreds,  .and  which  are,  in  fact, 
free  nurseries,  are  a  modern  form  of  charity,  which 
originated  (in  1844)  with  M.  Marbeau  at  Paris. 
The  public  hospitals  and  infirmaries  are  maintained 
by  special  endowments,  a  percentage  on  the  receipts 
at  theatres  and  other  places  of  amusement,  and  by 
subsidies  from  the  government  and  local  communes. 
Public  charifies  for  the  relief  of  paupers  derive 
then-  resom'ces  either  from  dep.artment.al  or  muni- 


FKAXCE. 


cinal   fmuls,   and  are  ailministercil  l>y  t)ie  bureaux  ^ 
<U  Lien  I'll  is<i  no;  by  the  iUi>dlii  ile  maidicitf,  and   by 
numerous  other  K)cal  institutions ;    besides  which, 
the  state   contributes  between   S   and    9    inilhons 
of  francs  (for  1873,  8,784,000  francs)  for  charitable  i 
jiurposes. 

TaMilion,  /"rHnnn-A— The  public  revenues  are 
obtained  in  F.  from  direct  and  imliioct  taxation,  and 
comprised  in  the  budget,  voted  by  the  National 
Asseniblv.  under  the  heads  of  ordinary  resources 
and  specLil  resources  ;  the  former  including  direct 
and  indirect  taxes,  from  stain  ps,  the  produce  of 
forests,  telegraphs,  Alj;eria,  &c.  ;  and  the  latter, 
departmental  funds,  special  imposts,  &c.  The 
following  table  shews  the  tiaancial  report  of  the 
public  receipts  and  expenditure  for  different  years 
from  1815  to  1S73  : 


YMIt. 

1SI5, 
1S24, 

1830, 
IMO, 
1850, 
1S59, 
1S71, 
1873, 


n«e«1pb.  In  ftmncs. 

743,830,200 

994,971, %2 

,     1,031,790.054 

1,234,483,090 

,     1,431,632,471 

1,766,080,877 

.     2,190,120,590 

2,407,470,630 


Expenditure,  In  fmnc). 
798,590,869 
992,583,233 
1,095,142,115 
l,3Gi,711,10i 
1,472,537.233 
1,773,919.114 
2,161, 262. 9>2 
2,374,801,134* 


Public  Pell.— In  1814,  the  date  of  the  Restoration, 
the  interest  of  the  debt  was  G3  million  francs  ; 
under  the  Bourbons  it  rose  to  200  millions ;  and 
from  1S30  to  1S48,  Louis  Philippe  increased  it  to 
244  millions.  During  the  three  years  of  the  second 
republic,  5  millions  were  paid  off ;  but  the  second 
empire  (1S52— ISliO)  added  nearly  120  millions  to 
the  annual  burden.  The  increase  of  the  debt  during 
the  empire  arose  from  a  succession  of  loans  raised 
by  borromng  directly  from  the  mass  of  small  capi- 
talists, without  the  intervention  of  largo  banking- 
houses.  The  amount  of  the  n.ational  debt  of  France 
is  very  v.iriously  given  according  to  what  is  included 
under  that  head ;  but  if  we  take  the  funded  debt 
bearing  rentes  or  interest,  the  amount  of  such  rentes 
in  January  1870,  before  the  war,  is  stated  at  358 
million  francs  =  about  £14,000,000,  representing  a 
caijital  of  11,300  milUon  francs,  or  £400,000,000. 
The  loans  and  other  obligations  incurred  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  the  war  of  1870 — 1871,  including 
the  indemnity  of  5  milliards  of  francs  to  Germany, 
have  at  least  doubled  this  sum,  so  that  the  national 
debt  of  France  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers 
at  23,000  millions  (23  milliards)  of  francs.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  when  all  the  expenditure 
arising  out  of  the  war  shall  have  been  fuUy  pro- 
vided for,  the  annual  interest  of  the  debt  will 
amount  to  one  milliard  of  francs,  or  £40,000,000. 

The  coutinu.al  deficits  from  the  close  of  the  first 
empire  in  1815  to  the  close  of  the  second  empire  in 
1870,  have  been  covered  by  loans,  inscribed  in  what 
is  known  as  le  grand  litre  de  la  dette  puhlique, 
and  bearing  interest  or  rentes  at  the  rate  of  3,  4, 
4-i,  and  5  per  cent.  The  budgets  voted  annually  by 
the  representatives  of  the  nation  have  almost  invari- 
ably shewn  a  small  assumed  surplus;  whUe  the 
compte  dejinitif  for  the  corresponding  period,  when 
published  some  years  afterwards,  has  without  ex- 
ception exhibited  a  large  deficit.  The  following 
table  shews  the  rate  at  which  these  deficits  have 
increased  since  1814.  But  as  the  deficits  for  18CS 
and  1869  have  not  yet  been  ascertained,  their 
amoimt  can  only  be  given  conjecturally  as  estimated 
from  official  soui'ces. 


Pciiodj. 

Bourbon  Slonarchr,  from  1815  to  1830.   : 
Reisn  of  Louis  Philippe,  from  1S30  to  1843, 
Second  Itcpublic,  (rora  1*48  to  l!-52, 
ik-conil  Empire,  from  1852  to  1870, 


Amount  of  Dellcits. 

Francs. 

.       22,650.000 

997,806,0(10 

.     359,374,000 

2,141,050,500 


•  As  presumed  by  the  budget  for  1873,  votsd  at  the 
end  of  1872. 
476 


The  total  value  of  the  French  money  in  circulation 
is  12,(i30,(j.")7.9'.'l)  francs.  According  to  the  act  of 
monetary  union  clVected  between  France,  Belgium, 
Switzerlanil,  and  Italy,  the  emission  of  coined  pieces 
is  to  be  at  the  rate  of  (j  francs  for  every  inhabitant, 
which,  taking  into  account  the  presumed  increase  of 
population  to  the  year  ISSO,  when  the  terra  of  tho 
treaty  expires,  gives  for  France  the  sum  of  230 
millions  ;  for  Belgium  32,  for  Italy  141,  and  for 
Switzerland  17  millions  of  francs.  The  amount  of 
s)iecie  in  reserve  in  the  bank  in  January  1873,  was 
790,000,000  francs  ;  the  amount  of  notes  in  cu-cula- 
tion  by  the  bank  and  its  branches  was  2,858,019,270 
francs.  The  maximum  amount  of  notes  in  cir- 
culation has  been  fixed  ,it  3,(KI0,l)00,O()0  francs, 
by  the  decree  of  the  National  Assembly  of  July 
1872. 

Army. — Standing  armies  date  in  F.  from  the 
time  of  Charles  VII.  The  law  of  1832  regul.ited 
the  sj'stem  of  recruiting  by  conscription,  on  the 
footing  which,  with  few  modilications,  it  has  subse- 
quently occupied.  By  the  law  of  1872,  substitu- 
tion and  enlistment  for  money  are  prohibited, 
and  the  princi]ile  of  universal  liability  to  arms 
is  laid  do\^^l,  in  accordance  with  which  every 
Frenchman  must  be  for  five  years  in  the  '  active 
army,'  for  four  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  same, 
for  five  years  in  the  territorial  army,  and  for  six 
years  in  the  reserve  of  the  territorial  army. 
Besides  the  ordinary  physical  causes  of  exemption, 
there  are  various  others  admitted,  arising  from 
family,  social,  or  individual  conditions;  while, 
moreover,  young  men  who  pass  the  necessary  ex- 
amination, may  obtain  exemption  by  enlisting  as 
volunteers  for  one  year  only,  and  defraying  the  cost 
of  their  maintenance  and  clothing.  The  returns 
for  1871  gave  the  strength  of  the  French  army 
as  follows:  Peace-footing — 104,192  men,  80,308 
horses  ;  war-footing — 757,727  men,  143,238  horses ; 
while  the  estimated  cost  was  somewhat  more 
than  430  millions  of  francs.  According  to  the 
estimates  for  1873,  the  French  army  is  calculated 
at  545,000  men,  including  425,000  infantry,  84,000 
cavalry,  and  36,000  other  troops  ;  and  the  jjre- 
sumcd  expenses  at  431,023,300  francs.  F.  is 
divided  into  six  military  commands,  or  corps 
d'arm^e,  each  under  a  field-marshal,  which  are 
subdivided  into  districts  commanded  by  generals 
of  division,  and  into  lesser  circles,  corresponding 
with  the  departments,  and  under  generals  o£ 
brigades.  The  fortified  ehrfs-Ueux  are  at  Arras, 
B.ayonne,  Besan9on,  Bourges,  Brest,  Cherbourg, 
Greuoble,  Langres,  La  Kochelle,  Le  Havre,  Lille, 
Lyon,  Marseille,  Montpellier,  Nantes,  Perpignan, 
St  Omer,  Toulon,  and  Toulouse.  Metz  and  Stras- 
burg  were  formerly  included  in  this  number,  but 
since  their  annexation  by  Germany,  Avignon,  Per- 
pignan,  Quiberou,  and  P.ouen  have  been  converted 
into  military  chefs-lieux  in  their  place.  Besides 
rei'ular  troops,  F.  has  its  Garde  A'ationale,  which 
was  created  in  17S9,  and  legally  organised  in  1791. 
Since  1S52,  the  sphere  of  its  obligations  has  been 
limited  to  the  maintenance  of  order  in  case  of 
threatened  insurrection. 

yavi/. — In  December  1871,  the  French  navy 
numbered  2  admirals,  IS  vice-admirals,  32  rear- 
admirals,  132  captains  of  first-class  men-of-war,  290 
captains  of  frig.ates,  829  lieutenants,  and  100  ensigns. 
The  sailors  afloat  and  on  shore  numbered  39,500, 
which,  together  with  engineers,  &c.,  brought  the 
grand  total  of  those  employed  in  the  fleet  to  74,000. 
The  inscription  for  the  navy  owes  its  systematic 
organisation  to  the  great  minister  Colbert  (1681). 
At  present,  all  persons  eng.aged  in  any  maritime 
avocation  between  the  a^es  of  18  and  50  are 
liable  to  inscription,  but  the  service  is  only  com- 


FRANCE. 


pulsory  for  three  years.  There  are  170,000  names 
on  tlie  rolls.  Of  these,  130,000  may  be  called  out 
in  time  of  war.  The  fleet  consists  of  401  vessels 
afloat,  carrying  3045  guns ;  of  these,  388  are 
steamers,  which,  including  62  ironclads,  screw  and 
paddle-boats,  and  floating-batteries,  have  a  total 
horse-power  of  9i2,G'27.  There  are  22,400  marines  in 
peace,  28,000  in  war,  and  25,500  customs  and  coast- 
guard men.  F.  has  6  depots  for  marine  artillery, 
3  foundries,  and  2  manufactories  for  projectiles. 
There  are  special  hosjiitals,  schools,  and  libraries 
for  the  use  of  the  navy ;  and  5  maritime  districts, 
subdivided  into  12  arrondissements,  at  which  are 
administrative  courts  for  the  settlement  of  all  naval 
Cjucstions. 

jVoocy,  Weights,  and  Measures. — For  the  money, 
weights,  and  measures  now  used  in  F.,  see  Fkanc, 
Metre,  Litke,  Gramme. 

Colonies. — Algeria  (which,  according  to  the  con- 
stitution of  1S52,  is  not  a  colony,  but  an  integral 
part  of  F.)  is  treated  of  in  a  separate  article.  In  the 
larger  French  colonies,  the  administrative  power  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  who  exercises  supreme  military 
command,  and  is  assisted  by  a  general  council,  s|)eci- 
ally  charged  to  vote  the  budget  of  the   province. 


tine  wars  desolated  the  laml,  and  foreign  assailants 
threatened  it  on  every  side.  In  911  A.l>.,  the  ravages 
of  the  Northmen  had  assumed  so  pei-sistcnt  a  char- 
acter, that  Charles  le  Simple  was  glad  to  jiurchase 
immunity  from  their  encroachments  by  the  cession 
of  the  territory  subsequently  known  as  Normandy. 
Anarchy  reigned  paramount ;  the  various  governors 
established  an  hereditary  authority  in  their  several 
governments,  and  the  cro«ii  was  by  degrees  dc]irived 
of  the  noblest  part  of  its  appanages.  'The  power  of 
some  of  the  vassals  suq)assed  that  of  the  kings ;  and 
on  the  death  of  Louis  V.  the  Carloving'ian  ilynasty 
was  replaced  by  that  of  Hugues,  Count  of  Paris, 
whose  son,  Hugues  Capet,  was  elected  king  by  the 
army,  and  consecrated  at  Rheims,  987  A.  D.  At  this 
period,  the  greater  part  of  F.  was  held  by  almost 
independent  lords,  and  the  authority  of  the  Cajietian 
kings  e-xtended  little  beyond  Paris  and  Orleans. 
Louis  le  Gros  (1108—1137)  was  the  first  of  the 
race  who  reinstated  order.  He  promoted  the  estab- 
lisliment  of  the  feudal  system,  aboUshed  serfdom 
on  his  own  estates,  secured  coqiorate  rights  to 
the  cities  under  his  juriscUetion,  and  gave  efficiency 
to  the  central  authority  of  the  crown.  A  greater 
degi-ee  of  general  order  was  thus  secured,  while  a 


Three  officers  act  under  the  orders  of  the  governor    new  element    in    the   state  was  generated  by  the 


— viz.,  the  '  ordonnator,'  director  of  the  interior,  and 
procurator-general.  There  is  also  in  each  colony  a 
colonial  controller,  who  presides  over  the  financial 
and  other  departments  of  general  admiuistration. 

See  Stathlique  gener.  mUhodhi.  et  compl.  de 
la  France,  by  J.  H.  Schnitzler  ;  Dictions,  et  Annu- 
aires  de  VAdminist.  Franc. ;  Bulletin,  des  Lois 
(1872) ;  Slatistirjue  de  France  (1872)  ;  Diclionnaire 
q'neral  de  la  Politique,  by  M.  Maurice  Block 
(1873). 

Ilistory. — Gallia  (Eng.  Gaul)  was  the  ancient 
name  under  which  F.  was  designated  by  the 
Romans,  who  knew  little  of  the  country  till  the 
time  of  Cassar,  when  it  was  occupied  by  the 
three  races  of  the  Aquitani,  Celtfe,  and  Belgs,  who 
respectively  inhabited  the  south-west,  the  west 
and  central,  and  the  north  and  north-east  parts. 
There  were  also  some  tribes  of  Germans,  Ligurians, 
and  Greeks,  but  the  latter  never  penetrated  far 
beyond  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  where 
they  planted  colonies,  the  most  important  of  which 
was  ilassalia  (Marseille).  Under  Augustus,  Gaul 
was  divided  into  four  proWnces,  which,  under  subse- 
quent empcroi"s,  were  dismembered,  and  subdi\'ided 
into  seventeen.  In  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
power,  Gaul  was  ravaged  by  neighbouring  hordes, 
and  in  the  5th  c.  it  fell  completely  under  the  power 
of  the  Visigoths,  Burgundians,  and  Franks.  In 
4SG  A.D.,  Clovis,  a  chief  of  the  Salian  Frauks, 
raised  himself  to  supreme  jiower  in  the  north. 
His  dynasty,  known  as  the  ilerovingiau,  ended  in 
the  person  of  Chihleric  III.,  who  was  dei)used,  752 
A.D.,  after  the  kingly  jiower  had  already  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  former  Maire  du  Palais,  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  and,  after  him,  into  those  of  Charles 
Martel  and  Pepin  le  Bref.  The  accession  of  Pepin 
gave  new  vigour  to  the  monarchy,  which,  under 
his  son  and  successor  Charlemagne,  cro\vned  em- 
peror of  the  West  in  800  (708-^14),  rose  to  the 
rank  of  the  most  powerful  empire  of  the  West. 
Christianity,  civilisation,  and  letters  were  protected 
during  his  reign,  and  before  his  death  he  had 
stretched  the  limits  of  his  empire  from  the  Eider 
and  the  German  Ocean  to  the  Ebro  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Baltic. 
With  him,  however,  this  vast  fabric  of  power 
crumbled  to  pieces,  and  his  weak  descendants 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  Prankish  empire  by  the 
dismemberment  of  its  various  parts  among  the 
younger  branches  of  the  C'arlovingian  family.   Intes- 


foundation  of  a  free  bm-gher  class.     Louis  carried 
on  a  war  against  Henry  I.  of  England ;  and  when 
the  latter  allied  himself  with  the  Emperor  Henry  V. 
of  Germany  against  F.,  he  brought  into  the  field 
an  army  of  200,000  men,  whose  ready  appearance 
aff'orded  the  first  instance  of  the  existence  of  a  com- 
mon national  feeling  of  patriotism,  ready  to  respond 
to  the  appeal  of  the  sovereign.     The  oriflamme  is 
said  to  have  been  borne  aloft  for  the  first  time  on 
this  occasion  as  the  national  standard.     Louis  ^'11. 
(Le  Jeune),  who  took  part  in  the  second  crusade 
(1137 — 1180),   was   almost   incessantly   engaged   in 
war   with   Henry  II.    of    England.      His   son   and 
successor,  Philippe  Auguste  (1180—1223)  recovered 
Normandy,  Maine,  Toiu-aine,  and  Poitou  from  John 
of  England,  and  increased  the  power  of  the  crown  in 
various  other  parts  of  Frauce.     He  took  an  active 
pei-sonal  share  in  the  Crusades,  and  permitted  the 
pope  to  organise  a   cruel   persecution   against   the 
Albigenses   in   the  southern  parts  of  the  country. 
Phdippe  was  tlie  first  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a   standing  army,   and   in   his   reign   a 
chamber  of  peers,  of  sLx  secidar  and  six  ecclesias- 
tical members,  was  instituted,  to  act  as  a  council 
of  state.     Many  noble  institutions  date  their  origin 
from  this   reign,  as    the    university  of   Paris,  the 
LouNTe,   &c      By   the    amendment    of   the    admi- 
nistration of  justice,  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  royal 
courts  w.as  estabUshed,  and  the  arbitrarj'  power  of 
the  great  vassals  crippled.      Improvements  in  the 
mode  of  administering  the  law  were  continued  under 
his  son,  Louis  VIII.  (1223— 122G),  and  his  grand- 
son, Louis  IX.  (1226—1270),  who  caused  a  code  of 
laws  (Etablissemcnts  de  St  Louis)  to  be  promulgated. 
St   Louis  also  effected  man}'  modifications  in  the 
fiscal  department,  and,  before  his  departure  for  the 
Crusades,  secured  the  rights  of  the  GaUican  Church 
by  a  special  statute,  in  order  to  counteract  the  con- 
stantly increasing  assumptions  of  the  papal  power. 
Under   his   son, 'Philippe   IIL    (1270-1285),  titles 
of   nobUity  were  first  conferred  by  letters-patent 
He  added  Valois  and  the  comtis  of  Toidouse  and 
Venaissin  to  the  crown.     Philippe  IV.  (1285-1314), 
snrnamed  ie  Bel,  acquired   Navarre,   Champagne, 
and  Brie  by  marri.age.    With  a  view  of  securing  sup- 
port against  the  secidar  and  ecclesiastical  nobihty, 
with  whom  he  was  constantly  at  war,  Philiiipe  gave 
prominence  to  the  burgher  element  in  the  nation, 
and  on   2Sth   March   1302,  he,  for   the   first  tune, 
called  together  the  Mats  gCncraux,  or  general  estates, 

477 


FRAXCE. 


at  which  the  tirrs  Hat,  or  burgher  class,  appeared 
together  with  the  nobles  and  cler<jy.  These  changes 
were,  however,  accompanied  by  arbitrary  innova- 
tions in  the  fiscal  and  otlier  departments  of  the 
government,  which  were  elFected  with  reckless  haste 
and  violence.  With  a  view  of  securing  to  the  crown 
the  great  fiefs,  he  abrogated  the  right  of  females  to 
succeed  to  landed  property.  His  tjTannical  perse- 
cution of  the  Templars  shewed  the  extent  to  which 
the  reg.il  power  could  be  stretched  ;  and  under  his 
successors,  Louis  X.  (L^l-i— 1316),  Philippe  V.  (1316 
— IS-.'l),  and  Charles  IV.  (Le  Bd),  (1321— 132S),  the 
last  direct  descendant  of  the  Capetian  line,  the  rule 
of  the  kings  of  F.  bec:mie  even  more  unlimited, 
whilst  the  court  was  given  up  to  every  species  of 
luxurious  indulgence  known  to  the  awe.  Philippe 
VI.,  the  first  of  the  House  of  Valois  (132S— 1350),  a 
distant  relative  of  Charles  IV.,  and  the  nephew  of 
Philiiipe  IV.,  succeeded  in  right  of  the  sajic  law. 
His  rei'Ti,  and  those  of  his  successoi-s,  Jean  (1350 — 
1364)  and  Charles  V.  (Le  Sage),  (1364— 13S0),  were 
disturbed  by  constant  wars  with  Edward  III.  of 
England,  who  laid  claim  to  the  throne  in  right  of 
hismother,  a  daughter  of  Philippe  le  Bel.  The  war 
began  in  1339 ;  in  1346,  the  battle  of  Crficy  was 
fought:  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (1356),  Jean  was 
made  captive  ;  and  before  its  final  close  after  the 
death  of  Edward  (1377),  the  state  was  reduced  to 
bankruptcy,  the  nobility  excited  to  rebellion,  and 
the  mass  of  the  people  sunk  in  barbarism.  Falsifi- 
cation of  the  coinage,  onerous  taxation,  and  arbi- 
trary conscriptions,  brought  the  country  to  the 
verge  of  irretriev.able  ruin,  while  the  victories  of 
England  humbled  the  sovereign,  annihilated  the 
French  armies,  and  cut  down  the  flower  of  the 
nation.  The  long  and  weak  minority  of  Richard  II. 
diverted  the  English  from  the  prosecution  of  their 
groimdless  claims  to  the  kingdom  of  F.,  which 
revived  somewhat  from  the  effect  of  its  long  and 
disastrous  warfare  ;  but  during  the  regency  for 
the  minor,  Charles  VI.  (Le  Bien  lime),  (1380—1422), 
the  war  was  renewed  ■n'ith  increased  vigour  on  the 
part  of  the  English  nation,  who  were  stimidated 
by  the  daring  valour  of  Henry  V.  The  signal 
victory  won  by  the  English  at  Azincoiui;  in  1415 : 
the  treason  and  rebellion  of  the  French  princes  of 
the  blood,  who  governed  the  larger  pro\nnces  ;  the 
ambition  of  the  several  regents,  the  ultimate  imbe- 
cility of  the  king,  the  profligacy  of  his  queen,  and 
the  love  of  jileasure  early  evinced  by  the  dauphin  ; 
all  combined  to  aid  Henry  in  his  attempts  upon  the 
throne.  But  the  jiremature  death  of  Henry,  the  per- 
severing spii-it  of  the  people,  and  the  extraordinary 
influence  exercised  over  her  countrymen  by  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  concurred  in  bringing  about  a 
thorough  reaction,  and,  after  a  period  of  murder, 
rapine,  and  anarchy,  Charles  VII.  (Le  Victorieux), 
(1422 — 1461)  was  crowned  at  Rheims.  He  oljtained 
from  the  Estates  General  a  regular  tax  (taille)  for 
the  maintenance  of  paid  soldiers,  to  keep  in  check 
the  mercenaries  and  marauders  who  pillaged  the 
countr}-.  The  policy  of  his  successor,  Louis  XI. 
(1461—1483),  the  first  king  entitled  'His  most 
Cliristian  JIajesty,'  favoured  the  burgher  and  trading 
classes  at  the  expense  of  the  nobles,  while  he 
humbled  the  power  of  the  crown-princes.  He  was 
a  crafty  ruler,  who  managed  the  finances  well,  and 
succeeded,  by  policy  and  good-luck,  in  recovering 
for  the  crown  the  territories  of  Maine,  Anjou,  and 
Provence;  whUe  he  made  himself  master  of  some 
portions  of  the  territories  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke 
of  Biu-gundy.  Charles  VIH.  (1483—1498),  by  his 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Brittany,  secured  that  power- 
ful state,  and  consolidated  the  increasing  power  of 
the  crown.  With  him  ended  the  direct  male  succes- 
sion of  the  House  of  Valois.  Louis  XII.  (1498—1515), 
478  ' 


{Le  PiredaPettple)  wjis  the  only  represent;itive  of  the 
Valuis-Orleaiis  family.  The  tendency  of  his  nigii 
was  to  confirm  the  regal  supremacy,  while  the 
general  coniUtion  of  the  people  was  amelior.ated.  Ho 
and  his  successor,  Francis  I.  (1515—1547),  of  tho 
Valois-Aiirioulcme  branch,  wasted  their  resources  in 
futile  attempts  to  establish  their  hereditary  claims 
to  Lombardy,  and  were  thus  peqjetually  embroUed 
with  the  House  of  Austria.  A  concordat  with  the 
pope,  signed  in  1516,  secured  the  nomination  of  the 

i  Gallicau  bishops  to  the  king.  In  this  reign,  the 
Assembly  of  Notables  and  Deputies  superseded  the 
General  Estates.  The  defeat  of  Francis  at  the 
battle  of  Pa\ia,  in  1525,  and  his  subsecpient  imprison- 

:  ment  at  Madrid,  threw  the  atl'airs  of  the  nation  into 
the  greatest  disorder,  and  embarr.issed  the  public 
finances  to  a  most  ruinous  extent.  Aits  and  litera- 
ture were  encouraged  in  this  reign,  and  in  that  of 
the  succeeding  monarch,  Henri  II.  (1547 — 1559),  who 
continued  the  disastrous  Italian  war.  In  the  latter 
reign  began  the  jiersecutions  of  the  Protestants, 
which  were   carried   on   with   still   greater  cruelty 

!  vmder  Henri's  three  sons,  Francis  II.  (1559 — 1560), 

j  Charles  LX.  (15G0— 1574),  and  Henri  III.  (1574— 
15S9),  the  last  of  this  branch  of  the   Valois.     The 

^  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  (1572)  was  perpetrated 
under  the  direction  of  the  queen-mother,  Catharine 
de'  Medici,  and  the  confederation  of  the  League,  at 
the  head  of  wliich  were  the  Gidses.  The  wars  of 
the  League,  which  were  carried  on  by  the  latter 
against  the  Bourbon  branches  of  the  princes  of  the 
blood-royal,    iuvolved    the   whole    nation    in    their 

!  vortex.  The  succession  of  Henri  IV.  of  Navarre 
(1589 — 1610),  a  Bourbon  prince,  descended  from 
a  younger  son  of  St  Louis,  allayed  the  fury  of  these 
religious  wars,  but  his  recant.ation  of  Protestantism 
in  favour  of  Catholicism,  disappointed  his  own  party. 
The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  perpetuidly  disturbed 
by  the  mutinies  of  the  troops  and  the  rebelUons  of 
the  nobles.  By  degrees,  however,  Henri,  through 
the  astute  counsels  of  his  minister  Sully,  and  by  his 
own  personal  popularity,  raised  the  power  of  the 
crown  higher  than  ever,  while  he  bei^an  a  system  of 
thorough  administrative  reform,  ^vllich  was  only 
arrested  by  his  assassination  by  the  fanatic  Ravaillac. 
Diu-ing  the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIII.  (1610 

I  — 1643),  Cardinal  Richelieu,  under  the  nominal 
regency  of  JIarie  de'  Medici,  the  queen-mother, 
ruled  F.  with  a  firm  hand,  although  his  oppression 
of  the  Protestants  at  home,  and  his  co-operation 
with  them  abroad,  in  endeavouring  to  humble  the 
House  of  Austria,  entailed  long  and  costly  wars  with 
little  fame   on    France.     Cardinal  Mazarine,  under 

I  the  regency  of  the  queen-mother  Anne  of  Austria, 
exerted  nearly  equal  power  for  some  time  dm'ing 
the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643—1715).  The 
wars  of  the  Fronde,  the  misconduct  of  the  parlia- 
ment, and  the  humbling  of  tho  nobilit_v,  gave  rise  to 
another  ci^l  w.T.r,  but  with  the  assumption  of  power 
by  young  Louis,  a  new  era  commenced,  and  till  near 
the  close  of  his  long  reign,  the  mditary  successes  of 

j  the  French  were  most  brilliant,  and  the  boundaries 
of  F.  were  enlarged  very  nearly  to  what  they  were 
before  the  war  of  1870-1871.  The  military  glory  of 
the  kingdom  was  m.aiutained  liy  a  host  of  gallant 
commanders,  amongst  whom  stood  conspicuous  tho 
names  of  Turenue,  Vauban,  Luxemboui-g,  Catinat, 
VendCme,  BouiUers,  and  Crequi,  whde,  by  the  far- 
sighted  policy  of  the  minister  Louvois,  a  well-organ- 
ised army  and  a  newly-ereated  navy  made  the  power 
of  F.  formidable  to  aU  neighliouring  nations.  Tho 
progress  of  the  people  in  the  arts  of  peace  was  not 
less  marked.  At  the  close  of  liis  nUe,  the  oppressive 
war-taxes,  the  prodigality  of  tlie  court,  tlie  luxurious 

i  Lves  of  the  clergy,  and  "the  absolutism  and  bigotry 

[  of   the  aged  monarch,  combined   to  imdermine  tho 


FEAXCE. 


foundations  of  national  prosperity  and  freedom,  and 
at  his  death  the  state  was  left  trammelled  mth  a 
del)t  of  3o00  millions  of  livres,  and  his  youthful  heir, 
Louis  XV.  (1715 — 1775),  succeeded  to  a  heritage 
whose  glorj'  was  tarnished,  and  whose  stability  was 
shaken  to  its  very  foimdations.  The  long  inglorious 
reitm  of  Louis  XV.  jiresents  nothing  worthy  of 
notice  except  the  gradual  rise  of  those  sentiments  of 
infidelity  and  licence  which  prepared  the  overthrow 
of  all  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  countrj'.  The 
regency  of  the  profligate  Orleans  paved  the  way 
for  the  miseries  which  followed,  whOe  his  corrupt 
financial  administration  brought  the  nation  into  the 
most  overwhelming  monetary  emliarrassments.  In 
this  reign,  Corsica  was  added  to  France.  The 
thorough  disorganisation  of  the  state,  and  the  neglect 
of  the  fleet  and  army,  prevented  all  attempts  at 
conquests  either  on  sea  or  land.  The  colonies  were 
left  a  prey  to  the  attacks  of  other  powers,  while  the 
capricious  change  of  policy  which  the  king's  mistress, 
Madame  Pompadour,  forced  upon  the  government, 
Iirovight  contempt  upon  the  country.  The  peace  of 
Paris,  1763,  by  wluch  the  greater  portion  of  the 
colonial  possessions  of  F.  were  given  up  to  England, 
terminated  an  inglorious  war,  in  which  the  French 
had  expended  1350  millions  of  francs.  The  close  of 
this  unhappy  reign  was  still  further  dishirbed  by 
the  cabals  of  the  Jesuits,  who  were  finally  banished 
in  1764.  In  1774,  Louis  XVI.,  a  wcU-meaning, 
weak  prince,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  His  first 
ministers,  Maurepas,  Turgot,  and  Malesherbes,  had 
not  the  vigour  to  carry  out  the  reforms  which  their 
sense  and  patriotism  suggested  to  them,  and  they 
were  soon  compelled  to  yield  to  the  intrigues  of  the 
nobility,  and  resign  their  places.  They  were  succeeded 
by  the  financier  Necker,  who  endeavoured,  by 
economy  and  method,  to  arrest  the  impending  bank- 
ruptcy of  the  state,  and  succeeding  ministers  made 
futUe  attempts  to  diminish  these  financial  tlisorders 
by  new  forms  of  taxation,  which  were  generally 
opposed  either  by  the  assembly  or  the  court.  The 
American  war  of  freedom  had  disseminated  republican 
ideas  among  the  lower  orders,  while  the  Assembly  of 
the  Notables  had  ilisousscd  and  made  known  to  all 
cl.isses  the  incapacity  of  the  government,  and  the 
wanton  prodigahty  of  the  court.  The  nobles  and  the 
tifrs  Hat  were  alike  clamorous  for  a  meeting  of  the 
States  ;  the  former  wishing  to  impose  new  taxes  on 
tile  nation,  and  the  latter  determined  to  inaugurate 
a  thorough  and  systematic  reform.  After  much 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  court,  the 
Etals  Geniraiix,  which  had  not  met  since  1614, 
assembled  at  Versailles  on  the  25th  of  May  1789. 

F.  was  at  that  moment  ripe  for  a  revolution. 
Although  the  nobility  was  exceedingly  numerous 
(as  not  only  did  the  children  of  a  noble  belong  to 
this  class,  but  its  numbers  were  constantly  being 
increased  by  creation),  there  were  great  ditierences 
in  the  rank  and  dignity  attached  to  the  order  ;  thus, 
in  1789,  there  were  only  44  secular  peers,  independ- 
ently of  the  princes  of  the  blood,  and  the  six  origin- 
ally created  ecclesiastic  peers ;  but  the  lower  grades 
of  nobility  were  so  numerous  that  their  numbers 
stood  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  250  of  the  entire  popida- 
tion.  Nevertheless,  every  grade  of  nobility  exempted 
its  holder  from  the  payment  of  the  ordinary  land- 
tax,  or  iaiUe,  from  the  charge  of  maint.iining  the 
puldic  roads  [corvee)^  from  military  conscription,  from 
receiving  billets  of  soldiers,  &c.  The  nobles  paid 
the  capitation  tax,  but  in  a  very  unequal  proportion, 
altliough  the  landeil  property  was  vested  almost 
entirely  in  their  hands.  They,  in  fact  (together  with 
the  clergy),  monopolised  the  principal  share  of  the 
national  revenues,  and  left  to  the  lower  classes  the 
burden  of  labour  and  of  p.aying  the  taxes.  At  the 
outbreak   of   the   Kevolution,   the   French   nobihty 


were  simk  in  profligacy,  and  fallen  to  the  lowest 
sta^e  of  demoralisation.  Tho  clergy  kept  pace 
witli  the  nobles  in  general  depraWty,  and  while 
their  aggregate  revenues  amounted,  accorcling  to 
Necker,  to  130,000,000  of  livr«s,  and  their  landed 
property  stood  in  the  relation  of  1  to  SJ  of  that  of 
all  other  proprietors,  their  contributions  towards 
the  maintenance  of  the  state  were  inadequate  and 
irregular.  The  open  profligacy  and  excesses  of  many 
of  the  higher  members  of  the  hierarchy,  moreover, 
brought  the  whole  order  into  disrepute.  Francis 
I.  had  ^vrimg  from  the  church  a  tithe,  known 
as  the  dicinte  paschaline,  and  every  five  years  the 
clergy  were  expected  to  present  their  so-called 
dom  graluits  ordinaires,  of  from  15  to  18  million 
of  livTCS  ;  while  on  occasions  of  need  they  from 
time  to  time  made  extraordinar)'  dons  graluits, 
which,  however,  were  usually  repaid  at  long  inter- 
vals. The  titfrs  etat  were  crushed  by  the  weight 
of  an  imjust  taxation,  which  was  rendered  more 
obnoxious  by  the  system  of  farming  out  some  of 
the  taxes.  The  most  tjTannical  of  these  was  the 
tax  on  salt.  The  municipal  institutions  which 
had  been  permitted  to  flourish  under  some  of  the 
Valois  2'rinces  in  the  middle  ages,  were  almost 
entirely  abolished,  and  the  offices  of  towns,  like 
those  of  the  state  and  the  courts  of  justice,  were 
either  hereditary  or  open  to  purchase.  The  tiers  et<it, 
wliich  included  professional  men,  and  all  who  were 
not  either  members  of  the  noble  or  the  clerical 
orders,  saw  themselves  utterly  excluded  from  all 
participation  in  the  privileges  and  duties  of  free 
citizens,  at  the  very  time  w'hen  the  extensive 
circulation  of  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  of 
the  18th  c,  as  Voltaire,  Malesherbes,  llousseau,  and 
Montesquieu,  had  habituated  men's  minds  to  the 
discussion  of  questions  of  political  independence, 
equal  rights,  and  universal  freedom. 

The  resistance  made  by  Louis  and  his  advisers  to 
the  reasonable  demands  of  the  Deputies  on  the  I7th 
Jime  1789,  led  to  the  constitution  of  the  National 
Assemblj' — a  measure  which  was  followed,  on  the 
23d  of  Jime,  by  a  declaration  of  the  inviolability  of 
the  members.  The  king  retaliated  by  ordering  a  large 
body  of  troops  under  arms,  dissolved  his  ministry, 
and  banished  Necker,  whom  he  had  shortly  before 
recalled  imder  the  pressure  of  public  opinion.  The 
consequence  was  the  outbreak,  of  insurrectionary 
movements  at  Paris,  where  blood  was  shed  on  the 
12th  Jidy.  On  the  following  day,  the  national 
guard  was  convoked ;  and  on  the  14th,  the  people 
took  possession  of  the  Bastille.  The  provinces 
repeated  the  acts  of  Paris,  and  everywhere  national 
guards  and  revolutionary  mimicipal  councils  were 
called  together.  On  the  4th  of  August,  feudal  and 
manorial  rights  were  abrogated  by  the  National 
Assembly,  which  gave  expression  to  a  solemn 
declaration  of  the  equahty  of  human  rights.  The 
royal  princes  and  all  the  nobles  who  could  escape 
sought  safety  in  flight.  The  royal  fauuly  having 
attempted  in  vain  to  follow  their  example,  tried  to 
concihate  the  people  by  the  feigned  assuiuption  of 
republican  sentiments  ;  but  on  the  5tli  October,  the 
rabble,  followed  by  numbers  of  the  national  guard, 
attacked  Versailles,  and  compelled  the  king  and 
his  family  to  remove  to  Paris,  whither  the  Assembly 
also  moved.  The  next  two  years  witnessed  the 
solemn  inauguration  and  the  subsequent  retraction 
of  various  constitutional  schemes ;  the  princes  of 
the  blood  and  the  ancient  noblesse  raised  corps 
of  emigres  in  different  parts  of  the  countrj',  but 
their  efforts  could  not  arrest  the  spread  of  republi- 
canism. The  king  alternately  made  concessions  to 
the  repulilieans,  and  cherished  schemes  for  escaping 
from  their  surveillance,  but  each  month  added  to 
his    humiliations    and    to    the    audacity   of    those 

479 


FRANCE. 


I 


siuTomuUiii;  Uim.  A  war  with  Austria  was  begun 
in  April  1792  ;  ami  the  defeat  of  the  French  was 
visited  tin  Leuis,  who  was  confined  in  August  with 
his  family  in  the  TeMii>le.  The  ailvance  of  the 
Prussians'  into  Chamjiajne  threw  Paris  into  the 
wildest  excitement.  The  N.-itional  Assembly  dis- 
solved itself  in  September.  In  December,  the  king 
was  brought  to  tri.al,  and  called  ui>on  to  answer 
for  re))e.i"ted  acts  of  treason  against  the  republic. 
On  the  20th  Janu.ory  1793,  sentence  of  death  was 
p-assed  ujion  him  ;  "and  on  the  followini;  day  he 
was  behe.-uled.  Kevolts  bui-st  out  in  every  part 
of  France.  England,  Holland,  Spain,  Naples,  and 
the  German  States  combined  together  against  tlie 
republic.  Chri.<itianity  wiis  now  formally  deposed, 
and  the  sacredness  of  the  republic  and  the  wor- 
ship of  Reason  solemnised.  Jlarie  Antoinette,  the 
wiclo wed  queen,  w.as  guillotined;  the  dauphin  and 
his  sur\-iNnug  relatives  suffered  every  indignity  that 
maUfuity  coidd  devise.  A  reign  of  blood  and  terror 
succeeded.  Danton  and  Robespierre,  after  ha%'ing 
condemned  couutless  numbers  to  the  guillotine, 
suffered  each  in  turn  a  similar  fate.  ^Vfter  the 
destruction  of  the  Terrorists,  a  reaction  was  gradu- 
ally established  ;  the  peoi)le  were  wearied  of  blood- 
shed, and  anxious  for  peace  and  order  at  .any  cost. 
The  briUiaut  exploits  of  the  young  general.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  in  It.oly,  turned  men's  thoughts  to  other 
channels.  In  1795,  a  general  amnesty  was  declared, 
peace  was  concluded  with  Prussia  and  Spain,  and 
the  war  was  carried  on  with  redoubled  vigour 
against  Austria.  The  Revolution  had  reached  a 
turning-point.  A  Directory  was  formed  to  aibninis- 
ter  the  governmeut,  which  was  now  conducted  in  a 
spirit  of  order  and  conciliation.  In  1797,  Bonapai-te 
and  his  brother-commanders  were  omnipotent  in 
Italy.  Austria  was  compelled  to  give  up  Belgium, 
accede  to  pe.ice  on  any  terms,  and  recognise  the 
Cisalpine  RepubUc.  The  glory  of  the  French  amis 
was  re-established  abroad,  but  at  home  the  nation 
were  still  suftering  from  the  shock  of  the  Revolution. 
The  Directorj'  repudiated  two-thirds  of  the  national 
debt,  and  thus  almost  ruined  the  commerce  and 
credit  of  France.  Under  the  pretext  of  attacking 
England,  a  fleet  of  400  ships  and  an  army  of  36,000 
picked  men  were  equipped ;  their  destination  proved, 
however,  to  be  Egypt,  whither  the  Dii-ectory  sent 
Bonaparte  ;  but  the  young  general,  resigning  the 
command  to  Kleber,  lauded  in  F.  in  1799,  and 
at  once  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  Du-ectory, 
and  securing  his  own  nomination  as  Consul,  con- 
jointly ■n-ith  Sifeyes  and  Roser  Ducos.  In  ISOO,  a 
new  constitution  was  promulgated,  which,  although 
in  appearance  purely  constitutional,  in  reahty 
vested  the  sole  executive  power  in  Bonaparte, 
who  shewed  consummate  skill  in  re-organising 
the  government,  to  which  he  imparted  a  syste- 
matic efficiency  and  a  spirit  of  centi'alisatiou, 
that  secured  a  thoroughly  practical  administration. 
Having  resumed  his  military  duties,  he  marched 
an  army  over  the  Alps,  attacked  the  Austriaus 
unawares,  and  decided  the  fate  of  Italy  by  his 
victory  at  Marengo.  In  ISOl,  the  peace  of  Lung\-iUe 
was  concluded,  and  the  boimdaries  of  F.  were 
extended  to  the  Rhine.  England  was  the  only 
country  which  refused  to  recognise  the  legality  of 
the  various  Itali.au  and  German  conquests  of  F. ; 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  period  of  peace, 
this  country  i-emained  the  implacable  foe  of  Bona- 
parte from  the  days  of  the  Consulate  to  his  defeat  at 
Waterloo.  Every  period  of  respite  from  war  was 
employed  by  the  First  Consul  in  reinstating  trade 
ami  industry,  and  in  obUterating  both  in  private  and 
public  life  the  stains  left  by  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
In  l.S()4,  on  an  a|)peal  bj'  univers.al  suffrage  to  the 
nation.  Bonap.arte  was  proclaimed  emperor.  The 
480 


pope  came  to  Paris  to  crown  him  and  his  wife 
.Josephine ;  a  new  nobility  was  rapidly  created,  and 
the  ixdatives  and  favourites  of  the  emperor  received 
» anquished  kingdoms  and  i)rinci]>alities  at  his  hands. 
For  a  time,  Najioleon's  intiuence  w  ith  the  weakened 
powers  of  the  continent  succeeded  in  maintaining 
an  injurious  system  of  blockade  against  Enghaud ; 
and,  except  in  the  Peninsula,  his  arms  were  every- 
where \-ictorious.  By  his  m.arriage  witli  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  Napoleon  seemed  to  have  given  to  his 
throne  the  prestige  of  birth,  wliich  alone  it  had 
lacked.  He  now  availed  himself  of  the  freedom 
afforded  by  the  peace  with  Austria  to  expand  the 
material  prosperity  of  the  country,  by  encouraging 
trade,  constructing  roads,  bridges,  and  canals  in 
every  part  of  the  empire,  and  by  consolidating  his 
government,  and  organising  a  complete  code  of  laws 
and  a  systematic  mode  of  administering  them.  But 
this  period  was  the  poorest  in  respect  to  the  literary 
and  scientific  development  of  the  n.ation,  who  were 
too  much  trammelled  by  police  supervision  and 
military  discii>line  to  exercise  freedom  of  thought 
and  intellect,  and  this  interval  of  comparative  repose 
was  soon  interrupted  by  the  ambitious  designs  of 
Napoleon  on  Germany,  which  led  to  a  decl.oration  of 
wai-  against  Russia  in  1S12.  From  this  time  to  his 
final  defeat  in  1S15,  the  emperor  rapidly  receded 
from  the  lofty  station  he  had  won  for  himself.  The 
disastrous  Russian  campaign,  in  which  his  noble 
army  was  lost  amid  the  rigours  of  a  northern  winter, 
was  soon  followed  by  the  falling  away  of  his  allies 
and  feudatories.  Napoleon  himself  «-.as  still  ^■ictorio^s 
wherever  he  appeared  in  person,  liut  his  gener.als 
were  beaten  in  numerous  eng.agements ;  and  the 
great  defeat  of  Leipsio  compelled  the  French  to 
retreat  beyond  the  Rhine.  The  Swedes  brought 
reinforcements  to  swell  the  ranks  of  his  enemies  on 
the  east  frontier,  while  the  EngUsh  pressed  on  from 
the  west ;  the  sen.ate  and  his  ministry  betrayed  his 
cause,  and  the  allies  threw  themselves  on  Paris, 
which,  in  the  absence  of  the  emperor,  capitulated 
after  a  short  resist.ance,  March  30,  1814.  Napoleon 
now  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  j'oimg  son,  and 
retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  the  sovereignty  of 
which  had  been  gi-auted  to  him.  His  wife  and  son 
removed  to  Vienna ;  his  famUy  were  declared  to 
have  forfeited  the  throne ;  F.  was  reduced  to  her 
former  limits,  and  the  pro^'inces  she  hiad  acquired 
were  restored  to  their  national  riders.  Ou  the  3d 
May,  Louis  X^^II.  (the  brother  of  Louis  X\'I.) 
made  his  entry  into  Paris.  The  conduct  of  the 
Bourbons  did  not  conciliate  the  nation  ;  they 
retiu-ned  loaded  with  debts,  and  surrounded  by  the 
old  nobility  and  clergy,  who  had  not  renoimced 
their  former  pri\Tleges,  and  who  looked  upon  the 
generation  of  Frenchmen  who  had  arisen  during 
their  absence  as  theii-  natur.al  enemies.  A  narrow 
spii-it  influenced  the  weak  jiolicy  of  the  king,  which 
led  to  the  est.abbsluneut  of  a  strict  censorship,  the 
extension  of  the  powers  of  the  police,  and  the  per- 
secution of  all  the  adherents  of  the  Empire ;  while 
the  lower  classes  and  the  anny,  who  were  alike 
sensible  of  the  humiliating  reaction  which  had 
followed  the  former  excitement  of  war  and  conquest, 
were  treated  with  an  indifference,  and  even  con- 
tem])t,  by  the  retiu-ued  emigres,  to  which  they  were 
wholly  imaccustomed.  On  the  1st  March  1815, 
Napoleon  left  Elba,  and  handed  in  France.  Crowds 
followed  him;  the  soUliers  flocked  .around  his 
standard  ;  the  Bourbons  fled,  and  he  took  possession 
of  their  lately  deserted  palaces.  The  news  of  his 
landing  spread  terror  thi-ough  Eiu-ope  ;  and  ou  the 
25th  March,  a  treaty  of  alliance  was  signed  at 
Vienna  between  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
England,  and  preparations   at  once   made   to   jmt 


FKANCE. 


down  the  movement  in  his  favour,  and  restore  the 
Bombon   dj-nasty.      At   first,   the   old   prestige   of 
success  seemed  to  attend  Najjoleon ;  but  on  the  18th 
June,  he  was  thorouijhly  defeated  at  Waterloo  ;  and 
^aving  placed  himself  under  the  safeguard  of  the 
Euj,'lish,  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  .St  Helena,  in 
conformity  with  the  generally  acknowledged  senti- 
ment, that  it  was  necessary  to  the  peace  of  Europe 
to  remove  him  finally  and  definitely  from  the  scene 
of  his  former  power.     The  second  restoration  gave 
occasion  to  many  pledges  of  a  more  lilieral  policy  on 
the  i)art  of  Louis,  but  few  of  them  were  fidliUed, 
and  a  general  .and  sidlen  discontent  reigned  amou" 
till'  prcjple,  who  were  .again  de]irived  of  all  voice  in 
the  administration,  or  in  the  election  to  offices,  and 
were  harassed  by  the  petty  tyranny  of  the  priests, 
who  were  the  favomite  advisers  of  the  crown.     In 
1821,  ^'apoleon  breathed  his  last  at  .St  Helena;  and 
in   1824,  Louis  XVIII.  died   without   direct  heirs, 
and   his  brother,  the  Due  d'Artois,    succeeded  as 
Charles  X.     The  same  ministerial  incapacity,  want 
ef   good   faith,  general   discontent,    and    excessive 
priestly  influence    characterised   this   reign,  which 
w.as  abruptly  brought  to  a  close  by  the  revolution 
of  1830,  and  the  election  to   the  throne  of  Louis 
Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  as  king,  by  the  will  of 
the  people.     Legitimist  uisurrections  (bsturbed  the 
nation  ;    one  emente  succeeded  another  ;    attempts 
upon  the  king's  life  were  frequent ;  but  the  progress 
in  raateri;U  prosperity  made  the  government  jiopidar 
with  the  botiiyeoiw,  or  middle  classes,  and  for  a 
time  it  held  its  ground.     The  w.arlike  propensities 
of  tlie  nation  found  an  outlet  in  the  war  in  Algeria 
(q.  V.)   with   Abd-el-K.ader.      But    the    determined 
resistance  of   the  king  to  the  gi'owiug  desire   for 
electoral  reform,  led   at  last   to   open   insm-rection 
in    Paris ;   and    Louis   Philippe    having    abdicated 
(February  24,    1848),   a  Republic  was  proclaimed, 
under  a  provisional  government.     An  insurrection 
of  the  Ked  Republicans  in  Paris  (June  1848),  was 
only  put  down  after  great  slaughter.     Louis  Napo- 
leon (<).  V.)  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic  in 
December  1848  ;  but  by  the  famous  coup  d'Ctat  of 
December  2,  18.51,  he  vioh'utly  set  aside  the  con- 
stitution,  and  assumed  dictatorial   powers ;  and  a 
year  after  (2il  December  1852),  was  raised,  by  the 
almost  unanimous  voice  of  the  nation,  to  the  dignity 
of  Emperor  as  Napoleon  HI.     His  riUe  was  one  of 
complete  absolutism,  ujider  which,  however,  France 
made  great  advances   in  the   devclopracut   of   her 
natural  resources,  and  in  manufactures.     Assuming 
the  character  of  an  adjuster  of  the  wrongs  of  nations. 
Napoleon   proclaimed   himself   a   mediator   in    the 
Danish  and  Austro-Pnissi.an  wars,  and  the  defender 
of  the  Italians  against  Austria,  of  the  Pope  against 
the  people  of  Italy,  and  of  the  Mexicans  against  the 
government  of  the  United  States  of  America.    By  his 
help  the  Italians  were  relieved  from  the  Austrian  yoke, 
and  the  pope  was  left  master  of  Rome  ;  but  in  Mexico 
his  intervention  only  led  to  greater  bloodshed,  and 
ended  iguominiously  for  the  glory  of  F.,  and  fatally  for 
the  cause  and  life  of  his  protege,  the  Austrian  Prince 
Maximilian    (q.  v.).      Attempts  to  gain  a  Prussian 
alliance  ended  in  humiliating  repulses.      Although 
the  brilliant  success  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  ISQ? 
seemed  to  afford  evidence  of  the  personal  and  national 
consideration  in  which  the  emperor  was  held,  his 
political  creilit  had  already  then  lost  its  importance. 
At  home,  the  great  financial  embarrassments  of  his 
government  were   arousing   the  discontent   of   the 

f)eople  ;  and  to  avert  the  growing  disaffection,  Napo^ 
eon  offered  (1809)  to  adopt  a  constitutional  form  of 
government,  and  to  make  some  concessions  in  regard 
to  freedom  of  the  press.  It  was  soon  found  that  the 
res[)onsibility  of  the  ministry  was  liotitious,  and  that 
the  emperor  availed  himself  of  its  protection,  tio  clgak 
187 


his  own  acts  of  personal  government.    The  result  of 
the  appeal  made  to  the  nation  in  1870,  on  the  plea 
of  securing  their  sanction  for  his  policy,  w.as  not 
what  he  had  anticipated  ;  and  the  .50,000  dissen- 
tient votes  given  by  the  troops  in  this  pl(5bi3cite, 
revealed  a  hitherto  unsuspected  source  of  danger. 
Confident  in  the  efficiency  of  the  army,  and  anx- 
ious to  rekindle  its  ardour,  he  availed  himself  of  a. 
])retext  to  declare  war  against  Prussia.     The  course 
of   events   ia  the   short   but   terrible   Franco-Ger- 
man conSict  of  1870 — 1871  electrified  Europe  by 
its    unexpected   character,    revealing   at   once   the 
solidity  of  Prussian  strength,  and  the  hollowness  of 
imperial  power  in  F.     Within  a  fortnight   of   the 
cnq)eror's  apjiearance  at  the  head  of  his  troops  at 
Metz,  July  28,   1870,  the    strength  of  the  French 
army   was   anuiliilated,  Alsace  and   Lorraine   were 
occu])ied  by  Germans,  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in    Paris   was   clamouring   for   his  abdication.     On 
September  2,  Napoleon,  with  his  army  of  90,000  men, 
surrendered  at  Sedan,  and  on  the  4th,  Paris  was  in 
rebellion,  the  senate  dissolved,  tlie  Emjiress  Regent 
a  fugitive  on  her  way  to  England,  and  F.  proclaimed 
a  Republic  amid  tumultuous  excitement.    Before  the 
close  of  September,  Strasburg,  one  of  the  Last  hopes 
of  F.,  had  ca))itulated,  and  Paris  was  completely 
invested  by  German  troops;   and  on  5th  October, 
the  Prussian  king  had  taken  up  his  headcpiarters 
at  Versailles.     The  fall  of  Motz,  with  200,000  men, 
completed   the  disasters  of  the  year.     In  .January 
1871,  the  united  efforts  of  the  different  branches  of 
'  the  Provisional  Government  of  Defence,'  respectively 
installed  at  Paris  and  Tours,  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  an  armistice,  after  the  besieged  Parisians  had 
for  four  months  been  hourly  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the 
enemy,  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the  outer 
world  except  by  balloons  and  carrier-pigeons,  and 
finally  threatened  by  famine.    With  the  concurrence 
of  Prussia,  the  Fiench  n.aticra  now  proceeded,  by  a 
general  election  of  representatives,  to  provide  for  the 
exigencies  of  the  country.     The  First  National  As- 
sembly of  the  French  Republic  met  at  Bordeaux  in 
February.      After  receiving  from    the    Provisional 
Government  of  Defence  the  resignation  of  the  powers 
confided  to  them  in  September  1870,  the  Assembly 
undertook  to  organise  the  Republican  Government, 
and   nominated   M.  Thiers   chief   of   the   executive 
power  of  the  state,  with  the  title  of  President  of  the 
French   Republic,   but   with   the   condition  of   re- 
sponsibility to  the  National  Assembly.     On  the  1  st 
of  March  the  preliminaries  of  peace   were   finally 
ratified  at  Bordeaux,  the  chief  conditions  being  that 
the  proWnce  of  Alsace  (except  Belfort)  and  part  of 
Lon-aine,  including  Metz,  should  be  ceded  to  the 
(iernian  empire,  and  that  F.  should  pay  a  war  in- 
demnity of  5000  millions  of  francs,  and  continue  to 
be  occupied  by  German  troops  till  the  money  was  all 
paid.     This  enormous  oblig.ation  is  now  (September 
1873)  discharged,  and  during  the  present  month  F., 
after  an  occupation  of  three  years,  has  been  finally 
relieved  from  the  presence  of  foreign  troops.     In  the 
spring  of  1871,  the  peace  of  F.  was  seriously  threat- 
ened by  a  successful  outbreak  at  Paris  on  the  part 
of  the  Communists  (q.  v.),  who  after  great  bloodshed 
and  grievous  dam.age  to  public  and  priv.ate  property, 
were  quelled  by  the  regular  army,  which  had  sided 
with  the  government,  and  on  20th  of  May  order 
was  restored  in  Paris.      Since  then,   F.  has   been 
successfully  trying  to  obliterate  some  of  the  numer- 
ous misfortun<'s  resulting  from  the  war,  and  com- 
merce  and   national   prosperity    arc    begiiuiin"   to 
revive.     The   di-atli   of  the   ex-Emperor   Napoleon, 
in    1S72,   at    Chiselhurst,    where    he    had    resided 
«itli  his  family  sinue  his  liberation  in  March  1871  ; 
the  retirement  of  M.  Thiers ;    and  the  election  of 
Marshal   Macilahon   to   the    dignity    of   President 

481 


FKiVNCE— FRANCIA. 


of  tho  Fn-neli  lUpublic.  appear  to  have  bccu 
alike  iuiUlIerent  t<i  the  nation  at  laijje,  an.l  liave 
proaueea  uo  iwlitiail  excitcmeut  of  any  kind  iu 
the  country. 

FKANX'E,  Isi.E  OF.    See  M.\UKnirs. 

FRANCE'SCO  DI  PAULA,  fouiulerof  the  order 
of  tlie  Mininis,  -n-.as  bom  in  1416  .at  PaiUa  or  Paolo, 
a  village  of  Calabria.  I'Yom  birtli,  liis  destin.ition 
was  tho  church,  for  which  he  w.is  hapjiily  fitted  by 
nature  and  preference.  At  the  age  of  12,  he  was 
the  inmate  of  a  Franciscan  convent,  practising  T\-ith 
the  utmost  rigour  the  regnl.atious  of  the  order ; 
and  at  14,  renouncing  all  worldly  possessions,  he 
retired  to  a  cave,  \vhpre  he  iu  dieted  on  himself 
every  species  of  self-mortification,  and  devoted  his 
time  to  prayer  and  nieditition.  The  fame  of  his 
piety  ha\-ing  attracted  to  his  cell  several  emuLators 
of  his  austere  life,  he  received  permission  from  the 
bishop  to  erect  a  church  and  convent,  and  the  new 
community  received  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  the  title 
of  the  Hermits  of  St  Francis.  To  the  usu.al  con- 
ventual vows,  F.  added  one  of  the  most  rigorous 
.abstinence — flesh,  eggs,  .and  milk  being  strictly  for- 
bidden the  entire  year,  excejit  in  iUuess.  I'opidar 
report  haWng  attributed  to  F.  scvcr.al  wonderful 
cures,  Louis  XI.  of  France,  the  most  stiperstitious  of 
mon.archs,  being  severely  ill,  summoned  him  to  his 
presence,  in  hopes  of  some  miraculous  displ.ay  of 
power  on  his  behalf.  F.  repaired  to  France,  where 
he  was  received  Avith  the  highest  honour,  and 
attended  the  king  on  his  de.ath-bed.  The  successors 
of  Louis,  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  treated  F. 
with  great  favour,  considted  him  in  iu)j)ortant 
matters,  and  induced  him  to  settle  in  France. 
Charles  VIU.  built  him  a  convent  at  Plessis-le-Tour, 
and  another  at  Amboise.  F.  died  at  the  former  in 
1507,  and  was  canonised  ia  1519. 

FEANCHE  COMTE,  an  old  proi-ince  in  the  cast 
of  Fr.auce,  in  the  basin  of  the  Khoue,  comprised 
what  now  forms  the  departments  of  Doubs,  H.aute- 
Sa6ne,  and  Jura,  and  had  for  its  capital  Besaujon. 

FRA'NCHLSE.  In  its  political  acceptation,  the 
franchise  may  be  saiil  to  be  the  right  which  centres 
in  the  indiWdual  hohling  it  to  exercise  a  certain 
limited  portion  of  the  general  sovereignty  of  the 
state.  A  fianchise  iu  this  sense  is  possible  only  in 
a  free  state,  i.  e.,  in  a  state  in  which  the  governed, 
as  a  whole,  are  identical  with  the  governors.  It 
does  not  necessarily  involve  the  idea  of  representa- 
tive government ;  for  where  legislation  is  efl'ected 
by  the  votes  of  the  people  themselves,  as  it  was 
iu  the  small  states  of  antiquity,  the  franchise 
is  exercised  by  each  individual  directly,  without 
the  intervention  of  any  representative  machiuerj'. 
Where  representation  has  been  introduced,  the 
franchise  is  the  right  which  the  citizen  has  of 
voting  tor  his  representative,  not  the  right  of 
voting  in  the  legislative  body  conferred  on  the 
representative  in  consequence  of  being  sent  thither, 
and  is  an  exjjression  not  of  the  sovereignty  which 
centres  in  him,  but  of  that  which  belongs  to  the 
constituents  who  send  him.  There  would  be  no 
theoretical  inconsistency,  however,  in  applying  the 
term  franchise  to  the  right  of  voting  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  which  belongs  to  each  peer,  because  he 
here  exercises  the  soveieignty,  or  original  freedom 
which  belongs,  or  is  supposed  to  belong,  to  himself, 
and  does  not  reiirescnt  that  of  others.  As  the  fran- 
chise is  the  political  ex]>ression  of  the  sovereignty 
which  centres  in  each  free  citizen,  the  extent  or 
vahic  which  ought  to  belong  to  the  franchise  will  be 
measured  by  the  amount  of  the  sovereignty  w-hich 
it  expresses.  But  this  soven'ignty  again  corre- 
sponds, or  finds  forms  of  actual  exi)re.ssion,  in  the 
social   position   which   the   individual    occuiiies,   in 


the  amount  of  power  and  influei)co  which  is  con- 
ceded to  him  by  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  part. 
A  theoi-etically  just  franchise,  then,  woiUd  be  one 
which  corresponded  accurately  to  the  social  posi- 
tion of  each  individual,  which  translated  tho  ver- 
dict by  which  society  fixed  his  status  into  tlic 
language  of  politics.  But  scientific  accuracy  in  such 
matters,  for  obvious  reasons,  is  unattainable.  An 
approximation  in  the  individual  case  is  all  that  is 
possible  in  deiding  with  the  m.ass,  and  one  of  the 
questions  which  is  at  present  most  keenly  discussed 
amongst  specidative  politicians  is,  by  what  test 
shall  this  approximate  estimate  of  sochal  value  be 
brought  most  nearly  to  the  tiaith.  Mr  J.  S.  Mill  haa 
])roposed  intelligence,  as  indicated  by  instruction,  as 
the  sole  measure  of  individual  sovereignty,  and, 
consequently,  as  the  basis  of  the  franchise  (see  his 
work  on  Uepresentative  Government).  Others  have 
proposed  wealth ;  whilst  by  a  third  cl.ass  of  speo- 
ul.ators  it  is  contended  that,  iu  the  case  of  each 
individual,  there  are  various  elements  of  social 
imiiortauce  which  nuist  be  taken  into  accoimt  iu 
determining  the  political  value  which  is  his  due. 
By  all  the  more  recent  WTiters  on  the  theory  of 
govermneut,  however,  the  idea  of  all  citizens  being 
entitled  to  an  equal  surtVage,  however  great  might 
be  the  disparity  of  intelligence,  wealth,  manliood, 
and  other  elements  which  go  to  make  up  social 
importance,  is  repudiated  as  a  scientific  absurdity, 
and  reprob.ated  as  the  som-ce  of  all  the  jjractical 
injustice  which  residts  from  what  are  commonly 
kno->vn  as  democratic  governments.  See  Mill's  work, 
alluded  to  above  ;  also  PARLiAiLENTAiiY  Electiok. 

FRANCHISE  in  England  is  a  roy.al  pri^-ilege,  or 
branch  of  the  crown's  prerogative,  subsisting  in  the 
hands  of  the  subject!  Being  derived  from  the 
crown,  franchises  must  arise  from  royal  grant,  or 
in  some  cases  may  be  held  liy  prescription,  which 
presupposes  a  grant  (Stephen's  Com.  i.  G.37).  The 
subjects  of  franchise  being  the  peciUiar  property 
of  the  crown,  correspond  with  what  in  .Scotland  are 
called  Regalia  (q.  v.) ;  and  a  franchise  is  analogous 
to  a  grant  of  regalia.  Gifts  of  waifs,  estr.ays, 
wrecks,  treasure-trove,  royal  fish,  and  forfeitures, 
all  of  which  are  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  are 
franchises.  The  rights  of  forest,  chase,  park,  warren, 
and  fishery  .ore  also  franchises,  no  subject  being 
entitled  so  to  apply  his  property  for  his  own  con- 
venience. A  county  p,alatine  (see  Palatine)  is  the 
highest  species  of  franchise,  as  within  it  the  earl, 
constable,  or  other  chief  officer,  m.ay  exercise  with- 
out control  the  highest  functions  of  the  sovereign. 
And  as  the  crown  may  thus  erect  an  entire  county 
into  an  independent  jurisdiction,  so  it  may  create 
a  liberty  or  bailiwick  independent  of  the  sheriff 
of  the  county.  This,  then,  is  another  species  of 
franchise.  It  is  like%vise  a  franchise  for  a  number 
of  persons  to  Ix!  incoiiior,ated,  and  subsist  as  a  body- 
politic,  with  a  power  to  maintain  per]ietual  succes- 
sion, and  do  other  eorjiorate  acts  ;  and  each  indi- 
vidual member  of  such  corporation  is  also  said  to 
have  a  franchise  or  freedom.  Tlie  right  to  hold  a 
fair  or  market,  or  to  establish  a  ferry,  and  to  levy 
tolls  therein,  is  also  a  franchise.  Where  the  holder 
of  a  franchise  is  disturbed  iu  his  right,  he  may  sue 
for  damages  by  an  action  on  the  case ;  or  in  the 
case  of  non-payment  of  tolls,  he  has  the  remedy  of 
Distress  (q.  v.).  I-Yanchises  may  be  extinguished  by 
reimion  with  the  crown,  or  may  be  lost  by  viUiixi'r 
— that  is,  such  a  use  of  them  as  is  contrary  to  the 
express  or  implied  condition  on  which  the  royal 
grant  proceeded — or  by  non-uso: 

FRANCIA,  Dr  Josii  Caspar  Kouninpia, 
Dictator  of  Paragu.ay,  was  the  son  of  a  s«uall  landed 
proprietor,  of  French  or  Portuguese  origin,  and  Wits 


FRAJNX'IA— FEANCIS. 


bom  near  the  town  of  Asuncion  in  1757  or  1758. 
He  was  intended  for  the  church,  studied  at  the 
university  of  Cordova  de  Tucuman,  where  he  took 
his  degree  as  a  doctor  of  divinity  or  of  canon  law, 
and  was  for  some  time  a  theological  professor. 
Subsequently  he  adopted  the  profession  of  law, 
to  the  practice  of  which  he  continued  to  devote 
himself  for  a  period  of  thii-ty  years,  gaining  much 
reputation  for  learning,  skill,  honesty,  and  inde- 
pendence of  character.  When  he  had  attained 
the  age  of  fifty-two  or  fifty-three,  the  revolution 
which  shattered  the  Spanish  yoke  in  South  America 
broke  out  in  Buenos  Ayrcs.  Paraguay  at  first 
offered  active  opposition  to  the  revolutionists,  but 
idtimately  sought  to  obtain  independence  for  itself. 
F.  took  a  leading  part  in  the  movement,  and 
was  made  secretary  of  tho  independent  junta  set 
up,  but  he  soon  resigned  his  post.  The  con\-iction, 
however,  being  strong  in  the  public  mind  that  F. 
alone  coiUd  i>roperly  direct  the  affairs  of  the  new 
republic,  he  was,  in  1S13,  ai)pointed  joint-consul 
along  with  General  Yegros.  The  latter,  however, 
was  a  man  apparently  without  much  intellect  or 
energy,  and  F.  was  really  sole  ruler  from  the  firet. 
In  1814,  he  was  appointed  dictator  for  three  years, 
at  the  expiry  of  which  time  the  dictatorship  was 
given  him  for  life  ;  and  the  absolute  control  so 
conferred  he  exercised  imtil  his  death  in  1840. 
Under  F.,  the  condition  of  Paragxiay  rapidly 
improved,  and  the  system  of  non-intercourse,  poli- 
tical or  commercial,  with  other  nations,  which  he 
enforced,  however  much  it  may  seem  to  prove  him 
devoid  of  administrative  s.agacity,  was  undoubtedly 
attended  with  good  resiUts  to  his  country.  So 
strict  were  the  regulations  against  foreign  inter- 
course, that  ingress  to,  or  egress  from,  Paraguay  was 
next  to  impossible ;  and  F.'s  treatment  of  some 
foreigners  who  did  get  in  (among  others  the  famous 
savant  Bonpland),  and  of  others  who  were  pre- 
vented entering,  savoured  of  harshness,  and  even 
barbarism.  Yet  his  administrative  talent  was  of 
a  high  order.  He  improved  agriculture,  making 
two  crops  of  com  grow  where  onl}'  one  had  grown 
before.  He  introduced  schools,  promoted  educa- 
tion, repressed  superstition,  and  enforced  strict 
justice  between  man  and  man  in  his  law-coiu-ts. 
His  death  was  rcgi-etted  by  the  people  as  a  public 
calamity — the  best  proof  that  he  was  no  vulgar 
tyrant.  See  Eengger  and  Longchamp's  Essai  His- 
torique,  &c  (Paris,  1827) ;  Francias  Reign  of  Terror 
(London,  1839),  by  J.  P.  and  W.  P.  Robertson,  two 
young  Scotchmen  whom  F.  turned  out  of  the 
eoimtrj-;  and  T.  Carlyle's  essay  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  (1843). 

FRANCIS,  OF  A-SSESI,  founder  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  and  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chiirch, 
was  one  of  the  most  e-xtraordinary  men  of  his  age, 
and  merits  a  detailed  notice,  as  illustrating  in  his 
career  all  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the 
reUgious  life  of  the  middle  age.  He  was  bom  in 
11 82,  of  the  family  called  Bemardini,  at  Assisi, 
where  his  father  was  engaged  in  trade.  His  bap- 
tismal name  was  John ;  but  from  his  familiaritj' 
with  the  Romance,  or  language  of  the  troubadours, 
in  his  youth,  he  acquired  the  name  of  II  Francesco 
(•  The  little  Frenchman ').  In  his  early  years,  he  was 
remarkable  for  his  love  of  gaiety  and  ostentatio'is 
jirodigaUty ;  but  even  then  jiis  bounty  to  the  poor 
was  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  his  wastefidness. 
He  engaged  eagerly  in  exercises  of  chivalry  and  of 
arms  ;  and  in  one  of  the  petty  feuds  of  the  time,  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  detained  for  a  year  in  cap- 
tivity at  Penigia,  An  illness  which  he  there  con- 
tracted turned  his  thoughts  from  earth ;  and  although 
he  again  engaged  in  mihtary  piu^uits,  a  second 
illuess  at  Spoleto  decided  lua  career  for  life.    He  now 


resolved  to  fulfil  hteraUy  the  counsels  of  the  gospel, 
and  lie  especially  devoted  himself  to  poverty,  which, 
in  the  mystic  language  thenceforth  familiar  to  him, 
he  designated  as  *  his  bride.'  Under  an  impulse 
which  Jie  received  while  listening  to  a  sermon,  he 
took  a  vow  never  to  refuse  alms  to  a  beggar.  He 
made  a  jiilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  St  Peter  at  Rome, 
and  there  offered  to  God  all  that  he  possessed  on 
earth.  On  his  return  to  Assisi,  he  exchanged  his 
clothes  with  a  jwor  mendicant ;  and  disregarcling  all 
remonstrance  and  ridicule,  he  ever  aftenvards  con- 
tinued to  wear  the  meanest  attue.  He  gave  to  a 
priest  who  was  rebuilding  a  riuned  church  the  price 
of  his  horse,  which  he  sold  for  the  puqiose,  and  even 
sought  to  api)roj)riate  to  the  same  use  the  moneys  of 
his  father,  whicli,  however,  the  priest  refused  to 
accept.  To  avoid  his  father's  anger,  he  took  refuge 
in  a  cave,  in  which  he  spent  a  month  in  sohtary 
prayer,  and  from  which  he  returned  more  than  ever 
confirmed  in  his  enthusiasm.  His  father  having  in 
vain  confined  him  in  a  dark  room  of  his  own  house, 
cited  him  before  the  magistrates,  and,  on  F.'s  declin- 
ing all  civil  jurisdiction  in  such  a  case,  before  the 
bishop,  in  order  to  compel  him  to  renounce  his 
inheritance.  F.  abandoned  all,  even  to  the  very 
clothes  he  wore,  and  then  declared  that  '  till  now 
he  had  been  the  son  of  Bemardini,  but  that  hence- 
forth he  had  but  one  Father,  Him  that  is  in  heaven.' 
Thenceforth,  no  hiuniliation  was  too  low  for  F. ; 
he  begged  at  the  gates  of  monasteries  ;  he  discharged 
the  most  menial  offices  ;  he  served  the  lepers  in  the 
hospital  at  Gubbio  in  their  most  revolting  necessi- 
ties, and  with  the  most  tender  assidmty.  He 
worked  \rith  his  own  hands  at  the  building  of  the 
church  of  St  Damian,  and  at  that  of  Sta  Maria  degli 
Angeli,  which  he  afterwards  called  his  '  Portiuncula,' 
or  '  fittle  inheritance  ; '  and  as  the  last  act  of  self- 
spoliation,  and  the  final  acceptance  of  the  gift  of 
poverty,  he  threw  aside  his  wallet,  his  stan^  and 
his  shoes,  and  arrayed  himself  in  a  single  brown 
tunic,  of  coai-se  woollen  cloth,  girt  with  a  hempen 
cord.  This  was  in  his  26th  year,  in  1208.  His 
enthusiasm  by  degrees  excited  emulation.  Two  of 
his  feUow-to\\-nsmen,  Bernard  Quintav.-ille  and  Peter 
Cattano,  were  his  first  associates.  They  were  fol- 
lowed, although  slowly,  by  others ;  and  it  was  not 
till  1210,  that,  his  brotherhood  having  now  increased 
to  eleven  in  number,  he  di'ew  up  for  them  a  rule, 
selected  iu  the  true  spirit  of  rehgious  enthusiasm, 
by  thrice  opening  at  random  the  gospels  upon  the 
altar,  and  taking  the  passages  thus  indicated  as  the 
basis  of  the  yoimg  institute.  (Milman's  Latin 
Christianity,  iv.  264.)  The  new  brethren  repaired 
to  Rome,  where  their  riUe  was  approved  (though 
at  first  only  vivd  race)  by  Pope  Innocent  IH.  in 
1210.  The  two  following  years  were  spent  by  the 
brotherhood  in  preaching  and  exhorting  the  people 
through  the  rural  districts  of  their  native  and  the 
atljoining  provinces ;  and  F.  himself  returned  to 
Assisi  in  1212,  at  which  time  he  finally  settled 
the  simple  constitution  of  his  order,  the  church  of 
Sta  Maria  degU  Angeli  being  assigned  to  them  as 
their  home.  In  common  with  the  older  forms  of 
mou.istic  life,  the  Franciscan  institute  is  founded 
on  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obe- 
dience ;  but  of  these  the  second  was,  in  the  eyes 
of  F.,  the  first  iu  importance  and  iu  spiritual 
efficacy.  In  other  orders,  the  practice  of  poverty 
consisted  in  the  mere  negation  of  riches.  With 
F.,  it  was  an  active  and  positive  principle.  In 
other  orders,  although  the  individuals  could  not 
possess,  it  was  lawfid  for  the  community  to  hold, 
property  in  common.  F.  repudiated  all  idea  of 
property,  alike  for  his  order  and  for  its  members; 
he  even  disclaimed  for  them  the  property  in  those 
things  which  thoy  retained  for  personal  use — the 

4S3 


FKANCIS. 


clothes  which  they  wore,  the  cord  with  which  tliey 
were  piilod,  the  very  breviary  from  which  they 
chanted  the  lUviuc  office.  The  very  imiiossibility, 
to  human  seeming,  of  these  vows,  was  their  streugtli. 
Nnmbei's  crowded  to  the  standard  of  Francis.  He 
toUl  them  otl'  in  jiartics  to  dift'ercnt  provinces  of 
Italy.  Five  of  the  brotherhood  repaired  to  Maiocco 
to  preach  to  the  Moors,  and,  as  the  lirst  martyrs  of 
the  order,  fell  victims  to  their  holy  dariu^'.  Success 
removed  all  the  hesitation  witli  which  the  institute 
at  tirst  was  regarded,  and  in  1210,  the  order  was 
solemidy  approved  by  Pope  Innocent.  From  this 
date  it  increased  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  At 
the  first  general  assembly,  held  in  121',1,  5000  mem- 
bers were  present ;  500  more  were  claimants  for 
admission.  F.  himself  inaugurated  the  future 
missionary  character  of  his  brotherhood  by  going 
(12'23)  to  the  Fast,  and  preaching  the  gospel  in  the 
presence  of  the  sultan  himself;  but  the  only  fruit 
of  his  mission  was  a  j)romise  from  the  sultan  of  more 
indulgent  treatment  for  the  Christian  captives,  and, 
for  the  Franciscan  order,  the  privilege  which  they 
have  since  enjoyed,  as  guardians  of  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  It  is  after  his  return  to  It.aly 
that  his  biographers  iilaco  the  celebrated  legend, 
which,  to  friends  or  to  enemies,  has  so  long  been  a 
subject  of  veneration  or  of  ridicide — his  receiring, 
while  in  an  ecstasy  of  prayer,  the  marks  {sllfimata] 
upon  his  own  person  of  the  wounds  of  our  Divine 
lledeemer.  The  scene  of  this  event  is  laid  on  Monte 
Alverno,  a  place  still  sacred  in  the  traditions  of  the 
order ;  and  the  date  is  September  17,  l'22i.  Two 
years  later,  St  F.  died,  October  4,  1226.  On  the 
approach  of  his  last  hour,  he  requested  that  he 
should  be  carried  upon  a  bier  to  the  church,  where 
he  had  himself  placed  on  the  bare  ground,  thus  real- 
ising in  his  o^\'n  death  the  most  literal  extreme  of 
the  doctrine  which  he  had  made  in  life  the  basis  of 
his  system.  He  was  canonised  by  Pope  Gregory  IX. 
in  122S. 

The  works  of  St  F.  (folio,  Pedeponti,  1739)  consist 
of  lettei-s,  sermons,  ascetic  treatises,  proverbs,  moral 
apothegms,  and  hymns.  The  latter  are  among  the 
earliest  metrical  specimens  of  the  Italian  language. 
They  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  full  of  the  teudercst 
expressions  of  the  love  of  God.  His  prose  is  often 
more  poetical  than  his  poetry  itself,  abounding  in 
allegory  and  poetical  personification.  Few  writers 
have  ever  turned  the  love  and  admiration  of  exter- 
nal nature  to  a  piu-pose  so  beautitidly  devotional. 
'  Of  all  the  saints,'  says  Dean  Milman,  '  St  Francis 
was  the  most  blameless  and  gentle.'  'So  saint,  it 
may  be  added,  has  been  the  subject  of  more  exag- 
gerated panegyric  from  the  writers  of  his  order ; 
and  one  of  the  works  in  his  jiraise — a  parallel 
between  St  F.  and  our  Divine  Redeemer — is  dis- 
owned by  the  Roman  Catholic  community  as  a 
most  reprehensible  exaggeration,  the  friut  of  an 
affectionate,  but  most  misdirected  zeal  for  the 
memory  of  the  founder  of  the  Franciscan  order. 

See  the  BoUandist,  Acta  Sanctorum,  October  4; 
St  Bonaventure's  Life  of  St  Francis,  with  Wad- 
ding's notes ;  Helyot,  Hist,  des  Ordres  Relifjkux,  torn, 
vii, ;  Butler's  Lives  of  Saints,  October  4;  Milman's 
Latin  Clirislianiti/,  vol.  iv. ;  Gieseler's  Chiirch  Histoiy, 
vol.  iii. ;  Dijllinger's  Histoni  of  lite  Church ;  St 
Francis  and  the  Franciscans  (Dublin,  1S61). 

FRANCIS,  Sir  Pini.ip,  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr 
riiilip  Francis,  author  of  a  well-known  translation 
of  Horace,  was  born  at  Dublin,  October  22,  1740, 
and  educated  at  St  Paid's  School,  London,  where  he 
hail  for  a  school-fellow  Henry  S.  Woodfall,  after- 
wards the  printer  of  the  Public  A  decrtiscr,  and  the 
publisher  of  the  Letters  of  Junius.  In  175G,  he 
obtained  a  place  in  the  ofiice  of  Mr  Fox,  then  secre- 
tary of  state,  which  he  retained  under  his  successor 
484 


Mr  Pitt.  In  1760,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Earl 
of  Kinnoul,  who  had  been  apjiointed  British  ambas- 
sador to  Portugal ;  and  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1703,  he  received  an  appointment  in  the  War-oliiee. 
Ten  years  later,  he  was  sent  out  to  IndLi,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  for  the  government  of  Bengal, 
with  a  salary  of  £10,000.  Here  lie  came  into  colli- 
sion with  the  governor-general,  M'arren  Hastings, 
and  so  far  did  the  quarrel  proceed,  that  a  duel  was 
the  consequence,  in  which  F.  w.as  severely  wounded. 
In  December  17S(),  he  resigned  his  situation,  and 
returning  to  England,  entered  parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Yannouth,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1784. 
He  never  obtained  a  reputation  as  an  orator,  but 
his  great  abilities  and  extensive  information  always 
commanded  the  respect  and  attention  of  the  House. 
The  prosecution  of  Hastings,  begun  in  1786,  w.as 
hailed  by  him  with  malignant  joy,  and  it  nnist  be 
confessed  that  he  disjilayed  a  most  ungenerous 
alacrity  and  activity  in  furthering  the  designs  of  the 
committee  of  impeachment.  In  his  political  opinions, 
F.  was  a  decided  and  consistent  Whig,  at  a  time 
when  WTiiggism  meant  very  much  the  same  as  the 
Radicalism  of  a  later  period.  He  exulted  at  the 
success  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  an  .active 
member  of  the  association  of '  Friends  of  the  People,' 
and  ably  supjiorted  the  efforts  of  Fox  and  Grey 
for  a  reform  in  the  representation  of  the  nation. 
He  withdrew  from  parliament  in  1S07,  and  died 
December  22,  1818.  F.  WTote  upwards  of  twenty 
political  pamphlets.  He  has  also  been  considered  by 
many  to  have  the  best  claim  to  the  authorship  of 
the  Letters  of  Junius  (q.  v.). 

FRANCIS  I.,  Icing  of  France,  son  of  Charles, 
Comte  d'Angoulfime,  was  bom  at  Cognac,  Sep- 
tember 12,  1494,  and  in  his  youth  manifested 
an  ardent  love  for  literatm-e,  especially  for  tlie 
romances  of  chivahy,  whence,  probably,  ho  di-ew 
his  brilliant  but  eiToueous  views  of  a  kingly  char- 
acter. At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  married  Claude, 
daughter  of  Louis  XII.,  and  succeeded  his  father- 
in-law,  January  1,  1515.  His  iirst  act,  after 
moimting  the  throne,  was  to  set  about  the  recou- 
qnest  of  Milan,  which  had  Vieen  wrested  from 
his  predecessor  two  years  before  ;  and  at  the  head 
of  40,000  men,  among  whom  were  such  great 
warriors  as  the  Constable  Bom-bon,  Bayard,  Lautrec, 
and  Tri\Tdzio,  F.  crossed  the  Alps,  and  attacked 
the  S\viss  allies  of  the  Milanese  at  Marignano,  ten 
mdes  from  Milan.  Here  a  sanguinary  battle,  aiter- 
wards  called  the  '  battle  of  the  giants,'  ensued  (loth 
September  1515),  in  which  F.  obtained  a  conqdete 
victory — the  Swiss  losing  12,000  men.  In  accord- 
ance \vith  his  chiv.alrous  propensities,  F.  accepted 
luiighthood  on  the  field  from  the  renowned  Bayard. 
After  some  further  successes,  F.  returned  to  Paris 
in  the  mouth  of  February  1516.  On  the  death  of 
Maximilian,  emperor  of  Germany,  in  January  1519, 
F.  and  Charles  of  Spain  became  rival  candidates  for 
the  imiierial  crown.  The  election  of  the  latter 
excited  the  anger  of  F.,  who  immediately  prepared 
for  war,  and  endeavoured  to  secure  the  alliauce 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  An  interWew  took 
jilace  in  1520  between  the  two  monarchs  on  the 
famous  fiekl  of  the  cloth  of  {/old,  between  Giunes 
and  Ardres,  but  it  led  to  no  result,  and  shortly 
after,  Henry  formed  an  alliance  with  the  pojjc  aud 
the  emperor  agauist  Francis.  The  papal  troops 
drove  the  French  out  of  Italy ;  and  the  soldiers  • 
of  Henry  and  the  emperor  invaded  France  on 
the  north,  while,  to  complete  his  perplexities, 
the  Constable  Bom-bon,  who  was  discovered  to  bo 
conspiring  against  his  sovereign,  fled  to  Charles, 
who  gladly  accepted  the  sword  of  the  renegade 
warrior.  F.  gallantly  faced  the  dangers  that  now 
threatened  his  kingdom.     A  large  army  was  sent 


FRANCIS. 


to  Italy  under  the  command  of  Bonnivet,  who, 
however,  proved  incapable,  and  was  forced  to  retreat 
across  the  Alps.  In  the  course  of  this  retreat, 
]>ay.ard  lost  his  life.  The  imperialists  now  advanced 
into  Provence,  but,  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
king,  withtlrew  into  Italy,  whither  they  were 
followed  by  F.,  who  overran  Loniliardy,  but  was 
totally  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Pa  via,  24th  February  lo'25.  Charles  cirried  his 
captive  to  Madrid,  and  only  granted  him  his  liberty 
on  the  hardest  conditions.  F.  had  to  renounce  the 
suzerainty  of  Flanders  and  Artois,  the  duchy  of 
Burfimdy,  and  all  his  Italian  jiosscssions  and  pre- 
rogatives, to  promise  the  restoration  of  liourlion  to 
his  former  dignities,  and  to  surrender  his  two  sous 
as  hostages.  He  obtained  his  freedom,  March  17, 
1  r>26 ;  but  regarding  the  conduct  of  Charles  as 
utterly  base,  his  first  act,  on  his  return  to  his 
dominions,  was  a  refusal  to  fulfil  the  jiledges  he 
had  given.  Pope  Clement  VII.  absolved  him  from 
his  oath ;  Fngland,  Itome,  Venice,  Florence,  and 
(ienoa — all  of  whom  were  growing  alarmed  at  the 
immense  ]io\ver  of  Charles— withdrew  from  the 
imjierial  alliance,  and  sided  with  his  antagonist. 
The  war  in  Italy  now  reconuuenced.  On  the  5th 
May  1527,  Bourbon's  'black  banditti'  stormed  and 
sacked  the  '  Eternal  City,'  and  cajitured  the  jxipe. 
F.  now  sent  troops  into  Naples,  which,  after  a 
series  of  brilliant  successes,  were  almost  wholly  cut 
otf  by  disease,  mainly  througli  the  negligence  of  the 
king,  who  failed  to  supply  them  with  the  means  of 
subsistence.  About  the  same  time,  F.  sent  a  chal- 
lenge to  Charles  to  decide  their  quarrel  by  single 
combat.  The  challenge  was  acccijted,  but  the  duel 
never  came  otf.  At  last,  a  peace  was  concluded  at 
Cambray,  in  July  1529,  much  to  the  advantage  of 
the  Spaniards.  In  1534,  however,  war  broke  out 
between  F.  and  the  Duke  of  Milan  ;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  former  overran  Savoy,  to  which 
he  laid  claim  by  the  absurdest  pretensions.  The 
conduct  of  Charles  at  this  jieriod  was  marked  by 
the  greatest  mtideration,  liut  he  was  ultimately 
reiuvolved  in  hostilities  with  his  inveterate  oppo- 
nent. Little  definite  residt  ensued,  but  the  war  was 
marked  by  a  circimistance  regarded  as  hoiTible  in 
those  days — viz.,  an  alliance  between  Christians 
and  Turks.  F.  formally  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  Sultan  Soliuian,  who  went  so  far  as  to  laud 
troops  in  the  south  of  Italy,  but  the  French  king 
shrunk  from  a  practical  co-operation  with  the  arch- 
enemy of  Christendom.  By  the  eflbrts  of  Pope 
Paid  III.,  a  treaty  was  concluded  for  ten  years  at 
Nice  between  Charles  and  F.,  18th  June  15.38. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  pe.aoe  lasted  only  four 
years,  and  in  1542,  F.,  insatiable  of  glory,  launched 
live  different  armies  against  the  emperor.  The 
battle  of  CerisoUes,  14th  Ajiril  1544,  in  which  the 
French  were  completely  victorious,  parti.ally  wiped 
out  the  dishonour  of  the  defeat  at  P.avia,  but  a 
second  alliance  of  F.  with  the  Turks  renewed  the 
indignation  of  Christendom.  Charles,  and  Henry 
king  of  England,  marched  u]>on  Paris,  and  F.  was 
compelled  to  make  peace  at  Crepy,  18th  September 
1544.  His  political  role  was  now  finished.  He 
died  at  Pambouillet,  March  .31,  1547.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  estimate  the  character  of  this  monarch. 
G.ay  and  voluptuous  (it  was  the  physical  conse- 
quences of  an  amour  which  cost  hira  his  Ufe),  he  was 
still  capable  of  heroic  impidses  and  acts  of  splendid 
generosity.  But  no  amount  of  '  chivalry '  could 
coripcnsate  for  the  lack  of  jjolitic.al  s.agacity;  it 
could  not  even  save  him  from  deeds  of  cruelty.  His 
persecution  of  the  Vaudois  and  other  '  heretics '  has 
left  a  dark  stain  on  his  memory,  which  all  his 
l>atronagc  of  arts  and  letters  will  not  efface.  F. 
was  himself  a  writer  of  verses ;  but  these  were  so 


bad,   that    even    French    critics    pronomice    them 
almost  intolerable. 

FRANCIS  I.  (.SxErnE.N-),  Emperor  of  German}-, 
born  in  1708,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold,  Duke 
of  Lorraine.  On  the  death  of  bis  father,  in  1729, 
F.  succeeded  him  in  the  dukedom,  which,  in  1735, 
he  ceded  to  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  father-in-law  of 
Louis  XV.,  to  revert  after  his  death  to  the  crowu 
of  France.  In  lieu  of  Lorraine,  he  obtained  the 
gr.and  duchy  of  Tuscany,  whose  native  rulers,  the 
Medieean  famUy,  were  about  to  die  out.  In  1736, 
he  m.arried  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  the  only 
ilaughtor  and  heiress  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
In  1740,  Charles  died,  and  JIaria  Theresa  succeeded 
him ;  she  made  her  husband  co-regent  with  herself, 
but  "ave  him  little  share  in  the  administration.  F. 
fought  bravely  for  his  %vife's  rights  in  the  wars 
carried  on  against  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1745, 
he  was  elected  to  the  once  important  dignity  of 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  at  Frankfurt. 
Tlie  famous  Seven  Years'  War  (1756—1763)  now 
broke  out  between  Austria  and  Prussia;  but  the 
cares  wliich  it  imposed  fell  mainly  upon  his  leonine 
consort,  Maria  Theresa.  F.  died  at  Innspriick,  18th 
Augmst  1765.  His  son  Joseph  succeeded  him  in  the 
impcri.al  dignity,  but  Maria  Theresa  retained  in  her 
hands  the  sovereignty  of  the  Austrian  dominions 
till  her  death. 

FRANCIS  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  L 
of  Austria,  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold  II.  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of  Maria  Louisa,  daughter 
of  Charles  III.,  king  of  Sp.ain,  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence,  in  Fcljruary  176S.  In  1790,  his  father  became 
Emperor  of  Austria  by  the  death  of  his  brother 
Joseph,  but  died  only  two  years  after,  when 
the  crown  devolved  upon  Francis.  The  French 
Revolution  was  now  exciting  the  alarm  of  the 
old  European  dynasties  ;  F.  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Prussia  against  the  new  republic  ;  and  the 
armies  of  the  allies  marched  to  the  frontiers  of 
France,  but  soon  rccoded  before  the  fiery  enthu- 
siasm of  the  republican  troops.  In  1794,  F.  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Netherlands, 
^^■hich,  on  the  26th  of  April,  defeated  the  French  at 
Catcau  and  Landrecy ;  and  on  the  22d  of  May, 
gained  the  bloody  battle  of  Tournay;  but  on  the 
\vhole  the  fortune  of  the  war  was  .against  him  ;  and 
the  triumplis  of  young  General  Bonaparte  in  Italy 
forced  him  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio 
(October  17,  1797).  Only  two  years  afterwards, 
however,  F.,  in  aUi.ance  with  Russia  and  England, 
.again  took  up  arms,  and  was  at  first  successful;  but 
the  recall  of  the  liravc  Russian  general,  Suwaroff, 
and  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  the  E.ast,  quicldy 
altered  the  state  of  matters.  The  great  victories 
won  by  Moreau  at  HoheiJinden,  and  by  Bonaparte 
at  Marengo,  p.aralj'sed  the  powers  of  Austria,  and 
F.  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was 
obtained  by  the  treaty  of  LunevQle  in  ISOl,  by 
which  the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Rhine 
was  ceded  to  France.  In  1805,  the  aggressions  of 
France  once  more  excited  the  jealousy  of  Austria. 
F.  entered  into  a  new  affiance  with  Russia  ;  and  the 
contest  w.as  renewed,  Init  ended  more  disastrously 
than  ever  for  the  Austriaus.  The  French  victories 
of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  and  the  capture  of  Vienna, 
completely  humili.ated  F.,  who,  at  the  peace  of 
Presburg  (Peeembet  1805),  was  obliged  to  surrender 
the  Venetian  st.ates  and  the  Tyrol.  The  tierman 
empire  w.%s  now  dissolved,  after  lasting  for  1000 
years,  and  F.  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria, 
King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  In  1809,  he  recom- 
menced the  w.ar  with  Napoleon,  and  obtained  more 
success,  or  perh.aps  we  shoidd  say,  encountered  less 
loss  than  on  previous  occasions.      The  tremendoua 

483 


FRAXCIS  JOSEPH— FRAN'CISCAXS. 


battle  of  Aswm  traa  a  victor)',  though  not  a  decisive 
one,  anil  diil  much  to  restore  the  prestige  of  the 
Austrian  arms.  Still  Naiwlcon  again  got  jtossession 
of  Vienna,  and  dictated  terms  ot  peiice  from  the 
ikalace  of  Schiiuhrunn  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
in  1810  the  French  emjicror  married  K.'s  daughter, 
Maria  Louis-a.  A  permanent  friendly  .alliance  now 
seemed  to  he  concluded  between  the  two  empires  ; 
and  during  the  Russian  campaign  in  1812,  the 
Austrians  rendered  the  French  some  slight  assist- 
ance. In  1S13,  Austria  resmncd  its  neutrality  ;  but, 
after  ha\-ing  exerted  himself  fruitlessly  to  mediate 
between  Fnanee  and  Russia,  F.  suddenly  joined 
the  .lilies,  helped  to  -n-iu  the  battle  of  Lcipsio,  and 
followed  the  Russians  and  Prussians  to  Paris  in 
1814.  His  subsequent  career  does  not  present  any 
points  of  special  importance.  He  laboured  honestly 
and  indefatigably  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects, 
encouraging  the  m.aking  of  roads  and  canals,  and 
the  introduction  of  manufactures  ;  but  his  horror  of 
everj-thing  revolution.iry,  e.xcited  by  his  early  recol- 
lections, and  by  the  cniel  death  of  his  aunt,  Marie 
Antoinette,  and  kept  alive  by  his  long  wars  with 
Fr.ance,  h-id  rendered  him  an  absolutist  in  politics, 
and  a  lover  of  that  system  of  centralis,ition  to 
which  Austria  continues  to  cling.  F.  died  on  the  2d 
of  March  1S35. 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  the  present  Emperor  of 
Austria,  born  ISth  August  1830,  is  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Archduke  Francis  (son  of  the  Emi)eror 
Francis  L),  and  Sophia,  a  princess  of  Bavaria. 
F.  was  taught  to  speak  all  the  various  languages 
of  his  heterogeneous  dominions,  and  only  the  year 
before  the  Hungarian  revolution  addressed  the 
Magyar  nobles  at  Pesth  in  their  o^ti  langu.age 
— a  circumst.ance  which  secured  him  a  certain 
transient  popidarit}-.  In  1848,  he  sen'ed  under 
Radetzky  in  the  Italian  wars.  The  Emperor 
Ferdinand  having,  in  the  hour  of  his  extremity, 
made  certain  constitution,al  jiromiscs  to  the  nation, 
the  archduchess,  F.'s  mother,  who  during  the 
whole  year  had  directed  the  schemes  of  the  anti- 
revolutionarj'  party,  resolved  that  the  fulfilment 
of  these  promises  should  be  evaded  by  a  change 
of  sovereign.  Ferdinand  accordingly  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  nephew  (2d  December  1848),  and  F. 
assumed  the  government  as  Emperor  of  Austiia, 
and  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Himgar)-, 
however,  which  had  lost  aO  faith  in  the  House  of 
Hapsburg,  rose  in  arms,  and  refused  to  accede  to 
the  change  of  succession ;  and  Italy  again  tried 
the  fortune  of  war.  The  progress  of  the  struggle 
between  F.  and  the  constitutionalists  of  Himgary  is 
described  in  the  biographies  of  Kossuth,  Bern,  Dem- 
binski,  Batthyani,  &c  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Austria 
triumphed  in  Italy,  and  also  in  Hungary,  through 
the  treachery  of  (Jijrgei  and  the  help  of  Russia. 
F.  now  devoted  himself,  with  characteristic  i>cr- 
sistency,  to  the  re-cstablishment  of  'order,'  that  is 
to  say,  of  despotism.  He  dissolved  the  national 
guard,  and  took  away  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
on  January  1,  1852,  abolished  the  constitution  of 
his  imcle,  which  had  been  a  dead-letter  from  the 
beginning.  In  1853  he  nearly  lost  liis  life  by 
assassination,  and  in  the  Crimean  War  forfeited 
the  respect  of  all  the  belligerents  by  his  indecisive 
attitude.  The  concordat  of  1855,  by  which  cert.ain 
extraordinary  privileges  were,  conferred  on  the 
bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  another 
step  backw.ards,  which  very  properly  excited  the 
apprehension  of  the  liber.al  party  in  Europe.  Mean- 
while the  dissatisfaction  of  Lombardy,  Venice, 
Hungary,  and  Galicia,  hourly  increased.  Sardinia 
(backed  by  France)  encouraged  the  national  feeling 
in  It.aly,  and  at  last,  in  1850,  F.  huniud  thought- 
lessly into  a  war  with  that  kingdom,  which  ended  in 


the  pe.acc  of  Villa  Franca  and  the  cession  of  Lom- 
bardy to  Sardinia.  F.  is  now  engaged  in  a  doubtfid 
struggle  with  the  disafTection  of  his  Hui^garian 
subjects.     Sec  AusnuA,  Huxgabv. 

FRANCI'SCANS,  Order  of,  also  caUcd 
MixouiTRs  or  Le-sser  BitErnRKX,  a  religious 
order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  by 
St  Francis  of  Assisi.  For  an  account  of  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Fnanciscan  order,  .and  its  earliest 
fortunes,  see  Francis  of  A.ssisi.  The  sidjsequent 
progress  of  the  order  w.os  equally  wonderfuL  In 
less  than  hiilf  a  centiuy  it  reckoned  no  fewer  than 
33  'provinces,'  the  .aggregate  number  of  convents 
in  which  exceeded  8000,  while  the  members  fell 
little,  if  at  all,  short  of  200,000.  Some  idea,  indeed, 
of  the  extraordinary  e.xtension  of  this  remarkable 
institute  m.ay  be  formed  fi-om  the  startling  fact, 
that,  in  the  dreadfid  plague  of  the  Black  Death 
in  the  following  centurj',  no  fewer  than  124,000 
Franciscans  fell  Nnctims  to  their  zeal  for  the  care 
of  the  sick,  and  for  the  spiritual  ministration 
to  the  djnng !  But  this  marvellous  external  pro- 
gi'ess  was  accom]>anied  by  serious  internal  contro- 
versies and  divisions.  In  the  origin.al  scheme  of  the 
institute,  its  great  fund.imental  ch.aracteristic  was 
poverty,  wliich  .St  Francis  proposed  to  render  in  his 
order  not  only  more  perfect  theoretically,  but  more 
systematical  in  its  practice,  than  it  existed  in  any 
ot  the  contemporary  institutes.  For  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  design,  the  rule  which  he  drew  up 
contiiined  a  few  brief  and  simple,  but,  understood 
liter.aUy,  very  effectual  provisions ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  their  hteral  observance  led,  even  in  the  lifetime 
of  St  Fnancis,  to  an  attempt  in  the  general  assembly 
of  the  order  to  introduce  some  important  modifica- 
tions ;  and,  though  the  authority  of  the  founder  was 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  these  modifica- 
tions during  his  lifetime,  anil  although  his  last  wnll 
contained  a  special  clause  prohibiting  not  merely 
all  change  of  the  nde,  but  even  all  interpretation  of 
it,  the  attempt  was  renewed  with  still  more  deter- 
mination under  Brother  Elias,  his  successor  in  the 
office  of  general  of  the  order.  The  great  subject 
of  controversy  was  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
obhgation  of  religious  poverty,  as  vowed  in  the 
order.  Francis  desired  th.at  it  should  l>e  imderstood 
in  the  most  rigorous  sense  ;  and,  in  his  scheme  of 
poverty,  neither  the  indiridual  brethren  nor  the 
entire  community  could  acquire  or  retain  any  right 
of  propei-ty  even  in  things  of  necessary  use.  The 
rigorous  party  in  the  order  sought  to  carry  out 
this  principle  to  the  fullest  extent ;  and  they 
contended  that  it  w.is  unlawful  for  the  order  to 
acquire  a  right  of  property  in  houses,  convents,  or 
even  churches  ;  restricting  their  right  in  everything 
which  they  possessed  to  the  simple  use.  Sevenal 
successive  popes  sought,  by  explanatory  decrees, 
to  settle  the  dispute  ;  and  for  a  time  a  compro- 
mise w.as  received,  bj'  which  it  was  understood 
that  the  right  of  property  in  .all  de  fac'o  posses- 
sions of  the  order  was  vested  in  the  see  of  Kome  ; 
but  the  foimdations  of  the  real  controversy  lay 
deeper  th.an  this.  They  regarded  the  ])ractice,  f.ar 
more  than  the  theorj-,  of  poverty;  .and  the  disputes 
to  which  they  led  eventuated  not  only  in  the 
form.ation  of  fresh  offsets  from  the  bodj'  in  the  new 
refigious  orders  to  be  named  hereafter,  but  also  in 
a  large,  and,  for  a  time,  fonnidable,  secession  from 
the  church  in  the  sect  of  the  Fraticelliana.  See 
Fraticellians. 

The  supreme  government  of  the  Franciscan  order, 
which  is  commonly  said  to  be  the  especial  embodi- 
ment of  the  democratic  element  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  is  vested  in  an  elective  general, 
who  resides  at  Home.  The  subonlin.ate  sujieriors 
arc,  fii-st,  the  '  pro^TncLol,'  w  ho  presides  over  all  the 


FEAXCISCAXS. 


brethren  in  a  province  ;  and  secondly  the  '  guardian,' 
who  is  the  head  of  a  single  convent  or  comimmity. 
These  officers  are  elected  only  for  two  years.  The 
provincial  alone  has  power  to  admit  candidates, 
who  are  subjected  to  a  probation  of  two  years  (see 
Is'o\aTiATE) ;  after  which  they  are,  if  approved, 
permitted  to  take  the  vows  of  the  order.  Those 
of  the  members  who  are  advanced  to  holy  orders 
undergo  a  preparatory  course  of  study,  during 
which  they  are  called  '  scholars  ; '  and  if  eventually 
promoted  to  the  priesthood,  they  are  styled  'fathers' 
of  the  order ;  the  title  of  the  other  members  being 
'  brother '  or  '  lay-brother.' 

A  very  important  featiu-e,  however,  of  the  organ- 
isation of  tlie  Franciscan,  as  it  subseqiiently  be- 
came of  other  orders,  is  the  enrolment  of  non-con- 
ventual members,  who  continue  to  live  in  society 
without  tlie  obligation  of  celibacy;  and  in  general, 
are  only  bound  by  the  spirit,  and  uot  the  letter,  of 
the  nile.  They  are  called  '  Tertiarics,'  or  members 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St  Francis.  See  Tertiary.  It 
is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  value  of  this  insti- 
tution in  the  disorganised  social  condition  of  that 
age.  The  Tertiaries  were  bound,  as  the  very  first 
condition  of  enrolment,  to  restore  all  ill-gotten 
goods  ;  to  be  reconciled  ^vith  all  those  with  whom 
they  had  been  at  feud  ;  to  devote  them.'^elves  to  the 
practice  of  works  of  Christian  charity ;  to  avoid  all 
unnecessary  expenditure  ;  to  renounce  the  use  of 
personal  ornaments ;  to  hear  mass  dailj' ;  to  serve  the 
sick  and  the  hospitals ;  to  instiuct  the  ignorant ; 
and,  in  a  word,  to  practise  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
world  the  substance  of  the  virtues  of  the  cloister. 
The  institute,  in  this  form,  undoubtedly  exercised  a 
poworfiU  influence  in  metlieval  society.  It  counted 
members  in  every  rank,  from  the  throne  to  the 
cottage  ;  and,  although  it  was  in  some  instances 
deformed  by  abuses  and  sujierstitious  ]>ractices,  the 
aggregate  results  were  undoubtedly  beneficial. 

The  Franciscan  order  has  been  the  parent  of 
many  other  religious  institutes.  The  earliest  of 
these  is  that  of  the  '  Observantists,'  or  '  Virethren  of 
more  strict  observance.'  The  origin  of  this  body 
has  been  already  indicated.  The  party  in  the  order 
which  contended  for  the  more  rigid  observance  of 
the  rule,  after  a  protracted  struggle — in  which  ilis- 
affection  to  the  church  itself  was  often  strongly 
exhibited  (see  Spiriti'ai.i.sts) — obtained  a  separate 
org.anisation,  which  may  1)0  said  to  have  been  linally 
settled  at  the  time  of  Leo  X.  The  less  rigid  party, 
under  the  name  of '  Conventuals,'  obtained  a  distinct 
general,  and  an  autlioiisation  for  their  mitigated 
obser^'auce  of  the  rule.  Their  ch<irches  and  convents 
admit  greater  richness  of  .architecture  and  decora- 
tion ;  and  they  are  at  liberty  to  acquire  and  retain, 
in  tlie  name  of  the  order,  the  property  of  tliesc  and 
similar  possessions,  all  of  which  are  renounced  by 
the  Observant  Franciscans.  The  latter  community 
comprises  nearly  151)  pro\-inces.  Their  constitution 
is  that  of  the  original  rule,  as  already  e.x]ilained.  A 
second  offshoot  of  the  Franciscan  order,  and  in  the 
same  direction  of  rigorism,  is  that  kno\\ni  as  the 
'  Cajmchin,'  founded  by  Matteo  di  Basio,  a  Francis- 
can brother  of  the  Observant  rule,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  16th  century.  ]3elie\'ing  himself  divinely 
called  to  revive  the  old  sjiirit  of  his  order,  and 
learning  that  the  modern  habit  of  the  brethren  was 
tlitl'erent  from  that  of  St  I'rancis,  he  began  vrith 
externals,  and  procured  for  himself,  and  obtained 
the  pajtal  permission  to  intrrMluce  (1.^28),  the  peculiar 
habit,  with  a  pointed  hood  or  cowl  (capute),  from 
which  the  name  of  the  reformed  order  is  derived. 
Along  with  this  hal)it,  however,  Matteo  adopted  a 
very  rigorous  and  mortified  course  of  life,  in  which 
he  was  joined  by  others  of  the  brethren  ;  and  the 
reform  spread  so  rapidly  among  the  community,  that 


in  the  year  15.36  a  general  chapter  of  the  new  con- 
greg.ation  was  held.      They  were  subject,  however, 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  of  the  Franciscan 
order.     One  of  the  first  generals  of  the  new  reform 
was  Bernardino  Ochino,  .afterwards  notable  by  his 
defection  to  Cah-inism.     After  the  Council  of  Trent, 
the  Cajiuchins  multi]ilicd  rajudly,  though  they  were 
not  introduced  in  France  till  the  end  of  that  century. 
A  similar  reform,  to  %\hich  the  name  of  '  Rccollets ' 
was  given  (introduced  in  Spain  by  ..John  de  Guad.a- 
loupe,  in  1500),  was  ajiproved  by  Clement  VII.  in 
1532  ;  and  many  of  the  new  brethren  were  among 
the  first  Spanish  missionaries  to  the  New  World.   A 
fui-ther  development  of  the  rigoristic  sjiirit  is  the 
congreg.ation  of  'Disc.alced'  or  '  B.irefootcd '   (q.  v.) 
I  Franciscans.      The   author   of    this    reform  was   a 
'  Spanish   Capuchin,    I'etcr    of    Alcant.ar,a.      In    his 
,  capacity  of  provincial  of  Estremadura,  Peter  intro- 
duced  many  reforms;    and   in    1555   obtained  the 
j  approv.al  of  Pope  Julius  III.  for  a  new  iiJe,  which 
]  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Pius  IV. 

The  notice  of  the  Franciscan  institute  woidd  be 
incomplete  ■nnthout  the  mention  of  the  several 
orders  of  nuns ;  as  those  of  St  Clare,  the  Capu- 
chinesses,  the  Urbanist  nuns,  &e.,  which  formed 
part  of  the  same  general  organisation.  None  of 
these,  however,  calls  for  any  detailed  exjilanation, 
or  presents  any  verj'  characteristic  features. 
j  'The  Franciscan  order,  in  these  several  branches, 
has  at  all  times  maintained  its  po])iJarity  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  WTien  Helyot,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  c,  published  his  great  Hislorij 
of  Ileligious  Orders,  the  Franciscan  order  nimibered 
nearly  120,000  friars,  <listributed  over  .above  7000 
convents,  and  nearly  30,01)0  nuns,  occupying  about 
(  900  convents.  Since  the  French  Eevolution,  the 
j  number  has  of  course  been  very  much  diminished, 
the  order  ha^-ing  been  suppressed  in  more  than  one 
kingdom ;  but  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  numerous 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Chiu'ch.  Many  of  the 
foreign  missions  are  mainly  supplied  by  Franciscans, 
and  they  possess  convents  in  ahuost  everj'  part  of 
the  worUL 

As  a  literary  order,  the  Franciscans  h.ave  chiefly 
been  eminent  in  the  theological  sciences.  The  great 
school  of  the  Scotists  takes  its  name  from  John 
Duns  Scotus  (see  ScO'rrs),  a  Fr<anciscan  friar,  and  it 
has  been  the  pride  of  this  order  to  maintain  his 
distinctive  doctrines  both  in  pliilosophy  and  in 
theology  against  the  riv.al  school  of  the  Thomists, 
to  which  the  Dominican  order  g.ave  its  allegiance. 
See  TnoinsTS.  In  the  NominaUstic  controversy,  the 
Thomists  were  for  the  most  part  Conceptiualists ; 
the  Franciscans  adhered  to  the  rigid  Realism.  See 
NoMiNALLSM.  In  the  Free-will  question,  the  Fran- 
ciscans strenuously  resisted  the  Thomist  doctrine  of 
'predetermining  decrees.'  Indeed,  .all  the  greatest 
names  of  the  early  Scotist  school  are  the  Fran- 
ciscans, St  Bonavcntiire,  Alexander  de  Hales,  and 
Ockham.  The  single  name  of  Roger  Bacon,  the 
marvel  of  medieval  letters,  the  di\'ine,  the  phil- 
osopher, the  linguist,  the  experimentalist,  the  prac- 
tical mechanician,  would  in  itself  have  sufficed  to 
make  the  reputation  of  his  order,  had  his  contem- 
poraries not  failed  to  appreciate  his  merit.  Two 
centuries  later,  the  great  Cardin.al  Ximenes  was  a 
member  of  this  order.  The  Popes  Nicholas  IV., 
Alexander  V.,  Sextus  IV.,  the  still  more  celebrated 
Sixtus  v.,  .and  the  well-known  Ganganelli,  Clement 
XIV.,  also  belonged  to  the  institute  of  .St  Fr-ancis.  In 
history,  this  order  is  less  distinguished;  but  its  own 
annalist,  Luke  Wadding,  an  Irish  Franciscan,  bears 
a  deservedly  high  reputation  as  a  historian.  In 
lighter  literature,  and  particularly  poetry,  we  have 
already  named  the  founder  himself  as  a  sacred  poet. 
Jacopone  da  Todi,  a  Franciscan,  is  one  of  the  most 

4s; 


m^VNCISCO— FKANCOXIA. 


oh.iractcristic  of  tho  medieval  hymn-writers  j  and  in 
latir  times,  the  celebrated  Lope  de  Vega  closed  his 
eveiitlij  career  as  a  ukiiiIht  of  the  third  order  of 
St  Francis.  Wc  may  add  that  in  the  revival  of 
art  the  Franciscan  onler  hore  an  aotis-e  and,  it 
must  be  confessed,  a  liberal  and  enlii;htencd  part 
See  Waddiii};,  .lHn<i/<'«  Minorum  Fratrum,  S  vols.; 
sec  also  Mihnan's  Latin  Christianili/,  vol.  v. 

FKAXCISCO,  Sax.  See  San  Fk.uncisco. 
FR.V'XCKE,  Auci.  Heem.,  a  distinc^nished  German 
phihuithropist,  fonnder  of  the  Orphan  Asylum  and 
several  educational  institutions  at  Halle,  was  born 
at  Lubcck  in  1663.  Havinj  studied  languages  and 
theology  with  great  application  and  success,  he 
first  attracted  attention  by  his  academical  liiblical 
lectures  in  Leipsic,  begun  about  IGSo.  These  were 
more  distinguished  for  piety,  wanuth,  and  zeal,  than 
for  attention  to  the  strict  and  dry  orthodoxy  then 
in  vogue ;  .and  the  reception  they  met  with  from 
the  public  brought  on  F.  envy  and  persecution  aa  a 
heretic.  He  thought  proper  to  vield  to  the  storm, 
and  withdrew  in'  1690  to  Erfurt.  In  1692,  he 
obtained  the  professorship  of  Oriental  languages  in 
the  newly  instituted  university  at  HaUe,  where  he 
subsequently  held  a  professorship  of  theology.  He 
also  received  the  i)astor.al  charge  of  the  suburb  of 
Gl.ancha.  The  ignorance  and  poverty  of  his  parish- 
ioners g.ave  the  first  impulse  to  his  benevolent 
labours.  To  the  neglected  poor  .and  chiidren  that 
came  to  him  for  alms,  he  gave  instruction  on  stated 
days,  and  as  others  joined,  paj-ing  a  school-fee  of  a 
jienny  a  week,  and  the  nnmbers  rose  to  some  sixty, 
lie  divided  them  into  cl.asses,  and  thus  laid  tho  first 
foimd.ation  of  his  educational  establishments.  At 
the  same  time  the  thought  sug;^csted  itself  of  an 
orphan  asylum,  .and  in  1698  he  laid  the  found.ation 
of  a  speci.al  building  for  the  asylum.  Some  years 
after,  lie  erected  a  Pedagogium,  a  Latin  school,  and 
.a  boarding  establishment  connected  with  it.  In 
1714,  there  were  11)75  boys  and  700  girls  receiving 
iiistniction  from  108  teachers  under  the  direction  of 
Francke.  He  also  had  a  mission.ary  institution  f(jr 
the  East  Indies.  To  erect  aud  maintain  all  these 
establishments  required  large  siims  of  money  ;  and 
it  is  surprising  how  F.  succeeded  in  obtaining  it 
\rithout  assistance  from  government.  But  so  high 
was  his  reputation  for  disinterested  benevolence, 
and  in  such  a  practical  way  did  he  set  about  his 
undertakings,  never  appealing  for  the  charitable  aid 
of  others  till  he  had  hrst  effected  something  him- 
self, that  contributions  flowed  in  from  all  i)art3  of 
Gennany,  and  even  from  abroad.  F.  also  instituted 
an  .apothecary's  shop  and  bookselling  in  connection 
with  his  other  oper.ations,  and  thus  obtained  a  con- 
siderable income  for  their  support.  Nor  amidst 
all  these  voluntary  labom-s  did  he  neglect  his  duties 
as  ])rofessor  and  pastor  ;  he  ]>reaehed  and  lectured 
regularly,  and  also  found  time  to  study  and  write. 
He  died  ,Inne  8,  17i'7. 

Franeke's  Institution,  as  it  now  exists  in  H.alle, 
emiiraees  the  orphan  house  and  schools  erected  V)y 
F.,  together  \vith  others  since  added ;  the  number  of 
pupils  amounting  in  all  to  upw.ards  of  2000.  Book- 
selling, i)rinting,  and  a  laboratory  for  the  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  medicines  arc  also  carried 
on  in  connection  with  education.  The  revenues 
consist  of  the  proiits  of  this  industry,  of  the  income 
from  some  property  in  land  and  funds,  and  of  an 
.allowance  of  i'6000  from  the  st.ate.  The  education 
imparted  retains  its  religious  character,  but  the 
excessive  number  of  prayers  .and  the  otherwise 
conventual  and  ascetic  character  of  the  discipline 
have  been  dimuiished. 

FRANCOIS,  St,  is  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the 
French  West  Indies.— 1.  St  F.  in  Guadeloupe  stands 

4K8 


on  the  Grande  Terre,  the  more  eastei-ly  of  the  twin 
islands  into  which  the  colony  is  divided  by  an  arm 
of  the  sea  knt)wn  as  .Salt  Iliver.  It  contams  about 
6600  inhabitants,  almut  5600  of  them  having  been 
slaves  down  to  IS-tS,  tho  epoch  of  emancipation 
imdcr  the  French  Republic. — 2.  St  F.  in  ilartinique 
possesses  a  good  harbour  on  the  cast  coast.  Ol  a 
population  of  5966,  4272  had  been  slaves. 

FKA'NCOLIJiT  {Franrolinus),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Tutraonidir,  closely  allied  to  jiartridges, 
but  distinguished  by  a  stouter  bill,  a  larger  tail,  and 
generally  by  .a  spur — in  some  species,  two  spurs— on 
the  tarsus  of  the  male.  They  are  natives  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  One  sjieeies  only,  the  European 
F.    (F.   vulgaris),   is   found   in   the   most   southern 


Gray  Fiiuicoliu  {FrancoUnn.i  Ponl'iccrianxis). 

parts  of  Europe ;  it  inhabits  also  the  north  of 
Africa  and  great  part  of  Asia,  It  is  a  beautiful 
liird  ;  the  plumage  of  the  male  is  richly  coloureil. 
It  frequents  watery  places,  and  feeds  much  on 
the  tender  tops  of  herbs.  One  {/''.  Ponticcriannx)  is 
very  common  in  many  parts  of  India,  .and  is  called 
Partridge  in  the  Dcccan,  .although  it  diirers  much  in 
.appearance  from  p.artridges,  on  account  of  its  large 
rounded  tail.  Another  (F.  spadicms)  abounds  in 
some  of  the  mountainous  p.arts  of  India  ;  and  .\frira 
has  a  number  of  species,  some  of  which  scrape  up 
bulbs  for  their  food.  The  Francolins  generally 
inh.abit  forests  and  thickets,  and  roost  in  trees. 

FRANCO'XIA  (Ger.  Franhen).  This  name  was 
first  applied  to  those  districts  on  liotli  sides  of  tlie 
JIaine  which  %\ere  originally  ])eopled  by  colonies  ol 
Fr,anks,  under  Thierry,  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis,  who 
inherited  the  Germanic  possessions  of  liis  father  on 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  511.  Under  the  Mero- 
raigian  and  Carlo\-ingian  djmasties,  this  province 
acquii'ed  a  certain  degree  of  ]ireponderance  in  the 
state,  and  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  electing  the 
king  of  the  Germans  within  its  own  territories,  and 
crowning  the  sovereign  by  the  bauds  of  its  arch- 
bishop (Mayence),  who  was  prim.ate  of  the  empire. 
In  911,  Conrad,  the  Count  or  Duke  of  Franconia,  lor 
there  is  some  doubt  which  of  these  titles  ^vas  at  that 
time  borne  by  tho  ruler  of  the  province,  was  raised 
to  the  throne  ;  and  a  century  hater,  after  the  ducal 
dignity  hail  been  recognised  in  F.,  the  choice  of  the 
electors  again  fell  upon  the  Frauconian  House,  which, 
by  its  direct  and  coU.ateral  branches,  gave  kings  and 
emperors  to  Germany  from  1024,  when  Coiuad  II. 
began  his  reign,  till  1250,  when  the  indirect  line  of 
the  HohenstaulTen  family  became  extinct.     During 


FRANEKKR— FI{A^■KALMOIG^•E. 


its  ctjiincctioii  with  the  crown,  F.  increased  in  extent 
anil  imijortance,  while  its  jitciit  spiritual  princi- 
palities of  ilayencc,  Sjiircs,  Worms,  and  Wurzburg 
aciiuircd  both  wealth  and  iiolitical  inllueuce.  lu 
the  course  of  the  foUowinr;  200  years,  the  province 
underwent  various  moditications,  and  was  sub- 
divided into  numerous  territories,  as  those  of  the 
Ilhenish  Couuty-iialatrne,  Nassau,  Katzenellnliogon, 
Hainan,  tlie  laudr,Tavate  of  Hesse,  &c.,  until  the 
name  of  F.  was  limited  to  the  eastern  portions 
of  the  ancient  duchy,  wliich  included  Wurzbnrg, 
FiUda,  Bamberg,  Niirnberg,  Hohenlohc,  &c.  In 
1512,  Maximilian  I.  re-established  the  circle  of  F., 
which  then  embraced  the  sees  of  liamberg.  Wurz- 
burg,  aud  Eichstudt,  Baireuth  and  Anspaeh,  and 
several  counties  and  cities.  With  the  dissolution  of 
the  empire,  the  name  of  F.  disappeared  from  among 
the  political  divisions  of  Germany  ;  but  since  1837 
it  has  been  revived  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  (q.  v.), 
where  those  portions  of  the  ancient  Franeonian 
province,  which  in  modern  times  have  been  known 
as  the  circles  of  the  Upper  JIaiue,  Kczat,  and  Lower 
Maine,  are  now  designated  Upper,  Midille,and  Lower 
Franconia.  U|)per  F.  includes  the  north-east  j)ortion 
of  Bavaria.  It  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  as 
the  Maine,  Eaab,  Saale,  &c.,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
Fichtclgebirge  and  by  the  hilly  ranges  of  theBohmer-, 
Franken-,  aud  Steiger-Wald.  The  viJleys  produce 
good  crops  and  fruit,  and  the  district  is  rich  in 
minerals.  There  are  3S  ci\'ic  and  rural  circles  of 
jurisdiction  in  this  province ;  capital,  Baireuth. 
iliddle  F.,  which  abuts  upon  Wurtemberg,  is  inter- 
sected by  branches  of  the  Franeonian  Jm-a  chain, 
but  has  few  rivers  of  importance  besides  the  Regnitz 
and  Altmlihl,  which  are  connected  by  the  great 
Ludwig  Canal.  It  jiroduces  good  wine,  but  is  prin- 
cipally celebrated  for  its  hop-gardens.  The  chief 
towns  are  Anspaeh  aud  Xiirnlierg,  and  it  has  ,30 
civic  and  riu'al  circles  of  jiu-isdiction.  Lower  F. 
cum  AschalTcnburg,  which  occupies  the  north-west 
part  of  Bavaria,  is  traversed  bj'  the  Spcssart-  and 
Ilh(jngcl)irge  and  the  Steiger-Wald,  and  watered  by 
the  JIaiue  and  Saale.  It  is  the  richest  and  best 
cultivated  of  the  Franeonian  circles,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  the  excellence  of  its  wines,  the  Steiner 
and  Leister.  The  district  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
springs  at  Kissingen,  Briickenau,  Orb,  and  Wipfeld. 
It  is  divided  into  47  circles  of  jurisdiction;  capital, 
Wurzbnrg. 

FR.-VXEKER,  a  handsome  town  of  the  Xether- 
lands,  in  the  province  of  Friesland,  situated  on  the 
canal  Ijetween  Ilarlingen  and  Leeu warden,  and  10 
miles  west  of  the  latter  jJace.  It  has  won  a  name 
in  the  literary  world  as  having  been  the  scat  of  a 
nniversity  foimded  in  I5S5  by  the  Frisian  states  on 
the  suggestion  of  Prince  William  Louis,  Count  of 
Nassau,  and  which  ranked  among  its  professors  the 
eminent  names  <.)f  Vitringa,  Sclndtens,  Hemsterhuis, 
Valckenaer,  and  others.  It  was.  however,  aljolished 
l>y  Napoleon  in  ISll,  and  in  1810  was  transformed 
into  an  athenaeum,  to  which  a  physiological  cabinet 
and  botanic  garden  belong.  F.  also  possesses  a 
celebrated  on'ery.     Fop.  5500. 

FRANGIPANI,  an  illustrious  and  powerfiJ 
Roman  House,  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  7th  c, 
and  attained  the  summit  of  its  glory  in  the  11th 
and  r2th  centuries.  In  the  early  annals  of  Rome, 
several  members  of  this  family  occupied  important 
pulilic  offices,  and  seem  to  have  taken  a  prominent 
lead  in  all  matters  of  moment.  In  9S7,  Crescenzio 
Frangipaui  successfully  ^-indicated  the  prerogatives 
of  the  Roman  people  against  the  encroachments  of 
Pope  John  XV.  The  rivalry  of  the  F.  House  with 
that  of  the  Pietro  Leoni,  not  only  occasioned 
repeated  civil  wars  in  the  state,  but  likewise  several 


schisms  in  the  church.  The  lust.-e  of  their  race  was 
finally  outshone  by  the  two  gi-cat  patrician  families, 
Colonna  and  Orsiui,  whose  magnificence,  power, 
and  pretension  far  exceeded  those  of  the  greatest 
citizens  of  Rome.  Two  of  the  last  of  the  F.  who 
merit  mention  are  Giovanni,  who  captured  Con- 
radin  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  delivered  him,  in  1268, 
to  )iis  sangninary  enemies ;  and  Latino,  Grand 
Inquisitor  and  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia  and 
Velletri.  The  origin  of  the  name  Frangipani  is 
attributed  to  the  family's  benevolent  distribution 
of  bread  in  time  of  famine. — The  Croatian  family 
of  the  same  name  claim  descent  from  the  great 
originid  Roman  House. 

FRANK,   FRANKING    LETTERS.     On  the 

introduction  of  the  uniform  penny-postage  on  all 
inland  letters  in  1840  (3  and  4  Vict.  c.  9G),  the 
privilege  formerly  enjoyed  by  peers  and  members  of 
tlie  House  of  Commons,  aud  many  otfieial  persons, 
of  \fTank'mr]'  as  it  was  called,  that  is,  sending  and 
receiving  letters  duty  free,  was  abohshcd  ■  the 
statute  7  Will.  IV.  and  I  Vict.  c.  32,  by  which  this 
privilege  had  been  recently  regulated,  being  repealed 
by  s.  68  of  the  first-mentioncil  act.  The  pririlege 
was  claimed  by  tlie  House  of  Commons,  in  1660, 
when  the  post-office  was  first  legally  established  (see 
Post-office),  but  it  was  afterwards  dropped  upon 
a  private  assurance  from  the  crown  that  it  should 
be  allowed  to  members.  The  postmaster-gener.al 
accordingly  constantly  issued  a  warrant  directing  the 
allowance,  till  the  privilege  was  expressly  conferred 
by  statute  4  Geo.  III.  e.  24.  In  the  days  of  frank- 
ing, each  member  of  either  House  of  Parliament  was 
entitled  to  send  ten  letters  every  day,  not  exceeding 
an  ounce  in  weight  each,  to  any  place  m  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  to  receive  fifteen,  free.  As  it  was 
not  necessary  that  the  letter  shoidd  be  either  written 
by  or  to  the  privileged  person,  the  privilege  was 
greatlj^  abused ;  and  most  persons  whose  memories 
reach  back  to  the  period  when  it  existed,  will 
remember  family  arrangements  for  taking  advan- 
tage of  it,  by  which  the  w'hole  coiTcspondence  of 
the  kindred,  connections,  and  even  the  intimate 
acquaintances  of  a  peer,  or  a  member  of  parhament, 
was  in  general  earned  on  duty  free.  Up  to  the 
passing  of  the  last-mentioned  statute  (12th  Jidy 
1837),  all  that  was  requisite  was  that  the  member 
should  write  his  name  or  title  ou  the  corner  of  the 
letter.  From  this  time,  however,  till  the  abolition 
of  the  imvilcge,  it  was  required  that  the  whole 
address  should  be  WTitten  by  the  member;  that  he 
should  add  not  only  his  name,  but  the  name  of  the 
post-town,  and  the  i\o,y  of  the  month ;  and  what  was 
most  troublesome  of  all,  that  the  letter  should  be 
posted  on  the  d.ay  ou  which  it  was  WTitten,  or  the 
following  day,  and  in  a  post-town  within  20  miles 
of  which  the  person  franking  was  then  actually 
resilient.  By  this  cruel  regul.ation  (7  WiU.  IV.  aud  1 
Vict.  c.  35,  s.  0),  the  kindly  custom  of  ,gi^'ing  franks 
to  friends,  or  lea\-ing  them  with  them  for  future  use, 
was  rudely  interfered  with,  aud  the  public  mind 
reconciled  to  the  final  abolition  of  what  many 
regarded  as  a  time-honoured  abuse. 

FRANKALMOI'GNE  (Lat.  Vihura  eUemospia, 
free  alms)  was  a  gift  of  lands  to  those  who  were 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  God.  By  the  ancient 
common  law  of  England,  a  man  could  not  alien  lands 
which  came  to  him  by  descent  without  consent  of 
his  heir,  but  he  might  give  a  part  to  (iod  in  free 
alms.  It  was  an  old  Saxon  tenure,  and  continued 
imder  the  Noi-man  revolution,  through  the  great 
resi)ect  that  was  shewn  to  rehgion  and  religious 
men.  This  is  the  tenure  by  wliich  almost  aU  the 
ancient  monasteries  and  religions  houses  held  their 
lauds,    and    Ijv    which    the    paruchiid    clergy    aud 

489 


Fll^SJNKENBEIiG— FEANKFUET-ON-THE-MAIXE. 


very  many  ecclesiastical  foundations  hold  them  at 
this  day.  The  statute  of  12  Car.  II.  c  24,  wliich 
abohshJd  the  eld  tenures,  six-cially  reser\-ed  tenure 
in  frank.ibnoigne.  The  condition  on  which  lands 
in  frank.-Umoi^'ne  were  held  was,  that  masses  .and 
divine'  services  shoiUd  be  s-aid  for  the  giantor  and 
his  heirs,  liut  no  jiarticular  ser\-icc  w.is  specified. 
At  the  Iteformation,  the  nature  of  the  sen-ices  was 
chani;ed,  but  the  tenure  was  suffered  to  continue. 
A  tenant  in  franUalmoij;ne  did  no  fealty  to  his 
overlord,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  to  perform  the 
service,  the  latter  was  not  entitled  to  distrain,  hut 
misjht  complain  to  the  ordinarj'  or  visitor.  In  this 
respect,  this  tenure  differed  from  tenure  by  divine 
service,  i.  e.,  where  lands  were  given  on  condition  of 
performing  a  specified  service,  as  sayinc;  a  mass  on  a 
l)articular  d.ay,  or  distributing  certain  alms.  In  this 
case,  the  tenant  was  bound  to  render  fe.alty,  and 
the  lord  was  entitled  to  distrain  on  failure  to  per- 
form the  seiTicc.  But  lands  held  in  frankalmoigne 
were  subject  to  the  tnnoda  necesxUn.i,  of  repairing 
highways,  builiUng  ca.stles,  and  repelUng  invasions. 
Frankalmoigne  was  a  tenure,  to  be  held  of  the 
grantor  andTiis  heirs  ;  all  lands,  therefore,  now  held 
m  frankalmoigne,  unless  created  by  the  crown, 
must  have  been  granted  before  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.,  for  by  Quia  einptore.^,  IS  Edw.  I.,  all  grants  by 
subjects  to  be  held  of  the  gi-autor  and  his  heirs 
are  ineffectual.  In  Scotland,  lauds  conveyed  to 
the  church  in  jntram  ekemosmam  were  said  to 
be  mortified.     See  JIortificatiox. 

FRA'NKENBERG,  a  flourishing  manufacturing 
to^\-n  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Zschopau,  an 
affluent  of  the  Midde,  .'!2  miles  south-west  of  Dres- 
den. It  has  manufactures  of  cottons  (with  cotton 
printing),  linens,  leather,  and  machinerj'.  Pop. 
TOGO. 

FRA'NKENHAU'SEX,  a  small  town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  prinoip.ality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  stands  ou  the  Wipper,  2/  miles  north-nortli- 
west  of  Weimar.  It  is  suiTounded  %rith  walls, 
pierced  by  eight  gates,  has  a  palace,  a  Latin  school, 
a  productive  salt-work,  and  a  saltpetre  refinery. 
Poj).  5000,  who  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  corn  and 
wool  trade,  and  in  the  production  of  wine.  F. 
figures  in  history  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  between 
the  rebellious  peasants  under  Thomas  Miinzor,  loth 
May  1523,  and  the  Saxon,  Brunsmck,  and  Hessian 
troops,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 

FRA'NKENSTEIJ)',  a  small  but  active  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  jirovince  of  Silesia,  is  situated  on  a 
height  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pause,  37  miles 
south-south-east  of  Breslau.  It  is  surrounded  with 
walls  which  are  entered  by  four  gates,  and  con- 
sists of  the  town  proper  with  four  suburbs.  Seven 
miles  south-west  of  F.  is  the  mountain  fortress  of 
Silberberg,  the  defences,  bastions,  and  casemates 
of  which  are  almost  eiitu-ely  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock.  These  works  were  constructed  by  Frederick 
the  Great,  in  order  to  command  the  passage  from 
Bohemia.  Pop.  G198,  «'ho  are  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  broadcloth,  linen,  aquafortis,  strawjilait, 
saltpetre,  &c. 

FRA'XKENTHAL,  a  prosperous  manufacturing 
town  of  Germany,  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  is 
situate<l  ou  the  Isenach,  10  miles  north-north-west 
of  Spires.  From  the  to-mi,  a  canal  between  .TO  and 
CO  feet  broad  extends  east  to  the  Pi^hine,  a  distance 
of  three  miles.  It  has  important  cloth  manufac- 
tures, cotton  and  linen  weaWng,  and  manufactures 
of  gold  and  silver  wire,  and  of  needles,  files,  and 
tobacco.     Pop.  5600. 

FRA'XKFURT-OX-THE-MAINE  (Ger.  Franlc- 
furl  am  Main),  the  most  ancient  and  important  of 


the  free  cities  of  Germany,  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Maine,  in  lat.  50°  6'  N.,  and  long.  S°'40' 
E.  The  population  of  the  city  was,  according  to 
the  census  of  1858,  67,975,  and  that  of  its  depenilent 
villages,  11,303,  exclusive!}'  of  the  feder.al  troojis, 
which  are  quartered  at  F.  as  the  seat  of  the  German 
Diet.  F.  possesses  a  small  territory  (about  30  square 
miles),  lying  immediately  bcyoml  the  precincts  of 
the  city,  and  watered  by  the  M.iine.  The  soil, 
which  is  deep  sand  covered  with  a  substratum  of 
lava,  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  grot\-th  of  corn, 
the  vine,  and  other  fruits.  F.  is  the  centre  from 
which  radiate  public  roads  and  railw.ays  to  every 
part  of  Gennany ;  while  its  site  on  the  banks  of  the 
Elaine,  20  miles  from  its  confluence  ^^■ith  the  Rhine, 
by  affording  it  a  direct  channel  of  water-communi- 
cation with  the  German  Ocean,  secures  to  it  great 
advantages  as  a  seat  of  commerce.  Its  central 
position  has  pointed  it  out  from  the  earliest  ages 
of  the  history  of  Germany  as  a  suitable  ])lace  for 
national  meetings,  and  in  794  Charlemagne  convoked 
a  council  here.  In  843,  F.  was  made  the  c.a]iital  of 
the  eastern  Prankish  empire,  and  continued  so  till 
889,  when  .\rnulf  transferred  that  honour  to  Ratis- 
bon  ;  in  1257,  F.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  free 
city ;  and  in  1356,  Ch.arles  IV.  confirmed  by  the 
famous '  Golden  Bull '  the  right,  which  it  had  enjoyed 
since  the  days  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,  of  being  the 
jilace  for  the  election  of  the  emperors  of  Germany. 
The  Guildhall,  or  lioemer,  contains  the  Wahlzinimcr, 
or  Hall  of  Election,  in  which  the  Electors  (q.  v.)  met 
to  deliberate  on  the  nomination  of  the  emperors, 
and  the  Kauei'saal,  or  Imperial  Hall,  in  which  the 
newly  elected  monarch  held  his  public  dinner,  at 
which  he  was  waited  \ipon  by  tile  counts  and  high 
officers  of  the  empire,  who  held  their  respective 
domains  and  offices  in  right  of  their  performing 
various  acts  of  service  on  that  occasion.  Round 
this  hall  are  ranged  in  niches  the  porti-aits  of  the 
emperors  fi-om  Conrad  to  Leopold  II.  The  Golden 
Bull  is  preserx'od  among  the  archives.  The  ancient 
cathedral,  St  Bartholomew's,  contains  the  chapel 
in  which  the  electors  accepted  the  emperor  after 
he  had  been  anointed  at  the  high-altar.  F.  still 
contains  many  old  and  narrow  streets  with  high- 
gabcUed  projecting  houses,  but  its  ancient  walls  and 
ramparts  have  been  converted  into  pleasure-walks, 
and  there  are  now  broad  quays,  and  \vide  handsome 
streets  in  the  more  modernised  parts  of  the  city. 
The  famous  Jndi'n-rjasse,  or  Jews'  Street,  has  lost 
its  ancient  characteristics  since  a  more  liberal  policy 
has  permitted  members  of  the  Jewish  persuasion  to 
live  iu  whatever  quarter  tliey  choose.  The  gates, 
which  secui-ed  the  street  at  either  end,  and  w./re 
closed  at  night  to  prevent  the  egress  of  the  .Tewish 
iuhabitauts,  were  razed  at  the  time  of  the  French 
occupation  in  1806.  F.  is  connected  with  its 
suburb,  Sachsenhausen,  which  lies  on  the  left  liaiik 
of  the  Maine,  by  a  bridge  of  14  arches,  originally 
built  about  the  year  1342.  There  are  fountains  in 
several  of  the  squares,  one  of  which  is  adorned  with 
a  tine  statue  of  Goethe,  who  was  born  at  F.,  and 
another  with  a  group  commemorative  of  the  inven- 
tion of  printing.  F.  possesses  several  good  jiublic 
libraries,  museums,  and  galleries,  and  many  charit- 
able institutions.  It  derives  great  wealth  from  its 
banking  transactions ;  the  aggregate  cajiital  of  its 
bankers,  among  whom  the  name  of  the  Rothschilds 
has  long  stood  foremost,  is  said  to  be  about  20 
mUlions  sterling,  and  the  annu.al  transactions  in  lulls 
of  exchange  about  12  millions  sterling.  Its  manu- 
factures are  snuff,  tobacco,  jewellery,  printers'  black, 
wax-cloths,  and  carpets.  In  1855  it  was  decreed 
that  the  executive  body  should  consist  of  4  syndics 
and  21  members  of  the  ciinc  committee,  with  2 
burgomasters,  elected  annually,  as  its  presidents,  of 


FitAivKFL'ilT-ON-THE-ODER— FE,A>'K;LIiS'. 


■whom  the  senior  draws  up  reports  for  the  senate, 
and  has  the  control  of  the  military,  while  the  junior 
presides  over  police  and  corporate  proceetliugs.  The 
lower  or  legislative  chamber  is  composed  of  57 
members,  and  the  highest  court  of  appeal  is  the 
supreme  tribunal  at  Liibeck.  F.,  in  conjunction 
with  the  other  free  cities,  occupies  the  17th  place 
in  the  limited  council  of  the  IJiet,  but  enjoys  an 
independent  vote  in  the  full  council.  It  fiunishes 
a  contingent  of  783  and  a  reserve  of  330  men  to 
the  anny  of  the  Confederation.  The  Constituent 
Assembly  elected  in  1848  to  frame  a  constitution 
for  Germany,  held  its  sittings  at  F.,  which  was  for 
some  years  the  scene  of  violent  political  excitement. 
(.\fter  the  war  of  18CG — See  Germ.isy,  in  Srpp. — 
Frankfurt  paid  the  i)enalty  of  its  anti-Prussiau 
sympathies,  by  being  incorporated  with  Prussia. 
I'op.  in  1SC7,  78,277.) 

FRAXKFUKT-ON-THE-ODER,  the  capital  of 
an  extensive  Prussian  circle  of  the  same  name  in  the 
pro\-ince  of  Brandenburg,  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  on  the  railway  line  between  Berlin  and 
Breslau,  and  about  50  miles  east  of  the  former 
city.  F.  lies  in  lat.  52'  22'  N.,  and  long.  14°  20'  E. 
Pop.  in  18CU,  32,800.  It  is  a  fortified,  well-built 
town,  and  has  three  suburbs,  one  of  which  lies  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Oder,  and  is  connected  with 
the  remainder  of  the  town  by  a  wooden  bridge. 
Of  the  six  Protestant  churches,  St  Mary's,  founded 
in  the  I3th  c,  is  the  most  worthy  of  notice,  for 
its  large  organ,  richlj'  gilt  wood-car^-ings,  and  fine 
stained  windows.  The  university,  founded  in  1506, 
was  incorporated  in  1811  ^vith  that  of  Breslau,  but 
F.  still  has  its  distinct  gymnasium,  with  its  branch- 
schools.  Three  great  fairs  ai'e  still  annually  held  at 
F.,  but  although  they  are  still  attended,  as  of  old, 
by  many  Poles  and  Silesians,  sales  are  less  brisk 
than  in  former  times.  F.  has  manufactures  of  siUc, 
leather,  gloves,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  porcelain  ware  ; 
it  has  considerable  distilleries,  and  is  noted  for  its 
mustard.  Its  situation  on  a  nangable  river,  con- 
nected by  canals  ^^^th  the  Vistula  and  the  Elbe, 
affords  great  commercial  and  social  advantages, 
which  have  rendered  it  a  place  of  importance  from 
a  very  early  period.  It  was  a  flourishing  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  during  the  middle  ages 
it  suffered  frequently  at  the  hands  of  maraudmg 
enemies.  It  was  besieged  in  1430  by  the  Hussites, 
in  1450  by  the  Poles,  and  in  1477  by  the  Duke  of 
8agan.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  it  was  frequently 
taken  by  both  parties,  and  at  the  beginnint'  of  the 
present  century  it  suffered  severely  at  the  hands  of 
the  French.  F.  is  the  seat  of  the  ailmiuistrative 
government,  judicial  ti'ibimal,  council  of  nobility, 
and  boards  of  taxation  for  its  cii-cle.  The  village 
of  Kunersdorf,  4.^  miles  from  F\,  was  the  scene 
of  a  great  battle,  fought  August  12,  1759,  between 
Frederick  the  Great  luid  the  Russo- Austrian  forces, 
in  which  the  former  was  compelled  to  retreat  with 
great  loss.     (1SG7— pop.  40,994.) 

FRA'XKIXCEXSE  ((A««l,  a  name  employed  to 
designate  various  fragrant  resinous  substances  which 
diffuse  a  strong  fragrance  in  biu'ning,  and  are  on 
that  account  used  in  certain  religious  services.  There 
is  "ood  reason  to  believe  that  the  frankincense  of 
the  Jews,  and  also  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  chiefly  or  entirely  the  substance  now- 
known  as  Olihanum  (q.  v.),  the  produce  of  an  Indian 
tree,  JlostecUia  serrata  or  Ihurifira.  See  Bos^VE!J,IA. 
It  was  formerlj'  supposed  to  have  been  obtained  from 
the  Juniperus  Lycia,  which  is  now  believed  not  to 
yield  any  such  product,  and  is  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  whilst  the  prized  frankincense  of  the 
ancients  was  brought  from  the  East — Sever.al  trees, 
however,  of  different  natural  orders,  yield  substances 


used  as  frankincense  instead  of  olibanum,  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  as  several  species  of  Icka  and  of 
Croton  in  America ;  and  the  silver  fir  (see  Fib)  in 
Europe,  the  resinous  product  of  which  is  the  Common 
Frankin'cexse  of  the  pharmacopoeias,  although  in 
the  shops,  concrete  American  turpentine  is  very 
often  sold  under  this  name.  It  is  used  in  the 
composition  of  stimulating  plastcre,  &c.  Burgundy 
pitch  is  made  from  it.  It  is  a  spontaneous  exuda- 
tion from  the  tree,  h.ardening  by  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  generally  of  a  whitish  or  pinkish  colour, 
with  a  rather  agreeable  odour  and  a  balsamic 
taste. 

FRA'NKIillf.  The  franklin,  or,  according  to  the 
old  spelling,  the  frankelein,  was  the  English  free- 
holder of  former  times,  who  held  his  lands  of  the 
cro^vn,  free  (frank)  from  any  feudal  ser%-itude  to  a 
subject-superior.  Chancers  FrankUn^s  Tale,  and 
still  more  his  description  of  the  franklin  in  the 
prologue  to  his  immortal  Pilgrimage,  have  rendered 
him  a  classical  charac-ter.  In  the  whole  circle  of 
our  literatiu-e  there  is  probably  no  more  perfect 
picture  of  the  person,  habits,  and  surroundings  of  a 
joA-ial  old  countrj'  gentleman.  His  beard  was  white 
as  a  daisy,  his  complexion  sanguine,  he  loved  a  '  sop 
iu  wine,'  and  woe  to  his  cook  if  his  sauce  were  not 
poignant  and  sharp  ;  in  a  word,  '  he  was  Epicurus' 
owen  son.'  But  the  franklin's  luxuries  were  not 
intended  for  his  o'wn  enjojTnent  alone,  for  *  a  house- 
holder, and  that  a  great,  was  he.'  His  table  stood 
'  in  liis  hall  alwa}-,'  '  ready  covered  all  the  longe 
day ; ' and 

Withoutcn  baked  meat  never  was  his  house. 
Of  fish  and  flesh,  and  that  so  plenteous, 
It  snoiied  in  his  house  of  meat  and  drink-. 

Nor  was  it  only  in  dispensing  good  cheer  that  the 
franklin  fidliUed  the  functions  of  the  country  gentle- 
man of  his  day.  At  sessions,  he  was  '  lord  and  sire,' 
and  fuU  often  time  he  had  been  '  knight  of  the  shire.' 
He  had  been  sheriff  too,  and  a  countour  .ind  vava- 
sour ;  though  what  these  latter  offices  were,  is  a 
subject  of  controvei-sy  amongst  the  commentators. 
'  The  dress  of  the  franklin,  according  to  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland's  MS.,'  says  Jlr  Saimders,  in  his  excel- 
lent httle  book  called  Cabinet  Pictures  of  Enrilixh 
Life,  (p.  204),  was  a  siu-coat  of  red  lined  with  blue, 
with  bars  or  stripes  of  fringe  or  lace  over  it.  He 
wore  a  small  blue  hat  turned  up,  and  black  boots.' 
Chaucer  adds  to  his  attire  a  knife  or  dagger  called 
an  'anelace,'  and  a  'gipcierc'  or  silk  purse,  'white  as 
morrow  [morning]  milk,'  at  his  girdle.  Mr  Saimders 
mentions  {ut  xup.)  that  in  the  Metrical  Chronicle 
of  Robert  de  Brune,  the  franklin  of  an  carher 
period  (13th  c.)  is  ranked  immediately  after  earls, 
barons,  and  lords,  and  was  eridently  a  person  of 
great  consideration.  Such,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
very  much  his  jjosition  in  Chaucer's  time,  but  he 
seems  to  have  fallen  in  dignity,  and  we  find  him 
in  much  lower  company  in  Shaksjieare's  day.  In 
The  Winter's  Tale  the  clown  is  made  to  say  (Act  v. 
scene  2) : 

Not  swear  it,  now  T  am  a  gentleman 

Let  boors  and  franklins  say  it,  I  '11  swear  it. 

From  other  p.assages  it  woidd  seem  that  his  position 
had  come  to  con-espond  to  that  of  the  well-to-do 
yeoman.  In  1  Henry  IV.,  Act  ii.  scene  1,  we  hear 
of  a  franklin  '  in  the  wold  of  Kent  hath  brought 
three  hundred  marks  with  him  in  gold;'  and  Cymbe- 
line  says  (Act  iii.  scene  2t,  '  Pro\-ide  me  presently 
a  riibng  suit,  no  costlier  than  is  fit  a  franklin  s 
housewife.'  There  seems  no  reason  to  think,  how- 
ever, that  Dr  Johnson's  remark  that  frankHu  is  '  not 
improperly  Englished  a  gentleiiKm  servant,'  is  war- 
ranted by  liis  position  at  any  period,  and  it  certainly 


FRAXKLIX. 


is  not  >>y  the  passage  which  ho  quotes  from  the 

Fairy  Qutrn : 

A  spacious  coiirt  tliey  sco,  kc, 

AVhero  tliem  docs  meet  a  franklin  fair  and  free. 

FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  .in  eminent  American 
philosopher  .in<l  st.itesni.in,  liorn  .it  lioston,  in  M.issa- 
chiisetts,  the  17th  of  J.mnary  170G.  He  w.is  the 
vounsost  son  .mil  fifteenth  child  ont  of  .1  family  of 
seventeen  children.  His  father,  .Tosiah  rranklin, 
einiprateil  from  Knt'land  to  America  in  IGSu  :  he 
followed  the  bnsiness  of  tallowehaiuUer  .and  soap- 
boiler. Benjamin,  when  only  ten  years  old,  w.is 
employed  iu  his  father's  shop  in  cutting  wicks,  going 
ernunis,  4c. ;  but  becoming  soon  disgusted  with  the 
monotonous  routine  of  his  duties,  lie  ennoeivcd  a 
strong  desire  to  go  to  se.i.  To  prevent  this,  his 
f.ither  bound  him'  apprentice  to  liis  brother  .James, 
who  w,is  a  )>rinter.  Voun^  F.  had  now  free  access 
to  books,  for  wliich  lie  had  evinced  a  fondness 
even  from  infancy.  He  himself  s.iys  he  could  not 
remember  the  time  when  lie  did  not  know  liow  to 
read.  To  gi-.itify  his  thirst  for  re.iding,  he  would 
often  sit  ui'i'the  greater  part  of  the  night.  He  did 
not,  however,  neglect  his  duties  as  printer,  and  he 
became  in  a  few  ycire  well  sldlled  in  his  trade. 
But  the  two  brothers  could  not  agree.  The  elder 
appears  to  h.ive  been  of  a  severe  and  passionate 
temper,  which  the  younger,  as  he  himself  intimates, 
may  have  sometimes  provoked  by  his  imperti- 
nence. At  lenath,  -when  seventeen  years  of  .age, 
young  F.  left  lioston  without  the  knowledge  of 
his  relations,  embarking  in  a  vessel  bound  for  New- 
York,  whence  he  proceeded,  partly  by  water,  and 
p.artly  on  foot,  to  Philadelphia.  Here  he  obtained 
emplojTneut  .as  a  jom'neym.an  printer.  In  the  follow- 
inf  ye.ir,  encouraged  by  the  promise  of  assistance 
from  a  gentleman  iai  Philadelphia,  he  resolved  to 
set  up  business  for  himself.  With  this  view,  he 
went  to  Enghand,  in  order  to  purchase  type  and 
other  materials  necessary  for  carrj-ing  on  his  trade. 
But  failing  to  receive  the  aid  which  he  had  expected 
from  his  pretended  friend,  he  was  obbged  to  w'ork 
as  a  jom-nejTnan  in  London,  where  he  remained 
miire  than  a  year.  He  returned  in  17'26  to  Phila- 
deljihia,  and  in  1729,  with  the  assistance  of  some 
friends,  established  himself  in  business.  The  next 
year  he  m-arried  Miss  Debor.ah  Read,  with  whom  he 
had  become  acqu.ainted  in  Philadelphia  before  he 
went  to  England.  In  17"20,  F.  had  become  the 
proprietor  and  ecUtor  of  a  newspaper  [The  Penn- 
sijlvuida  Gazi'lte),  whicli  his  talent  for  writing  soon 
rendered  very  popular  and  very  pi-ofit.able.  In  \1^2, 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  an  almanac,  pur- 
porting to  be  by  Richard  Saunders.  He  sought 
to  m.ake  his  .almanac,  like  his  paper,  the  vehicle  of 
useful  inform.ation  for  the  people,  espcci.ally  incul- 
cating the  virtues  of  fnigaUty,  industry,  &c.  It 
\v,as  commonly  called  Poor  RichnnVs  Almanac, 
imder  which  name  it  .accpiired  a  wide  celebrity. 

By  his  talents,  prudence,  and  integrity,  F.  con- 
tinued to  rise  in  the  estimation  of  the  community  iu 
which  he  lived,  until  he  was  deemed  worthy  of  the 
highest  honours  which  his  country  could  bestow. 
He  was  nuade  successively  clerk  of  the  Assembly 
of  Pemisylv.inia  (1736),  Postmiister  of  Philadelphia 
(1737),  and  Deputy  Postmaster-general  for  the 
British  Colonies  (1753).  A  dispute  h.aving  arisen 
between  the  Assembly  and  the  proprietary  gover- 
nors, in  consequence  of  the  latter  claiming  exemption 
from  taxation,  F.  was  sent  in  1757  to  England 
to  ple.ad  tlic  cause  of  the  people  before  the  privy 
council.  His  representations  and  arguments  jire- 
vailed,  and  it  was  decided  that  the  estates  of  the 
proprietaries  should  1  lear  their  due  proportion  of  the 
public  burdens.  On  his  return  in  1702,  he  received 
in 


the  thanks  of  the  Assembly  for  the  able  ami  faithful 
fulfilment  of  his  mission. 

F.  had  already  become  distinguished  in  the  scien- 
tific world  by  liis  successful  experiments  on  the 
nature  of  electricity.  In  17o2,  he  h.id  made  the 
important  and  brilliant  discovery  of  the  identity  of 
lightning  witli  the  electric  lluid.  Soon  after,  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  even  without  waiting  foi 
any  a]i]ilication  to  be  made  ou  his  behalf — which 
li.ad  been  the  general  usage— cliose  liim  a  member  o£ 
tlieir  body,  and  liestowed  upon  him  the  Co])ley 
gold  medal.  Alluding  to  F.'s  account  of  his  elec- 
trical experiments.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  obseiTes : 
'  A  singular  felicity  of  induction  guided  .ill  his 
researches,  and  liy  verj*  small  means  he  established 
very  grand  truths.  The  style  and  manner  of  his 
publication  are  .almost  as  worthy  of  adniir.ation  as 

the  doctrines   it   contains He   h.a3  WTitten 

equally  for  the  uninitiated  and  for  the  philosopher.' 

In  i764,  F.  w.as  again  sent  by  the  Assembly  as 
agent  to  England.  The  policy  of  taxing  the  colonies 
had  already  lieen  .agitated,  and  he  was  iustnicted 
by  the  Assembly  to  use  his  efforts  against  such  a 
measure.  But  the  ministry  had  formed  their  plans, 
and  the  Stamp  Act  was  p.assed  early  in  1765.  It 
caused  a  great  excitement,  and  met  with  the  most 
determined  opposition  in  America.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  I7O6,  a  new  ministry  ha\-ing  come  into 
power,  the  .subject  was  again  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  parliament.  F.  was  examined  before  the 
House  of  Commons,  on  which  occasion  his  talents, 
his  v,aried  inform.ation,  and  his  presence  of  mind, 
were  shewn  to  great  adv,int.ige,  and  the  repeal  of 
the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act  was  the  residt.  But  other 
laws  deemed  equally  objection.iblc  remained  in  force. 
In  the  dispute  between  the  American  colonies  ami 
the  mother-country,  F.  had  sought  sincerely  and 
earnestly  to  prevent  a  disruption  ;  when,  however, 
he  became  convinced  th.at  a  separation  was  inevi- 
talile,  he  returned  home,  and  toolc  an  active  ji.art  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  independence.  He  arrived 
at  Philadelphia  ou  the  5th  of  Jlay  1775,  after  an 
.absence  of  rather  more  than  ten  years.  The  day 
after  his  arriv.al,  he  was  unanimously  elected  by  the 
Assembly  of  Pennsylvania  a  deleg.ate  to  the  .Second 
Continental  Congress  then  about  to  assemble.  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  chosen  by  congress 
to  prep.are  the  celebr.ited  '  Decharation  of  Independ- 
ence,' which,  ha'i'ing  been  unanimously  agreed  to 
ou  the  4th  of  JiUy  1776,  he  afterwards  signed  with 
the  other  leading  jiatriots.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  same  year,  he  was  sent  as  amliassador  to  the 
French  court.  To  him  is  due  the  princip.al,  if  not 
the  sole,  credit  of  effecting  between  France  and  the 
United  States  the  Treaty  of  Alliance,  the  stipula- 
tions of  which  were  so  eininentlj'  favora-.able  to  tlic 
latter  country.  This  treaty,  signed  at  Paris  the  6th 
of  February  177S,  may  be  said  to  have  secm'cil 
the  independence  of  the  American  colonies.  F. 
remained  in  Europe  some  time  after  the  establish- 
ment of  peace.  In  1785,  he  returned  to  PUl.v 
delpliia,  where  he  died  on  the  17th  of  April  1700, 
aged  84  years. 

In  person,  F.  was  of  a  medium  stature,  well 
formed,  .and  strongly  built,  with  a  light  com- 
plexion, and  gr.ay  eyes.  His  manners  were  affable 
and  engaging.  He  w,as  remark.able  for  simplicity  of 
ch.iraeter,  and  i)ractical  common  sense.  He  deemed 
nothing  which  concerned  the  interest  or  hapiiiness 
of  mankind  unwortlij^  of  his  .attention,  and  rarely 
if  ever  bestowed  his  .attention  on  any  subject  with- 
out obtaining  perm.aneutly  useful  resiUts. 

He  left  among  his  numerous  works  an  extremely 
interesting  and  instructive  autobiograjihy  of  the 
earlier  portion  of  his  life,  extentling  to  his  fifty- 
second  year.     A  complete  collection  of  his  works, 


FRANKLIN— FRANK-PLEDGE. 


edited  Ijy  Jared  Sparks,  has  been  published  in  ten 
volumes  octavo. 

Of  F.'s  living  posterity,  there  is  none  bearing  his 
name.  Among  the  descendants  of  his  daughter 
.Sarah,  who  was  married  to  Richard  Bache,  several 
have  risen  to  eminence  in  science  or  literature. 

FRANKLIN,  Reak-admibal  Sir  .Johx,  an 
English  naval  oflScer  of  distinguisheil  roinitation, 
was  born  at  Spilsby,  in  Lincolnshire,  Ai)ril  16,  17S6. 
He  was  descended  from  a  long  line  of  freeholders, 
and  was  the  youngest  son  of  a  respectable  yeoman. 
F.  received  the  rudiments  of  Iiis  education  at  St 
[ves  ;  afterwards  he  spent  two  years  at  the  gram- 
mar school  of  Louth.  It  is  stated  that  he  was 
intended  for  the  church,  but  as  he  displayed  a 
decided  predilection  for  the  sea,  his  father  wisely 
aliandoned  opposition  to  his  choice  of  a  profession, 
and  ]>rocured  liim,  in  ISOO,  a  midshipman's  post  on 
board  the  Pohiphemvs  line-of-battle  ship.  lu  the 
following  year,  F.'s  ship  led  the  van  in  the  desperate 
battle  of  Copenhagen.  Two  montlis  after,  he  was 
removed  to  the  Inveslirjntor,  then  fitting  out  imder 
command  of  Captain  Flinders,  for  discovery  and  i 
survej-  of  the  Australian  coast.  In  this  expedition,  I 
V.  had  the  companionship  of  the  distinguished ; 
botanist  Robert  Brown,  and  of  his  coadjutor  Ferdi- 
nand Bauer,  and  from  them  he  learned  the  great 
importance  of  the  natural  sciences,  in  the  promotion 
of  which  ho  ever  afterwards  took  a  deep  and 
intelligent  interest.  On  his  return  to  England, 
F.  w.as  appointed  to  the  Bellerophon,  in  which 
ho  acted  as  signal  midshipman  in  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar  (1805),  .and  had  the  good-fortune  to 
escape  uuhiu-t.  Ho  subsequently  served  in  the 
Jjt'((ford  on  v.arious  stations,  and  took  a  tlistin- 
guished  part  in  the  attack  on  New  Orleans  in  1814. 
In  IS19,  F.  was  desp.atched  by  govermuent  to  Hud- 
son's Bay,  with  orders  to  make  his  way  thence  to  ! 
the  Arctic  Sea,  and  survey  as  much  of  the  coast 
as  possible.  In  the  course  of  this  expedition,  which  j 
lasted  about  three  years  and  a  h.alf,  F.  travelled 
."S.jSO  miles  under  circumstances  of  the  greatest 
hardship  auil  privation,  to  which  more  than  half 
of  his  companions  succiuubed.  But  the  gain  to 
science  was  great,  alike  from  the  carefidness  aud 
extent  of  the  physical  surveys  of  the  mouth  of  ' 
the  Cop])erniine  River,  and  eastward  along  Corona- 
tion fiulf,  .and  from  the  attention  devoted  to  the  1 
n.atural  productions  of  these  inclement  shores.  On  j 
his  return,  in  1822,  F.  was  made  post-captain,  and 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1825, 
he  co-operated  (overland)  with  the  sea-expeditions 
of  Captains  P.arry  and  Beechey,  and  sur\'eyed  the 
North  jVmerican  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the 
( 'oj>pcnnine  westward  to  .about  I'oint  Beechey.  F.'s 
discoveries  nc)W  extended  over  44  degrees  of  longi-  1 
tnde,  or  more  than  a  third  of  the  distance  between 
Baffin's  Bay  and  Beliriug's  Strait.  For  these  valu- 
.able  explorations,  m  which  he  was  engaged  until 
1827,  he  received  the  honour  of  knishthood  from 
)iis  sovereign,  and  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the 
university  of  Oxford,  while  the  French  Geographical 
Society  aw.arded  hin\  their  gold  medal,  and  .at  a 
subsequent  period  he  was  elected  corresponding 
member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  F.  next  took 
an  active  jiart  in  the  Greek  war  of  liberation.  In 
18.30,  lie  w.as  .appointed  governor  of  Van  Diemen'a 
Land,  where  his  wise  and  moderate  conduct  secured  | 
for  him  the  warm  approbation  both  of  the  govern- 
ment and  the  colonists.  The  latter  est.ablished  a 
college  and  a  philosophical  society  in  his  honour ; 
and  years  after,  they  tcstilied  that  the  memory  of 
his  rule  was  stiU  gr.atefully  cherished,  by  sub- 
scribing £1000  towards  an  expedition  designed  for 
his  rescue.  lu  May  1S45,  F.,  now  bordering  on  his 
GOth  year,  but  with  physical  aud  mental  powers 


undiminished  in  vigour,  started  with  the  Erehus  aud 
Terror  on  his  last  and  ill-fated  expedition  to  discover 
the  North-west  Bassan;e.  The  last  time  that  the 
vessels  were  seen  was  in  Jidy  of  the  same  year.  To 
enter  into  the  liistory  of  the  efforts  undertaken  for 
the  relief  or  discovery  of  the  fate  of  F.  would  be 
out  of  place  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  th.at  in  the 
course  of  eleven  years  upwards  of  twenty  separate 
expeditions,  at  the  cost  of  about  a  milhon  sterling, 
were  sent  out  to  look  for  the  missing  crews;  and 
the  discoveries  of  these  expeditions  added  more 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  arctic  regions  than  all 
previous  explorations  had  done.  See  NoRTn-WE.ST 
Passage.  It  was  not  until  1S.")9  that  the  fate  of  F. 
was  ascertained  by  the  commander  of  a  little  vessel 
fitted  out  by  Lady  Franklin,  after  hope  hail  been 
declared  hopeless  by  all  else.  It  then  appeared 
that  F.  had  died  on  the  11th  June  1847,  fortimately 
before  his  SJ^ul)athetio  heart  liad  been  lacerated  by 
witnessing  the  awful  sufferings  of  his  men.  F.  was 
one  of  the  boldest  aiul  most  persevering  explorers 
that  Britain  ever  sent  from  her  shores.  His  daring 
was  qualified  by  judgment,  and  his  sense  of  duty 
and  responsibQity  as  to  the  lives  of  those  under  his 
charge  was  of  the  keenest.  His  heart  wa-s  tender 
as  a  woman's  ;  and  altogether  he  was  one  of  the 
noblest  tyjies  of  a  true  Christian  gentleman. 

FRANKLIN,  .T.iNK,  Ladv,  the  second  wife  of 

Sir  John  F.,  to  who.3c  unwearied  energy,  devotion, 
and  hopefulness,  when  hope  had  sunk  in  all  other 
hearts,  we  are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  the 
f.ate  of  her  gallaut  husb.and,  is  the  daughter  of 
John  Griffen,  Esq.,  of  Bedford  Place,  London,  and 
was  married  to  Sir  John  Franklin  in  November 
1826.  In  1848,  when,  owing  to  the  long  absence 
of  news  about  the  expedition  of  the  Erebus  and 
Terror,  fears  began  to  be  entertained  about  its 
s.afety,  Lady  F.  offered  Large  rewards  to  any  per- 
sons who  should  discover  .and  afford  relief  to  the 
missing  voyagers,  or  who  woidd  make  exertions 
with  that  end  in  view.  From  that  time  until  1857, 
when  she  fitted  out  the  Fox,  under  the  command  of 
W'Clintock,  whose  discoveries  set  all  doubts  about 
the  fate  of  her  husband's  expedition  at  rest.  Lady 
F.  never  rested  in  her  efforts  to  incite  by  voice, 
])en,  and  purse,  not  only  her  o\vn  countrymen,  but 
Americans,  to  search  for  the  missing  shij^s  and  their 
unfortimate  crews.     Lady  F.  is  still  alive  (1802). 

FRA'NKMARRIAGE  (Uheruin  maritaf/liint)  was 
a  species  of  est.ate  tail  existing  by  the  common  haw 
of  England ;  for  where  a  man,  on  the  maiTiage  of  his 
daucrhter  or  cousin,  gave  lauds  to  he  held  in  frank- 
marriage,  this  implied  a  gift  in  special  t.ail,  to  the 
donees  and  heirs  of  their  bodies.  This  tenure  was 
called  liberum  maritar/ium,  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  species  of  estates  tail  (Co.  Litt.  94  b).  Four 
things  were  necessary  to  a  gift  in  frankmarriage : 

1.  That  it  must  be  in  consider.atiou  of  .a  marri.age, 
but  it  might  be  as  well  after  .as  before  a  marri.am. 

2.  That  the  donee  witli  whom  it  is  given  be  of  the 
blood  of  the  donor.  3.  That  the  donees  should  hold 
of  the  donor.  Hence  a  gift  in  frankmarriage  by  a 
subject  became  impossible  after  the  statute  of  y«ia 
emplores.  4.  That  the  donees  should  hold  for  four 
generations.  Therefore  a  gift  in  frankmarri.age  with 
a  reservation  of  a  remainder  to  a  stranger,  or  a 
de^^se  by  will,  was  bad. 

FRANK-PLEDGE,  a  law  prev.aiUng  in  England 
before  the  Norman  Conquest,  whereby  the  mem- 
bers of  every  t>-thing  were  responsible  for  the  good- 
conduct  of  e.acii  other.  This  responsibility,  accord- 
ing to  Mr  H.all,ara,  consisted  in  every  ten  men 
m  a  village  being  answer.able  each  for  the  others, 
so  that  if  one  committed  an  offence,  the  other 
nine    were    liable    for    his    appearance    to    make 

49) 


FllAMvS— FRASER  RHTIR. 


rcitaratioo.  Should  the  offcndi-r  abscond,  the  tj-th- 
iiu',  if  uuable  to  clear  themselves  from  participation 
iii'"'tlio  crime,  were  compelled  to  mako  good  the 
iienalty.  This  law  has  been  ascribed  to  Alfred 
the  Great ;  but  it  would  appear  to  have  been  in 
existence  at  a  mueli  earlier  period.  Mr  Hallam, 
Middle  Ages,  ii.  p.  80  (etlit.  1841),  observes:  'The 
peculiar  system  of  frauk-plcdges  seems  to  have 
passed  through  the  foUowmg  very  gradual  stages. 
At  first,  an  accused  i)erson  w:>s  bound  to  find  bail 
for  standing  his  trial.  At  a  subseqxient  period,  his 
relations  were  called  upon  to  become  securities  for 
payment  of  the  compensation  and  other  fines  to 
which  he  was  liable ;  they  were  even  subject  to  be 
imprisoned  until  payment  was  made,  and  this 
imprisonment  was  commutable  for  a  certain  sum  in 
money.  The  ne.xt  usage  was  to  make  people  already 
convicted,  or  of  suspicious  repute,  give  securities  for 
their  good-beha\-iour.  It  is  not  till  the  reign  of 
Edgar  that  we  find  the  first  general  law,  which 
places  everj-  man  in  the  condition  of  the  guilty 
or  suspected,  and  compels  him  to  find  a  siu-ety 
who  shall  be  responsible  for  his  appearance  when 
judicially  simmioned.  This  is  perpetually  repeated 
and  enforced  in  later  statutes  during  his  reign 
and  that  of  Ethelred.  Finally,  the  laws  of  Canute 
declare  the  necessity  of  belonging  to  some  hundred 
and  tything,  as  well  as  of  providing  sureties.' 

The  C'ourl  of  Frank-plecUje,  or  Court-leet,  is  a  court 
of  recortl  held  once  in  the  year,  and  not  oftener, 
within  a  pai-ticular  hundred,  lordship,  or  manor, 
before  the  steward  of  the  leet:  being  the  king's 
court  gi-anted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those 
himdreds  or  manors.  All  freeholders  resident  in 
the  jurisdiction  are  bound  to  attend  this  court ;  but 
persons  imder  twelve  and  over  sixtj'  years  of  age 
are  excused,  and  by  the  statute  of  Marlbridge,  52 
Hen.  III.  c.  10,  all  prelates,  peers,  and  clergymen, 
and  women  arc  discharged  from  attendance.  It  was 
also  the  custom  to  summon  all  the  king's  subjects 
to  this  court,  on  attaining  yeai-s  of  discretion,  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  The  business  of  this 
court  w.as  to  present  by  jmy  all  crimes  committed 
within  their  jurisdiction,  and  to  punish  all  tii\nal 
misdemeanours.  This  court  has  practically  fallen 
into  desuetude,  and  the  biisiness  is  discharged  by 
the  justices  of  the  peace  at  general  and  petty  ses- 
sions. See  Blackstone's  Commentaries.  Originally, 
the  business  of  the  court  of  frank-pledge  was  con- 
fined to  the  taking  seciuities  or  free  pledges  for 
everj'  person  vrithm  the  jurisdiction ;  but  this 
practice  having  fallen  into  disuse,  the  court  gradually 
acquired  a  criminal  jurisdiction,  concurrent  with 
that  of  the  sheriffs  toum.  '■Magna  Charta  distin- 
guishes between  the  tom-ns  or  leets  of  sheriffs  and 
the  view  of  frank-pledge  ;  limiting  the  former  to 
twice  a  J'ear,  and  the  latter  to  once.  In  the  more 
ordinarj'  sense,  frank-pledge  and  leet  are  synonymous, 
as  appears  from  the  style  of  toiuiis  and  other  leets, 
which  in  court-rolls  are  usually  denominated  curits 
or  viaus  fraud  plegii.  But  when  free  pledge  is  used, 
as  in  Magna  Charta,  it  shoidd  be  understood  in  a 
strict  and  particular  sense.' — Co.  LUt.  by  Hargrave, 
115  a,  note  10. 

FRANKS  (i.  e.,  freemen)  was  the  name  assumed 
by  a  confederation  of  German  tribes  that  appeared 
on  the  Lower  Rhine  in  the  .3d  c.,  and  afterwards 
overthrew  the  Roman  dominion  in  GatU.  It  wa-s 
only  the  n;mie,  however,  that  was  new;  the  indi- 
vidual tribes  composing  the  confederation  had  been 
known  on  the  Rhine  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Augustus.  The  most  important  of  these  were  ths 
Sigambri,  Chamavi,  Ampsivarii,  Chatti,  Chattuarii, 
and  Biucteri  of  the  time  of  the  first  emperors. 
In  the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  hordes  of  them  began 
to  poiu-  through  the  Low  Countries  into  Gaul,  until 
494 


at  last  the  country  became  their  prey.  After  the 
midiUe  of  the  4th  c,  they  appear  diWdcd  into  two 
groups,  the  Salians — cither  from  the  old  Ger.  Sol, 
or  the  river  Sala  (  Yssel) — and  the  Ripuarians  (ripn-, 
the  bank),  the  first  inhabiting  Holland  and  the  Low 
Countries,  the  Last  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine  as 
far  up  as  the  Main.  Each  group  had  its  own  laws, 
afterwards  committed  to  WTiting  (Lex  Salica  and 
Lex  liipuariorum).  Like  the  two  peoples,  these 
laws  difl'cr  little  even  in  detail.  Tlie  F.  were  a 
mobile,  well-endowed  race,  forming  in  langu.ige 
and  .art  the  transition  from  the  Low  Germans  to 
the  High  ;  and  they  compose  to  this  day  the  ground 
of  the  population  of  the  west  of  Germany  as  far  as 
the  Neckar,  Main,  Murg,  and  Lower  Alsace,  as 
well  as  the  chief  Germanic  element  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Northern  France.  For  the  later  history 
of  t'he  Franks,  see  articles  Ci-O^is,  C.vnLOVixcLi^s, 

ClLVKLElHONE,  FRANCE,  M^,RO^^NGIA^•S,  &c 

FRA'NZENSBRUNN,  or  FRANZENSBAD,  a 
small  village  and  well-known  bathing-place  iu 
Austria,  on  the  north-western  frontier  of  Bohemia, 
three  miles  north-west  of  Eger,  is  situated  amid  low 
bare  hills,  and  consists  of  four  rectangular  streets 
lined  with  trees.  It  has  four  cold  mineral  springs, 
chiefly  of  alkalo-sahne  chalybeate  water,  deemed 
highly  efheacious  in  the  ciu'e  of  scrofulous  complaints 
and  diseases  of  the  sldn,  and  used  principally  for 
drinking,  but  .also  for  bathing  purposes,  in  which 
case  the  water  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  90°  to 
98°  F.  Nearly  200,000  bottles  of  these  waters  arc 
exported  aimually.     F.  has  also  mud  and  gas  baths. 

FRASCA'TI,  a  beautiful  town  about  eight  miles 
east-south-east  of  Rome,  with  a  population  of  5000. 
It  stands  on  the  lower  heights  of  the  Alban 
Hills,  not  far  from  the  site  of  ancient  Tusculum, 
which  was  bidlt  on  a  higher  range  of  hills.  Tus- 
cidum  (q.  v.),  a  town  of  much  more  ancient  date  than 
Rome,  w.as  burned  and  ruined  by  the  Romans  in 
1191  A.P.,to  avenge  a  former  victorj'  gained  by  the 
Tuscidaus  in  11G7.  Those  of  the  inhabitants  who 
escaped  the  fury  of  the  conqxierore,  sought  refuge 
on  the  slope  of  the  hill  towards  Rome,  constructing 
small  huts  out  of  the  underwood  or  frascJie,  and 
hence  the  modern  name  FrascatL  The  chief  attrac- 
tions of  F.  are  its  lovely  villas  and  salubrious  air, 
which  attract  from  Rome  iu  the  hot  season  all  its 
noble  and  foreign  residents,  and  render  this  resort 
in  the  Alban  Hills  the  most  fashionable  inlleggia- 
tura  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Eternal  City.  The  most 
splendid  of  these  summer  residences  are  the  \'illas 
Aldobrandini,  also  known  as  11  Belvedere,  from  its 
commanding  and  noble  prospect ;  those  of  Mon- 
dragon  andTaverna  of  the  Borghese  family;  the 
\'illas  P;illavicini  and  Piccolomini. 

The  cathedral  contains  a  tablet  to  the  Cardinal 
of  York,  for  many  years  bishop  of  this  diocese,  and 
another  to  his  brother,  Ch.arles  Edward,  the  Yoimg 
Pretender,  who  died  here  in  1788. 

PKASEK,  SoioN.    See  Lovat,  Lord. 

FRASER  RIVER,  the  principal  stream  of 
British  Columbia,  comprises  in  its  basin  the  far 
greater  part  of  the  colony.  The  F.  R.  proper  has 
its  origin  in  the  imion  of  two  branches,  the  more 
important  of  which  receives  its  waters  from  a  series 
of  lakes  that  lie  in  lat.  ,54°— 55°  N.,  long,  about 
124°  50'  W.,  flows  in  a  general  south-east  direc- 
tion for  260  miles,  and  then  unites  with  the  other 
branch,  which  has  its  source  near  Mount  Bro\\'n, 
in  the  Rocky  Moimtains,  lat.  53°  N.,  long.  US' 
40'  W.,  flows  north-west,  and  is  200  miles  in 
length.  The  point  of  confluence  is  near  Fort 
George,  in  lat.  about  53°  25'  N.,  and  in  long, 
about  122°  40'  W.,  and  henco  the  F.  R.  flows  in  a 
generally   southern   direction   through  nearly  th  ■ 


FRASERA— FKATICELLIANS. 


whole  lungth  of  the  colony,  and  after  a  course  of 
about  COO  miles  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia 
between  Vancouver's  Island  and  the  mainland, 
barely  to  the  north  of  the  international  boundary 
of  49"  of  latitude.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Stuart 
and  the  Chilcotin  on  the  right,  and  the  Thompson 
on  the  left.  Between  the  Stuart  and  the  Chil- 
cotin, and  on  the  same  side,  the  F.  R.  is  joined 
by  an  affluent,  which  is  rather  of  historical  mtcrest 
than  of  physical  importance — the  West  Road  River, 
which  took  its  name  from  its  having  been  ascended 
by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  on  his  adventiu'ous 
joiu-ney  of  179.f  from  tlie  Hudson's  Bay  Territories 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  l'\  R.  is  practicable  for 
steam-boats  as  far  up  as  Fort  Hope,  a  distance  of 
about  150  miles  frfim  its  mouth,  while  about  half 
that  distance,  as  f.ar  as  New  Westminster,  it  is 
navigable  for  large  ships.  Above  Fort  Hope,  all 
intercourse  is  more  safely  and  conveniently  con- 
ducted by  land  ;  and  even  the  aboriijines,  as  their 
trails  still  testify,  appear  to  have  yielded  to  the 
same  necessity. 

In  1S57,  the  F.  R.,  in  its  auriferous  diggings  and 
washings,  began  to  stand  forth  as  the  rival  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Australia.  Since  then,  the  discoveries, 
originally  conliued  to  the  lower  basin,  have  steadily 
become  at  once  more  extensive  and  more  productive. 
Eastward  on  the  Thompson,  and  more  especially 
northward  among  the  up])er  waters  of  the  great 
artery  of  the  country,  the  precious  deposit  has 
given  out  almost  fal)idous  returns.  An  apparently 
authentic  communication,  dated  towards  the  close 
of  October  ISGl,  regards  the  daily  earnings  of  £20 
for  one  miner  'as  poor  this  year,'  and  adds  that, 
even  as  a  hired  labourer,  a  man  gets  £.1  a  day.  On 
the  practical  value  of  the  gold-tields,  the  peculiar 
cliaractcr  of  the  F.  R,  exercises  in  various  ways  a 
powerful  influence.  Be.^ides  affording  comparatively 
few  anil  scanty  facilities  for  transport,  whether 
ujiwards  or  downwards,  it  directly  embarrasses  the 
workings  themselves.  Generally  speaking,  the  bed 
is  a  mere  raWne,  which  rather  drains  than  waters 
whatever  lies  beyond  its  wall-like  banks.  For 
operations  on  the  high  ground,  therefore,  the  cur- 
rent is  rarely,  if  ever,  available  ;  and  even  the  inner 
margins,  fkKided,  aa  they  periodically  are,  by  tiic 
meltmg  of  the  northern  snows,  are  accessible  during 
only  half  the  year. 

FIIA'SERA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Oentiaiicte,  with  a  4-partite  calyx  and  coroUa, 
4  stamens,  and  a  2-valvuiar  capsule.  F.  Wallfri, 
a  native  of  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  great  part  of  the 
basins  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  is  often  called 
American  Calumba,  the  root  being  imported  into 
Europe  under  that  name.  It  is  a  pure  and  valualile 
bitter,  similar  in  its  effects  to  gentian.  Tlie  stem 
is  herbaceous,  erect,  3 — 6  feet  high ;  the  leaves 
oval,  oblong,  opposite  and  whorled ;  the  flowers 
greenish  yellow.  The  plant  is  a  bieoniaL  It  grows 
lu  marshy  places. 

FRA'SEHBURGH,  a  burgh  of  barony  and 
reality  and  seaport  on  the  north  co.ast  of  Aber- 
deenshire, 42  miles  north  of  Aberdeen.  It  stands 
on  the  north-west  side  of  a  bay  two  miles  in  dejith 
immediately  south  of  Kinnaird's  Head  (supposed  to 
l>e  the  Tau-alui-itia  Promontorium  of  the  Romans), 
on  which  is  the  Wine  Tower,  an  old  castle  w-ith 
a  cave  below.  Tlie  town,  originally  called  Faithly, 
was  made  a  burgh  of  barony  by  Queen  Mary  in 
1546.  Its  name  was  changed  into  Fraserburgh  (in 
honour  of  its  proprietor.  Sir  Alexander  Eraser  of 
I'hilorth)  by  King  James  VI.  in  1592 ;  and  the 
same  king,  in  1001,  erected  it  into  a  free  port,  free 
burgh  of  barony,  and  free  regality.  The  streets 
are'w-ide  and  dean,  with  substantial  houses.     Fop. 


in  1S71,  4252,  which  is  greatly  increased  dnring 
the  herring-fishing  in  July  and  August.  It  is 
l)ossessed  of  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  cast 
coast,  which  has  lately  been  greatly  extended,  and 
has  a  patent  slip  attached  to  it  The  chief  exports 
are  oatn,  barley,  meal,  potatoes,  cured  herrings,  and 
cod.  F.  is  now  one  of  the  most  successful  herring 
fishing  stations  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  the 
average  number  of  boats  being  between  500  and 
600.  Since  1805,  it  is  connected  with  Aberdeen  by 
railway.  F.  has  a  handsome  cross  aud  town-house 
iu  the  ])rincipal  Sfpiare,  and  a  spacious  hall  belong- 
iuf  to  the  Harbour  Commissioners.  Sir  Alexander 
Eraser,  in  1592,  obtained  a  charter  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  college  and  university  here,  but  the  plan 
was  never  carried  out. 

FRASIER,  a  strawberry  flower,  is  used  by  Scotch 
heraldic  wi-iters  as  synonymous  with  a  tinquefoil ; 
as  in  blazoninw  the  coat  of  the  Erasers,  Azure 
three/rases  (Nisbet,  i.  p.  .'588). 

FRATE'RCULA     See  Puffin. 

FKATICE'LLIANS,  or  FR.\TICELLI  ('Little 
Brethren'),  a  sect  of  the  middle  ages,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  an  embodiment,  outside  of  the 
medieval  church,  of  the  same  spirit  to  which  is  due, 
within  the  church,  the  Franciscan  order  with  its 
many  offshoots.  The  Itahan  word  Fratlcelli  originally 
was  the  jjopular  name  of  the  Franciscan  monks; 
but,  in  the  progress  of  the  disputes  which  arose  in 
the  order  (see  Fr^vnciscans),  the  name  was  sjiecially 
attached  to  the  members  of  the  rigorist  party,  aud 
eventually  to  those  among  them  who  pertinaciously 
refused  to  accept  the  pontifical  explanations  of  the 
monastic  rule,  and,  in  the  end,  threw  off  all  subjec- 
tion to  the  authority  of  the  church.  Several  of  the 
jiopes,  especially  Gregory  IX.  and  Nicholas  III., 
attempted  to  reconcile  the  disputants.  Pope  Celes- 
tine  V.  granted  permission  to  the  rigorists  to  form 
for  themselves  a  separate  organisation,  in  which 
the  nde  of  St  Francis  might  be  obser\'ed  in  all  its 
primitive  and  literal  rigour.  The  snpipression  of 
this  order  by  Boniface  VIII.  ajipears  to  have 
furnished  the  direct  occasion  for  the  secession  of 
the  extreme  party  from  the  chiu-ch.  They  ojienly 
resisted  the  aiithority  of  the  pope,  whom  they 
proclaimed  an  apostate  from  the  faith.  The  party 
thus  formed  was  increased  by  adhesions  from 
other  sectarian  bodies,  as  the  '  Beghards '  and  the 
'Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit'  (see  Free  Spirit). 
In  vain  Clement  V.,  in  the  council  of  Vienna  (l.'ill 
- — 1S12),  put  forward  a  new  declaration  regarding 
the  rule  of  St  Francis.  They  stiU  held  their  ground, 
especially  in  Sicily,  Central  and  Northern  Italy, 
and  Provence.  John  XXII.,  against  whom  they 
sided  actively  with  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  condemned 
them  by  a  sjiecial  bull  in  1.S17,  and  again  in  a 
similar  document  directed  against  Henry  de  Ceva, 
one  of  their  chief  leaders  in  Sicily.  From  these 
sources  we  learn  that  they  reg;uded  the  existing 
church  as  in  a  state  of  ajwstasy,  and  claimed  for 
their  own  commimity  the  exclusive  title  of  the 
Church  of  God.  They  forbade  oaths,  and  discounte- 
nanced marriage.  They  professed  a  divine  mission 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Gospel  tnitli.  They  held 
that  all  spiritual  authority  was  forfeited  by  sin  on 
the  i>art  of  the  minister.  It  would  even  aiij)ear 
th.at  luey  ]iroceedeil  so  far  as  to  elect  for  the-mselves 
a  pope,  with  a  college  of  cardinals,  and  a  regular 
hicrarcliy  (Wadding,  Annal.  Slin.  Fratruni  ad  an. 
1.'574,  n.  20).  Their  jirinciples,  in  a  word,  seem  to 
have  partaken  largely  of  the  same  fanatical  and  anti- 
social tendencies  which  chai'acterised  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Siiirit ;  and  in  common  with  them,  the 
F.  were  the  object  of  a  rigorous  persecution  abi>ut 
the  muUUe  of  the  14th  century.     The  princii)les  o( 

493 


FRATTA-MAGGIORE-FEEDERICIA. 


tliis  sect  formed  the  subject  of  a  public  discussion  | 
at  IViuu'ia  iu  1374  between  theui  and  a  Franciscan  i 
monk  nametl  Taoluoci,  wliich  ai)i>e;u-s  to  have  ended 
in  their  diseoniliture.     'J'liey  still  ni;untaiiied  theni- 
Belves,  nevertheless,  in  Ceutr;il  Italy,  down  to  the 
l.')th  c.,  when  John  de  Capistran  receiveil  a  cuni- 
niission  to  labour  for  their  conversion  iu  the  March  j 
of  Ancona ;  but  before  the  beirinniug  of  the  follow-  | 
ing  century,  they  seem  to  have  disappeared  alto-  | 
pether.     See  Mosheiui,  De  Jiei/liardis  H  liefjuimibua 
(Lipsi.-e,  1790) ;  Milnian's  Lutin  CLristitviily,  vol.  v. ; 
Witsix's  Kirchcn- Lexicon. 

FRA'TTA-MAGGIO'RE,  a  town  of  Italy,  six 
miles  north-cast  of  the  city  of  Naples,  has  extensive 
rope-works,  and  furnishes  great  quantities  of  straw- 
berries for  the  market  of  "the  capital.  Silk-worms 
are  here  reared  in  great  quantities.  Fop.  about 
9000. 

FRAUD.  By  the  laws  of  .all  civilised  nations 
fraud  inv;ilidates  obligations.  Li  order  to  produce 
this  effect,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  the  uiis- 
rei)re«entations,  or  other  dishonest  maureuvres  of 
the  otrending  l)arty,  shall  have  induced  the  other  to 
enter  into  the  agreement  or  contract,  and  that  he 
would  not  otherwise  have  consented.  Fraud  of  this 
descrijition  on  the  one  side  produces  error  in  esxen- 
tiulibus  on  the  other,  and  where  such  error  exists 
tliere  is  no  consent.  But  as  consent  is  of  the  essence 
of  the  contract,  there  is  here  no  contract  at  all ;  i.  e., 
the  contract,  or  pretended  contract,  is,  as  lawyers 
say,  nuU  ab  initio.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
fraud  which  thus  gives  bii-th  to  the  contract  shall 
have  consisted  in  positive  misrepresentation,  or  even 
in  studied  concealment ;  and  it  was  well  laid  down 
in  the  case  of  an  English  sale,  that  where  the  ])ur- 
chaser  laboiu-ed  under  a  decejjtion,  in  which  the 
seller  permitted  him  to  remain,  on  a  point  which  he 
knew  to  be  material  in  enabling  him  to  form  bis 
judgment,  tlie  contract  w.is  void.  But  tliere  is 
another  kind  of  fraud  which,  though  it  be  not 
actu.illy  the  cause  of,  is  incident  to,  the  contract, 
and  which,  though  it  does  not  aumd  the  contract, 
rives  rise  to  auaction  for  damages  or  restitution 
by  the  party  deceived.  The  distinction  between 
these  two  kinds  of  fraud  was  well  known  to  the 
civilians,  the  first  species  being  described  by  them 
as  that  '  quod  causam  dedit  contractui,'  that  is 
to  say,  which  causes  the  contract ;  the  second  as 
that  '  quod  tautmn  iu  contractum  incidit,'  which 
is  incident  to,  or  accompanies  the  contract,  but 
independently  of  which  the  contract  would  have 
been  entered  into  (Voet.  lib.  4,  tit.  3,  3).  There  is 
another  very  important  element  to  lie  taken  into 
account  in  judging  of  the  character,  and  deter- 
mining the  legal  effects  of  a  fraud,  \tz.,  whether  it 
proceeded  from  one  whose  position  was  such  as  to 
impose  upon  him  the  obligation  of  making  the 
discovery.  In  illustration  of  this  principle,  the 
following  case  was  put  by  Lord  Thurlow  in  Fox  r. 
Mackreth  (l2  Bro.  (Jh.  E.  4-20):  'Suppose  that  A, 
knowing  there  to  lie  a  mine  on  the  estate  of  B,  of 
which  he  knew  B  was  ignorant,  should  enter  into  a 
contract  to  purchase  the  estate  of  B  for  the  price  of 
the  estate,  without  considering  the  mine,  coidd  the 
coiut  set  it  aside  ?  Why  not,  since  B  was  not 
apprised  of  the  mine,  and  A  was  ?  Because  A,  as 
the  buyer,  was  not  obliged,  from  the  nature  of  the 

contract,  to  make  the  discovery The  court 

will  not  correct  a  contract  merely  because  a  man  of 
nice  honour  would  not  iiave  entered  into  it ;  it  mu-st 
fall  within  some  definition  of  fraud.  The  rule  naist 
be  dr.awn  so  .as  not  to  art'ect  tlie  general  trausai'- 
tions  of  mankind.'  Neither  will  the  comuiendations 
usu.ally  bestowed  on  their  commodities  by  trades- 
men be  regarded  as  fi-auduleiit  statements,  so  long 
490 


I 


as  they  are  simply  extravagant  in  degree  ;  but  if 
]iositive!y  at  variance  with  facts  known  to  them, 
they  will  not  be  permitted  to  enjoy  the  protection 
w  liich  custom  has  extended  to  ordinary  '  putiing.' 
The  same  principle  will  yield  the  converse  result 
wherever  a  relation  of  pecidiar  conlidentiiility  exists 
between  the  contracting  parties.  Here  courts  of 
law  require  what  is  called  uberrima  fides,  the  fullest 
measure  of  good  faith,  to  validate  the  transaction. 
As  an  illustration,  may  be  mentioned  a  case  in  which 
the  managing  partner  of  a  finn  jnu'ch.iscd  the  sh.are 
of  his  co-partner  for  a  sinu  which  he  knew  from  the 
accounts,  of  which  he  had  the  entire  suiierintend- 
ence,  to  be  inadequate,  but  the  inadequacy  of  which 
he  concealed.  The  transaction  was  reduced,  Sir 
.John  Leach,  V.  C,  remarking  th.at  '  the  defendant 
being  the  partner  whose  business  it  was  to  keep  the 
aceoimts  of  the  concern,  coidd  not,  in  fairness,  deal 
with  the  plaintiff  for  his  share  of  the  profits  of  the 
concern  without  ])utting  him  in  possession  of  all  the 
information  which  he  himself  had  with  respect  to 
the  state  of  the  accounts  between  them.' — Madde- 
ford  V.  Austwick  1  Gim.  E.  89. 

In  addition  to  direct  misrepresentation,  and  con- 
cealment in  circumstances  in  which  open  dealmg 
was  a  duty,  fraud  may  be  perpetrated  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  imbecility  of  the  party  who  has 
been  led  into  the  contract,  and  still  more  flagi'antly 
by  inducing  this  imbecility  liy  intoxication  or  other- 
wise. See  Concealment,  Error,  Misrepresenta- 
tion, Contract,  Sale-Warranty.  In  addition  to 
the  ordinary  English  sources  of  information,  we  may 
refer  to  the  extensive  and  learned  Trait/}  du.  Vol  el 
de  la  Fraude,  par  J.  Bedarride,  3  vols.  (Paris,  1852). 

FRAXJNHOFER,  Joseph  vox,  a  distinguished 
practical  optician,  was  bom  at  Straubing,  iu  Bavaria, 
0th  March  1787.  In  1799  he  was  api)renticed 
to  a  glass-cutter  in  Munich,  and  in  ISOIJ  was 
received,  as  a  working  optician,  into  the  estab- 
lishment of  Fieichenbach  and  Ttscbneider  at 
Benedictbeurn  (afterwards,  in  1819,  removed  to 
Munich).  While  there,  be  acquired  considercvblo 
wealth  through  his  inventions,  and  soon  after- 
wards became  proprietor  of  the  establishment.  He 
invented  a  machine  for  polishing  parabolic  surfaces, 
and  was  the  first  who  succeeded  in  polishing  lenses 
and  mirrors  without  altering  their  curvature.  His 
prisms  also  were  celebrated,  being  free  from  the 
blebs  and  stri;e  which  are  so  often  seen  in  those 
of  English  manufacture.  His  inventions  are  numer- 
ous, and  include  a  '  heliometer,'  a  '  micrometer,'  an 
'  achromatic  microscope,'  besides  the  great  paral- 
lactic telescope  at  Dorpat.  But  that  which  has 
rendered  F.'s  name  celebrated  throughout  the 
scientific  world,  is  his  discovery  of  the  lines  in  the 
Spectrum.  He  died  at  Munich"  on  the  7th  of  June 
1826. 

FRAU'NHOFER'S  LINES.     See  Spectrusl 

FRAU'STADT  (Polish,  Wszowa),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  government  of  Posen,  is  situated  in  a 
s;uuly  plain  on  the  SUesian  fronti^r,  55  miles  north- 
west of  Breslau.  It  has  linen,  woollen,  and  other 
manufactures,  and  important  grain  markets.  In  the 
vicinity  are  about  100  wind-mills.     Pop.  U724. 

FRAXINE'LLA.     See  Dittaxy. 

FRA'XINUS.     See  Asii. 

FKEDPjRI'CIA,  a  seaport  and  fortress  of  Den- 
mark, is  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  province 
of  .lutland,  on  a  projecting  tongue  of  laud,  at  the 
uortheru  entrance  to  the  Little  Belt.  It  is  fortified 
with  nine  bastions  and  three  ravelins  on  the  laud- 
side,  and  with  two  bastions  towards  tlic  sea.  It  has 
several  ecclesiastical  edifices,  a  hospital,  and  a 
custom-house,  at  which  a  toll  is  paid  by  all  ships 


FREDERICK. 


passing  through  tlie  Little  Belt.     Tobacco  is  grown 
and  m.aniifactiire(l  here.     Poj).  5.579. 

FREDERICK  (Ger.  FRIEDRICH)  I.,  of  Gee- 
MAN'Y.— Frederick  I.,  Emjiuror  of  Germany,  sur- 
Kamed  Barbaros.s.\  (Redbeard),  was  born  in  11-21, 
succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  Holienstaufen,  as 
Uiike  of  Swabia  in  1147,  and  his  uncle,  Conrad  III., 
as  emperor  in  115i  He  was  one  of  the  most 
enlightened  and  powerful  rulers  who  ever  swayed 
the  imperial  sceptre.  In  his  de.sire  to  emulate 
Charlemagne,  and  to  raise  the  secular  power  of  the 
empire  in  opposition  to  the  arrogated  supremacy 
of  the  pap.il  chair,  he  was  brought  into  constant 
collision  with  his  Italian  subjects.  Six  times  he 
was  compelled  to  cross  the  Alps  at  the  head  of 
great  armies,  in  order  to  chastise  the  refractory 
cities  of  Lombardy,  «hieh  were  ever  ready,  on  the 
slightest  provocation,  to  throw  off  their  allegiance. 
In  the  early  periods  of  his  reign,  he  visited  their 
defection  with  undue  severity;  but  in  his  latter 
d.-iys  his  conduct  towards  them  was  characterised 
by  a  generous  leniency  and  a  politic  liberality  in 
advance  of  his  .age;  and  in  I1.S3,  he  convoked  a 
coimcU  at  Constance,  in  which  he  tiuaUy  agreed  to 
leave  the  Lombard  cities  the  right  to  choose  their 
own  mimicipal  rulers,  and  to  conclude  treaties  and 
leagues  among  themselves,  although  lie  ret.ained  his 
supremacy  over  them,  together  with  the  power 
of  imposing  certain  fi.xed  taxes.  The  diffieidty  of 
settling  the  ItaUan  tlifTorences  was  as  usual  a.<^"VA- 
vated'in  F.'s  time  Iiy  the  attitude  assumed  by 'the 
occup.aiits  of  the  jxapal  chair,  and  at  one  time  Italy 
was  distracted  bj'  the  pretensions  of  two  rival  popes, 
Alexander  III.  and  Victor  IV.,  who  each  excom- 
municated the  other,  and  hurled  the  anathem.as 
of  the  church  against  their  several  opjionents ;  and 
it  was  not  till  1176  that  F.,  after  his  defeat  at 
Lignano,  bj'  consenting  to  acknowledge  Urban  II., 
the  successor  of  Alex.ander  III.,  as  the  rightful  pope, 
was  en.abled  to  turn  his  .attention  to  Germany.  By 
his  energetic  measures,  he  succeeded  in  thorouglily 
humbling  his  troublesome  vassal,  Henry  the  Lion, 
Duke  of  Brims-H-ick,  and  thus  crashing  the  Guelfic 
power  in  CJermany.  F.  made  Poland  triliutary 
to  the  empire,  raised  Bohemia  to  the  rank  of  a 
kingdom,  and  the  m.arkgrafdom  of  Austria  into 
an  independent  hereditary  duchj'.  In  1189,  F., 
having  settled  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  and  pro- 
claimed universal  peace  in  his  dominions,  resigned 
the  government  to  his  eldest  sou  Henry,  and, 
at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  set  forth  for  the  Holy 
Land,  accompanied  by  his  second  son.  Frederick 
of  Swabia,  the  founder  of  the  order  of  Teutonic 
Knights.  After  gaining  two  great  Wctories  over 
the  Saracens  at  Philonielium  and  Iconium,  he  was 
drowned  (119U)  in  a  river  of  Sj-ri.a,  while  trying 
to  urge  his  horse  across  the  stream.  His  remains 
were  rescued  by  liis  son,  and  bm-ied  at  Tjtc.  The 
death  of  F.,  which  led  to  the  dispersion  of  the 
Crusaders  before  any  material  .advantage  had  been 
obtained  over  the  Inlidels,  excited  the  deepest  grief 
in  Germany,  where  his  memory  has  always  been 
cherished  as  that  of  the  best  and  wisest  of  his  race. 
F.  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  enacted  many 
admirable  laws,  some  of  which  are  still  in  force. 

FREDERICK  II.,  of  Oehmaxy,  grandson  of 
the  former,  ami  sin  of  the  Emjjeror  Henry  VI.,  and 
of  Constance,  heiress  of  Sicily,  w.as  born  in  1194. 
His  mother  secured  the  favour  of  Po])e  Innocent 
III.  for  lier  inf.ant  son,  by  conceding  m.any  import- 
ant privileges  to  the  pa]ial  ch.air;  and  after  the 
civil  war  which  hail  raged  in  Germ.any  for  eight 
ye.ars  between  the  rival  claimants  of  the  throne, 
Phili])  of  Swabia  and  Otho  IV.,  was  brought  to 
an    end   by  the  ai;eni'y  of  Iniinoeiit,   F.   suecoedcd 


(1212)   in    obtainmg  the   support   of   the   German 
electors.     On  his  promising  to  umlertake  a  crusade, 
the    ])ope    sanctioned    his    coronation    at    Aix-la- 
Chapelle   in    121.').     Like   his   grandfather,   F.  was 
actuated  by  an  ardent  desire  for  the  consolidation 
'  of  the  imperial  power  in  Italy  at  the  expense  of  the 
Iiontilicate,  which  he  wished  to  reduce  to  the  rank 
of  a  mere  archiepiscopal  dignity.     Havin;'  secured 
the  nomination  of  his  son  Henry  to  the  rank  of 
king    of   the    Romans,  and   appointed   Archbishop 
Engelbert   of    Cologne   as   his   vicegerent,    he   left 
Germany ;  and  after  having  been  crowned  emperor 
at  Rome  in   1220,   devoted  himself  to  the  task  of 
organising  his  Italian  territories.     He  founded  the 
university  of  Naples,  gave  encouragement  to   the 
medical  school  of  Salerno,  invited  to  his  court  and 
patronised  men  of  learning,  poets,  and  artists,  and 
commissioned  his  ch.ancellor,  Petrus  (le  Vineis,  to 
draw  uj)  a  code  of  laws,  to  suit  all  classes   of  his 
German  and  Italian  subjects.     F.'s  schemes  for  the 
union  of  his  vast  and  widely  scattered  dominions 
were,   however,   frastrated   by  the   refractory  con- 
duct of  the  Lombard  cities,  and  still  more  by  the 
arrogance  of  the  popes  Honorius  III.  and  Gregory 
IX.,   who    threatened    him  with    excommunication 
unless  he  fulMlled  his  pledge  of  leading  a  crusade. 
Being  compelled  to  depart  on  this  expedition,  he 
made  the  necessary  prej)ar.ations  for  its  prosecution ; 
but   a   pestilence   having    broken    out    among  his 
troops  in  the  Morea,  he  returneil  in  haste  to  Italy, 
only  to    be  again   forced    away  by  papal  threats. 
This   second  attem))ted  crusade  proved  more  suc- 
cessful; and  in  122S,  notwithstanding  the  machina- 
tions of  the  pope,  and  the  treachery  of  the  Knights 
Templars,  F.  extorted  a  ten  years'  truce  from  the 
iloslem  ruler,  and  forced  him  to  give  up  Jerusalem 
ani  the  tenitory  around  Joppa  and  Nazareth.     The 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  bringing  his  rebellious 
Lombard   subjects  to   subjection,  and   in  counter- 
.acting  the  intrigues  of  the  pope,  the  rebeUion  of 
his  eldest  son,  and  the  treachery  of  his  friend  and 
minister,  the  Chancellor  Petrus  "de  Vineis,  wlio  was 
suspected  of  .attempting  to  poison    him.      F.,  who 
died  suddenly  in  12.51.  the  possessor  of  seven  crowns, 
was  the  most  accomplished  sovereign  of  the  middle 
ages,  for  lie  not  only  spoke  and  %iTote  the  six  lan- 
guages common  to  his  subjects,  but  he  w.as  famed 
for  his  talents  as  a  minnesinger,  and  for  his  skill 
in  all  knightl}'  exercises,  wliile  he  wrote  elabor.ate 
treatises  on  natural  history  and  philosophy.     His 
strong  sjTnp.athies  with  his  lt.ahan  mother-land,  and 
his   unremitting    endeavoiu"s    to   establish    a   com- 
pact   and    .aU-suprerae   empire   in   Italy,   were  the 
causes,  not  only    of   his    own    misfortunes,  but    of 
the  miseries  which  he   brought  upon  the  German 
emiiire,  by  embroiUng  him  in  costly  w.ars  abroad, 
and  leading  him  to  neglect  the  welfare,  and  sacri- 
fice the  interests  of  his  Ciemian  subjects.     See  for 
Frederick  I.  and  Frederick  II.,  Ilaumer,  Geschichtc 
der  Uohnistauffen  ;  Sismondi,  Italian  Jlc/mhlir.i,  and 
Europe  in  tlie  Middle  Af/es;    Voigt's    Lomliarden- 
bund ;  Funk,  Qeachichte  Kaiser  Friedricli  II. 

FREDERICK  IIL,  op  Geemanv.— Frederick 
who  was  F.  III.  as  Emperor  of  Germany,  F.  IV.  as 
King  of  Germany,  and  F.  V.  as  Duke  "of  Austria, 
was  bom  in  1415,  being  the  son  of  Duke  Ernst, 
of  the  Styriau  branch  of  the  house  of  Ilapsburg. 
At  the  age  of  20,  he  undertook  an  cxjiedition 
to  the  Hi>ly  Land  ;  and  on  his  return,  in  eon- 
junction  with  his  factious  brother,  Albert  the 
Prodigal,  he  assumed  the  government  of  his  here- 
dit.ary  dominions  of  the  Duchj'  of  .\ustri.a,  the 
revenues  of  which  scarcely  exceeded  16,000  marks. 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Albert  II.,  he  was 
unanimously  elected  .as  his  successor ;  and  two 
years  afterwards,  in  1442,  he  was  solemnly  crowned 


FIXEDERICK. 


at  ALx-l.i-Chai>clle ;  ten  years  later,  he  received 
the  iiiii>ori.-U  crown  at  the  hanils  of  the  pope  at 
Kome,  and  in  14o3  secured  the  archducal  title  to 
his  nunily.  His  reijn  Av;i3  a  prolonged  struggle 
a.:ainst  domestic  intrigues  and  foreign  aggressions, 
duo  of  his  most  troublesome  opfwuents  was  his 
liixither  Albert,  who  refused  to  give  up  the  provinces 
which  he  held  until  he  had  received  a  large  siun  of 
money;  but  notwithstanding  these  causes  of  annoy- 
r.nce,  and  while  John  lluuyades  Corvinus,  at  the 
head  of  a  Himgarian  army,  overran  Austria,  and  laid 
siege  to  Vieuna,  and  the  usurjicr  Sforza  possessetl 
himself  of  the  imperi.-d  tief  of  Milan,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  male  line  of  the  Viseouti,  F.  remained 
absorbed  in  his  own  private  studies,  or  roused  himself 
only  to  attempt,  by  the  aid  of  foreign  mercenaries, 
to  recover  the  erowu-Iauds  of  which  the  House 
of  Austria  hail  been  deprived.  His  pusillanimous 
subsen-iency  to  the  jjapal  chair,  and  his  waveiing 
jwlicy,  irritated  the  electors,  who  at  one  time 
cherished  the  design  of  deposing  him  and  nominat- 
ing George  Podiebrand,  king  of  Bohemia,  to  the 
im^)erial  throne ;  while  it  entangled  him  in  quarrels 
on  account  of  the  succession  to  the  Pal.itinate,  and 
other  questions  of  German  policj',  and  deprived 
the  church  in  Gei-many  of  that  independence  from 
the  thraldom  of  the  papal  chair  which  it  had 
been  the  object  of  the  Council  of  Basel  to  secure 
to  it.  The  contempt  in  which  F.  was  held  was 
made  apparent  on  the  death  of  his  ward,  Ladislaus, 
king  of  Hungarj'  .ind  Bohemia,  without  children, 
when,  notmthstanding  his  just  pretensions  to  this 
inheritance,  he  was  passed  over,  the  people  of  the 
foi-mer  having  chosen  George  Potliebraud  as  their 
king,  and  those  of  the  latter  Matthias  Corvinus. 
His  brother  Albert's  death  in  1403  secured  him 
a  short  reprieve  from  internal  distm-bauces,  and 
gave  him  possession  of  Upper  Austria;  but  he 
■was  repeatedly  embroUed  iu  quarrels  with  Podie- 
brand and  Matthias ;  the  latter  of  whom  sevei-al 
times  besieged  Vienna,  and  finally  dispossessed 
biiri  of  every  town  of  importance  in  his  heredi- 
tary domains.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  Turks  were 
suffered  to  push  their  conquests  in  Europe  until  j 
they  had  advanced  iu  1456  to  Hungary,  in  1469 
to  Carniola,  and  in  1475  to  S.alzbiu-g,  although 
a  rigorous  opposition  at  the  outset  woidd  easily 
have  put  a  definite  stop  to  their  encroachments. 
On  the  death  of  Matthias,  in  1490,  F.  recovered 
Austria,  but  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prince 
Ladislaus  of  Bohemia  as  king  of  Hung.ary.  This 
mortification  was  soon  followed  by  his  death,  in 
1493,  after  an  inglorious  reign  of  53  years,  which 
did  nothing  to  ailvance  the  prosperity  or  progress 
of  the  empire,  although  the  times  were  propitious 
to  both.  But  although  F.  neglected  the  interests 
and  duties  of  the  imperial  crown  to  indulge  in 
the  pursuit  of  his  favourite  studies  in  alchemy, 
astronomy,  and  botany,  he  never  lost  an  oppor- 
tunity of  promoting  the  aggrandisement  of  his  own 
family,  which  he  very  materially  secured  by  marry- 
ing his  son  and  successor,  Maximilian,  to  ilary, 
the  rich  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy. 
F.  was  temperate,  devout,  pai'simonious,  scrupulous 
about  trifles,  simple  in  his  haliits,  i)acific  in  his 
disposition,  and  naturally  averse  to  exertion  or 
excitement.  From  his  time,  the  imperial  dignity 
continued  almost  hereditary  iu  the  House  of 
Austria,  which  has  ]ierpetuated  the  use  of  his 
favourite  de\-ice,  A.  E.  I.  0.  U.,  Atistrice  Est  Imperare 
Orhi  Universo.  See  ..ilneas  Sylvius,  HUtoria ;  Coxe, 
UouM  of  Aujitria. 

FREDERICK  V.,  Pki.vce  Pal.vtixe.— Frederick 
v.,  Electoral  Prince  Pakatine,  was  born  in  1596, 
succeeded  to  the  Palatinate  in  1610,  was  king  of 
Bohemia  from  1619  to  1620,  and  died  in  1632.     He 


marrieil,  in  1G13,  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James 
VI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  England,  through  whoso 
.ambitious  counsels  he  was  induced  to  take  a  pro- 
minent part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  union  of 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  finally, 
although  against  his  own  inclinations,  to  accept  the 
title  of  king  of  Bohemia.  His  complete  defeat  at 
the  battle  of  Prague  terminated  liis  shortUved 
enjojnucnt  of  the  regal  crown,  of  which  he  retained 
no  other  memorial  but  the  mocking  title  of  'The 
Winter  King.'  Kidieule  and  contumely  followed 
him  wherever  he  went,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  w.as 
sjient  in  exile  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and 
with  no  resources  beyond  those  which  he  could 
obtain  from  the  generosity  of  his  friends.  In  1623, 
he  w.as  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  electoral  title 
and  his  dominions  in  the  Palatin.ate,  which  were 
conferred  upon  his  cousin,  M.axiniilian  of  B.avaria, 
the  head  of  the  Catholic  league. 

FREDERICK  I.,  of  Dentup.k,  was  born  in 
1473,  and  died  in  1533.  Durini'  the  disturbed 
reign  of  his  nephew.  Christian  II.,  he  behaved  with 
so  much  circiunspection,  that  the  choice  of  the 
n.atiou  fell  upon  him  when  the  king  was  deposed, 
and  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  m  1523.  He 
shewed  great  cruelty  to  his  unfort\in.ate  relative, 
whom  he  detained  in  close  c.apti\-ity ;  but  he  was 
a  politic  ruler.  In  1527  he  embraced  the  Lutheran 
faith,  which  he  established  in  his  dominions  by 
the  most  arbitrary  measures. 

FREDERICK  III.,  of  Denmaf.k,  the  son  of 
Chri3ti.au  IV.,  was  bom  in  1609,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  iu  164S,  and  died  in  1670.  The  wai-s  of  his 
father's  reign  h.ad  brought  the  coimtry  to  a  state 
of  great  embarrassment;  and  notwithstanding  all 
his  efforts  to  m,aintain  peace,  F.  was  continually 
embroiled  in  the  quarrels  of  other  nations,  and 
during  his  reign  C'openh.agen  was  twice  besieged  by 
the  Swedes  under  their  warlike  kuig,  Charles 
Gusta\nis ;  nor  was  peace  re-established  till  after 
the  death  of  Ch.arles.  The  reign  of  F.  III.  was 
rendered  memorable  by  the  change  effected  in  the 
constitution,  which,  after  h.aving  been  in  some 
degree  elective,  was  at  once  changed  into  a  heredi- 
tary and  absolute  mon.archy  by  the  voluntary  .act  of 
the  commons  and  clergy,  who,  from  abhorrence  of 
the  nobility,  sm-rendered  to  the  crown  the  hberties 
and  prerogative  which  they  had  hitherto  enjoyed, 
and  m.ade~the  sovereign  absolute  and  irresponsible. 

FREDERICK  V.,  OF  De.V5LUIK,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Christian  VI.,  was  born  in  1723, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1746,  and  died  in  1766, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  ha-i-ing  been  one  of  the 
best  and  wisest  monarehs  of  his  time.  Denmark 
owed  to  him  the  increase  of  her  national  wealth, 
and  the  establishment  of  v.arious  branches  of  com- 
merce and  mauufactm-e.  F.  established  a  Green- 
land Company,  opened  the  American  colonial  tnule 
to  all  his  subjects,  foimded  the  military  academy 
of  Soroe,  in  Denm.ark,  and  caused  schools  to  be 
opened  at  Bergen  and  Trondhjem,  iu  Norway,  for 
the  instruction  of  the  Laplanders.  He  established 
academies  of  painting  and  sculpture  at  Copenliagcn, 
and  sent  a  nimiber  of  learned  men — among  whom 
was  Niebuhr,  the  father  of  the  historian— to  travel 
.and  make  explor.ations  in  the  E,ast. 

FREDERICK  VI.,  of  Dexjlvhk,  the  sou  of 
Christi.an  VIL  and  Caroline  Matilda  of  England, 
was  born  iu  1768,  and  assumed  the  regeucy  of  tho 
kin^'clom  in  17S4,  on  account  of  the  insanity  of  his 
fatlier,  on  whose  death,  in  1808,  he  ascended  the 
tluone.  In  this  reign,  feudal  serfdom  was  abolished, 
monopohes  abrogated,  the  criinin.al  code  amended, 
and  the  skave-trade  prohibited  earlier  than  in  any 
other    country.      In    ISOO,    Deum.ark    joined    tho 


FUEDETJCK— FREDElUOIv-WILLIAJI. 


maritime  confederation  formed  between  Eussia, 
Sweden,  and  Prussia,  which  led  to  retahation  on  the 
part  of  England,  to  the  seizure  by  that  power  of  all 
Danish  vessels  in  British  ports,  and  to  the  despatch 
of  a  powerful  fleet,  imder  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and 
Nelson,  to  give  efficacy  to  the  peremptory  demand 
that  the  regent  shoidd  M-ithdi-aw  from  the  convxin- 
tiou.  His  refusal  to  accede  to  this  demand  was 
followed  by  a  fierce  naval  engagement,  in  which 
the  Danish  fleet  was  almost  wholly  destroyed.  A 
peace  was  concluded  on  the  regent's  withdrawal 
from  the  confederation ;  but  in  consequence  of  his 
persisting  to  maintain  an  attitude  of  neutrality, 
instead  of  combining  with  Great  Britain  against 
Xapoleon,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1S07  by  the 
appearance,  before  Copenhagen,  of  a  British  fleet, 
bearing  envoys,  who  summoned  F.  to  enter  into 
an  alliance  with  Etigland,  and  to  surrender  his  fleet 
and  arsenals,  and  the  castle  of  Cronborg,  com- 
manding the  Sound.  On  his  refusal,  Copenhagen 
was  bombarded  for  three  days,  the  arsenals  and 
docks  destroyed,  and  aU  the  shipping  disabled,  smdc, 
or  earned  to  England.  This  blow  paralysed  the 
national  resources,  and  it  requu'ed  the  exercise  of 
much  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  government,  and 
groat  endurance  on  that  of  the  people,  to  prevent 
the  irremediable  ruin  of  the  country.  Smarting 
under  the  treatment  which  he  had  experienced  from 
tlie  English,  the  Danish  monarch  became  the  ally 
of  Napoleon,  and  suffered  proportionally  after  the 
overthrow  of  his  empire.  In  1SI4,  Norway  was 
taken  by  the  allies  from  Denmark,  and  given  to 
Sweden.  The  state  became  bankrupt,  and  many 
yeare  passed  before  order  coidd  be  restored  to 
the  finances.  Notwithstanding  his  autocratic  ten- 
dencies, F.  so  far  yielded  to  the  movements  of  the 
times  as  to  give  his  subjects,  in  1831,  a  repre- 
sentative council  and  a  liberal  constitution.  He 
died  December  3,  1S39.  1 

FREDERICK  VII.,  of  De^oluik,  the  reigning  I 
kiug  of  Denmark,  was  born  in  1808,  and  succeeded 
his   father,    Christian  VIII.,  in    1848.      The   prin- 
cipal events  of  his  reign  have  been  the  wars  and 
di])lomatic    negotiations   arising   out   of   the   revolt 
of  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Sles\'ig  (q.  v.),  and 
the  vexed  question  of  the  succession  to  Denmark  ' 
Proper  and  the  duchies  on  the  death  of  the  kiug  j 
and   of    his    uncle,   the   heir-presumptive,   both   of  j 
whom    are  childless.      Notwithstandiug  the  heavy 
e.v;|)enses  of   the  war,  the  finances  have  been  con- 
si(ierably  augmented,  and  the  material  prosperity  of 
the  country  has  increased  during  the  present  reign. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAJI,  Dtoe  of  Brcxs- 
wiCK,  boni  in  1771,  entered  the  Prussian  service 
at  an  early  age,  and  was  actively  engaged  ^vith 
the  army  during  the  war  with  France  in  1702,  and 
again  in  1800,  and  was  taken  prisoner  ■with  Bliicher 
at  Leipsic.  On  the  death  of  his  father  and  eldest 
brother,  he  would  have  succeeded  to  the  diUicdom, 
.as  his  other  brothers  were  incapacitated  by  disease 
for  reigning,  had  not  Napoleon  put  a  veto  on  liis 
.accession  to  power.  Being  resolved  to  take  part  in 
the  war  against  the  French,  he  raised  a  free  corps  in  | 
Bohemia,  and  threw  himself  into  Saxony,  which  he 
was,  however,  speedily  compelled  to  ev.acuate.  .\fter 
the  total  defeat  of  the  Austrians  in  1800,  the  duke 
determined  to  leave  Germany ;  and  with  his  corps 
of  700  '  black  hussars,'  and  800  infantry,  he  began 
his  m.Tsterly  retreat.  After  various  skirmishes,  in 
one  of  which  he  defeated  the  Westphalian  com- 
mander Wellingerode  and  a  picked  detaclmient  of 
troops,  he  reached  Brunswick,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  which  he  gained  a  Wctory  at  Oelper  over  4000 
Westphalians,  commanded  by  General  Ecupel.  He 
next  crossed  the  Weser,  and  ha\'ing  reached  Elsfleth, 


and  taken  possession  of  a  sufScieut  number  of  vessels 
and  seamen,  he  embarked  his  troops;  and  finally, 
after  stopping  at  Heligoland,  landed  in  Engl.anil 
with  his  men  in  August  1809.  He  was  received 
with  enthusi.asm  ;  and  h.aring  entered  the  English 
service  with  his  men,  subsequently  took  part  in  the 
Peninsular  war,  where  he  scr\'ed  with  distinction, 
receiving  from  the  British  government  an  allowance 
of  £0000  a  ye.ar,  which  he  retained  till  his  retiim  to 
his  own  dominions  in  181.S.  Although  no  prince 
could  be  more  earnestly  bent  on  secm-ing  the  welfare 
of  his  subjects,  his  efforts  failed  utterly  from  the 
untimely  and  injudicious  nature  of  the  reforms  he 
endeavoured  to  effect ;  while  tlie  m.agnitude  of  his 
milit.ary  establishments,  which  were  quite  unsuited 
to  the  limited  extent  of  his  territories,  excited  the 
ill-will  of  his  people.  Ho  joined  the  allied  army 
with  his  hussara  after  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Elba,  and  fell  gloriously  while  leading  on  his  men 
at  Qn.atre  Bras,  on  the  ICth  of  June  181D. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM,  Elector  of  Buax- 
DENBtTEO,  commonly  called  'the  Great  Elector,' 
w.as  born  in  1620,  succeeded  to  the  electorate  in 
1640,  and  died  ui  1688.  On  his  accession,  he 
found  an  empty  exchequer,  the  towns  and  cities 
depopulated,  and  the  whole  electorate  devastated 
by  the  rav.agcs  of  the  Swedish  and  Imperialist 
aniiics  dnruig  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  was 
not  yet  concluded  ;  while  a  portion  of  his  inherit- 
■ance  had  even  been  conlisc.ated  by  the  Swedes. 
His  first  acts  were  to  regiU.ate  the  finances,  and 
to  conclude  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Sweden, 
which  left  him  .at  leisure  to  devote  himself  to  the 
organisation  of  his  army,  .and  the  re-peopling  of  the 
deserted  towns  and  callages  by  means  of  immigra- 
tion. By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  through  wmcli 
he  lost  several  important  places,  he  recovered 
the  eastern  poi'tions  of  Pomerania,  Hohenstein,  the 
bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Mindcn,  and  Kamin,  ,as 
l.ay-principalitics,  and  the  reversion  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg.  In  the  course  of  ten 
years  he  had,  by  the  help  of  his  generals,  Dei-fflinger, 
Sclioraberg,  and  Kannenberg,  created  an  army  of 
25,000  men,  organised  on  the  Swedish  model ;  and 
having  been  constrained  to  enter  into  an  .alhance 
■with  Charles  X.,  he  co-operated  with  him  in  the 
talxing  of  Warsaw,  which  was  effected  at  the  cost 
of  a  most  s.anguinary  engagement  in  1056.  In 
return  for  this  co-operation,  F.-W.  secured  the 
omancip.ation  of  his  Prussi.an  duchy  from  its  former 
dependence  on  Pohand.  The  aggressions  of  Louis 
XIV.  on  the  Rhenish  fi'ontier  alarmed  the  elector, 
who  induced  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Denmark,  and 
the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel,  to  enter  into  a  league 
against  France.  The  residt  was  nnfavour.able  to 
the  cause  of  the  German  princes,  and  F.-W.  w.as 
obliged  to  content  himself  ■with  making  highly  dis- 
ailvantageous  terms.  The  w.ar  was  soon  renewed, 
and  Brandenbiu-g  w.as  again  a  ]>rey  to  the  inom-sions 
of  the  Swedes,  who,  at  the  iustig.ation  of  Louis, 
advanced  upon  Berlin,  laying  waste  everj'thing  on 
their  march.  The  elector,  who  had  taken  up  his 
winter-quarters  in  Franconia,  hurried  .across  the 
Elbe  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  and  haWng  signally 
defeated  the  Swedes,  drove  them  from  his  domi- 
nions. If  the  emperor  had  been  true  to  his  word, 
and  supported  him,  F.-W.  might  have  made  head 
■against  the  French ;  but  being  forsaken  by  the 
other  Gennan  jirinces,  aud  his  dominions  overrun 
by  the  troops  of  Louis,  he  was  obliged  to  agree  to 
the  treaty  of  St  Germain,  by  which  he  restored  all 
his  concjuests  to  the  Swedes,  in  return  for  the  ivith- 
dr.awal  of  the  French  army,  and  the  payment  to 
him  of  an  indemnity  of  300,000  crowns.  From 
this  time  forth,  F.-W.  devoted  himself  to  the  task 
of   consoUdating  the   prosperity  of  his  dominions. 

493 


FKI;DEKICK— I-KKDEKICK-WILLIAM. 


During  Uis  reign,  he  more  than  triplcil  the  area  of 
his  torritories,  auil  by  his  jjoneroiis  reception  of 
iSt.lMKl  French  Protestants  after  the  revocation  of 
the  Eilict  of  Nautes,  ami  the  encouragement  which 
he  artoiiieil  to  the  imiuij^ratiou  of  Uutchmen  and 
other  foreigners,  he  augmented  the  popuhition  of 
his  states,  ami  introduced  umnerous  industrial  arts 
among  his  subjects.  He  founded  the  university 
at  Dnisburg,  and  the  royal  hbrary  at  Berlin,  and 
rcorganisetl  the  univei-sities  of  rraukfurt-on-the- 
Oder,  and  Konigsberg,  opened  canals,  established  a 
s\-stoiu  of  posts,  and  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified 
Berlin.  He  left  a  weU-CUed  exchequer  and  a  highly 
organisetl  army.  See  Orlich,  Gaxli.  ties  Prciis^. 
StaaU  tin  17  JaMi.     Berl.  1S39. 

FREDERICK  III.,  Elkctop.  of  Br.AXDEXErKC, 
son  and  successor  of  the  former,  and  the  fii-st  king  of 
Prussia,  was  born  in  1657,  and  succeeded  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg  in  ICSS.  He  exhibited 
the  same  zeal  as  his  father  for  the  aggrandisement 
and  amelioration  of  his  dominions ;  but  he  was 
distingiiished  from  liim  by  his  admiration  of  Louis 
XIV.,  whose  jwmp  and  luxurious  display  he  imitated 
at  liis  own  court.  He  supported  WUliam  of  Orange 
in  his  attempt  on  England,  and  gave  him  a  subsidy 
of  6000  men,  which,  imdcr  the  conuuand  of  Marshal 
Schomberg,  contributed  to  gain  the  victory  at  the 
Boyne  which  decided  the  fate  of  James  II.  F.  was 
always  ready  to  lend  troops  and  money  to  liis  allies ; 
he  sent  6000  of  his  best  men  to  aid  the  Impe- 
rialists against  the  TiU'ks ;  and  although  he  met  with 
the  same  ingratitude  as  his  father,  he  succeeded,  by 
treaties,  exchanges,  and  piu'chases,  in  very  consider- 
abl}'  extending  his  territories ;  and  after  many  years' 
negotiations,  he  induced  the  emperor  to  agree  to  the 
'  (Sown  Treaty,'  by  wliich,  in  return  for  permission 
to  assimie  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia,  he  bound 
himself  to  furnish  certain  contingents  of  men  and 
money  to  the  Imperial  government.  As  soon  as 
this  treaty  had  been  signed,  F.  hastened  in  mid- 
winter with  all  his  family  and  court  to  Ivuuigsberg, 
where,  on  the  ISth  January  1701,  he  placed  the 
crown  on  liis  own  head.  He  died  February  25, 
1713.  F.  did  much  to  embeUish  Berlin,  where  he 
founded  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the 
Academy  of  Painting  and  SciUpture,  erected  several 
churches,  and  laid  out  nimierous  streets.  He  estab- 
lished a  court  of  appeal  at  Berlin,  built  the  ))alace 
of  Charlottenburg,  and  founded  the  university  at 
Halle ;  but  his  actions  were  generally  influenced 
by  a  love  of  display ;  and  his  vanity,  together  mth 
his  neglect  of  those  who  had  served  him,  made  him 
jiersonally  unpopular,  although  hia  patriotic  love  of 
Germany  redeemed,  in  the  eyes  of  his  couuti'jinen, 
many  of  his  bad  points. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  1.,  of  Pi!t;s.SL\,  bom 
in  16S8,  was  in  almost  every  particular  the  opposite 
of  his  father  Frederick  I.  He  was  simple,  and 
almost  peniirious  in  his  habits,  attentive  to  business, 
passionately  fond  of  military  exercises,  l>ut  averse 
to  mental  cidtivation,  and  fond  of  the  society  of 
the  low  and  illiterate,  while  he  can-ied  to  the 
utmost  his  ideas  of  ai-bitrary  power  and  the  divine 
right  of  kings.  The  public  events  of  his  reign  were 
of  little  importance,  although  he  was  continually 
implicatcrl  in  foreign  wars,  and  he  sujiimi'tcd  the 
cause  of  Stanislaus  of  Poland,  and  .assistc<l  Austria  in 
her  contests  with  France.  lie  died  in  17-10.  By  his 
economy  and  reforms  in  the  finances,  ho  was  able 
to  indulge  his  taste  for  the  organisation  of  mihtary 
forces,  while  his  childish  love  of  tall  soldiers  induced 
him  to  connive  at  the  most  flagrant  outrages  both 
at  home  and  abroad  fur  kidnajiping  tall  men  and 
forcing  them  into  his  scr\-ice ;  the  result  of  this 
system  was,  that  he  left  at  his  death  a  well-drilled 
sue 


army  of  70,000  soldiers,  of  whom  a  large  proportion 
were  men  of  gigantic  stature.  \\'hat  was  of  more 
consequence  to  his  son  ami  successor  was,  that  his 
exchequer  contained  9,000,000  thalers,  and  that 
his  kingdom  had  attained  an  area  of  more  than 
4.5,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  upward-s 
of  2,240,000.  Sec  Morgenstern,  Ueber  Friedrkk 
n'illielm  I.  (Brannsch.  1793) ;  F.  Fiirstcr,  Gesdi. 
Fnalrich-  Wilhelm's  J.  (Pots.  IS35)  ;  Carlyle,  JIUt. 
of  Friedrich  JI.,  called  Fredericl:  the  Great. 

FREDERICK   II.,  or  Prcssia,  surn.amed  'THE 
Gre.it,'  was  the  son  of   Frederick- William  I.  and 

'  the  Princess  Sophia- Dorothea,  daughter  of  George  I. 
of  Great  Britain,  and  was  born  in  1712.     His  early 

'  years  were  spent  >mder  the  restraints  of  an  iik- 
some  militarj'  training,  and  a  rigid  system  of 
education.  His  impatience  under  this  discipline, 
his  taste  for  music  and  French  literature,  and  liis 
<levotion  t<i  his  mother,  gave  rise  to  dissensions 
between  father  and  son,  an<l  resulted  in  an  attempt 

'  on  the  part  of  F.  to  escape  to  the  court  of  his  uncle, 
George  II.  of  England.  Being  seized  in  the  act,  his 
conduct  was  visited  with  still  greater  severity,  and 
he  himself  was  kept  in  close  confinement,  while  his 
friend  and  confidant.  Lieutenant  Katt,  was  executed 
in  his  sight,  after  having  been  barliarously  ill-treated 
by  the  king.  According  to  some  reports,  the  prince's 
life  would  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  fury  of  his 
father,  had  not  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Poland 
interceded  in  his  favour.  Having  humbly  sued  for 
jiardon,  he  was  liber.ated,  and  allowed  to  retire  to 
l!u]ipin,  which,  with  the  towni  of  Rheinsberg,  was 

'  bestowed  upon  him  in  1734.  Here  he  continued  to 
reside  tiU  the  king's  death,  surrounded  by  men  of 
learning,  and  in  correspondence  with  Voltaire,  whom 
he  especially  admii-ed,  and  other  philosophers ;  but 

\  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1740,  he  laid  aside 
these  peaceful  pursuits,  and  at  once  gave  evidence 

'  of  his  t.alents  as  a  legislator,  and  his  detennination 
to  take  an  active  share  in  the  political  and  warlike 
movements  of  the  age.  His  fii-st  military  exploit 
was  to  gain  a  \"ictory  at  iloUmt^  over  the  Austrians, 
in  1741,  which  nearly  decided  the  fate  of  Silesia, 
and  secured  to  Pnissia  the  alliance  of  France  and 
Bohemia.  Another  ^^ctory  over  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa's  troops  made  him  m.astiT   of  Upper  and 

!  Lower  Silesia,  and  closed  the  first  Silesian  war.  The 
second  Silesian  war,  which  ended  in  1745,  from 
which  F.  retired  with  augmented  territories  and  the 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  first  commanders  of 
the  age,  was  followed  by  a  peace  of  eleven  years, 
which  he  devoted  to  the  im])rovement  of  the  various 

I  departments    of    government,   and    of    the    nation 

I  generally,  to  the  organisation  of  his  army,  and  the 

I  indulgence  of  his  Uterary  tastes.  The  third  Silesian 
war,  or  '  the  Seven  Yeai-s'  War,'  was  begun  in  1756 

I  by  the  invasion  of  Saxony — a  step  to  which  F. 
was  ilriven  by  the  fear  that  he  was  to  be  deprived  of 
Silesia  by  the  allied  confederation  of  France,  Austria, 
Saxon}',  and  Russia.  This  contest,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  modern  times,  secure<l 
to  F.  a  decided  inlluence  in  the  afi'aiis  of  Europe 

I  generally,  as  the  natural  result  of  the  iire-eniinent 
genius  which  he  had  shewn  both  under  defeat  and 
victory ;  but  although  this  war  crippled  the  powers 
of  aU  engaged  in  it,  it  left  the  Ijahiiice  of  European 
politics  imchanged.  It  required  all  the  skill  and 
inventive  genius   of   F.   to    repair   tlie   evils  which 

,  his  country  had  suffered  by  the  Mar.  In  1772,  he 
sharetl  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  obtained  as 

I  his  portion  all  Polish  Prussia  and  a  part  of  Great 
Poland ;    and  by   the    treaty  of  Teschen,  in   1779, 

I  Austria  was  obliged  to  consent  to  the  union  of 
tlie  Franconian  provinces  with  Prussia,  and  he  was 

j  tlius  enabled  to  leave  to  his  nephew  and  successor 

I  a  jiowerfid   and   well-organised   kingdom,   one-hali 


FKEDERICK-WILLIAM. 


larjjer  in  area  than  it  had  been  at  his  own  accession, 
with  a  fiill  treasury,  and  an  army  of  200,000  men. 
Ho  died  at  the  chjiteau  of  Sans  Souci,  August  17, 
1780.  Fniderick  the  Gro.at  is  said  to  have  '  inherited 
all  his  father's  excellences  and  none  of  hia  defects.' 
His  courage,  fertility  of  resource,  ami  indomitable 
resolution,  cannot  be  too  liighly  jiraised.  Not  the 
least  wonderful  of  his  achievements  was  his  con- 
triving; to  carry  on  his  bloody  campaiccns  without 
iucurriug  a  jienny  of  debt.  A  true  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice — though  not,  perhaps,  for  the  highest  ends — 
was  in  him.  Never  was  king  more  liberal  towards 
Ids  subjects.  In  Silesia,  \vhere  war  had  nearly 
ruined  the  inhabitants,  he  once  remitted  the 
taxes  for  six  months,  and  in  Poraerania  and  New 
Brandenburg  for  two  years,  while  his  government 
was  carried  on  with  rigid  economy,  such  as  Europe 
hail  never  before  witnessed.  But  not  only  was 
his  government  economical,  it  was  essentially  ju^t. 
IteUgious  persecution  was  imknown,  civil  order 
everywhere  prevailed  ;  i)roperty  was  secure,  and  the 
jircss  was  free.  On  the  other  hand,  F.'s  faidts  were 
far  from  beinr;  few.  Education  hail  made  him 
French  in  all  his  ideas  and  prejudices  ;  and  in  those 
days,  to  be  French  w.as  to  be  sceptical.  He  w.as 
utterly  unconscious  of  the  grand  intellectual  and 
spiritual  life  that  was  about  to  spring  up  in  Ger- 
many, and  to  make  it  again  the  guiding-star  of 
Europe,  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Luther.  He 
was,  in  fact,  almost  ignorant  nf  his  n.ative  language, 
which,  moreover,  he  despised  as  semi-barbaric; 
though  before  his  death  Goethe  had  published  his 
Oiitz  von  Bcrlichinrjen,  Sorrows  of  Wcrtlier,  Iphifjein'a. 
in  Taiirh,  and  many  of  his  finest  Ijrics ;  while  Kant, 
besides  a  variety  of  lesser  works,  had  also  given 
to  the  world  his  master-piece,  the  Critiiue  of  Pure. 
Jlmson.  The  new  literature  was  essentially  one  of 
belief  and  aspiration,  and  therefore  alien  to  the 
tendencies  of  the  royal  disciple  of  Voltaire,  who  had 
learned  from  his  master  to  cherish  at  once  contempt 
and  suspicion  of  his  fellow-creatures.  This  disagi'ee- 
able  feature  of  his  character  increased  mth  years. 
He  declared  the  citizen  class  to  be  destitute  alike  of 
ability  and  honour,  and  relied  not  on  the  love  of  the 
nation,  but  on  his  army  and  ]iursc.  F.  was  a  very 
voluminous  writer.  Of  his  numerous  works,  all  of 
which  are  written  in  French,  his  ilimoires  pour 
seri'ir  A  riiisloire  de  Brandeuhourrj,  and  Hiatoire  de 
la  Guerre  de  Se.pl  Anc,  exhiljit  perhaps  the  greatest 
powers  of  description,  but  all  eWnce  talent  of  no 
common  order.  The  Academy  of  Berlin,  by  the 
direction  of  Frederick-William  IV.,  brought  out 
a  fine  edition  of  his  collected  works  in  octavo 
and  qn.arto,  1846 — ISoI.  Frederick  left  no  children, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick-William 
II.  See  C.arlvle,  Historij  of  Frederick  II.  :  Pagenel, 
IlUtoire  de.  >.  U  Grand  (Par.  1830) ;  Itiedel, 
Gesclu  d.  Prciim-'ich..  KOnir/sh.  (Berl.  ISGl). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  II.,  of  rncs.siA,  was 
born  in  1744,  and  died  in  1707.  After  a  prolonged 
estrangement  between  his  uncle  and  himself,  he 
regained  the  good-%vill  of  the  king  by  liis  valour 
in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession  in  1778 ;  but 
although  he  succeeded  to  a  well-consolidated  power 
and  an  overflowing  treasurj-,  he  had  not  the  capacity 
to  maintain  his  favourable  po.^ition.  Futile  or  hastily 
undertaken  wars  wasted  his  resources ;  so  that  at  his 
death,  instead  of  the  overplus  of  70,000,000  thalers 
that  had  been  bequeathed  to  him,  the  state  was 
hampered  with  a  debt  of  22,000,000.  His  predilec- 
tion for  unworthy  favourites,  the  estabhshment  of  a 
strict  censorship  of  the  press,  and  the  introduction 
of  stringent  ecclesiastic  enactments,  alienated  the 
affections  of  the  people  from  him,  although  his 
n.atural  mihlness  of  disposition  had  excited  the  san- 
guine hopes  of  the  nation  on  his  accession.     F.-W. 


shared  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland  in  1793,  and 
th\is  gained  a  considerable  addition  to  his  kingdom, 
which,  by  purchase,  inheritance,  and  other  means, 
was  augmented  during  his  reign  l)y  the  acquisition 
of  more  than  46,000  sepiare"  miles  of  temtory, 
and  2i  millions  of  inhabitants.  The  chief  internal 
improvements  in  this  reign  were  the  introduction 
of  a  new  code  of  laws,  and  a  less  onerous  mode  of 
raising  the  taxes. 

FRBDEEICK-WILLIAM  IIL,  oP  Prussia,  the 
son   of  Frederick-William    II.,   was   br)rn  in  1770. 
He  early  took  part  in  the  administration,  and,  on 
his   accession   in  1797,   he   at    once   dismissed  the 
unworthy  favourites    of   the   preceding   rci'ni,  and 
accompanied  by  his  beautiful  yonng  queen,  Louisa 
of  Mecklenbui-g-Strelitz,  made  a  tour  of  inspection 
through  the   numerous   provinces   of   his  kingdom, 
with  a  -i-iew  of   investigating  their   condition,  and 
contributing   to  their   local   and   general   improve- 
ment.     But  although  F.-W.  was  well  intentioned, 
and  in  his  moral  and   domestic  relations  his  con- 
duct  was   exemplary,   he   lacked   the   dignity  and 
force   of  will   to  cope  -with  the   dithculties  of   his 
position.       By  his  efforts  to  maintain  an  attitude 
of  netitrality  in  the  great  European  struggle  that 
had    been    excited    by   the   wars    and   Wctorics   of 
the   French,  he   awakened  the  distrust  of  all  the 
great  anti-Gallican   powers   of  Em-ope,   and  disap- 
pointed the  petty  German  princes,  who  liad  looked 
upon   Prassia   as   their  protectress   against  foreign 
encroachments.      Napoleon's   promises    of    support 
and  friendlj'  intentions  soon  changed  this  neutraUty 
to   an    alliance  with    France,    and   for  some   time 
Prussia  persevered  in  her  dishonourable  and   self- 
seeking  policy,  which  was  rewarded  by  the  acqui- 
sition   of    Hildesheim,    Paderborn,    and    Jlunster, 
which  added  nearly  4000  square  miles  of  territorj', 
and   half   a    million    of    inliabitants    to  the   king- 
dom ;   but  at  length  the  repeated  and  systematic 
insults  of  Napoleon,  who  despised  F.-W.  while  he 
professed  to  treat  him  as  a  friend,  roused  the  spirit 
of   the   nation,  and  the  king  saw  himself  obhgcd, 
in  1805,  to  .agree  to  a  convention  ^vith  Russia,  the 
real  object  of  whicli  v.'as  to  drive  Napoleon  out  of 
Germany.     Again  the  treachery  of  Prussia  led  her 
to  make  a  new  treaty  with  France,  by  which  she 
consented   to   receive    the    electorate    of   Hanover, 
and  thus  involved  herself  in  a  war  \\'ith  England. 
The  insults  of  Napoleon  were  redoubled  after  this 
fresh  proof  of   F.-W.'s   indecision.      The   Prussian 
nation,  headed  by  the  queen,  now  called  loudly  for 
war,  and  at  the  close  of  1806,  the  king  yielded  to 
these   apjieals.      Hostilities   began  without  further 
delay;   but   the   defeat   of  thel'russians    at  Jena, 
Eylau,  and  FrieiUand,  compelled  their  unfortunate 
monarch  to  sue  for  peace.     The  Prussian  army  was 
anmhilated,  and  the  whole  of  the  kingdom,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  fortified  places,  remained  in  the 
)iower  of  the  French.     By  the  intervention  of  the 
Emperor   Alexander   of  Russia,  a   peace  was  con- 
cluded, kno«-u  as  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  by  which  F.- 
W.  lost  the    greater    part  of  his   realm,   and  was 
dc]irived  of  all  but  the  semblance  of  roy.alty ;  but 
although  for  the  next  five  year's  he  was  a  mere  tool 
in  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  who  sei-ied  every  op])or- 
tunity  of   humbling  and  irritating  him,  his  spirit 
was  not  subdued,  and  his  unremitting  efforts  at  this 
period  of  his  life  to  reorganise  his  enieebled  govern- 
ment by  self-sacrifices  of  every  kind,  endeared  him 
greatly  to  his  people.     The  disastrous   tennination 
of  Napoleon's  Russian  camp.aign  was  the  turuin<'- 
point  in  the  fortunes  of  Prussia;  for  although  the 
French  emperor  was  \-ictoriou3  over  the  Prussians 
and  Russians  in  the  battles  of  LUtzen  and  Bautzen, 
which  were  fought   soon   after  the   declaration   of 
war  which  F.-W.  had  made  against  France,  to  the 

.•01 


FREDERI0K.'V\7LLIAM— FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND. 


"reat  joy  of  his  people,  in  1S13,  the  alUes  were  soon 
able  to  renew  hostUitios,  which  were  earned  on  , 
v\nth  signal  suceess,  until  they  linally  oulnuuatcd  lu 
the  -Teat  battle  of  Lcipsie,  iu  which  the  rnissians, 
imdiT  their  general,  lililchcr,  erirneil  the  greatest 
share  of  glory.  The  Peace  of  Vienna  restored  to 
Prussia  abuost  all  her  former  jMSsessions,  while  the 
i>irt  taken  by  the  Prussian  .army  under  Bliichcr  in  [ 
■'aiuiu'.;  the  rietory  of  W.aterloo,  by  which  Napo-  ; 
hon's  power  was  finally  broken,  raised  the  kingdom 
from  it<i  .-ibasemeut.  From  th.-vt  time,  F.-W.  devoted 
liimself  to  the  improvement  of  his  cxli.austed  states; 
but  although  before  the  French  revolution  of  1830 
Prussia  had  recovered  her  old  iwsition  in  regard 
to  material  prosperity  at  home  and  political  con- 
sideration abro.od,  the 'king  adhered  too  strictly  to  the 
old  German  ideas  of  .absolutism,  to  gi-aiit  his  people 
more  than  the  smallest  possible  .amount  of  political 
liberty.  He  had  indeed  promised  to  establish  a 
representative  constitution  for  the  whole  king- 
dom, but  tliis  iiromise  he  wholly  repiuli.ated  when 
reminded  of  it,  and  merely  established  the  Land- 
fliiiule,  or  Provincial  Estates,  a  local  institution, 
devoid  of  all  effective  power.  His  support  of  the 
Russian  government  ill  its  sanguinary  methods  of 
crushing  revolutionary  tendencies  in  Poland,  shewed 
his  absolute  tendencies,  and  his  tlrcad  of  liberal 
principles.  F.-\V.  was  more  than  once  embroiled 
with  the  pope,  on  account  of  his  %'iolation  of  the 
concordat  He  concluded  the  .gi-eat  German  com- 
mercial league  known  as  the  ZoUverein  (see  Gkk- 
■NLOTi'),  which  organised  the  Germ,an  customs  and 
duties  in  accordance  with  one  uniform  system.  He 
died  in  1840. 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM  IV.,  of  Prussia, 
son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  October  15,  1795.  He 
had  been  carefully  educated,  was  fond  of  the  society 
of  learned  men,  .and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art 
and  literatm-e.  He  exhibited  much  of  his  father's 
vacillation  .and  instability  of  purpose ;  and  although 
he  began  his  reign  (June  7,  1840)  Ijy  granting  minor 
reforms,  and  promising  radical  changes  of  a  liberal 
ch.aracter,  he  always,  on  one  plea  or  other,  evaded 
the  fulfilment  of  these  pledges.  He  was  possessed 
by  high  but  vague  ideas  of  '  the  Christian  state,' 
and  snewed  through  life  a  strong  tendency  to 
mystic  pietism.  The  one  idea  to  which  he  adhered 
■\rith  constancy  was  th.at  of  a  union  of  all  Germany 
into  one  gi-cat  body,  of  which  he  offered  himself  to 
be  the  giTide  and  head.  He  eucour.aged  the  duchies 
of  Holstein  and  Sles\-ig  iu  their  insurrectionary 
movement,  and  sent  troops  to  assist  them  against 
Denm.ark;  but  he  soon  abandoned  their  cause,  and 
being  displeased  with  the  revolutionary  character  of 
the  Frankfiut  Diet,  refused  to  accept  the  imperial 
crown  which  it  ofl'ered  him.  The  conspiracies  in 
Prussian  Poland  were  suppressed  with  much  rigour; 
■  and  the  popidar  movement  which  followed  the 
French  revolution  of  1848,  was  at  first  met  by 
the  king  with  resolute  opposition ;  but  when  the 
people  persisted  in  demanding  the  removal  of  the 
troops  from  the  capital,  and  enforced  their  demand 
by  storming  the  arsen.al,  and  seizing  on  the  palace 
of  the  Prince  of  Prussia  (the  present  king),  who  was 
at  that  time  especially  obnoxious  to  the  liberals,  lie 
Nias  obliged  to  comply  with  their  mshes.  Constitu- 
ent assemblies  were  convoked,  only  to  be  dissolved 
when  the  king  recovered  his  former  secmity  of 
power,  and  new  constitutions  were  framed  and 
sworn  to,  and  finally  modified  or  wthib-ia^Ti.  After 
the  complete  termination  of  the  revolution  in  Ger- 
many, the  revolutionary  members  of  the  Assembly 
of  1848  were  prosecuted  and  treated  with  severity, 
the  obnoxious  'pietistic'  party  and  the  nobility 
were  reinstated  in  their  former  influence  at  court, 
and  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  religious  and 
60i 


political  opinion,  was  strictly  circiunscribed.  The 
life  of  the  king  was  twice  attempted;  first  in 
1847  by  a  dismissal  burgomaster,  named  Tschech; 
and  secondly,  in  1S50,  by  an  insane  discharjjed 
soldier  of  the  name  of  Sefeloge.  In  1857,  F.-W. 
w.as  seized  with  remittent  attacks  of  ins.anity ;  and 
in  1858  he  resigned  the  management  of  public 
atTairs  to  his  brother  and  next  heir,  who  acted  .as 
rcent  of  the  kingdom  till  his  own  accession,  iu 
ISGO,  .as  Willi,am  I.     F.-W.  died  in  18G1. 

I'MIE'DERICTON,  the  political  capital  of  Kew 
Brunswick,  in  British  North  America,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  .St  John,  the  largest  river  in  the 
province.  It  is  56  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the 
principal  seaport,  which  bears  the  name  of  the  stream 
above  mentioned,  and  it  is  itself  accessible  to  vessels 
of  50  tons.  The  population  is  about  0000.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  public  l>uildings,  which  F.  possesses  as 
the  seat  of  government,  it  contains  the  university 
of  King's  College,  which,  independently  of  other 
resources,  receives  fi-om  the  legislature  an  annual 
grant  of  £2000. 

FRE'DERIKSHALD,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Nor- 
w.ay,  in  the  department  (amt)  of  Smalenen,  stands  on 
an  inlet  called  Swinesund,  near  the  Swedish  border, 
about  60  nfiles  soutli-south-east  of  Chri3tiani.a.  It 
is  beautifidly  situ.ated,  and  is  a  neat,  well-built 
town,  ^\^th  several  handsome  edifices.  Its  harbour 
is  excellent ;  iu  it  the  largest  vessels  may  be  safely 
moored.  F.  largely  exiiorts  deals  and  lobsters. 
Pop.  7408.  To  the  south-east  of  the  town  stands 
the  fortress  of  Frederiksteen,  on  a  pei-jiendicid.ar 
rock  400  feet  high.  This  fortress,  though  often 
assaiUtcd,  has  never  yet  beeu  taken.  'SNTiile  lajiiig 
siege  to  Frederiksteen,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  w.as 
killed,  1718;  in  eommemor.ation  of  which  event  an 
obelisk  was  raised,  in  1814,  upon  the  spot  where  he 
feU. 

FREE  BENCH  {Francus  Bannis).  By  custom 
of  certain  manors  in  England,  a  widow  was  entitled 
to  dower  out  of  the  lands  which  were  held  by  her 
husb.aud  in  Socage  (q.  v.).  In  some  places,  the  widow 
had  the  whole,  or  the  h.alf,  and  the  like  dum  sola  ct 
casta  vixerit  (Co.  Litt.  110,  b).  This  right  is  called 
francus  hanciis,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  dowers, 
for  that  it  cometh  freely,  without  any  .act  of  the 
husb.and's  or  .assigiuneut  of  the  heir  (Co.  Litt.  94,  b). 
See  Do^\'EK.  A  Vidow  who  has  forfeited  her  free 
bench  is,  by  the  custom  of  some  manors,  permitted 
to  recover  her  right.  At  E.ast  and  West  Enborne, 
in  the  county  of  Berks,  and  .also  in  the  manor  of 
Chadleworth,  in  the  same  county,  and  at  Torr,  in 
Devon,  if  the  widow  commit  incontinency,  she  for- 
feits her  estate  ;  yet  if  she  will  come  into  the  court 
of  the  manor  riding  backward  on  a  black  nam,  with 
his  tail  in  her  h.and,  and  will  repeat  ccrtam  verses 
(more  remarkable  for  their  i)lainness  than  their 
delicacy),  the  steward  is  bound  by  the  custom  to 
admit  her  to  her  free  bench  (Cowel's  Interpreter, 
ed.  1727,  fol.). 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  the  name 
assumed  by  those  who  at  the  'Disruption'  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotl.and,  in  1843,  withdrew 
from  connection  with  the  state,  and  formed  them- 
selves into  a  distinct  religious  commimity,  at  the 
same  time  claiming  to  represent  the  historic  church 
of  Scotland,  as  maintaining  the  principles  for  which 
it  has  contended  since  the  lief orm.ation. 

(It  is  i)roper  to  state  that,  in  accordance  with  a 
method  adopted  in  other  cases  .also  in  this  work,  tlio 
present  article  is  WTitten  by  a  member  of  the  chiurch 
to  which  it  relates,  and  is  an  attempt  to  exhibit  the 
view  of  its  pi-inciples  and  position  generally  taken 
by  those  within  its  own  p.ale) 

There  is  no  difference  between  the  F.  C.  of  S.  and 


Fr.EE  CHUKCH  OF  SCOTLiUST). 


the  Established  Church  in  the  standards  which  they 
receive  ;  and  all  the  laws  of  the  church  existin" 
and  in  force  prior  to  the  Disruption,  are  acknow- 
ledged as  still  binding  in  the  one  as  much  as  in  the 
other,  exce]>t  in  so  far  as  they  may  since  have  been 
repealed.  The  same  Presbj'teriau  constitution  sub- 
sists Ln  both  churches,  with  the  same  classes  of 
office-bearers  and  gi'adations  of  church-courts.  The 
r.  C,  indeed,  professes  to  maintain  this  constitution 
and  church-government  in  a  perfection  impossible  in 
the  present  circumstances  of  the  Established  Church, 
because  of  acts  of  parliament  by  wliieli  the  Estab- 
lislied  Church  is  trammelled,  and  interv'cntions  of 
civil  authority  to  which  it  is  liable.  And  the  whole 
diiiercnce  between  the  F.  C.  and  the  Estabhshed 
Church  relates  to  the  consent  and  submission  of  the 
Established  Church  to  this  control  of  the  civil  power 
in  things  which  the  F.  C.  regards  as  belonging  not 
to  the  ]iroviuce  of  civil  government,  but  to  the 
church  of  Christ  and  to  its  office-bearers  and  courts, 
as  deriving  authority  from  Him ;  so  that  the  contro- 
versy is  often  described  as  respecting  the  Headsliip 
of  Clirisl  or  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  It  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
licjidship  of  Chi-ist  over  his  church,  as  set  forth  in 
the  Westminster  standards,  is  fidly  ])rofessed  both  by 
the  Established  Church  and  liy  the  F.  C.  of  Scotland ; 
the  only  question  between  them  is,  whether  or  not 
the  existing  relations  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  to  the  state  are  consistent  with  the  due 
maintenance  and  practical  exhibition  of  this  doc- 
truie.  And  tlic  question  docs  not  directly  relate  to 
Volantciryism  (q.  v.).  Those  who  constituted  the 
F.  C.  of  S.  in  184,'i,  firmly  believed  that  the  church 
might  be  connected  with  the  state,  and  receive 
countenance  and  support  from  it,  to  the  advantage 
of  both ;  whilst  they  maintained  that  there  must 
not,  for  the  sake  of  any  apparent  benefits  flo^\^ng 
from  such  connection,  be  any  sacrifice  of  the  inde- 
])endence  or  self-government  of  the  cluu'ch,  as  the 
kingdom  of  Christ,  deri^-ing  its  existence,  organis- 
ation, and  laws  fi-om  Him.  Nor  has  any  change 
of  ojiinion  on  this  subject  been  manifested. 

The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  asserts 
'  that  there  is  no  other  liead  of  the  church  but  the 
I.«rd  Jesus  Christ;'  .and  that  'the  Lord  Jesus,  as 
King  and  Head  of  his  eluu-eh,  hath  therein  appointed 
a  govcrmnent  in  the  hand  of  chiu'ch-officers,  distinct 
from  the  civil  magistrate ;'  it  ascribes  to  these 
cluirch-officcrs  the  right  of  meeting  in  '  synods  or 
coiwicils,'  which  it  affirms  to  be  '  an  ordinance  of 
God;'  and  represents  the  exercise  of  church-dis- 
cipline as  intrusted  to  them  as  well  as  the  ministrj' 
of  the  word  and  sacraments.  It  ascribes  to  the 
civil  magi.strate  much  ])ower  and  many  duties  con- 
cerning things  spiritual,  but  no  power  in  or  over 
these  things  themselves.  And  all  this  was  equally 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  before  the 
Westminster  Confession  was  compiled.  The  sup- 
])ort  which,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  princes  gave  to 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  circimistance 
that  states  as  well  as  churches  were  shaking  off  the 
fetters  of  Rome,  led  in  many  cases  to  a  confounding 
of  the  cIntI  and  the  spiritual.  Tlie  Church  of 
Scotland  accomplished  its  emancipation  from  Komc, 
nut  with  the  co-operation  of  the  ci\'il  power,  but 
in  spite  of  its  resistance  ;  and  after  the  Keformatlon, 
the  Scottish  Eefoi-mers  and  their  successors  were 
com|)elIed  to  a  closer  study  of  tlieir  principles,  by  the 
continued  attempts  of  the  civil  rulers  to  assume 
aut'iority  over  .all  the  internal  afTairs  of  the  church. 
lUit  amidst  their  sti-uggles,  the  Presbyterians  of 
Scotland  so  far  prevailed  as  to  obtain  at  different 
tinits  important  .acts  of  p.arli.ament  in  recognition  of 
t  !n  ir  principles,  and  '  ratification  of  the  liberty  of 
Cx  true  kirk;' and  finally,  after  the  Revolution  of 


168S,  an  act  ratifying  the  Westminster  Confession 
of  Faith  itself,  and  incori)orating  with  the  statute 
law  of  the  realm  all  its  statements  concerning  the 
province  of  church-judicatories  and  that  of  the 
ci\'il  m.agistrate,  and  the  bounds  of  their  respective 
jjowers. 

The  rights  and  pri\'ileges  of  the  Presbyterian 
Chm-ch  of  Scotland,  guaranteed  by  the  Revolution 
settlement,  were  expressly  secured  by  the  Treaty 
of  Union,  and  jealously  reserved  from  the  power 
of  the  British  pai-lianient ;  yet  within  live  years 
afterwards,  when  Jacobite  counsels  prevailed  in 
tlie  cora-t  of  Queen  jVmie,  an  act  was  passed  for 
the  restoration  of  patronage  in  Scotland,  with  the 
design  of  advancing  the  Jacobite  interest  by  render- 
ing ministers  more  dependent  on  the  aristocracy, 
and  less  strenvious  advocates  of  the  most  liberal 
l>rinciples  then  known.  This  act  soon  became 
the  cause  of  strife  within  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  of  separation  from  it ;  effects  which  have  con- 
tinually increased  to  the  present  day.  How  the 
church  at  first  earnestly  protested  against  the  act ; 
how  this  protest  gradually  became  formal,  and  was 
at  last  relinquished ;  how  the  chiu'ch-courts  them- 
selves became  most  active  in  carrying  out  the 
settlement  of  presentees,  notwithstanding  all  oppo- 
sition of  congregations,  are  points  to  which  it  is 
enough  here  to  allude.  It  is  imjiortant,  however, 
to  observe  that  in  all  the  enforcement  of  the  rights 
given  to  iiatrons  by  the  act  of  1712,  during  the  18th 
c,  and  considerable  part  of  the  19th,  no  direct 
invasion  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  took  place 
on  the  part  of  ci\al  courts  or  of  the  civil  power  ;  the 
presentation  by  the  patron  was  regarded  as  convey- 
ing a  civil  right  at  most  to  the  benefice  or  emolu- 
ments only,  wlulst  the  church-com-ts  proceeded 
■without  restraint  in  the  induction  of  ministers ;  and 
in  a  few  instances  it  happened  that  the  benefice  and 
the  pastoral  office  were  disconnected  by  the  oj)posite 
decisions  of  the  civO  and  ecclesiastical  courts.  And 
even  the  '  forced  settlements,'  in  which  the  fullest 
effect  was  given  by  the  church-courts  to  the  will  of 
patrons,  were  accomplished  according  to  the  ancient 
form,  upon  the  call  of  the  parishioners,  inviting  the 
presentee  to  be  their  minister,  although  the  call  was 
a  mere  form — in  the  words  of  Dr  Chalmers,  'the 
expressed  consent  of  a  few,  and  these  often  the  mere 
cb-iblet  of  a  parish.' 

When  the  '  Moderate '  party,  long  dominant  in 
the  Gencr.al  Assembly  of  the  Chiu-ch  of  Scotland, 
became  again  the  minority  in  1834,  the  accession  of 
the  'EvangeKcal'  party  to  power  was  at  once 
signalised  by  an  attempt  to  restore  the  aill  to 
efficacy.  This  was  done  by  the  famous  Veto  Lata, 
by  Avhieh  it  was  declared  '  that  it  is  a  fimdamental 
law  of  this  church  that  no  pastor  shall  be  intruded 
on  any  congregation  contrary  to  the  will  of  the 
people,'  and  enacted,  in  order  to  give  eft'cct  to  this 
principle,  that  a  solemn  dissent  of  a  majority  of 
male  heads  of  families,  members  of  the  vacant  con- 
gregation, and  in  fiUl  communion  with  the  church, 
shall  be  deemed  sufficient  ground  for  the  rejection 
of  the  presentee.  The  Veto  Law  thus  determined 
rather  how  strong  an  expression  of  dissent  by  the 
parishioners  sliould  be  requisite  to  invalidate  a 
call,  than  how  strong  .an  expression  of  assent  should 
be  requisite  to  give  it  validity ;  a  circumstance 
which  was  aftenvards  much  tui-ncd  to  account  in 
controversy  ;  as  if  the  iJeto  were  a  new  and  imcon- 
stitutional  principle  introduced ;  although  it  was 
certainly  adojited  as  the  least  extreme  mode  of 
gi\nng  effect  to  the  old  principle  which  the  law 
declared. 

The  .same  General  Assembly  by  which  the  Veto 
Act  was  passed,  is  memorable  for  the  assertion  of 
the  constitutional  principles  and  inherent  powers  of 

So:i 


FKEE  CHUIICH  OF  SCOTLAND. 


the  church  in  another  imiiortant  j)articiilar,  the 
admission  of  the  ministers  o(  'cha]K-ls  of  case'  to 
the  s,-ime  ecclesiastical  status  with  the  ministere  of 
omlowcil  parishes,  in  conseiiueiice  of  which  they 
bcc;une  members  of  church-courts,  ami  had  districts 
assigned  to  them  quoad  sacra,  with  the  full  jiarochial 
orj^anisation. 

The  Veto  Act  was  soon  the  subject  of  litigation 
in  the  Court  of  Session.  A  conllict  arose  which  iu 
various  forms  .agitated  the  whole  of  Scotland,  and 
which,  erelong, 'related  .as  much  to  the  status  of 
chapel  ministers  as  to  the  rights  of  presentees  to 
l)arishes  ;  and  indeed  involved  the  whole  question 
of  the  relations  of  civil  an<l  ecclesiastical  jiowers,  at 
least  as  far  .as  the  Established  Church  was  con- 
cerned. The  first  case  carried  into  the  civil  court 
was  that  of  a  ]iresent.ation  to  Auchterarder,  iu 
which  the  call  to  the  presentee  w.as  signed  by  only 
two  parishioners,  whilst  almost  all  who  were  entitled 
to  do  so  according  to  the  Veto  Act,  came  forward 
to  declare  tlicir  ilissent.  The  decision  of  the  Court 
of  .Session,  wliich,  upon  an  appeal,  was  affirmed  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  was  to  the  ellcct,  that  the 
rejection  of  the  presentee  on  the  ground  of  this 
dissent  was  illeg.al ;  the  opiniims  of  the  judges  iu 
the  Scottish  court  were  indeed  divided ;  but  those 
in  accordance  -with  which  the  judgment  was  pro- 
noimced,  asserted  the  right  of  the  civil  courts  to 
review  and  control  all  proceedings  of  church-courts, 
a  power  which  it  was  sjieedily  attempted  to  put  forth 
in  other  cases,  to  the  extent  of  requu'ing  ])resbyteries 
to  proceed  to  the  settlement  of  qualified  presentees 
■without  respect  to  the  opposition  of  congregations  ; 
interdicting  the  admission  of  ministers  to  pastoral 
ch.arges  even  when  no  question  of  emoluments  was 
involved  ;  interdicting  the  quoad  mora  division  of  ; 
p.arishcs  or  any  innovation  on  the  existing  state  of  i 
a  parish  as  to  pastoral  sujtcrintendence  and  the 
jurisdiction  and  discipline  of  the  kirk-session  ;  inter- 
dicting church-courts  from  pronouncing  ecelesiastical 
censures,  .and  suspending  or  revoking  them  when 
pronounced ;  interdicting  ministers  from  preach- 
ing the  gospel  and  from  administering  the  sacra- 
ments within  certain  parishes ;  determining  who 
shoidd  and  who  should  not  be  deemed  entitled  to 
sit  and  vote  in  General  AssembUes  and  other  courts 
of  the  church  ;  aud  other  such  things,  wholly  sub- 
versive of  the  independence  of  the  church,  and 
reducing  it,  if  acquiesced  in,  to  the  condition  of  '  a 
creature  of  the  state.'  They  were  not,  however, 
acquiesced  iu ;  and  although  in  one  instance, 
ministers  were  brought  to  the  b.ar  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  aud  reproved  for  disregarding  its  .authority, 
then-  jn-otest  agauist  its  claijn  to  authority  was 
maintained  even  there ;  and  in  the  far  greater 
number  of  instances,  its  interdicts  were  broken 
without  any  attempt  being  made  to  call  those  who 
did  so  to  account.  It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into 
the  details  of  this  struggle,  wliich  was  brought  to  a 
final  issue  by  the  judgment  of  the  House  of  Lords 
in  August  1S42,  aifirming  a  decree  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  which  required  the  presbytery  of  Auchter- 
arder to  t.ake  the  ordinary  steps  towards  the  settle- 
ment of  the  presentee  to  Auchterarder,  without 
regard  to  the  tUssent  of  the  jiarishioners.  The  law 
of  the  land  being  thus  decided  by  the  supreme 
court  to  be  such  as  they  could  not  with  good  con- 
science comply  with,  and  parli.ament  having  rejected 
an  application,  iu  the  form  of  a  '  Claim  of  Eight,' 
for  an  act  such  as  would  have  recouciled  the 
duties  of  their  position  according  to  the  law  of  the 
Land,  in  tlie  church  by  law  estabhshed,  with  what 
they  l)elieved  to  be  their  duty  tow.ards  Christ  and 
according  to  his  law  ;  it  now  seemed  to  the  greater 
number  of  the  ministers  aud  elders  holding  the 
principle  of  the  independence  of  the  chm-ch,  that 


the  only  course  open  to  them  wjia  to  retire  from 
their  position  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  emolument.-,' 
and  benefits  of  an  establishment.  And  this  they  diil 
at  the  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  on  18th 
JI.ay  IS43.  Headed  by  Dr  Ch.almcrs,  Ur  Wel.<h, 
and  others  of  the  most  eminent  for  piety,  learniuL', 
eloquence,  aud  u.'iefuluess  in  the  church,  they  left 
the  a)i|ioiuted  place  of  meeting  of  tlie  General 
Assemljly,  .St  Andrew's  Cluirch,  Edinburgh,  and 
))roceeded  to  another  place,  previously  prep.ared, 
Tanlield  Hall,  Canonmills,  where,  in  the  midst  of  a 
gre.at  concourse  of  j)tople,  the  first  General  Assembly 
of  the  F.  C.  of  S.  was  immediately  constituted, 
and  Dr  Chalmei'S  was  unanimously  called  to  the 
chair  :is  its  moderator.  Eoiu'  hundred  and  seventy- 
four  ministers  reuounccd  their  connection  with  the 
Estivblisliment,  and  along  with  them  a  great  body 
of  its  ciders  and  members. 

lunueiliato  steps  were  taken  for  completing  the 
organisation  of  the  F.  C,  and  extending  it  as  much 
as  possible  into  every  district  of  .Scotland.  The 
foi'cthought  of  Dr  Clialmers  had  already  devised  the 
SrsTENT.\TioN  FuND  (q.  v.).  The  F.  C.  undertook 
from  the  first  the  continued  support  of  all  the  mis- 
sions jireviously  carried  on  by  the  Cluirch  of  Scot- 
land ;  and  .all  the  missionarieo  hastened  to  decLare 
their  .adherence  to  the  Free  Church.  An  '  educa- 
tion scheme '  was  soon  afterw.ards  undertaken,  when 
it  began  to  be  found  that  parish  schoolmasters  were 
ejected  from  their  office  for  their  adherence  to  the 
F.  C. ;  and  coller/es  for  the  training  of  ministers  were 
founded  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen. 
Cousider.able  opposition  was  at  first  experienced  on 
the  part  of  l.audowners,  who  refused  to  grant  sites 
for  churches  and  other  buildings  ;  but  this  gi'adu.ally 
gave  way,  although  not  until  much  hardship  had  iu 
many  cases  resulted  from  it.  The  bitterness  of  feel- 
ing wliich  .at  first  existed  lietween  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland  and  the  F.  C.  has  passed  away 
to  a  degree  which  could  scarcely  have  been  expected 
iu  so  short  a  time  ;  and  tlierc  .are  many  who  hope  to 
see  the  questions  between  them  amicably  discussed 
and  settled. 

In  1S62  the  number  of  ministerial  charges  iu  the 
F.  C.  of  S.  was  S19.  There  are  also  numerous 
'  in-caching  stations,'  in  which  preaching  is  regularly 
maintained,  and  other  ordinances  are  admmistered 
under  the  care  of  presbyteries.  All  of  these  woidd  be 
provided  with  ministers  of  their  ovm,  if  the  means 
at  the  disposal  of  the  church  admitted  of  it ;  and 
some  of  them  .are  continu.ally  being  added  to  the  list 
of  miuiste:'i.al  charges.  The  whole  sum  raised  for 
religious  and  euucation.al  purposes  by  the  F.  C.  of  S. 
up  to  March  1801,  or  in  .about  IS  years,  has  been 
aljout  £5,533,850,  or  r,ather  more  than  £.307,000  a 
year.  In  this  are  included  the  simis  devoted  to 
the  erection  of  churches,  manses,  sehool-buildings, 
colleges,  &c.  The  Sustentation  Fund  for  the  year 
ending  30th  March  1801  .amoimted  to  £113,40--', 
17«.  7(/.  ;  the  missionary  and  educational  funds  to 
£G2,4S7,  4.9.  5(7. 

Since  1843,  the  history  of  the  F.  C.  h.as  been  gene- 
rally that  of  peaceful  progress.  It  has  been  agitated 
by  internal  questions  res]iecting  the  administr.ation 
of  the  Sustentation  Fund,  the  propriety  of  having 
only  one  college  or  more  than  one,  &c.,  which  are  of 
comparatively  little  interest  to  those  beyond  its  own 
p.ale,  but  which  have  produced  no  iicrmanent  divi- 
sions, and  have  either  reached  or  advanced  towards 
a  peaceful  solution.  Latterly,  however,  it  h.as  again 
been  brought  into  a  litigation  in  the  Court  of  Session, 
in  which,  according  to  the  belief  of  its  members,  its 
fundamental  principles  are  involved.  Tiie  minister 
of  the  F.  C.  at  Cardross,  in  Dumbartonshire,  ha\Tng 
been  charged  with  immor.ality,  and  suspended  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  1858,  had  recoiu-se  to  the 


FI;KE  CITIES— free  I'ORT. 


Court  of  Session,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  irregti- 
larity  in  the  proceedings  of  the  ecclesiastical  judi- 
catories, demanding  the  suspension  of  the  sentence  ; 
anil  being  on  this  account  summarily  deposed  by  the 
Cuncral  Assembly,  he  raised  an  action  in  the  Court 
of  Session,  not  only  claiming  damages,  but  to  have 
the  sentence  rescinded  ancl  found  null  and  void. 
The  case  has  not  yet  {ilay  18G2)  been  brought  to  a 
conclusion,  and  no  opinion  can  therefore  be  safely 
expressed  as  to  its  probable  results  or  effects. 

FREE  CITIES,  the  name  given  to  those  Gonnan 
towns,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Lubcc,  and  Fraidifurt- 
on-the-Maine,  which  are  of  themselves  sovereign 
states  aiul  membei-s  of  the  German  confederation. 
Tlipy  are  remnants  of  the  once  numerous  '  Imperial ' 
cities,  or  cities  not  suliject  to  any  superior  lord, 
but  immediately  under  the  empire.  They  obtained 
their  privileges  and  distinctions  on  account  of  aiding 
the  emperor  against  his  arrogant  nobles,  lay  and 
clerical,  or  by  purchase. 

FREEDOJI  OF  THE  PRESS.     See  Pkess. 

FREEHOLD,  Estate  of  (Uberum  tenementum, 
frank  tenement).  Real  estates  in  England  in  the 
present  day  are  di\'ided  into  freehold  and  copy- 
hold. By  freehold  property  is  meant  all  estates 
which  owe  no  duty  or  service  to  any  lord  but 
the  king.  What  are  now  known  as  estates  of  free- 
hold were,  under  the  feudal  system,  denominated 
frank  teucments.  The}'  were  held  by  the  honour- 
able tenure  of  Knight's  Service  (ip  v.)  and  Free 
Socage  (q.  v.),  and  might  have  been  held  either 
of  the  crown  or  of  a  subject.  But  the  statute  of 
Quhi  rmptores  haWng  abolished  subinfeudation,  all 
freehold  estates,  except  those  which  liave  been  held 
of  subjects  since  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  are  now 
held  of  the  crown.  A  freehold  estate  must  be  an 
estate  in  fee,  in  tail,  or  for  life  ;  all  other  estates  in 
land,  as  estates  for  ye.ars,  are  called  chattel  interests. 
An  estate  of  freehold  coidd  in  gener.al  be  created 
only  by  livery  of  sasine  of  Feoffment  (fpv.).  By 
the  doctrine  of  the  feudal  law,  no  person  who  had 
an  estate  of  less  duration  than  for  his  own  life  or 
for  the  life  of  another  man,  was  considered  to  be  a 
fi'ceholder ;  and  none  but  a  freeholder  was  con- 
sidered to  have  possession  of  the  land.  A  tenant  for 
years,  &e.,  was  regarded  as  hokling  possession  for 
the  freeholder.  The  possession  of  the  freeholder 
might,  however,  be  defeated  by  the  wrongfid  act  of 
the  tenant ;  for  a  transfer  of  jiossession  or  livery  of 
sasine  by  the  tenant  would  divest  the  freeholder, 
and  leave  him  to  his  Right  of  Entry  (q.  v.).  This 
efiect  of  a  feoffment  by  wrong  was  abolished  by  S 
and  9  Vict.  c.  106,  s.  4.  Before  the  time  of  Henry 
Yl.,  all  freeholders  were  entitled  to  vote  on  the 
election  of  a  knight  of  the  shii'e,  as  they  still  may 
for  the  appointment  of  coroner.  But  by  8  Hen.  VI. 
c.  7,  the  famous  statute  was  passed  which  still  in 
gre.at  measm-e  regulates  the  comity  elections,  and 
enacts  that  no  freeholder  sliall  vote  who  cannot 
spend  from  his  freehold  at  least  40.s-.  a  year.  By 
2  WiU.  IV.  c.  4.5,  s.  IS,  this  qualification  is  con- 
tinued as  to  all  freeholds  of  inheritance,  and  to  free- 
liolders  for  life  in  actual  occup.ation,  or  who  have 
aeijuired  their  lands  by  marriage,  marriage  settle- 
ment, devise,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice  or  oliice. 

FREEHOLD  LAND  SCHEME  had  for  its 
object  to  enable  mechanics,  artisans,  and  other  per- 
sons belonging  to  the  lower  classes,  to  pureh.ase  a 
piece  of  freehold  land,  of  such  yearly  value  as  to 
entitle  the  owner  to  the  elective  fi-anchise.  Irre- 
spective of  any  jjolitical  object,  benetit  buiUUng 
societies  now  exist  in  most  of  the  greater  towns  of 
this  country,  and  are  believed  to  be  of  gi-eat  service 
to  the  labom-ing-man.     See  Benefit  Societies. 


FREE-LANCES  were  roving  companies  of 
knights  and  men-at-arms,  who,  alter  the  Crusades 
had  ceased  to  give  them  employment,  wandered 
from  state  to  state,  selling  their  services  to  any  lord 
who  was  willing  to  jiurcliasc  their  aid  in  the  per- 
petual feuds  of  the  middle  .ages.  They  played  their 
most  prominent  part  in  Italy,  where  they  were 
known  as  Condottieri  {q.  v.). 

FREEMAN  and  FREEDJIAN.  In  the  most 
general  acceptation  of  these  terms,  the  first  impUea 
one  who  has  inherited  the  full  privileges  and  immu- 
nities of  citizenship  :  the  second,  one  who  has  been 
delivered  from  the  restraints  of  Ijondage,  but  who, 
usually,  is  not  i)laeed  in  a  (losition  of  full  social  or 
even  political  equality  with  him  who  was  bom  free. 
Though  the  words  are  Teutonic  (being  composed  of 
fni,  free ;  and  mann,  a  man  or  human  being),  tho 
distinction  between  them  depends  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  Roman  society.  The  equivalent  for  freeman 
(liber  huiito),  indeed,  comprehended  all  classes  of 
those  who  were  not  slaves ;  but  the  distinction  here 
pointed  out  was  preser^'ed  by  the  application  of  the 
term  inr/cjnitts  to  him  who  was  born  free  (Gains, 
i.  11),  and  of  libertiiius  to  hinr  who,  being  bom 
in  servitude,  was  emancipated.  For  the  further 
development  of  this  subject,  as  regards  the  classical 
nations  of  antiquity,  see  Slavery,  Citizen.  As 
the  organisation  of  Roman  society  survived  the 
convulsions  of  the  niidiUe  ages  to  a  far  greater 
extent  in  the  towns  (see  MuNicinirji,  Municipal 
Government)  than  in  the  landward  districts,  where 
the  institutions  of  fend.ality  almost  entirely  super- 
seded it,  it  is  in  the  borough  and  other  municipal 
coqiorations  of  this  country,  and  of  continental 
Europe,  that  we  still  iind/rcemeii,  or  persons  inherit- 
ing or  acquiring  by  adojition,  purchase,  or  apprentice- 
ship, the  rights  of  citizenship.  See  Freem.V-N's  Roll. 
But  the  idea  of  a  freeman  was  liy  no  means  pecidiar 
to  the  Roman  or  Romanised  population  of  Europe ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  belonged  to  the  cc^istitution  of 
society  in  all  the  Indo-Ciennanic  nations.  Amongst 
those  branches  of  them  Commonly  known  as  Teutonic, 
it  was  generally  based  on  the  possession  of  some 
portion  of  the  soil.  In  Anglo-Saxon  England,  the 
freemen  were  divided  into  Ceorls  (q.  v.)  and  Eorls 
(q.  v.),  or  Thanes  (q.  v.).     See  Citizen. 

FREEMAN'S  ROLL.  By  5  and  6  ^^'ill.  IV.  c 
76,  commonly  called  the  Mimicipal  Corjjorations' 
Act,  which  placed  the  corporate  towns,  or,  as  they 
are  denominated,  the  boroughs  enumerated  in  the 
soliedides  A  and  B — i.  e.,  nearly  all  the  boroughs  in 
England  and  Wales  except  London — imder  one  uni- 
form constitution,  adistmction  is  made  (s.  2)  between 
the  Freeman's  Roll  and  the  Burgess  Roll.  Every 
person  who,  if  tlie  act  had  not  passed,  would,  as  a 
burgess  or  freeman,  have  enjoyed,  or  might  have 
acquired,  the  right  of  voting  in  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  pai'liament,  is  to  be  entitled  to  enjoy  or 
acquire  such  right  as  heretofore.  And  it  is  further 
enacted  (s.  5),  that  the  town-clerk  of  each  borough 
sh.all  make  out  a  list,  to  be  called  the  Freeman's  Roll, 
of  all  persons  admitted  burgesses  or  freemen,  for 
the  purjiose  of  such  reserved  rights  as  aforesaid,  as 
distinguished  from  the  burgesses  newly  created  by 
the  act,  and  entitled  to  the  rights  which  it  newly 
confers ;  these  last  .are  to  be  entered  on  another 
roU,  to  be  called  the  Burgess  Holl.     See  BrRGESS. 

FREEMASON,    FREEMASONRY.     See 

Mason  ;  Masons,  Free. 

FREE  PORT  (It.a].  jmrti  franco),  is  a.  harbour 
where  the  ships  of  all  nations  m.ay  enter  on  paying 
a  moderate  toil,  and  load  and  unload.  Free  ports 
form  dCqiots  wdiere  goods  are  stored  at  first  with- 
out p.aj-inc:  duty ;  these  goods  may  then  be  cither 


FEEE-srnuT— fi;ke  tkadr 


re-shippeil  for  export  on  l>aying  a  mcro  transit- 
ilutv,  or  tbcy  may  pay  the  iisual  fiJl  customs  of 
tho'country,  aud  l>e  aibuitteil  for  home  consump- 
tiou.  Free  ports  thus  facihtate  transit  trade,  aud 
form,  as  it  were,  a  foreign  district  within  a  state, 
tjce  Warehoi'sixc  System. 

FREE-SPIRIT,  BKETBrF.y  of  the,  a  fanatical 
sect  of  the  midaie  ages,  which  was  veiy  generally 
(though  sometimes  secretly)  difi'usod  over  Italy, 
Franco,  and  Germany,  between  the  13th  and  15th 
centuries.  They  took  their  name  from  the  '  freedom 
of  spirit '  whicli  they  claimed,  in  vii-tue  of  the  words 
of  St  Paul  (Romans,  viii.  2,  14),  maintaining  that 
the  tnie  sons  of  G<k1  .are  exempt  from  subjection 
to  the  law.  They  api>eared  first  in  Alsace,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  loth  c,  and  attracted  notice  by 
their  singular  attire  and  their  fanatical  proceedings, 
traversing  the  coimtry  in  troops,  accompanied  by 
women,  with  whom,  imder  the  name  of  sisters,  they 
lived  iu  the  greatest  familiarity.  Their  doctrine 
was  a  species  of  pantheistic  mysticism,  which  they 
applied  with  fe.arless  consistency  to  .all  the  details 
of  the  moral  oblig,itions.  They  held,  according  to 
Mosheiin,  who  has  collected  the  original  authorities, 
'  that  .all  things  emanate  from  God,  and  will  revert 
back  into  Him ;  that  rational  souls  are  part  of 
the  Divine  Being ;  that  the  whole  universe  is  God ; 
that  a  man,  by  tiirning  his  thoughts  inward, 
is  united  inexjilicably  -n-ith  the  First  Cause,  and 
becomes  one  ivith  Ilim  ;  and  that  those  who  are  so 
immersed  in  the  vortex  of  the  Deity  attain  to  per- 
fect freedom,  and  are  divested  not  oidy  of  the  lusts, 
but  even  of  the  instincts,  of  nature.'  From  these 
principles,  they  inferred  th.at  the  free  man,  thus 
absorbed  in  God,  is  himseU'  God,  and  a  son  of  God, 
in  the  same  sense  in  which  Christ  is  called  the  Son 
of  God ;  and  that,  as  such,  he  is  raised  .above  aU 
laws,  human  .and  di^-ine  ;  to  such  a  degree  that, 
according  to  some  of  them,  '  the  godlike  man  cannot 
sin,  do  what  he  may ;  either  because  the  sold,  being 
elev,ated  and  blended  vrith.  the  di\'ine  natiu-e,  is  no 
longer  aflected  by  the  actions  of  the  body,  or 
because  the  emotions  of  the  soiU,  after  such  union, 
become  in  reality  the  acts  and  operations  of  God 
himself,  and  therefore,  though  .apparently  criminal, 
and  contrary  to  the  l.aw,  .are  really  good  and  holy, 
because  God  is  above  all  law  !'  These  bhasphemous 
and  immoral  principles,  incredible  as  they  may 
appear,  are  extr.acted  by  Mosheim.  p.artly  from  the 
books  of  the  sect,  partly  fi-om  the  decrees  of  Henry, 
Ai-chbisho])  of  Cologne,  by  whom  they  were  con- 
demned. Principles  such  as  these  drew  do^vn  upon 
the  sect  the  arm  of  the  state,  as  well  as  the  censures 
of  the  chui-ch.  No  sect  of  the  time  suffered  so  much 
from  the  inquisition  in  the  14th  centurj'.  They 
were  regarded  as  oflfenders  .against  public  order  and 
morality,  as  well  as  against  the  faith  of  the  chm-oh. 
See  iNQtnsiTiON'.  After  the  first  .appearance  of  the 
sect  in  Alsace  (1"212),  where  its  leafier  was  a  certain 
fanatic  called  Ortlieb  (.after  whom  the  members  are 
sometimes  called  Ortliebians),  it  spread  into  Thurg.au 
and  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  During  the  latter 
part  of  th.at  century,  one  of  the  leaders,  named 
'  ileister  Eckai-t,'  had  so  large  a  following  at  Cologne, 
that  the  archbishop  made  his  teachings  the  subject 
of  a  lengthened  edict.  The  sect  S]>read  .also  in 
Swabia,  where  its  membei-s  were  confounded  with 
the  Beghards.  In  France,  they  were  popularly  known 
by  the  name  '  Tiu-lupins,'  a  word  of  uncertain 
etymology.  We  meet  them  in  Bohemia  in  the 
bcgiiming  of  the  15th  e.,  and  there  is  considerable 
sunilarity  between  their  principles  and  those  of  the 
Adamites,  who  figure  in  Hussite  history.  From  this 
date  they  are  heard  of  no  more. — See  Mosheim, 
Soamcs's  ed.  ii.  5S2;  also  Gieseler's  Church  History, 
iii.  407,  iv.  220. 


FREE  STATE.  Oranoe.  See  Ok,v.nge  Fp.ke 
Statu,  or  Orajnue  Sovereigxty. 

FREE'STOXE,  any  rock  which  admits  of  being 
fredij  cut  and  dressed  by  the  builder.  In  Scotlaml, 
it  is  synonjTnous  with  sandstone.  It  has  also  bLon 
defined  as  any  rock  which  works  equally  freely  in 
cveiy  direction,  ha^-ing  no  tendency  to  sjjUt  ui  one 
direction  more  than  another.  In  this  sense,  lime- 
stone and  even  gianite  have  been  called  freestones. 

FREE-TOWX — a  name  of  the  s.ame  signilicanco 
as  the  Liberia  of  American  origin  to  tlie  south 
of  it — the  capit,al  of  Sierra  Leone,  a  British  settle- 
ment on  the  west  co.ast  of  Africa.  It  is  situ.ated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sierra  Leone  river,  about 
5  miles  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  8°  29'  N.,  and  long.  13' 
9'  W.  Pop.  about  16,000.  The  town  is  pleasantly 
situate<l,  and  its  wide  streets  are  prettily  orna- 
mented ^^'ith  rows  of  orange,  lime,  banana,  or 
cocoa-nut  trees.  The  tcmiier.ature,  .as  one  m.ay 
expect  from  the  locality,  is  tolerably  luiiform,  vary- 
ing in  opposite  seasons  between  the  averages  of 
77"'G  F.  and  80°-9.  Tow.ards  the  interior,  F.  is 
enclosed  by  the  mountain-chain  from  wliich  the 
colony  is  designated,  a  position  to  which  the  pro- 
verbial insalubrity  of  the  climate  is  p.artly  owing. 
The  popul.ation,  exclusive  of  the  authorities  aud 
the  giirrison,  consists  almost  exclusively  of  liberated 
negroes. 

FREE  TRADE.  This  term,  when  used  so  late 
as  twenty  years  ago,  expressed  a  djsputed  jiroposition, 
and  was  the  badge  of  a  political  party  ;  it  now 
expresses  the  most  imjiortant  and  fimdamental  truth 
in  political  economj'.  From  its  simphcity,  it  afTord-s, 
to  those  who  expect  to  make  political  economy  an 
ex.act  science,  the  hope  that  they  have  obt.ained  .at 
least  one  axiom.  But  it  has  in  reality  been  estab- 
lished as  the  result  of  a  double  experience — the  one 
being  the  failure  of  all  deWations  from  it,  the  other 
the  practical  success  of  the  principle  during  the 
short  period  in  which  it  has  been  permitted  to 
regulate  the  commerce  of  this  coimtry. 

Tr.ade  consists  in  buying  and  sclUng.  Then'  is 
free  tr.ade  when  there  is  no  interference  with  the 
natural  coui'se  of  biijdng  and  selling,  if  such  inter- 
ference be  intended  to  imjjrove  or  otherwise  to 
influence  trade.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  this  dis- 
tinction in  view,  because  there  arc  many  laws  not 
contrary  to  the  spirit  of  free  trade  which  interfere 
^^•ith  buying  .and  selling ;  for  instance,  in  this 
country,  it  is  unl.a\vful  to  deal  in  slaves,  because  we 
do  not  acknowledge  the  right  of  one  hiuuan  being 
to  be  the  owner  of  another ;  it  is  iml.awful  to 
sell  intoxicating  spirits  \vithout  haTOig  obtained  a ' 
licence,  because  the  tax  for  the  licence  brings 
revenue  to  the  Exchequer,  and  into.xicating  liqiioi-s 
.are  a  coinmoditj-  which  it  is  advis,able  to  tax,  in 
preference  to  the  common  necessaries  of  life,  or  even 
liarmless  luxuries.  There  are  many  of  these  host 
which  cannot  be  sold  into  this  country  without 
]).aying  customs  duty,  but  this  is  for  the  purpose  of 
revenue  merely,  not  as  a  restraint  on  trade. 

The  many  attempts  made  by  governments  to 
regulate  trade  for  the  purpose  of  benefiting  the 
communities  over  which  they  ruled,  m.ay  bo  divided 
into  two  great  classes :  the  one  prohibited  the 
export.ation  of  commodities,  the  other  encouraged 
export.ation,  and  prohibited  or  discour.aged  import- 
ation. The  former  w.as  the  old  ride  in  this  aud 
iu  other  coimtries.  It  was  supposed  that  the 
wealth  of  the  coimtry  depended  on  its  retaining 
within  itself  certain  productions  of  native  gi'owth  or 
industry,  .and  their  remov.al  out  of  the  country  was 
prohibited  or  restrained.  Until  a  late  period,  the 
oxport.ation  of  machinery  was  prohibited;  but  this 
w:is  ati   exceptional  remn.ant  of  the   old  principle. 


FREE  TRADE— FREE-WILL. 


which  had  yielded  to  its  converse,  in  which  it  was 
maintained  that  exportation  is  the  source  of  wealth, 
and  importation  is  a  wastin;;  of  a  nation's  substance. 
On  this  theory  the  great  body  of  British  conunercial 
and  Iiuaiii.-ial  legislation,  which  received  its  death- 
blow in  1S4G,  was  founded.  By  it,  a  commercial 
community  was  then  lilcened  to  an  isolated  human 
being  possessed  of  a  certain  fund  which  he  must 
of  course  sjiend,  so  as  to  become  so  much  the  poorer, 
if  he  buys  commodities,  which  to  him  is  equivalent 
to  a  nation's  importing  them.  The  notion  was 
founded  on  the  analogy  of  the  miser,  who  will,  of 
coiirse,  increase  his  store  by  restricting  his  purchases. 
Commiuiities,  however,  are  not  in  the  position  of 
the  miser,  possessing  sejiarate  capital,  which  he 
can  protect  and  increase  ;  they  nather  resemble  the 
merchant  who  buys  and  seDs,  making  a  profit  on 
what  passes  through  his  hands.  Whatever  com- 
mmiitics  import,  they  pay  for  by  exports.  This 
can  be  shewn  by  analysis  in  any  class  of  national 
transactions.  If  we  pay  for  the  goods  we  import 
by  bills  of  exchange,  these  bills  represent  goods 
exported,  otherwise  they  would  not  be  paid.  See 
E.KCIIAXGE.  If  we  p.ay  for  goods  in  bullion,  it  is  the 
same  thing  ;  gold  does  not  grow  in  this  countrj',  and 
every  sovereign  we  send  abroad  to  pay  for  goods 
has  been  got  as  the  price  of  goods  exported,  unless 
it  have  been  brought  by  any  of  our  own  people  from 
the  gold  districts,  and  then  it  is  ■\'irtually  a  produce 
of  British  industrj'.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  djTiamic 
law  that  importation  causes  exportation,  just  as  a 
vacuum  in  ]ihysics  is  filled  up  by  air,  or  the  other 
nearest  fliud. 

As  applied  to  the  individual  inhabitants,  and  not 
to  the  nation,  free  trade  is  the  right  of  every  man  to 
do  as  he  pleases  wnth  his  capital  and  abilities ;  and 
as  the  general  desire  of  mankind  is  to  improve  their 
coniUtion,  and,  in  fact,  the  greater  portion  of  them 
are  thorougldy  devoted  to  this  pui'siiit,  the  interests 
of  the  nation  at  large  cannot  be  in  better  hands 
than  in  those  of  men  who,  by  increasing  their  own 
wealth,  are  increasing  the  wealth  of  the  public. 
The  progress  made  by  this  coimtry  since  1846  has 
aflbrcled  a  wonderful  experimental  illustration  of 
tliis  truth,  since  the  exports  have  been  tripled. 
They  were,  in  round  numbers,  40,  and  are  now  120 
millions.  For  more  particular  facts  and  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  establishment  of  free 
trade,  see  Aim-coRN  Law  Leagite,  Coest  Laws, 
Customs. 

FREE-WILL.  The  fi-eedom  or  liberty  of  the 
will  is  the  designation  of  a  doctrine  maintained  in 
o])position  to  another  doctrine,  expressed  by  the 
term  'necessity.'  The  contest  between  those  two 
views  has  been  maintained  in  the  fields  both  of 
theology  and  of  metaphysics.  The  idea  of  a  man 
being  'free'  in  his  actions  appears  first  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  Stoics.  Afterwards  in  PhUo 
Judaius,  an  Alexantli-ian  PlatonLst,  who  nourished  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  there  occurs 
an  inquirj'  propounded,  '  whether  it  be  not  the  case 
that  the  upright  m.an  is  free,  and  the  -vicious  man  a 
slave.'  This  language  was  eridently  meant  to  pay 
a  compliment  to  \-irtue,  and  to  affix  a  degrading 
stigma  on  vice,  and  ought  not  to  have  been  too 
literally  interpreted ;  for  in  strictness  it  might  have 
been  maintained,  with  even  greater  iilausibility,  th.at 
the  vicious  man,  who  defies  all  the  restraints  of 
society,  has  the  greater  liberty  of  the  two.  The 
doctrine  of  freedom,  as  applied  to  the  human  will, 
was  tirat  contended  for  by  Pelagius  ag.oinst  Augus- 
tine's doctrines  regarding  the  operation  of  grace ; 
and  in  a  later  age  was  the  subject  of  controversy 
between  Arminiaus  and  Cah-iuists,  the  Calvinists 
(such  as  Jonathan  Edwards)  having  usually  been 
Kecessitarians. 


Although  in  this  dispute  there  are  certain  points 
of  real  dlflFerence  of  opinion  between  the  opposing 
parties,  yet  the  problem  has  been  imnecessarily 
encumbered  with  the  unsuitable  phraseology  that 
has  accidentally  invested  it.  The  notion  of  '  free- 
dom' is  intelligible  when  we  speak  of  a  free  man 
as  opposed  to  a  Russian  serf,  or  of  a  free  press  as 
oi)posed  to  censorship ;  but  with  reference  to  human 
actions  generally,  it  has  no  particular  relevancy. 
When  a  man,  urged  by  hunger,  eats  the  food  that  is 
before  him,  we  recognise  two  sei)arate  facts,  the  one 
leading  to  the  other :  the  first  is  a  painful  feeling  or 
sensation,  the  other  a  series  of  movements  by  which 
food  is  conveyed  to  the  system ;  the  one  fact  we  call 
the  motive,  the  other  the  action,  of  the  will  follow- 
ing on  the  motive ;  but  there  is  no  propriety  in 
describing  this  sequence  as  either  free  or  not  free. 
We  may  inqiure  into  the  greater  or  less  certainty 
of  the  sequence — n.amely,  whether  a  hungry  man  does 
always,  as  a  matter  of  coxirse,  avail  himself  of  the 
food  presented  to  him,  or  whether  one  may  be  verj' 
hungry  with  the  option  of  eating,  and  with  no  other 
motive  oper.ating  to  deter  from  the  act,  and  yet  not 
eat,  thus  she\ving  an  absence  of  uniform  connection 
between  pain  and  the  movements  for  alle\-iating  it ; 
this  would  be  a  real  question,  and  woidd  throw  light 
on  the  actual  constitution  of  the  human  will ;  the 
(piestion  of  liberty  and  necessity  does  not  present  us 
so  much  ■with  an  intelligible  question  as  \vith  an 
artifiei.al  difficulty  made  by  inapplicable  phraseology. 
It  would  have  been  much  the  same  to  have  disputed 
whether  or  not  the  will  is  rich,  or  noVile,  or  royal, 
merely  because  the  \'irtuous  and  right-minded  man 
has  sometimes  been  commended  by  those  c]iithets 
being  applied  to  him.  The  word  '  necessity,'  also,  is 
ill  chosen,  in  consequence  of  its  great  ambiguity; 
being  applied  sometimes  to  logical  and  mathe- 
matical implication,  as  when  we  say  the  whole  is 
greater  than  its  jiart  ;  sometimes  to  the  rigorous 
unifomiity  of  physical  laws,  such  as  gravitation ;  and 
at  other  times  to  what  is  merely  a  high  probability, 
as  when  we  exjiect  that  a  man  of  honourable  and 
upright  character  will  speak  the  truth  on  some 
given  occasion.     See  Neckssity. 

If  we  cast  aside  these  confusing  phrases,  and 
inquire  what  is  the  real  m.itter  of  dispute,  we  shall 
find  that  there  are  intelligible  differences  of  opinion 
in  reference  to  the  sequences  of  human  volition.  It 
may  be  maintained  that  our  actions  have  the  same 
uniformity  as  the  successions  of  the  jihysical  world; 
and  this  view  woidd  be  supported  by  a  very  wide 
induction  of  experience.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
whole  of  the  compUcated  operations  of  society 
depend  ui>on  the  certainty  that  men,  in  the  same 
circumstances  and  under  the  same  motives,  will  act 
in  the  same  w.ay.  We  allow  for  differences  of  indi- 
vidual character;  but  when  once  we  have  seen  what 
any  man  is  disposed  to  do  in  one  instance,  we  take 
for  granted  that  he  will  be  similarl)'  actu.ated  when 
the  identical  circumstances  are  repeated.  The  whole 
of  our  trading  operations  are  founded  on  the  maxim 
that  human  beings  prefer  a  greater  to  a  smaller  gain ; 
and  it  has  never  been  found  that  any  portion  of  our 
race  has  taken  a  wayward  fit,  and  contradicted  itself 
on  this  point.  We  are  prepared  for  exceptions  to 
the  ride,  when  other  strong  motives  are  present,  but 
these  are  merely  the  intervention  of  a  new  force, 
not  the  suspension  of  the  law  that  connects  the  other 
motive  with  its  usual  consequent.  Nor  is  there 
anything  degrading  to  human  nature  in  this  imi- 
f(n-mity;  while  the  opposite  state  of  things  would 
imdermine  all  the  securities  of  human  life,  and 
land  us  in  a  mor.al  chaos.  If  human  beings,  who 
habitually  dread  pains  and  penalties,  were  sud- 
denly, for  no  ulterior  reason,  to  court  hunger  ami 
cold,  imprisonment  and  disgrace,  it  is  obvious  that 

M7 


fi;ei:-\vili,. 


tlicre  woiilil  bo  a  spccity  termination  of  man's  career 
on  the  glulie.     .  .  x      ,    i  r  i  i 

Still,  the  [Hisition  thus  contcndeil  for  may  be,  and 
li;is  been,  called  in  tjuestion  ;  or,  at  least  certain 
exee|itiou3  to  its  universality  may  be  i>ut  forward. 
Wo  arc  able  to  comiuvhenil  the  meaning  of  this 
counter-doctrine,  even  although  we  may  find  a 
difliciilty  in  acceding  to  it.  For  example,  Socrates 
drew  a  distinction  between  lnima)i  and  difiiii'  know- 
ledge, intending  by  the  one  the  dojiartmcnts  of  n.iture 
where  strict  law  i>rev;uled,  and  where  by  assiduous 
obscr\-ation  men  might  attain  to  certainty;  such 
was  the  knowledge  of  the  operative  respecting  his 
special  craft,  in  which  it  was  absurd  to  seek  for  any 
other  source  of  insight  than  his  own  and  other  men's 
experience.  But  this  did  not  include  all  knowledge. 
There  was  a  department,  the  divine,  reserved  by  the 
gods  for  their  own  special  ailiiiinistration,  and  where 
they  did  not  bind  themselves  to  oljservc  uniformity 
of  "dealing.  This  region  included,  according  to 
Socrates,  such  gre.at  operations  of  the  physical  world, 
as  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  pheno- 
mena of  weather  and  season.  To  be  enlightened  on 
these,  it  was  necessary  to  consult  the  gods  by  or.acle 
and  sacrilice.  Xow,  applj-ing  this  \-iew  to  the  case 
of  the  human  will,  it  might  be  maintained  that,  in 
the  greater  number  of  instances,  and  in  all  matters 
of  primary  im]>ortance,  such  as  self-pi'eservation,  the 
\iniformity  of  human  actions  must  be  admitted  ;  but 
still  there  may  be  some  deep,  subtle,  and  refined 
operations,  where  the  same  motives  sometimes  lead 
one  way,  sometimes  another,  the  whole  situation 
being  in  every  other  respect  identical.  But  it  lies 
with  the  supporters  of  this  view  to  substantiate 
their  exceptional  cases  in  the  midst  of  so  much 
evident  uniformity.  As  yet,  nothing  of  the  kind 
has  ever  been  proved,  and  oiu"  only  safe  ground, 
philosophically,  is  what  is  oiu'  safe  ground  practi- 
cally— namely,  to  abide  by  the  doctrine  of  law  in 
nil  human  actions,  on  -n-liich  we  have  not  the 
smallest  scrujile  as  respects  the  preponderating 
mass  of  them. 

The  partisans  of  liberty,  who  take  up  the  ground 
of  opposition  to  imiform  law  as  now  expor.nded, 
not  unfrequentlj'  express  themselves  to  the  follow- 
ing efteot.  Granting  that  the  emotions  of  the 
mind  have  a  uniform  efficacy  as  motives,  and  that 
he  that  has  a  musical  taste  will  be  fomid  on  all 
occasions  acting  in  conformity  with  it,  still  the 
emotions  are  not  the  whole  of  the  mind.  We 
have,  in  our  mental  composition,  Feehngs,  and 
Intelligence,  and  Acti^-ity  ;  but  these  do  not  make 
up  our  entire  being.  There  is  a  something  that  all 
these  inhere  in,  a  substratum  or  support,  which  we 
call  our  '  self,'  the  '  ego,'  or  '  I,'  and  this  abstract 
self  is  exempt  from  the  conditions  that  attach  to 
these  attributes  of  self.  This  idtimate  personality  of 
every  hnman  being  is  free  and  independent,  being 
exempt  from  the  laws  whereby  our  several  feelings 
opei-ate  as  motives  to  oiu-  ordinary  actions.  A  self- 
determining  power  is  supposed  to  reside  here,  even 
if  excluded  from  the  other  mental  adjuncts.  It  is 
considered  im])hilosophical  and  incorrect  to  resolve 
the  w'hole  of  mind  into  feelings,  actions,  and  intellect ; 
these  are  mere  attributes  of  an  inexplicable  some- 
thing wlxich  each  one  is  conscious  of,  and  recognises 
as  the  essence  or  centre  of  the  mental  being,  while 
they  arc  merely  properties  or  attributes,  f!  ranting 
the  existence  of  this  inner  self,  there  is  said  to  be 
sulUcicnt  scope  for  a  properly  free  agency,  without 
going  the  length  of  supposing  that  men  are  to  con- 
tradict themselves  in  the  everyday  conduct  of  life. 

Such  a  mode  of  stating  the  doctrine  of  liberty, 

however,  is  liable  to  the  charge  of  logical  confusion, 

not  to  speak  of  the  difficulty  of   establishing   the 

existence  of  the  entity  in  question.     If  we  were  to 

i03 


inquire  into  what  constitutes  the  essence  of  mind, 
the  thing  which  being  present  constitutes  mind, 
and  whose  absence  is  the  negation  of  mind,  wo 
might  perha]is  not  be  able  to  come  to  a  couchisioii 
that  all  ]ilulosophers  would  acquiesce  in.  '  It  is 
always  reckoned  a  very  abstract  and  metaphysical 
discussion  to  settle  the  essence  of  things  j  even 
.as  regards  mailer,  this  is  not  an  easy  question. 
But  if  '  essence '  is  to  mean  something,  and  not 
•absolutely  nothing,  it  must  point  to  some  i)ower. 
jiroperty,  or  quality,  capable  of  being  named  and 
signalised.  Thus,  we  might  say  the  essence  of 
material  bodies  is  the  quality  varioiisly  named,  .as 
resistance,  momentimi,  inertia ;  all  which  imiily 
that  one  body  is  at  once  jin  obstruction  to  other 
moving  bodies,  and  a  movuig  power  when  once 
in  motion  ;  but  if  any  one  insists  that  this  is  but 
one  of  the  attributes  i>f  niatter,  in  common  with 
weight,  extension,  colour,  &c.,  and  that  there  must 
be  something  still  deeper,  in  which  all  the  various 
qualities  inhere,  we  can  only  answer  that  we  know 
of  no  such  essence  or  substratum,  and  are  inca]iable 
of  conceiving  any  such.  We  may  fix  upon  the  most 
fundamental,  the  most  universal,  and  inerasable 
quality  of  a  thing,  such  as  this  property  of  resistance 
as  regards  material  bodies,  and  term  that  the  essence ; 
while  any  other  attempt  at  discoveiing  an  essence 
would  only  end  in  setting  np  fictions.  So  in  the 
ease  of  mind.  If  we  are  called  on  to  specify  any  one 
asjicct  of  our  mental  constitution  more  universal  and 
fundamental  than  the  rest,  with  .a  view  to  setting 
forth  the  essence  of  mind,  we  should  be  obliged  to 
select  VOLITION,  or  .action  governed  by  feeling,  as  the 
main  or  central  fact.  Wherever  we  can  prove  the 
existence  of  feehng,  and  of  an  activity  controlled  by 
that — as  when  an  animal  uses  its  organs  to  preserve 
its  own  life,  to  cater  for  ]ileasures,  and  w.anl  off 
pains — we  shoidd  have  to  admit  the  reality  of  mind, 
although,  perhaps,  the  intelligence  were  of  the  lowest 
kind.  Any  being  not  possessing  both  sensibility 
and  the  pow-er  of  acting  in  accordance  with  it,  could 
not  be  said  to  possess  a  true  mental  nature.  We 
should  not  trouble  ourselves  with  considering  the 
possible  existence  of  a  mystical  '  ego,'  but  should  at 
once  declare  that  sucli  a  being  did  not  come  >q>  to 
the  standard  or  definition  of  mind.  Will,  or  volition, 
as  thus  explained — namely,  the  direction  of  the  active 
organs  of  a  living  creature  to  chime  in  with  its 
various  feelings — is  itself  the  essence  or  substratimi 
of  mind,  as  resistance  is  the  essence  of  matter. 
AVhcrcfore,  to  speak  of  feelings  and  actions  as 
something  apart  from  the  'ego,'  but  inhering  in  it, 
is  merely  to  count  the  same  fact  twice  over,  or  to 
call  a  thing  the  attribute  of  itself.  Volition  is  mind, 
and  not  an  attribute  of  mind  ;  and  wdien  we  have 
specified  the  ]iower  of  voluntary,  or  fceling-gnidod 
action,  and  a  certain  amount  of  intelligence,  varying 
greatly  in  individuals,  we  have  s]>eeitied  everything 
that  can  belong  to  any  indi\*idual  man  or  animal  ; 
an  '  ego '  beyond  this  is  something  inex])licable 
and  fictitious.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  admitted 
that  any  foimdation  is  given  to  a  supposed  '  free 
agency,'  by  referring  to  this  occult  and  imaginary 
essence,  any  more  than  it  would  l)e  competent  to 
claim  exceptions  to  the  great  physical  laws  that 
govern  material  bodies,  by  assuming  an  occiJt 
essence  of  matter  with  powers  and  i)roperties  at 
variance,  with  its  inertia,  weight,  extension,  and 
other  known  qualities. 

In  one  respect,  the  mind  is  dilTorentlysituatedfrom 
the  materi.al  world  in  all  that  regards  the  power  of 
tracing  strict  unifonnity,  and  jiredicting  the  future 
from  tlie  past.  Each  one  of  us  has  direct  access  to 
our  own  feelings,  but  only  an  indirect  and  imperfect 
access  to  the  feelings  of  another  person.  Excepting 
self,  we  can  never  know  the  whole  of  what  any  one 


FKKEZING  ASU  FUSIXG  POIXT.S— FliEIBUKG. 


feels  ;  our  best  observations  and  reasonings  are  but 
ajiproximations  to  the  truth,  anil  jjredictions  founded 
on  them  are  liable  to  be  fal.silied  through  unseen 
forces  in  the  arcana  of  another  man's  indiWduality. 
Admitting  the  uniformity  of  sequence  of  motive  and 
act,  we  are  never  able  to  exhaust  the  motives  of  any 
single  mind,  beyond  our  own  ;  and  thus  each  one 
inay  lie  said  to  move  in  a  certain  inner  circle  of  the 
imi>enetrable  and  unpredictable,  while  the  large 
mass  of  the  everyday  actions  of  all  human  beings 
follows  an  almost  undeviating  regularity.  This  is 
a  very  important  distinction  between  mind  and 
matter,  although  not  invalidating  the  great  general 
fact  of  uniform  law,  as  attaching  to  the  one  no  less 
than  to  the  other.  For  a  sketch  of  the  history  of 
this  great  controversy,  see  Dug.ald  Stewart's  Active 
Ponxrs. 


FREEZIXG    AXD    FUSIXG  POINTS. 

Frsi.NO  Points. 


See 


FREEZING  MIXTURES,  axd  OTiran  llrAXs 
OF  Cooling.  When  m.atter  passes  from  the  solid  into 
the  liquid  state,  heat  in  large  quantity  disappears, 
and  ceases  to  affect  the  thermometer.  See  Hk.vt. 
The  chemist  avails  liimself  of  the  fact  that  he.at 
disapjiears  during  liquefaction,  for  the  pur])ose  of 
procm-ing  artilicial  cold.  When  a  piece  of  ice  having 
a  temperature  of  32°  F.  is  placed  in  its  own  weight 
of  water  at  174°,  we  find,  on  testing  the  water  \vith 
the  thermometer  after  the  ice  has  melted,  that 
its  temperature  is  32  ;  the  he.at  which  the  water 
cont.aiued  having  disappeared  during  the  melting  of 
the  ice.  As  water  in  passing  from  the  solid  to  the 
Uuid  state  possesses  the  property  of  rendering  latent 
a  greater  amount  of  heat  than  any  other  substance, 
it  is,  when  in  a  solid  form,  as  ice  or  snow,  or  when 
combined  with  salts,  as  water  of  crj'^stallisatiou, 
a  ])owerful  agent  in  producing  artilicial  cold. 

The  substance  emjiloyed  in  freezing  mixtures 
should  be  finely  powdered,  rapidly  mixed,  and  placed 
in  vessel*  with  httle  conducting  power.  The  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  of  the  important  forinidie  for  these 
mixtures  :  1.  A  niLxtiire  of  2  parts  of  pomided  ice 
or  of  fresh  snow  and  1  jiart  of  coinmou  s.alt,  causes 
the  thermometer  to  fall  to  —  4°.  2.  A  mixture  of  5 
parts  of  commercial  hydrochloric  acid  and  8  parts 
of  powdered  crystallised  sidphate  of  soda,  causes 
a  reduction  of  temperature  from  50°  to  0°.  3.  Equal 
jiarts  of  water,  of  powdered  cryst.allised  nitrate  of 
ammonia,  and  of  j>owdered  crystallised  carbonate  of 
S"da,  produce  a  cold  of  —  7°.  4.  A  mixture  of  3  parts 
of  crystallised  chloride  of  calcium,  ]ireviously  cooled 
to  32^,  and  2  parts  of  snow,  produces  a  cold  of  —  50", 
which  is  sufficient  to  freeze  mercurj'.  5.  By  dis- 
solving solid  carbonic  acid,  or  soUd  nitrous  oxide 
gas,  in  sulj)huric  ether,  temjieratures  of  from  —  120° 
to  —  146  may  be  obtained,  at  which  alcohol  p.osses  to 
the  consistency  of  oil,  and  finally  to  that  of  melted 
wax.  This  is  the  most  powerful  freezing  mixture 
that  is  known. 

The  freezing  mixtures  used  by  confectioners  and 
those  that  are  most  convcnieut  for  ordinary  experi- 
inent.al  i)urposes,  are  the  first  and  second  of  the 
above  list. 

When  matter  pa.sses  from  the  liquid  to  the  aeriform 
state,  heat  also  disappears,  and  the  knowledge  of 
this  fact  has  been  applied  to  the  cooling  of  liquids, 
and  to  the  .ictual  i)roduction  of  ice.  If  a  glass 
bottle  containing  water  be  covered  with  a  cloth, 
•which  is  kept  constantly  wet  by  the  application  of 
water,  the  evapor.atiou  from  the  wet  cloth  'O'ill  soon 
diminish  the  temiieratiu-e  of  the  contents  of  tlie 
bottle,  and  if  the  cloth  were  moistened  with  alcohol 
or  with  ether,  the  cold  would  be  proportionally 
greater,  the  degree  of  cold  varying  with  the  rapidity 
and  extent  of   the  evaporation.      Wine-coolers,  or 


water-coolers,  made  of  porous  earthenware,  act  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  cloth.  They  are  soaked  in, 
and  satmatcd  by  water,  which  by  its  evaporation 
occasions  cold.  Coolers  of  this  kind  are  common  in 
most  hot  countries.  On  the  ancient  monuments  of 
EgJT''  ^  '"■''"  ■''  sometimes  rejireseuted  as  fanning 
these  vessels  with  a  palm-leaf,  to  promote  evapora- 
tion, and  the  Arabs  in  that  country  still  jiractise  this 
custom.  (See  KEFRioEn.vnNG-MAciiiNia,  in  Supp.) 
In  some  parts  of  India,  where  the  dryness  of  the 
.air  allows  a  considerable  evajioration  to  take  place, 
ice  is  obtained  in  tiie  following  manner  :  '  Flat, 
shallow  excavations,  from  one  to  two  feet  deep,  are 
loosely  lined  with  rice-straw,  or  some  similar  bad 
conductor  of  lie.at,  and  upon  the  surface  of  this 
layer  are  jilaced  shallow  ))ans  of  porous  earthenware, 
tilled  with  water  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  inches. 
Radiation  (see  He^vt)  rapidly  reduces  the  tenqiera- 
ture  below  the  freezing-point,  and  ice  is  formed  in 
thin  crusts,  which  are  removed  as  fast  as  they  are 
jiroduced,  and  stowed  away  in  suitable  ice-houses.' — 
Miller's  Elements  of  Cliem'ustrij,  2d  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  220. 

FREEZIXG-POIXT.     See  Thermometer. 

FREI'BEEG,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  the 
centre  of  administration  for  the  Saxon  mines,  is 
situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Erzgebirge 
mountains,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Miinzb.ach,  not  far 
from  its  contlucnce  with  the  Midde,  20  miles  south- 
west of  Dresden.  It  owes  its  origin  to  its  silver- 
mines,  discovered  about  the  year  1190.  It  is  still 
surrounded  by  old  walls  and  towers,  and  contains 
many  interesting  buildings  and  institutions,  of  which 
the  principal  are  the  town-house,  dating  from  1410, 
and  the  cathedral  (14S4— 1512),  two  stately  Gothic 
edifices,  .and  the  Berg- Academic,  or  School  of  Mines, 
founded  in  1705,  the  most  famous  institution  of  tlie 
kind  in  Europe.  At  the  Berg-Aeademie,  instruction 
is  given  by  jirofessors  in  surveying,  mining,  tlie 
I^reparation  of  ores,  geology,  mineralogj',  &c.  It 
possesses  lecture-rooms,  a  library,  and  mineralogieal 
and  geological  collectious  ;  and  has  attached  to  it 
tliree  sejiarate  laboratories,  and  an  office  for  the 
s.ale  of  miner.als.  Humlioldt,  AVerner,  .Jameson  of 
Edinburgh,  and  many  other  eminent  geologists  and 
mineralogists,  studied  at  this  institution.  There 
are,  it  is  said,  about  150  mines  of  silver,  copper,  lead, 
and  cobalt  around  Freiberg.  The  manufactures 
consist  priueiiially  of  articles  in  imitation  of  gold 
and  silver  ware,  of  white-lead,  gimpowder,  iron  and 
coiiper  wares,  &c.  In  the  17th  c,  it  was  a  place  of 
gre.-vt  wealth,  and  had  a  pop.  of  40,000.  The 
mines,  however,  have  of  late  greatly  fallen  olT,  owing 
either  to  the  richest  veins  being  exhausted,  or  to 
the  shafts  being  driven  so  deep  that  the  water 
cannot  be  drained  off  from  them.  (1864 — pop.  18,877.) 

FREIBURG,  or  FltlBOURG,  a  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Bern,  and 
on  the  S.  and  W.  by  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of 
Neuehntel.  It  has  a  su]ierficies  of  G23  square  miles, 
and,  according  to  the  census  of  1S60,  a  popidation 
amomiting  to  105.970  soids,  of  whom  90,362  were 
Catholics.  Jlofe  than  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants 
.are  French ;  the  remainder  are  Germans.  The 
official  language  is  French,  but  all  the  laws  and 
decrees  binding  on  the  v  hole  canton  are  publisheil 
both  in  French  and  German.  The  surface  of  the 
country  is  hilly,  the  mountains  in  the  south  of 
the  canton  forming  a  continn.ation  of  the  Bernese 
Aljis,  and  rising  in  the  liighest  points  upwards  of 
7000  feet  high.  The  princiiial  rivers  are  the  Saane 
or  Sarine — which  tr.averses  almost  the  whole  extent 
of  the  canton  from  its  southern  to  its  northern 
extremity — and  the  Broye.  The  country  abounds 
in  excellent  meadows  and  rich  pastures,  upon  which 
are  reared  the  strongest  horses  and  the  best  breed 


FKEIBURG— FREILIG 11 ATH. 


of  cattle  in  the  whole  of  Switzerland ;  indeetl,  the 
great  i>art  of  the  wealth  of  the  canton  consists  iu 
cows,  sheep,  goats,  anil  horses,  of  which  in  pro- 
portion to  Its  area  there  are  great  muubers.  Dairy 
Imslandry,  and  especially  cheese-making,  is  pursued 
with  great  success  ;  4{),0(W)  cwt  of  cheese  are  said 
to  lie  made  yearly.  There  are  considerable  niaini- 
factures  of  straw-plat,  leather,  cherry  brandy,  and 
tobacco.  F.  was  rcceive<l  as  a  member  of  the 
Swiss  confederation  in  14S1,  and  in  1S48  a  liberal 
constitution  was  established.  It  sentls  live  membei-s 
to  the  national  council     {ISTO— pop.  110,8:22.) 

FREIBURG,  or  FKIBOUKG,  a  town  6t  Switzer- 
lantl,  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  siuno  n.ime,  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Sarine,  but  chiefly  on 
a  hilly  promontory  formed  by  one  of  its  windings, 
about  IS  miles  south-west  of  Bern.  Seen  from 
some  distance,  the  town  has  a  highly  imposing  and 
picturesque  appearance.  Houses  climb  to  the  top, 
and  extend  to  the  very  edge  of  the  precipice  that 
overhangs  the  river,  and  in  another  portion  of  the 
town  they  form  terraces,  the  roofs  of  one  tier 
being  on  a  level  with  the  pavement  of  another ; 
while  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  long  rising  and 
falling  line  of  embattled  walls,  with  watch-towers 
and  gateway's  of  ancient  fortifications  which  still 
exist  in  a  perfect  state.  The  banks  of  the  Sarine 
are  imited  by  four  bridges,  one  of  them  a  suspen- 
sion-bridge, 90G  feet  long,  28  feet  wide,  and  175  feet 
above  the  stream,  the  lon:jest  bridge  of  a  single 
span  in  the  world — about  3U0  feet  longer  than  the 
Jlenai  Bridge.  Another  suspension-bridge  sp,ans  the 
gorge  of  Gotteron,  and  is  about  700  feet  long,  and 
2S4  feet  above  the  valley  beneath.  The  church  of 
St  Nicholas,  a  fine  Gothic  stnicture,  h.is  an  organ 
buOt  by  a  native  of  F.,  which  h.as  7S00  pipes,  one 
of  them  32  feet  long,  and  is  considered  the  finest 
toned  instrument  in  Europe.  This  church  has 
also  the  highest  spire  and  finest  set  of  bells  in 
Switzerland.  The  other  principal  buildings  are 
the  Cantonal  School  (pre%ious  to  1848  the  Jesuits' 
College),  the  most  conspicuous  building  of  the  town  ; 
and  the  Lyceum.  The  inhabitants  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  town  spe;ik  French  ;  in  the  lower 
portion,  German  is  spoken.  F.  has  few  manu- 
factures ;  the  chief  are  woollens,  hardware,  leather, 
pottery,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  9000,  of  which  only  500 
are  Protestants.     (1870— pop.  10,891.) 

FREIBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden,  capit.al  of  the  circle  of  the  t'ppcr 
Rhine,  is  the  seat  of  an  ai-chbishop,  and  is  situated 
on  the  Dreisam,  on  the  western  border  of  the  Bl.ick 
Forest,  42  miles  south-south-east  from  Strasbiu'g. 
It  is  an  open,  well-built  town;  the  walls  and 
ditches  with  which  it  was  formerly  surrounded, 
have  been  converted  into  promenades  and  vineyards. 
The  Minster  or  Cathedral  of  F.  is  one  of  the  most 
beautifiU  .and  perfect  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture in  Germany.  It  is  cniciform,  and  built  of  red 
sandstone,  was  begun  in  1122,  and  not  thoroughly 
completed  till  1513.  It  has  a  tower  3G7  feet  high, 
remarkable  for  its  elegance  and  lightness.  In  one 
of  its  chajjcls,  the  University  Chapel,  there  are, 
among  other  pictures,  a  Nativity  and  an  Adoration 
by  Holbein,  the  latter  considered  one  of  his  most 
successful  pictures.  The  university  of  F.  was 
founded  in  145G  ;  it  is  the  Roman  Catholic  seminary 
of  the  duchy  of  Baden.  The  Exchange  (Kau/ltaus) 
is  a  quaint  Gothic  structure  of  the  16th  century. 
The  chief  manuf.acturc3  are  chicory,  tobacco,  paper, 
potash,  &c.  Pop.  16,730,  one-eighth  of  whom  arc 
Protestants.      (1870— pop.  20,792.) 

FREIGHT  (a  word  h.aving  the  same  origin  .as 
'  fare '),  the  hire  of  a  ship,  or  part  of  a  ship,  for  the 
transport  of  merchandise ;  also  the  merchandise  so 
610 


transj>orte<l.  The  agixemeut  for  the  ser\icc  is 
termed  a  Charter-p.-irty  (q.  v.). 

If  a  merchant  freight  a  whole  ship,  Lut  neglect  to 
fill  it,  the  captain  is  not  at  liberty  to  complete  the 
cargo  from  other  sources,  without  accoimting  to  the 
merchant  for  any  moneys  received  for  such  addi- 
tional lo.ad.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  merchant 
covenant  to  freight  a  certain  portion  of  a  ship,  he  is 
bound  to  p.ay  the  sum  agreed  on  for  that  portion, 
notwithstanding  that  his  goods  m.ay  fail  to  occupy 
so  much  space.  If,  in  the  charter-party,  a  day  W 
appointed  for  sailing,  and  either  the  merchant  fail 
to  nave  his  goods  ready  for  emb.arkation  by  the  time 
fixed,  or  the  vessel  be  imprcp.ared  to  start — wind 
and  weather  permitting — the  agreement  may  bo 
declared  void  by  the  aggrieved  jiarty,  who  can  also 
recover  at  law  for  any  detriment  caused  to  his 
property  in  consequence  of  the  dela}'.  The  use  of 
charter-parties  has  been  traced  back  as  far  as  the 
reign  of  Henrj'  III. 

This  contract,  which  in  England,  and  generally  in 
the  conmiercial  language  of  this  country,  is  called 
freight,  is  more  commonly  spoken  of  by  the  legal 
writers  of  Scotland  as  Affrightraent,  from  the  French 
affretement  (Bell's  C'o7n,  i.  p.  414),  but  there  is  no 
essential  ditTerence  in  the  laws  of  the  two  countries 
with  regard  to  it.  Throughout  the  whole  commercial 
world,  indeed,  in  so  far  as  its  provisions  are  not 
made  the  subjects  of  positive  stipulation  either  by 
Charter-part}'  or  Bill  of  Lading  (q.  v.),  they  will  be 
held  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  trade, 
and  of  that  particiUar  branch  of  trade  to  which  the 
hiring  has  reference. 

It  was  formerly  held  that  the  pajnnent  of  the 
wages  of  the  crew  was  contingent  on  the  earning  of 
freight  by  the  ship,  in  accordance  with  the  maxini 
of  Lord  StoweU,  th.at  '  freight  is  the  mother  of 
wages.'  But  this  rule,  which  w;vs  already  subject  to 
many  exceptions,  has  been  abrogated  by  the  Merchant 
Shipjiing  Act  (17  and  IS  Vict.  c.  104),  and  wages  may 
now  be  recovered  either  by  seamen  or  apprentices, 
even  though  no  freight  has  been  earned  by  the  vessel. 
The  seaman  has  a  right  to  chug  to  the  last  plauk 
in  satisfaction  of  his  wages  ;  but  in  cases  of  ship- 
\vreck,  his  claim  for  wages  will  be  barred  if  it  be 
proved  that  he  did  not  exert  himself  to  the  utmost 
to  save  the  ship,  cargo,  and  stores.  This  provision 
was  first  introduced  by  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  112,  s.  17, 
which  enacted  that,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  recover 
Ms  w.ages,  the  seaman  should  be  boimd  to  pro<Iuco 
a  certificate  from  the  master,  or  chief  sui-viving 
officer  of  the  ship,  to  the  effect  that  he  had  so  exerted 
himself.  By  s.  183  of  17  and  IS  Vict.  c.  104,  the 
onus  of  proof  is  very  properly  laid  on  those  who 
impugn  the  conduct  of  the  seaman.  The  old  rule  is 
still  adhered  to  in  America,  but  it  is  not  applied  to 
the  master,  and  it  does  not  hold  with  reference  to 
seamen,  if  the  freight  has  been  lost  by  the  faiUt 
either  of  the  master  or  owner ;  e.  g.,  if  the  ship  h.as 
been  seized  for  debt,  or  for  ha\ing  contr.aband  good3 
on  board     See  Kent's  Com.  iii.  pp.  266,  2G7. 

FREI'LIGRATH,  Ferdinaxd,  a  brilliant  Ijnic 
poet  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Detmold,  in  the  prin- 
cipality of  Lijjpe,  17th  June  ISIO.  He  attended 
the  high  school  in  his  native  town  till  the  year  1825, 
when  ne  entered  a  merchant's  office,  first  at  Soest, 
and  afterwards  at  Amsterdam.  Encouraged  by  the 
favourable  reception  of  his  poems,  he  abandoned 
mercantile  pursuits,  married,  and  removed  to  Darm- 
stadt. In  1842,  a  pension  w.as  bestowed  upon  him 
by  the  king  of  Prussia,  whereupon  he  removed  to 
St  Goar,  on  the  Rhine.  This  circumstance,  and  his 
poem  Aus  Spanieii,  deprived  him  of  the  sjTupathy 
of  the  hberal  party,  which,  however,  was  restored  to 
him  twofold  when,  in  1844,  he  gave  up  his  pension, 
and  in  his  political  poems  attached  himself  to  the 


KKEISCH  UTZ— FKEMONT. 


democratic  party.  The  publication  of  his  Glaubena- 
JiukenidnUs  (Coufession  o£  Faith),  in  the  same  year, 
comjiullecl  him  to  take  rffiij;e  abroad.  He  weut  to 
IJelgiiun,  Switzerland,  and  in  1S46,  to  London,  where 
ho  resumed  his  mercantile  jjursuits,  and  became 
correspondent  for  the  banking-house  o£  Huth  &  Co. 
Ho  \v;i3  about  to  accept  an  invitation  to  America, 
sent  him  by  Longfellow,  when  tlio  events  of  1848 
rccallcil  him  to  his  n.ative  countrj'.  F.  settled  in 
Diisseldorf,  where  lie  became  the  most  important 
niemlier  of  the  democratic  party,  and  sang  the 
l>raises  of  democratic  socialism.  He  was  impeached 
ou  acci>\int  of  his  poem  Die  Todlcii  an  die  Lcbenden 
(The  Dead  to  the  Living).  The  interest  felt  iu  this 
trial  was  extraordinary.  F.  was  defended  by  cele- 
brated advocates,  who  did  not  fail  to  ridicule  the 
folly  shewn  in  prosecuting  a  man  for  writing  poetry. 
The  doctrine  that  the  poet  is  a  '  chartered  libertine ' 
iu  the  expression  of  his  sentiments,  carried  the  day, 
and  F.  was  accpiitted,  3d  October  1848.  The  con- 
seciuence  was  inevitable.  His  poem  immediately 
Ijecame  the  rage;  the  first  edition  was  sold  off  iu 
Diisseldorf  witliin  a  few  hours,  and  thousands  of 
correct  and  incoiTect  impressions  were  circulated 
over  all  Germany.  A  second  prosecution  induced 
F.  again  to  withdraw  from  his  native  country,  and 
since  1849  he  has  resided  in  London.  F.'s  priucipal 
productions  are  his  C'edichte  (Stlittg.  1S3S;  18th 
edit.  1857)  ;  Ca  Ira  (Herisau,  1S4G)  ;  Die  Ilevolu- 
Hull  (Leip.  1S4S)  ;  and  Neuere  poliiisdie  und  sociale 
Oii/ichte  (Col.  1S49).  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  at  New  York  (Sammtliche  Wa'ke, 
C  vols.  1858 — 1859).  F.'s  poems  display  lively 
imagination,  lire  and  melody  of  rhythm,  a  richness 
of  execution,  and  a  picturesque  originality  of  style, 
which  not  seldom,  however,  passes  into  eccen- 
tricity and  merely  'spasmodic'  force  of  expression. 
His  translations,  it  should  also  be  observeil,  are 
aiUnii-.able,  especially  of  the  poems  of  Victor  Hugo, 
Kobert  Burns,  and  Longfellow^'s  Hiawatha. 

FREI'SCHUTZ,   the   free-shooter,   is  the  name 

fiven  in  the  legend  to  a  hunter  or  marksman  who, 
y  entering  into  a  compact  with  the  devil,  i)rocures 
balls,  six  of  which  infallibly  hit,  however  great  the 
distance,  while  the  seventh,  or,  accortling  to  some 
versions,  one  of  the  seven,  belongs  to  the  devil,  w-ho 
directs  it  at  his  pleasure.  Legends  of  this  nature 
were  rife  among  the  troojiers  of  Germany  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  and  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  W.ar.  The  story  first  appeared  in  a  jioetic 
form  in  1810  in  Apel's  Gcipenslerbitch  (Ghost-book, 
Leip.  1810—1815),  and  F.  Kind  adapted  the  story 
(Leip.  1843)  to  the  opera  composed  by  Weber  in 
1821,  which  has  made  it  known  in  all  civilised 
countries. 

FREI'SING,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  is  situated  in  a 
fruitful,  agreeable  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Isar,  20  miles  north-cast  of  Munich.  The  town 
was  the  scat  of  an  episcoiial  prince  till  1802,  when 
the  see  was  secularised.  The  bishopric  of  F.  dated 
as  far  back  as  724  A.  d.,  but  its  bishops  were  first 
m,ade  princes  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  (1G19— 
1G37).  The  chief  buildings  are  the  jialace  formerly 
of  the  bishop,  and  a  Ijeautiful  cathedi-al,  dating  from 
the  12th  c,  having  three  naves,  two  towers,  and  a 
smgidar  cryjit,  the  pillars  of  which  have  monsters 
crawling  up  their  shafts.  Pop.  0000,  who  cany  on 
brewing  and  distilling,  and  manufacture  vinegar, 
tobacco,  saltpetre,  itc. 

FKEJUS  (anc.  Forum  Juiii),  a  small  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Var,  is  situated  a  niUo 
inland  from  the  embouchure  of  the  Argens  (anc. 
Ar'i'iileus)  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  15 
luiics  south-east  of  Draguignan.  It  was  originally  a 
colony  from  Marseille,  and  was  afterwards  colonised 


anew  by  Jidius  Cajsar,  and  called  Forum  Julii.  It 
has  remains  of  ancient  Roman  walls,  and  of  .i 
Itomau  circus  and  viaduct.  The  ancient  harbour, 
at  one  time  the  most  important  Gallic  port,  and  in 
which  Augustus  posted  the  fleet  of  300  galleys  which 
had  been  captured  from  Antony  at  Actium,  has 
become  silted  up.  Here,  or  rather  at  the  new 
harboiu-  of  St  Raphael,  li  miles  off.  Napoleon  landed 
on  his  return  from  Egyjit  in  1799,  and  embarked 
for  Elba  in  1814.     Top.  2GG5. 

FREMONT,  JoHM  CnARLE-s  a  distinguished 
explorer,  born  at  Savannah,  in  Georgia,  .lanuary  21, 
1813.  His  father  was  a  Frenchman,  his  mother  a 
native  of  Virginia.  At  the  age  of  15,  he  entered  the 
junior  class  of  Charleston  College,  South  Carolina ; 
but  he  left  that  institution  without  taking  a  degiee. 
From  1830  to  1833,  his  time  was  chiefly  employed 
iu  teaching  iu  Charleston.  In  1833,  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  mathematics  on  board  of  the  United 
States  sloop-of-war  Xalchez,  in  which  he  made  a 
cruise  of  more  than  two  years.  After  his  return,  he 
became  assistant-engineer  under  Captain  Williams, 
then  engaged  in  a  preliminary  survey  for  a  railway 
between  Charleston  and  Cincinn.ati.  In  the  spring 
of  1838,  he  accompanied  M.  Nicollet,  as  his  piincipal 
assistant,  in  the  exploration  of  the  region  north  of 
the  Missouri  river.  While  occupied  with  these 
important  labours,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Van  Bnren  second-hcutenant  in  the  corps  of  Topo- 
graphical Engineers. 

In  the  early  part  of  1842,  F.  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  an  expedition  sent  out  to  explore  the 
covuitiy  between  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Rocky 
ilountains.  He  set  out  from  St  Louis  near  the  end 
of  May,  and  reached  the  South  Pass  (about  42°  30' 
N.  hit.,  and  109°  30'  W.  long.)  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, iu  August.  In  the  vicuiity  of  the  pass,  ho 
ascended  a  lofty  peak  (since  known  as  Fremont's 
I'eak),  which  he  foimd  to  be  13,570  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea ;  this  is  the  highest  sununit  of  the 
Rocky  Jlountains  yet  measured  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  He  returned  to  St  Louis  about 
the  middle  of  October.  Throughout  the  entire 
route  of  the  exploration,  F.  had  made  careful 
barometrical  and  astrononucal  observatious,  for  the 
purjiose  of  ascertaiumg  the  elevation  and  position 
of  the  different  points,  besides  noting  the  chai-acter 
of  the  soU,  and  adding  largely  to  the  sciences  of 
geology  and  botany. 

In  1843,  he  set  out  on  another  expedition,  planned 
on  a  more  extensive  scale.  Passing  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  he  partially  explored  a  remark- 
able tract  of  coimtry,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  the  Great  Basin  (q.  v.).  Having  advanced  as 
far  as  Fort  Vancouver,  about  90  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  ou  the  10th  of 
November  the  party  commenced  their  homeward 
jovu-ney.  They  soon  foimd  themselves  ti-avcrsing,  iu 
the  depth  of  winter,  a  wild  and  desert  region,  in 
many  parts  of  whicli  it  was  impossible  to  obtain 
any  pasture  for  their  horses  and  mules,  while,  in 
the  most  favoured  portions  of  their  route,  grass  was 
to  be  found  only  in  a  few  slieltered  spots.  At 
length,  after  incredible  hardships  and  sufferings, 
finding  that  it  was  in  vain  to  attempt  to  reach  the 
United  States  at  tli.at  season,  F.  resolved  to  strike 
directly  across  the  Sierra  Ncv.ida,  towards  the  vales 
of  California.  Although  assured  by  his  Indian 
guides  that  it  was  quite  impossible  for  any  man 
to  cross  those  mountains,  he  boldly  undertook  the 
desperate  enterprise,  and  on  the  Gth  of  March 
succeeded  in  reaching  Sutter's  Fort,  an  American 
settlement  in  California,  near  the  river  Sacramento. 
More  than  half  of  his  animals  had  perished  on  the 
w.ay,  and  those  that  remained,  though  bearing  no 
burden,  had   scai'cely  strength  to  drag  themselves 


FlIENCII  BE^VXS— FKENCH  L.\XGUAC;i:  AND  LITEKATIRR 


alone  The  cxi>cJition  returned  to  the  United  States  [ 
in  tlic  summer  of  1S44.  lu  av.kiiowlea?mcnt  of  his  , 
imiiortant  services,  F.  was  raised,  Jauuary  1S45,  to 
the  rank  of  lircvet-captaiu.  The  fame  of  lus  dis- 
coveries, joined  to  the  heroic  daring  and  fortitude 
which  he  hail  exhibited  in  Ills  hist  expedition,  not 
oulv  made  him  tlie  theme  of  enthusiastic  admiration 
in  Uie  I'liited  States,  l>ut  eoon  spread  his  n.inie  to 
the  remotest  parts  of  the  civilised  world.  In  1S4G, 
F.  having  again  led  a  company  of  cxplorei-s  into 
California,  took  an  .ictive  ji-irt  in  the  war  .against 
Mexico.  Becoming  involved  in  a  dispute  between 
two  of  his  sui>erior  officers  .as  to  the  right  of  com- 
mand in  California.  F..  on  his  return  to  W.-ishington, 
Wiis  censured  for  disobedience  ;  and  as  he  could  not 
•admit  the  justice  of  the  decision  .ogaiust  him,  he 
resigned  his  position  in  the  army. 

In  1S4S,  F.  set  out  on  a  fourth  expedition  to  CiUi- 
fornia  at  his  omi  expense.  Attempting  to  cross 
the  mountains  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Colorado  in  mid-winter,  the  guide  mistook  the  way, 
anil  V.  lost  all  his  animals  and  one-third  of  his  men. 
In  1S49,  he  settled  in  Calif ornia,  and  in  December 
of  that  year  was  chosen  senator  to  represent  the 
new  state  in  the  national  congress.  In  1S50,  he 
received  from  the  king  of  Prussia,  through  Baron 
Humboldt, '  the  great  golden  medal  for  progress  in 
the  sciences  ; '  aiid  .about  the  same  time  the  Koyal 
Geographical  Society  of  London  awarded  him  the 
'founder's  med.al  for  pre-eminent  services  in  \nx>- 
moting  the  cause  of  geographical  science.'  In  1S56, 
he  w.as  nominated  by  the  republican  party  as  their 
candidate  for  the  presidency.  In  the  contest  that 
followed,  James  Buchan.an  was  elected  president ; 
lint  F.  received  the  votes  of  eleven  of  the  northern 
states.  . 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  civil  w.ar  in  the  United 
States,  F.  w.as  ai)])ointcd  major-gcner.al  in  the 
Feilcral  army. 
FREXCII  BEANS.  See  Kidxey  Beans. 
FREXCH  BERRIES,  Avignon  Berries,  Persian 
Berries,  or  Yellow  Berries  (Fr.  Graine.i  d'Av'n.inuii), 
small  berries,  the  fnut  of  certain  species  of  Buck- 
thorn (q.  v.),  but  priucip.ally  of  the  Yellow-berried 
I3uckthorn  (Bhamnun  vi/eclorius),  used  by  dyers  in 
dyeing  yellow.  For  this  purpose,  they  .are  gathered 
unripe,  .and  dried ;  they  yield  a  rich  yellow  colour, 
but  it  is  fugitive,  and  on  this  accoiuit  the  use  of 
this  dye-stulf  has  very  much  given  place  to  th.at  of 
mineral  dyes.  It  is,"  however,  still  imjiorted  into 
Britain  from  the  Levant  and  from  the  south  of 
Fr.ancc.  That  from  the  Lev.ant  is  the  best.  The 
yellow-berried  buckthorn  is  a  very  spreading  pro- 
cumbent shrub,  ^^■ith  ov.ato-lauceolate  smooth  leaves, 
growing  naturally  in  rough  rocky  places  in  the 
countries  near  the  ^lediterranean.  It  is  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  the  south  of  France. 

FRENCH  HONEYSUCKLE  {Ihdi/.tantm  coro- 
Korium),  a  beautiful  bienni.al  pl.ant  of  the  n.atur.al 
order  Jjegiiminosa;,  sub-order  Papilionacfa,  with 
branching  and  spreading  stems,  pinnate  le.aves, 
scarlet  or  sometimes  white  flowers,  and  jointed  pods, 
which  have  one  seed  in  each  articul.ation.  It  h,as 
line  foU.age,  and  a  very  elegant  apjicanance,  and  is 
often  to  be  seen  in  (lower-gardeus.  Jt  is  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  there  pretty  extensively 
cultivated  .as  food  for  cattle.  It  grows  to  a  height 
of  four  or  live  feet,  yields  a  large  crop,  and  is  very 
nutritious.  It  is  used  either  in  a  green  state,  or 
dried  as  hay.  It  requires  a  rather  wanner  climate 
th.an  th.at  of  England  for  its  profitable  cultivation. 
The  genus  Iledijmrum  contains  many  species,  extcn- 
eively  ditl'used  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world. 
A  few  are  found  in  cold  regions,  as  //.  fruticosnm  in 
Siberia,  growing  in  sandy  soils,  very  useful  in  fixing 


them  by  its  roots,  and  v.aluablc  .as  aCTording  fooil  for 
horses. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE. 

The  Frendi  laiifiiiage  h.as  been  developed  under 
the  combined  influence  of  numerous  forms  of  speech, 
among  which  Latin,  as  in  every  other  tongue  of 
Western  Europe,  takes  a  principal  jiart.  It  would 
appear  th.at  in  the  4tli  and  5th  centuries  of  our  era, 
the  whole  of  G.allia.  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Pyrenees, 
had  adopteil  the  language  of  the  Roman  conquerors, 
not  the  polished  speech  of  the  cl.ossic  writers— the 
siniio  iirbaniis — but  the  form  of  Latin  that  ha<l 
become  common  to  all  the  subjugated  proWnccs  of 
Central  Europe — linijiin  Itumaiia  riislka.  Suetonius, 
I'liny,  Juvenal,  and  JIartial  make  frequent  reference 
to  the  Latin  in  use  in  Southern  Gaul  and  Spain  ; 
and  in  the  4th  c.  we  find  that,  under  the  Emjieror 
Theodosius,  the  Roman  senate  w.as  .addressed  by  .an 
orator  of  Gaul  in  rude  and  uncultured  trans.alpine 
Latin.  At  this  period,  and  much  Later,  Latin  w.as 
employed  in  the  provincial  assemblies  of  Gaul ;  but 
in  thcTth  c,  two  other  forms  of  speech  had  come 
into  gener.al  use — a  provinci.al  dialect  of  the  liiigiia 
Ilomana.  and  a  form  of  German  known  .as  the 
liiidua  Theotisca.  The  latter  which  was  jirolubly 
a  mingled  jargon,  used  in  common  by  the  Frankish 
and  'fcutouic  tribes,  and  consequently  in  vogue  in 
the  north  and  east,  received  a  more  delinite  develop- 
ment under  Ch.arlemagne,  who  caused  a  grammar 
of  it  to  be  prep.ared  for  the  use  of  the  schools  which 
he  had  established,  and  in  which  it  w.as  taught 
conjointly  with  Latin.  The  eouncU  of  Tours  (S1.3) 
recommended  the  use  both  of  the  rustic  Latin  and 
the  Teutonic  dialect ;  and  in  S42,  in  the  comjiaet 
made  between  the  two  brothers,  Charles  the  Bald 
and  Louis  the  Gei-man,  the  former  swore  in  the 
liomniia  j-uxtka,  and  the  latter  in  the  Teulxclf; 
langu.age,  which,  although  it  had  been  generally 
spoken  .at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  had  already 
given  place  in  France  to  the  Fmnkish  form  of 
Latin.  This  Callo-Romanic  idiom  early  brancheil 
oil"  into  the  two  characteristically  different  forms  of 
the  Provenral  or  Lanrjue  (Toe  of  the  south,  and  the 
Bomaii  Walhn,  or  Lamjiic  (Toil  of  the  north.  The 
eompar.ative  prosperity  which  the  south  of  Franco 
enjoyed,  first  under  the  kings  of  Aries,  and  subse- 
quently under  the  counts  of  Provence,  its  freedom 
from  foreign  agsic^sion  for  several  ceutiu-ies,  the 
beauty  of  "the  climate,  and  the  more  thoroughly 
Rom.anised  ch.aracter  of  the  people,  led  to  the  early 
development  of  the  Provencal,  and,  by  the  lips 
of  the  troubadoui-s,  breathed  forth  a  rich  melody 
of  song,  which,  after  a  time,  w.as  re-echoed  in  less 
hamionious  tones  by  the  troitcires  of  the  north  in 
their  ruder  tongue.  The  earlier  productions  of 
these  two  schools  exhibit  striking  differences  in 
diction,  inflection,  and  construction ;  and  while  the 
troubadour  sang  of  love,  and  dwelt  on  the  beauties 
which  a  southern  climate  and  a  fniitfiJ  soil  scattered 
broadcast  over  the  face  of  nature  around  him.  the 
northern  trouru-e  invented  a  chivalrous  mythology 
of  his  own,  and  ascribed  to  the  heroes  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  the  brethren  in  arms  of  King  Arthur  and 
Charlemagne,  the  sentiments  of  his  own  times.  The 
use  of  the  northern  or  Walloon  French  was  very 
considerably  extended  thVough  its  .adoption  by  the 
Normans,  who  in  time  carried  it  under  Williatn 
the  Conqueror  to  Engl.and,  and,  under  the  northern 
leaders  of  the  Crusades,  to  the  south  and  east.  _  In 
the  south,  on  the  contrary,  the  cruel  persecutions 
of  the  Albigenses,  against'  which  the  troubadours 
inveighed  .aloud,  cheeked  the  develo]>ment  of  the 
Proven^.al  langu.age  ;  for  the  songs  of  the  trouba- 
dours were  proscribed,  and  thus  the  use  of  the 
Iniifiue  iToil  soon  extended  with  the  spread  of  northern 
power  into  the  pio\-inccs  of  Provence  and  Languedoc 


FRENCH  LAXGUAGE  AND  LITERATtJKE. 


Oup  of  the  earliest  mnmimonts  of  the  French- 
Walloon,  in  the  form  in  which  it  shews  evidence  of 
its  gradual  devclojiment  into  modern  French,  is  the 
Jiomati  de  Rou,  a  versitied  chronicle  of  the  exploits 
of  Rollo  and  liis  successors,  composed  by  Robert 
Wace.  In  this  composition,  the  language  is  no 
longer  the  sonorous,  manj'-vowelled  Provencal,  or 
the  mongi'el  Latin  of  the  Hinjua  ruMica,  but  a 
distinct  form  of  speech.  The  language  thus  formed 
bj'  the  ingi'afting  of  Norman,  Frankish,  and  Teu- 
tonic idioms  on  the  degenerate  Latin  of  the  Gallic 
j>roWnces,  was  rapidly  developed  vmder  the  foster- 
ing inriuence  of  the  university  of  Paris  and  the 
Sorbonne,  which  already,  in  the  13th  c,  attracted 
the  learneil  men  of  all  nations  to  their  schools.  The 
Roman  df  la  Rose,  begun  in  the  l.'ith  e.  liy  Jean  de 
Meung,  and  completed  in  the  14th  c.  by  G.  de  Lon-is, 
and  Guyot's  Bihlf,  belonging  to  the  same  period,  are 
ty])ical  of  the  literature  of  France  in  the  middle 
ages,  which  consisted  chieHy  of  tales  of  chivalry 
and  coarse  saUies  against  the  clergj'.  Froissart's 
chronicles  of  the  14th  c,  which  afford  a  Wvid  picture 
of  the  wars  nf  the  English  and  French,  in  which  he 
himself  took  an  active  share,  are  «Titten  in  a  dialect 
that  is  quite  comprehensible  to  the  modern  student. 
Comines,  who  wrote  in  the  1.5th  e.,  is  a  less  pictur- 
esque narrator ;  but  he  may  be  classed  among  the 
earliest  true  historians  of  his  country,  for  he  was  one 
of  the  first  who  oljsi-rved  public  events  with  judg- 
ment, and  recorded  what  he  had  seen  in  a  .«;traight- 
forward,  truthful  manner.  Francis  I.,  by  his  love 
of  music,  song,  and  dramatic  representations,  gave 
indirect  encouragement  to  literature ;  while  the 
French  language  acquired  force  and  terseness 
through  the  writings  of  Rabelais,  Ronsard,  Amyot, 
and  Moutaigue;  and  although,  under  the  regencies 
of  Catharine  and  JIarie  de'  iledici,  Italian  wTiters 
were  more  patronised  at  coiu-t  than  native  authors, 
the  language  and  the  literary  talent  of  the  nation 
were  undergoing  a  process  of  gradual  develojiment, 
which  was  completed  by  the  estaldishment,  imder 
the  auspices  of  Richelieu,  of  the  Anidimif  Fran^ake 
in  16.34.  At  this  period,  Corueille  lirought  French 
tragedy  to  its  highest  point  of  grandeur  in  the 
chissic  stylo  of  the  drama,  which  he  had  adopted. 
His  best  pieces  are  Le  Cid,  Les  Horaces,  Cinna, 
&c.  Pascal,  in  his  Leilres  Pror'mcialf.%  established 
a  standard  of  French  prose  ;  while  Descartes,  in  his 
T)i«mtirs  8ur  la  Mcllindf.,  shewed  the  adaptability 
of  the  language  to  subjects  requiring  conciseness 
and  precision.  A  long  galaxy  of  great  names  gave 
splendour  to  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  in  every 
branch  of  literature.  Notwithstanding  the  frivolity 
of  the  hal  lits  of  the  liigher  classes  in  France  during 
this  ]ierio<l,  no  age  produced  more  \-igorous  'writei-s 
or  original  thinkers.  Bossuet  and  Flechier  won 
respect  by  their  noble  fimeral  orations  ;  Boiu'daloue 
and  Massillon,  by  their  eloquent  preachmg  ;  FCne- 
lon,  by  his  learning  and  earnest  exhortations ;  and 
Pa.scal,  by  his  Christian  view  of  the  great  questions 
of  human  exiierieuces.  In  di'amatic  literature, 
Racine  and  Moli^re  stand  forth  conspicuous  among 
a  liost  of  lesser  writers,  the  former  jire-eminent 
in  tragedy,  as  his  Aiidroinaqttr,  fjjln'fjf'iiie,  Pfudre, 
testify ;  tlie  latter  inimitable  in  comedy,  and  exhibit- 
ing wonderfiU  powers  of  delineating  human  character 
from  a  humorous  point  of  view,  that  have  never 
been  surjiassed.  Among  his  best  pieces  we  may 
instance  Tartufe,  Le  MUanthrope,  and  Les  Fannies 
SavaiiU''!.  La  Fontaine  is  alike  well  known  among 
his  ct)untrymen  for  his  mor.al  Fables  and  his  licen- 
tious Tales.  La  Rochefoucauld  and  La  BniyiJre, 
in  their  Sentences  and  Cnractfrea,  depicted  human 
character,  with  its  ])eculiaritips,  inclinations,  and 
foibles  in  strong,  humorous,  and  vivid  touches.  This 
was  the  age  of  jMemoirs  and  Letters  :  in  the  former 
1S3 


branch  of  contemporary  history.  Cardinal  Retz  w:is 
])erhaps  the  most  successful  of  the  host  of  writers 
who  gained  a  rei)utation  in  this  sjjecial  department 
of  literature ;  while  Madame  de  Sevignf 's  letters 
are  models  of  e.isy  epistolary  style,  anii  afford  a 
lively  picture  of  the  times.  This  ate,  in  which,  at 
anyrate,  the  semblance  of  religion  had  been  respected, 
was  followed  by  one  of  sce])ticisn),  intidelity,  and 
philosophical  sjieciJations  of  the  wildest  kind"  F(air 
men  of  genius,  Montcs<iuieu,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and 
Buffon,  contributed,  to  a  very  great  extent,  by  their 
\vritings,  and  the  inliuence  which  they  exerted  on 
the  minds  of  their  contomi>oraries,  in  bringing  about 
the  Revolution.  Montesipiieu,  by  his  jjhilosophical 
dissertations  on  the  laws  and  government  of  his 
country,  taught  the  French  to  take  more  enlightened 
views  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  different  classes 
of  society,  and  thus  naturally  roused  the  angry 
passions  of  the  oii|)ressed  lower  orders ;  while  the 
passionate  eloquence  of  Rousse.iu  won  a  hearing  for 
doctrines  wliich  were  entirely  subversive  of  moral 
obligations,  aiul  recognised  no  higher  standard  than 
human  inclinations.  A'oltaire's  versatility  of  powers, 
which  were  exercised  with  ecjual  ease,  and  nearly 
ecjual  success,  on  tragedy,  satire,  romance,  poetry, 
history,  and  philosophy,  enabled  him,  to  the  end 
of  his  long  life,  to  maintain  the  supremacy  over 
public  opinion,  which  he  had  won  in  his  youth. 
Buffon  devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  description 
of  nature,  and  his  11  istoi re Xaturelle,  which  inaugur- 
ated a  new  era  in  the  literatm-e  of  natural  history, 
is  a  remarkal)le  monument  of  the  science  and  learn- 
iug  of  that  period.  Diderot,  and  D'Alcmljert  the 
geometer,  foiuided  the  Encyclopedic,  which,  while 
it  gave  a  lucid  simunary  of  numerous  branches 
of  human  knowledge,  was  always  hostile  to  reli- 
gion. The  Revolution,  which  had  been  materially 
accelerated,  if  not  ]>roduced,  by  the  inspirations 
of  men  of  consiunmate  intellect,  was  not  favour- 
able to  literature.  A  period  of  almost  complete 
intellectual  torpor  succeeded  the  active  mental 
development  tliat  had  characterised  the  preceding 
classic  and  philosophic  periods.  ITie  Empire  was 
scarcely  more  propitious  to  learning  ;  but  with 
the  Corinne  .and  L  Allemwjne  of  Madame  de  Staiil, 
and  Les  Martijrs  of  Chateaubriand,  a  reaction 
took  place ;  and  these  jiroductions  of  the  new 
romantic  school  were  soon  followed  by  mmierous 
others,  either  belonging  to  the  same,  or  to  the 
rival  classical  school.  Among  the  host  of  young  .and 
original  writers  who  now  aequiied  reputation,  we 
may  instance,  in  dramatic  art,  poetry,  and  fiction, 
Alexandre  Dum.is,  Victor  Hugo,  Alfred  de  Vigny, 
and  Frederic  iSoulie.  The  first  of  tliese  h.is  been 
one  of  the  most  prolilic  of  novel-writers  ;  among  his 
most  popular  works  are — Les  Trois  Mousquelaires, 
Le.  Conite  de  Mijnic  ClirUto,  Le  Collier  de  la  Reiite, 
&c.  Casimir  Dclavigne  has  attempted  to  combine 
the  romantic  and  classical  schools  in  his  Louis  XL, 
Les  Enfanls  d^Edouiird,  &c.  George  Sand  (Madame 
Dudevant)  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  writers  of 
her  country,  and  her  works  are  models  of  style. 
Her  Indiana,  which  a]>peared  in  1832,  inaugurated 
a  new  era  of  emotional  novel-writing,  and  has  had 
mmierous  imitators.  Among  her  numerous  works, 
the  most  ]>o]>ular  are  Jaei/nes,  Lelia,  Maiiprat, 
Andre.  Of  late  years,  she  has  written  abnost 
exclusively  for  the  stage.  Les  ilysteres  de  Paris, 
and  Le  Jtiif  Errant,  which  depict  the  concealed 
miseries  and  depravities  of  social  life,  quickly 
brought  their  author,  Eugbne  Sue,  into  notice. 
The  tendency  to  materialism  and  sensualism,  which 
characterises  the  works  of  tlie  two  last-named 
writers,  is  more  or  less  i)erceptible  in  all  belonging 
to  their  .nge  in  France.  The  few  artistic  and  good 
historical  novels  th,at  have  appeared  have  met  with 

ai3 


FRENCH  FOLISHTNG— FRENCH  Rn^ER. 


little  success  among  the  general  public.  Among 
orii^in.il  ami  finished  writers  of  tales,  A.  de  Mussct 
raiilis  iiiremost,  while  McriiuC-e  the  historian,  who 
has  written  several  novels  of  very  p-eat  merit,  has 
not  always  met  with  the  success  which  he  deserved. 
Of  late  years,  a  host  of  young  >mters  have  a]>peared, 
some  of  whom  belong  to  what  they  themselves  term 
the  realistic  slIiooI.  A.  Dum;»s  the  Younger,  who 
is  foUiiwing  in  the  stejis  of  his  father,  E.  Feydau,  O. 
Feuillet,  aiid  E.  About,  all  deserve  notice.  Poetry 
has  not  been  followed  with  any  marked  success  in 
Franco  during  the  present  century ;  and  beyond  the 
great  names  of  Beranger — whose  songs  are  imsur- 
passcd  in  any  other  tongue— Victor  Hugo,  Lamar- 
tine,  and  Musset,  there  are  few  French  poets  of  the 
present  day  kno\n>  beyond  the  limits  of  France. 
The  theatre  absorbs  much  of  the  talent  of  Young 
France ;  but  here  light  pieces,  v.audevilles  and  farces, 
are  the  most  successf\u,  as  is  testified  by  the  host 
of  comedies  and  operatic  scores  for  which  Eugfcne 
Scribe  ha-s  obtained  a  favourable  reception.  History 
is  undoubteiUy  the  most  successful  branch  of  modern 
French  literature.  ^Vmong  those  who  have  gained 
for  themselves  a  world-wide  reputation  in  this 
department  of  research,  we  Avould  instance  Barante, 
■whose  early  work,  VHistoire  lies  Dues  de  Bourpogne, 
has  been  followed  by  the  recent  publication  of 
histories  of  the  Convention  .and  Directory.  Guizot, 
another  writer  holding  monarchical  views,  has 
shewn  indefatigable  powers  of  research  and  a  philo- 
sophic power  of  generalisation  in  a  great  number  of 
works,  among  which  the  first  rank  may  be  awarded 
to  his  Esmis  sur  VHistoire  de  France,  and  L'His- 
toire  de  la  Civilisation  en  Europe.  Thierry,  in  his 
Lettres  sur  VHistoire  de  France,  and  VHistoire  de 
la  Conquete  de  VAiigleterre  par  les  2Cormans,  dis- 
plays gi-e.at  powers  of  narration  and  aptitude  for 
theoretic  criticism,  perhaps  more  imaginative  than 
sagacious.  Sismondi  has  shewn  great  research  and 
profound  knowledge  in  his  somewhat  tliflfuse  His- 
tory. Thiers  has  devoted  his  learning,  industry, 
and  powers  of  delineation  to  the  exposition  of  the 
revolutionarj'  and  imperial  phases  of  French  govern- 
ment. Michelet  and  Louis  Blanc  are  both  known 
for  their  democratic  principles ;  the  latter,  in  his 
Histoire  de  Dix  Ans,  gives  one  of  the  most  ^■ivid 
pictures  of  contemporary  history  th.at  we  possess. 
Lamartine,  who  carries  his  poetic  inspirations 
and  enthusiastic  temperament  with  him  into  his 
historical  researches,  presents  magnificent  but  not 
perfectly  trustworthy  i)ictures  of  history  in  his 
Histoire  des  Girondins,  Hlttoire  des  Consiitiient.i,  and 
Histoire  de  la  Restauration.  ViUemain,  although 
better  kno^vn  for  his  history  of  literature  in  the 
middle  ages  and  in  the  18th  c,  is  yet  to  be  classed 
among  historians  as  the  author  of  Histoire  de 
Cromwell,  and  his  Sowenirs  Contemporains,  &c. 

There  is  no  department  of  the  moral  and  physical 
sciences  that  has  not  been  enriched  and  eluci- 
dated by  the  labours  of  French  savans.  Among 
the  great  scientific  ^\Titers  of  modem  France,  we 
may  instance  in  metaphysics  and  political  economy, 
Victor  Cousin,  Jouffroy,  Simon,  and  Lamennais, 
whose  eloquent  defence  of  spiritualistic  and  religious 
principles  reacted  strongly  against  the  materialism 
to  which  French  philosophy  had  long  been  addicted ; 
while  socialism  has  found  powcrfid  advocates  in 
Comte,  St  Simon.  Fom-ricr,  and  Leroux.  Chevalier, 
De  Tocqueville,  Bonald,  and  Laferriftre,  are  known 
for  their  able  and  pliilosophic  exposition  of  the 
jurisprudence  of  nations,  and  the  social  and  political 
comlition  of  democracy  in  the  new  and  old  world. 
In  philology  and  ancient  history,  Champollion, 
Sylyestre  de  Sacy,  Renau,  Remusat,  and  Stanislas 
Julicn,  l)y  their  profound  researches  into  Egyptian 
hieroglj-phics  and  Semitic  literature,  have  thrown 
614 


new  light  on  the  origin  of  races  and  languages. 
In  mathematics  D'Alembert,  Laplace,  Lagrange, 
lliot,  Ampi>re,  and  Arago  stand  unrivalled.  In 
natural  history,  and  its  kindred  sciences,  among 
a  host  of  great  French  discoverers,  we  can  only 
instance  a  few  of  the  more  distinguished,  as  Cuvier, 
Ocoli'roy  and  Isidore  St  Hilaire,  Blaiuville,  Jussieu, 
D'Orbigny,  Haliy,  G.ay-Lussac,  Flic  de  Beaumont, 
Slilue-Edwards,  Brongniart,  whose  services  in  the 
cause  of  science  have  identified  their  names  with 
the  triumphs  of  physical  research. 

No  country  has  ever  produced  a  greater  number 
of  elegant  essajnsts  and  literary  critics  than  France, 
and  no  language  seems  to  lend  itself  more  rea<Uly 
than  French  to  a  concise  and  graceful,  yet  forcible 
style  of  epigrammatic  writing,  and  few  admit  of 
more  idiomatic  terseness,  or  a  more  polished  play  of 
words.  French  literature  has  of  late  years  been 
suffering  from  the  state  of  torpiiUty  which  seems  in 
France  to  be  the  natural  secondary  effect  of  any 
gie.at  poUtical  movement,  and  hitherto  the  imperial 
rule  h;>s  not  been  propitious  to  the  development  of 
origin.al  literary  talent. 

For  authorities  on  French  literature,  see  Nisard, 
Hist,  de  la  Litter.  Franfauie  (1846)  ;  Baron,  Hist. 
Ahregle  de  la  Littir.  Fran/;,  pisqu'au  17""  SiicU 
(18-11);  Hist.  Litter,  de  la  France,hy  Dom.  Rivet, 
and  other  Benedictine  monks,  continued  by  members 
of  the  Institute  (22  vols.  173.3—1858)  ;  "Villemain, 
Tableau  de  la  Littir.  au  Motjrn  Age  (1857) ;  Demogeot, 
His',  de  la  LitUr.  Franf.  (1857). 

FRENCH  POLISHING,  the  name  given  to  the 
now  common  method  of  coating  wood  \\'ith  a  line 
smooth  surface  or  varnish  of  gum-lac.  Gum-lac  is 
easily  soluble  in  spirits  of  \rine,  methylated  spirits, 
or  wood-naphtha,  and  a  varnish  is  thus  produced ; 
but  if  it  be  applied  simply  with  a  brush,  as  copal, 
mastic,  and  most  other  varnishes  are  applied,  the 
result  is  a  very  rough  and  broken  surface,  instead  of 
a  smooth  continuous  polish.  To  obtain  this  with  a 
lac-varnish  on  wood,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  a  very 
small  quantity  at  once,  and  to  rub  it  continuously 
until  it  dries.  If  a  dry  rubber  be  used,  the  lac 
sticks  to  it,  and  it  is  dragged  from  the  wood.  .\n 
oiled  rubber  is  therefore  used,  and  the  oil  should  be 
a  drying  oil,  such  .as  linseed.  Various  kinds  of 
rubbers  are  used;  such  as  a  b.all  of  wool  covered 
with  rag,  a  small  roll  of  cloth  with  the  edges  down- 
wards, and  likewise  covered  with  rag.  The  varnish 
and  oil  may  be  mixed  together  in  a  bottle,  shaken 
up  when  used,  and  a  little  poiu-ed  upon  the  rubber  ; 
or  a  simple  solution  of  shell-lac  may  be  used,  and 
some  of  this  laid  upon  an  oUed  rubber.  Several 
successive  coats  and  rubbings  are  required,  and 
some  skill  is  necessary,  in  order  to  produce  a  good 
surface. 

The  following  .are  some  receipts  for  French  polish 
for  mahogany  ;  they  might  be  multiplied  to  a  great 
extent,  for  they  should  be  modified  according  to  the 
kind  of  wood  to  which  they  .are  applied,  and  the 
mode  of  appljnng  them  :  1.  5  oz.  of  pale  shell-lac, 
dissolved  in  1  pint  of  wood-naphtha,  or  methylated 
spirit,  or  spirits  of  \\'ino.  2.  5  oz.  of  pale  shell-lac, 
1  oz.  gimi  saudarac,  1  pint  spirit.  3.  1|  lb.  pale 
shell-l.ac,  |  lb.  mastic,  2  quarts  spirit.  4.  Shell-lac, 
6  oz.  ;  spirit  or  naphtha,  1  pint ;  linseed  oil,  \  jiint. 
The  last  is  the  most  easy  to  apply;  it  requires  no 
oil  on  the  rubber,  and  is  a  very  good  domestic 
polish  for  restoring  furniture,  if  properly  applied 
by  careful  and  continuous  rubbing. 

FRENCH  PROTESTANT  CHURCH.  See 
Huguenots. 

FRENCH  RIVER,  a  stream  of  Upper  Canada, 
emjities  Lake  Nijiissing  into  Lake  Huron,  entering 
Georgian  Bay,  in  lat.  45°  53'  N.,  and  long.  81°  5'  \V. 


FEENCH  SETTLEMENTS— FRESCO,  FRESCO-PATNTIKG. 


ll  has  a  rapid  coiirse  of  about  sixty  miles ;  and, 
towarcU  its  mouth,  is  so  uniform  in  breadth  and 
depth,  as  to  resemble  an  artificial  cut  throuch 
bare  rock.  It  forms  part  of  the  route  by  which 
canoes,  preferring  the  Ottawa  to  the  St  La«Tence, 
pass  from  ilontreal  to  the  Eed  Eiver  of  tliu  north. 

FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.  See  Pondi- 
CHERRY. 

FRISRON,  Elie  Catherine,  a  French  writer, 
was  born  at  Quiniper  in  1710,  educated  imder  the 
Jesuits  at  the  college  of  Louis  le  Grand,  and  first 
acquired  a  reputation  by  his  publication  of  a  critical 
journal  in  1746.  This  journal  appeared  under  the 
curious  title,  Lettres  rfc  Madame  la  Comlense  de  *  *  *. 
It  was  suppre.5sed  in  1749,  but  virtiially  re-ajipeared 
as  Leilres  sur  qnelques  Hcrits-de  ce  Teinps  (13  vols., 
1749 — 1754),  and  was  again  continued  under  the 
tiile  o[  Annfe  Litleraire  (iloi — 177fi).  F.  exhibited 
the  most  intense  bitterness  against  his  leading 
contemporaries.  A  worshipper  of  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  ho  hated  and  satirised  the  levelling  philosophy 
of  his  times.  Voltaire  was  the  special  object  of  his 
avei'sion,  and  that  sensitive  scofiFer  was  deeply  galled 
by  the  weekly  diatribes  of  his  antagonist.  The 
names  of  Voltaire  and  F.  are  inseparably,  though  not 
amicably,  conjoined  in  the  history  of  literature.  F. 
was  often  right  in  his  criticisms  and  in  the  accusa- 
tions which  he  brought  against  his  adversaries,  but 
opinion  in  France  in  the  18th  c.  was  swayed  by 
epigrams,  and  F.  fell  a  victim  to  the  animosity  of 
the  wits.  He  died  of  grief,  March  10,  1776. — LouLS 
Stanisl.vs  Freron,  a  son  of  the  former,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1765,  played  a  somewhat  prominent  part 
in  the  melodrama  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  in 
1802  was  seut  as  sub-prefect  to  the  island  of  St 
Domingo,  by  the  First  Consul,  but  died  two  months 
after  his  arrival. 

FRESCO,  FRESCO-PAINTING,  or  PAINT- 
ING IN  FRESCO,  the  term  applied  to  paintings 
executed  uj>on  plaster  while  it  is  still  wet  or  fresh 
(Ital.,  fresco).  Many  celebr.ated  artists  and  well- 
known  "writers  have  maintained  that  fresco  is  the 
only  way  in  which  the  highest  efforts  in  art  should 
be  embodied.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  best 
works  of  the  Italian  schools,  particularly  those  of 
Rome  and  Florence,  are  done  in  this  manner ;  and 
during  the  jireseut  century  it  has  been  revived, 
and  many  of  the  chief  paintings  of  the  modern 
( Jerman  school  are  executed  in  fresco.  The  practice 
has  to  some  extent  been  introduced  into  Britain, 
and  certain  works  of  that  kind  have  been  executed, 
and  others  are  in  progress,  in  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament. 

Before  noticing  more  particularly  the  various 
properties  claimed  for  fresco-painting,  it  is  proper 
first  to  describe  the  process.  A  cartoon  or  draw- 
ing on  paper  is  first  made  of  the  subject.  This  must 
be  executed  with  a  correct  outline,  and  the  shading 
and  effect  fully  made  out.  The  finished  cartoon 
may  either  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  intended 
fresco,  or  it  may  be  done  on  a  smaller  scale  ;  but,  at 
all  events,  an  ouUine  of  the  same  size  as  the  fresco- 
painting  is  necessary.  When  the  finished  cartoon  is 
maile  the  same  size  as  the  fresco,  it  is  generally 
executed  in  black  and  white,  with  chalk  or  charcoal, 
but  it  is  essential  to  have  also  a  careful  study  of  the 
subject  in  colours,  and  this  is  in  most  cases  done  on 
a  small  scale.  The  colours  used  are  mostly  earths  or 
minei\als,  as  few  others  will  stand  the  action  of  lime  : 
these  are  groimd  and  applied  with  pure  water.  The 
ground  to\ie  jiainted  on  is  the  last  or  smooth  coating 
of  plaster  that  is  laid  over  the  rough  plaster- work 
with  which  walls  are  prepared.  This  last  coating, 
or  ground,  or  rather  as  much  of  it  as  the  artist 
calcidates  on  being  able  to  cover  in  one  day,  is  laid 


on  immediately  before  he  commences  worlc  The 
surface  is  wet,  but  firm  and  smooth ;  the  tracing  is 
laid  over  the  portion  prepared,  and  the  artist,  with 
a  jioint  of  hard  wood  or  bone,  goes  over  the  lines  of 
the  tracing,  and  slightly  indents  them  on  the  jilaster. 
He  then  proceeds  -with  his  work,  the  finished  cartoon 
and  coloured  sketch  being  hung  or  placed  near  him 
for  his  guidance.  After  his  day's  work  is  over,  any 
portion  of  the  jiister  that  has  not  been  painted  on, 
or  that  may  remain  beyond  or  at  the  edge  of  his 
work,  is  cut  away ;  and  next  day,  when  the  painter 
is  ready  to  commence  work,  the  plasterer  is  at 
hand,  and  joins  closely  another  portion  of  plaster 
to  the  edge  of  the  portion  painted  on  the  previous 
day,  which,  when  cut,  had  been  .slightly  sloped. 
The  lime,  in  drying,  throws  out  a  kind  of  crystal 
surface,  which  protects  the  colour,  and  imparts  a 
degree  of  clearness  much  superior  to,  and  easily  dis- 
tingiushable  from,  that  of  a  work  in  tempera  or 
size  paint.  This  process,  although  apparently  simple, 
nevertheless  rcquh-es  great  dexterity  and  certainty 
of  hand  ;  for  the  surface  of  the  plaster  is  delicate, 
and  must  not  be  overworked,  besides,  the  lime  only 
imbibes  a  certain  quantity  of  additional  moisture 
in  the  form  of  liquid  colours,  after  which  it  loses 
its  crystallising  quality,  and  the  surface,  or  a  por- 
tion of  it,  becomes  what  painters  call  rotten.  Many 
frescoes  are  defective  in  this  waj-.  It  is  only  after 
the  lime  has  dried  that  such  flaws  are  discovered  ; 
the  proper  plan,  in  such  a  case,  is  to  cut  away  the 
defective  portion,  have  fresh  plaster  laid  on,  and 
do  the  work  over  again.  But  the  flaws  are  too 
often  retouched  with  tempera  or  size  colours;  and 
though  they  may  escape  notice  for  a  time,  the  parts 
touched  will  change  or  come  off  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years.  Another  difficulty  in  fresco  is,  that  the 
colours  become  much  lighter  after  the  plaster  dries, 
and  for  this  allowance  must  be  made.  However, 
by  practice,  the  painter  may  soon  get  over  this  diffi- 
culty ;  and  he  can  test  the  difference  between  the 
colour  as  wet  and  as  drj-,  by  putting  a  touch  on  a 
piece  of  umber  he  has  generally  at  hand,  which 
instantly  dries  the  colour,  and  shews  it  as  it  will  be 
when  the  Ume  has  dried. 

The  pre-eminence  claimed  for  fresco-painting  is 
founded  on — 1.  The  quality  it  possesses  of  clear- 
ness and  exhibiting  colours  in  a  pure  and  bright 
state.  The  surface  not  being  dry  and  dull,  as  tem- 
pera or  size  colour,  nor  glossy  like  oil-paintings,  is 
capable  of  being  favourably  \'iewed  from  any  point. 
2.  Its  durability — many  frescoes  being  painted  on 
arcades  or  the  cloisters  of  churches  open  on  one 
side,  some  on  the  fronts  of  houses  entirely  exposed 
in  the  ojien  air.  3.  The  skill  and  dexterity  recjiiired 
in  execution — retouching  not  being  admissible,  nor 
those  various  appliances  of  glazing  over  painting, 
&c.,  available  in  working  with  oil-colours  ;  all  which 
circumstances  compel  the  fresco-painter  to  confine 
his  energy  more  to  the  subject  and  design,  than 
to  the  mechanical  qualities  so  much  sought  after 
by  painters  in  oil.  The  frescoes  by  M.  Angelo  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  by  Raphael  in  the  stanze  of 
the  A'atican,  and  those  in  the  cupola  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Parma  by  Correggio,  are  pointed  to  by 
the  advocates  of  this  mode  of  art  as  settling  the 
question. 

But,  on  the  other  side,  it  maybe  said — 1.  Though 
a  certain  degree  of  clearness  and  purity  of  colour 
results  from  fresco,  it  is  deficient  in  depth  and  rich- 
ness. The  absence  of  glossiness  is  no  doubt  an 
advant.age  in  the  case  of  mural-painting  with  refer- 
ence to  architcctur.al  decoration  ;  but  to  a  consider- 
able extent  this  difficulty  can  be  obWated  in  the 
case  of  painting  in  oil ;  and  Delaroche's  great  pic- 
ture of  the  Hemicycle  in  the  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris, 
which  is  in  oil,  is  not  objectionable  on  that  ground 

«1J 


FRESHWATER  HEKRING— FRESIIWATEU  STRATA. 


—  indeed,  many  mistake  it  for  fresco.    2.  No  doubt,  ■ 
in  fresco,  the  colours  are  not  liable  to  change  much, 
if   the  work  be  exeeute<l  in  pure  fresco,  and  not 
i-etouche<l ;   but.  generally  speaking,  the  surf.ice  is 
fra"ile.  and  easily  broken  or  scratched,  and  there  is 
no  w.iy  of  mending  it  but  by  retouching  with  tem- 
[lera  colours:  and" if  th.at  be  extensively  done,  its 
nature  is  altered,  .and  it  becomes  a  iiicture  in  size 
colours.     The  'Madonna  <le  Foligno,'  '.Madonna  di 
S-an  Sisto."  '  Sposalozia,'  and  other  celebrated  e.osel- 
pictures  by  Raph.ael,  are  in  nnich  better  i)reserva- 
tion  than  "his  frescoes  in  the  stanze  of  the  Vatican. 
a  The   properties    of   difficiUty   in    execution   and  ; 
limited  range  of  colouring,  and  of  technical  appli- 
ances, are  of   a    negative"  kind.      Ko   doubt,   some  ' 
painters   h.ave  maintained  that   gootl  colouring   is  I 
incomp.atible  with  gi-and  compositions ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  Titian's  '  Entombment '  in  the  Lou\Te, 
and   I'eter   Martyr  in  Venice,   anions;    others,   .are 
referred  to  as  rebutting  sucli  .an  assertion. 

Mural-painting  is  of  great  antiquity  :  in  Eg^it,  in 
the  Etruscan  tombs,  on  the  walls  of  houses  in 
Pompeii,  and  in  the  catacombs,  there  are  various 
remains  of  p.aintings  which  ai-e  generally  considered 
to  be  frescoes  ;  those  in  Pompeii,  in  particular,  are 
remarkable  for  grandeur  and  purity  of  style  in 
design  and  th-awing  ;  but  they  arc  executed  in  a 
slight  and  free  manner,  and  on  this  account,  and 
from  the  s.ame  or  nearly  similar  subjects  being 
often  found  repeated,  are  supjiosed  to  be  copies  by 
house-decorators  of  celebrated  paintings  that  were 
preser\'ed  in  temples  or  palaces  .at  Rome.  WTietlier 
these  were  frescoes  painted  on  the  w.alls  or  movable 
pictures,  is  matter  of  dispute.  '  The  Greeks  pre- 
ferred movable  pictures,  which  coidd  be  taken  away 
in  case  of  fire,  or  sold  if  necessary.' — Wilkinson  on 
Eijyptian  and  Greek  Paintiiirjs.  Pliny  says  ApeUes 
never  p.ainted  on  walls  ;  and  various  pictui-es  of 
immense  v.alue  are  stated  to  have  been  taken  from 
Greece  to  Rome. 

On  the  whole,  it  m.ay  be  assumed  as  an  opinion 
that  has  long  been  generally  .adopted,  that  where 
painting  is  to  be  combined  with  architectm-e,  fresco 
is  the  sUde  that  .assimilates  most  -nith  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  of  Delaroche  having  so  suc- 
cessfidly  executed  in  the  Beaux  Arts  a  work  in  oU, 
which  by  size  and  subject  w.as  so  well  adapted  for 
fresco,  and  the  circumstance  of  the  adoption  Lately 
in  Gei-many,  and  by  the  artists  in  our  Houses  of 
Parliament,  of  stereoohromic  painting  (see  below) 
in  place  of  fi-esco — a  method  by  which  certain 
defects  in  the  process  of  fresco-painting  are  said  to 
be  ob\-iated — militate  against  the  soimdness  of  some 
of  the  opinions  hitherto  adopted  as  to  the  advan- 
tages ascribed  to  fresco-painting. 

Fresco  Secco  is  a  spurious  kind  of  fresco,  much 
used  in  Italy  in  ordinary  house-decoration.  The 
colours,  mixed  in  water,  are  laid  on  the  w,all  after 
the  j]l.aster  is  dry,  and  adhere  in  a  certain  degree 
by  absorption,  the  hard  or  glassy  surface  which 
foi-ms  on  i)laster  after  it  dries  being  iiist  removed 
by  pumice  or  otheri^ase.  Pictures  executed  in  this 
manner  look  coarse  and  dry,  or  rotten,  and  are  in 
every  way  inferior  to  pure  fresco. 

Slereochromic  PuintliKj  (Gr.  stereos,  linn,  and 
chroma,  colour). — The  ordin.ary  process  of  fresco 
secco,  however,  has  Lately  .assumed  very  gi"eat 
importance  from  a  discovery  by  the  late  Dr  J.  R. 
von  Fuchs  of  what  is  called  w.ater-glass  (see  Fuciis's 
Soluble  Gla.ss),  which,  bein^  passed  over  the 
surf.ace  of  a  work  executed  in  fresco  secco,  imparts 
much  brilliancy,  and  fixes  and  gives  gi-eat  durability 
to  the  coloui-s ;  this  method  is  styled  stereodiromic 
painting,  .and  is  now  extensively  practised  in  Berlin 
'>y  Kaulbach  and  other  eminent  German  artists. 
Ilie  Late  Prince  .\lbert  w.as  so  much  impressed  by 


the  bearing  which  this  discovery  woiUd  have  on  the 
.art  of  mural-painting,  that  he  translated  from  the 
German  a  ]>aniphlet  describing  the  '  manufacture, 
properties,  and  api>lication  of  w.ater-gLiss  (soluble 
alkaline  silicate),  including  a  jirocess  of  stereo- 
chromic  painting,'  and  printed  it  for  private  circu- 
l.ation.  ilr  Maclisc,  R.A.,  made  u.'<e  of  this  new 
style  of  art  in  executing  his  great  picture  in  the 
p.alace  of  Westminster  of  the  '  Meeting  of  Wellington 
and  Bliiclicr  at  W.aterloo.' 

FRESHWATER  HERRING.    Sec  CoRECONUS. 

FRESHW.\TKR  MUSCLE,  a  popul.ar  name 
common  to  a  whole  f.amily  of  Lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  UiiioniilcT  (sometimes  called  ^VaiVx/i),  allied 
to  muscles  (MijiiVuitv),  but  having  a  much  larger 
foot,  which  does  not  generally  produce  a  Byssus 
(q.v.),  except  in  a  very  young  state  of  the  animal. 
All  the  known  molluscs  of  this  family  are  inhabit- 
ants of  fresh  water,  some  of  them  being  found  in 
still,  and  some  in  running  waters.  A  ifew  species 
.are  Eurojiean ;  but  it  is  in  North  America  that 
they  chietly  abound,  its  lakes  and  rivers  producing 
many  species.  They  crawl  aliout  by  means  of  the 
foot ;  m.any  of  them  generally  live  immersed  in 
mud.  They  are  supposed  to  feed  on  animalcules, 
and  on  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 
The  epidennis  of  m.any  is  In-illiantly  coloured,  and 
the  inside  of  the  shell  is  lined  with  a  brilli;»ntly 
and  variously  coloured  nacre,  so  .abundant  as  to  be 
sometimes  used  for  mother-of-pearl.  Pearls  .are 
sometimes  produced.  There  are  four  British  speciis, 
of  which  one,  Anodon  cygneus,  attaining  a  size  of 
2^  inches  long  by  6  broad,  is  common  in  lakes, 
ponds,  .and  muddy  rivers.  It  is  very  variable  in 
the  thickness  of  the  shell  and  in  other  particulars. 
The  hinge  is  toothless.  Two  species  are  confined 
chiefly  to  the  south  and  cast  of  England ;  the 
fourth  (Unio  or  Ahismodoii  margariti/era,  M>ja 
■margarilij'era  of  Linnseus)  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
mountainous  and  hilly  districts  with  a  rocky  bed,  and 
has  long  been  celebrated  for  the  pearls  which    it 


Freshwater  Muscle  (Alasmodon  margariti/era). 

produces.  It  is  .about  2V  inches  long  by  5  broad, 
and  has  a  thick  blackislibrown  shell,  with  a  tootlied 
hin^e.  It  is  the  most  northern  Eiu-opean  species, 
and" is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Xorway  and  Sweden. 
The  pearls  of  the  British  rivers  were  f.amous  among 
the  ancient  Komans ;  and  Suetonius  represents 
them  as  having  formed  an  inducement  for  Gesar's 
expedition.  Some  of  the  rivers  of  Wales,  the  north- 
west of  England  and  Scotland,  have  at  various 
times  produced  beautiful  and  valuable  pe.arls.  In 
the  river  Earn,  a  tributary  of  the  Tay,  muscle- 
g.athcring  is  quite  a  trade,  and  the  pearls  found 
form  the  means  of  subsistence  to  many  families.  .\ 
pearl  from  the  Conway,  presented  liy  Sir  Richard 
Wynn  to  the  queen  of  t'harlos  II..  is  among  the 
orn.aracnts  of  the  British  crown.  Large  and  fine 
pearls  have  also  been  procured  from  rivers  of 
TjTone  and  DonegaL 

FRESHWATER  STRATA  are  so  named  from 
their  supposed  origin.  This  can  be  easily  deter- 
mined from  an  examination  of  the  contained  fossils. 


FRESNEL— FREYTAG. 


Though  t)ie  great  proportion  of  aqueous  rocks  are 
of  marine  origin,  yet  freshwater  strata  are  occasion- 
ally met  with.  The  yellow  sandstones  of  the  Old 
Red  or  Lower  Cai'boniferous  period  are  freshwater 
beds,  as  are  also  the  Burdie-House  hmestone  in 
the  Edinburgh  coal-field,  the  Purbeek  beds  in  the 
Oolite,  the  Wealden  beds  in  the  Chalk,  and  the 
Hempstead  and  other  beds  in  the  Eocene  period. 

FRESNEL,  AuGUSTiN  Jean,  a  French  physicist, 
was  boru  at  Broglie,  in  the  department  of  Euro, 
10th  May  1788,  educated  at  Caen  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechuique,  and  finally  at  the  Ecole  des  Pouts 
ct  Chaussees.  On  the  comjdetion  of  his  studies, 
he  was  sent  as  government  engineer  to  La  Vendee, 
and  afterwards  to  the  department  of  Drume,  where 
he  remained  till  ilarch  181.5.  On  the  return  of 
Naiioleon  from  Elba,  F.  offered  his  services  to 
the  Bourbons,  but  ill  health  prevented  him  from 
actively  engaging  in  military  life.  At  the  Restora- 
tion, ho  resumed  his  duties  as  goverimient  engineer ; 
but  in  the  interval  he  had  Ijcen  devoting  his 
enforced  leisure  to  physico-mathematical  researches, 
particularly  the  ]>olarisatiou  of  light,  with  so  much 
success,  that  although  in  a  letter,  dated  '2Sth  Decem- 
ber 1814,  we  find  him  writing  to  a  fi'iend  to  get 
him  some  books  on  the  subject,  as  he  did  not  know 
what  the  plu-ase  'polarisation  of  light  meant'  ('.Je 
ne  sais  ce  qu'on  entend  par  la  polarisation  de  la 
liunibre'),  yet  before  the  completion  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  ranked  among  the  first  authorities  on 
tlie  question.  In  ignorance,  it  is  said  of  the  labours 
of  Young,  F.  demonstrated  to  his  countrymen  the 
error  of  the  Xewtonian  theory  of  the  jiropagation 
of  light  by  the  emission  of  material  particles,  and 
ably  advocated  the  undulatory  hyiiothesis.  The 
result  of  his  researches  was  exhibited  in  a  memoir, 
crowned  by  the  French  Academic  des  Sciences  iu 
IS19.  Along  with  Arago,  he  investigated  the  action 
exercised  by  polarised  rays  of  Ught  on  each  other, 
and  their  discoveries,  published  in  a  joint  memoir, 
confirmed  his  previous  theory  on  the  mode  of  the 
propagation  of  light.  His  practical  appHcatiou  of  the 
new  theory  to  tlie  improvement  of  tiie  light-house 
system,  was  of  incalculable  value,  and  has  (iiiite 
abolished  the  old  method  of  illiuninating  light- 
houses. See  LiGUT-HOUSES.  In  1823,  F.  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  AcadSmie  des  Sciences ;  in  1825, 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Loudon  ;  and  in 
1S27,  received  from  the  same  Society  the  Rumford 
medal  for  his  discoveries  concerning  light  and  heat. 
He  died  July  14,  1827. 

FRET,  a  figure,  in  Heraldry,  resembling  two 
sticks  laid  saltierwise,  and  interlaced  with  a  mascle. 


Fret. 


Frctty. 


FRETTY.  When  six,  eight,  or  more  pieces  are 
represented  crossing  and  interlacing  hke  lattice- 
work, the  shield  is  said  to  be  frctty. 

FREYJA  AND  FRI'GGA,  though  spoken  of  in 
northern  mythology  as  distinct,  are  originally  one, 
and  intimately  associated  ivith  Freyr.  Fngga,  in  the 
geneaiogy  of  the  Ases  (q.  v.),  is  the  supreme  goddess, 
wife  of  Udin,  and  one  of  the  daughters  fif  the  giant 
Fiiirgwj'u,  and  presides  over  marriages.  Freyja  is 
the  daughter  of  Niord.  sister  of  Freyr,  and  goddess 
of  love.  She  is  drawn  on  a  car  yoked  with  cats  ;  to 
her,  deceased  women  go,  and  also  the  half  of  those 


that  fall  in  battle,  whence  she  is  called  Val-Freyj;'-. 
in  tilts  last  respect,  she  must  be  considered  as 
signifying  tlie  Earth  ;  but  the  earth  is  also  repre- 
sented by  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  and  when 
Freyja  seeks  (Jdin,  as  Isis  seeks  her  Osiris,  this  is 
Odin  conceived  as  the  Sun.  The  names  also,  IVigga 
and  Freyja,  are  iu  signification  almost  alike,  and 
the  two  are  often  coufoimded  in  mythology.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  and  Lombards  worshipped  the  wife 
of  Odin  as  Frea.     The  name  yet  survives  in  Friday. 

FREYR,  the  son  of  Xiord,  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Vanagods,  was  adopted  with  his  father  among  the 
Ases,  who,  when  he  got  his  first  tooth,  bestowed 
upon  him  the  celestial  castle  Alfhelm.  He  is  the 
god  of  peace  and  fertility;  disjieuses  rain  and  fer- 
tility; and  to  him  prayers  for  a  good  harvest  are 
addressed.  His  ■nnfe  is  Gerda,  daughter  of  the 
giant  Gymer.  F.  had  seen  her  as  he  once  ascended 
the  lofty  seat  of  Odin,  Hlidskialt,  from  which  every- 
thing on  earth  is  seen.  Gerda  was  so  beautiful,  that 
the  brightness  of  her  naked  arms  illuminated  air 
and  sea.  Seized  with  violent  love,  F.  sent  Skirnir 
as  spokesman,  and  for  his  services  had  to  give 
him  his  good  sword,  which  he  will  miss  in  the  gi-cat 
final  contest  or  eclipse  of  the  gods.  Like  Freyja,  he 
was  the  patron  of  marriage,  and  proliably  the  two 
were  at  one  time  conceived  as  united,  hermajihro- 
dite-wise.  F.  was  held  iu  gi'eat  veneration,  esjiecially 
iu  Sweden,  of  which  he  was  patron-god,  and  also  in 
Iceland.  His  chief  temple  was  at  Upsala,  where  a 
bloody  offering  was  yearly  made  to  him  of  men  and 
animals.  His  festival  was  at  the  winter  solstice, 
the  turn  of  the  year — Yide-tide.  While  the  god 
was  borne  round  the  land,  all  strife  was  laid  aside. 
(Does  '  the  jirocession  of  the  boars-head,'  at  Christ- 
mas-time, commemorate  F.,  who  rode  on  the  boar, 
Gulliubursti,  and  whose  symbol  was  the  boar's- 
head  ?)  The  circumstance  that  the  Saxon  form  of 
F.'s  name.  Fro,  has  been  preserved  in  the  (iernian 
name  of  a  Chi-istian  festival,  Fronlcichnani  (Corpus 
Christi,  the  Lord's  body),  seems  to  shew  that  it  had 
become  among  these  peoples  the  abstract  term  for  a 
god. 

FREYTAG,  Gu.stav,  a  di-amatic  jioet  and 
novelist  of  Germany,  was  born  13th  July  1816,  at 
Kreuzburg,  in  Silesia,  studied  at  the  luiiversities  of 
Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  took  his  degree  in  phil- 
osophy in  1838.  His  first  important  work  was  a 
comedy,  entitled  Die  Braiitfahrt,  odfi'  KuDz  von 
Hosen  (Breslau,  1844).  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  mentioned  In  Breslau  (Berlin,  1843),  which 
is  a  collection  of  small  poems  WTitten  in  a  ]iopiUar 
style  ;  the  ilramas  Die  Valentine  (Leip.  1847)  and 
Graf  Waldemar  (Leip.  1S4S) ;  and  the  comedy 
entitled  Vie  Journalislen  (1854);  most  of  which 
were  received  with  warm  approbation  on  their 
ajipearance,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  care  and 
refinement  which  they  exhiljit  in  the  pm-traiture  of 
character  and  the  arrangement  of  incident.  An 
e<lition  of  his  dramatic  works  was  pubHshed  at 
Leipsic,  in  3  vols.,  1S4S — 1S50.  But  his  greatest 
achievement  in  literature  is  undoubtedly  iioll  und 
ilaben  (Leip.  1S55),  a  novel  of  German  citizen-life, 
illustrating  its  activity,  iierseverauce,  and  courage- 
ous loyalty,  and  thus  expressing,  as  it  were,  the 
poetry  of  honest  labour.  It  passed  through  five 
editions  in  one  year,  and  a  seventh  was  published 
at  Leipsic,  iu  1858.  It  has  been  translated  into 
English  uikUt  the  title  of  JJehit  and  Credit  (1858). 
In  1859,  F.  published  a  new  classical  drama,  Din 
Juibier,  a  second  edition  of  which  has  just  aj>peared 
(Leip.  18G2).  His  most  recent  work  is  a  series  of 
jirose  pictures  from  (ierman  history ,  entitled  \tue 
Jiilder  aiis  dem  Leleii  da  Deutudtcn  ]'olkes  (Leip. 
18G2). 

617 


FRIAE— FRICTION. 


FRIAK,  a  name  common  to  tlio  members  of  cer- 
tain relijrious  orders  in  tlie  Roman  Catholic  Cliiirch, 
auil  generally  em|ilciye<l  in  contradistinction  to  the 
name  Monk  and  Rej^ilar  Clerk  (see  these  articles). 
The  n;mic  friar,  although  from  its  etymology 
(J'rirf,  brother)  it  belongs  to  the  nieudjcrs  of  all 
religious  brotherhoods,  yet  has  come  to  be  reserved 
almost  exclusively  for  the  brethren  of  the  Mendi- 
cant orders.  It  is  applied  chieHy  to  the  four  great 
orders,  Dominicans,  iVanciscaus.  Augustinians,  Car- 
melites, and  later,  to  the  Trinitarians,  and  to  the 
various  branches  of  these  orders.  The  Franciscans 
were  projjcrly  denominated  '  Friars  Minor'  (Fratres 
Miiwris).  The  Dominicans  received,  in  contrast,  the 
title  '  Fri.ars  Jlajor,'  which,  however,  w;is  perhaps 
rather  a  sobriquet  than  a  serious  name.  These  several 
bodies  of  friars,  too,  were  popularly  called,  from 
the  colour  or  other  peculiarity  of  their  habit.  Grey 
Friars  (Franciscans),  Black  Friars  (Dominicans), 
WTiitc  Friars  (Carmelites)  Crntched  [or  Crouched 
(Cniciati,  'crossed')]  Friars  (Trinitarians),  so  called 
from  the  cross  wliich  was  embroidered  upon  their 
haliit.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  names  of  the  several 
localities  in  London,  .and  other  towns  thus  desig- 
nated, to  the  present  day.  In  the  orders  to  which 
we  refer,  the  friars  who  are  in  priest's  orders  are 
stj'led  '  father.'  The  other  members  are  called 
simply  '  brother.'  The  vow  taken  by  friars  at  pro- 
fession is  of  the  class  called  in  the  Catholic  Church 
'  solemn,'  and  is  held  to  render  null  and  void  any 
contract  of  marriage  entered  into  by  the  party 
subsequently  to  his  religious  profession. 

FKIAES'  BALSAM.    See  Benzoi-V. 

FRI'CTION.  When  one  body  rubs  against 
another  as  it  moves,  a  certain  force  is  felt  to  resist 
the  motion.  This  resistance  is  csMei/rlctloii.  As  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  motive-power  in  all 
operations  is  spent  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the 
parts  of  the  machine  upon  one  another,  and  is  tbus 
lost  for  the  useful  work,  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
undei-stand  the  natiu'e  of  this  obstructive  force,  with 
a  view  to  reduce  it  to  the  least  possible  amount. 
A  ccordingly,  a  great  many  caref id  experiments  have 
been  made  on  this  subject,  and  the  resiUt  is  a 
number  of  precise  and  valuable  facts  or  laws  regard- 
ing fiiction,  which  are  now  considered  certain  and 
reliable.  The  more  important  may  be  thus  stated 
and  illustrated. 

When  a  block  of  oak — say  a  cubic  foot,  which 
weighs  about  60  lbs. — is  placed  on  a  horizontal  table 
of  cast  iron,  the  two  surfaces  being  flat  and  smooth, 
it  requires  a  force  of  nearly  i  the  weight  of  the 
block,  or  24  lbs.,  pulling  horizontally,  to  make  it 
slide  along  the  table.  This  measures  the  friction 
between  the  two  surfaces.  Another  block  of  the 
same  size  and  shape  laid  on  the  same  table,  would 
require  the  s.ame  force  to  draw  it ;  and  if  the  two 
were  laid  side  by  side,  and  f.istened  together  so  as 
to  become  one  block,  it  would  eridently  requii'e 
double  the  force,  or  48  lbs.,  to  draw  the  double 
block ;  the  amoimt  of  the  friction  being  thus  still 
f  of  the  weight,  or  of  the  pressure  between  the  two 
surfaces.  But  suppose  that,  instead  of  being  laid 
side  by  side,  the  second  block  were  laid  on  the  top 
of  the  first,  what  is  to  be  ex]iccted  ?  Here  the 
weight  is  doubled  as  before,  but  the  extent  of  rub- 
bing surface  remains  unaltered ;  it  would  be  natural, 
therefore,  to  cxjject  that  tliis  would  make  a  differ- 
ence, and  that,  though  the  friction  woidd,  of  course, 
be  increased,  the  increase  would  be  less  than  in 
the  former  case.  Experiment,  however,  shews  that 
there  is  no  difference,  and  that  the  friction  is  jnst 
double  in  both  cases.  In  short,  the  unexpected  and 
iin])ortant  fact  is  established,  that,  vil/iin  certain 
limiU,  the  friction  of  any  tim  surfaces  increases  in 
Hi 


proportion  to  Vie  force  with  which  they  are  prfssed 
toi/ellfr,  and  ii  wholly  iiulependeiU  qf  tJte  extent  of  the 
surfaces  in  contact. 

The  amount  of  friction  between  two  bodies  is  thus 
a  constant  fraction  or  proportion  of  the  force  with 
which  they  are  pressed  against  e.icli  other.  This 
fraction  differs  for  the  different  kinds  of  sm-faces. 
Thus,  between  oak  and  cast  iron,  it  is,  as  already 
stated,  about  ^,  or  more  exactly,  *3S  ;  for  wrought 
iron  on  wrought  iron  (we  speak  at  present  of  dry 
sm-faces,  without  grease  or  imguent  of  any  kind),  it 
is  '44 ;  for  brass  upon  cast  iron,  -22.  This  constant 
fraction  (expressing  the  proportion  between  the 
pressure  of  two  surfaces  and  their  friction)  is  called 
the  coefficient  of  friction  for  these  two  surfaces. 

Another  way  of  illustrating  this  law  of  friction  is 
the  following,  which  has  an  important  bearing  on 
the  erection  of  structures,  and  on  mechanics  in 
general.  Suppose  a  slab  AB,  in  contact  with  another 
.sLab  CD,  of  tha 
s.ame  or  of  differ- 
ent material ;  aiul 
that  a  force  I'Q 
presses  on  AB 
obUquely.  Let  QR 
be  the  pei-pendi- 
cular  to  the  two 
surfaces,  and  draw 
PK,  PS  parallel  to  c  -^ 
AB  and  QR,  thus  ^~^ 
resolving  the  force  ^ 
PQ  into  two  forces, 

one,  PS,  pressing  AB  against  CD,  the  other,  PR  or 
SQ,  tending  to  make  AB  slide  towards  C.  It  will 
clearly  depend  upon  the  strength  of  friction  between 
AB  .and  CD,  how  far  the  force  PQ  maj'  be  made  to 
decline  from  the  perpendicular  without  actually 
causing  the  one  body  to  slide  on  the  other.  Suppose 
that  when  the  ])usliing  force  is  brought  into  the 
position  P'Q,  AB  is  just  ready  to  slip  on  CD,  and 
that  it  is  a  case  of  oak  upon  iron  ;  then,  since  P'S' 
or  R'Q  is  the  force  pressing  the  surfaces  together, 
and  P'R'  or  S'Q  the  force  tending  to  produce 
motion,  P'R'  will  be  -J  of  R'Q.  The  angle  P'QR'  is 
called  the  Umilinij  ani/le  of  rcsijitance  of  the  two 
surfaces  AB,  CD  ;  for  so  long  as  the  direction  of  the 
pressure  PQ  is  within  that  angle,  the  friction  of  the 
surfaces  will  sustain  it ;  but  it  the  obliquity  is 
greater,  the  siu-faces  will  slip.  This  is  true,  inde- 
pendently of  the  extent  of  the  sm-f.aces  in  contact ; 
and  also  of  the  amount  of  the  pressure  ;  for  the 
stability  depends  ujjon  the  ]iroportion  of  PR  to  RQ, 
and  that  is  the  same,  whatever  is  the  length  of  PQ, 
so  long  as  its  inclination  is  the  same. 

If  the  slab  CD  were  tilted  up,  so  as  to  form  an 
inclined  plane,  until  -AB  were  on  the  point  of  sliding, 
the  angle  of  inclination  would  be  found  to  be  equal 
to  the  limiting  angle  of  resistance  RQP'. 

Knowing  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  .any  two 
substances,  their  limiting  angle  of  resistance  is 
easily  found.  Ku-ample. — The  coefficient  of  brick 
ui>oii  hard  limestone  is  "GO  ;  rL>(|uired  the  limiting 
angle.  Take  a  line  QR'  of  any  convenient  length, 
raise  a  perpendicular  R'P'  equal  to  -f^  of  QR',  and 
join  QP" ;  R'QP'  is  the  angle  ie(|uired  :  if  measured, 
it  would  be  found  to  be  about  ."Jl'.  In  any  struc- 
ture, then,  the  obliquity  of  the  thrust  between 
two  surfaces  of  these  m.aterials  must  always  be 
considerably  within  this  limit,  in  order  to  be  safe. 

"ihe  friction  of  ipiiescence,  that  is,  the  resistance  to 
the  commencement  of  motion,  is  greater  th.iu  the 
resistance  to  its  continuance  ;  and  the  more  so  if 
tlie  surfaces  have  been  a  consider.able  time  in  con- 
tact. But  the  slightest  shock  or  jar  is  sntfieient  to 
destroy  this  cohesion,  or  whatever  it  is  that  consti- 
tutes the  peculiar  initial  resistance;  so  that  it  is  only 


FRIEDLAND. 


the  constant  and  regular  friction  of  motion  that  is 
of  much  consequence  in  practice. 

Friction  is  very  much  diminished  by  the  use  of 
grease  or  imf,nionts.  The  coefficient  of  wrought  iron 
upon  oak,  -which,  in  the  dry  state,  is  '49,  is  reduced 
by  the  a]))iIication  of  water  to  •2G,  and  by  dry  soap 
to  -iil.  The  result  of  experiments  on  this  subject 
is  stated  to  be,  '  that  with  the  unguents,  hog's-lard 
and  olive-oil,  interposed  in  a  continuous  stratum 
between  them,  surfaces  of  wood  on  metal,  wood  on 
wood,  metal  on  wood,  and  metal  on  metal  (when  in 
motion),  have  all  of  them  very  nearly  the  same 
coefficient  of  friction,  the  value  of  that  coefficient 
being  in  aU  cases  included  between  -07  and  'OS.' 
Tallow  gives  the  same  coefficient  as  the  other 
unguents,  except  in  the  case  of  metals  iipon  metals, 
in  which  the  coefficient  rises  to  '10.  In  the  case  of 
■wood  on  wood,  black-lead  is  frequently  employed 
for  the  same  puqiose. 

The  most  important  fact,  perhaps,  and  one  that 
could  hardly  have  been  anticipated  before  experi- 
ment, is,  tltat  tlie  friction  of  motion  ie  wltoUy  inde- 
pendent of  tlie  velocity  of  the  motion. 

The  resistance  to  the  motion  of  a  wheeled  carriage 
proceeds  from  two  sources  ;  the  fi-iction  of  the  axle, 
and  the  inequalities  of  the  road.  The  resistance  of 
friction  to  the  turning  of  a  shaft  in  its  bearings,  or 
of  an  axle  in  its  box,  has  evidently  the  greater 
leverage,  the  thicker  the  journal  or  the  axle  is  ;  the 
a.xles  of  wheels  are  accordingly  made  as  small  a.s  is 
consistent  with  the  required  strength.  The  resist- 
ance that  occui-s  between  the  circumference  of  the 
wheel  and  the  road,  constitutes  what  is  called  roliing 
friction.  There  are  on  all  roads,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  visible  rigid  prominences,  such  as  small 
stones,  in  passing  over  which  the  wheel  and  the 
load  resting  on  it  have  to  be  lifted  up  against 
gravity.  But  even  were  these  wanting,  the  hardest 
road  yields,  and  aUows  the  wheel  to  sink  to  a 
certain  depth  below  its  surface  ;  so  that  in  front  of 
the  wheel  there  is  always  an  eminence  or  obstacle, 
which  it  is  at  every  instant  surmoimting  and  crush- 
ing down.  This  is  the  case  even  on  iron  rails, 
tliough  of  course  to  a  much  less  extent  than  on  any 
other  road.  Now,  for  overcoming  this  resistance, 
it  can  be  shown,  on  the  principle  of  the  lever,  that  a 
large  wheel  has  the  advantage  over  a  small  one ; 
and  by  numerous  exjieriments,  the  fact  has  been 
fully  established,  that  on  horizontal  roads  of  uniform 
quality  and  material,  the  traction  varies  directly  a$ 
(he  load,  and  inversely  as  the  radius  of  the  luheel. 

The  best  direction  of  traction  in  a  two-wheeled 
carriage  is  not  parallel  to  the  road,  but  at  a  slight 
inclination  upward,  in  proportion  to  the  depth  to 
which  the  wheel  sinks  in  the  road. 

On  a  perfectly  good  and  level  macadamised  road, 
the  traction  of  a  cart  is  found  to  be  ^  of  the  load  ; 
that  is,  to  draw  a  ton,  the  horse  requires  to  pidl 
with  a  force  equal  to  75  lbs.  On  a  railway,  the 
traction  is  reduced  to  -^  of  the  load,  or  to  8  lbs.  per 
ton. 

Wliile  friction  thus  acts  as  an  obstruction  to 
motion,  and  wastes  a  portion  of  the  motive-power, 
it  has  also  imjiortant  uses.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  indis- 
pensable condition,  no  less  than  gravity,  in  the 
stability  of  every  structure,  and  in  eveiy  mechanical 
motion  on  the  earth's  surface.  How  essential  it  is  to 
our  own  movements,  we  experience  when  we  try  to 
■walk  on  ice.  Even  on  ice  there  is  still  considerable 
friction,  so  that  one  foot  can  be  slightly  advanced 
before  the  other ;  were  it  altogether  annihilated, 
we  coidd  not  stir  a  fraction  of  an  inch,  even  suppos- 
ing we  could  stand  upright.  Without  friction,  a 
ladder  coidd  not  be  planted  against  a  wall,  unless 
there  were  a  hole  in  the  ground  to  retain  the  foot. 
In   short,   no   oblique   pressure  of   any  kind   could 


be  sustained.  The  advantage  of  railways  consists 
chiefly  in  the  diminution  of  friction  ;  but  were  this 
diminution  carried  much  further,  there  could  be  no 
motion  whatever,  at  least  by  means  of  locomotives. 
Without  considerable  friction,  the  dri\'ing-wheel3 
of  the  locomotive  would  slide  round  on  the  rails 
■without  advancing ;  and  this  sometimes  happens, 
when  particular  states  of  the  weather  render  the 
rails  as  if  they  were  greased. 

The  force  of  friction  is  often  directly  employed  in 
mechanics.  It  is  used,  for  instance,  to  cnnimunicate 
motion  by  means  of  belts,  chains,  &c.  It  is  the 
force  that  holds  a  knot.  It  is  speci.ally  useful  when 
a  machine,  -with  great  momentum,  has  to  be  checked 
or  arrested  in  its  motion.  The  best  examjjle  of  this 
is  the  break  used  on  railways.  By  means  of  a 
system  of  levers,  blocks  of  wood  are  made  to  press 
against  the  circumferences  of  a  number  of  the  car- 
riage-wheels ;  and  thus  the  momentiun  of  a  ti'ain 
weighing  hundreds  of  tons,  and  moving  with  a 
velocity  of  perhaps  50  mUes  an  hour,  is  gradually 
destroyed  in  a  wonderfiUly  short  space  of  time. 

Friction-wheels  are  employed  to  diminish  the 
friction  of  axles  on  then*  supports.  Two  wheels, 
of  large  circumference  in  proportion  to  their  weight, 
are  placed  close  together,  parallel  to  each  otiicr, 
and  so  that  the  one  seems  to  overlap  the  half  of  the 
other  ;  in  the  notch  thus  formed  by  the  upper  cir- 
cumferences of  the  wheels  one  end  of  the  axle  rests ; 
a  similar  arrangement  being  made  for  the  other 
end.  The  friction,  which  fonuerlj^  acted  directly 
on  the  axle,  is  by  this  arrangement  referred  to  the 
axles  of  the  friction-wheels,  and  is,  by  the  laws  of 
mechanics,  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  friction-wheel  to  the  circumference  of 
its  axle.  In  order  to  render  the  friction  of  the 
friction-wheels  themselves  the  least  possible,  they 
are  made  as  light  and  as  large  as  is  practicable. 

FEIE'DLAND,  a  small  town  of  East  Prussia, 
in  the  circle  of  Kiinigsberg,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Alle,  20  miles  south-east  of  Kiinigsberg, 
in  lat.  54°  26'  N.  and  long.  21°  E.  Pop.  2581,  who 
are  employed  in  linen-weaving.  F.  has  been  rendered 
famous  by  the  victory  obtained  there  liy  Napoleon, 
14tli  .Tune  18l>7,  over  the  Russian  forces  under 
Bennigsen.  The  Russian  general  found  himself 
unable  to  cope  successfully  with  an  anny  of  80,000 
men,  as  his  own  force  consisted  of  less  than  50,000 
horse  and  foot ;  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  after  a 
disastrous  battle.  He  fell  back  upon  the  town  of 
Tilsit,  on  the  Kiemcn,  where  the  treaty  between 
the  French  and  Russian  emperors  and  the  king  of 
Prussia,  known  as  the  treaty  of  TUsit,  was  di-awu 
up. — FRIEDL.VXD  is  also  the  name  of  a  town  in 
Bohemia,  situated  on  the  Wittig.  near  the  Prussian 
border.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  district  or  duchy  of 
the  same  name,  from  which  the  fatuous  Wallenstein 
(q.  V.)  took  his  title  of  Duke  of  Friedland.  Pop.  of 
the  town,  4400. 

FRIEULAND,  Valentin,  generally  called,  from 
his  birth])lace,  Trotzendorf  and  indisputably  the 
greatest  educationist  of  his  age,  was  a  native  of 
Upper  Liisatia,  and  was  born  14th  February  1490. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  in  151.3,  he  went  to 
Leipsic,  where  he  studied  under  the  celebrated  I'eter 
Mosellanus  and  Richard  Crocus,  acquiring  among 
other  things  a  knowledge  of  Greek.  On  the  dawn 
of  the  lleformation,  he  proceeded  to  Wittenberg, 
where  he  formed  a  close  intimacy  ■with  Luther  and 
Melaucthon,  and  learned  Hebrew  from  a  converted 
Jew.  In  152,'!,  he  ]>roceeded  to  Goldberg,  in  Silesia, 
as  rector  of  the  gymnasium  there  ;  left  after  four 
years,  but  returned  in  1531, and  exhibited  the  greatest 
energy  in  improving  the  organisation  of  the  school. 
.Success  crowned  his   efforts.      The   gymnasium  of 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS— FRIENDLY  S(liIKTIES. 


GoMborg  acquired  a  rare  celebrity.  Not  only  from 
Silesi:»,  but  also  from  Poland,  Lithuania,  Austria. 
Bohemia,  Hunijarj-,  and  Transylvania,  pupils  sousjht 
it  in  -Teat  numbers.  Often  more  than  1000  attended 
at  a  time,  who  all  dwelt  together  in  buildings  set 
a|iart  for  the  ]>urpose,  and  were  admirably  super- 
iutendwl  and  ibiUed.  F.  had  a  most  wonderful 
belief  in  the  etiicacy  of  knowledge,  aud,  in  ]>ai-ticular. 
])laced  so  hiiih  a  value  (jh  clearness  of  thought  and 
exi>ressiou,  tuat  he  was  wont  to  aBirm  that  only 
rogues  were  unintelligible,  and  that  an  obscure  and 
confused  diction  was  a  sure  sign  of  a  knavish 
dis|iosition.  He  died  at  Liegnitz,  2Gth  April  155G. 
Compare  Pin/ger's  ]'ali-niiii  rrledland,  genannt 
Tivtzendorj  (Hirschberg,  IS'2o). 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Fiji  Islands  (q.  v.),  generally  reckoned  a  part 
of  them,  are  otherwise  styled  the  To.nga  Group. 
They  stretch  in  S.  lat.  from  18°  to  2;}",  and  in  W. 
long,  from  172"  to  170°.  and  consist  of  about  .■!2 
greater,  and  150  smaller  islands,  about  30  of  which 
are  inhabited.  The  gre.it  majority  are  of  coral 
formation  ;  but  some  are  volcanic  in  their  origin,  and 
in  Tofua  there  is  an  active  volcano.  The  principal 
member  of  the  archipel.ago  is  Tomjatabu  or  Sacred 
Tonga,  whicli  contains  about  750U  inhabitsmts,  out  of 
a  total  population  of  about  25,000.  The  F.  I.  were 
discovered  by  Tasmau  in  1G43,  but  received  their 
collective  name  from  Cook.  Both  these  na\-igators 
found  the  soil  closely  aud  highly  cultivated,  .ind 
the  people  apiiarently  unprovided  with  arms.  The 
climate  is  salubrious,  but  humid  ;  earthquakes  and 
hurricanes  are  frequent,  but  the  former  are  not 
destructive.  Among  the  products  of  the  islands  arc 
yams,  sweet-potatoes,  bananas,  cocoa-nuts,  bread- 
fruit, sugar-cane,  the  (/,  hog-plum,  &c. ;  some  corn, 
also  is  grown.  The  Flora  resembles  that  of  the 
Fiji  gro<ip ;  but  the  native  animals  are  very  few. 

The  F.  I.  were  first  \-isited  by  missionaries  in 
1797.  In  1S27  the  work  of  evangelisation  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  and  after 
a  lengthened  and  perilous  struggle  with  the  savage 
paganism  of  the  inhabitants,  it  w-as  crowned  with 
success.  Almost  all  the  islanders  are  now  Christians; 
great  numbers  can  speak  English,  and,  iii  addition, 
liave  learned  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography  ; 
while  the  females  have  been  taught  to  sew.  The 
various  islands  used  to  be  governed  by  independent 
chiefs,  but  nearly  the  whole  of  them  are  now  under 
the  rule  of  one  chief,  called  King  George,  who  is 
not  ordy  a  Christian,  but  a  zealous  preacher  of  the 
gospel. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  The  micertainties 
of  human  life  and  health,  and  the  effects  of  these  on 
the  well-being  of  those  who  are  dependent  for  their 
subsistence  on  human  labour,  are  too  manifest  not 
to  have  arrested  the  attention  of  men  in  .all  ages, 
and  to  have  taxed  their  ingenuity  to  guard  against 
them.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  traces  of  some 
sort  of  institution,  corresiiondiiig  more  or  less  closely 
to  the  friendly  societies  of  modern  Eiu'ojie,  might 
be  foimd  wherever  mankind  h.ave  not  depended  for 
their  means  of  bring  on  the  spontaneous  jiroduets  of 
the  soil.  At  all  events,  they  had  their  prototypes 
in  the  cases,  boxes,  aud  chests,  or  kists — as  they 
were  called  in  Scotland  as  in  tiermany — of  the 
guilds  and  corpor.ations  of  mediev.al  Europe  ;  ■which 
were  funds  not  only  for  maintaining  the  dignity  and 
ministering  to  the  conviWality  of  the  members,  but 
for  providing  for  the  aged  and  the  sicU.  Mr  Turner 
linds  them  in  Anglo-Saxon  Engl.and,  and,  like  the 
other  institutions  connected  with  municipal  life,  they 
probably  formed  p.irt  of  the  legacy  of  the  Romans 
to  the  Teutonic  conquerors  of  Europe.  FrieniUy 
societies  are  a  form  of  mutual  insurance,  and,  like 
620 


all  insurances,  tluy  depend  on  the  principle  of  sub- 
stituting the  certainty  which  attends  the  fortunes 
of  large  numbers  of  men  for  the  uncertainty  wbicii 
belongs  to  the  fortune  of  each.  The  objects  which 
friendly  societies  usually  contempl.ate  are  the  secur- 
ing, in  \-irtue  of  a  small  periodical  jiaymeiit  during 
health  and  vigour,  of  a  weekly  sum  diuing  sickness, 
anil  of  a  i)ension  after  a  certain  age.  In  st)me  respects, 
and  for  some  cases,  joining  a  friendly  society  is 
better  than  becoming  a  depositor  in  a  savings-bank. 
Sickness  may  come  before  the  sa\*ings  are  consider- 
able ;  or,  if  considerable,  they  may  be  melted  away 
by  a  long-continued  sickness  ;  but  after  the  tii-st 
weekly  p.aynient  is  made  to  a  friendly  society,  the 
member  is  secure  of  succotu',  however  long  his  illness 
may  continue,  besides,  perhaps,  other  advant.iges. 
It  is  possible,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  difficulty 
may  be  experienced,  in  certain  circumstances,  in 
keei)ing  u])  the  weekly  or  other  periodical  i)ai,Tnent3 
reqiured  to  secure  the  benefits  of  friendly  societies. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  of  this  excellent  class 
of  institutions,  many  are  founded  upon  erroneous 
j)rinciples,  or  r.ather  ujion  no  principles  at  all ; 
and  it  often  hapi)ens,  therefore,  that  those  who 
trust  to  them  are  disai)pointed,  the  funds  falling 
short  before  all  claims  are  satisfied.  This  wa."!  at 
one  time  not  to  be  wondered  at,  as  no  proper 
calculations  for  friendly  societies  existed  ;  but  such 
is  no  longer  the  case,  sound  calciUatious  being  now 
attainable.  Nevertheless,  there  is  still  a  consider- 
able number  of  obscure  societies  scattered  through- 
out the  country,  proceeding  altogether  at  random, 
and  by  which  the  labouring-classes  are  induced  to 
misspend  large  sums.  We  trust  that  what  we  have 
now  to  stiite  will  be  of  some  service  in  promoting 
the  establishment  of  sound  societies,  and  |)utting  an 
end  to  such  as  are  of  a  different  kind. 

One  great  mistake  ii»  the  formation  of  frienc-Uy 
societies  is  to  assimie  that  each  member  should  pay 
an  equal  sum,  whatever  his  age  may  be.  This  is 
unjust  to  the  younger  members,  who  have  a  less 
chance  of  becoming  Inu'densome  to  the  funds  than 
the  midtUe-aged  ;  aud,  indeed,  there  is  a  rising  scale 
of  ]irobability  of  sickness  throughout  all  the  years  of 
a  man's  life.  The  Highland  Society  found  that, 
between  twenty  and  thirty,  men  are  li.able,  at  an 
average,  to  be  half  a  week  indisposed  per  annum. 
Between  thirty  aud  forty,  the  average  was  about 
two-thirds  of  a  week.  At  forty-six,  it  became  a  full 
week,  at  fifty-seven  two  weeks ;  at  seventy,  eleven 
weeks.  V.arious  other  jiartial  observ,ations  exist ; 
but  as  it  has  been  found  that  sickness  varies  more 
considei-ably  than  mortality  with  the  salubrity  of 
the  localities  inhabited  and  the  occupations  of  the 
members,  no  absolute  reliance  can  be  placed  on  their 
results.  All  of  them,  however,  agree  in  this,  th.-it 
increase  qf]iears  w  attended  hrj  increased  liat/ditij  to 
sickness.  Now,  a  rightly  constituted  friendly  society 
is  bouad  to  advert  to  this  circumstance.  'J'o  admit 
all  ages  at  an  equal  ])ayment,  is  clearly  making  the 
younger  members  pay  for  the  elder,  who  shoidd 
have  entered  at  an  earlier  age,  and  been  paying  all 
along. 

Another  gre.at  error  in  the  constitution  of  benefit 
societies  is  in  making  them  for  a  year  only.  Yearli/ 
societies,  as  they  are  called,  usually  originate  witii 
some  individu.al — often  the  keeper  of  a  tavern — who 
advertises  that  .a  society  will  be  formed  in  his  house 
on  a  particular  day.  Ajiplicants  for  admission  pay 
one  shilling  as  entry-niDney,  w-hich  goes  into  the 
pocket  of  the  originator  of  the  scheme  by  way 
of  rent  The  objects  are  gener.aUy  threefold— 
namely,  a  fund  for  sickness  and  funeral  expenses, 
a  deposit  fund,  and  a  loan  bank.  Towards  the 
first,  there  is  jjcrhaps  a  weekly  i)ayment  of  two- 
pence,  or    more    if    necessary,   together   with    the 


FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES. 


interest  arising  from  the  loan  of  money  to  the 
members.  Towards  the  Jei>o.sit  fund,  there  is  a 
jiayment  ranging  generally  from  sixi)euce  to  two 
shillings,  the  aocunujations  being  received  b.ack 
when  the  society  closes.  The  money  deposited  is 
employed  in  making  loans  to  such  of  the  menibere 
as  desire  sneh  accommodation,  "witliin  the  amount  of 
their  several  entire  deposits  for  the  year,  one  jienny 
per  pound  per  month  being  cliarged  by  way  of 
interest.  The  surplus,  if  anj',  of  the  twopences  and 
interest,  after  sick  and  funer.al  money,  books,  and 
other  necessaries  are  paid,  is  divided  amongst  those 
members  who  may  be  eh'ar  of  the  books  at  the 
close  of  the  society.  Some  such  societies  are  formed 
by  a  si)ontaneous  ivssociation  of  persons,  who  prefer 
renting  a  room  for  their  meetings,  .and  thus  escape 
the  temptations  of  a  tavern ;  but  none  of  them 
avoid  the  errors  of  an  equality  of  payments  for  all 
ages,  and  the  yearly  ilissolution.  Shoidd  sickness 
befall  any  one  towards  the  close  of  the  year,  he  is 
left,  when  the  society  dissolves,  quite  improvided 
for,  because  he  cannot  enter  another  society  in  a 
state  of  sickness.  Considered  .as  a  deposit  for  sav- 
ings, the  yearly  society  is  strikingly  inferior  to  the 
savings-bank,  in  as  far  as  the  depositor  cannot  take 
out  money  without  paj'ing  an  exorbitant  rate  of 
interest.  Finally,  these  societies  are  generally  imder 
the  care  of  obscure  persons,  who  can  give  no  security 
for  the  funds  placed  in  their  hands,  and  who  in  many 
instances  become  bankrupt  or  abscond  before  the 
final  reckoning.  Yearly  societies  are,  indeed,  in 
every  jioint  of  \-iew  a  most  objectionable  class  of 
institutions,  to  which  working-people  would  never 
resort  but  for  their  ignorance  and  imwariness,  and 
the  temptations  helil  out  to  allure  them. 

A  well-constituted  friendly  society  involves,  in 
the  first  ])lace,  the  princi])le  of  pa.\Tuents  appropriate 
to  particular  ages,  as  no  other  plan  can  be  considered 
equitable.  It  stands  forth  before  the  working- 
classes  as  a  pei-maneut  institution,  like  the  life-assur- 
ance societies  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  and 
necessarily  requires  its  members  to  consider  the 
connection  they  form  witli  it  as  an  enduring  one, 
because  its  grand  aim  is  expressly  to  make  jtrovision, 
at  one  {leriod  of  life,  for  contingencies  which  may 
ai-ise  at  another — youth,  in  short,  to  endow  old  age. 
By  a  yearly  society,  a  man  is  left  at  last  no  better 
than  he  w.as  at  first,  as  far  as  that  society  is  con- 
cerned ;  but  the  proper  friendly  society  contem- 
plates his  enjoying  a  comfortable  and  independent 
old  age,  from  the  results  of  his  own  well-bestowed 
earnings. 

It  is  essential  to  the  character  of  a  projier  benefit 
society  that  individuals  be  not  admitted  indiscri- 
minately. To  take  in  a  person  in  bad  health  or  of 
broken  constitution,  is  imjust  to  those  members  wlio 
are  healthy,  because  he  is  obviously  more  likely  to 
be  a  speedy  burden  to  the  funds.  Here,  as  in  life- 
assurance  societies,  it  is  necessary  to  admit  members 
only  u])on  tlieir  shewing  that  they  are  of  soimd  con- 
stitution and  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  healtli.  And 
it  m.ay  be  well  to  grant  no  benefits  until  after  tlie 
member  h.as  been  a  year  in  the  society.  By  these 
means,  men  are  induced  to  enter  wlien  they  are 
hale  and  well,  instead  of  postponing  the  step  until 
they  have  a  pressing  need  for  assistance,  when  their 
endeavour  to  get  mto  a  benelit  society  becomes 
little  else  than  a  fraud. 

Government  has  thought  proper  to  lend  its  aid  in 
the  formation  of  frien<Uy  societies,  thongli  not  com- 
pulsorily.  An  association  of  persons  forming  one, 
has  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  soundness  of  its 
principles,  and  also  entitles  itself  to  deposit  funds 
in  savings-banks,  with  the  government  security, 
and  at  not  less  than  £3,  0&  10</.  per  cent,  per 
annum,  by  submitting  the  proposed   ndes  to  the 


barrister  appointed  to  certify  them,  to  whom  a  fee 
of  a  guinea  is  |)ayable.  I'nder  tlie  sanction  of 
government,  taliKs  have  been  formed  by  Mr  John 
I'idd  Pratt,  registrar  of  friendly  societies  in  Eng- 
land, and  by  Dr  Farr,  the  actuary  of  the  English 
registrar-general — the  former,  together  with  useful 
instructions  in  the  book-keeping  of  friendly  societies, 
are  embodied  in  the  reports  l)y  Sir  Pratt,  printed 
by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  years 
1S5G — 1857;  and  the  latter,  together  with  a  masterly 
essaj'  on  the  mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject, 
are  contained  in  the  twelfth  rejiort  of  the  registrar- 
general  formeily  referred  to.  On  the  imperative 
necessity  of  acting  on  eon-ect  talJes  for  such  a 
pnqjose,  it  would  he  superfluous  to  dwell ;  and  the 
necessity  of  identif^'ing  the  rates  of  any  society  with 
such  resj>onsil>le  authority  is  the  more  apparent,  as 
we  are  told  by  Mr  Pratt  that  the  'duty  of  the 
registrar,  in  examining  the  rules  of  a  friendly  society, 
is  condned  to  the  consideration  of  their  being  in 
accordance  with  law  and  the  provisions  of  the  acts 
in  force  relating  to  such  an  institution  ;  and  that, 
although  the  registrar  certities  to  the  Icgaliiy  of  the 
rules  of  a  friendly  society,  it  does  not  follow  as  a 
necessary  consequence  that  the  constitution  of  the 
society  is  based  on  good  principles,  or  that  the  I'ates 
of  payment  are  sufficient  in  amount  to  guarantee  the 
promised  benefits  and  allowances.'  Before  quoting 
any  of  these  t.ables,  we  shall  endeavour  to  explain 
how  they  are  formed. 

We  have  an  idea  of  a  benefit  society  in  its 
simplest  form,  if  we  suppose  a  hundred  men,  of 
exactly  33  years  of  age,  to  associate,  and  make  such 
a  payment  at  first  as  m.ay  be  siu-e  to  afford  each 
man  that  shall  fall  sick  during  the  ensuing  year 
one  shilling  a  day  during  the  term  of  his  sickness. 
Taking,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  the  .Scottish 
Tables,  we  find  th.at,  amongst  such  a  liody  of  men, 
tliere  will  be  aljout  00  weeks  of  illness  in  the  course 
of  the  j'car.  This,  multipUed  by  7,  gives  the  whole 
sum  required,  i'23,  '2s.,  or  a  little  more  than  4«.  6(/. 
each,  which,  less  by  a  small  sum  for  interest,  will 
accordingly  be  the  entrj'-money  of  each  man.  A 
society  o^  individuals  of  different  ages,  each  paying 
the  sum  which  would  in  like  mamier  be  found 
jiroper  to  his  age,  would  be  quite  as  sound  in  prin- 
ciple as  one  on  the  above  simple  scheme.  It  is 
only  a  step  further  to  equalise  each  man's  annual 
pajTnents  over  the  whole  period  during  which  he 
undertakes  to  be  a  |iaying  member. 

A  point  for  consider.ation,  however,  is  the  rate  at 
which  the  funds  of  the  society  may  be  improved. 
In  most  cases,  we  believe,  it  is  best  for  such  societies 
to  rest  content  with  taking  advantage  of  the  privi- 
lege which  they  enjoy  by  act  of  ])arliament,  of 
depositing  their  money  iu  the  funds  or  the  sa\ings- 
banks,  in  which  case  they  are  sure  to  obtain  for  it 
interest  at  a  rate  of  not  less  tluan  £3,  Os.  lOrf.  per 
cent,  per  anmmi. 

Proceeding  ujion  these  or  nearly  similar  grounds 
of  calcul.ation,  Dr  F.arr  suggests  the  following  plan 
for  insuring  lives  and  gi-anting  pensions  to  the 
cl.asscs  who  live  on  wages,  liy  combining  the  pro- 
vision for  insurance  }).ayable  iu  a  sum  at  death,  and 
for  annuity  to  begin  at  the  age  of  G.5.  This  union 
deprives  the  two  operations  of  their'  chief  risks,  and 
there  is  little  loss  by  the  lives  being  better  or  woree 
than  the  average.  The  jwlicies  of  insurance  and 
annuities  can  be  easily  v.alued  every  year.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  add  a  little  to  the  ]iremiums  for 
expense  of  management  and  for  tlnctuation  in 
interest  and  values  of  public  securities.  The  plan  is 
so  constructed  th.at  the  annual  premium  is  invari- 
able, that  depositors  can  at  any  time  discontinue 
their  premium  and  withtb*aw  their  deposits,  with- 
out invalidating  or  diminishing  the  amount  of  their 


FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES— FRTEXDS. 


policy,  or  that  they  can  leave  the  svim  in  the  guar- 
antee fund  as  an  insurance,  to  a  certain  extent,  on 

their  lives a  great  advantage  to  persons   of    ua- 

certain  life-incomes.     The  table  is  cilculatcd  for  3 
per  cent  interest  on  the  deposits.    Proprietary  and 


mutual  life-offices  add  19—40  per  cent,  to  the  calcu- 
lated premiums  for  proHts,  expenses,  and  bonuses  ; 
and  Dr  Farr  proposes  to  add  one-lifth — that  is,  20 
per  cent,  for  a  like  reason. 


Dr  Ftirr^s  Finn  to  insure  the  Lives  and  tyrant  PeftsiottS  to  the  Working-classes. 

„  (  Annual  Premium  to  insuro  the  Life, £11  To  be  discontinued 

•**"      \  AnnuaU'reniium  to  provide  a  Life-annuity, £1/     at  the  nge  of  Uj. 


No.  of 
T«*n  or 

rrnniunu 

FUd. 

Sum  of  Anniua  Prorolomi  pold. 

Sam*  in  Depoilc 

Aflvr  tho  Protnluml  In  column*  3  and  X  *ro  p«ld, 
Ih*  Dcpo*itor  1*  iutureil  In  Ui«  foUoolnff. 

For  ABDulrr. 

For  Aiiunnce. 

On  Annolty  Aeeoont. 

On  lonnmnee  Aeeounc. 

Sams  «t  Doalfa. 

Deferred  Annuity,  to 
brgia  at  Ago  OS. 

X 

£     •.     <. 

t     1.     i. 

£*..*. 

£     •.     d. 

I 

1 

1 

1     0    0 

1    0    0 

2  16    9 

U  17     5 

S 

5 

5    8    0 

S    3    2 

13  15    4 

4     "  11 

10 

10 

10 

11  19    3 

10  14  10 

26  10    1 

7     7     8 

15 

15 

15 

20    0    1 

16  16    3 

38    5    2 

10    2    8 

SU 

SO 

SO 

29  19    7 

23    8    8 

49    1  1(1 

12    7    V 

25 

25 

25 

42  11    6 

30  13    0 

59    1     1 

14    4    0 

30 

30 

30 

58  16  U 

38  10    1 

68    4    5 

U  13    2 

35 

35 

35 

80  10    0 

47    1    4 

76  12  11 

Jfi  16    3 

40 

40 

40 

110  17    1 

56    6    7 

84    7    9 

17  14    2 

45 

45 

45 

159    1    9 

65  15  11 

91  11     0 

18    7     5 

Nof 

Lurther  premiums  paid. 

Diminishing. 

Increaaing. 

Sum  insured  at  death 

Payment  of 

remains  constant.    1  Annuity  commfnces.) 

The  table  reads  thus :  A  person  commencing  at 
the  age  of  20,  pays  £2  a  year  until  ho  is  64,  and 
then  p.iys  the  last  premium.  He  will,  at  the  age  of 
65,  ha\-ing  paid  45  premiimis,  receive  ilS,  7s.  5d., 
also  the  same  sum  annually  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
At  his  death,  his  relatives  or  representatives  ■n-iU  be 
entitled  to  £91,  11«. 

Should  he  wish  to  discontinue  the  annual  ])remium 
on  the  insurance  account  at  any  time^  the  sixth 
column  shews  his  position  from  that  time  ;  thus, 
after  the  fifteenth  premiimi  is  paid,  his  life  will 
stand  insured  to  the  amount  against  15  in  column  1 
— namely,  £38,  5s.  2d.,  the  amount  iu  deposit  at 
that  time  being  £16,  16.S.  3d.,  which  is  the  preneiit 
value  of  his  interest  in  the  scheme,  and  which  he 
may  be  allowed  to  withdraw,  subject  to  any  con- 
ditional by-law  of  the  society. 

In  like  manner,  the  annual  premiimi  in  the 
annuity  accoimt  may  be  discontinued,  and  the 
deposit  withdrawn.  Thus  the  same  member  having 
paid  15  premiums  of  £1,  is  secured  in  an  annuity  of 
£10,  24'.  Sd.  per  annum,  commencing  at  the  age  of 
65,  .as  before,  the  present  value  thereof  in  deposit  on 
his  account  being,  per  column  4  of  table,  £20,  Os.  Id. 

The  importance  is  evident  of  commencing  the 
insurance  at  an  early  age,  and  of  combining  the 
insurance  with  a  deferred  annuity.  On  both  the 
insiu'ance  and  annuity  account,  the  premiums  may 
be  doubled  or  trebled,  and  in  that  case  mil  provide 
double  or  treble  the  smn  insured,  as  well  as  double 
or  treble  the  annuity.  With  equ,al  preniiiuns,  the 
amoimt  in  deposit  on  the  two  accomite  is  little  less 
at  the  outset  than  the  sum  insured,  and  in  a  few 
years  exceeds  it. 

For  those  who  find  occasion  to  go  deeper  into  the 
subject  of  friendly  societies,  with  a  view  to  foimd- 
ing  such  institutions,  we  would  reconunend,  in 
addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  a  careful 
perusal  of  that  which  Mr  Charles  Ansell  prepared 
for  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 
ledge, and  which  was  published  by  tluat  soeicty  in 
iS'.io.  Much  bcnotit  might  also  be  derived  from 
Mr  William  Fraser's  papers  on  Friendly  Societies, 
published  in  Professor  Jameson's  P/iltosop/ucal 
Journal  in  1S27. 

Tlie  importance  of  friendly  societies  came  to  be  so 
strongly  felt  in  this  country,  that  in  1793  they  were 
made  an  object  of  statutory  protection  and  regula- 
tion, and  very  luimerous  ciuactments  have  since  been 
passed  regarding  them.  In  1855,  the  whole  of  the 
subsisting  legislation  regarding  them  was  repealed 


and  consoUdated  by  IS  and  19  Vict.  c.  03.  By  this 
act,  three  registrars  are  .appointed,  one  for  England, 
and  one  for  Ireland,  both  to  be  b,arristers,  and  one 
for  Scotland,  to  be  an  advocate  ;  all  of  not  less  than 
seven  years'  standing.  The  salary  of  the  English 
registrar  is  £800,  and  those  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish 
registrars  £150  respectively.  Under  the  proWsions 
of  the  act,  any  niunber  of  persons  m,ay  establish  a 
friendly  society,  by  subscriptions  or  donations,  for 
the  foUowing  objects.  '  1.  For  insuring  a  sum  of 
money  to  be  paid  on  the  birth  of  a  member's  child, 
or  on  the  death  of  a  member,  or  for  the  funeral 
expenses  of  the  wife  or  child  of  a  member.  2.  For 
the  relief  or  maintenance  of  the  members,  their 
husbands,  wives,  children, brothers  or  sisters,  nephews 
or  nieces,  in  old  age,  sickness,  or  widowhood,  or  the 
endowTnent  of  members,  or  nominees  of  members,  at 
any  age.  3.  For  any  purpose  which  shall  be  author- 
ised by  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  or  in  Scotland  by  the  Lord  Advocate,  as  a  pur- 
pose to  which  the  powers  and  facilities  of  this  act 
ought  to  be  extended :  provided  that  no  member  shall 
subscribe  or  contract  for  an  annuity  exceeding  tliirty 
pounds  per  annum,  or  a  sum  pay.able  on  death,  or 
on  any  other  contingency,  exceeding  two  hundred 
pound^.'  The  rules  of  the  proposed  society  must  be 
transmitted  to  the  registrar,  whose  certificate  to  the 
effect  that  it  is  in  conformity  with  law  shall  consti- 
tute it  an  estiiblished  society  from  the  date  of  said 
certificate.  Xo  money  is  to  be  paid  on  the  death  of 
a  child,  ^rithout  a  copy  of  entry  of  the  registrar  of 
deaths ;  and  by  the  subsequent  act,  21  .and  22  Vict, 
c.  101,  s.  2,  it  is  further  provided,  no  ji.ayment  shall 
be  made  on  an  insm'ance  on  tin;  death  of  a  child 
imder  ten  years  of  age,  for  funeral  expenses,  without 
a  certificate,  signed  by  a  qualified  medical  practi- 
tioner, stating  the  probable  cause  of  death.  The 
sums  p.ayaljle  for  the  funeral  expenses  of  a  child 
under  five  are  not  to  exceed  £6,  or  for  a  child  above 
five  and  under  ten,  £10. 

FRIENDS,  SociETi'  of,  the  proper  designation 
of  a  sect  of  Christians,  bettor  known  to  the  gener.al 
community  by  the  name  of  (^Hiakers.  Their  foimder 
was  George  Fox  (tj.  v.),  born  at  Drayton,  in  Leices- 
tershire, in  1624,  who  at  first  followed  the  occup.ation 
of  a  shoemaker,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  the  propagation  of  wliat  he  regarded  as  a  more 
.spiritual  form  of  Christianity  than  prevailed  in  his 
day.  In  spite  of  severe  and  cruel  ]iersccutions,  the 
Society  of  F.  succeeded  in  establishing  themselves 
i  both  in  England  and  Auieriea.     They  Iiave,  indeed, 


FRIENDS. 


never  been  numerically  powerful  (having  at  no 
time  exceeded  200,000  members)  ;  but  the  purity 
of  life  which  from  the  beginning  has  so  houoiirably 
distinguished  them  as  a  class,  has  unquestionably 
exercised  a  salutary  influence  on  the  public  at  large; 
while  in  respect  to  certain  great  questions  affectmg 
the  interests  of  mankind,  such  as  war  and  slavery, 
they  have,  beyond  all  doubt,  originated  opinions  and 
tendencies  which,  whether  sound  or  erroneous,  are 
no  longer  confined  to  themselves,  but  have  ^\•idely 
leavened  the  mind  of  Christendom.  For  an  account 
of  the  more  eminent  representatives  of  the  Friends, 
see  the  biographies  of  Bakclay,  Fox,  Penx,  &c. 
Wc  confine  ourselves  here  to  a  brief  notice  of  their 
doctrine,  practice,  and  discipline,  as  it  is  laid  down 
in  their  own  publications. 

1.  Doctrine. — It  is  perhaps  more  in  the  sjnrit  than 
in  the  letter  of  their  faith  that  the  Society  of  F. 
differ  from  other  orthodo.x  Christians.  They  them- 
selves assert  their  belief  iu  the  great  fimdamental 
facts  of  Christianity,  and  even  lu  the  substantial 
identity  of  most  of  the  doctrinal  opinions  which  they 
hold  with  those  of  other  evangelical  denominations. 
The  Epistle  addressed  by  George  Fox  and  other 
Friends  to  the  governor  of  Barbadoes,  in  1G73, 
contains  a  confession  of  faith  not  differing  materi- 
ally from  the  so-called  Apostles'  Creed,  except  that 
it  is  more  copiously  worded,  and  dwells  with  great 
diffuseness  on  the  internal  work  of  Christ.  The 
Declaration  of  Christian  Doctrine  given  forth  on 
behalf  of  the  Society  in  1693,  expresses  a  belief  in 
what  is  usuallj-  termed  the  Trinity,  in  the  atone- 
ment made  by  Christ  for  sin,  in  the  resurrection 
from  the  dead,  and  in  the  doctrine  of  a  final  and 
etenial  judgment ;  and  the  Declaratory  Minute  of 
the  yearly  meeting  in  1829  asserts  the  inspiration 
and  divine  authority  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
the  depravity  of  human  nature  consequent  on  the 
fall  of  Adam,  and  other  characteristic  doctrines  of 
Christian  orthodoxy,  adding :  '  Our  religious  Society, 
from  its  earliest  establishment  to  the  present  day, 
has  received  these  most  important  doctrines  of  Holy 
Scripture  in  their  plain  and  obvious  acceptation.' 
It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  imiformity  of  theo- 
logical opinion  cannot  be  predicated  of  the  Friends, 
any  more  than  of  other  bodies  of  Christians.  As 
early  as  1068,  William  Penu  and  George  Whitehead 
held  a  public  discussion  with  a  clergyman  of  the 
English  Church,  named  Vincent,  in  which  they 
maintained  that  the  doctrine  of  a  tri-personal  God, 
as  held  by  that  church,  was  not  found  in  the 
Scriptures,  though  in  what  form  they  accepted  the 
doctrine  themselves  does  not  appear ;  and  some 
time  later,  Penu  publishe<l  a  work  himself,  entitled 
the  Saiitli/  Foundation  Shaken,  in  which,  among 
other  things,  he  endeavoured  to  shew  that  the 
doctrines  of  vicarious  atonement  and  of  impjited 
righteousness  did  not  rest  on  any  scriptural  foun- 
dation. But  in  general,  the  Society  of  F.,  in  the 
expression  of  their  behef.  have  avoided  the  technical 
phraseology  of  other  Christian  churches,  restrict- 
ing themselves  with  commendable  modesty  to  the 
words  of  Scripture  itself,  as  far  as  that  is  possible, 
anil  avoiding,  in  jiarticular,  the  knotty  jmints  of 
Calvinistic  divinity  (see  Barclay's  Catechism  and 
Confexsion  of  Faith,  published  in  167."5,  wliere  the 
answers  to  the  questions — to  avoid  theological 
dogmatism — are  taken  from  the  Bible  itself).  This 
habit  of  allowing  to  each  individual  the  full 
freedom  of  the  Scriptiu-es,  has,  of  course,  rendered 
it  all  the  more  ditficidt  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  individual  minds,  among  the  Society,  may 
have  differed  in  their  mode  of  apprehending  and 
dogmatically  explaining  the  facts  of  Christianity. 
Their  principal  distinguishing  doctrine  is  that  of 
the  'Light  of   Christ   in  man,'  on  which  many  of 


their  outward  peculiarities,  as  a  religious  body, 
are  grounded.  The  doctrine  of  the  internal  light  is 
founded  on  the  \-iew  of  Christ  given  by  St  John, 
who,  in  the  first  chapter  of  his  gospel,  describes 
Christ — the  Eternal  Logos— as  the  'life'  and  'light 
of  men,'  '  the  true  light,'  '  the  light  that  lighteth 
every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world,'  &c.  Bar- 
clay taught  that  even  the  heathen  were  illumined 
by  this  light,  though  they  might  not  know — as, 
indeed,  those  who  lived  before  Chiist  could  not 
knciw — the  historical  Jesus  in  whom  Christians 
believe.  In  their  case,  Christ  w,as  the  light  shining  in 
darkness,  though  the  darkness  comprehended  it  not. 
The  existence  of  'natural  virtue'  (as  orthodox  theo- 
logians term  it)  among  the  heathen  was  denied  by 
Barclay,  who  regarded  aU  such  A-irtue  as  Christian 
in  its  essence,  and  as  proceeding  from  the  hght  of 
Christ  shining  through  the  darkness  of  pagan  super- 
stition. These  opinions  would  seem  to  be  somewhat 
freer  than  those  expressed  in  the  General  Epistle 
of  the  Society  published  in  1836,  wherein  they 
refuse  to  acknowledge  'any  principle  of  sjjiritual 
light,  life,  or  holiness  inherent  by  nature  in  the 
mind  of  man,'  and  again  assert,  that  they  '  believe 
in  no  priDcii)le  whatsoever  of  spiritual  light,  life,  or 
holiness,  except  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Sjiirit  of 
God  bestowed  on  mankind  in  various  measures 
and  degrees  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  ; '  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  a  Httle  treatise  published 
by  the  Society  in  1861,  it  is  affirmed  that  'the 
Holy  Spirit  has  always  been  aff'orded  in  various 
measures  to  mankind;'  while  stress  is  also  laid  on 
the  statement  of  St  Paul,  that  'the  grace  of  God 
(understood  by  Friends  to  signify  the  'operation 
of  the  Divine  Spiiit')  that  bringeth  salvation, 
luith  appeared  to  all  men;'  while  another  cx])o- 
nent  of  their  views,  Mr  T.  Evans  of  Philadelphia 
(see  Cyclopcedia  of  Religious  Denominations,  Lond., 
Griffin  &  Co.,  1853),  states  that  '  God  hath  granted 
to  all  men,  of  whatsoever  nation  or  country,  a  day 
or  time  of  \-isitation,  during  which  it  is  jwssible 
for  them  to  partake  of  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
death,  and  be  saved.  For  this  end,  he  hath  commu- 
nicated to  every  man  a  measure  of  the  light  of  hia 
own  Son,  a  measure  of  gi-aco  orthe  Holy  Si>irit,  by 
which  he  mvites,  calls,  exhorts,  and  strives  with 
every  man,  in  order  to  save  him  ;  which  fight  or 
grace,  as  it  is  received,  and  not  resisted,  works  the 
salvation  of  all,  even  of  those  who  ai-e  ignorant  of 
Adam's  fall,  and  of  the  death  and  siiti'erings  of 
Christ ;  both  by  bringing  them  to  a  sense  of  their 
own  misery,  and  to  be  sharers  in  the  sufierings  of 
Christ  inwardly ;  and  by  making  them  partakers 
of  his  resm-rcction,  in  becoming  holy,  pure,  and 
righteous,  and  recovered  out  of  their  sins.'  Hence 
it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  they  hold  a  broader 
(or,  as  others  would  say,  a  more  latitudinarian)  v\evr 
of  the  Spirit's  working  than  any  other  ('hristiau 
church  or  society.  In  America,  about  the  year 
1827,  Elias  Hicks,  a  Friend  of  very  remarkable 
powers,  created  a  scliism  in  the  Society,  by  the 
pronmlg.ation  of  ojiinions  denying  the  miraculous 
conception,  divinity,  and  atonement  of  Christ,  and 
also  the  authenticity  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scrii>tures.  About  one-half  of  the  society  in 
America  adojited  the  views  of  Hicks,  and  are  known 
as  Hicksite  Friends  ;  their  ojjinions,  of  course,  are 
repudiated  by  the  rest  of  tlie  Society,  who  may 
be  described  as  Orthodox  Friends.  The  Hicksite 
schism  thoroughly  alarmed  the  latter,  both  in 
England  and  America,  and  a  movement  was  begun 
in  favour  of  education,  of  a  doctrinal  belief  more 
nearly  allied  to  that  of  the  so-ciUed  '  Evangelical ' 
])arty,  and  of  a  relaxation  in  the  formality  and 
discipline  of  the  Society.  The  leader  of  this  move- 
I  ment  was  Joseph  John  Gumey,  of  Norwich.     This 

i23 


FRIENDS. 


new  tendency,  however,  excited  considerable  oppo- 
sition aiuouusome  of  tlie  Friends  in  America  ;  and 
the  conseqiiinee  was  a  division  anion;;  the  Orthodox 
Friends  themselves,  .ind  the  forniutiou  of  a  new 
sect,  called  ■  AV'ilburitcs,'  alter  the  name  of  their 
fonnder,  John  WiUmr,  who  are  noted  for  the  strict- 
ness with  which  they  maintain  tlie  traditions  and 
peciUiarities  of  the  Society.  (See  Fiiinilly  Skeh-ltes 
in  Amerkti,  by  WilUjuu  'iallack.  Lond.,  Bennett, 
1862.)  Some  "slij;ht  indications  of  theological  ditt'er- 
ences  have  manifested  themselves  in  Knjrland  .ilso. 

2.  Pniclic. — It  is  in  the  aiiplicatioii  of  their 
leadini;  doctrine  of  the  '  internal  lij^ht '  that  the  | 
peculi.-iritics  of  the  Friends  are  most  apparent,  j 
Believing  that  it  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  indwell-  j 
ing  Christ,  that  alone  makctli  wise  unto  salvation, 
illumining  the  mind  with  true  and  spiritual  know- 
ledge of  the  deep  things  of  God.  they  do  not  con- 
sider 'human  learning'  essential  to  a  minister  of 
the  gospel,  and  look  with  distrust  on  the  method 
adopted  by  other  churches  for  obtaining  such — Wz., 
by  formally  training  after  a  lumian  fashion  a  body 
of  youths  chosen  on  no  ]irinci]ile  of  inward  litness. 
They  beheve  th.at  the  call  to  this  work  now,  as  of 
old,  is  'not  of  men,  neither  by  man,  but  by  Jesus 
Christ,  and  God  tlie  Father  ; '  ami  that  it  is  bestowed 
irrespectively  of  rank,  talent,  learning,  or  se.x.  Con- 
sequently, they  have  no  theological  halls,  professoi-s 
of  divinity,  or  classes  for  '  students.'  Further,  as  lit- 
ness for  the  ministry  is  held  to  be  a  free  gift  of  God 
thi'ough  the  Holy  Spirit,  so,  they  argue,  it  ought  to 
be  freely  bestowed,  iu  support  of  which  they  adduce 
the  precept  of  the  Savioui- — '  Freely  ye  have  received, 
freely  give  ;'  hence  those  who  minister  among  them 
are  not  paid  for  their  labom-  of  love,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  whenever  such  are  eng.aged  from  home 
in  the  work  of  the  gospel,  they  are,  in  the  spirit  of 
Christian  love,  freely  entertained,  and  have  all  their 
•wants  supplied  :  in  short,  the  Friends  maintain  the 
absolutely  voluntary  character  of  religious  obliga- 
tions, and  that  Christians  shoiUd  do  all  for  love, 
and  nothing  for  money.  It  also  follows  from  their 
view  of  a  call  to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  that 
women  may  exhort  as  well  as  men,  for  the  '  spirit  of 
Chiist '  may  move  them  as  powerfully  as  the  other 
sex.  The  prophecy  of  Joel  as  applied  by  Peter  is 
cited  as  authority  for  the  preaching  of  women  :  '  On 
my  servants  and  on  my  handmaidens  I  will  pour 
out  iu  those  days  of  my  spirit,  and  they  shall  pro- 
phesy.' They  also  adduce  the  Xew  Testament 
examples  of  Tryphiena,  Tryiihosa,  the  beloved 
Pereis,  and  other  women  who  appear  to  have  laboiu'ed 
in  the  Gospel.  Their  mode  of  conducting  public 
worship  Hkewise  illustrates  the  entireness  of  their 
dependence  on  the  'internal  light.'  In  other  reli- 
gious bodies,  the  minister  has  a  set/i»'»(  of  worshiji, 
through  which  he  must  go,  whether  he  feels 
devoutly  disposed  or  not.  This  seems  objectionable 
to  the  Friends,  who  meet  and  remain  in  silence 
until  they  believe  themselves  moved  to  speak  by 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Their  ]  prayers  and  praises  are,  for 
the  most  jiart,  silent  and  inward.  They  prefer  to 
make  melody  in  their  hearts  iiiito  God,  considering 
such  to  be  more  spiritual  than  the  outward  service 
of  the  voice. 

The  doctrine  of  the '  internal  light '  h.as  also  led  the 
Friends  to  reject  the  ordinances  of  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  .Supper  as  these  are  observed  by  other  Chris- 
tians. They  believe  the  Christian  baptism  to  be  a 
spiritual  one,  and  not,  like  the  Jewish  .and  heathen 
baptisms,  one  with  water ;  in  siipjiort  of  which  they 
quote,  among  other  passages,  the  words  of  John  the 
Baptist  himself:  'I  Ijajitise  you  with  water,  but 
there  eometh  one  after  me  who  shall  baptise  you 
with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  w-ith  tire.'  Sunilarly  do 
they  regard  the  rite  of  the  Kucharist:   It  is,  say 


they,  inwai'd  and  spiritual,  and  consists  nut  in  any 
symbolic  breaking  of  bread  and  tlrinking  of  wine, 
but  in  that  daily  communion  with  Christ  through 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  through  the  obeilience  of  failli, 
by  which  the  believer  is  nourished  and  strengtheiu-d. 
They  believe  that  the  last  words  of  the  dying 
Redeemer  on  the  ert>ss,  '  It  is  linished,'  announced 
the  eutiix;  abolition  of  symbolic  rites  ;  that  imder 
the  new  s]>iritual  dispensation  then  introduced,  the 
necessity  for  such,  iis  a  means  of  arriving  at  truth, 
cea.sed,  and  that  their  phice  has  been  abundantly 
sui.'jilicd  by  the  Comforter,  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose 
oliicc  it  now  is  to  lead  and  guide  men  into  all  truth. 
The  true  Christian  supper,  according  to  them,  is  set 
forth  iu  the  Revelations — 'Behold  I  stand  at  the 
door  and  knock  :  if  any  man  hear  my  voice  and 
open  the  door,  I  will  come  in  unto  him,  and  will  sup 
with  him  and  he  with  me.'  For  the  same  reason — 
viz.,  that  tile  teaching  of  the  .Siiiiit  is  inward  and 
spii-itu,al— the  Friends  ignore  the  religious  observ- 
.ance  of  days  and  times,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Sabbath,  which  some  at  least  among  them  regard  as 
of  perpetual  obligation. 

The  taking  or  administering  of  oaths  is  regarded  by 
Friends  as  inconsistent  with  the  command  of  Christ, 
'swear  not  at  .all,'  and  with  the  exhortation  of 
the  apostle  James--' Above  .ill  thing.s,  my  brethren, 
swear  not,  neither  l)y  heaven,  neither  by  the  earth, 
neither  by  any  other  o,ath  :  but  let  your  yea  be 
yea ;  and  your  nay,  nay  ;  lest  ye  fall  into  condem- 
nation.' They  have  also  refused  to  pay  tithes  for 
the  maintenance  of  what  they  hold  to  be  a  hireling 
ministry,  belie\'ing  that  Christ  put  an  end  to  the 
priesthood  and  ceremonial  usages  instituted  imder 
the  Mosaic  (Us])ensation,  and  that  he  substituted 
none  iu  their  place.  In  consequence,  .all  consistent 
Friends  have  been  regularly  mulcted  of  ))iate,  furni- 
ture, or  other  goods,  to  the  value  of  the  amount 
due.  The  recent  conversion  of  tithe  into  rent- 
cfuiri/e,  however,  has,  in  the  oi>iuion  of  many  Friends, 
largely  removed  objections  to  the  payment  to  this 
ecclesiastical  demand.  In  regard  to  the  civil  magis- 
tracy, w'hile  they  respect  and  honour  it,  as  ordained 
of  God,  they  are  careful  to  warn  the  members  of 
then'  Society  against  thoughtlessly  inciu-ring  its 
resiionsibilities,  invoh-iug  as  it  does  the  adminis- 
tration of  o.atlis,  the  issuing  of  orders  and  warrants 
iu  reference  to  ecclesiastical  demands,  the  calling 
out  of  an  armed  force  m  cases  of  ciWl  commotion, 
<and  other  duties  inconsistent  with  the  peaceful 
jirinciples  of  the  .Societ}'.  The  Friends  have  likewise 
consistently  lu-otested  against  war  in  all  its  forms ; 
and  the  Society  has  re])eatedly  advised  its  members 
against  aiding  and  assisting  in  the  conveyance  of 
soldiers,  their  baggage,  arms,  ammunition,  or  mili- 
tary stores.  They  regard  the  profession  of  arms 
and  lighting,  not  only  as  diametrically  opposed  to 
the  general  spirit  of  Christ,  whose  .advent  was  sung 
by  angels  in  these  words:  'Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest,  and  on  earth  pe.aee,  good- will  toward  men  ;' 
bvit  as  i)ositively  forbidden  by  such  jirecepts  as — 
'  Love  yoiu"  enemies,  bless  them  that  curse  you,  do 
good  to  them  that  hate  you,  and  pray  for  them 
which  despitefully  use  you  and  persecute  yon  ; '  also, 
'  Resist  not  e^-il :  but  whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on 
thy  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other  .also;'  and 
while  they  acknowledge  that  tein]iorary  calamities 
maj'  result  from  adopting  this  juinciplc  of  non- 
resistance,  they  have  so  strong  a  faith  in  its  being 
essentially  the  dictate  of  ilivine  love  to  the  Chris- 
tian heart,  th.at  they  believe  God,  by  his  wise  and 
omnipotent  inovideuce,  could,  and  will  yet  make  it 
'  mighty  to  the  pulling  do\vii  of  the  strongholds  of 
inii(uity.'  The  workh  they  believe,  will  by  and  by 
confess  that  the  ])eace-makei-s  are  most  tnily  the 
children  of  God.     The  ell'orts  of  the  Society  for  the 


FRIENDS-FRIES. 


emancipation  of  the  slaves  are  a  part  of  modem 
British  history.  Thoy  may  most  certainly  lay  claim 
to  having  cultivated  the  moral  sense  of  their  fellovv- 
coimtrymen  in  regard  to  this  important  question. 
As  early  as  1727,  they  commenced  to  '  censure '  the 
trattic  in  slaves,  .13  a  practice  'neither  commendable 
nor  allowed,'  and  jrradually  wanned  in  their  0|)po- 
sition,  until  the  whole  nation  felt  the  glow,  and 
entered  «-ith  enthusia.sm  on  the  work  of  abolition. 
In  respect  to  what  may  be  called  minor  points,  the 
Friends  are  also  very  scru])ulous  ;  they  object  to  '  balls, 
gaming-places,  horse-races,  and  pLayhouses,  those 
nurseries  of  debauchery  and  ■wickedness,  the  biu-den 
and  grief  of  the  sober  part  of  other  societies  as  well 
as  of  our  own.'  The  Printed  Epistle  of  the  yearly 
meeting  of  1854  contains  a  warning  against  indul- 
ging in  music,  esjieciaUy  what  goes  Ijy  the  name  of 
*  sacred  music,'  and  denounces  musical  exliil)itious,  1 
such  as  oratorios,  as  essentially  a  '  profanation ' —  [ 
the  tendency  of  these  things  being,  it  is  alleged,  '  to  i 
withdraw  the  soul  from  that  quiet,  hiuuble,  and 
retired  frame  in  which  prayer  and  praise  m.ay  be 
truly  offered  with  the  spirit  and  with  the  under- 
standing also.'  They  object,  besides,  to  'the  hurt- 
ful tendency  of  reading  pl.ays,  romances,  novels, 
and  other  pernicious  books ; '  and  the  yearly  meeting 
of  1704  'recommends  to  every  member  of  our 
Society  to  discour.age  and  suppress  the  s.ame.'  A 
similar  recommend.ation  was  issued  by  the  Society 
in  18.j1  for  the  benefit  of  'younger  Friends'  in  par- 
ticular, who  would  appear  to  have  been  eating  the 
forbidden  frnit.  The  Printed  Epistle  of  the  ye.arly 
meeting  of  ]  7"24  Ukewise  '  advises  against  imitating 
the  vain  custom  of  wearing  or  giving  mourning, 
and  all  extravagant  expenses  about  the  interment  of 
the  dead,'  and  this  ad\-ice  has  been  repeatedly 
renewed.  A  midtitude  of  other  minute  pecidiarities, 
■which  it  would  be  tedious  to  note,  distinguish  the 
Friends  from  their  fellow-Cluistians. 

.■?.  Discipline. — By  the  term  discipline  the  Friends 
understand  '  all  tliose  arrangements  and  regula- 
tions ■which  are  instituted  for  the  ci\'il  and  religious 
benefit  of  a  Christian  church.'  The  necessity  for 
such  (lisci])line  soon  began  to  make  itself  felt,  and 
the  residt  w;i3  the  institution  of  certain  meetings  or 
assemblies.  These  are  four  in  number :  the  first, 
the  Prcparafive  meetings  ;  second,  the  Monthly 
meetings  ;  third,  the  Quarterly  meetings ;  and, 
fourth,  the  Yearly  meetings.  The  first  arc  usually 
comjiosed  of  the  members  in  any  given  place,  in 
which  there  are  generally  two  or  more  Friends  of 
each  sex,  whose  duty  is  to  act  as  overseers  of  the 
meeting,  taking  cognizance  of  births,  marriages, 
bnrials,  removals,  &c.,  the  conduct  of  members,  &c., 
and  reporting  thereon  to  the  monthly  meetings,  to 
whom  the  executive  depai-tment  of  the  discipline 
is  chiefly  confided.  The  monthly  meetings  decide 
in  cases  of  violation  of  discipline,  and  have  the 
power  of  cutting  off  or  disowning  all  who  by  their 
improper  conduct,  false  doctrines,  or  other  gross 
errors,  bring  reproach  on  the  Society,  although  the 
accused  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  quarterly 
meetings,  and  from  these  again  to  the  yearly,  whose 
decisions  are  final.  The  monthly  meetings  arc  also 
empowered  to  approve  and  acknowledge  ministers, 
.as  well  as  to  ajipoint  'serious,  discreet, and  judicious 
Friends,  who  are  not  ministers,  tenderly  to  encourage 
and  help  young  ministers,  and  advise  others,  as  they, 
in  the  wisdom  of  God,  see  occasion.'  They  also 
execute  a  variety  of  other  important  duties.  The 
quarterly  meetings  are  composed  of  several  monthly 
meetings,  and  exercise  a  sort  of  general  supervision 
over  the  latter,  and  from  whom  they  receive  reports, 
and  to  whom  they  give  such  advice  and  decisions 
as  they  think  right.  The  yearly  meeting  consists 
of  select  or  representative  members  of  the  quarterly 


meetings.  Its  function  is  to  consider  generally  the 
entire  condition  of  the  Society  in  all  its  aspects.  It 
receives  in  writing  answers  to  questions  it  has  pre- 
viously adilressed  to  the  subordinate  meetings,  deli- 
berates upon  them,  and  legislates  accordingly.  To  it 
exclusively  the  legislative  power  belongs.  Though 
thus  constituted  somewhat  accoriling  to  Presby- 
terian order,  yet  any  member  of  the  .Society  may 
attend  and  take  part  in  the  jiroceedings. 

Women  have  also  a  special  sphere  of  discipline 
allotted  to  them :  they  inspect  and  relieve  the 
wants  of  the  poor  of  their  own  sex,  take  cognizance 
of  proposals  for  marriage,  deal  with  female  delin- 
quents privately,  and  imder  certain  restrictions  may 
even  do  so  officially,  though  in  the  'testimony  of 
disownment '  they  have  always  the  assistance  of 
members  of  the  other  sex. 

The  Society  of  F.,  in  the  multitude  of  its  regula- 
tions, has  not  forgotten  the  poor  ;  charity  in  its 
narrower,  as  well  as  in  its  broader  sense,  has  .always 
been  a  beautiful  feature  of  its  members.  The  care 
of  the  poor  was  one  of  the  earliest  evidences  which 
Christianity  .-afforded  to  the  Gentiles  of  the  su[ie- 
riority  and  divine  character  of  its  principles  ;  and  it 
is  honourable  to  the  .Society  that  a  similar  ju-ovision 
for  those  luiited  to  them  in  religious  fellowship 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  occasions  of 
their  meetings  for  discipline.  Nevertheless,  in 
accordance  with  their  niling  princij)le,  that  all 
C'hristian  duty  should  lie  left  for  its  fulhluient  to 
the  spontaneity  of  Christian  love,  and  not  performed 
under  compidsion  of  any  kind,  'the  ]iro\ision  for 
the  poor  is  pui-ely  voluntary ;  its  only  ground  is 
Christian  charity.'  It  is  no  small  proof  of  the  sin- 
cerity of  their  religions  professions — considering  the 
selfishness  of  human  nature — that  their  liberality  is 
a  proverb  throughinit  Britain  and  America. 

Their  number  .at  present  .amounts,  it  is  believed,  to 
about  130,000.  of  which  more  th.an  100,000  belong 
to  the  United  States. 

FRIES,  Elias,  a  tlistinguished  Swedish  bot.anist, 
■K'as  born  15th  August  1704,  in  the  district  of 
Femsjo,  and  studied  at  Lund,  where  he  became 
demonstr.ator  in  botany  in  IS'-iS.  In  1834  he  was 
translated  to  the  university  of  Cpsala,  as  professor 
of  practical  economics,  with  whicli,  after  the  death 
of  Professor  Wahlenberg,  in  18.51,  the  chair  of  botany 
was  conjoined.  F.'s  researches  embrace  the  entire 
field  of  botany,  jj/uineroriamotiJi  as  well  as  crypto- 
(lamous  plants,  and  he  was  the  first  to  introduce 
into  Sweden  the  moq)hologic.al  theory,  the  basis  of 
which  is  to  be  found  in  his  Syntema  OrOin  Vtijetahilis 
(Limd,  1825).  His  earliest  important  work  was 
Obnerrationes  Mycoloriic<e  (2  vols.,  Cojien.  1815 — 1818). 
This  was  followed  by  his  •Syslema.  Mycohrjieum 
(3  vols.  Greifsw.  1821—1820 ;  Supi)lement,  1830), 
which  w.os  comjileted  in  his  EUnrkux  Funijorum  (2 
vols.  Greifsw.  1828),  and  later  in  his  Nora:  Symbolas 
Mycoloijiae  (Upsija,  1851).  For  another  deiiartment 
of  crj-ptogamic  liotany,  the  lichens,  F.  h,as  done 
great  .service  by  his  Licheno;iraphia  Europaa 
Jieformala  (Lund  and  Greifsw.  1831).  Among  his 
monographs  the  fiymhol<E  ad  Hinluriuni  JJirraciorum 
(L'psala,  1848),  deserves  especial  mention.  He  h.as 
also  written  a  good  deal  on  the  Flora  of  Scandinavia, 
and  especially  his  iSnnuna  VerjetahiUum  Scandinavm 
(Ujisala,  1846,  et.  (tf»/.),  is  reckonetl  one  of  his  best 
l>roductions.  His  Jlerhnrium  .Xormale  (Upsala, 
1847),  collected  at  great  expense,  and  with  incredible 
industry,  contains  dried  specimens  of  all  the  rarest 
plants  of  Scandinavia.  He  has  also  composed  a 
multitude  of  small  dissertations  on  his  f.avourite 
sulijects,  several  of  which  h.ave  been  translated 
into  German.  F.  is  greatly  admii-ed  in  his  native 
country,  and  hi  1851  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Botanical  Museima  and  Garden  attached  to  the 

i-2b 


FRIES— FEIGATR 


university  of  Upsala,  and  in  1853  rector  of  the 
university. 

FRIEf*.  Jakob.  Friedrich,  tlio  foumlor  of  a 
pliil'vs.'pliic  soliool  in  Germany,  wait  born  at  Barhy, 
in  I'nissi.in  Saxony,  23tl  August  1773,  studied  at 
Leil>sio  and  Jena,  and  in  1805  went  to  Heidelberg, 
as  professor  of  pliilosoiiby  and  mathematics.  In 
ISUi  lie  aceejited  a  call  to  the  chair  of  speciUativo 
philoso]ihy  at  Jena,  but  was  depriveil  of  his  pro- 
fessorship, on  account  of  liis  p,irticipation  in  certain 
democratic  disturbances  of  1819.  In  1824,  how- 
ever, he  w.as  appointed  to  the  chair  of  physics  and 
mathematics,  which  he  occupied  till  his  death,  10th 
Autnist  1S43.  F.'s  writings  are  very  numerous. 
Some  of  the  more  important  are  his  System  der  Phil- 
osophi'-  nh  evidaile  Witisenxchafl  (Lcip.  1804) ;  Neiie 
otUr  anl/iroi>oloijisc/ie  Krilik  der  Wrimnfi  (3  vols. 
Heidelb.  1807  ;  2d  ed.,  1S2S— 1831) ;  System  der 
Lofiik  (Heidelb.  1811 ;  .Sd  ed.,  1837);  Handbtich  der 
physixchen  Anthropologie  (2  vols.,  Jena,  1820—1821 ; 
2d  ed.  1837—1839);  Die  Lehren  der  Liebe,  des 
Glauhens,  vnd  der  Hoffnung  (Heidelb.  1823);  and 
Gesdiklile  der  Philo.9ophie  (2  vols.  Halle,  1837—1840). 
In  his  philosophy,  F.  followed  the  method  of  Kant, 
but  bclieWng  that  method  incomplete,  he  sought 
to  sujiplement  by  an  analytic.il  nature-doctrine 
{aiiahiliiiclwn  imfiirMire)  of  the  human  soul,  which 
he  designated  iikilosopliic  .anthropology.  His  Glau- 
bensleltre,  or  Doctrine  of  Faith,  by  which  he  hoped 
to  repair  the  ravages  which  the  critical  philosophy 
had  made  upon  the  certainty  of  our  knowledge, 
resembles,  in  some  respects,  Jacobi's  doctnne  of  tne 
Intuition  of  the  Pure  Reason.  De  Wette  adopted 
it  as  the  basis  of  his  religious  philosophy.  Some 
of  his  disciples,  Apelt,  Schleiden,  Schliimilch, 
Friedrich  Franckc,  and  Schmidt,  published  at 
Leipsie  in  184S— 1849,  several  philosophic  papers, 
entitled  Abhandlungen  der  Fries'  .iche>i  ScJnde. 

FRIE'SLAND  or  VKIESLAia)  (.ancient  Frisia). 
West  F.,  -which  is  one  of  the  most  noi-thern  and  ' 
wealthy  provinces  of  Holland  (q.  v.),  has  an  area  of 
more  than  1200  square  miles,  and  a  population 
which,  in  1858,  nimibered  270.600.  It  lies  between 
lat.  52-  40'  and  53  .30'  N.,  and  long.  5°  30'  and  6'  20' 
E.,  and  is  bounded  to  the  N.  by  the  German  Ocean, 
a.nd  to  the  AV.  and  S.W.  by  the  Zuyderzcc.  The  land, 
■whicli  is  flat,  and  in  some  p.irts  even  below  the  level 
of  the  sea,  is  intersected  by  canals  and  streams  in 
every  direction,  and  aboimds  in  lakes  and  marshes. 
The  dykes,  sluices,  and  caniils,  by  means  of  which 
the  country  is  protected  from  iniind.ations  of  the  sea, 
are  under  the  supervision  of  a  special  board,  which 
levies  an  assessment,  called  a  dyke  tax,  on  the 
land-owners  of  the  province.  The  Lakes  and  ponds, 
many  of  which  have  been  foi-med  by  digging  for 
turf,  aboimd  with  fish;  while  the  older  m.arshes 
which  have  been  redeemed  and  drained,  form  rich 
pastures,  adininably  suited  to  the  rearing  of  horse.", 
cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs.  From  4  to  5  million  lbs. 
of  cheese  and  butter  are  annually  exported  from  F. ; 
while  it  also  yields  in  excess  of  its  consumption, 
wheat,  rye,  fl.ix,  hemp,  clover,  &c.  F.  is  amply 
endowed  with  schools  and  charitable  institutions. 
The  inhabitants  are  principally  Calvinists.  The 
chief  tovra  is  Leeuwarden.  The  islands,  Schier- 
monniknog,  Ameland,  and  Terschelling,  which  lie 
off  the  north  coast,  and  are  included  in  the  pro- 
\'ince,  carry  on  extensive  fishing  operations. — East 
F.,  which  lies  between  53°  8'  and  5,3°  40'  N.  hat., 
and  6'  50'  and  8°  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  lOOl) 
square  miles,  and  population  (in  18.58)  of  189,068, 
is  comprised  within  the  Hanoverian  district  of 
Anrich,  chief  town,  Kmden.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  German  Ocean,  AV.  by  Holland,  S.  by 
Arcmbcrg,  and  K  by  Oldenburg.     Like  West  F. 


it  is  low  and  flat,  and  requires  the  protection  of 
dykes  and  sluices.  Fishing  and  agriculture  con- 
stitute the  chief  emplojinent  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  the  desceudants  of  the  ancient  Frisians. 
This  pnnince  h.as  frequently  changed  owners  since 
17-14,  when  the  fiunily  of  Zirkscua,  in  whose  poases- 
1  sion  it  had  been  for  300  years,  became  extinct  It 
w.a3  lirst  ceded  to  Prussia,  next  incoqioratcd  by 
Napoleon  with  Holland  and  France  ;  in  1814  it  was 
restored  to  Prussi.a,  but  in  the  following  year  it  was 
ceded  by  that  power  to  Hanover. 

FRIEZE,  in  classical  architecture,  the  central 
portion  of  the  entablature  (q.  v.).  It  is  also  called 
(by  Vitrnvius)  the  Zophorus  (Ufe-bcaring)  from  its 
being  frequently  ornamented  with  sculpture.  From 
the  same  cause,  the  term  frieze  is  sometimes  applied 
to  any  em-iched  horizont.al  band. 

FRIGATE  (probably  connected  with  the  Gothic 
/argod,  a  row-galley,  and  also  with  the  Latin 
aphraclus,  an  undecked  galley).  Formerly,  a  long 
narrow  vessel  propelled  by  oars  and  sails,  used  in 
the  Mediterranean  on  occasions  when  sjieed  was 
requisite.  The  name  then  came  to  l)e  applied  to 
men  of  war,  of  a  class  sm,aller  than  line-of-battle 
ships,  and  carryijig  from  20  to  50  guns,  which  were 
employed  in  the  great  wars  of  the  18th,  and  early 
part  of  the  19th  centuries,  .as  scouts  and  cruisers. 
The  frigate  was  usually  swift,  easily  managed,  and 


Frigate — First  Class,  50  guns. 

capable  of  beating  well  up  to  the  wind.  She  became, 
therefore,  the  f,avourite  ship  in  war-time,  .and  bore 
oflF  a  Large  proportion  of  the  prize-money.  Frigates 
also  served  to  obtain  information  as  to  the  move- 
ments of  hostile  fleets,  and  to  guide  the  sailing  of 
their  own  ;  but  it  w.as  unusual  for  thera  to  join  in 
the  line  of  battle,  their  exploits  ordinarily  occurring 
in  engagements  with  single  ships  of  their  own  class. 
One  of  Nelson's  commonest  complaints  w.as,  that  he 
had  not  a  larger  number  of  swift  frigates  to  intercept 
the  enemy's  cruisers  :  it  having  then  been  notorious 
that  the  "French  built  faster  and  finer  craft  than 
those  our  dockyard.'!  could  turn  out,  although  it 
must  be  added,  that  most  of  these  raind  frigates  had 
changed  their  flag  before  the  war  closed. 

With  steam,  and  the  growth  of  the  fleet  in  recent 
times,  frigates  have  been  developed  more  than 
any  other  men-of-war,  and  many  of  the  largest 
ships  now  in  the  navy  belong  to  this  class.  Tho 
Americans  set  the  example  of  enormous  frigates  in 
the  A'ingara,  a  pattern  we  have  since  far  outrun  in 
several  splendid  vessels,  such  as  the  Diadem,  Mersey, 


FRIGATE  BIRD— FRISIANS. 


Orlando,  and  last,  the  magnificent  iron-plated 
Warrior,  of  GOOO  tons,  three  times  the  burden  of 
any  ship  in  Nelson's  fleet. 

FRIGATE  BIRD,  or  MAJST-OF-WAR  BIRD, 
TachijpHfS  aquilus,  or  Fregala  aqiiiltt-s,  a  bird 
of  the  Pelican  family  (Pelecanidce),  the  only  weU- 
ascertained  species  of  its  genus,  which  is  allied 
to  the  Cormorants.  It  is  a  large  bird  with  black 
plumage,  sometimes  measuring  ten  feet — some  say 
even  fourteen  feet — from  tip  to  tip  of  its  extended 


Frigate  Bird  [Fregata  aquUua). 

^\ings.  It  is  a  bird  of  very  powerful  and  rapid 
flight,  and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  it  can  remain  on  wing  for  days  together. 
It  inliabits  the  intertropical  coasts,  both  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  often  flying  out  far 
to  sea,  but  returning.  Its  aerial  evolutions  are 
extremely  graceful,  and  it  soars  to  a  great  eleva- 
tion. It  is  said  never  to  dive  for  its  prey,  but  to 
seize  fishes  only  when  they  appear  at  the  sm-face 
or  above  it.  Flj'ing  fishes  constitute  no  small  part 
of  its  food. 

FRINGE  TREE  [Chionanthus],  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Olearece.  consisting  of  small 
trees  or  large  shriilis,  natives  of  America,  the  West 
Indies,  Ceylon,  and  New  Holland.  The  Common 
Fringe  tree  or  Sno\\'FLO\ver  {C.  I'irfiinica)  is  found 
in  the  United  States  from  lat.  39°  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  20  or 
30  feet,  but  is  rarely  more  than  S  or  10,  has  opposite 
oval  leaves  0  or  7  inches  long,  and  very  numerous 
snow-white  flowers  in  panicled  racemes.  The  limb 
of  the  corolla  is  divided  into  four  long  linear  seg- 
ments, Avhence  the  name  fringe  tree.  The  fruit  is 
an  oval  drupe.  The  tree  is  frequently  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  plant. 

FRINGES.  In  optics,  those  coloured  bands  of 
diflraotion  (q.  v.)  which  appear  when  a  beam  of 
light  passes  the  clean  edge  of  a  screen,  or  is 
transmitted  through  a  narrow  slit  or  hole,  are  called 
fringes. 

FRINGI'LLID^,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Ins(;ssores,  tribe  Conirosircft,  having  a  conic.il  or 
nearly  conical  biU,  sometimes  short  and  thick, 
sometimes  comparatively  slender  and  elongated, 
sometimes  convex  above,  below,  or  at  the  sides, 
the  commissure — line  of  junction  of  the  mandibles 
—  straight.  The  neck  is  short,  and  neither  the 
legs  nor  the  wings  are  long.  The  rringillid;B  are 
all  .small  birds ;  they  feed  chiefly  on  seeds — to  some 
extent  also  on  insects.  The  family  is  an  extremely 
numerous  one,  and  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the 
world  ;  represented  in  Britain  by  finches,  linnets, 
sparrows,  grosbeaks,  crossbUls,  &c.,  and  including 
also  weaver-birds,  boba-links,  cardinal-birds,  why- 
daws,  tanagei-s,   &e.      Spme  naturalists   extend  its 


limits  so  as  to  include  in  it  other  groups,  as  bunt- 
ings, larks,  &c.,  often  regarded  as  fonnmg  distinct 
families. 

FRISCHES  HAFF  ('  Fresh-water  Bay '),  a  large 

{ lagoon  on  the  coast  of  Prussia,  south-east  of  the  Gulf 

I  of  Dantzic.     It  is  rather  less  than  60  miles  in  length 

from  north-east  to  south-west,  with  a  l>readtli  which 

varies  in  different  parts  from  4  to  12  miles,  and  an 

area  of  318  sijuare  miles.  It  was  once  entirely  walled 

oflf  from  the  Baltic  by  the  Frische  Nehrung,  a  narrow 

spit  of  land  extending  for  about  40  miles  along  its 

northern  shore.     In  1510,  however,  the  waters  of 

I  the  F.  H.  broke  over  the  Frische  Nehrung,  and 

formed  the  passage  called  the  '  Gatt,'  which  unites 

'  this  shore-lake  w-ith  the  Baltic.     The  Gatt  is  only 

from  10  to  15  feet  in  depth.     All  larM  vessels  load 

and  unload  at  PiUau,  which  is  situated  at  the  mouth 

of  the  Gatt,  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Dantzig. 

Cargoes  are  conveyed  to  and  from  the  jiorts  on  the 

F.  H.  by  means  of  lighters.    The  Pregel,  Frisohing, 

Passargc,  and  two  arms    of  the  Vistula,  fall  into 

this  lagoon. 

FRI'SIANS.  The  Frisians  (Lat.  Friaii),  were  an 
ancient  Teutonic  race  dwelling,  together  with  the 
Batavi,  the  Briicteri,  and  the  Cnauci,  in  the  extreme 
north-west  of  Germany,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Rhine  and  Ems.  They  became  tributaries  of  Rome 
under  Dnisus,  and  for  a  time  remained  faithful 
to  the  Fvoman  alliance ;  but,  in  2S  .\.  D.,  they  were 
driven  to  hostilities  by  the  oppression  of  their  pro- 
tectors ;  and  although  partially  subdued,  they  again 
rose  against  the  Romans  imder  Civilis.  As  the 
Frankish  tribes  advanced  further  south,  the  Frisii 
spread  themselves  over  the  islands  which  are  formed 
by  the  embouchures  of  the  Rhine,  the  Maas,  and 
the  Scheldt,  and  gradually  merged  into  the  two 
branches  of  the  FrUii  majores  and  Frisii  minoren, 
the  former  occupying  the  districts  west  of  the  Fly 
or  Zuyderzee,  and  the  latter  those  east  of  those 
waters.  In  the  5th  c,  a  band  of  the  Frisii  joined 
the  Saxons  and  Angles  in  their  invasion  of  Britain. 
At  a  later  period,  the  Frisii  of  the  south-west  were 
brought  under  the  Frankish  rule  by  Pepin  d'Her- 
istal,  who  defeated  their  leader  in  689,  and  com- 
pelled him  and  his  people  to  embrace  Christianity. 
In  785  the  eastern  branch  of  the  tribe  was  brought 
under  subjection  by  Charlemagne,  who  despatched 
Christian  teachers  to  preach  the  (iospel  to  them, 
and  who,  in  802,  defined  theii-  rights  by  the  Lex 
Frisionum.  Their  country  was  divided  into  three 
parts,  two  of  which  were  annexed,  in  the  partition 
]  of  the  CarloWngian  emjiire,  to  Louis  the  German, 
and  constituted  East  Friesland,  while  the  remainder, 
forming  West  Friesland,  fell  to  the  share  of  Charles 
the  Bald.  The  latter  of  these  provinces  was  sub- 
divided in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries  into  the  here- 
ditary countshijis  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Guelders  cum 
Zutplien,  and  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht  cum  Yssel ; 
and  hence  the  districts  stiU  retaining  the  name  of 
Friesland  have  been  circumscribed  to  their  present 
limited  boundaries,  while  the  distinctive  national 
characteristics  of  the  F.  have  been  obUterated  by 
contact  with  their  neighbours,  and  their  history 
has  merged  in  that  of  Holland  and  Hanover. 

The  Friifian  language  occupies  a  place  interme- 
diate, in  some  respects,  between  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Old  Norse.  Of  all  the  Teutonic  dialects,  it  shews 
the  closest  affinities  to  English.  There  is  a  Frisian 
literature  d.-vting  from  the  12th  century.  Our 
knowledge  of  Old  Frisian  is  derived  from  collec- 
tions of  laws,  of  which  each  '  Gau'  had  its  own  set 
written  down  in  its  own  dialect.  The  Asegahuch, 
a  set  of  laws  valid  for  all  Frisians,  was  composed 
alx>ut  1200.  A  complete  collection  of  the  Frisian 
laws    still    extant,   was    published    by   Richthofen 

627 


KlUT— FKITI LL  A  R  Y. 


(Frlfn.  Jfec/iLv/ufllrn,  Giitt  1S40).  Since  the  15th 
c,  the  Frisian  liiia  lioeu  cni;rnachc-<l  upon  on  all 
siiles  liy  the  Dutrh,  tlio  Low  ami  Hi;;h  (Jcrinan, 
and  the  Danish:  so  that  of  the  extensive  area  over 
wliieh  it  once  prcvailwl,  it  now  subsists  only  in 
isolate<l  sjiots,  such  as  the  islands  of  Wangcroge 
and  Helijioland,  the  ilistriet  al>Mut  Leeuwarden, 
Mohnieruui,  &e.  'i'his  Modern  I'Visian  is  coiihned 
tf>  the  jieasantry,  and  is  not  used  in  the  scliools  or 
the  churches.  It  is  hrcikeu  up  into  endless  local 
dialects,  each  of  which  is  <inintcllii;ililc  beyond 
the  circumscribed  district  in  which  it  is  S|>oken. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  i)resent 
century  to  revive  tlie  Frisian,  by  publishinn;  some 
of  the"  older  8i>atiniens  of  its  literature.  Amonj 
these  we  may  instance  the  FiiixrJie  lliirnhnie  of 
Gysbert  Japicx  (edited  by  Epkenia,  1824) ;  ll'oo*:*" 
Gnlihi-rtu  hrilloft  (Leeuw.lSl'i) ;  and  7*  Lihhen  fen 
Aciiilje  i'shranln  (Sncek,  1827).  Hettema  and  the 
brothers  Halbertsma  are  noted  both  for  their 
oripnal  compositions  in  Frisian,  and  for  their  com- 
mentaries on  Frisian  jurisimidence.  Anionf;  Frisian 
vocaljularies,  tlie  best  known  are  Wiarda's  Alt 
Fr.  WOrterlmrli  (178(5);  Kichthofen'a  AUfriesisdies 
WOrterhiich  (1840),  and  N.  Outzen's  llloasnrium  der 
F.  Sprac/ie  (Cop.  1837).  J.  Grimm  and  Kask  have 
WTitten  on  Frisian  grammar,  and  the  Frisixk  Sproij- 
here  of  the  latter  has  been  translated  into  Dutch  by 
Hettema  (Leeuw.  18.')2). 

FRIT  (fhrinh  Fr'il,  or  Chhinipx  Frit),  .-in  insect 
of  the  same  family  with  the  house-fly ;  au  active 
greenish-l)lack  fly  of  the  size  of  a  lar^^'e  ilea,  which 
does  great  injury  to  barley  crops  in  some  ]>art3  of 
the  north  of  Eurojie.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  flowers, 
and  its  larv:e  live  on  the  young  grains.  Linn.TiUs 
affirms  that  a  tenth  ])art  of  the  barley  in  Sweden 
and  I.ajiland  is  annu.ally  destroyed  by  it.  It  is  not 
known  in  Biitain,  but  is  nearly  allied  to  the  insects 
called  corn-lly  and  wheat-fly. 

FRITH,  or  FIRTH  (Lat.  f return,  Gr.  porthmos ; 
from  the  same  root  as  Ferry,  q.  v.),  an  arm  or 
channel  of  the  sea  that  is  passed  or  crossed ;  the 
opening  of  a  river  into  the  sea. 

FRITH,  William  Powell,  R.A.,  an  eminent 
English  artist,  the  son  of  au  innkeeper  at  Harrogate, 
Yorksliire,  was  bom  in  that  town  in  1820.  In 
1840,  he  first  exliibited,  at  the  Uoyal  Academy, 
London,  a  scene  from  Shakspeare's  Tircl/th  Xl'jid, 
'  Malvolio  Iiefore  the  Countess  Olivia,'  which  at 
once  attracted  attention,  as  giving  promise  <jf  future 
excellence.  In  1841,  his  painting  of  the  '  Parting 
Interview  of  Leicester  and  his  Countess  Amy,' 
from  Scott's  Kenilworlh,  evinced  a  marke<l  inijirove- 
ment  in  his  style  and  manner.  Thenceforth  he  rose 
rapiiUy  in  public  estimation,  and  his  sn)>se(iuent  pro- 
ductions amply  confirmed  the  liigh  anticipations  that 
had  been  formed  of  his  skill  and  power.  ,\iuoug 
the  paintings  exhibited  by  him  in  successive  years 
were  the  following:  'My  Wife  would  bid  both 
stand  up  to  see  which  was  the  T;illcst,'  a  scene  from 
the  Vic'ir  of  Wabjkkl,  in  1842  :  '  Mrs  Page,  Mr 
Ford,  Page,  Slender,  and  Falstaff,'  from  tile  Jterri/ 
Wives  of  yVindsor, in  1S4.'{  ;  'English  Merry-nuiking 
a  Hundred  Years  ago,'  in  1847  ;  '  An  Old  Woman 
Accused  of  Witchcraft  in  the  Time  of  James  I.,' 
in  1848;  and  'Coming  of  Age,'  in  1849;  &c.  F. 
wa.s  electefl  an  Associate  of  the  .\cademy  in 
1845,  and  a  Roy.-vl  Acailemician  in  IS.").'!.  In  1854, 
his  '  Life  at  the  Seaside '  was  one  of  the  leading 
features  of  the  Exhibition.  ■  Tln'  Derby  Day,' 
exhibited  in  1858,  and  'Claude  Duval,'  in  ISfjO, 
are  considered  two  of  the  most  successful  of  his 
performances.  For  the  '  Uailw.ay  Skition'  (1802), 
his  Latest,  and  probal>ly  his  greatest  paintini;, 
he   is   said  to   have    received   8700   guineas.      His 


occasional   small  portraits  display,  alike   with   his 
larger  pieces,  his  complete  mastery  of  his  art. 

FRrTH.IOF  S  SAGA,  which  w.as  probably  lirst 
wTittcn  down  at  the  end  of  the  l.'lth  or  in  tlie 
beginning  of  the  14th  c,  is  an  ancient  Icelandic 
mj-th,  which  recorils  the  life  and  .oilventures  of 
the  heroFrithjof  (properly  Fr'ulhthjofr ;  i.e.,  'peace- 
destroyer,')  who  loved  the  beautiful  Ingcboig, 
the  daughter  of  a  ]>etty  king  of  Norw.ay.  After 
being  rejected  by  the  lirothera  of  lugeboig,  and 
ha\-ing  coinmitte<l  various  acts  of  revenge  on  his 
enemies,  he  comes  to  the  court  of  the  old  king 
Hring,  to  whom  Ingeborg  has  been  m;iiried,  and 
is  received  with  kindness.  At  the  death  of  her 
husband,  Ingeborg  is  married  to  her  lover,  who 
acquires  with  her  hanrl  the  dominions  of  Hring, 
over  which  he  rules  prosperously  to  the  end  of 
his  days.  Frithjof  is  supjiosed  to  have  lived  in 
the  8th  c. ;  but  some  writers  assign  to  him  a 
much  earlier  jieriod.  This  S.aija  w.os  included  by 
Bjiirner  in  his  collection  yordishi  Kiimixulater 
(Stock.  17'i7) ;  and  by  Rafu  in  his  ForiiaUlar  tHu;tnr 
Xordhrlandii  ((,'oi)en.  1829).  Attention  has  of  late 
years  been  more  especially  drawn  to  this  aneiiiit 
Saga,  which  is,  in  fact,  merely  one  of  a  number 
of  similar  mythical  narratives,  in  conseijuenee  of 
the  distinguished  Swedish  poet,  Bishoj)  Tegner, 
having  selected  it  for  the  groundwork  of  a  poem 
(Frilhiofn  .9o.7o),  which  w:is  imblished  in  its  complete 
form  in  1825.  ;ind  at  once  became  the  most  popular 
poem  th.it  had  ever  appeared  in  Sweilen,  and  raised 
its  author  to  the  height  of  his  reputation.  Tegner 
follows  the  Saga  so  closely,  that  the  merits  or 
demerits  of  the  jilan  of  the  story  must  be  ascribed 
more  to  the  original  than  to  himself ;  but  to 
forci:;ners  the  poem  scarcely  seems  to  ])reseiit  the 
excellences  that  have  been  attributed  to  it  by 
Swedish  critics.  The  diversity  of  metre  employed 
in  the  24  cantos,  of  which  eaeli  differs  wholly  from 
the  others,  detracts  from  the  completeness  of  the 
whole,  and  produces  an  inharmonious  effect.  The 
Frithjof  s  Saija  of  Tegner  has  been  translated  into 
several  other  laugu.ages  ;  among  the  live  English 
translations,  we  in.ay  instance  those  by  II.  G.  Latham 
(1838)  and  G.  Stephens  (1841). 

FRI'TILLARY  {Fntillaria),  a  genus  of  jilants 
of  the  natur.al  order  LUiacetv,  herbaceous,  bullxma- 


Crown  Imperial  (FriliUaria  imperialit). 

rooteil,  with   bell-sh,aped   perianth   of    six   distinct 
segments,   each   having   a  conspicuous    honey-pore 


FRITILLARY— KllOG. 


(nectary)  at  the  base.  About  twenty  species  are 
known,  natives  of  Europe  and  other  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  All  of  them 
have  drooping  flowers  ;  some  of  them  are  beautiful. 
One  species  only  is  a  native  of  Britain,  the  Cojimon 
F.  (F.  jiieU'agris),  which  is  found  in  meadows  and 
Jiastures  in  the  cast  an<l  south  of  ]OTi;;lan(l,  lloweriug 
in  April  or  May.  Tlie  stem,  aliout  a  foot  high, 
bear's  several  linear  leaves,  and  in  general  oidy  one 
flower,  which  is  llesh-coloured,  and  marked  with 
many  dark  spots.  Many  varieties  are  in  cultiva- 
tion.—This  genus  includes  the  Ckown  Imperial 
{F,  iiiij)irl(ilis),  a  native  of  Persia  and  the  north  of 
India,  a  well-known  ornament  of  our  gardens. 

FKITILLARY,  a  name  given  to  a  niunber  of 
species  of  Ijutterlly,  some  of  which  are  common  in 
Britain,  from  the  resemblance  of  the  colouring  of 
their  wings  to  that  of  the  petals  of  the  common 
fritillary.  This  resemblance  apjiears  only  on  the 
upiior  side  of  the  wings,  the  under  side  being  often 
remarkable  for  met;illic  lirilliancy. 

FRIU'LI  (Ger.  Frknd  ;  anc.  Forum  Julii),  for- 
merly tile  name  of  a  district  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Italy.  It  constituted  one  of  the  3G  duchies 
into  which  the  Longobartls  divided  the  north  of 
Italy.  Its  first  duke  is  said  to  have  been  Graeidf 
(">li8 — 588  A.  IJ.),  nephew  of  the  Ltmgoliardian  King 
Alboin.  It  shared  in  all  the  incessant  \ncissitudes 
of  the  Lombard  States  during  the  middle  ages. 
From  an  early  period,  F.  w:is  diviilcd  into  Tyrolese 
and  I'dirfiau  ¥.,  the  fonner  of  which  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  in  1500, 
while  the  latter  remained  attached  to  Venice  till  the 
peace  of  Campo-Formicj  (1797),  when  it  was  given 
to  Austria.  The  inhabitants,  called  Furlanl,  are 
for  the  most  part  Italian,  but  make  iise  of  a 
peculiar  dialect.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  also  rich 
in  minerals  and  heaUng  sj>rings. 

FRIVALDSZKY,  Emkkii,  a  Hungarian  natur- 
alist, head-keeper  of  the  National  Museum  of 
H\mgary,  was  born  in  1709  at  Satoraljaujhely,  in 
the  county  of  Zcmplen.  In  1822,  F.  was  admitted 
a  member  of  the  College  of  Physicians  at  Pesth, 
and  soon  afterwards  ajipointed  assistant-keeper  in 
the  department  of  natural  history.  F.'s  investi- 
gations have  lain  in  tracts  hitherto  little  known 
to  naturalists.  His  Monogram  of  the  jjarallel 
between  the  Northern  ('arpathiaus  and  the  alpine 
chain  of  the  Lower  Banat  was  presented  to  the 
Hungarian  Academy  in  lS4(j.  The  sketches  from 
the  Natural  History  of  the  Olympus,  of  Asia 
Minor,  &c.,  contain  original  views,  and  are  distin- 
guished for  exactness.  F.'s  zeal  for  augmenting  the 
natural  treasures  of  the  National  Museum,  and 
for  the  promotion  of  natural  science  in  general, 
are  known  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his  native 
country. 

FRIVOLOUS  AND  VEXATIOUS.  By  9  Geo. 
IV.  c.  22,  s.  15,  it  w.as  enacted,  that  if  the  Select 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  appointed  to 
try  a  petition  against  an  election,  shoidd  be  of 
opinicm  that  any  gromid  of  objection  stated  against 
a  voter  w.as  J'ricolona  or  vcj:atiotis^  they  shoiUd  find 
the  oi>posite  party  entitled  to  recover  the  full  costs 
incurred  by  reason  of  such  objection  ;  and  s.  40 
ftroWdes,  with  reference  to  petition.?  in  genera',  that 
the  committee,  at  the  time  that  they  inform  the 
House  of  their  final  determination  on  the  petition, 
shall  also  rejiort  whether  it  did  or  did  not  appear 
to  them  to  be  frivolous  or  vexatious  ;  and  whether 
the  opposition  to  it  or  the  return  was  or  was  not 
vexatious  or  corrujit,  in  all  which  ea-ses  the  parties 
frivolously  petitioning  or  objecting  are  burdened 
with  costs.  The  penalty  of  jiaying  costs  is  likewise 
imposed  by  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  102,  s.  15,  on  any  one 
190 


who  shall  Ijrintr  forward  a  frivolous  or  vexatious 
charge  of  bribery.  See  Electio.v.  Vexatious 
indictments  for  various  crimes  are  ])rohibited  by 
22  and  23  Vict.  e.  17,  which  provides  that  no  indict- 
ment for  the  crimes  therein  mentioned  shall  be 
jirefeiTed  without  authorisation  from  one  or  other  of 
the  iiul)lic  oliicers  therein  mentioned.  The  statute 
does  not  extend  to  .Scotland.  As  to  fiivolous  and 
vexatious  actions  at  law,  see  .3  and  4  Vict.  c.  24,  by 
which  a  jiortion  of  43  Eliz.  c.  G  is  repealed  ;  4  and  5 
Vict.  c.  2S,  which  again  repeals  a  jiortion  of  3  and 
4  Viet.  c.  24. 

FROBISHER,  Sir  Martix,  a  distinguished  naval 
adventurer  of  the  IClizaliethan  period,  tlie  (irst 
Englishman  who  sought  to  discover  a  north-west 
passage  to  China,  was  a  native  of  Doncaster,  but  the 
year  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  For  many  years,  he 
in  vain  laboured  to  imi>ress  English  merchants  with 
an  idea  of  the  importance  of  a  north-west  jiassage  ; 
but  at  length,  being  patrouiscil  by  some  {lersons  of 
rank  and  fortune,  he  succeeded  in  raising  money 
enough  to  lit  out  two  smaU  vessels  of  25  tons  each, 
and  a  [linnaee  of  ten  tons.  With  these  he  sailed 
from  De[)tford  on  .June  8,  1576,  the  queen,  who 
was  then  at  (ireenwich,  bidiling  them  God  sjieed  on 
their  venturous  way  by  '  shaking  her  hand  at  them 
out  of  the  window.'  Steering  their  course  north, 
they,  in  lat.  Gl'  N.,  sighted  the  southern  part  of 
Greenland,  which  F.  took  to  be  the  Friesland  of 
Zeno,  on  the  11th  .July,  to  the  exst  point  of  which 
F.  gave  the  name  of  'C^neen  Elizabeth's  Foreland  ;' 
and  on  the  28th,  they  sighted  Afeta  Incorinita.  On 
the  nth  of  August,  F.  entered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name,  and  wliich  forms  one  of  the  entrances 
from  Davis'  Strait  into  Hudson's  Bay.  After  about 
a  fortnight's  exploration  of  the  coasts  and  islands, 
F. — leaving  lost,  through  the  treachery  of  tlie 
natives,  a  boat  and  five  men— retiu'ned  to  Eng- 
land. He  brought  with  him  some  ore  picked  up  <»u 
one  of  the  islands  he  tliscovered,  in  which  some 
gold  was  found.  Visions  of  immense  wealth  to  be 
derived  from  further  search  in  these  northiTu 
lands  floated  before  the  eyes  of  the  siieculators 
of  the  time,  wlio  immeiliatcly  fitted  out  another 
and  Ijetter  appointed  expedition,  giving  the  com- 
mand to  Frobisher.  He  sailed  in  May  1577,  luit 
his  discoveries,  hampered  as  he  was  by  the  gold- 
seeking  operations,  which  turned  out  comparatively 
trifling,  did  not  extend  further  than  the  neighbour- 
hooil  of  the  strait  he  had  before  reached.  A  third 
expedition  w.as  sent  out  in  the  year  following ; 
but  geogi'ajjhieal  science  appears  to  have  been  but 
little  benelited  by  it.  F.  afterwards  served  under 
Drake  in  the  West  Indies  ;  and  for  his  distinguished 
bravery  in  the  light  with  the  Spanish  Arma<la, 
JiUy  2G,  15SS,  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. He  afterwarils  commanded  a  s(|uadron  sent 
out  to  ravage  the  Spanish  coast.  He  died  on 
November  7,  1594,  from  the  etl'eets  of  a  wound 
received  wlulc  leading  an  attack  by  sea  against 
Brest. 

FROBISHER  STRAIT,  a  passage  between  the 
west  side  of  Davis'  Strait  and  the  north  side  of 
Hudson's  .Strait,  is  140  miles  long,  with  an  average 
brea<Ith  of  20.  It  extends  in  l.at.  from  02"  to  64°  K, 
and  in  long,  from  G5°  to  73^  or  74°  \V.  It  is  not 
of  any  practical  value  as  a  channel  of  communica- 
tion ;  and,  in  fact,  it  has  been  very  seldom  visited 
by  vessels  bound  either  westward  or  eastward, 

FROG  (I'nna),  a  genus  of  Batnichia,  having  in 
the  adidt  state  four  legs  and  no  tail,  no  gills,  four 
toes  on  each  of  the  fore-feet,  five  on  each  of  the  hind- 
feet,  the  feet  more  or  less  weljbed  ;  the  head  Hat, 
the  muzzle  rounded;  the  mouth  very  large,  a  row  of 
small  teeth  iu  the  upper  jaw,  and  an  iiiterruiited 


FKOG. 


transveree  row  on  tho  middle  of  the  palate.  The 
yoiuii;  (tadpoles)  breathe  by  means  of  plls ;  external 
gills  formiug  little  fi-iiif;es  at  the  sides  of  the  nock 
when  they  are  ver>'  young,  which,  however,  in  a  few 
days  disappear ;  tho  frills>  which  remain  until  the 
tadiHiles  undergo  their  final  metamorphosis  into 
froi»s,  Ijeing  very  numerous  minute  crests  attaihed 
to  four  eartilagiuous  arches  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
in  a  caWty  to  which  tlie  water  enters  from  the 
moutli,  and  from  which  it  is  expelled  liy  one  or  two 
small  orilices.  Tadpoles  have  no  legs,  and  the  body 
tapers  into  a  tail,  and  thus  has  a  lish-like  form,  very 
diU'ereut  fron\  that  of  the  UKiture  F.,  the  tail  being 
furnished  with  a  membranous  bonier  like  a  liii. 
The  mouth  of  tho  tadpole  is  a  horny  beak,  which 
falls  off  when  it  becomes  a  frog.  When  this  meta- 
niori>hosi3  takes  place,  the  hind-legs  grow  first,  and 
afterwards  the  fore-legs  begin  to  appear,  the  tail 
being  gradually  absorbed.  Tadpoles  are  capable  of 
living  in  water  only ;  but  the  mature  F.  visits  tho 
■water  only  occasionally,  although  generally  capable 
of  remaining  long  immersed,  and  alwaj's  preferring 
moist  places.  In  respiiation,  frogs  draw  in  ail- 
through  the  nostrils,  by  movements  of  the  muscles 
of  the  throat,  and  expel  it  by  contraction  of  those 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  alxlomeu.  The  thin  smooth 
skin  of  frogs  is  also  believed  to  be  subservient  to 
the  aeration  of  the  blood.     The  skeleton  is  destitute 


Frog: 

Successive  stages— in  the  order  of  the  numherg— from  the  epg 

almost  to  the  perfect  form. 

of  ribs.  The  eye  is  Large  and  very  beautifuL  The 
colours  are  often  pleasing,  and  the  general  aspect 
agreeable,  in  some  species  very  much  so,  forming  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  repulsive  appearance  pre- 
sented by  toa«ls,  notwithstanding  the  close  affinity 
between  them  both  in  structure  and  habits.  The 
greater  proportionate  length  and  strength  of  the 
hind-legs  en.ables  frogs  to  leap  to  a  distance  wonder- 
fid  for  creatures  of  their  size,  instead  of  crawling  as 
toads  do,  and  their  activity  and  liveliness  complete 
the  contrast.  The  males  have  on  each  side  of  the 
neck  a  delicate  nicmbraue,  which  becomes  inllated 
>vith  air  when  they  croak.  The  power  of  voice  in 
the  females  is  much  inferior.  The  croaking  of 
numerous  frogs  in  marshy  places,  or  around  ponils 
and  ditches,  often  makes  an  amusing  and  cnrious 
concert ;  but  the  powers  of  voice  ]>ossessed  by  tlie 
frogs  of  Britain  are  not  to  be  com])ared  with  tho.se 
of  the  great  Bull-frogs  (i|.  v.)  of  Nnrth  America  ; 
whUst  the  neighbourhood  of  Kio  Janeiro  is  enlivened 
aa  night  comes  .on  by  the  Blacksmith  F.,  whicli 
croaks  so  sonorously  that  the  noise  is  like  the 
clanging  of  a  hammer  on  an  anvil,  the  intermingled 
i30 


voices  of  some  other  kinds  resembling  the  lomng  of 
cattle  at  a  distance  :  and  in  Bern,  there  is  a  F.,  of 
large  dimensions,  which  has  acquired  the  name  of 
Trtipicliero,  or  Sugar-miller,  because  its  voice  has 
a  grating  sound  like  that  produced  by  a  sugar-mill. 
The  coufused  blending  of  the  voices  of  (lifTcrent 
species  of  frogs,  in  these  countries,  destroying  tho 
stillness  of  night,  is  one  of  the  things  most  cer- 
tain to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  stranger.  In 
colder  climates,  frogs  usually  bury  themselves  in 
mud,  and  spend  the  winter  in  torpidity.  In  dry 
weather,  they  conceal  themselves  vinoer  shrubs  and 
in  tufts  of  herbage,  from  which  rain  quickly  causes 
them  to  come  forth,  mtdtitudes  often  appearin" 
where  not  one  was  to  be  seen  before.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  insects,  slugs,  &c  The  beaks  of  tadpoles 
arc  adapted  to  tiie  eating  of  leaves  and  other  vege- 
table food,  on  wliieh  Cuvier  says  they  entirely  sub- 
sist ;  Init  the  younger  Buckland,  in  his  Curiosities  of 
Natural  History  (4th  ed.,  LouiL  1859,  pp.  2 — 4),  in 
an  amusing  aceoimt  of  the  habits  of  tailpoles,  more 
correctly  describes  them  as  shewing  a  great  avidity 
for  animal  food,  crowding  round  a  deiul  kitten,  and 
nibbling  at  the  toes  of  little  boys  who  wa<lc  in 
pools  where  they  abountl.  The  spawn  of  frogs  is 
a  gelatinous  mass,  in  which  the  eggs  are  contained, 
and  which  swells  greatly  by  imbibing  moisture, 
luqiregnatiou  takes  place  after  it  is  deposited,  as 
with  the  spawn  of  fishes. 

The  oidy  species  of  F.  certauily  known  to  l)e 
British  is  that  called  in  France  the  Rkd  F.  {R. 
temporaria),  which  is  abundant  in  most  parts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  but  is  said  not  to  be  tridy 
indigenous  to  Ireland,  and  to  have  been  introduced 
into  that  island  in  1096.  Its  generally  reddish  colotir, 
varied  with  black  sjiots  and  patches,  readily  distin- 
guishes it  from  the  Gkeen  F.  or  Edible  F.  \R.  e.icu- 
lento)  of  the  south  of  Europe — sometimes  said  also 
to  have  been  found  in  Britain — which  is  olive  green, 
with  yellow  stripes  along  the  back,  and  generally 
larger  than  the  red  species.  The  south  of  Eurojie 
produces  a  number  of  other  species,  and  they  are 
generally  more  numerous  in  warmer  climates.  A 
remarkable  peculiarity  is  exhibited  by  some  frogs  of 
tropical  countries  in  a  hornlike  prominence  above 
each  eye.  These  have  been  sepjuated  into  a  new 
genus  {Ceralophrin).  The  Tree  Fkogs  (q.  v.),  (llijhi), 
the  most  beautifid  and  interesting  of  all,  have  the 
extremities  of  the  toes  enlarged  into  a  sort  of  cushion, 
secreting  a  viscid  humour.  Several  other  genera 
have  been  separated  from  the  Linnaian  genus  liana, 
but  there  is  a  strong  family  likeness  among  them 
all. 

The  use  of  frogs  for  food  is  generally  regarded 
with  disgust  in  Britain,  but  it  is  very  common  in 
some  of  the  southern  countries  of  Eiu'0))e,  and  they 
are  regarded  as  particularly  delicate.  The  species 
chief!}'  used  as  food  in  Eurojie  is  the  (iitEEN  F.  (Rami 
csculenta),  already  mentioned,  which  greatly  abounds 
in  jionds  and  slow  streams  in  France,  Southern 
Germany,  and  Italy.  It  feeds  chielly  on  insects, 
after  which  it  darts  with  gi-eat  agihty  on  the  banks, 
and  niiiy  often  be  seen  swimming  with  its  lip.ail 
above  water,  or  basking  in  the  sunshine.  Frogs  are 
there  taken  for  the  market  by  nets,  and  by  a  kind 
of  rake.  In  Vienna,  they  are  kept  and  fattened  in 
preserves  adajitcd  to  the  j)urpose.  In  France,  the 
hind-quarters  alone  are  prepared  for  the  table ;  iii 
Germany,  all  the  muscular  i)arts.  They  are  (h'essed 
in  various  ways,  and  with  various  sauces,  of  which 
a  great  part  often  consists  of  wine. — The  (iRtwriNO 
F.  [R.  i;ninnieiis)  of  the  West  indies,  a  very  largo 
species,  six  or  eight  inches  long,  capal)lc  of  leaping 
over  a  five-feet  wall,  is  much  used  for  food,  its  llesh 
lieiug  very  white  and  delicate,  and  is  often  fattened 
fur  tho  table.     It  shews  a  consideral^le  cajiacity  for 


FROG-BIT— FRONDE. 


domesticatinn,  and  readily  becomes  familiar. — A 
species  o£  V.  {Pip'irejt/ialiix  adspersun  of  Dr  Smith) 
is  much  used  aR  food  bj'  the  native  triliea  of  South 
Africa.  Dr  Li\nn2stone  says  the  Bechuauas  sup- 
pose it  to  fall  from  thunder-clouds,  because  the  pools 
suddenly  fdled  \ritli  water  after  a  thunder-shower 
become  instantly  alive  with  loud-croaking  froijs, 
which  h.avo  previously  been  hidden  in  holes  at  the 
roots  of  bushes.  This  species  is  nearly  six  inches 
long,  and  when  cooked  resembles  chicken. 

FROG-BIT.    See  Hydkochabides. 

FROG-FISH  (Batrachus),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Lnpltlida;  to  wliicli  also  the  Angler  (q.  v.)  or 
Fishing  Frog  belongs.  They  are  remarkable  for 
excessive  ugliness.  The  head  is  larger  than  the 
body ;  flattened,  and  spiny ;  the  mouth  is  very  large, 
with  many  teeth  ;  the  lips  are  often  furnished  with 
iilanient-s  ;  the  jjectoral  fins  are  supported  by  a  short 
stalk  or  wrist.  The  skin  is  naked  in  some  species, 
scaly  in  others.  The  species  are  numerous  and 
widely  distributed,  but  none  of  them  is  British. 
They  hide  themselves  in  the  sand  to  surprise  their 
prey. 

FROGGED,  a  term  used  in  regard  to  uniforms, 
and  applied  to  stripes  or  workings  of  braid  or  lace, 
as  oni.aments,  mostly  on  the  breast,  on  the  plain 
cloth  of  which  a  coat  is  made. 

FROISSART,  .Jean,  a  French  poet  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Videnciennes,  in  the  year  1337.  Being 
destined  for  the  church,  he  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, but  soon  displayed  a  passion  for  poetry  and  the 
charms  of  knightly  society.  At  the  age  of  20,  he 
began  to  ■write  a  history  of  the  wars  of  his  time,  and 
made  several  journeys  to  examine  the  theatre  of  the 
events  he  was  about  to  relate.  The  composition 
of  this  work,  which  forms  the  first  part  of  his 
Chronicles,  occupied  him  about  three  j'ears  (1357 — 
13G0).  On  its  completion,  he  went  over  to  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  favour  by  Philippa 
of  Hainault,  wife  of  Edward  III.  In  "iSGi,  she 
appointed  him  clerk  of  her  chapel  and  secretary. 
Two  years  afterwards,  he  visited  Scotland,  where 
he  l>ecame  the  guest  of  King  D.ivid  Bruce,  and 
also  of  William  Earl  of  Douglas.  Everjrwhere  the 
g.ay,  poetical,  quick-witted,  and  shrewdly  observant 
Frenchman  was  welcomed  and  honoured.  In  136G, 
be  accompanied  the  Black  I'rince  to  Aquitaino  ancl 
B(]rde.iux.  lie  afterwards  went  with  the  Duke  of 
Clarence  to  Italy.  F.,  .along  with  Chaucer  and 
Petrarch,  was  present  at  the  marriage  of  this  prince, 
at  Milan,  with  the  daughter  of  Galeazzo  Visconti, 
and  directed  the  festivities  given  by  Amadous  VI., 
of  Savoy,  in  honour  of  the  duke.  On  the  death  of 
his  protectress  Pliilippa,  F.  gave  tip  all  connection 
\vitli  Englanil,  and,  after  many  adventures,  entered 
the  service  of  Wenceslaus,  Duke  of  Brabant,  as 
private  secretary.  The  duke  was  himself  a  poet, 
anil  F.  made  a  collection  of  his  verses,  to  which  he 
added  some  of  his  own,  and  entitled  the  whole 
Mdiador,  or  tlie  Knight  of  the  Golden  Sun.  On  the 
de.ath  of  Weneesl.aus,  he  entered  the  service  of  Guy, 
Count  of  Blois,  who  encouraged  liiiu  to  continue  his 
tUirunicles.  Ho  now  took  a  journey  to  the  court  of 
Gaston  Phojbus,  ('ount  dc  Foix,  that  he  might  he.ar 
from  the  lips  of  the  knights  of  Beam  and  Gascouy 
an  account  of  their  exploits.  F.  also  made  several 
other  journeys,  to  collect  information  for  his 
Chronicles.  In  1304  he  obtained  the  canonry  and 
treasurership  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Chimay ; 
in  the  following  year  visited  England,  where  he 
was  courteously  and  generously  entertained  by  King 
Richard  II. ;  and  on  his  return  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  comjileting  his  great  work.  He  died 
at  Chimay  in   1-tlO.      F.'s  Chronicles  embrace  the 


events  occurring  132G — 1400.  They  are  valuable 
docimients  for  illustrating  the  character  and  man- 
ners of  his  age.  The  pageantry  of  feudal  times 
brightens  his  pages ;  the  din  of  arms,  the  shouting 
of  knights,  and  the  marshalling  of  troops,  is  ever 
and  anon  heard;  while  'visions  of  fair  women'  rise 
before  us  .as  we  reatb  The  gorgeous  feasts  and 
spectacles  in  which  F.  so  nuich  delighted  are  set 
forth  in  copious  detaQs;  and  though  F.  is  no  phil- 
osopher, his  shrewd  observations  and  richly  minute 
descriptions  have  helped  others  to  philosophise. 
F.'s  Chrimicles  first  appeared  at  Paris  .about  the 
end  of  the  l.'Jth  c,  under  the  title  of  Chroniques 
de  France,  (VAngMerie,  d'JUcosse,  d^Eaparftie,  de 
Brelarine,  de  Oascoqne,  Flandres  et  liciix  d'(deulonr. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  Buchou  (1.5  vols., 
Par.  1824 — 182G).  His  poems  have  likewise  been 
published  by  Buchou  (Par.  1820).  The  beautiful 
MS.  of  the  Chronicles  in  the  library  at  Breslau 
was  executed  in  14G8,  and  was  secured  to  the 
town  in  a  separ.atc  article,  when  Brcsl.au  capitulated 
to  the  French  in  the  year  180G.  The  Chronicles 
have  also  been  translated  into  Latin  and  several 
modern  languages.  England  has  two  versions : 
one  executed  in  1.523 — 1.525  by  Bourchier  Lord 
Berners  (reprinted  in  1812) ;  and  the  other  in 
1803 — 1805  by  Thomas  Johnes  (repiinted  by  Bohn 
in  1845).  The  latter  is  the  more  exact ;  but  the 
fonner,  .according  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  the  more 
artless  and  lively. 

FROME,  or  FROME  SELWOOD,  a  parliament- 
ary and  municipal  borough,  in  the  east  of  Somerset- 
shire, on  the  Frome,  a  branch  of  the  ."^von,  12  miles 
south-south-east  of  Bath.  The  sun'ounding  country 
is  very  picturesque,  and  the  town,  imtil  modernised 
early  in  the  present  century  by  the  forra.ation  of 
two  wide  thoroughfares,  was  a  strange  old  place, 
with  narrow,  crooked,  .and  steep  streets  and  lanes, 
many  of  which  still  remain.  It  has  manufactures 
of  fine  woollens,  hats,  silk,  and  cards  for  cU'cssing 
wooUeu  cloth.  Pop.  (1861)  9523.  It  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  once  celebrated  forest 
of  Selwood  was  ha  the  vicinity,  and  part  of  it  re- 
mains in  its  original  st.ate.     (1871 — poj).  0752.) 

FROND,  in  Botany,  a  tei-m  often  used  to  desig- 
nate the  leaves  of  cryjitogamous  plants.  It  was 
originally  introduced  as  distinctive  of  organs  in 
which  the  functions  of  stem  and  leaf  are  combined, 
and  was  applied  to  the  leaves  of  p.alms,  &c.  The 
term  leaf  is  now  very  gener.aUy  used  even  as  to 
mosses,  ferns,  &c.,  and  the  term  thallux  is  employed 
as  to  hehcns.  In  the  case  of  many  Ah/fp,  the  term 
F.  is  often  used  to  designate  the  whole  plant  except 
its  organs  of  reproduction. 

FRONDE,  the  name  given  to  a  political  faction 
in  France  dmiug  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
was  hostile  to  the  court  .and  the  prime  minister, 
M.az.arin,  and  caused  great  domestic  troubles  from 
the  year  1648  to  1654.  The  gr.asi)ing  and  dcsjiotic 
policy  of  Maz.arin,  to  whom  Anne  of  Austri:i,  the 
queen-regent,  had  abandoned  the  rehis  of  govern- 
ment, had  given  offence  to  all  classes.  The  princes 
and  noldes  saw  themselves  excluded  from  all  high 
offices  in  the  state,  .and  their  pl.ace  supi>lird  by 
foreigners  ;  the  parli.ament  was  threatened  in  its 
pohtical  rights,  and  the  people  groaned  under  the 
burden  of  taxes  and  administrative  abuses.  Parlia- 
ment, therefore,  commenced  a  course  of  iletermiued 
opposition,  refusing  to  register  the  royal  edicts, 
more  espeei.ally  the  disgi'acefiU  financial  measures. 
Although  the  young  king,  then  only  nine  years  old, 
w-as  obliged  by  sever.al  'Beds  of  Justice'  (q.v.)  to 
compel  the  registration  of  the  edicts,  and  to  forbid 
the  opposition  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  did  not 
on  that  account   change    its    bearing   towards   the 

631 


FKONTIN  US-FROSINONE. 


court.  Maznriii,  tluTifore,  a<loi)ted  violent  measures. 
On  the  iOth  Aii^ist  164S,  lie  onUivd  the  jiresideut, 
I'litiir  lie  Blanenuiiil,  ami  the  coiiiieillur,  Peter 
Ennissel,  to  lie  arrested.  The  people  tiHik  uj)  anus, 
disjierse*!  the  Swiss  giianl,  and  on  the  i'th  Aug\ist 
{la  journtt;  ties  barrkiuUii)^  erecte<l  barric;ules  in 
the  streets  around  the  Palais  Koyal.  The  court 
now  )ielde<l,  rejiealeil  several  taxes,  and  promised  a 
better  administration  of  justice.  This  victory  gave 
jvirliameut  couraj;e  ;  those  nieniber.s  who  continued 
to  keei>  a  sharp  lookout  on  the  court  me.isures,  and 
were  styled  by  the  .-idhcrents  of  Mazarin  fromh-iirs 
— i.  C  censurers  (literally,  'slin^ers') — formed  the 
majority.  The  court  now  resolved  to  suppress  the 
movement,  in  which  the  populace  of  the  cajiital  had 
also  taken  jiart,  by  force  of  arms,  and,  on  the  Gth 
January  1049,  removed  secretly  to  St  Germain, 
leavint;  Paris  to  be  blockaded  by  the  Prince  of  Conde 
with  7000  men.  The  parliament,  whose  cause  was 
now  publicly  espoused  by  the  Prince  of  Conti,  the 
Dukes  of  Longueville,  Beaufort,  Orleans,  Bouillon, 
Klbeuf,  Veiulome,  Nemours,  the  Canliual  L)e  Kctz, 
and  the   Jlarechal  de   la   Jlothc,   called  upon  the 

Eeo])lc  to  resist,  and  even  negotiated  with  the  stadt- 
older  of  the  Netherlands  for  an  au.xiliary  corps.  In 
this  critical  position,  the  coiu't,  on  the  1 1th  jlarcli, 
concluded  .i  compact  at  Kuel,  in  which  Imth  parties 
missed  their  object.  After  the  return  of  the  coiu-t 
to  P.aris  in  August,  a  new  turn  was  given  to  tlie 
contest,  the  princes  of  the  blood  disputing  the  ]iower 
•n-ith  Mazarin.  This,  on  the  18th  January  1050, 
led  to  the  sudden  aiTCst  of  Conde,  Longue\'ille, 
and  Conti.  This  arliitrary  proceeding  roused  the 
provinces.  Slarshal  Turenne  assumed  the  title  of 
lieutenant-general  of  the  royal  army  for  the  libera- 
tion of  the  princes,  united  himself  with  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,  and  took  several  fortified  to^vns, 
but  was  hnally  completely  defeated  by  Mazarin's 
troops  .at  Rhetel,  on  the  loth  December.  M.azarin 
returned  in  triimiph  to  Paris,  but  found  .all  parties 
against  him,  and  his  remov.al  w.as  insisted  u]ion  so 
urgeutlj',  th.at  ho  was  obliged  to  release  the  princes, 
and  Hee  to  the  Netherlands.  A  disgraceful  system 
of  intrigue  was  now  substituted  for  force  of  arms, 
which  totally  changed  the  position  of  parties,  and 
converted  the  contest  which  had  begun  for  the 
interests  of  the  people  into  a  court  cab.al.  Turenne 
w.a3  gained  over  by  the  queen-regent,  De  Eetz  by 
Cardin.al  M.azarin,  and  Conde  was  obliged  to  flee  for 
safety  into  (ruieune.  MeanM'hile,  Louis  XIV.,  who 
had  now  att.ained  his  I4th  year,  endeavoured  to 
induce  the  Prince  of  Conde  to  retiu-n ;  but  the  Latter, 
mistrusting  these  overtures,  repaired  to  Bordeau.x 
in  IC.tI,  where  he  had  many  adherents,  whence  he 
commenced  a  regular  war  against  the  court,  which 
might  have  had  dangerous  consequences,  had  not 
Turenne  opposed  the  prince.  On  the  2d  July  1052, 
.an  engagement  took  place  between  the  two  parties 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Conde  was  on  the 
eve  of  being  defeated,  when  the  gates  of  Paris  were 
opened  to  him  by  the  cour.age  and  zeal  of  his  sister, 
the  Duchess  of  LonguevUle,  and  thus  a  new  turn 
wa.s  given  to  the  contest.  Paris  itself,  we.ary  of 
these  fruitless  dissensions,  now  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  the  court,  demanding  the  final  remov.al 
of  Mazarin,  who  h.ad  meanwhile  returned.  This 
demand  w.as  com])lied  \rith  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  a 
general  amnesty  proclaimed.  Conde,  who  refused 
to  enter  into  the  comjiact,  relying  upon  an  army  of 
12,000  men  placed  jvt  his  disposal  by  Charles,  Duke 
of  Lorraine,  quitted  Paris  on  the  l.^th  October  1052, 
and  repaired  to  Champagne ;  and  finally,  finding  no 
one  disposed  to  take  up  arms  in  his  cause,  entered 
the  Spanish  service,  for  which  ho  was  declared  a 
traitor.  Soon  after,  Mazarin  returned  to  Paris,  and 
Wios  .again  intrusted  with  the  reins  of  government. 


Thus  the  royal  power  came  forth  victorious  from 
[  this  long  contest,  which,  though  it  seemed  to  com- 
!  mcnce  for  the  jiopular  interests,  gradually  changed 

into   a   miserable   party   strife   among    the   nobles. 

Comp.are  Stc-Aiilaire's  Ilisloire  de  la  Fronde  (3  vols., 

Par.  1827). 

FKONTINUS,  Sex.  Julu.s,  a  Roman  author 
who  flourished  iii  the  second  li.alf  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. I7i  75  A.  II.  he  was  sent  to  Britain  as  governor 
of  that  island,  and  obtained  a  great  reputation  by 
his  conquest  <if  the  .Sihires.  and  his  vigorous  maiu- 
teu.ance  of  the  imperial  authority.  He  appears  to 
have  been  twice  consid  in  the  coui-se  of  his  life,  and 
to  h.ave  held  several  other  imjiortant  ollices.  He 
died  about  105  .\.  I).  Sever.al  works  are  attributed 
to  F.,  only  two  of  which  are  cei-t.aiuly  genuine,  the 
Slrater/anaticon,  a  treatise  on  the  .*\i-t  of  War,  in 
four  books  ;  and  the  /)'■  Ai/itiidii<iil>u.i  Cc'iiV:  Itouur, 
in  two.  The  best  edition  of  the  fii-st  is  that  of 
Oudendorji  (re])riiited  vrith  emendatious  in  1770) ; 
of  the  second,  that  of  Dederich  (Wesel,  1841).  The 
De  Aqucpduclihus  is  an  important  contribution  to 
the  history  of  architecture. 

FEO'NTISPIECi:,  the  n.ame  generally  given  to 
an  engraved  and  decor.ated  title-page  of  a  volume,  or 
an  engraving  placed  opposite  the  title-page.  The 
term  is  also  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  front  or 
lirincipal  face  of  a  building. 

FROXTO.  M.  CoKNF.uus,  was  born  .at  Cirta,  in 
Numidia,  and  came  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  where  he  soon  obtamed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  teacher  of  eloquence.  Antoninus 
Pius  intrusted  to  him  the  education  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus,  both  of  whom  .always 
retained  the  warmest  admiration  of  their  pre- 
ceptor. F.  gradually  rose  to  the  highest  offices  of 
the  empire,  became  very  wealthy,  and  died,  it  is 
thought,  .about  170  a.  n.  Until  recently,  nothing 
was  known  of  F.  as  an  author,  except  from  a  few 
fragments  of  a  gramm.atical  treatise  (De  Diffn-iiiliix 
Vocahulorum)  ;  but  in  the  year  1814,  Angelo  Mai 
discovered  in  the  Ambrosian  Libr.ary  at  Milan  a 
p.alimpsest,  which  being  deci]ihercd.  was  found  to 
contain  a  considerable  number,  of  F.'s  letters  with 
some  short  essays.  These  were  published  by  Mai 
in  1S15 ;  and  in  the  following  year  an  edition  was 
published  at  Berlin  by  Niebuhr,  who  WTote  a 
critical  preface,  and  also  printed  the  commentaries 
of  Buttmann  and  Heindorf.  A  few  years  afterwards, 
Mai  found  in  the  lilir.ary  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome 
another  p.alimpsest  containing  more  than  100  of 
F.'s  letters.  The  result  was  a  new  edition  of  F.  by 
Mai  (Rome,  182.S),  embodying  the  new  discoveries, 
which  was  republished  .at  Celle  in  Germany  (1832). 
The  contents  of  those  letters  .are  on  the  whole  unim- 
portant, .although  they  help  to  confirm  the  good 
opinion  which  history  h.as  formed  of  the  Emperor 
JIarcus  AureUus ;  and  the  style  is  v<apid  and 
declamatory. 

FRO'SCHDORF  (ori,ginally,  Crnllcinforf),  called 
by  the  French  Froli-fdorf,  is  the  name  of  a  WUage  in 
Lower  Austria,  rather  more  than  .30  inUes  from 
Vicnma,  and  not  far  from  the  frontiers  of  Hungary, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Leitha.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  sjilendiil  castle,  which  in  recent 
times  has  acquired  a  kiiul  of  ]iolitical  importance, 
from  ha^-ing  been  after  1844  tlie  lesidence  of 
the  Duchess  of  Angoul(!me  and  tlu'  rendezvous  of 
the  elder  Bourbon  ]iarty.  After  the  death  of  the 
duchess  it  came  into  the  jiossession  of  the  Conite 
de  Chambord  (q.  v.),  who  has  greatly  beautified  the 
interior. 

FROSINONE  (the  ancient  Fmxino  of  the 
Volscians)  is  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  States  of  the 


PR0ST-BITE-F1!0UDE. 


Church,  built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  above  the  jiuic- 
tion  of  the  river  Cossa  with  the  Sacco,  about  48 
miles  east-south-east  of  Rome,  on  the  higli-roail 
between  Rome  a.nl  Naples.  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
delegation  of  the  same  name,  which  is  notorious 
for  brigandage.  The  only  interesting  edifices  are 
the  palace  of  the  papal  delegate  and  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  amphitheatre.  The  costumes  of  F. 
are  among  the  most  admired  of  Italy.  Pop.  about 
SOOO. 

FROST-BITE  is  caused  by  cold  depressing  the 
vitality  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  body.  The 
frost-Iiittcu  jiart  is  at  first  blue  and  puffy,  from  the 
current  of  lilood  tlirough  it  being  s>ispendcd  ;  tlieu, 
slionld  the  cold  be  continued,  it  becomes  jiaUid,  and 
the  iiaiiifnl  tingling  gives  place  to  numbness  and 
insensibility,  and  finally  to  actual  death  or  mortifi- 
catiim.  Although  a  sudden  %'iolent  a])plication  of 
colli  m.ay  cause  death  of  the  tissues,  by  reducing  the 
tem])er.ature  to  a  degree  incompatiltle  with  animal 
life,  the  most  common  cause  of  the  destructive 
effects  of  frost-bite  is  undoubtedly  the  excessive 
reactittn  wliieh  occurs  on  sudden  removal  of  the  cold, 
or  the  application  of  heat;  this  is  especially  the 
case  with  moist  cold. 

15aron  Larrey  believed  that  '  cold  was  merely 
the  predisposing  cause  of  frost-bite,  and  mentions 
tliat  after  the  battle  of  Eylau  the  French  sokliers 
did  not  experience  any  painful  sensations  diu-ing 
the  severe  cold  varying  from  10°  to  15°  below  zero 
of  Reaumur's  thermometer;  but  when  tlie  tem- 
perature rose  from  18°  to  20°,  they  felt  the  first 
scns.ations  of  cold,  and  appUed  for  succour,  cora- 
])laining  of  acute  pains  in  their  feet,  and  of  munb- 
ness,  heaviness,  and  jirickings  in  the  extremities. 
The  j)arts  were  scarcely  swollen,  and  of  an  obscure 
red  colour.  In  some  cases,  a  slight  redness  was 
perceptible  about  tlie  roots  of  the  toes,  and  on 
the  back  of  the  foot ;  in  others,  the  toes  were 
destitute  of  motion,  sensibility,  and  warmth,  being 
already  bl.ack,  and,  as  it  were,  dried.'  Those 
of  the  men  who  indiUged  in  the  wai-mth  of  the 
Viivonac  fires  suttercd  from  frost-bite  in  much  larger 
proportion  than  their  more  hardy  comrades. 

In  tliis  country,  most  cases  of  frost-bite  are  very 
trilling,  tlie  most  common  being  Chilblains  (q.  v.). 
Occasionally,  in  severe  winters,  more  severe  cases 
present  themselves  at  the  hospitals  in  the  persons  of 
houseless,  ill-nourished  unfortunates,  whose  consti- 
tutions have  in  many  instances  been  enfeebled  by 
spirit-drinking. 

Tlie  treatment  of  frost-bite  consists  in  coaxing 
back  by  dcgi-ees  the  vitality  of  the  part ;  this  is 
most  pnulently  effected  by  friction,  at  first  with 
snow,  then  with  water  at  ordinary  temperature, 
no  warmth  being  applied  for  some  time.  As  the 
coldness  suljsides,  the  painful  tingling  returns,  then 
redness  and  heat ;  in  a  short  time,  the  latter  will 
be  above  the  natural  standard,  and  if  not  moderated, 
the  part  will  inflame,  and  perhaps  mortify.  It  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  part  need  not  have 
been  .actually  frozen  for  these  sjnnptoms  to  occur. 
The  person  "with  Languid  circulation  who,  coming 
home  with  cold  wet  feet,  places  them  before  the 
fire,  lu-  in  warm  w.ater,  may  be  'frost-bitten'  to  all 
intents  and  purposes. 

FROTH-FLY,  FROTH-HOPPER,  FROC- 
FLY,  or  FROG -HOPPER,  the  common  names  of 
those  insects  of  which  the  young— larv;e  an<l  pupie 
— are  found  in  a  frothy  exudation  on  jilants.  They 
form  the  family  Cercopiila:  of  the  order  Iloiiioiikra. 
and  are  allied"  to  Apld'l'-.'.,  and  stUl  more  nearly  to 
Cicadas  and  L.antern-flie.s.  The  larva'  and  pupie 
differ  little  in  appearance  from  the  ]ierfeet  insect 
except  that  it  possesses  wings,  which  are  four  in 


number,  and  large.  The  frothy  exudations  in  which 
they  live  are  prrtduced  from  the  iniees  of  the 
]jlants  on  which  they  are  founil ;  and  as  they  are 
often  in  great  numbers,  crops  of  various  kinds  are 
not  uufrequently  destroyed  or  nuich  injured  by 
them,  the  plants  being  weakened  by  loss  of  sap. 
They  have  a  Jiroboscis  adai)ted  for  piercing  the 
bark  of  the  plants  on  which  they  feed.  They  are 
all  small  insects.     They  have  considerable  leajiing 


Frog-Hopper  (Cicada  spumaria) : 

a,  larva;  ?>,  perfect  insect,  with  wing-covers  closed;  c,  perftcl 

insect,  in  the  act  or  flight ;  d,  the  froth  on  a  plant. 

powers.  Ckcida  spumaria  is  an  extremely  com- 
mon species  in  Britain.  The  frothy  exudation  is 
sometimes  called  Crcuoo-spiT,  sometimes  Fuoa- 
sriTTLE,  from  fancies  entertained  .as  to  its  origin. 
It  is  sometimes  so  abundant,  particularly  on  willow- 
trees,  that  persons  walking  beneath  are  wetted  by 
its  continual  droi)piug.  In  tropical  countries,  the 
Caropida'  are  still  more  iilentiful.  Some  of  th<- 
tropical  insects  of  this  family  .are  remarkable  for 
their  extraordinary  forms,  resulting  from  pecidiar 


Bocydium  Cniciatum.    Bocydium  Globulare. 

developments  of  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax 
This  is  particularly  the  case  inthe  genus  Bocijdiiiiii, 
of  which  twcj  species  are  here  figured. 

FROUUE,  .Tamk!  Anthony,  an  English  historian, 
w.a-s  born  at  T(itne.«s,  in  Devonshire,  in  the  year 
ISIS;  studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
took  his  degree  in  1840;  and  in  1S4'2  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  Exeter  (,'ollege.  Having  abaiuloned  his 
original  intention  of  entering  the  ehureb,  he  pub- 
lished, in   1S47,   a  voltime  of   stories,   entitled    I'/ie 


FKOZEN  STRAIT— FRUIT. 


Shallows  of  tiie  Clouds;  ami  two  yenrs  later,  The 
XimfsU)  of  Fnilh,  a.  work  iu  whicli  the  solemnity 
ami  sadness  of  religioiis  scepticism  are  relieved  by 
a  singularly  tender  and  earnest  humanity.  The 
book  was  written  with  j.Teat  and  even  startliui; 
power,  and  not  only  cost  F.  his  fellowship,  but 
.ilso  a  situation  to  which  he  had  just  been  appointed 
iu  Tasmania.  F.,  for  tlie  next  few  years,  employed 
himself  in  writing  for  Frusera  Mayaziiie  and  the 
WfilmineUr  Hetiew.  In  1S5G  appeared  the  first  two 
vols,  of  his  Hlttory  of  Kmjland  from  the  Fall  nf 
U'olsey  to  the  Death  of  Flizalxth,  aud  iu  185S  the 
third  .-uul  fourth.  The  peciJi.irity  of  this  work 
regarded  as  a  history,  consists  in  the  use  it  makes 
of,  and  tlie  value  it  places  U|)on,  the  state  docu- 
ments of  the  time.  Tuc  study  of  these  documents 
has  led  F.  to  reverse  not  a  few  historical  verdicts, 
especially  th.it  which  has  been  passed  upon  Henry 
VIII. ;  but  his  decisions  h.ive  l)y  no  means  been 
generally,  or  eveu  to  any  large  e.Kteut,  acquiesced 
m  by  other  historical  critics.  The  intellectual 
vigour  and  originality  of  the  author's  views  and 
sentiments,  aud  the  mingled  splendour  and  strength 
of  liis  style,  have,  nevertheless,  excited  an  extra- 
ordinary interest  in  the  volumes. 

FROZEX  STRAIT,  a  passage,  if  passage  it 
can  be  called.  leading  north-westward  from  Fox's 
Channel  towards  Repulse  Bay.  It  separates  South- 
amjrton  Island,  iu  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay,  fi-om 
MelviUe  Peninsula,  wliich  stretches  northward  to 
the  str.ait  of  the  Fury  and  Hecla.  Its  narrowness, 
for  it  is  only  fifteen  miles  wide,  renders  it,  even 
in  the  G6th  degree  of  latitude,  almost  constantly 
impervious  to  na\4gation. 

FRUCTED.  Trees  when  represented  as  bearing 
fi-uit  are  said  heraldicaUy  to  be  fructed. 

FRUCTIDOR  (Eng.  'fruit-month')  was  the 
n.ame  given  in  the  republican  calendar  of  France 
to  the  period  extending  from  the  18th  of  August  to 
the  16th  of  September.  The  ISth  ftuctidor  of 
the  year  5  (or  the  4th  September  1797)  is  cele- 
br.ated  as  the  day  on  which  B.arras,  Rewbel,  and 
Lepaux,  members  of  the  Directory,  by  a  coup 
d'etat,  saved  the  republic  from  the  machinations  of 
the  Royalists,  who  had  got  the  np[ier  hand  in  the 
CouncU  of  Five  Hundi-ecl.  The  execution  of  the 
coup  (Vetat  was  intrusted  to  General  Augereau. 

FRUCTIFICA'TION  (Lat.  the  producing  of 
fruit),  a  term  frequently  employed  in  cryptogamic 
botany,  sometimes  to  denote  the  whole  reproductive 
system,  and  sometimes  the  fruit  itself. 

FRUCTOSE,  or  FRUIT-SUGAR,  known  also 
as  Inverted  Sugar,  occurs  in  association  with 
glucose,  or  (according  to  the  recent  investiga- 
tions of  Buiguet)  witli  cane-sugar  in  many  ripe 
acidulous  fruits.  In  its  composition,  and  in  most  of 
its  properties,  it  closely  resembles  glucose,  from 
which,  however,  it  iliffors  (1),  iu  1)eing  incap.able  of 
crystaUisation :  and  (2),  iu  its  action  on  polarised 
light ;  while  both  glucose  (or  grape-sug.ar)  and  cane- 
sug.ar  exert  a  right-handed  rotation  upon  a  ray  of 
polarised  light,  this  variety  of  sugar  exerts  a  left- 
hauded  rotation  ;  and  hence  the  term  inverted  has 
been  .applied  to  it. 

The  composition  of  fructose  is  represented  by  the 
formula  C.^H.^O,,.  When  boiled  with  clilute 
acids,  fructose  combines  witli  the  elements  of  water, 
and  passes  into  glucose.  A  simil.ar  i)assage  of  this 
8ubst.ance  into  glucose  sometimes  occurs  spon- 
taneously, as  is  seen  iu  the  gradual  crystallisation 
of  the  sugar  in  dried  fniits. 

It  appears  to  be  ])rocurable  only  from  cane-sug.ar 
(or  sucrose)  by  the  action  cither  of  acids  or  of  a 
Mi 


peciUiar  albuminous   ferment  wliich   exists   in   the 
juice  of  many  ripening  fruits. 

FRUGO'NI,  Carlo  Innocenzo,  a  much  admired 
and  vers.atile  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Genoa  iu 
1G92,  and  educated  for  the  church.  Iu  171U  he 
liegan  to  teach  rhetoric  at  Brescia,  .at  which  time 
he  had  ,aln':uly  .acquired  the  reputation  of  being  an 
elegant  WTiter  of  prose  and  verse,  both  in  Latin 
and  Italian.  In  1719  he  taught  in  Genoa,  and 
subsequently  at  Bologna.  At  the  court  of  I'amia, 
through  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal  Bentivoglio, 
he  w.as  ap])ointed  jmet  laureate,  the  stated  ami 
prescribed  compositions  of  which  jmst  were  highly 
uncongenial  to  his  origin.al  and  discursive  muse  ; 
nevertheless  tlie  Dukes  of  Parma  shewed  )).articnlar 
favour  to  the  poet,  who  returned  to  (ienoa  on 
the  death  of  Didic  Antonio,  aud  the  .accession  of 
the  Spanish  Infante.  Tu  1733,  Pope  Clement 
XII.  released  F.  from  his  spiritual  vows,  whieli 
had  at  all  times  been  highly  distasteful  to  him. 
A  grand  ode,  in  celebration  of  the  capture  of  Orau 
by  tlie  Spaniards,  ami  some  other  poetic  addresses 
to  the  king  .and  queen  of  Spain,  reinstalled  tlie 
poet  in  his  former  jiost  at  the  P.armese  court.  He 
died  in  1768.  His  numerous  WTitings  "were  pul)- 
lished  at  Parma,  1779,  and  a  complete  edition  at 
Lucca,  1779.  A  selection  from  his  works  appeared 
at  Brescia,  1782. 

FRUIT  i/rucius),  in  the  botanical  use  of  the  term, 
in  jihanerogamous  jilants,  is  a  mature  ovary  con- 
taining a  seed  or  seeds ;  and  in  crj-jitogamous  plants, 
a  spore-case  {spora»r/Utm  or  theca)  containing  spores. 
Other  parts  of  the  flower,  most  frequently  tlie  calyx, 
sometimes  rem.ain  after  flowering  is  over,  imdergo  a 
further  development,  lieeome  incorporated  with  the 
ovary,  and  form  part  of  tlie  fruit.  The  development 
of  the  fruit  iu  phanerogamous  jihants  depeuds  upon 
the  fertilisation  of  the  ovules,  and  when  this  li.as 
not  taken  place,  the  flow  of  sap  to  the  ovary  usually 
soon  ceases,  and  it  drops  off  ■\^'ith  all  the  otlier 
remains  of  the  flower  ;  although  thei-e  are  excep- 
tional cases  of  sceiUcss  fruits,  .as  seedless  oranges, 
bananas,  grapes,  barben-ies,  &c.,  in  which,  however, 
it  m.ay  be  supposed  that  fertilisation  takes  place, 
and  that  unkuown  causes  afterwards  operate  to  pre- 
vent the  development  of  the  seed,  and  to  direct  the 
flow  of  sap  more  exclusively  to  tlie  nourishment  of 
the  succident  paits,  whieli  are  thus  incre.ased  .and 
improved.  This  supposition  is  rendered  more  proli- 
.able  l>y  the  circumstance  that  the  production  of 
seedless  fruits  appears  to  be  at  least  sometimes  a 
consequence  of  age  and  diminished  vigour  in  trees. 

The  fniit,  Uke  the  ovary,  may  be  composed  of  one 
cai-jiel,  or  of  more  than  one.  But  the  fruit  some- 
times differs  from  the  ovary,  through  the  develop- 
ment of  some  of  the  parts,  and  tlie  non-developmeut 
or  obliteration  of  others ;  so  tliat  an  ov,ary  witli 
sever,al  cells  m>ay  be  converted  into  a  one-celled 
fruit ;  and  of  several  oviUes,  all  but  one  may  become 
abortive,  so  .as  to  jiroduce  a  one-seeded  fiaiit.  Thus 
the  tliree-celled  ovary  of  tlie  oak  and  of  the  hazel, 
■with  two  o\niles  in  each  cell,  becomes,  by  the  non- 
development  of  two  cells  and  live  ovules,  .a  fruit 
with  one  seed  ;  and  the  two-celled  ovary  of  the  .ash, 
aud  the  three-celled  ovary  of  the  cocoa-nut,  likewise 
produce  one-celled  and  one-seeded  fruits.  Some- 
times .also  false  dissepiments  are  formed,  which 
jiroduce  in  the  fruit  a  greater  number  of  cells  than 
existed  in  the  ovarj'.  More  generally,  however,  the 
fruit  agrees  with  the  ovary  iu  the  luunber  of  its 
cells  and  seeds.  But  not  unfrequently,  the  stnic- 
turo  of  the  fruit  is  rendered  comparatively  difficult 
to  determine,  tlirough  the  development  of  succulent 
matter  or  pulp,  sometimes  in  one  part  aud  sometimes 
iu  another. 


FRUIT. 


All  that  is  external  to  the  proper  integuments  of 
the  seed  in  the  ripe  fniit  is  called  the  pericarp  (Or. 
perl,  arouud ;  and  Icarpos,  fniit) ;  and  this,  which 
varies  extremely  in  size  and  other  characters,  usually 
consists  of  tliree  layers,  the  outermost  of  which  is 
called  the  epicarp  (Gr.  epi,  uprtn) ;  the  middle  one, 
the  viesocarp  (Gr.  mesos,  middle),  or  sometimes  the 
sarcocarp  (Gr.  sarx,  flesh)  ;  and  the  innermost,  the 
enducarp  (Gr.  endon,  within).  These  parts  exhibit 
great  variety,  but  it  is  geueraUy  the  mesocarp  which 
becomes  succulent  or  fleshy,  as  in  the  peach,  chcrrj-. 
Ilium,  and  other  drupes  ;  and  in  the  pear,  apple,  and 
other  pomes.  In  drupes,  or  stone-fruits,  the  endocaqj 
is  the  hard  shell  which  immediately  covers  the  seed ; 


Drupe  (section  of  a  Peach). 

in  pomes,  it  is  the  scaly  lining  of  the  seed-hearing 
cavities  in  the  centre ;  in  both  drupes  and  pomes, 
the  epicarp  is  the  outer  skin.  So  in  melons,  eucimi- 
bers,  and  gourds,  the  succulent  part  is  the  mesocarp, 
greatly  developed,  with  a  thin  epicarj)  and  a  thinner 
endocarp.  In  the  orange,  however,  and  all  of  that 
f.amily,  the  cjiicarp  and  mesocarp  together  form  the 
rind,  whilst  the  pulpy  cells  belong  to  the  endocarp. 
In  berries,  ,as  the  gooseberry,  .grape,  &c.,  the  jnUpy 
matter  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  layers  of  the 
pericarp,  but  is  formed  from  the  placentas  of  the 
seeds. 

AVlieu  the  fruit,  as  the  fully  developed  ovary,  is 
considered  as  a  modified  leaf  or  leaves,  the  epicarp 
is  viewed  as  rejiresenting  the  epidermis  of  the  lower 
surf.ace,  the  endocarj)  the  epidermis  of  the  upper 
surface,  and  the  mesocarj)  the  substance  [paren- 
chyma) of  the  leaf.  The  midrib  of  the  leaf  is  traced 
in  the  dorsal  suture  of  the  fruit  or  of  each  com- 
ponent carpel,  and  the  rentral  suture  is  formed  by 
its  folding  together  and  the  conjunction  of  its  edges. 
The  dorsal  and  ventral  sutures  are  very  obvious  in 
the  pods  of  pease,  beans,  &c. ;  and  even  in  fnuts 
formed  of  several  carpels  intimately  combined,  they 
often  become  very  apparent  when  the  ripened  fruit 
opens  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  seeds.  The  opening 
or  dehiscence  (Lat.  dehinco,  to  open)  of  fruits  takes 
place  in  various  ways  ;  thus,  the  fruit  sometimes 
resolves  itself  into  its  original  carpels  liy  separation 
through  the  dissepiments,  which  divide  into  two 
plates  forming  the  sides  of  the  valves,  and  the 
carpels  further  open  by  their  sutures ;  the  pericarp 
sometimes  spUts  at  once  liy  the  dorsal  sutures  of 
the  carpels  ;  sometimes  it  divides  transversely,  and 
throws  off  a  lid ;  sometimes  it  opens  more  partially 
by  pores,  &c.  Many  fruits,  however,  are  indehiscent, 
some  of  which  are  fruits  having  a  very  Lard  peri- 
carp, as  nuts,  aud  some  are  fruits  having  a  soft 
pericarp  and  much  pulp.  The  decay  of  the  pericarp 
is  in  these  cases  necessary  to  the  liberation  of  the 
seeds,  unless  when  this  is  accomplished  by  such 
means  as  the  fruit  becoming  the  food  of  animals,  by 
which  also  the  seeds  of  plants  are  often  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  decay  of  the  pericarp  seems  intended, 
in  manj'  cases,  to  provide  the  first  nourishment  for 
the  yoimg  plants  which  spring  from  the  seeds. 


A  classification  of  the  different  kinds  of  fruits  is 
extremely  difficult,  although  they  aflord  characters 
of  great  importance  in  descriptive  and  systematic 
botany.  A  convenient  primary  division  of  fruits  is 
into  those  which  are  formed  from  one  flower,  and 
those  which  are  formed  by  iucoii)oration  of  the 
ovaries  of  many  flowers.  Fruits  formed  from  one 
flower,  by  far  the  most  nimierous  of  these  two 
classes,  are  divided  into  apocarpous  and  si/ncarjmus, 
or  into  apocarpous,  aggregate,  and  syncarpous.  Apo- 
carpous fruits  are  formed  of  one  carpel,  and  are 
either  dry  or  succulent,  dehiscent  or  indehiscent, 
one-seeded  or  many-seeded.  Aggreg.ate  fruits,  some- 
times included  among  the  apocarpous,  are  formed  of 
several  or  many  free  carpels ;  sometimes  drj',  some- 
times succiUent;  sometimes  arranged  on  a  convex  or 
elevated  receptacle ;  which  becomes  succulent  in  the 
strawberrj-,  and  constitutes  the  edible  part  of  the 
fruit ;  sometimes  within  a  concave  receptacle  covered 
by  the  enlarged  tube  of  the  calj-x,  as  in  the  rose. 
Syncarpous  fruits  are  formed  of  several  caq)els, 
intimately  iinited  in  their  matiu'e  state,  so  as  to 
form  a  beiTy,  capsiUe,  pome,  silique,  &c.  Syncaqious 
fruits  sometimes  so  comjiletely  resolve  themselves 
into  their  original  carpels,  that  these  may  be 
regarded  as  becoming  separate  achenia.  Fniits 
formed  by  incorporation  of  the  ovaries  of  many 
flowers  (collective  or  anthoc.ai'pous  fruits)  are  some- 
times dry,  as  the  cones  of  firs  ;  sometimes  succu- 
lent, as  the  pine-apple,  the  mulberry,  and  the  fig. 
For  further  notice  of  different  kinds  of  fruits,  we 
must  refer  to  particular  articles  in  which  they  are 
described,  as  acheniimi,  berry,  capside,  drupe,  nut, 
pome,  pod,  silique,  &c.,  and  to  articles  on  the  plants 
which  produce  them. 

A  few  plants,  particularly  the  Conifcrce  and 
Cijcadarea;  produce  seeds  really  naked  or  destitute 
of  pericarji.  Many  other  seeds  were  formerly  often 
described  as  naked,  in  which  the  pericaq)  exists 
intimately  incorporated  ^vith  the  seed,  as  the  seeds 
of  grasses,  Boraginea,  Lahiala;,  Umbelli/ene,  &c. 
Their  real  natxire  is  often  made  ajiparent  by  some 
trace  of  the  style. 

The  production  of  ripe  fruit  is  exhaustive  to  the 
energies  of  a  plant,  and  plants  ordinarily  annual 
may  be  preserved  in  hfe  for  several  years  by  jire- 
venting  it.  Veiy  young  fruit-trees  generally  fail  to 
bring  fruit  to  perfection,  and  the  first  flowers  of 
melons  and  gourds  are  often,  for  a  similar  reason, 
abortive  ;  whilst,  on  the  contrarj',  any  circiunstance 
th.it  favours  an  accumulation  of  sap  in  a  particular 
season,  tends  to  render  fruit-trees  muisually  jiroduc- 
tive  in  the  next,  as  when  the  whole  blossoms  of  a 
year  are  killed  by  frost,  or  when,  from  the  coldness  of 
the  previous  summer,  flower-buds  have  not  been 
formed  in  abundance.  Whilst  the  vital  energies  of 
a  plant  are  directed  mainly  towards  the  increase  of 
its  size,  flower-buds  are  sparingly  formed  or  not  at 
.all,  as  is  often  the  case  with  fruit-trees  growing  very 
luxuriantly,  and  various  modes  are  adopted  to  cause 
the  production  of  flower-buds  and  of  fndt  by  check- 
ing this  luxuriance  of  growth,  as  by  root-pruning, 
by  cutting  into  the  stem  of  wall-trees  to  a  moderate 
depth,  or  by  taking  off  portions  of  the  bark  of  the 
stem.  Gr.afting  (q.  v.)  is  also  of  use  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  for  the  propagation  of  imjiroved  varieties 
of  fruit-trees,  the  qualities  of  which  woiUd,  in  all 
probability,  not  be  found  exactly  the  same  in  their 
offspring  by  seed. 

In  a  very  immature  state,  fruits  are  in  general 
green  and  soft,  and  decompose  carbonic  acid  gas  in 
the  sunlight,  absorbing  the  carbon,  and  setting  free 
the  oxygen,  like  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of 
jjlants.  As  they  advance  towards  maturity,  some 
of  them  become  externally  di-j'  and  hard,  and  cease 
to   pertorm   by   their  surface   these   functions   of 

S,3i 


FRUIT. 


vegetation  :  others,  as  they  become  more  succulent, 
chau'-e  their  colour,  and  instead  of  absorbing  carlwn 
and  lilieratini;  oxygen,  absorb  oxygen  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  exhale  carbonic  acid. 

It  would  not  be  easy  to  enumerate  the  iieculiar 
substances  which  are  protluoed  in  fruits.  Ditferent 
parts  of  the  same  fruit  are  often  extremely  different 
from  one  another,  as  the  milk  and  the  kernel  of 
the  cocoa-nut,  its  hard  shell,  and  its  fibrous  husk. 
Sewls  are  indee<l  generally  vorj-  different  in  all  their 
.|ualitie3  from  tlie  pericaqi  or  the  pulp  by  which 
thiv  are  surrounded,  .-md  the  integiuneuts  of  the 
seei'l  often  not  less  different  from  the  embryo,  of  all 
which  a  ready  illustration  may  be  found  iu  the  apple 
or  the  grape.  The  most  different  chemical  products 
of  vegetation  are  sometimes  to  be  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  fruit,  giWng  them  the  most  varied 
qualities,  as  wholesome  and  poisonous  ;  the  succu- 
lent lart  of  the  fniit,  from  the  keniel  of  which 
strj-chnia  is  obt-iincd,  is  said  to  be  harmless,  and  the 
seeds  of  plums  contain  so  much  hydrocyanic  acid, 
that  to  eat  many  of  them  would  be  dangerous ;  the 
capsule  of  the  jwppy  yields  opium,  but  its  seed 
contains  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  is  bland  and 
nutritious,  abomiding  in  a  wholesome  tixed  oil. 
The  value  of  fruits  to  man— which  may  safely  be 
asserted  to  exceed  that  of  all  other  parts  of  plants 
—sometimes,  as  in  the  corn-plants,  chiefly  depends 
on  the  farinaceous  matter  of  their  seeds,  conbiining 
starch,  gluten,  &c.  ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  banana 
and  bread-fruit,  on  the  starchy  matter  of  the  piUpy 
part ;  sometimes,  as  in  nuts,  on  fixed  oils  ;  some- 
times, as  in  many  succulent  fruits,  on  sugar  and 
various  acids,  with  gum,  pectine,  &c.  Other  fruits, 
or  parts  of  the  same  fruits,  are  valuable  for  the 
volatile  oils  which  they  yield,  and  for  peculiar 
principles  capable  of  application  to  metlicinal  and 
other  uses,  or  making  them  capable  of  being  used 
as  condiments,  perfimies,  &c.  Coffee,  cocoa,  pepper, 
vanilla,  and  many  other  articles  of  commerce,  are 
obtained  fnim  fruits. 

Whilst  some  fruits  are  of  the  highest  value  as 
articles  of  food,  others  are  generally  regarded  rather 
as  articles  of  lux>uy ;  yet  the  abundance  of  succu- 
lent fruits  in  tropical  climates  is  a  bountiful  pro- 
vision for  real  wants,  contributing  much  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants.  The  coolness  of  succulent 
fruits  renders  them  peculiarly  gi-ateful  amidst  the 
heat  of  the  tropies  ;  their  temperature,  when  newly 
gathered,  being  much  below  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

Citltirated  Fruits. — In  its  popiUar  use,  the  term 
fruit  sometimes  has  almost  the  same  signification  as 
in  the  language  of  botanical  science  ;  sometimes  it 
is  employed  as  almost  exclusively  design.ating  the 
edible  succulent  fruits.  We  cannot  attempt  an 
enumeration  of  edible  fi-uits ;  many  will  be  found 
noticed  in  other  botauical  articles ;  we  can  only  here 
obser\-e  that  they  belong  to  many  and  very  different 
natural  orders,  both  of  endogenous  and  exogenous, 
but  chiefly  of  exogenous  plants.  We  propose,  how- 
ever, to  conclude  this  article  by  an  eniuneration  of 
the  principal  cultivated  succiUent  fruits,  including 
those  which  are  important  as  articles  of  food  or  of 
commerce. 

ENDOGESOrS  PLANTS. 
Musarcfv.  Plantain  and  Banana. 

Jirumfliacc(t,      Pine-apple. 
Palma.  Date. 

EXOGENOUS  PLA>TS. 

Mvraceac  Fig. 

Sycamore. 

Mulberry. 
Arlocarpacea.     Bread-fruit 
LnuracciE,  Avocado  Pear. 

i>3C 


Svlanacece.  Love-apple,  or  Tomato. 

Egg-plant. 
Sapotacect.  Mauunee  Sapota, 

Sapodilla. 

Slar-apple, 
IPienacecc.  Date  Plum. 

Kaki. 
OUacea.  Olive.  [Differs  verj-  much  in  its 

nature  and  uses  from  all  the 
other  fruits  here  cnuuieratcd.] 
Varciniaeetr.       Cranberrj*. 
Cornace<c.  Cornel. 

Mt/rtacea.  Kose-apple. 

Malay  Apple. 

Ugni. 

Guava. 

Pomegranate. 
Graaulariacca.  Gooseberr\'. 

Red  (and  White)  Currant 

Black  Currant. 
Cactacttr.  Prickly  Pear,  or  Indian  Fig. 

Cucurbitacca.     Melon. 

Water-melon. 

Cucumber. 

Pumpkin. 

Squash. 

Gourd. 
Passi^tforace(T.     Granadilla. 
Payjami<-c(v.         Papaw. 
Sosaccix.  Apple. 

Pear. 

Quince. 

Medlar. 

Loquat. 

Peach  and  Nectarine. 

Apricot. 

Plum. 

Cheny. 

Raspberry. 

Strawberry. 

Tamarind. 

Cashew-apple. 

Mango. 

Hog-plmn. 

Otaheite  Apple. 

Jujube. 

Carambola. 

Grape. 

Akee. 

Litchi. 

Longan. 

Kambutan. 

Honey  Berry. 

Barbadoes  Cherry. 

Manmiee  Apple. 

Mangostccn. 

Orange. 

Lemon. 

Citron. 

Shaddock. 

Forbidden  Fruit. 

Lime. 

Wampee. 

Marmelos. 
SU-reuliacea:.      Durion. 
Anonaceic.  Custard  Apple. 

Nuts,  and  along  with  them  some  frnits,  which 
although  not  botonically  nuts,  resemble  thorn  in 
qualities  and  uses,  will  be  noticed  iu  a  separate 
article. 

Chemical  Composition  of  FruHs. — Our  principal 
knowledge  of  the  composition  of  different  kinds 
of  fruit  is  due  to  the  recent  investigations  of 
Fresenius,  which  are  published  in  tlie  Aiinalen  dcr 
Cliemie  und  Pharmacie  for  1857.  In  that  memoir, 
he  gives  the  residts  of  upwards  of  fifty  analyses  of 
different  fruits,  includiug  gooseberries,  currants, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  mulberries,  grapes,  cher- 
ries, plums,  apricots,  peaches,  apples,  and  pears. 
We  select  the  following  analyses  as  representing 
the   composition   of  some   of    our  most   important 


Lfguminosfp, 
Anacardiacew. 


Rhamnarc(r. 
Oxatidio'. 
Vitacc^. 
Sapindaceie. 


Malpighiacea. 
Ctuslaccp. 

Aurantiacet. 


FRUIT. 


fruits— viz.,  (1)  the  goosebeny;  (2)  the  grape;   (3)    which  is   iiresent,  whether  it  be   mijic,  citric,  or 

the  cherry ;  (4)  the  peach  ;  (5)  the  apple ;  and  (C)  tlie    tartaric  (all  of  wliich  occur  iu  fruits),  is  calculated 
pear.     For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  free  acid  |  as  hydratud  malic  acid. 


t. 

2. 

a. 

4. 

«■ 

I 

0. 

Water 

85-36 

79-98 

79-70 

8201 

85  04 

83-95 

Solid  Constituents, 

]4«t 

2002 

2(1-30 

1789 

14-96 

1605 

(Ilucose  and  Fruit  sugar,  .... 

751 

13-78 

1070 

1-53 

758 

70(1 

.2       Vrvn  Acid 

1-33 

1-02 

0-56 

0-77 

1-04 

007 

3  ■   Albuminous  Substances 

037 

0-83 

1-0) 

0-39 

0-22 

0-26 

^      Soluble  IVctine,  Gum,  ire.,   . 

21J 

1)  M 

0-67 

9-28 

2-72 

3-28 

I  Soluble  Mineral  Constituents,   . 

024 

0-46 

0-60 

076 

0-44 

0*28 

»■    f  Stone  or  Seeds,         ) 

■§      Skin  and  Cellulose,)      *         .         .        • 

208 

2-59 

5-73 
0-.-i7 

321 

0-94 

0.-I8 

1-4-.' 

0-39 
3-42 

£      Pectose,    .          ...... 

M    t^ntiolublc  Mineral  Constituents,    . 

0'96 

0-94 

0-6(> 

100 

I'Ki 

I-.-M 

017 

012 

0-U8 

010 

003 

0  05 

Glucose  and  fruit-sugar  or  fructose,  are  described  in 
the  articles  devoted  to  these  subjects.  Under  the 
heading  '.Soluble  I'ectine,  (iuni,  &o.,'  arc  included 
colouring  matters,  fatty  or  oily  matter  in  a  state  of 
suspension,  and  organic  acids  in  combination  with 
b.tses.  We  shall  endeavour  to  (-.xjilain  briefly  the 
n.ature  of  the  substances  designated  in  these  analyses 
as  ])ectine  and  pectose.  The  term  pictine  matters  is 
applied  to  a  very  widely  distributed  class  of  sub- 
stances occurring  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
especially  abiuidant  in  ileshy  fruits  and  in  roots, 
but  whose  projierties  and  composition  rerpiire  further 
investig.ation.  The  substance  termed  jnctost^  which 
is  iusolulile  in  water,  occurs  in  plants,  which  likewise 
possess  a  ferment  iu  solution  which  converts  pectose 
into  pecthie,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  the 
main  coustituents  of  apple  and  other  fruit  jellies. 
(According  to  Fremy,  peclk  (ichl,  which  is  closely 
alhed  to  pectine,  is  foi-med  in  fruits  that  yield  jellies  : 
he  has  assigned  formulas  to  lioth  these  substances, 
but  they  are  not  generally  accepted.) 

The  ratio  in  which  the  free  acid  stands  to  the 
sugar  varies  extremely.  For  a  tuiit  of  free  acid,  the 
sugar  is  represented  by  rO.S  in  plums,  by  S'OO  iu 
cun-ants,  by  -l-.')7  in  strawberries,  liy  i'SA  in  goose- 
berries, by  T'O.'J  iu  <lamson3,  by  IblO  in  apples,  by 
17'20  in  sweet  cherries,  by  20-|S  in  grapes,  and  by 
94-00  in  jiears ;  the  percentage  of  sug.ar  is  least 
(I-.57  per  cent.)  iu  jieachcs,  and  greatest  (14-9,3  per 
cent.)  in  grapes  ;  while  the  (lercentage  of  free  acid 
is  least  iii  pears  (0-07  per  cent.),  and  greatest  iu 
cun-ants  ("2-04  per  cent.). 

Freseuius  observes,  that  as  all  the  fruits  contain 
.llbuminous  or  jiroteine  matters,  they  are  serviceable 
as  tissue-forming  food  ;  but  the  albuminous  matters 
are  present  iiu  such  small  quantity,  that  these 
fruits  will  uot  si-rve  without  other  nitrogenous  food 
to  keep  the  body  in  health.  Thus,  to  olitain  an 
amount  of  albuminous  matter  eijuivalent  to  the 
contents  of  one  egg,  we  must  e.at  more  than  a  ]iouud 
of  cherries,  nearly  a  poimd  and  a  half  of  giajies, 
two  pounds  of  strawberries,  mure  than  two  pounds 
and  a  half  of  a]iples,  or  four  pounds  of  pears.  They 
arc,  however,  of  more  use  aa  respiratory  or  heat- 
giving  foods,  r'resenius  calcul.ates  that  1  pound  of 
starch  (which  is  equivalent  to  .about  5o  iiounds  of 
potatoes)  may  be  replaced  liy  ■')'4  pounds  of  gTapes, 
6-7  of  cherries  or  ap]>les,  10-8  of  cun-ants,  or  \l'i 
of  straw-berries.  Fruits  are,  however,  taken  n.ot  .so 
much  for  their  amount  of  m.ateiial  nourishment, 
as  for  their  veget,able  salts  (w-liich  are  of  great 
therapeutic  utility),  and  for  their  agreeable  flavour. 
In  tr.aciug  the  connection  between  the  Havour 
and  the  chemical  com]iosition  of  fruits,  Fresenius 
finds  that  the  former  depends  (1)  on  the  r.atio  in 
which  tlic  acid  stands  to  the  sugar,  gum,  iiectine, 
&c.  (the  last-named  substances  masking  the  ratio 
iu   which   the   acid  stands  to   the    sug.ar)  ;    (2)   on 


the  presence  and  delicacy  of  the  aroma ;  (.3)  on 
the  proportions  between  the  soluble  matters,  the 
insoluble  matters,  and  the  water  -,  thus,  we  usually 
att.ach  the  highest  value  to  those  fruits  which  con- 
tain the  largest  amount  of  soluble,  and  the  smallest 
amount  of  insoluble  matters— a  ]ieach  or  a  green- 
gage almost  melts  in  the  mouth,  because  these 
fruits  are  relatively  jioor  in  cellulose  and  pectose; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  liilberries  represent  the 
opposite  extreme,  and  are  rich  in  insoluble  ingre- 
dients ;  (4)  on  cultiv,ation,  which  is  found  to  cause 
an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  sugar,  and  a  diminution 
of  the  amount  of  free  acid  and  of  insolulile  matters  ; 
(5)  and  on  favoiu-able  seasons,  w-hich  augment  tho 
sugar  and  other  soluble  constituents. 

The  different  berries  contain,  as  a  general  rule,  ,1 
larger  projiortion  of  free  acid  than  stone-fruit  or 
a]iples  and  jiears ;  and  their  acitUty  is  the  more 
obvious  to  the  t.astc  from  their  containing  reUatively 
small  (juantities  of  gtun  and  pectine.  The  following 
remarks  on  some  of  our  common  varieties  of  fruits 
are  of  practical  value. 

In  gooseben-it'K,  we  recognise  an  agreeable  propor- 
tion between  the  sugar  and  the  .acid,  the  ratio  being 
as  G  to  1  in  the  sw-cetcr  kinds,  and  4  to  1  iu  less  sweet 
varieties  of  this  fruit.  The  yellow  kinds  are  far 
richer  in  soluble  ingredients  than  the  red. 

C'ltri-nnls  are  so  acid  to  the  taste,  that  they  .are 
almost  .always  eaten  with  sugar ;  the  ratio  of  the 
sugar  to  the  acid  l)eing  about  3  to  1. 

In  stj-tiwberrlcs,  it  is  the  aroma  that  we  chieflv 
prize.  The  r,atio  of  the  sugar  to  the  acid  varii's 
with  the  season  and  the  species  from  2  to  1  to 
G-7  to  1  (in  the  pine-apple  strawberry). 

A  similar  remark  applies  to  rii.sj)'lnrries.  In  wild 
raspberries,  the  ratio  is  as  low  as  TS  to  1,  while  iu 
cultivated  kinds  it  is  as  high  as  3-5  to  1. 

Onipea  exceed  all  other  fruits  in  their  amoimt  of 
sugar,  which  is  seldom  less  than  12,  and  sometimes 
reaches  20  per  cent.  In  good  kinds,  and  in  favour- 
able seasons,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the  acid  is  as 
29  to  1 ;  in  inferior  kinds,  and  in  ordinary  seasons, 
it  is  as  10  to  1  :  when  the  ratio  falls  to  l(i  to  1,  the 
gi-apes  are  unripe  and  acid.  In  other  fruits,  this 
woidd  be  a  high  ratio,  and  they  would  be  reL.Mrded 
as  sweet.  The  anomaly  may  be  thus  explained. 
In  unripe  gi-apcs,  the  skins  an-  very  thick,  and 
contain  an  extremely  acid  juice,  w-hich  overcomes 
the  sug.ar  contained  iu  the  interior  of  the  berry. 
The  juice  of  such  gi-apcs  is  foiuid  to  be  f,ar  sweeter 
than  the  grajies  themselves. 

From  their  large  amoiuit  of  sugar,  aud  from  the 
fact  that  their  acidity  for  the  most  part  depends  on 
the  acid  tartrate  of  potash,  which  is  almost  entirely 
precipitated  from  the  wine,  grajies  are  incomiiarably 
superior  to  any  other  fruits  in  the  jireparatiou  of 
wines  ;  and  in  their  fermentation,  different  v.arieties 
of  ether  of  a  delicate  odour  are  formed,  which,  in 

63; 


FEriT-FRUTT-GAKDEN. 


ossooiation  with  volatile  oils  that  are  also  present, 
communicate  to  Uio  luoro  valual  w-iucs  their  si)ecial 

boU'/lttt. 

The  ratio  of  the  acid  to  the  sugar  in  the  must 
(the  expressed  juice  before  the  commencement  of 
fermont;itiou)  aft'onls  the  best  evidence  of  the  season. 
Thus,  in  the  very  bad  wine-year  of  1847,  the  ratio 
«aa  1  :  1'2 :  in  the  better  \\-iue-yeai-  of  1854,  it  w:is 
1  :  It; ;  while  in  the  good  wine-year  of  1848  it  was 
1  :  -Jl.  the  same  kind  of  grape  being  experimented 
u[H>n  in  all  the  cases. 

Apricots  and  peaches  consist  almost  entirely  of 
juice,  their  solid  constituents,  after  the  removal  of 
the  stone,  being  only  1  or  2  jier  cent.  These  fruits 
are  esteemed  both  for  their  juicy  and  tender  flesh, 
and  for  their  powerful  but  delicate  .aroma. 

In  apples  and  pears,  we  have  an  increased  quan- 
tity of  cellulose  and  pectine,  and  consequently  a 
rehative  preponderance  of  the  insoluble  constituents. 
The  celliUose  contributes  to  the  firmness  or  hardness 
of  tliese  fruits,  while  it  is  to  the  jiectine  that  they 
owe  their  property  of  gelatinisini;  when  boiled. 
The  well-marked  dilTerences  of  t,aste,  &c.,  presented 
by  different  kinds  of  apples  and  pears,  .ai-e  duo  to 
the  very  varying  relations  that  occur  between  the 
acid,  the  sugar,  and  the  pectine,  to  the  gre.ater  or  loss 
abundance  of  cellulose,  and  to  the  varying  nature  of 
the  aroma.  For  equal  quantities  of  sugar,  pears 
contain  less  acid  than  apples.  In  the  difl'erent 
kinds  of  dessert  apples,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the 
.acid  ranges  between  12  to  1  and  22  to  I,  while  in 
cooking-apples  it  averages  not  more  than  8  to  1. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
fniit  during  the  process  of  ripening  are  described  in 
the  article  Physiology,  Vegetable. 

Kccpinr/  of  Fiiiit. — Many  of  the  finest  fniits 
undergo  very  speedy  decomposition;  and  on  this 
account,  some  of  those  most  highly  esteemed  in  the 
countries  which  produce  them,  have  never  become 
articles  of  commerce,  and  are  only  to  be  enjoyed — 
excci)t  in  the  state  of  jam  or  ^jreserees— during  the 
season  of  their  ripening.  Decompo.sition  takes  place 
most  rapidly  when  fruits  .are  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  particularly  to  stagnant  air,  when  there  is  any 
damj)ness  about  them,  and  when  they  are  subjected 
to  considerable  or  frequent  changes  of  temperature. 
Grapes  are  imported  into  Britain  from  the  south  of 
Europe,  p.acked  in  s.aw-dust.  Unripe  gooseberries 
are  ke|>t  for  m.aking  tarts  in  winter,  in  bottles  or 
jars,  filled  up  with  perfectly  dry  sand,  saw-dust, 
bran,  or  the  like,  closely  corked  and  sealed,  after  a 
gentle  he.at  has  been  appUed  to  expel  moisture  as 
much  as  possible,  and  placed  in  a  moderate  and 
equ.able  temperature,  which  is  sometimes  accom- 
j)lished  l>y  burjing  them  to  some  depth  in  the  earth. 
A  similar  method  m.ay  be  employed  with  many 
other  fruits.  Pears,  the  finest  kinds  of  which  are 
very  ai)t  to  rot  almost  immediately  after  they  reach 
their  perfect  maturity,  may  be  kept  for  months  in 
glazed  earthen-ware  jars  very  closely  covered,  and 
])laced  in  a  cool  airy  situation,  out  of  the  reach  of 
frost.  Tlie  Layers  of  fniit  ar.-^  sep.arated  by  the 
substance  used  for  fiUing  ujv  the  interstices,  and  the 
pears  of  the  same  Layer  are  likewisje  kept  ap.art,  that 
rottenness  in  one  m.ay  not  infect  the  rest,  which, 
with  every  kind  of  fniit,  is  very  .apt  to  take  place. 
Another  method  is  to  keep  them  in  drawers,  the 
temperature  being  c.arefidly  rcguLatcd.  Large  gar- 
dens are  often  provided  with  a  fruit-room,  in  which 
shelves  and  drawers  .are  allotted  to  the  different 
kinds  of  frviit.  A  moder.ate  and  cq>i.able  tempera- 
ture, dryness,  and  carefiU  ventil.ation.  .arc  the  jirin- 
cipai  requisites  of  the  fruit-room.  Fruit  intended 
for  keeping  shoidd  be  carefully  gathered,  when 
almost  quite  ripe,  and  .all  bniising  avoided.  Pears 
or  apjiles  shaken  from  the  tree  cannot  be  expected 


to  keep  so  well  as  those  g.athered  by  the  hand.  Of 
all  the  succulent  fruits  produced  in  liritain,  the 
apple  keeps  best,  and  is  therefore  most  gener.ally 
used.  Fruit  intended  for  keeping  is  sometimes 
siceated  before  being  pl.aced  in  the  jars  or  shelves ; 
being  laid  in  heaps  for  a  short  time — v.arjnng  .accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  fniit,  and  extending,  in  the  case 
of  winter-apples  to  a  fortnight  or  more — that  some 
of  the  juice  may  exude  through  the  skin ;  but  the 
propriety  of  this  i)racticc  is  doubtfiU.  Some  kinds 
of  winter  pears  and  ajiples  can  scarcely  be  B.aid  to 
be  ripened  till  after  they  are  ]ilaccd  in  the  fniit- 
room  ;  and  medlars  are  not  (it  for  use  till  they  have 
reached  a  state  of  incipient  decay. 

FRUIT-GARDEN.  Some  kinds  of  fniits  have 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  historic  ages.  To 
say  notliing  of  the  g.arden  of  Eden,  and  tlie  vine- 
yard which  Noah  planted  after  the  Deluge,  we  find 
in  the  books  of  Moses  evidence  that  the  cultivation 
of  friuts  was  much  practised  in  Egjq>t  before  the 
time  of  the  ex  ode  of  the  Israelites  ;  and  amongst  the 
Babylonians,  the  Persians,  the  Chinese,  .and  the 
inhahitants  of  India,  it  can  in  like  numner  be  traced 
back  to  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  Greeks 
and  Piom.ans  probably  derived  their  knowledge  of 
the  art,  as  well  as  many  of  their  finest  varieties  of 
fruit-trees,  from  the  East :  Charlemagne  required 
.attention  to  be  p,aid  to  it  throughout  his  wide 
dominions,  and  contributed  miu'h  to  its  extension 
in  regions  of  Europe  previously  too  rude  for  its 
prev.alence;  and  during  the  middle  ages  it  was 
most  successfully  prosecuted  by  the  monks  in  the 
gardens  of  the  monjisteries. 

The  grape,  the  fig,  the  melon,  .and  the  pome- 
granate, are  .among  the  first  fruits  of  which  we  find 
any  particidar  notice  in  history.  The  cultiv.ation  of 
the  apple,  the  pear,  and  some  others,  is  also  imques- 
tionably  of  very  great  antiquity.  Interesting  jiarti- 
cidars  concei-ning  the  most  import.ant  kinds  of  fruit, 
will  be  foimd  imdcr  their  respective  heads. 

The  cultivation  of  fniits  is  generally  carried  on  in 
connection  with  that  of  culinary  vegetables,  flowere, 
and  other  objects  of  the  gardener's  care ;  and  the 
fruit-garden  is  almost  necessarily  more  or  less 
combined  with  the  kitchen-garden,  ic.  The  term 
fniit-gjirden  is  generally  used  when  the  groimd 
between  fruit-trees  is  regulaiiy  tilled  and  made  to 
produce  other  garden  crojis  ;  the  term  Orchard 
(q.  v.),  when  it  is  laid  down  in  gi-ass,  or  eultiv.ated 
for  grain  and  other  .agricultm'al  crops.  The  latter 
method  is  practicable  only  with  some,  and  these  the 
more  hardy  kinds  of  fruit-trees. 

Fniit-trees,  in  the  open  .air,  are  cultivated  either 
■as  wall-trees,  espaUer-treos,  or  standards.  The  w.alls 
intended  for  fruit-trees  are  either  of  brick  or  stone, 
the  former,  however,  being  preferable,  .and  are 
genenally  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high.  Walls 
serve  not  only  for  protection  from  winds,  but  for 
the  radiation  of  heat,  and  thus  counterlmLance  in 
part  the  disadvantages  of  cold  clim.ate3.  The  train- 
ing of  wall-trees  will  be  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 
See  Wall-trees.  Espaliers  (q.  v.)  sen-e  in  .an 
inferior  degree  the  puqinses  of  w.alls.  W.alls  are 
sometimes  fined  and  artificially  heated,  by  which 
means  e.arly  ripening  is  secured,  .and  varieties  of 
fi'uit  are  produced  which  could  not  otherwise  in  the 
same  locality  be  grown  in  the  open  air.  The  pro- 
duction of  fruits  belonging  to  warm  climates  is  .also 
effected  in  the  colder  jiarts  of  the  world  by  means 
of  Hothouses  (q.  v.),  in  wiiich  the  trees  are  generally 
trained  either  .as  w.all-trecs  or  on  frames  stretched 
almost  horizontally,  both  methods  being  conmioiJy 
.ado]>ted  in  the  same  hothouse.  Standiird  trees, 
which  receive  no  other  training  th.an  mere  pnming, 
or  the  occasional  tying  of  a  principal  branch,  to 
guide    it    in    a    particular    direction,    are    further 


FEtriT-PIGEON— FRUITS. 


I 


distinguished  according  to  the  height  of  their  stem 
before  branching,  as  full  slaiijurdu,  \>-ith  stems  six 
or  seven  feet  high,  more  common  in  orchards  where 
cattle  are  sometimes  allowed  to  <Taze,  than  in 
gardens  ;  half-standards,  with  stems  tliree  to  five 
feet  hi"h ;  and  dii-arf  standards,  \\hich,  being  other- 
wise also  of  small  dimensions,  .ind  often  bearing 
very  fine  fi-uit,  and  in  great  abundance,  are  jxir- 
ticularly  suitable  for  many  situations,  and  for  small 
gardens.  The  height  of  the  stem  is  determined  in 
the  nursery,  before  grafting ;  but  much  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  tree  ;  and  all  the  varieties  of  some 
kinds  may  be  permanently  dwarfed  by  grafting  on 
jiarticular  kinds  of  stock,  as  apple-ti'ees  by  grafting 
on  paradise  stocks.  Other  means  of  still  further 
dwarfing  are  practised  as  to  trees  intended  for 
Forcing  (q.  v.),  and  to  a  remarkable  extent  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  cultivation  of  the  Dwarfed  Trees  (q.  v.), 
for  which  they  are  famous. 

The  soil  of  the  fruit-garden  requires  particiUar 
attention.  Different  kinds  of  fi-uit-trees  differ, 
indeed,  as  to  the  soils  to  which  they  are  specially 
adapted,  or  in  which  they  will  succeed ;  but  a  rich 
and  rather  open  soil  is  the  most  genenally  suitable. 
Tills  soil  must  be  of  the  depth  of  at  le;ust  two  feet, 
and  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  three  or  more ;  it 
must  extend  to  a  distance  of  at  least  eight  or  twelve 
feet  from  the  trees,  if  they  are  not  very  dwarf.  If 
the  roots  reach  a  bad  subsoil,  such  as  gravel  or  till, 
canker  is  almost  sure  to  ensue.  The  care  bestowed 
on  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  fruit-trees  by  the 
monks  of  the  middle  ages  has  seldom  been  equalled, 
and  never  excee<led  in  modern  times.  The  whole 
soil  of  large  gardens  appears  in  some  instances  to 
have  been  artificially  prepared ;  and  the  descent  of 
the  roots  to  an  unfavourable  subsoil  was  prevented 
by  iiavement«.  It  is,  of  course,  absolutely  requisite 
that  a  fniit-garden  be  thoroughly  drained.  Manur- 
ing is  sometimes  xmavoidable,  but  is  apt,  when 
injudiciously  applied,  to  cause  tUseases  in  the  trees  ; 
and  when  the  soil  requires  to  be  emiched,  road- 
scrapings,  the  scourings  of  ditches,  rotten  leaves,  &c., 
are  to  be  preferred.  The  use  of  guano  and  other 
artificial  manures  requires  great  caution.  \\'liere 
full  crops  of  culinary  vegetables  are  taken  from  the 
soil  around  the  trees,  there  is  less  danger  of  injury 
from  manures,  although  the  practice,  however  neces- 
sary in  many  cases,  is  not  the  best  either  for  the 
quality  of  the  vegetables  or  the  fruit. 

The  fruit-trees  cultivated  in  Britain  are  almost 
always  grafted  or  budded  on  seedling  stocks  either 
of  the  same  or  a  nearly  allied  s])ecies.  See  Graft- 
ing. The  raising  and  grafting  of  these  stocks  are 
fenerally  carried  on  in  the  Jsursery  (q.  v.).  Some 
inds  of  trees  are  propagated  by  layers  or  by  suckers, 
and  some  by  cuttings,  the  common  method  of  propa- 
gating the  varieties  of  gooseberries  and  ciuTants. 
in  warmer  climates,  these  methods  of  propagation 
are  more  extensively  used,  and  imgrafted  seedlings 
are  also  more  froijuently  allowed  to  become  trees 
and  to  produce  fruit.  Concerning  the  transjdanting 
of  young  fruit-trees,  see  Transplanting.— Pru>tng 
will  also  be  noticed  in  a  separate  article. — The 
methods  of  jtreserving  the  blossom  from  spring 
frosts  being  almost  exclusively  applicable  to  wall- 
trees,  ^^'ill  be  noticed  under  that  head. 

Besides  friut-trees,  properly  so  called,  some  shi-abs 
or  bushes  are  much  cultivated  in  Britain  for  the 
fruit  which  they  produce,  particularly  the  goose- 
berry, the  red  and  white  currant,  and  the  black 
currant.  Some  of  the  fniits  of  tropical  countries 
are  in  like  manner  produced  by  shrubs.  The  r,Tsp- 
berry  is  only  half-shrubljy,  the  strawberry  com- 
jiletely  herbaceous  ;  and  these  are  the  only  half- 
slirul>by  or  herbaceous  jilants  much  ciUtivated  in  the 
open  air  in  Brit.nin  for  their  fruit.     But  iu  warmer 


climates,  some  of  the  most  valuable  fruits  are  pro- 
duced by  herbaceous  plants,  as  the  melon,  cucumber, 
jiumpkin,  and  all  the  kinds  of  gounls,  the  jiine- 
a])i)le,  and,  notwitlistanding  the  ti'ce-like  size  of  the 
plants,  the  plantain  and  banana. 

FUUIT-PIGEON  (Carpopliaga),  a  genus  of 
Columbidte  (q.  v.),  having  the  bill  considerably 
depressed  at  the  liase,  compressed  and  moderately 
arched  at  the  tip,  the  membrane  in  which  the 
nostrils  are  pierced  little  prominent  or  swollen,  the 
forehead  low,  and  the  feathers  advancing  on  the  soft 
part  of  the  bill,  the  wings  moderately  long,  the  feet, 


Fruit  Pigeon  {Carpopliaga  Occanica). 

and  particularly  the  hinder  claw,  large,  and  formed 
for  grasping.  During  the  breeding-season,  a  curious 
gristly  kniil)  grows  on  the  base  of  the  upper  man- 
dible of  some  of  the  species,  and  soon  after  dis- 
appears. They  are  birds  of  splendid  plmnage, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  India,  the  Indian  .\rchi- 
pelago,  the  warmer  parts  of  Australia,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Their  food  consists  of 
fruits. 

FRUITS,  in  Law.  The  fruits  of  the  soil,  in  their 
legal  aspects,  fall  under  various  categories,  and  follow 
different  destimations  according  to  their  nature,  and 
the  situation  in  which  they  are  placed.  If  not  yet 
sep.arated  from  the  soil  which  produced  them,  they 
are  said  to  be  piudentes,  and  as  parts  of  the  soil 
{[mrtes  soli),  joss  to  the  heir  on  the  death  of  the 
ancestor,  or  are  carried  by  a  sale  to  the  purchaser. 
To  this,  however,  there  is  an  exception  in  the  case 
of  industrial  fruits  (fructus  industriaks),  such  as 
growing  corn,  and  all  those  other  fruits  which 
require  yearly  seed  and  industry.  These  are  called 
in  England  emblements,  and  '  though  still  in  union 
with  the  soil,  follow  nevertheless,  iu  several  parti- 
culars, the  nature  of  personal,  ;vs  distinguished  from 
real  estate.' — Stephen's  Com.  ii.  227.  The  rule  is 
the  same  in  Scotland,  but  it  is  strictly  construe<l, 
and  does  not  include  trees  or  planting,  natural  gi-ass, 
or  even  fruit  not  yet  plucked  from  the  tree.  To 
this  again,  however,  there  is  an  exception  in  horti- 
cidtural  subjects,  in  favour  of  nursery-bees  ami 
plants,  not  of  larger  or  longer  growth  than  such  as 
are  usually  dealt  in  by  nurserymen.  See  Fixtures. 
Fruits  that  are  separated  from  the  soil  (J'nictus 
percepll),  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  pro])erty  of  the 
possessor  who  scjiarated  them  in  good  faith  ;  of  the 
tenant  or  former  proprietor  in  the  case  of  a  sale ;  and 
of  the  personal  representatives  of  the  dece.ised  in 
case  of  death,  and  not  of  the  heir  of  his  real  or 
heritable  estate. 

639 


FRUIT-TKADE-FRY. 


The  act  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  30,  '  for  consoliilating 
and  auK'udiui;  the  laws  of  Kiijlland  relative  to 
malicious  injuries  to  |iro]ierty,'  aiiplics  to  trees,  sap- 
linp5.  shrubs,  and  underwood ;  to  jilauts,  fruits,  and 
vei;et:il)lo  iiroduotions  in  gardens,  orchards,  nursery- 
grounds,  hothouses,  greeu-houses,  or  conser\-atories ; 
and  to  various  kinds  of  cultivated  roots  and  plants 
not  growing  in  a  garden,  orchard,  or  nursery-ground. 
The  |iunishments  are  (irojiortioneil  to  the  injury 
done,  whipping  in  certain  cases  Ijeing  added  to  the 
statutory  pimishments  in  the  case  of  males,  by  IG 
and  17  Vict.  c.  99,  and  20  and  21  Vict.  c.  3.  Tliis 
st^itute  (7  and  S  Geo.  IV.  c.  30)  is  limited  to  Eng- 
land, but  there  is  au  Irish  statute  in  some  respects 
corresponding  to  it  (IG  and  17  Vict.  c.  38).  In 
.Scotland,  the  trees  of  an  orchard  f:dl  under  the 
act  for  preserving  planting  (1698,  c.  16),  and 
several  still  earlier  enactments  ;  and  the  breaking 
of  orchaiils  is  au  offence  punishable  by  the  sheriff 
(Ersk.  i.  4,  4).  See  OltrH.^KD,  Pi-ANT.vnoN.  Injuries 
done  to  trees  or  other  fruits  of  the  soil  are  punish- 
able at  common  law,  independently  of  ;dl  statutory 
]i!ovisious,  as  malicious  mischief,  both  iu  England 
and  in  Scotland. 

FRUIT-TRADE.  The  trade  iu  fruit  is  divided 
into  two  distinct  branches — the  fresli  and  the  dried 
fruits.  Fresh  fruits,  such  as  those  which  grow 
abundantly  in  England,  are  sold  for  London  eou- 
Bumjjtion  almost  entirely  at  Covent  (Jarden  Market ; 
the  sales  at  Spitalfields,  the  Borough,  Portman,  and 
other  markets  being  comparatively  small.  There  are 
many  fruit-gardens  within  twenty  miles  of  the 
metropolis  which  depend  almost  wholly  on  London 
eonsiunption  ;  but  since  the  extensive  spread  of  rail- 
way accommod.itiou,  fruit  can  now  be  brought  up 
from  dist.ant  parts  of  England  with  great  facility ; 
and  jirovincial  towns  and  the  metropolis  can  alike 
be  well  supplied.  Rai)id  conveyance  and  prompt 
sale  and  delivery  are  essential  conditions  to  this 
kind  of  trade,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  the  fruit 
to  spoil  by  keeping.  The  higher  the  quality  of  the 
fruit,  the  more  certain  is  the  sale  in  London.  There 
are  in  the  island  of  .Jersey  pear-orchards,  the  pro- 
duce of  which  is  contracted  for  at  very  high  prices 
by  some  of  the  Covent  Garden  dealers.  The  orange 
and  lemon  trades  are  managed  in  rather  a  peculiar 
manner  ;  the  produce  is  brought  to  England  in  very 
swift  vessels,  and  is  mostly  consigned  to  fruit- 
meruh.ants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lower  Thames 
Street,  who  sell  it  to  the  fruiterers  and  the  street- 
de.alers,  as  well  as  to  the  markets. 

Dried  fruit  comprises  i-aisins,  currants,  figs,  and 
the  like.  (Jrown  and  dried  in  foreign  countries, 
chiefly  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  these  kinds 
of  fruit  mostly  arrive  in  cases  and  casks ;  and  the 
dealings  connected  with  them  are  conducted  nuieh 
in  the  s.ame  way  as  those  with  what  is  called  colonial 
Jiroduce,  such  as  gi-ocery. 

Of  raisins,  currants,  oranges,  and  lemons,  the 
quantity  imported  in  1S58,  1859,  and  ISCO  was  .as 
follows  : 


1858. 

1859. 

16«0. 

Raising, 

ir)(i.4il4 

337,133 

2ll6.m7    Cwt5. 

Curranta, 

lll.'.-.MII 

n5,u:,6 

Sllfi,'274    Cwts. 

Oranges  ami  Lemons, 

-i.rin 

i5(i,3ai 

184,-j74    Uushels 

We  present  the  numbers  for  these  three  years  to 
shew  how  greatly  the  crops  of  these  fruits  vary  in 
different  seasons.  Of  other  kinds  of  fruit,  the 
ofliei.il  tables  present  the  following  quantities,  in 
round  numbers,  imported  in  1859 — Almonds,  .■)4,7I-1 
cwts.;  apples,  38.'),04G  bushels;  figs,  '16,0411  cwts.; 
grapes,  19,557  bushels  ;  chestnuts,  .57,048  bushels  ; 
cocoa-nuts,  2,484,423  no.  ;  hazel-nuts,  220,386 
hushcls ;  walnuts,  68,.'iG3  bushels;  pears,  61,0.55 
bushels;  ])liims  (French),  8702  cwts.;  prunes,  1G,030 
cwts.  ;  tamarinds,  634,097  lbs. 
MO 


Some  years  ago,  statistical  jiapers  in  the  Morunnj 
Chroiikle  g,ave  returns  concerning  the  ([uantity  of 
fruit  sold  in  Covent  Garden  and  other  Loudon 
markets  annually,  estimated  in  the  usual  way  by 
bushels,  cwts.,  pottles,  &c.  A1)out  the  same  period, 
Mr  Braithwaite  Poole,  goods-man.agcr  on  the 
London  and  North-western  Kailway,  gave  t;ibles  of 
the  amount,  estimated  in  tons,  of  the  fruit  brought 
to  London  generiilly.  The  sources  of  information 
are  not  very  clearly  stated  in  either  case  ;  and  as 
the  two  accounts  .are  inconsistent  one  with  another, 
they  need  not  be  given  here. 

FRUWE'NTIUS,  Sr,  ai>ostle  of  Ethiopia  and  the 
Abyssinians,  born  in  I'hienieia  towards  the  begin- 
ning of  the  4th  century.  .\t  a  very  early  age,  he 
and  another  youth,  named  fEdesius,  accompanied 
their  uncle  Meropius,  a  Greek  philosoiiher  from 
TjTe,  on  a  voyage  undertaken  for  mercantile,  or, 
according  to  others,  for  scicntilic  purposes.  On 
their  return,  they  landed  on  the  coast  of  Abys- 
sinia or  Ethiopia,  to  procure  fresh  w.ater;  but  the 
sav.age  inhabitants,  under  the  pretext  of  their 
hostility  with  the  Romans,  made  an  onslaught 
upon  them,  and  murdered  Meropius  .and  the  wiiolo 
crew,  sparing  only  the  two  boys,  whom  they  found 
sitting  under  a  tree  and  reading.  They  were  taken 
as  slaves  into  the  ser\ice  of  the  king ;  and 
made  themselves  so  beloved  th.at  CEdesius  was  soon 
r.aised  to  the  office  of  cujibcarer,  while  the  more 
sagacious  F.  became  the  king's  priv.ate  secretary 
and  accountant.  After  the  death  of  the  monareli, 
F.  was  appointed  instructor  to  the  young  Prince 
Aizanes,  and  iu  this  capacity  he  obtained  a  still 
greater  influence  on  the  administration  of  the 
state  affairs.  He  aided  the  Christian  merchants 
who  sought  these  parts,  in  founding  a  church,  and 
gradually  paved  the  w.ay  for  the  formal  introduction 
of  the  new  creed.  In  320,  he  went  to  Alexandria — 
CEdesius  having  returneil  to  Tvrc,  wiiere  he  was 
made  presbyter — and  convinced  .\th.ana-sius,  wiio 
had  recently  been  nominated  Bisho])  fif  Alexandria, 
of  the  necessity  of  appointing  a  s]iecial  ecclesiastical 
dignitary  for  Abyssinia,  wiio  should  carry  out  ^^gor- 
ously  the  work  of  conversion.  Atlianasius,  in  full 
synod,  and  with  its  unanimous  aiiprob.ation,  conse- 
crated F.  himself  Bishop  of  Axum  (.Vuxuma).  Tlie 
new  bishop  repaired  to  Abyssinia,  and  succeeded  in 
proselytising  Large  numbei-s.  He  is  .also  supposed 
to  have  translated  the  Bible  into  Ethiopian.  See 
Ethiopia.  On  his  subscciuent  theological  disputa- 
tions witli  Theophilus  the  Ariau— F.  himself  being 
iu  all  probability  an  Athan.asian— we  cannot  enlarge 
here.  F.  died  aliout  .300,  and  his  d.ay  is  celelirated 
by  the  Latins  on  the  27th  of  October,  by  the  Greeks 
on  the  30th  of  November,  and  Ijy  the  Abyssinians 
on  the  ISth  of  December.— Socr.ates,  i.  15 ;  Kulin, 
HUt.  Eccl.  i.  9  ;  Theodoret,  i.  22 ;  Ludolf,  IlUt. 
.■Eth.  iii.  7,  17,  &c 

FRUSTUM,  in  Geometry,  is  the  part  of  a  solid 
next  the  base,  left  on  cutting  off  the  top  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  base.  The  frustum  of  a  sphere  or 
spheroid,  however,  is  any  part  of  these  solids  com- 
prised between  two  circui.ar  sections  ;  and  the  middti: 
frustum  of  a  sphere  is  that  whose  ends  are  equal 
circles,  having  the  centre  of  the  sphere  in  the 
middle  of  it,  and  equ.ally  ilistaut  from  both  ends. 

FRY,  Elizabeth,  an  eminent  female  philan- 
thropist and  preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
tliird  daughter  of  John  Gurney,  Esq.  of  Eaiiham 
Hall,  near  Norwich,  was  born  May  21,  1780.  Her 
active  and  untiring  exertions  in  the  cause  of  suffer- 
ing humanity,  unparalleled  in  one  of  her  own  sex, 
acquired  for  her  in  her  lifetime  the  name  of  '  the 
female  Howard.'  When  not  more  than  eighteen  years 
of   age,  she   cstabUshed   a   school   for   eighty  poor 


FRY  ING— F  UAD-MEHMED. 


cliildren  in  lior  father's  hoiise,  with  liis  entire  sanction. 
In  ISOO,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  she  man-ied  Josci>h 
Fry,  Esq.,  of  Upton,  Essex,  then  euj^agcd  in  business 
in  London,  to  whom  she  liad  a  family  of  ci^jht 
chililreu.  In  the  year  1813,  the  deplorable  condition 
of  the  female  prisoners  in  New<i;ate  attracted  her 
attention,  and  she  resolved  ui)on  visiting  them. 
Alone  and  unprotected,  she  entered  the  i)art  of  the 
prison  where  IGO  of  tlio  most  disorderly  were 
imnuired.  and  addressed  them  with  a  dii,'nity,  power, 
and  gentleness  which  at  once  fixed  their  attention. 
.She  then  read  and  exponndeil  a  portion  of  Scrip- 
ture, many  of  those  nnhajipy  l>eings  having  on  that 
occasion  heard  the  word  of  Cod  for  the  first  time. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  about  Christmas  ISIG  that 
slie  commenced  her  systematic  visits  to  Newgate, 
being  then  particularly  induced  thereto  by  the 
re|iorts  of  the  gentlemen  who,  in  181.5,  originated 
the  '  Society  for  the  Improvement  of  I'rison  Disci- 
pline.' She  instituted  a  school  within  tlie  ])rison 
walls,  pro\nded  work  for  the  females,  and  the 
means  of  Christian  instruction,  and  established  a 
committee  of  ladies  for  the  reformation  of  female 
prisonei-s.  The  almost  immediate  residt  was  order, 
sobriety,  and  neatness,  in  the  ]ilaee  of  the  riot,  Ucen- 
tiousness,  idleness,  ami  filth,  which  had  previously 
])revailed.  In  1818,  her  exertions  were  directed 
to  making  prorision  for  the  benefit  of  female  con- 
victs sentenced  to  transportation.  For  the  relief  of 
females  in  foreign  prisons,  she  made  frequent  conti- 
nental journeys.  She  also  interested  herself  in  the 
.abolition  of  slavery,  the  advancement  of  education, 
and  the  distribution  of  Bibles  and  tracts.  Her 
labours  for  the  improvement  of  British  seamen,  by 
fiu-nishing  the  ships  of  the  Coast  Guard  and  the 
Koyal  Navy  ^vith  libraries  of  religious  and  instruc- 
tive books,  received  the  sanction  and  assistance  of 
government.  To  the  poor  and  helpless,  her  charities 
were  unbounded.  As  .a  preacher  among  her  own 
sect,  she  was  held  in  high  estimation ;  and  she 
often  engaged  in  gospel  missions,  not  only  through- 
out England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  but  to  various 
coimtries  on  the  continent.  She  died  at  Puvmsgate, 
October  12,  1S45,  aged  sixty-iive.  Soon  after  her 
death,  a  public  meeting  was  held  in  London,  the 
lord  m.ayor  in  the  chair,  for  establishing,  as  the 
best  monument  to  her  memory,  '  The  Elizabeth  Fry 
Refuge,'  for  afiording  tem]>orary  food  and  shelter 
to  destitute  females,  on  then*  discharge  from  metro- 
l)olitan  prisons.  Compare  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
EliMbeth  Fry,  2  vols.  (Lond.  1847),  "published  by 
her  daughters. 

FRYING.    See  Food  axd  Drin'k. 

FRYXELL,  Ant)EK.s,  a  Swedish  historian,  was 
bom  in  1795  at  Hesselskog,  in  D.alsland  ;  studied  at 
Upsala ;  took  priest's  orders  in  IS'iO;  .and  in  1828, 
became  rector  of  St  Mary's  School,  Stockholm.  F. 
first  accpiired  a  reput.ation  by  his  Berdttfher  ur 
Svenska  Hlstorh'ti  (Narratives  from  Swedish  History, 
vols.  i. — xviii.,  Stockh.  1832—18.52).  These  narra- 
tives, stning  together  on  something  of  the  same 
plan  as  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Orandfal/ier, 
are  marked  not  only  by  their  jjatriotic  sentiment, 
but  by  their  fresh  and  natural  conception,  their 
richness  of  biographic  detail,  their  naive  and  ^ava- 
cious  execution,  and  soon  obtained  a  wide  populanty 
in  Sweden.  The  first  volumes  of  this  tridy  national 
work  have  been  repeatetUy  ])ublished,  -and  have 
been  translated  into  almost  all  European  languages  ; 
for  example,  into  English  by  Sehoultz  (2  vols., 
Lond.  lS-14),  and  into  German  by  Homberg  (2  vols., 
Stockli.  1843).  The  part  devoted  to  the  history  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  has  also  been  translated  into 
(Tcrman  by  Homberg  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1842 — 184.3), 
into  French  by  Mile.   N.  du  Puget  (Paris,  1839), 


and  into  Dutch  by  Radijs  (Utrecht,  1844) ;  and 
that  devoted  to  the  history  of  Gustavus  Vasa  into 
German  by  Ekendahl  (1831).  F.'s  Characteri-flks  of 
the  Period  from  1.592  to  IGDO  in  ,Sii;eilen  obtained  a 
[irize  offered  by  the  Swedish  Acailemy.  Another 
work,  entitled  <)m  A  rislokralfOrdiimnndel  i  Svenska 
Jlistorien  (4  vols.  Up.sala,  184.5 — 18.50),  in  which  ho 
endeavours  to  clear  the  Swedish  aristocn-uy  from 
the  accusations  urged  against  them  by  Geijer  and 
others,  involved  him  in  a  keen  controversy  with  the 
denioeratie  liberal  jiarty  in  Sweden.  F.  has  also 
addicted  himself  to  poetry  and  music  ;  and  an 
opera  of  his,  called  ]\'rrmhnd's  Fliekun  (or  '  T}ie 
Lass  of  Wei-mland'),  has  proved  very  attractive  to 
his  coiuitrymen,  on  account  of  its  fine  n.ational 
melodies. 

FUAD-MEHMED,  Pasha,  a  Turkish  states- 
man and  litterateur,  was  liorn  at  Constantino] ilo  in 
1814.  He  was  the  son  of  the  celebrated  poet,  Izzet- 
Eficntli-Kitchegizade,  better  known  nniler  the  name 
of  Izzet-MoUah,  and  nephew  of  Leila  Khatun,  one 
of  the  very  few  Tiu'kish  poetesses.  Having  received 
an  education  more  literary  than  th.at  of  the  m.ijority 
of  yoimg  men  destined  for  pulilie  affairs  in  Turkey, 
he  Ijegan  to  make  himself  known  as  an  author, 
when  the  exile  of  his  father,  who  had  f.allen  into 
disgr,ace  with  the  Sultan  Mahmud,  and  the  confis- 
cation of  the  Internal  property,  eoniiielled  him  to 
choose  a  profession.  He  betook  himself  to  medicine, 
and  studied  at  Galata-Scrai  from  1828  to  1832. 
In  1834  he  w.as  appointed  Admiralty  physician,  and 
accompanied  the  grand  admir.al  in  his  expedition 
against  Tripoli ;  but  on  his  return  to  Constaiitinoiili', 
he  abruptly  forsook  medicine,  and  entered  the  more 
unquiet  aren.a  of  politics.  For  sever.al  yi*ars,  he 
employed  himself  in  the  study  of  diplomacy,  history, 
modern  Languages,  the  rights  of  nations,  and  poli- 
tical economy.  In  1840,  he  became  first  secretary 
to  the  Turkish  embassy  at  London,  where  his  skill 
.and  sagacity  tirst  made  themselves  conspicuous. 
In  1843  he  was  named  second  dnagoman  of  the 
Sublime  Porte,  and  shortly  after  was  chosen  to 
proceed  to  Spain  to  felicitate  the  queen  of  that 
country  on  her  accession  to  the  throne.  F.  was 
very  popular  at  the  court  of  ]Madri<I.  It  was  almost 
imijossible  to  believe  him  to  be  a  Tiirk.  He  S]ioke 
French  marvellously  well,  made  bon-tnols  like 
Talleyrand,  and  shewed  himself  as  gallant  .as  an 
Abenceri'age.  Curiously  enough,  although  o,  Moham- 
medan, he  obtained,  "while  in  Spain,  among  other 
honours,  the  Grand  Cord  of  Is.abella  the  CathoUc. 
Here  also  he  composed  a  poem  on  the  Alhambra, 
whit.'h  Turkish  critics  pnaise  highly  for  its  novel 
and  interesting  reflections.  On  his  return  to  Con- 
stantinople, he  was  appointed  to  discharge  the 
functions  of  grand  interpreter  to  the  Porte,  which 
brought  him  into  contact  with  the  Duke  of  Mont- 
pensier,  who  arrived  at  Constantinople  in  18-1.5,  and 
who,  cm  his  return  to  France,  invested  him  with 
the  cross  of  Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Htmonr. 
In  1850  he  w'ent  on  a  mission  to  St  Petersburg, 
and  in  1853  on  another  to  Egypt.  On  his  ret\n"n 
from  the  first  of  these,  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  under  the  grand  viziership  of  Aali 
Pasha  (.August  18.52).  On  the  question  of  the 
*  Holy  Places,'  F.,  l>y  his  .attitude,  and  by  a  brochure 
very  hostile  to  the  pretensions  of  Russia,  entitled 
La  Virile  siir  In  Question  des  Lieux  Saints,  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  to  the  czar.  In  1854,  F.  went 
to  Epirus  along  with  Omar  Pasha,  acting  sometimes 
as  a  diplomatist  and  sometimes  as  a  general.  In 
the  following  year  he  received  the  title  of  Pasha, 
and  was  again  ajipointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
(From  1801  to  ISGG  he  held  the  oHice  of  Grand 
Vizier.  He  died  18G9.)  To  him  especially  it  is  said 
Turkey  owes  the  hatti-sherif  of  1S5G,  ordering  the 

511 


FUCA— FUCHSIA. 


consiiIiiUtion  of  the  external  defences  of  the  I'orto 
anci  the  institution  of  telegranlis  ami  light-houses. 

When  the  Turkish  Aeailomy  of  Seience  and 
Bellis-Lettres  was  established  in  1851,  F.  was  one 
of  the  lii-st  memliers,  and  in  the  foUowiiijj  year  he 
jiublished  a  TtiiJcisli  Orammar,  which  is  highly 
tstieiued  l>y  native  scholai-s.  He  was  loaded  with 
clistiuctious  hy  European  sovereigns. 

FUCA,  Strait  of,  a  passage  sepai-ating  Washing- 
ton Territory  in  the  Unitetl  States  from  Vancouver's 
Island,  and  connecting  the  Pacilio  Ocean  with  the 
Gulf  of  Georgia,  has  its  outer  or  western  entrance  in 
lat  4S'  10'  N.,  and  long.  124°  \V.  It  contains  sever.il 
islands,  one  of  which,  San  Juan,  became,  in  1859, 
the  subject  of  .1  dispute  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States ;  the  question  being,  whether  it 
w.as  to  be  regarded  as  an  a]ipendage  of  Washington 
Territory  or  British  Columbia.  This  strait  has 
also  been  prominent  in  the  history  of  discovery ;  its 
first  exjilorer,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name,  having 
I)rofcsscd  to  believe,  that,  in  traversing  the  entire 
length  of  the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  he  had  crossed  from 
the  F.acitic  to  the  Atlantic. 

FUCA'CE.^,  according  to  Lindley,  a  natur.al 
order  of  Acotyledonous  plants  ;  but  more  generally 
regarded  by  botanists  as  a  sub-order  of  Alijai. 
The  siJecies  are  numerous,  about  500  being  known, 
mostly  growing  in  salt  water.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  the  other  alga;  by  their  organs  of 
reproduction,  which  consist  of  spores  .and  antheridia, 
contained  in  common  chambers  or  conceptacles, 
which  are  united  in  club-shaped  receptacles  at  the 
end  or  margins  of  the  fi-onds.  The  antheriiUa 
contain  phytozoa.  The  frond  is  sometimes  a  stalk 
expanding  into  a  bro.ad  blade,  and  sometimes 
exhibits  no  such  expansion,  and  is  either  simple  or 
variously  branched.  Many  of  the  F.  are  provided 
with  vesicles  containing  air,  by  the  aid  of  which 
they  are  e&.ibled  to  float  in  the  water.  Some  attain 
a  great  size — Macrocysfis  jn/ri/era  is  said  to  have 
froutls  of  ,500  to  1500  feet  in  length  ;  its  stem  not 
being  thieker  than  the  linger,  and  tlie  iipper  branches 
as  slender  as  pack-thread.  Most  of  the  F.  contain 
iodine  in  very  considerable  quantity,  and  some  of 
them  are  therefore  much  used  for  the  manufactxu-e  of 
Kelp  (q.  v.),  particulai-ly  diflFerent  species  of  Funis, 
or  Wrack,  and  Laminaria,  or  Tangle.  On  account 
of  the  soda  which  they  contain,  they  are  also 
v.aluable  as  a  manure.  Some  of  them  are  eatable, 
containing  large  quantities  of  gelatinous  matter,  as 
the  DtJi£E  (q.  v.),  T.-LSGLE  (q.  v.),  and  Badderlocks 
((J.  V.)  of  the  British  coasts,  and  cert.ain  species  of 
Swriaesum  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  medi- 
cinal uses  of  some  of  them  seem  to  depend  upon 
the  iodine  which  they  contain,  and  which  it  is 
now  considered  preferable  to  exhibit  in  other  forms, 
after  it  has  been  extracted. 

FU-CHOW-FOO  (Hapjiy  City),  a  city  and  port 
of  Chin,a,  and  capital  of  the  produce  of  Fuh- 
keen."  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  tlie  left  bank 
of  the  Min,  25  miles  distant  from  the  mouth  of 
that  river,  in  lat.  20°  S'  N.,  long,  about  119°  50' 
E.,  and  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  by  the 
treaty  of  1842.  The  walls  of  the  city  are  about 
30  fiet  in  height,  and  8  miles  in  circumference, 
and  h.ave  seven  gates,  the  gateways  ol  wliich  ai-e 
constinictod  of  bricks,  resting  on  a  f(umdation  of 
granite.  The  most  important  public  buihliugs  ai'o 
the  vice-regal  ])alace  and  government  yamuiis,  the 
temi)les  of  Confucius,  of  tlic  god  of  war,  and  of  t)ie 
goddess  of  mercy.  The  beautiful  bridge  of  200 
arches  over  the  river  Min  is  12  feet  wide,  and  about 
12,000  feet  long.  Both  sides  are  crowded  with 
stalls,  wliich  narrow  the  bridge-path  to  8  feet.  A 
Budilhiat  mouastei-y  has   been  converted   into  the 


British  constdate,  which  overlooks  the  town  from  a 
height  of  several  himdred  feet.  The  sturdy  ]K'asant- 
women  of  F.,  who  are  neat  in  their  <lres.s,  ami 
lie.ilthy  in  a]>pearance,  do  most  of  the  carrying 
work,  .and  leave  their  feet  .as  nature  made  them. 
The  lacquered  ware  of  F.  is  said  to  be  of  special 
excellence.  It  sends  us  tea  to  the  extent  of  fifty 
millions  of  pounds  annu.ally  ;  but  tindier  comprises 
O-Uths  of  the  exi)ort  trade.  The  popidation  of  the 
city  has  been  estimated  at  500,000. 

FU'CHSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natuial 
order  0>ia>jracc(F,  cont.aining  a  large  nundjer  of 
siiecies,  natives  of  South  America  and  of  the  southern 
jiarts  of  North  America.  They  are  half-shrubby 
jilants,  .shrubs,  sometimes  climbers,  and  sm:dl  trees, 
and  h.ave  generally  pendulous  red  flowers  ;  of  which 
the  calyx  is  funnel-shaped,  4-cleft,  finely  coloured  ; 
the  corolla  4-petaled  :  the  fruit  is  a  4-ceUed  berry  ; 
the  leaves  are  ojiimsite  ;  the  flower-stalks  1-flowered, 
sjiringing  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  or  some- 
tunes  forming  racemes  at  the  top  of  the  branches. 
Some  of  the  species,  as  /'.  cocc'inea,  F.  (jracilis,  F. 
fjlohosa,  F.fuUiens,  F.  macrostemon,  F.  longijloni,  .are 
much  cultivated  in  gardens  and  greenhouses  for  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers.  Most  of  the  species  are 
too  delicate  for  the  clim.ate,  at  least  of  the  northern 
jarts  of  Britain  ;  but  some  of  them,  .although  lulled 
to  the  ground  every  winter  by  frost,  spring  again 
from  the  root,  and  flower  beautifully  in  autumn. 
A  little  protection  around  the  root  is  of  great  use  in 


Seedling  Fudisia  [Colossus] : 
Grown,  in  1843,  at  Bngshot. 

preserving  them  in  vigour.  All  of  them  are  propa- 
gated with  extreme  facility  by  cuttings,  w-hich  has 
no  doubt  contributed  to  their  present  abundance, 
even  in  the  gardens  .and  windows  <if  tlu^  ])oor.  No 
flowering  shrubs  of  recent  intruduction  into  Britain 
have  become  nearly  so  popular  as  those  of  this 
genus ;  and  new  varieties  and  hybrids  have  been 
produced  in  vast  numbers,  of  which  those  with 
wliito  flowers  are  partiod.arly  prized.  The  berries 
of  a  number  of  tlic  species  are  eaten  in  South 
Anu-rica,  and  ]iroserved  with  sug.ar ;  and  they  .are 
occasioiuiUy  used  in  both  these  w.ays  in  Britain, 
although  in  Scotland  the  fruit  even  of  the  most 
hardy  ripens  oidy  in  favourable  sitiuations,  for  the 
most  part  on  the  west  coast.  Where  the  climate 
admits  of  it,  a  F.  hedge  is  extremely  ornamental. 


FUCHS'S  SOLUBLE  GLASS— FUEL. 


The  wood  of  some  species  is  employed  in  their 
native  regions  for  dyeing  black.  The  genus  is 
named  in  honour  of  Leonhard  Fuchs,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  modern  botany,  born  in  Swabia  in  1501, 
died  at  Tubingen,  where  he  was  a  professor,  in  1565. 

FUCHS'S  SOLUBLE  GLASS  is  a  pecidiar 
sHicate,  which  is  prepared  by  melting  together  8 
parts  of  carbonate  of  soda,  or  10  parts  of  carbonate 
of  potash,  with  15  of  pure  quartz  sand,  and  I  part  of 
cliarcoal,  which  is  added  to  facihtate  the  decom- 
])Osition  of  the  alkaline  carbonate.  A  black  glass  is 
thus  obtained,  which  is  not  soluble  in  cold  water, 
but  dissolves  in  about  si.x  times  its  weight  of  boiling 
water.  Fuchs  commenced  his  experiments  on  this 
subject  in  1825,  and  has  continued  and  varied  them 
ever  since.  The  above  is,  however,  we  believe,  the 
most  approved  formida.  The  practical  uses  of  the 
soluble  glass  to  which  he  especially  directed  his 
attention  were  two — viz.  (1),  as  a  varnish,  which, 
applied  in  the  fluid  form  to  stone  surfaces,  woidd 
harden  into  a  glass,  and  prevent  the  ordinary  effects 
of  atmospheric  influences ;  and  (2)  as  a  means  of 
fixing  fresco-colours  by  the  process  known  as 
stereochromy.  At  the  request  of  the  late  Prince 
Consort,  Dr  Fuchs  gave  a  summary  of  all  that  he 
liad  done  in  this  department  in  a  paper  which  he 
read  before  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1859.  See 
Fkksco. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  Professor  Kuhlmann  of 
LUle  has  been  long  working  at  the  same  subject ; 
and  in  1857,  published  his  method  of  producing  a 
stone-protecting  silicate  ;  and  that  our  own  countrj'- 
man,  Sir  Ransome  of  Ipswich,  has  not  only  employed 
concentrated  solutions  of  siUcate  of  potash,  or  of 
soda,  as  a  cement  for  consoUdating  silicioua  sand 
into  a  very  hard,  durable,  artificial  sandstone,  capable, 
before  it  is  tired,  of  being  moulded  into  any  desired 
form,  but  has  likewise  produced  a  \-itreous  varnish, 
consisting  of  silicate  of  potash,  aft<'r  which  he 
appUes  a  coating  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  : 
a  silicate  of  liine  is  thus  formed,  whieli  is  stated 
to  be  veiy  successfid  in  protecting  the  surface  of 
stone  from  external  influence.  Wood  that  has  been 
painted  with  these  varieties  of  soluble  glass  is 
rendered  nearly  if  not  quite  tire-proof. 

FUCI'NO,  Lakje  of,  or  Lago  di  Colaxo  (ancient 
Fucinus  Laciis),  a,  lake  of  Naples,  in  the  province  of 
Abruzzo  Ultra  II.,  remarkable  as  the  only  one  of 
any  extent  found  in  the  Central  Apennines.  It  is  10 
mdes  long  by  7  broad  ;  and  is  situated  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  '2176  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  is  subject 
to  sudden  risings  ;  and  in  ancient  times,  liy  order 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  a  magnificent  subtei-ranean 
cliannel  more  than  three  miles  in  length,  to  carry 
citF  the  surplus  waters,  was  cut  jjartly  through  tlie 
solid  rock  of  Moute  Salviano,  rising  1000  feet  above. 
This  tunnel  became  obstructed  in  the  mid<Uo  ages, 
and  long  remained  so,  notwithstanding  many 
attempts  to  clear  it.  The  consequence  was,  that  in 
recent  times  the  surrounding  country  has  been  often 
.submerged.  In  1855,  operations  were  commenced 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Claiidian  aqjieduct,  and 
on  the  9th  of  August  1862  the  work  was  completed 
tlirough  the  assistance  of  the  I'rince  of  Tarlonia. 
The  entire  drainage  of  the  lake  is  going  on. 

FUCUS.    See  FucACE-E  and  Wrack. 

FUEL.  This  term  is  generally  applied  to  com- 
bustibles used  for  the  production  of  heat ;  also,  less 
frequently,  to  combustibles  such  as  oil,  Paraffine 
Oil  (q.  v.),  used  for  lighting.  Under  articles  Coal, 
Coke,  &c.,  will  be  foimd  details  of  the  physical 
jiropei-ties  and  chemical  composition  of  the  various 
fuels  ;  the  following  observations  be.or  chiefly  on 
their  economical  application  as  sources  of  motive 
power. 


The  two  elementary  bodies  to  which  we  owe  the 
heating  powers  of  all  our  fuels,  natural  and  artificial, 
are  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Coke,  wood  cliarcoal,  peat 
charcoal,  and  anthracite,  contain  little  or  none  of 
the  latter  element,  and  may  be  regarded  as  purely 
carbonaceous  fuels.  But  wood,  peat,  and  most 
varieties  of  coal,  contain  hydrogen  as  well  as  car- 
bon ;  and  in  their  combustion,  these  two  substances 
combine  to  produce  volatUe  and  combustible  hydro- 
carbons, which  are  volatilised  previous  to  being 
consumed,  while  a  purely  carbonaceous  fuel  evolves 
no  volatile  matter  until  combustion  has  been 
effectecL 

These  hydrocarbons  are  nimierous  and  varied  in 
composition  (see  C^VKBonYDROOEXS) ;  but  when  com- 
bustion is  perfect,  the  amoimt  of  heat  ])roduced 
by  any  hydrocarbon  is  exactly  what  woidd  have 
been  produced  had  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  been 
burned  separately.  It  will  be  of  advantage,  there- 
fore, to  study  these  two  elementary  combustibles  in 
succession,  in  order  to  estimate  subsequently  the 
combined  elTect  where  they  come  together  in  the 
same  fueL 

The  heating  power  of  a  combustible,  or  the 
amount  of  heat  generated  by  it,  is  usually  expressed 
in  degrees  Fahrenheit  on  so  many  pounds'  weight  of 
water.  But  in  estimating  the  temperature,  or 
intensity  of  heat  produced,  we  have  to  keep  in  view 
that  different  substances  have  different  capacities 
for  heat — that  of  water  being  generally  assumed  as 
unity.  Tlie  number  expressing  this  capacity  is 
called  the  specific  heat  of  the  substance.  Water 
1000,  carbonic  acid  221,  imply  that  while  KHIO 
imits  of  heat  are  required  to  elevate  the  tempcraturo 
of  water  any  given  number  of  degrees,  only  221 
units  are  required  to  elevate  to  the  same  temperature 
an  equal  weight  of  carbonic  acid. 

Cakbon  j\s  FtTEL. — 1.  Ammtnt  of  air  required  for 
comlnislioii. — Burned  in  air,  carbon  combines  with 
the  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  (CO,,),  mingled 
with  nitrogen,  the  other  atmospheric  element 
The  chemical  change  may  be  thus  represented, 
atomicaUy : 

Producu  of  CombultlOD. 

Carbon,  60\ 

,    f  Oxygen,  leo i  CMbonlc  acid,  220 

Air  iOJt.1  ^  nitrogen,        M;6  Nitrogen,  .         5T0 

75(;  751! 

Or,  assuming  carbon  as  unity  : 

Carbon, 


Air  (U-GI 


1-000^ 
,  -  -„  ,  2-667- 
\NiUogen,      8933 

12-eoo 


( Oxygen, 


^Carbonic  acid, 
Nitrogen, 


3C«7 
8013 


Carbon,  therefore,  requires  about  twelve  times  its 
own  weight  of  air  for  perfect  combustion. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  produced. — Andrews  found 
that  1  lb.  carbon  jiroduced  heat  equal  to  1 '  F.  in 
14,220  lbs.  of  water.  Other  observations  agree  very 
closely.  This  may  be  otherwise  stated  thus:  1  lb. 
carbon  will  raise  from  freezing  to  boiling  point  (32" 

to  212°  =  180°)  i^=*^  =  79  lbs.  water;  from  mean 

toraperaturo  to   boiling-point   (60°  to  212°  =  152°) 

14220 

—yf^  =  93o  lbs.  water;  will  boil  off  in  steam  from 

niean  temperature  (60°  to  212°  =  152°,  add  latent 

14220 
heat   in  steam,  965°  =  1117°), -yjy-  =  1273   lbs. 

water ;    and   will   boil  off  in   steam  from  boiling- 

140.19 
point  (latent  heat  in  steam,  965°)  =  1474  lbs. 

965 

.■?.  UtmoKt  Temperature  or  Intensity  of  Heat  from 

Carbon. — Here  we  su])pose  the  combustion  efi'ected 

in  a  s])ace  enclosed  by  non-conducting  material,  so 

that  aU  the    heat    produced  by    1  lb.   carbon   is 

IK 


FUEL. 


Specific  heat,  -2210 


rctnim-d  l>y  the  iiniduots  of  its  cmnbustion.  C;Joi'ic 
surticiciit  to  raisu  14,'J*20  lbs.  water  1  F.  is  thus 
ioiii|ircs-<iHl,  as  it  were,  into  120  lbs,  of  carbonic 
aiiii  and  nitrogen.  To  iloterniinc  the  temperature 
thus  proilueed,  we  requiie  to  know  the  specilic  heat 
of  this  gaseous  comjwuuil,  that  of  water  being  1, 

3*667  IbA.  carbonic  acid. 

8933  w    nitrogen.  

12  6i<0   «    products  of  combustion.  .Mean  sp.  it      '3^!M> 

11,'220°  on  water  at  1000  specific  heat,  will  give 
;Vt,"70"  on  these  ]>ro(lucts  ])er  |>oun(l-weight.  Dis- 
triljuteil   over   12(i   lbs,,   this  heat    will   raise   the 

tenii)eraturc  to  -_,  .-=4347'  F.,  which  is  there- 
fore the  utmost  intensity  of  heat  .itt.ainable  in 
burning  carbon,  supposing  no  loss  by  absorption  or 
raiUatioii. 

4.  £fict  of  Excess  of  A  ir. — Excess  of  air  h.as  been 
jiroved  to  have  no  effect  on  the  iiuantitij  of  heat 
proiliiced  wliere  combustion  is  perfect ;  but  the 
intensity  of  temjnralurt  is  climiuisheil.  Suppose 
two  ccpiivalents  of  air  admitted ;  we  then  have  as 
the  products  of  combustion — 

Spccifio  licit, 


3-(jG7  lbs.  carbonic  acid. 

8-933    '    nitrogen. 
11-600  //    air  in  excess. 
^4':filQ  //    products. 


■2210 
•2751 
■2669 
•2631 


Mean  sp, 

14,220°  on  ivater  =  54,048°  on  this  new  mixture  of 
gases.     But  the  heat  is  now  diffused  over  24'2  lbs. 

matter  instead  of  12-C  lbs.,  ^^  =  2347°  F. :  the 

utmost  temperature   produced  by    ctrbon    burned 
in  two  eciuivalents  of  air. 

The  utmost  temperatiu-es  attainable,  ivith  various 
proportions  of  air,  are  given  below,  and  also  the 
appearance  which  the  interior  of  the  furnace  would 
exhibit.  Flame  at  these  temperatures  -will  present 
the  same  differences  in  colour. 


W.ighl. 


Carbon. 

Air. 

Ibi. 

lb.. 

11-6 

17-4 

23-2 

290 

34-8 

58^ 

69-6 

Ratio  of 

Fuel  to 

Air. 


I  to  I 

1  »u 

I  (/  2 

1  ,,2} 

I  "  3 

1  »  S 

1  II  6 


Highf^t 

Poasible 

Temperature. 


4347° 
2951 
22,-)3 
1797 
1503 
908 
758 


Appearance  of  a  Body 

exposed  to  aucb 

Temperature. 


Intensely  brilliant. 
l>a-zzUnL<  white. 
Bright  ignition. 
Full  cherry  red. 
Commencing  cherry  red. 
Incipient  red. 
Black. 


5.  Effect  of  Dejiciencij  of  Air. — If,  before  reaching 
the  upper  layers  of  carbon  or  cinder,  the  air  has 
parteil  with  all  its  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid 
with  the  production  of  heat,  then  the  carbonic  acid 
comVjines  with  part  of  the  rem.-iining  carbon  to 
form  Carbonic  Oxide,  CO  (q.  v.),  but  witliout  pro- 
ducing heat.  The  loss  may  amount,  therefore,  to 
one-h.alf  of  the  fuel :  some  have  stated  it  as  high  ;is 
three-fourths.  If  this  oxide,  when  it  gets  above 
the  fuel,  meet  with  air  before  cooUng,  it  burns  with 
a  pale  blue  flame,  restoring  part  of  the  lost  lieat ; 
but  to  what  extent  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

G.  Effect  of  W'lter  Present. — Passing  into  vapour, 
water  absorbs  both  sensible  and  latent  heat,  and 
thus  diminishes  the  temperature.  Heating  power  is 
also  lost,  as  protlucts  of  combustion  are  generally 
passed  into  the  atmosphere  at  a  high  temj)cr.ature. 

HvDRO(iEN  AS  FuEi 1.  Air  required. — Hyilrogon 

coml)ine8  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  vajiour 
of  water,  mingled  with  nitrogen  : 


-  Hydrogen, 
Air  r.-i4  Bl  /  9«ysen, 


■C34-8){0; 


itroBen,    26Ji 
35-8 


Producta  of  Combuitlon. 

i  Vapour  of  water,      9' 
Nitrogen,         .         268 
368 


1    lb.   hydrogen    therefore    requires    34 '8   lbs.    air, 
while  1  lb.  carbon  requires  only  ll"G  lbs. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  Produced. — The  amount  of 
heat  ]iroduced  from  hydrogen  is  much  gieater 
than  that  from  carbon ;  the  caloric  from  1  lb. 
heating  00,840  lbs.  water  1°  F.  Part  of  this  is, 
however,  latent  in  the  water-vapour,  and  must  be 
dediicteil  in  e.ilcul.ating  intensity  of  heat,  and  alsj 
heating  effect  under  ;ill  ordinary  circiuustances. 
This  deduction  amounts  to  <)  lbs.  water  x  9G.">'' 
latent  =  8685°,  leaving  52,1.55°  as  the  effective 
heating  power  of  1  lb.  hydrogen. 

3.  Utmost  Teuipeiature  or  intensity  of  Heat, — ^This 
is  ?f*s-  than  in  the  c;ise  of  carbon,  from  the  high 
siK'cific  he.at  aud  greater  quantity  of  the  [iroducts. 
We  have — 


Vapour  of  water, 
NitrogcQ,  . 


9^    lbs. 
26-8    r 


Specific  heat,  8470 
»  n       •275J 


35-8    r  Mean  sp.  i>      -4191 

52,155°  on  water  will  be  124,445°  on  these  products  ; 

121115 
aud  -T.^rg-    lbs.  =  3476°,    is    the    utmost  iKjsaiblo 

temperature. 

4.  Effect  of  Excess  of  A  ir. — As  in  the  case  of  carbon, 
the  intensity  of  heat  is  diminished,  as  imder  : 


Weight 

Kaiio  of 

Fuel  to 
Air. 

Higheit 

Po..ible 

Temperature. 

Hydrogen.         Air. 

Ibl. 
I- 
1- 
I- 

1- 

lb>. 
34-8 
69-6 
104-4 
139-2 

1  to  1 
1  II    2 
1  II    3 
1  II    4 

3476° 
2187 
1591 
1250 

.'>.  Effect  of  Deficiency  of  Air. — No  new  product 
is  the  result  of  deficiency  of  air,  as  in  combustion  of 
carbon ;  the  hytlrogen  simply  escapes  unconsumed. 

6.  Effect  of  water-vapour  present  is  diminution  of 
intensity  and  idtimate  loss  of  heat  in  application,  aa 
in  the  case  of  carbon. 

Temperature  of  Ignition  of  Carbon  and  Hydroiien. 
— These  substances  must  be  themselves  heated 
before  they  can  bum.  Hydrogen  begins  to  burn 
at  or  below  300°,  -\vhUe  carbon  requires  a  red  heat 
(800°  to  1000°  F.),,aud  even  at  that  temperature 
Inirns  very  slowly.  Consequently,  where  they  are 
ctmibined,  as  in  common  coal,  the  temperature 
present  is  often  sufficiently  high  to  ignite  and 
consume  the  hydrogen,  while  the  carbon  remains 
unchanged  as  cinder,  or  passes  aw.ay  as  smoke, 
unconsumed  in  either  case. 

All  that  has  been  said  above,  of  carbon,  as  to 
air  required,  heating  power  or  value,  utmost  tem- 
perature, temperature  of  ignition,  effect  of  water 
jircscnt,  and  of  excess  or  deficiency  of  air,  applies, 
without  modification,  to  one  class  of  fut^s— the 
jiurely  carbonaceous,  including  anthracite,  coke 
from  coal,  charcoal  from  wood  and  peat,  and  the 
cinder  of  any  description  of  fueL  The  incom- 
bustible asU  must  be  allowed  for  in  calculating 
heating  power  or  value ;  aud  also  the  volatile 
Ijodies — nitrogen,  sulphur,  &c. — the  latter  of  which 
frequently  renders  the  fuel  uusiiit.able  for  many 
pm-poses  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Peat,  wood,  and  coal,  -with  the  exception  of 
anthracite,  contain  hydrogen  to  an  extent  rarely 
exceeding  5  per  cent.  We  have  seen  that,  com- 
pared with  carbon,  hydrogen  requires  three  times  .as 
much  air,  and  generates  nearly  four  times  as  much 
heat,  but  produces  20  per  cent,  less  intensity  of 
heat,  and  ignites  at  a  much  lower  temperature  ; 
and  the  combustion  of  wood,  coal,  &c.,  is  in  these 
respecta  modified  according  to  the  proportion  of 
hydrogen  present  in  them. 


FUEL. 

The    following   table   shews   the   composition   of    Beche.     Oohimiis   8   to   12  are   added  to  illustrata 
British  coal,  as  determined  by  Playfair  and  Dc  la  1  the  process  of  combustion. 


Localltj. 

1 

On  DUtLlUtion,  there  ii 

Proportion  of 

HydroKeu  to 

Carbon. 

ATcrago  Composition. 

Left  It!  Coke 
or  Cinder. 

Expelled  in  GaMoua  Form. 

Wnler. 

Sulphur, 
imd  NitroKOD. 

Aa  Tolfttllo  Hjdrocarbooi. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

llTilroKcn 
Una  Oxygea. 

Siillihiir 

and 
Nicrogon. 

Ineom- 

buillUo 

Aih. 

Aih. 

Carbon. 

n^ilrogoo. 

Coiton. 

ToBL 

Wales,      . 
Ncwc.istle, 
I-iincashire, 
Scotland,  . 
Derbyshire, 

8,1-7II 

n2-12 

77 -OO 

78-53 
7308 

1 

4-27 
4  (iO 
4-i-i 
4-40 
3CG 

2 

4G7 
6-411 
10-72 
1(1-90 
II-.-I6 

3 

2-41 

2-:.i) 

2  74 
21 1 
2-42 

4 

4-91 
3-77 
4-8U 
4-li;i 
2-li5 

5 

4-91 
3-77 
4-H8 
■1-(I3 
2-03 

6 

C7-69 
.W-ilO 
55.-14 
511-19 
56-67 

7 

6-C8 
8-!i!l 
I3-4li 
l.-)-01 
1398 

8 

4-27 
4-60 
4-.W 
4-40 
3-6S 

9 

16-09 
23-22 
22-56 
•28-.-i4 
23-01 

10 

20-36 
29-82 
26  69 
32-74 
26-67 

11 

I  to  3-8 
I  "  5-5 
1  .    5  4 
I  »  6-4 
1  //  63 

12 

Wlieu  coal  is  heated  in  a  retort,  it  yields  volatile 
Hydrocarbons  {q.  v.),  amounting  to  *2(i  to  .*i-  per  cent, 
of  its  -weight  (see  cohimn  II).  The  hydrogen  has 
robbed  the  fuel  of  six  times  its  own  weight  of 
carbon.  When  fresli  fuel  is  added  to  live  coal  in 
a  furnace,  the  same  result  ensues  ;  so  that  in  using 
coal,  .50  to  67  per  cent,  of  carbon  burn  on  the  grate, 
and  20  to  32  per  cent,  carbon  and  hydrogen  have 
to  be  burned  in  the  open  sj^ace  above  the  fuel,  or 
escape  uncoasumed. 

The  elemeuts  of  a  hydrocarbon  are  consiuned, 
not  simiUtaneously,  but  in  succession.  First,  the 
(-arbon  is  separated  from  the  hydrogen  in  light 
lloating  particles,  subsequently  seen  .as  soot  or 
smoke  {if  not  consnmetl) ;  then  the  hydrogen  burns, 
and  communicates  heat  to  the  carbon  particles, 
which  then  appear  as  flame.  The  colour  of  the 
flame  indicates  the  temperature  jiresent ;  and  if  the 
temperature  is  sufficiently  high,  the  carbon  of 
wliieli  the  flame  is  composed  l)urns  also,  producing 
a  fiu-ther  increase  of  heat.  If  not,  the  flame,  as  it 
moves  onward,  cools,  becoming  red,  dull  red,  and 
fliiiilly  black  and  smoky,  passing  away  as  such.  For 
complete  combustion  of  common  coal,  we  therefore 
require  not  only  air  in  suflicient  iiiumtity,  but  also 
intensity  of  heat  above  the  fuel.  We  requii-e  a  low 
temper.ature  to  separate  the  carbon  frtuu  the  hydro- 
gen ;  a  higher  temper.ature  to  consinne  the  hydrogen ; 
anti  a  still  higher  to  consume  the  carbon  of  the 
flame.  In  closed  fui-naces,  such  as  those  of  steam- 
boilers,  while  the  current  of  au-  supplied  continues 
pretty  imifonn  in  quantity,  the  volatile  bodies  are 
evolved  almost  immetliately  after  fuelling;  and 
would  require,  for  the  moment,  perhaps  four  times 
the  quantity  of  air  which  is  passing  tlu-ough.  The 
volatile  fuel  is,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of  air, 
i^arried  oft'  partly  unconsumed ;  and  the  tempera- 
ture in  such  fiu*naces  is  frequently  too  low  for  the 
ignition  of  carbon,  as  m.ay  be  seen  from  the  colour 
of  the  flame  ;  the  cold  boiler  having  abstracted  the 
heat  before  the  fl.ame  has  been  subjected  to  its 
influence.  We  refer  to  the  article  Smoke,  Cok- 
KUMPTiox  OF,  for  an  account  of  the  plans  which 
h.ave  been  ailopted  to  secure  perfect  combustion, 
and  thus  prevent  smoke.  From  the  jirinciples 
involved,  we  should  expect  most  success  where  the 
fuel  is  supplied  by  mechanical  arrangenieiits  as 
n-gidarly  and  uniformly  as  the  air,  and  where,  in 
.addition,  the  liody  of  the  furnace  is  protected  or 
removed  so  far  from  boiler-surface  and  other  cooling 
agents  as  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  temperature 
within  it  sufficient  for  the  thorough  ignition  of  the 
flame.  In  house-flres,  where  the  heat  is  lost  if  not 
radiated  forward  into  the  room,  the  cinders  shoidd 
be  drawn  to  the  front,  and  the  fresh  fuel  laid  into 
the  vacant  sp.ace  behind.  The  gases  rise  between 
the  two,  and  being  highly  heated,  form  a  sheet  of 
rjl 


flame  above  and  behind  the  red-hot  fuel  in  front. 
If,  as  is  commonly  done,  we  throw  the  fresh  fuel  on 
the  top  of  the  live  coal,  we  interrupt  the  process  of 
radiation,  and  the  gaseous  part  of  the  fuel  is  thrown 
ort"  rapidly  into  the  cool  atmosphere  above  the  ,gratc, 
and  dtjes  not  take  iire  until  a  considerable  period 
has  elapsed.  To  our  oriUnary  fire  utensils,  we  might 
with  advantage  add  one  of  a  rake  shape,  suited  for 
drawing  forward  the  fuel. 

For  dimensions  of  furnaces,  &c.,  see  Steam- 
engine. 

Economy  of  fuel  will  be  best  sectired,  first,  by 
accomplishing  perfect  combn-stion  both  of  the  tixetl 
and  volatile  parts  of  the  fuel  ;  and  secondly,  by 
regukating  the  amount  of  air,  as  any  excess  of  this 
has  to  be  passed  on  to  the  chimney  at  the  same  high 
temperatm-e  as  the  true  products  of  combustion. 

The  abundance  or  scarcity  of  fuel  has  a  great 
effect  on  the  general  interests  of  a  country  and  the 
comfort  of  its  inhabitants.  The  wealth  and  pros- 
perity of  Britain  must  be  attributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  abundance  of  coal  in  those  districts 
both  of  England  and  Scotland  in  which  ironstone 
is  most  abundant,  and  in  which,  therefore,  the  coal 
is  required  as  fuel  for  smelting  it.  But  even  for 
the  mo.st  ordinary  uses  of  domestic  economy,  the 
scarcity  of  fuel  in  some  j)arts  of  the  -world  causes 
much  hardshij)  to  their  inh.abitants,  whilst  its 
abundance  in  others  is  one  of  their  greatest  natural 
advant.ages.  Coal,  wood,  and  peat  are  the  thi-ee 
kinds  of^  fuel  principally  used ;  coal  being  indeed 
the  vegetation  of  former  ages — or  rather  of  former 
geological  periods — the  product  of  their  sunshine 
and  their  showers,  treasured  up  for  the  present ; 
peat,  a  recent  formation.  Coal  may  be  said  in 
general  to  be  of  about  twice  the  value  of  wood  as 
fuel,  weight  for  -weight,  in  its  heating  power.  In 
those  p.arts  of  the  world  in  which  coal  is  not  found, 
or  to  which  it  cannot  be  e:isUy — or  as  yet  profitably 
— conveyed,  the  preservation  of  forests  is  of  great 
importance  ;  and  trees  are  not  imf requently  planted, 
as  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  in  hedgerows  ami  other- 
wise, chiefly  in  order  to  provide  a  supply  of  fuel. 
For  the  same  reastm,  poUarduig  is  resorted  to,  the 
branches  being  used  as  fuel,  and  the  tnmk  left  to 
produce  new  branches.  Only  some  kinds  of  trees 
are  .adapted  to  this  mode  of  treatment.  In  some 
regions,  as  on  some  of  the  steppes  of  Asia  and  other 
treeless  plains,  the  dried  dung  of  herbivorous 
animals  is  much  used  as  fuel.  In  cases  of  less 
extreme  necessity,  .all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse  are 
used.  Tlui.s,  in  many  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  things  are  carefully  gathered  up  for  fuel 
which  in  any  jiart  of  Britain  would  most  ]>rob.ably 
be  burned  on  the  field,  to  get  them  out  of  the  way. 
But  it  is  not  easy  to  compute  the  benefit  derivi^d 
by  many  parts   even   of    Britain,   jiarticvdarly  the 


FUENTE  DE  O^^EJUNA— FUERTEVENTURA- 


inland  parts,  from  the  recent  great  increase  o£  the 
facilities  of  communication  and  of  the  trade  in 
coal. 

FUENTE  DE  OVEJUNA  (Tlie  Sheep-wcll), 
a  small  wallcJ  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Cordova,  and  44  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  crest  and  sides  of  a 
conical  hUl,  between  two  of  the  upper  branches 
of  the  Guadiata.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  on 
its  western  side,  are  the  wells  from  which  this 
to\ni  has  derived  its  name.  It  has  manufactures 
of  linens,  wooUens,  and  leather.  Coal-seams  occiir 
in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  about  55U0. 

FUE'NTES  DE  ONORO  (The  Fountains  of 
Honour),  a  small  village  of  Salamanca,  Spain,  on 
the  Portuguese  frontier,  14  miles  west  of  Ciudad 
Uodrii'O,  is  well  knowni  as  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
important  battles  of  the  Peninsidar  War,  between 
the  English  under  Wellington,  and  the  French  imilcr 
Massena.  Wellington,  who  had  resolved  to  abide 
battle,  drew  up  his  forces  between  the  Coa  and  the 
Amiediv,  his  line  extending  north  and  south  for  about 
seven  miles,  and  his  right  wing  sti-etohing  two 
mUes  south  of  F.  de  Onoro.  On  the  3d  May  1811, 
this  village  was  fiercely  attacked  by  a  strong  body 
of  French  troops,  who  forced  the  English  fi-om  the 
streets,  and  were  not  dislodged  imtil  the  English, 
reinforced  by  thi-ee  regiments,  drove  them  by  a 
terrific  charge  from  their  position,  with  a  loss  in 
all  of  300  men.  On  the  5th,  the  battle  proper  com- 
menced. The  French,  much  stronger  than  their 
enemies  both  in  cavahy  and  infantry,  assaUed  Wel- 
lington's right  with  overwhelming  nimibers,  and 
although  protligies  of  valour  were  performed  by  the 
English — as  in  the  case  of  Kamse/s  brigade  of  liorse- 
artiUery,  which  cut  its  way  through  a  solid  body 
of  cavab-y — their  right  wing  was  turned,  and  their 
position  lost.  Never  during  the  war  were  the  English 
forces  more  perilously  situated.  Meanwhile,  at  F. 
de  0.,  on  which  Wellington's  left  \ving  now  rcstcLl, 
a  fierce  battle  was  being  fought.  The  three  English 
regiments  who  had  been  left  in  occupation  made  a 
desperate  resistance  against  assaUing  multitudes. 
The  fight  lasted  here  till  evening,  reinforcements 
having  been  brought  up  on  both  sides  ;  and  the 
night  closed  upon  the  EngUsh  holding  the  crags 
above  the  town,  and  the  retiring  regiments  of  the 
French.  The  loss  of  the  aUies  amounted  to  1500, 
while  that  of  the  French  was  stated  at  the  time  to 
be  nearly  5000,  and  was  certainly  greater  than 
that  of  the  allies.  Neither  army  coidd  claim  a 
decided  advantage  in  this  battle  ;  but  its  result 
was,  that  on  the  10th,  the  French  were  forced 
across  the  Portuguese  frontier;  and  thus  ended 
the  French  invasion  of  Portugal. 

FU'ERO,  a  Spanish  word  derived  from  Lat. 
forum,  signifies  strictly,  the  seat  of  justice,  jurisdic- 
tion. In  this  last  sense,  it  was  transferred  to  collec- 
tions of  laws,  and  specially  to  the  civic  rights 
granted  by  the  kings  to  individual  cities,  the  most 
famous  of  which  were  the  fuero  of  Leon  and 
that  of  Naxera.  As  these  city  charters  contained 
for  the  most  part  special  liberties,  concessions,  and 
privileges,  the  word  fuero  became  cuiTeut  chietiy 
in  this  sense,  and  was  particidarly  so  appUed  to 
designate  the  body  of  privileges  and  liberties  th.at 
made  up  the  constitution  of  Navarre,  and  of  the 
three  Basque  pro\'ince3  of  Biscaya,  Alava,  and 
Guipuzcoa.  These  are  the  fueros  the  maintenance 
of  which  gave  rise  to  wars  in  the  B;vsque  provinces 
in  1833.  The  fueros  of  other  provinces  and  cities 
of  Spain  have  been  long  extinct. 

These  Basque  fueros  are  grounded  on  the  old 
laws  of  the  Visigoths,  and  grew  up  in  the  period 
between  the  imiption  of  the  Moors  into  the  Spanish 


peninsiJa  and  the  consolidation  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy  under  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  The  same 
was  the  case  in  the  half-Basque  province  of  Navarro, 
which  formed  an  independent  kingdom  imder  its 
own  sovereigns.  The  fueros  are  thus  the  product  of 
the  ancient  Gothic  laws — those  fertile  sources  of 
modern  rights — and  the  new  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  placed.  They  residted  by  degrees,  here  as 
elsewhere,  in  a  struggle  between  the  people  and  the 
jirinces ;  and  their  development  forms  an  interesting 
chapter  in  the  history  of  modern  coustitutionaUsm. 
They  were  at  first  only  privileges  and  statutory 
rights  gi'anted  to  single  places,  and  from  these 
were  extended  to  others.  Bj'  the  introduction  of  the 
representative  element  of  the  Cortes,  and  extension 
over  whole  pro^-inces,  they  were  then  transformed,  in 
virtue  of  the  general  law  of  custom,  into  constitu- 
tion.al  rights  of  these  pro\-inces  ;  and  were  in  time 
collected  and  formally  embodied  and  sanctioned  as 
such.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  fueros  of  Navarre, 
which  had  been  growing  into  consistency  for  cen- 
turies previously,  were,  in  li'iO,  dming  the  contests 
between  King  Theobald  and  his  Cortes,  collected 
and  recorded,  and  remain  j'ot  under  the  title  of 
Cartulario  del  Seij  Tibaldo.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
who  imited  Navarre  mth  the  crown  of  Castile, 
maintained  the  fueros,  adapting  them  to  the  new 
relation  to  Castile.  'Their  leading  prorisions  are 
these  :  The  Cortes,  chosen  for  three  years,  and  con- 
sisting of  the  three  estates  of  clergj-,  nobles,  and 
commons,  are  to  meet  yearly ;  and  without  tlieir 
consent,  no  law  can  be  passed,  or  anj-thing  of  import- 
ance undertaken.  The  government  consists  of  the 
•\-iceroy,  who  presides  in  the  Cortes  and  Great  Council ; 
the  Great  CoimcU  of  Navarre  (a  body  similar  to  the 
old  French  parUameuts) ;  and  the  Contaduria,  before 
which  all  accounts  of  revenue  and  ex{5enditure  must 
be  laid.  There  is  no  custom-house  or  toll  but  at  the 
frontier,  and  except  the  trifling  grant  of  176,000 
reals,  nothing  flows  into  the  royal  treasury.  All 
these  fueros  the  king  must  bind  himself  by  a  royal 
oath  to  maintain. 

In  the  lordship  (Senorio)  of  Biscaya,  the  fueros 
grew  up  in  the  contests  of  the  inhabitants  with 
their  counts.  They  were  fii-st  collected  into  a  code 
by  Count  Juan  in  1.371,  which,  after  the  final  union 
of  Biscaya  with  Castile,  was  recast  (1526),  completed, 
and  confirmed  by  King  Charles  I.  (the  German 
emperor  Charles  V.).  According  to  this  charter  of 
rights,  every  new  '  Lord ' — for  only  so  do  the  Biscay- 
aus  style  the  king  of  Spain  as  their  prince — fom-tcen 
years  old,  must  come  into  the  country  within  a  year, 
and  take  the  oath  to  uphold  the  fueros  in  certam 
places  appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  government 
consists  of  a  corregidor,  appointed  by  the  '  Lord,' 
and  two  deputies ;  these,  aided  by  six  regidores, 
and  forming  the  regimiento,  condvict  the  administra- 
tion. But  the  supreme  power  resides  in  the  General 
Assembly  (.Jimta  General),  which  meets  yearly  under 
the  tree  at  Guernica,  and  regulates  all  the  affairs  of 
the  lordship,  and  appoints  tlie  deputies  and  regi- 
dores. Justice  is  administered,  in  the  first  instance, 
by  the  lieutenants  (Tenentes)  of  the  corregidor ;  in 
the  second,  by  the  corregidor  and  deputies ;  and  in 
the  third,  by  the  royal  court  at  Valladolid.  Other 
privileges  are,  that  every  Biscayan  of  pure  blood  is 
coimted  noble ;  that  except  the  ]iost-office  there  is 
to  be  no  royal  governing  board  in  the  proWnce  ;  that 
Biscayans  are  not  bound  to  serve  in  the  Spanish 
army,  nor  to  receive  Spanish  troops.  The  fueros  of 
Alava  and  Guipuzcoa  are  of  analogous  origin  and 
character,  but  differing  in  details.  These  fueros 
were  almost  entirely  abolished  by  Espartero,  but 
were  restored  by  Queen  Isabella  in  1S44.  Sco 
Spain. 

FUE'RTEVENTU'RA    See  Ca>'ABI]!S. 


FUG.E— FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW. 


FUG^.     See  Meditatio  Fugjj. 

FUGA'RO,  the  name  of  a  well-know-n  stop  of 
the  flute  kind  in  contiuental  organs  of  4-feet 
pitch,  and  sometimes  of  S-feet  pitch,  of  a  small 
scale,  made  of  wood  or  tin  ;  in  tone  it  is  as  piercing 
as  the  gamba,  but  much  clearer. 

FUGGER,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  families 
in  Germany,  which,  rising  by  industry  and  com- 
merce, has  founded  numerous  lines  of  counts,  and 
even  princes.  The  ancestor  of  the  family  was  John 
F.,  master-weaver  in  Grabeu,  near  Augsburg.  His 
eldest  son,  John  F.,  acquired  by  marriage,  in  1370, 
the  freedom  of  Augsburc,  and  l)cgau  to  carry  ou  a 
trade  in  linen  along  with  weaving.  By  a  second 
uiun-iage,  in  13S2,  with  the  daughter  of  a  councillor, 
lie  had  two  sons  and  four  daughters.  This  John  F. 
was  one  of  the  council  of  twelve  (Ger.  Vie  Zwijljh; 
'  the  twelvers  ')  in  the  weaver-guild,  and  an  assessor 
of  the  famous  Fehmgericht  (i|.  v.)  or  secret  tribuu.al 
of  \V''est])halia.  He  died  in  1409,  and  left  what  was 
a  large  fortune  for  the  time — 3000  guldens  or  florins. 

His  eldest  son,  Andrew  F.,  made  such  good  use  of 
his  share  of  tlie  inheritance  that  he  got  the  name 
of  'the  Rich  Fugger.'  By  marriage,  he  founded  a 
noble  line,  which,  however,  died  out  iu  1585.  John's 
second  son,  Jacob  F.,  wlio  died  in  HGO,  was  superior 
and  '  twelver '  of  the  weaver-guild,  and  a  man  held 
in  high  esteem  by  his  fellow-citizens  ;  he  was  the 
first  of  the  Fuggers  that  had  a  house  in  Augsburg, 
and  he  already  carried  ou  an  extensive  commerce. 

Of  his  seven  sous,  three,  Ulrich,  George,  and 
Jacob  II.,  by  means  of  industry,  abihty,  and  integ- 
rity, extended  their  business  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  palmy 
days  of  the  family.  They  married  into  the  noisiest 
houses,  and  were  raised  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
to  the  rank  of  nobles.  The  emperor  mortgaged  to 
them,  for  70,000  gold  giddens,  the  county  of  Kirch- 
berg  and  the  lordship  of  Weissenhorn,  and  received 
from  them  afterwanls,  through  the  mediation  of 
I'ope  Jidius  II.,  170,000  ducats,  to  assist  in  carrjang 
on  the  war  against  Venice.  Ulrich  F.,  born  1441, 
died  1510,  devoted  himself  specially  to  the  commerce 
that  he  opened  up  with  Ai^stria,  and  there  was 
almost  no  object  that  did  not  enter  into  his  specida- 
tions  ;  even  the  master-jneces  of  Albert  Diirer  went 
through  his  hands  to  Italy.  Jacob  F.,  born  1459, 
died  15*25,  engaged  in  mining  ;  he  farmed  the  mines 
in  T\-rol,  and  accumulated  immense  wealth  ;  he  lent 
to  the  Archduke  of  Austria  150,000  guldens,  and 
built  the  magnificent  castle  of  Fuggerau,  in  TjtoI. 
Thus  the  wealth  of  the  Fuggers  went  on  increasing. 
Their  wares  went  to  all  lands,  and  scarce  a  road  or 
sea  but  bore  their  wagons  or  ships. 

But  it  was  nnder  Charles  V.  that  the  House 
attained  its  greatest  splendour.  Jacob  having  died 
childless,  and  the  family  of  Ulrich  being  also 
e.xtinct,  the  fortunes  and  splendour  of  the  house 
rested  ou  the  sons  of  George  F.,  who  died  in  1506. 
At  his  death,  he  left  three  sons,  one  of  whom, 
Marcus,  entered  the  church ;  the  two  yoimger, 
Kaimund  and  Antony,  carried  on  the  business, 
and  became  the  founders  of  the  two  chief  and  stUI 
flourishing  lines  of  the  House  of  Fugger.  The  two 
brothers  were  zealous  Catholics,  and  with  their 
wealth  supported  Eck  in  his  ojiposition  to  Luther. 
During  the  diet  held  by  Charles  V.  at  Augsburg,  in 
1530,  the  emperor  hved  in  Antony  F.'s  splendid 
house  in  the  Wine  Market.  On  this  occasion,  he 
raised  both  brothers  to  the  rank  of  coimts,  and 
invested  them  with  the  still  mortgaged  properties 
of  Kirchberg  and  Weisseidiorn  ;  and  a  letter  under 
the  imperial  seal  conferred  on  them  the  rights  of 
princes.  For  the  support  they  afforded  him  iu  his 
expedition   against  Algiers   in   1535,  they  received 


the  right  of  coining  money.  Antony  F.,  at  his  death, 
left  six  millions  gold  crowns  in  ready  money,  besides 
jewels  and  possessions  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  in 
both  Indies.  It  is  of  him  that  the  Emperor  Charles 
is  said  to  have  remarked  M'hile  being  shewn  the 
royal  treasury  in  Paris :  '  There  is  a  linen- weaver 
in  Augsburg  that  could  pay  all  that  out  of  his  own 
purse.' 

The  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  raised  the  splendour 
of  the  House  of  F.  still  higher  while  confirming 
the  imperial  letter  of  Charles,  by  confen-ing  great 
adtlitional  privileges  on  the  two  oldest  of  the 
family,  Counts  John  and  Jerome.  The  Fuggers  con- 
tinued still  as  nobles  to  carry  on  their  commerce, 
and  further  increased  their  inunense  wealtli.  They 
attained  the  highest  posts  in  the  empire,  and  several 
princely  houses  j)rided  themselves  oil  their  alliance 
with  the  House  of  Fugger.  They  possessed  the  most 
extensive  libraries  ancl  collections  of  objects  of  art, 
maintained  painters  and  musicians,  and  liberally 
encouraged  art  and  science.  Their  houses  and 
gardens  were  master-pieces  of  the  architecture  and 
taste  of  the  times.  There  is  thus  nothing  Incredible 
in  the  story  that  Antony  F.,  on  one  occasion  when 
Charles  V.  was  liis  visitor,  lighted  a  fire  of  cinna- 
mon wood  with  the  emperor's  bond  for  money  lent 
him. 

Wliile  thus  indulging  in  splendour,  they  were  not 
less  bent  on  doing  good.  Ulrich,  George,  and  Jacob, 
the  sons  of  the  beneficeut  Jacob,  bought  houses  iu 
one  of  the  suburbs  of  Augsburg,  pulled  them  dowu, 
and  built  108  smaller  houses,  which  they  let  to  poor 
citizens  at  a  low  rent.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
'Fuggcrei,'  which  still  remains  under  the  same 
name,  with  its  o«ti  walls  and  gates.  Many  other 
benevolent  institutions  were  set  on  foot  by  Antony 
F.  and  his  sons.  It  is  questionable  if  we  are  to 
rank  among  their  benefactions  their  calling  the 
Jesuits  to  Augsburg,  and  gi\Tng  them  buildings  and 
revenues  for  a  college,  chm-ch,  and  school.  The  race 
is  still  continued  in  the  two  priucip.al  lines  of 
Raimimd  and  jVntony,  besides  collateral  branches. 
The  domains  arc  chiefly  in  Bavaria.  A  collection  of 
jiortraits  of  the  most  important  members  of  this 
great  house,  executed  by  Domin.  Custos  of  Ant- 
wer[),  appeared  at  Augsburg  (1593  et  seq.).  This 
collection  (increased  to  127,  with  genealogies  written 
in  Latin)  was  republished  by  the  brothers  Kiliau 
(Aug.sburg  1618)  ;  and  iu  1754,  a  new  edition  of  the 
work,  still  further  improved,  and  containing  139 
portraits,  was  published  at  Ulni,  imder  the  title 
Fhuicotheca  Fuijijerorum. 

FUGITA'TION.  A  sentence  of  fugitation  in 
Scotland  corresponds  to  outla\vry  in  a  criminal 
process  in  England,  and  is  pronoimced  where  a 
person  fails  to  appear  to  answer  to  a  criminal  pro- 
secution against  him.  Amongst  other  consequences, 
it  entails  the  escheat  of  his  whole  movable  projierty 
to  the  crown.     See  Esche^vt. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW.  Slaves  being 
regarded  as  property,  things  and  not  persons,  as  the 
Koman  law  puts  it,  the  existence  in  every  state  in 
which  slavery  exists  of  a  law  recognising  the  right 
of  the  master  to  reclaim  his  property  follows  .as  a 
logical  consequence.  Accordingly,  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  of  America  ha\-ing  recog- 
nised slaverj',  or  '  ser\"ice,'  as  it  is  gently  termed  by 
American  writers,  necessarily  contained  a  number 
of  enactments  for  its  enforcement.  By  art.  4,  s.  2 
of  that  document,  it  is  declared  that  pei'sons  held  to 
service  or  labour  in  one  state,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
and  escaping  into  another,  shall  be  delivered  up,  on 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labour 
may  be  due.  In  fmtheranee  of  this  provision,  the 
laws  of  New  York  have  pro\-ided  for  the  arrest  of 

517 


FUGLEMAJs^— FUGUE. 


such  fusitives,  on  linlieai  corpus,  founded  on  due 
proof,  auJ  for  a  ccrtiticato  in  favour  of  the  ri-iht  of 
tlio  ilaimant,  and  delivery  of  the  fugitive  to  liim, 
to  Ik'  remove<l.  The  existins;  law,  iis  narrated  in 
the  latest  edition  of  Kent,  seems  to  be  the  follow- 
ing;:  The  act  of  179^,  providing;  for  the  reclama- 
tiiTn  of  fugitives  from  justiee  and  from  serN-ice, 
h.as,  so  far  as  nlates  to  the  latter,  been  amended, 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  sniwrsedod  by  the 
.act  of  September  18,  1850.  The  judiei.al  duties 
iniiioscd  by  the  latter  act  .ire  to  be  performed  by 
the  Unitcil  Stites  commissioners,  who  may  have 
the  power  of  arresting  or  imprisoning  for  offences 
against  the  United  States,  by  the  judges  of  the 
circuit  and  district  courts  of  the  United  f^tites,  and 
of  the  superior  courts  of  territories,  and  by  such 
special  commissioners  .as  the  resjic-etivc  courts  m.ay 
appoint.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  United  States 
marsh;Us  to  obey  .and  execute  all  warrants  and 
process  of  such  judges  and  commissioners ;  and 
after  the  arrest  of  any  fugitives,  such  ofiicers  are 
liable  for  an  escape  with  or  without  thcii-  assent. 
Wlien  any  fugitive  h.-is  escaped  into  another  st.ate  or 
territory,  the  o-\\iier,  or  his  duly  authorised  .agent, 
m.ay  pursue  and  jiersonally  arrest  said  fugitive,  or 
may  demand  a  w.arrant  and  an-est  from  the  ollicer 
having  due  .authority.  The  fugitive  is  then  to  be 
taken  before  a  commissioner  or  judge,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  hear  and  determine  the  compbaint  in  a  sum- 
mary manner.  Should  he  be  satisfied  of  the  validity 
of  the  claim  and  the  identity  of  the  slave,  it  is  his 
duty  to  deliver  to  the  cl.aim.ant  a  certificate  of  the 
proceeding  had,  with  authority  to  remove  the  fugi- 
tive to  the  ])lace  from  which  he  fled.  The  testimony 
of  the  fugitive  is  not  admissible.  Any  assistance 
rendered  to  a  fugitive  to  enable  him  to  escape  from 
the  claim.ant,  or  any  obstruction  offered  to  his 
arrest,  is  pen.al,  and  also  subjects  the  party  to 
d.amages  at  the  suit  of  the  owner.  All  citizens  of 
the  United  St.ates  are  required,  when  called  upon, 
to  render  the  officers  personal  assistance  in  the  per- 
formance of  their  duties.  These  provisions  api)ly  to 
.all  the  states,  or  did  so,  at  least,  pre\-iously  to  the 
war,  whether  slavery  was  recognised  by  their  special 
l.aws  or  not ;  the  principle  being,  that  '  the  constitu- 
tion and  Laws  of  the  United  States  secure  the  right 
to  reclaim  fugitive  shaves  ag.ainst  state  legisKation.' 
In  some  of  the  slave-holding  states,  it  is  held,  that 
if  a  sl.ave  from  such  a  state  go  lawfully  inti)  a  non- 
slave-holding  state,  and  acquire  a  domicile  there 
with  his  master,  or  is  emancipated  there  by  his 
master,  he  becomes  emancipated,  and  ceases  to  be  a 
slave  on  his  return  ;  but  if  he  be  carried  there  for  a 


temjiorary  purpose,  and  return,  his  state  of  slavery 
is  resumed.  These  provisions  have  no  inllucnce  on 
the  condition  of  the  fugitive  slave  (Kent,  ut  sup. 
ii.  p.  297). 

FU'GLEMAN,  (properly,  FbigtJman,  from  the 
Germany «;/('/,  a  wing),  an  intelligent  soldier  ]>osted 
in  front  of  a  hne  of  men  at  ilrill,  to  give  the  time 
anil  an  example  of  the  motions  in  the  manual  and 
]ilatoon  exercises.  He  briginally  stood  in  front  of 
the  right  wing,  and  hence  the  name. 

FUGUE,  in  Music,  is  the  name  of  a  composition 
wherein  the  parts  do  not  all  begin  at  once,  but 
follow  or  j)ursuc  one  another  at  certain  distances; 
thence  the  name,  Fti'ia,  a  flight  or  ch.ase,  each  part 
successively  taking  u\<  the  suliject  or  melody.  Any 
of  the  parts  may  begin  the  fugue,  but  the  others 
follow  according  to  lixed  rules.  The  subject  is 
gener.ally  a  few  bars  of  melody,  which  is  given  out 
in  the  principal  key  by  the  part  which  begins.  The 
next  part  which  enters  repeats  the  same  melody, 
but  a  lifth  higher  or  a  fourth  lowei",  and  is  called 
the  answer.  The  third  piart  follows  with  the  subject 
iig.ain  in  the  principal  key,  but  an  octave  higher  or 
lower  than  the  first  part,  and  is  answered  by  the 
fourth  p.art  in  the  same  manner  as  the  second  part 
answers  the  first.  After  the  subject  is  completed, 
the  melody  which  follows  it,  so  as  to  form  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  part,  is  called  the  counterpoint,  in 
the  construction  of  which,  f.acilities  for  ingenious 
double  comiteqioints  of  various  kinds  are  afforded. 
When  the  subject  and  answer  have  been  introduced 
in  all  the  parts,  the  first  section  of  the  fugue  is  said 
to  be  completed;  an  intermcthate  harmony  of  a 
few  bars  then  follows,  sometimes  in  its  fonn  like 
ji.art  of  the  suliject,  and  with  a  modulation  into  a 
nearly  rebated  key.  The  subject  and  answer  are 
again  brought  forward,  but  following  in  a  difFerent 
order  from  the  first  section  ;  while  at  the  same  time 
aU  the  p.arts  .are  continued,  and  in  some  of  them 
the  original  counterpoint  appears  either  simply  or 
inverted,  the  subject  and  answer  forming  the  jire- 
dominating  idea  thi-oughout  the  whole  composition, 
and  towards  the  end  appearing  in  a  v.ariety  of  forms, 
intervals,  .and  modifications.  When  the  subject 
does  not  extend  in  compass  beyond  the  lialf  of  an 
octave,  the  answer  is  invariably  made  in  the  other 
h:df ;  and  to  avoid  modulation  out  of  the  key,  the 
jirogression  of  a  lifth  is  answered  by  a  fourth.  A 
fugue  consisting  of  one  subject  with  a  counterpoint 
throughout,  is  caUed  a  .strict  fugue,  as  in  tlie  follow- 
ing  example  by  J.  Sebastian  B.aeh,  in  which  the 
first  progression  of  a  fifth  is  answered  by  a  fourth  : 


W^^ 


Subject. 


ai3 


Se 


j^EfelE^^^ 


^ 


^=ii^=^^tfffifp^mw 


Answer. 


"^i^Pi 


^isi^^i^ 


Sec. 


'Wlien  a  second  subject  is  introduced  in  the  middle  I  the  first  subject,  it  is  then  calleil  a  fugue  on  two 
of  the  composition,  and  afterwards  worked  up  with  I  subjects,  as  in  the  following  fromGraim's  Tod  Jcsu: 


FUH-HE— FUH-KEEX. 


fe 


^S 


1st  Subject. 


i^^^ 


kc. 


s 


s 


^m 


^5p=? 


lE^ 


4fe 


Christus    hat     uns  cin   Vor-bild  ge- la 


m 


^ 


^ 


m$ 


^-*-w 


^ 


2d  Subject. 


&c. 


aH^ 


W — — h — h- 1 — F   II 


«    o 


^Et 


^z^^^-HrbJ 


auf  dass  wir  sol  -  -lennach-fol     -    -    -    gcii     sei  -  nen  Fuss    -    ta 


Both  subjects  united. 


&c. 


1= 


^ 


E5=^pP=^ 


J=-J  0  J  i  IM=4=^4 


^ 


^^^ 


A  double  fufue  begins  at  once  with  two  subjects  in  1  throufjhotit,   as    in    the    following    from    Mozart's 
clifferent  parts,  both  of  which  arc  strictly  treated  I  liequkiu : 


2d  Subject. 


^ 


Ky  -  ri  -  e      e       •      le      -      is  -  on  c    -   le 


A  free  fugue  is  that  in  which  the  subject  and 
counterpoint  are  not  strictly  treated  throughout, 
but  mixed  up  with  intermediate  harmonies  and 
idcM  not  connected  witli  the  subject,  while  the 
rules  of  the  fugue  are  not  rigidly  adliei-ed  to. 

The  fugue  has  alwaj's  been,  and  will  continue  to 
be,  esteemed  by  every  sound  musician,  not  from  its 
lieing  the  most  difficult  style  of  composition,  but 
from  its  not  being  subject  to  caprice  and  fashion. 
The  fugues  of  Bach,  H.anilel,  and  other  composers 
possess  the  same  interest  for  the  present  time  as 
they  have  done  for  generations  past.  Although  the 
fugrie  is  hekl  by  many  to  be  a  more  mechanical 
study,  which  can  be  composed  or  written  piu'ely  by 
rule  and  calculation,  still,  it  undoubtedly  holds  out 
to  a  comiioser  of  genius  a  wide  field  for  great  and 
beautiful  effects,  as  well  as  peciUiar  artistic  com- 
binations. The  best  works  on  the  fugue  are  by 
Marptirg,  .\lbrechtsberger,  Kirnberger,  and  the  late 
Professor  8.  W.  Dehn  of  Berlin. 

FUH-HE,  or  FITH-HE-SHE,  the  first  of  the 
live  emperors  of  China  th.at  flourished  in  the 
mythological  period.  He  instructed  the  people  in 
the  art  of  rearing  cattle,  and  invented  the  pii-kml, 
or  eight  combinations  of  four  strokes,  to  express  the 
changes  of  nature.  His  chief  invention,  however, 
was  th.at  of  letters,  by  drawing  up  the  two  linear 
tables  called  Ho-too  and  Lo-shoo,  which  he  copied 


from  the  back  of  a  dragon  rising  from  the  deep. 
According  to  another  account,  knottefl  cords,  'JO 
inches  long,  were  used  for  writing,  till  Tsang-ke, 
the  minister  of  F.,  conceived  the  idea  of  characters 
from  seeing  the  footprints  of  liirds  on  the  sands. 
F.  instituted  marriage,  invented  the  musical  instru- 
ment called  l-iii,  and  taught  the  art  of  fishing.  It 
is  clear  that  he  personifies  a  condition  of  society. 
He  had  a  he.ad  with  jirojections  like  the  horns  of 
au  ox,  and  the  body  of  a  dr,agon. — Sau-tsze-king, 
1.  21,  22;  Kang-kceu-e-che-luh,  i.  p.  0;  Gutzlaff, 
Skelc'h  of  Chinese  Iliilori/,  i.  p.  119. 

FUH-KEEN,  or  FU-KL\N  (H.appy  Established, 
or  The  Consummation  of  Happiness),  one  of  the 
eastern  maritime  provinces  of  China.  It  lies  to 
the  south  of  Chc-keang,  between  the  parallels 
of  2.3"  35'  and  2S°  47',  and  is  l)acked  by  the  great 
southern  range  of  mountains  that  separates  South- 
eastern China  from  the  inland  }irovinces.  Together 
"\vith  the  provinces  of  Keang-sc,  Kwang-tung,  ami 
a  portion  of  Hu-n,am  and  Hu-pih,  F.  forms  the 
hilly  ])ortion  of  China  Proper.  It  is  a  black-tea 
di.strict,  and  produces  barley  and  wheat.  The 
principal  fruits  are  the  orange,  lemon,  and  mulberry. 
On  its  coast  are  situ.ated  the  ports  of  Fu-chow 
(the  capital),  and  Amoj-,  or  Hia-mum  (the  gate  or 
harbour  of  Hia),  opened  by  the  treaty  of  Nankin, 
2yth   August    1S42.      See  "Chin.1.      The   islaml    ot 


PUHNEN— FULHAM. 


Formosa  and  the  Pang-hoo  group  arc  inchuled  in 
this  iniiWuce.  Area,  53,-tSO  square  miles;  pop. 
22,C39,4C0. 

FUHNEN  (Dan.,  Fiieii),  the  largest  of  the  Danish 
islands  after  Seelaud,  is  bounded  on  the  AV.  by  the 
Little  E-lt,  which  sep.arates  it  from  Jutland  and 
Slcsvig;  on  the  N.  by  the  Odensee  Fjord;   on  the 

E.  by  the  Great  Belt ;  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Little 
Belt,  and  by  the  island  of  Langel.and,  which  is 
incorporated  ivith  it  in  one  circle,  or  sllll,  of  the 
kingdom.  The  area  of  this  province  is  about  1'2S0 
square  miles,  and  the  population  nearly  200,000. 
The  co.ist  is  generally  rugged,  and  much  indented 
with  b.ays  or  fjords ;  but  the  interior  is  flat,  except 
towards  the  south  and  west,  where  there  is  a 
range  of  hills  rising  to  about  500  feet.  The  land, 
whicli  is  well  wati?re<l  by  sever.al  small  streams, 
is  fruitful  and  well  cultivated,  producing  abundant 
crops  of  cereals.  Barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  rye, 
flax,  and  hemp  are  grown  in  larger  quantities  than 
are  required  for  home  consumption.  Honey  is  also 
largely  exported.  The  F.  horses  are  in  great 
request,  and  large  numbers  of  these  animals,  and 
of  a  fine  breed  of  homed  cattle,  are  annually  sent 
out  of  the  island.  The  province  of  F.  is  ilivided 
into  the  two  bailiwicks  of  Odensee  and  Svendborg. 
The  princip.al  towns  are  Odensee  (q.v.),  Syendborg 
(q.  v.),  and  Nyborg  (pop.  3000),  a  fortitied  towii  on 
the  east  coast,  and  the  most  direct  port  of  com- 
munication M'ith  Seeland,  and  memorable  as  having 
been  the  seat  of  the  annual  Danehof,  or  meeting 
of  the  States,  instituted  in  1354  by  Valdemar  IV., 
and  for  the  \netory  gained  in  1G50  by  the  Danes 
and  their  allies  over  the  Swedes. 

FULAH.S  [properly,  Ftdhe  (sing.  PMo),  called 
also  Fellani  (sing.  Bafellanchi),  FeUata,  and  Fulliin], 
the  name  of  a  widely  spread  negro  people  in  L'pper 
Sudan,  reg.arding  whose  origin  there  is  much 
diversity  of  opinion.  M.  Eichwaldt  (see  Journal  ik 
la  Socii'tc  Ethnolorjiqiie,  IS-tl,  vol.  i.  p.  2,  et  seq.) 
has  endeavoured  to  connect  them  with  the  Malays 
in  the  far  East,  but,  according  to  Dr  Earth,  '  none 
of  his  arguments  are  of  any  consequence.'  Yet  Dr 
Earth  himself  is  of  opinion  that '  their  origin  is  to 
be  sought  for  iu  the  direction  of  the  East ;  but  this,' 
he  adds, '  refers  to  an  age  which  for  us  is  enveloped 
in  impenetrable  darkness.'  The  F.  first  emerge  into 
the  light  of  history  about  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
e.,  when,  as  we  learn  fronx  Ahmed  Baba's  Hislorij  of 
Si'iddti,  two  members  of  the  tribe  went  on  a  reli- 
gious mission  from  Melle,  on  the  borders  of  Senc- 
gambia,  to  the  king  of  Bornu.  The  import.ance  of 
this  incident  lies  in  the  fact,  that  it  shews  that 
in  the  dawn  of  their  history — as  has  invariably 
been  the  case  iu  later  times — the  course  of  the 
tribe  w.as  from  west  to  east,  and  also,  th.at  at  the 
early  period  referred  to,  they  were  distinguished 
for  that  religious  learning  which  still  ch.ar,aeterises 
them.      After  the   14th   c.,   successive   swarms   of 

F.  appear  to  have  left  the  kingdom  of  Melle,  or  the 
mountainous  region  of  Fuladu,  and  to  have  spread 
themselves  over  the  greater  portion  of  .Sfldiin, 
'absorbing  and  incoi-porating  with  themselves 
different  and  quite  distinct  national  elements,  which 
have  given  to  their  community  a  rather  v.arying 
and  undecided  character.'  Hence  originate  the  con- 
flicting accounts  of  travellers,  some  of  whom  spe.ak 
of  the  P.  as  tliffering  little  from  the  negroes ;  others, 
as  having  their  features  and  sUiUls  cast  in  the 
European  mould;  while  Bowen  describes  those  of 
Yoruba  as  being  some  black,  sortie  almost  white, 
and  many  of  a  mulatto  colour,  varying  from  dark 
to  very  bright.  Many  other  tribes,  which  have  not 
been  quite  absorbed  by  the  F.,  are  yet  so  far 
blended  with  them,  that  they  have  lost  their  native 

CM 


idiom  .altogether,  and  speak  the  language  of  the 
predominant  race,  which  is  termed  the  Fiilfiilde. 
The  F.  are  not  all  under  one  rukr;  they  .are  a  race, 
not  a  nation;  and  have  foimded  many  kingdoms, 
such  iis  those  of  S6koto,  Gando,  Timbo,  &e.  The 
endless  tribes  belonging  to  their  stock  are  generally 
divided  into  four  groups  or  families,  the  Jel,  the 
B'afi,  the  So,  and  the  Eeri.  Most  of  them  became 
converted  to  Mohammedanism  about  the  middle  of 
the  ISth  c.,  and  in  1802,  imder  the  Im;im  Othmau, 
commenced  a  religious  wjir  on  the  surrounding 
)i,ag,ans,  which  terminated  prosperously  in  the  est.ab- 
lishment  of  the  great  Ful.ah  epipire  of  SOkoto. 
Othman  died  in  a  sort  of  fanatical  ecstasy  or 
madness  in  ISIS.  The  F.  .are  industrious  and 
inclined  to  tr,ade;  they  work  iron  and  silver,  manu- 
facture with  great  neatness  articles  in  wood  and 
leather,  and  weave  various  dur.able  f.abrics.  They 
.are  by  f.ar  the  most  intelligent  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Sfidan,  and  have,  besides  mosques,  schools  in 
.almost  Jill  their  towns. 

FU'LCRUM,  in  Mechanics,  is  the  prop  or  fixed 
point  on  which  a  lever  moves.     See  Lever. 

FULDA,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  electorate 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  54  miles  south  of  Cossel,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  rising-ground  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Fulda,  a  considerable  stream,  which, 
rising  from  the  western  b.ase  of  the  Rhiingebirge,  in 
Bavaria,  flows  northward  through  Hesse-Cassel,  and 
unites  ■with  the  Werra  on  the  Hanoverian  border, 
after  a  course  of  110  miles.  It  is  a  ])retty  town, 
suri'ounded  by  old  walls,  .and  has  a  market-place, 
two  squares,  and  eight  suburbs.  One  of  the  chief 
buildings  is  the  cathedi-al,  the  fourth  church  that 
has  been  built  on  this  site.  It  is  a  handsome 
modern  structure,  and  covers  the  shrine  in  which 
the  body  of  St  Bonifaeius  w.as  deposited  after  his 
murder  by  the  Frisians  in  754.  The  other  notable 
structui'es  are  the  palace,  foi-merly  the  residence  of 
the  prince-bishops  of  F. ;  the  church  of  St  Michael, 
founded  in  822 ;  a  gymnasimn,  schools  of  art  and 
manufactures,  and  a  public  library.  F.  has  acquired 
a  reputation  for  its  linen  m.anufactures ;  it  h.as 
also  extensive  est<ablishments  for  the  manuf.acture 
of  vinegar  and  beer;  -irith  dye-works,  tanneries,  and 
weaving.  Pop.  14,000,  mostly  Roman  CathoUcs. 
The  prorince  of  Fulda,  of  which  F.  is  the  capital, 
forms  part  of  what  was  formcrlj'  the  grand-duchy 
of  Fidda.  This  territory  w.as  incorporated  with 
the  gi-and-duchy  of  Franliiurt  by  N.apoleon  in  1810, 
and  ceded  to  Prussia  iu  1815,  but  immediately 
aftei'W.ards  was  made  over  to  Hesse-CasseL 

FlI'LGORA.    Sec  L.vnterx-fly. 

FU'LGURITES  (Lat.,  fuhjur,  lightning),  tubes 
foi-med  of  ■i-itrilied  sand,  which  are  foimd  in  sand- 
banks, and  in  soils  consisting  chiefly  of  silicious 
s<and,  .and  are  .attributed  to  the  action  of  light- 
ning melting  and  vitrifj'ing  the  sand.  They 
were  lirst  discovered  in  1711  by  the  paetor 
Herman,  at  Massel,  in  Silesia,  and  have  since  been 
found  in  many  places;  but  their  origin  was  first 
pointed  out  by  Dr  Hentzen  in  1S05.  They  are 
from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  and  a  half 
in  di.ameter,  their  intemial  surface  of  a  perfectly 
glass}'  substance,  hard  enough  to  scr.atch  gl.ass, 
and  to  give  fire  with  steel.  'J'hcy  .are  usu,ally,  but 
not  always,  placed  vertically  in  the  s.and,  become 
narrower  downwards,  and  sometimes  divide  and 
subdivide  into  br.anches. — The  effects  of  lightning 
seem  to  be  exhibited  also  in  some  ]ilaces  on  rocks 
by  vitrification  and  the  production  of  a  sort  of 
enamel,  sometimes  assuming  the  form  of  beads. 

FULHAM,  formerly  a  vill.age,  but  now  a  suburb 
of  London,  in  the  south  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left 


FULICA— FULLER'S  EAETH. 


bank  of   the  Thames,  six  miles  soath-west  of   St 
Paul's. 

FU'LICA.    See  Coot. 

FULI'GULA.    See  Pochard. 

FULLER,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister, 
.and  theological  and  controversial  writer,  the  son  of 
a  small  farmer,  was  born  at  Wicken,  Cambridge- 
shire, February  G,  1754.  He  received  the  rudiments 
(if  his  education  at  the  free  school  of  Soham,  and  in 
his  youth  was  principally  engaged  in  agricultural 
labours.  In  his  17th  year,  he  became  a  member  of 
a  Baptist  church  at  Soham,  and  in  1775  he  was 
chosen  pastor  of  a  congreg.ation  at  that  place.  His 
small  stipend  of  £21  per  amium  he  endeavoured  to 
increase  by  keejiing,  first  a  small  shop,  and  then  a 
schooL  In  1782,  lie  removed  to  Kettering,  Xorth- 
amptonshire,  to  take  the  pastorate  of  a  congregation 
there.  On  the  formation,  in  1792,  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  by  Dr  Carey,  himself,  and  eleven 
other  ministers,  he  was  ap])ointed  its  secretary,  and 
the  whole  of  his  future  life  was  devoted  to  the 
administration  of  its  affairs.  In  1794  he  published 
a  controversial  treatise,  entitled  The  Calvhmtic  and 
Sodniau  Systems,  examined  and  compared  as  to 
their  Moral  Tendency  (Lond.  8vo).  This  work  was 
attacked  by  Dr  Toulmin  and  Mr  Kentish,  and  F. 
repUed  in  a  pamphlet,  entitled  Socinianism  Indefen- 
sible (Loud.  1797,  Svo).  His  other  principal  publica- 
tions are  IVie  Gospel  its  own  )ri7nf.s.9(Clipstone,  1797), 
and  Expository  Discourse  oh  the  Book  of  Genesis  (2 
vols.  Svo,  Lond.  IS06).  He  was  also  the  author  of 
a  variety  of  single  sermons  and  pamphlets.  The 
sense,  sagacity,  and  thoroughly  jiractical  knowledge  1 
of  mankind  which  these  writings  display,  have 
won  for  F.  the  title  of  '  the  Franklin  of  Tlieology.' 
He  died  May  7.  1S15.  Tlu'ce  collected  editions  of 
his  works  have  been  pubhshed,  besides  American 
reprints  ;  the  first  in  10  vols.  Svo,  the  second  in 
5,  and  the  thii-d  in  1  royal  Svo.  A  volume  of 
his  treatises  was  repubUshed  in  Bohn's  Standard 
Library,  with  a  Memoir  by  his  son.  F.'s  Memoir 
of  the  licv.  Samuel  Pearce  of  Birmingham  is  much 
esteemed  as  a  religious  biogi-aphy, 

FULLER,  Sarah  Margaret,  JSLuicmONESS 
Os-SOLI,  an  American  lady,  whose  talents,  rare  indi- 
^duality  of  cliaracter,  and  untimely  death,  give  to 
her  history  a  pecuUar  and  tragic  interest,  was  born 
at  Cambridgcport,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1810.  Under 
the  care  of  her  father,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  she  was  early  and  thoroughly  instructed 
in  the  classics.  It  is  related  that  he  used  to  s.ay  of 
her,  while  still  a  child,  that  she  '  knew  more  Latin 
and  Greek  than  half  the  professors.'  At  a  very 
early  age,  she  had  also  made  great  proficiency  in 
French  and  Italian.  After  the  death  of  her  father 
in  1835,  she  became  teacher  of  languages  in  Boston, 
and  snbsemiently  principal  of  a  school  at  ProW- 
dence,  Ilhode  Island.  In  1839,  she  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Eckermann's  Conversations  v/ith  Goethe. 
She  became,  in  1840,  editor  of  the  Dial,  a  periodical 
instituted  for  the  advocacy  and  diffusion  of  Trans- 
cendentalism in  jVmerica,  and  for  which  she  MTOte  a 
number  of  admirable  articles  ou  literature  and  art. 
Her  critique  on  Goethe  especially,  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Dial,  has  been  greatly  and  deservedly 
praised.  '  Nowhere,'  says  Mr  Emerson,  '  did  Goethe 
find  a  braver,  more  inteUigent,  or  more  sympa- 
thetic reader.'  Her  Summer  on  tlie  Lakes,  a  vivid 
and  truthful  ]iieture  of  prairie-life,  was  published  in 
1843.  Soon  after,  she  took  charge  of  the  literary 
department  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  In  1846, 
she  visited  England,  where  she  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Carlyle  and  other  eminent  men.  From 
London,  she  journeyed  through  France  to  Italy. 
At  Kome,  she  accidentally  became  acquainted  with 


the  Marquis  Ossoli,  to  whom,  though  many  years 
younger  than  hei'self,  she  was  married  in  Decem- 
ber 1847.  She  took  the  deepest  interest  in  the 
cause  of  Italian  liberty ;  and  during  the  siege  of 
Kome,  in  1849,  devoted  herself  •with  untiring  assi- 
duity to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  In  May 
185U,  she  and  her  husband  set  sail  for  America ; 
but  a  violent  storm  having  arisen  when  they  were 
near  the  coast  of  the  Uuited  States,  the  vessel 
struck  on  Fire  Island  Beach,  Long  Island,  in  the 
morning  of  the  16th  of  July,  and  a  few  hours 
after  went  to  pieces.  Among  those  who  |)erished 
were  the  Marquis  and  Marchioness  Ossoli  and  their 
cluld. 

FULLER,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
historian  and  di\'ine,  was  born  in  1 G08  at  Aldwinkle, 
Northamptonshire,  of  wliich  parish  his  father  was 
rector.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his 
application  to  study.  He  took  the  degree  of  A.B. 
in  1624,  and  that  of  A.M.  in  1628.  He  stood  so 
high  in  the  estimation  of  his  college  that,  before  he 
was  23  years  of  age,  he  was  appointed  to  St  Benets, 
Cambridge,  and  acquired  gi-eat  popularity  as  a 
preacher.  Soon  after,  he  was  collated  to  a  prebend 
in  Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  obtained  a  fellowship 
in  Sitlney  Sussex  College.  His  first  publication 
was  a  poem,  entitled  Davuts  Heinous  Sin,  Hearty 
Repentance,  and  Heavy  Punishments  (1031,  8vo). 
He  was  next  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Broad 
Windsor,  Dorsetshire  ;  published  his  History  of  the 
Holy  War  at  Cambridge  in  1639 ;  and  in  1040 
removed  to  London,  where  he  was  chosen  lecturer 
at  the  Savoy  Chm'cli  in  the  Strand.  The  same 
year,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Convocation  at 
Westminster,  and  one  of  the  select  committee 
appointed  to  cb'aw  up  new  canons  for  the  better 
government  of  the  church.  During  the  civil  war 
he  adhered  firmly  to  the  royal  cause  ;  and  shared  in 
its  reverses.  In  1646,  however,  he  was  chosen 
lecturer,  first,  at  St  Clement's  Lane,  Lombard  Street, 
and  afterwards  at  St  Bride's.  Alx)ut  1G4S,  he  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Waltham,  in  Essex.  In 
1650,  he  published  a  geographical  accoimt  of  the 
Holy  Land,  entitled  A  Pise/ah  Siejld  of  Palestine 
and  the  Confines  thereof  (folio,  -vrAh.  ma]i3  and 
views),  and  Abel  Pedirivus,  a  collection  of  lives  of 
modem  diWnes.  In  1655,  he  pubUshed  at  London 
The  Churcli  History  of  Britain,  from  the  Birth 
of  Jesus  Christ  until  the  year  1648  (folio).  In 
1658,  he  received  the  living  of  Cranford,  Middle- 
sex, and  at  the  Restoration  he  was  reinstated 
in  his  prebend  of  Salisbury,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived  by  the  Parliamentarians.  He  was  also 
appointed  chaplain  extraordinary  to  the  king,  and 
created  D.D.  at  Cambridge  by  royal  mandamus. 
He  died  August  16,  1661.  His  principal  work. 
The  Wurtltis  uf  Emjland,  was  published  .at  Lou- 
don in  1662  (folio).  Valuable  for  the  informa- 
tion it  contains  on  provincial  history,  it  abounds 
in  biographical  anecdote,  witty  remark,  and  acute 
observation  on  men  and  manners.  A  new  edition, 
with  his  life  prefixed,  appeared  in  1810  (2  vols.  4to). 
His  Holy  and  Profane  States  were  republished 
in  America  in  1831.  Quaint  hmnour  is  one  of 
F.'s  pecuhar  characteristics ;  but  his  writings  are 
no  less  remarkable  for  wisdom,  imagination,  and, 
when  occasion  demands,  even  for  pathos.  '  Next 
to  Shaksjieare,'  says  Coleridge,  '  I  am  not  certain 
whether  Thomas  Fuller,  beyond  all  other  writers, 
does  not  excite  in  me  the  sense  and  emulation  of 

the   marvellous He   was   incomparably   the 

most  sensible,  the  least  prejudiced  great  man,  in 
an  age  that  boasted  of  a  galaxy  of  great  men.' 

FULLER'S     EARTH,    a    mineral    consisting 

SSI 


FULMAR— FUUirN'ATE  OF  SILVEU. 


chiefly  of  silica,  alumina,  and  w.-itiT,  with  a  little  | 
Diiijin'osia,  linio,  anil  pcroxiilc  of  iron.  The  silica  is 
alxrut  50,  the  alumina  20,  and  the  water  24  per 
cent  of  the  whole.  It  is  reg.anled  as  essentially  a  i 
hydr.i\is  bisUicate  of  alumina.  It  occurs  in  beds,  [ 
associated  with  chalk,  oolite,  &c. ;  is  usually  of  a  j 
greenish-brown  or  a  slate-blue  colour,  sometimes 
white ;  has  an  uneven  earthy  fracture,  and  a  dull 
aiiiK-arancc ;  its  si>ccitic  f,Ta\-ity  is  from  1  S  to  22 ; 
it  is  soft  enough  to  jat-ld  readily  to  the  nail;  is 
very  greasy  to  the  touch;  scarcely  adheres  to  the 
tongue ;  falls  to  pieces  in  water,  but  does  not 
become  jJ-astic.  It  has  a  remarkable  power  of 
absorbing  oil  or  grease ;  and  was  formerly  very  much 
used  for  fulling  cloth  (see  Woollen"  M.\huf.\cti.-be), 
for  which  purpose  it  w.as  considered  so  valu.able,  that 
the  exportation  of  it  from  England  w.as  i)rohibited 
under  severe  jienalties ;  it  is  still  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  The  aunu.al  consivmption  iu  England 
is  said  to  have  at  one  time  exceeded  GOOD  tons.  It 
is  found  at  Kutfield,  near  lieigate,  in  Surrey,  in 
cretaceous  strata;  where  there  are  two  distinct  beds, 
the  upper  one  of  a  greenish  colour,  and  5  feet  thick, 
resting  on  the  other,  which  has  a  IJuisli  tint,  and  is 
11  feet  thick.  It  is  also  found  iu  Bedfordshire,  Not- 
tinghamshire, and  Kent;  and  on  the  continent  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  near  Aix-la-Chapellc.  There 
is  a  considerable  deposit  of  it  at  Bath,  where  the 
group  of  associated  blue  and  yellow  clays  and  marl 
has  received  the  name  of  '  the  Fiiller's  E;vrth 
Series.'     It  is  also  found  at  Maxton,  iu  Scotland. 

FULMAR,  or  FULMAR  PETREL  (Procellaria 
or  Fulmarus),  a  genus  of  birds  generally  referred 
to  the  gidl  family  {Larklce),  and  containing  some 
of  the  most  strictly  oceanic  bii-ds.  See  Petrel. 
The  bill  is  not  longer  than  the  head — large,  strong, 
and  subcylindrical ;  the  upper  mandible  suddenly 
hooked  at  the  point ;  the  lower  mandible  with  the 
tip  curved  upwards  ;  the  tips  of  both  ]nandil>les 
appearing  as  sejiarate  pieces  firmly  joined  to  the 
straight  part  of  the  bill,  which  is  marked  by 
longitudinal  grooves ;  the  nostrils  enclosed  in  a 
tube  open  at  the  extremitj-,  and  extending  along  the 
ridge  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  tarsi  are  com- 
pressed ;    the  liind-toe  rudimentarj-,  a   mere  claw. 


N'orUiL::,  1;...,...;  (ProccUarui  glacialis). 

The  tail  is  short,  and  slightly  rounded ;  the  wings 
are  long. — The  Common  or  Northeux  F.  (/'.  or  F. 
(jladal'm)  is  a  bird  about  the  size  of  a  duck,  gray 
■above,  white  beneath,  the  head  and  neck  i)ure 
white,  the  tail  white,  tlii'  bill  yellow  ;  the  young 
browiish  gray.      It    inhabits   the   most   northern 


seas,  in  which  its  numbers  are  prodigious ;  l>reeds 
on  the  rocky  shores  of  the  Fariie  Islands,  Iceland, 
(ireenland,  .Sjiitzbergen,  &c.,  on  the  grassy  shelves 
of  the  ]necipiees,  making  a  slight  nest  or  a  mere 
excavation,  in  which  it  lays  one  egg.  It  is  rarely 
to  be  seen  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Britain,  l)Ut 
more  frequently  in  Orkney  and  Shetlanil,  where, 
however,  it  is  said  never  to  lireed,  althounh  it  breeds 
in  great  numbcre  in  St  Kilda  and  the  .adjacent 
islets  of  Borrera  .and  Soa.  It  frequents  these  isles 
in  v.ast  numbers,  and  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
inh.abitants  of  St  Kilda,  who  esteem  its  eggs  .above 
those  of  .any  other  bird,  and  seek  them  in  the 
most  perilous  manner,  dcscenduig  by  ropes  from 
the  summit  of  the  jirecipices.  The  fulmars  .are  .also 
valued  for  their  feathers,  for  their  down,  and  for 
their  oil,  which  is  one  of  the  princip.al  products 
of  St  Kilda,  and  is  obtained  from  their  stomachs. 
The  old  are  said  to  feed  the  yoimg  with  it ;  and 
when  they  are  caught  or  assailed,  generally  lighten 
themselves  by  disgorgius  it.  It  is  amber-coloured, 
and  h.as  a  peculiar  and  very  tUsagree.able  odour. 
Fulmars  feed  on  all  animal  substances  which  come 
in  their  w.ay,  giving  .an  ewdent  preference  to  f.at,  and 
delighting  in  the  ^ilubber  of  whales.  They  pursue 
whales  to  prey  on  the  cin-hopods  which  are  attached 
to  them,  or  imbedded  iu  then-  skin.  Multitudes  of 
them  soon  g.ather  around  a  dead  whale,  and  they 
are  so  bold  as  to  .adv.ance  within  a  few  yards  of  the 
men  who  are  cutting  it  up.  When  food  is  abund- 
ant, they  often  glut  themselves  till  they  are  luiable 
to  riy.  They  follow  the  gi-easy  track  of  a  wh.iler, 
.and,  indeed,  some  of  them  are  always  in  attendance 
on  shijis  immediately  after  they  pass  north  of  the 
Shetland  Islands,  ready  to  seize  any  garbage  that 
may  be  thrown  overboard.  S.ailor-boys  often  amuse 
themselves  in  catching  them  by  means  of  lines  and 
hooks  baited  with  fat. 

Another  species  of  F.  [P.  or  F.  Pac'ifica)  exists  in 
the  P.acillc  Ocean,  and  the  Mother  Carey's  Goosk 
of  sailors,  a  large  bird  of  the  southern  seas,  is 
sometimes  referred  to  the  s.ame  genus. 

FU'LMINATE  OP  MERCURY,  or  FULMI- 
NATING MERCURY  (2HgO,C^N„0„),  is  best 
jirep.ared  by  dissolving  3  parts  of  mercury  in  ."0 
of  nitric  .acid  of  specific  gravity  I'.'!4,  without  the 
ajiplication  of  heat,  in  a  tl.ask  capable  of  .holding 
IS  times  the  bulk  of  the  .acid.  The  solution  is 
then  to  be  poured  into  a  large  vessel  containing 
17  parts  of  .alcohol  of  specific  gi-.avity  O'S.'iO,  and 
imnietliately  to  be  re-transferred  to  the  llai^k, 
which  is  still  full  of  nitrous  v.apours,  and  with 
which  it  must  be  well  shaken,  in  order  to  cflfect 
their  absorjition.  Eflervescence  commences  in  a  few 
minutes,  and  soon  becomes  extremely  \'iolent ;  and 
at  the  same  time  there  is  a  dejiosit  of  met.allic 
mercury,  which  is  gradu.ally  re-dissolved.  The 
reaction  must  be  moder.ated  by  the  gradual  addition 
of  17  p.arts  more  of  alcohol ;  and  on  cooling,  crystals 
of  the  fulminate,  .amounting  to  4-()  ])arts,  arc  dejio- 
sited.  These  must  be  washed  Tvitli  cold  w.ater,  and 
dried  at  100°  F.  Fidmin.ate  of  mercury  fonns  white 
silky  needles.  It  may  be  h.amlled  without  much 
danger  when  moist ;  but  wlicn  dry,  it  exjilodes 
with  violence  when  struck  by  a  hard  body,  or  when 
touched  with  nitric  or  strong  sulphuric  acid.  A 
mixture  of  1  p.art  of  this  salt  mth  C  ]iarts  of  nitre, 
or  of  ."J  parts  of  the  fiUminate,  .5  of  cldor.ate  of  potash, 
1  of  sulphur,  and  1  of  groimd  glass,  is  cmjiloyed  as 
the  priming  of  pereussion-caps.  It  is  a]>plied  as  a 
dry  jiowder,  and  is  made  to  adhere  to  the  cap  by 
the  application  of  a  drop  of  shell-lac  varnish. 

FULMINATE  OF  SILVER,  or  FULMINAT- 
ING SILVER  (2Ag0,C.,N„O,,),  is  ])repared  in 
neai-ly  the  same  manner  as  the  fulminate  of  mercury. 


FULMINIC  ACIU— i-'UiMAUIACE-E. 


It  is  more  jiowerfuUy  explosive  than  the  last-named 
salt.  Even  ■i\hen  moist  or  under  water,  ]>ressure 
with  a  liard  Ixjdy  will  cause  its  exjilosioEi  ;  and 
when  quite  dry,  the  slightest  friction  between  two 
hard  bodies  produces  a  similar  result. 

The  preparation  of  the  fidminates  is  attended 
with  very  considerable  danger,  and  should  be 
attempted  by  none  but  professed  chemists. 

FULMI'NIC  ACID  has  never  been  isolated  in 
the  hydrated  form,  but  from  the  composition  of  its 
s.alts,  "its  formula  doubtless  is  2HO,C,X.(),.  It  is 
thus  isomeric  with  cyanic  acid.  Fidminic  acid 
may  be  separated  from  the  oxide  of  mercury  and 
sUver,  and  combined  with  other  bases,  such  as 
potash ;  and  all  such  compounds  are  more  or  less 
explosive. 

FUI/TON,  EoBERT,  a  celebrated  Amei-ican  engi- 
neer and  inventor,  born  near  Lancaster,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, in   1705.     When  a  mere  chihl,  he  mani- 
fested that  taste  for  mechanics  which  he  cultivated 
with  so   much   success   in   after-life.     While  other 
lioys  of  his  age  were  engaged  in  Jilay,  he  found  his 
amusement  in  Wsitiug  the  workshops  of  Lancaster. 
When   he   was  .-ibout   seventeen  years   of   .age,  he 
set  up  as  a  painter  of  portraits  and  landseai)es  in 
Philadelphia ;    he   was   so   successful,  that   he   not 
only  supported  himself   and  his  widowed  mother, 
but  w.as  able,  in  a  few  years,  to  lay  by  a  sum  sufli- 
cient  to  purchase  a  small  farm.     In  17S0,  he  visited 
London,  where  he  pursued  the  study  of  his  art  under 
the   tuition   of    his   celebrated   countryman.  West. 
He  afterwards  resided  for  some  time  in  Devonshire, 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  Duke  of  Bridge- 
water  and  Loril  Stanhope,  through  whose  influence, 
as  it  would  appear,  his  attention  was  turned  fr(im 
his  fonner  pursuit  to  mechanics  and  ci\nl  engineering. 
In  1793.  he  was  associated  in  a  project  to  improve 
inland   navigation  :    he  was   already  famihar  with 
the   idea  of'using  steam  as  a  propelling  power  for 
boats.     About  this  time,  he  invented  a  machine  for 
sjiinning  flax,   and    another   for   making    ropes,  for 
which  he  obtained  patents  in  England.     In  1790, 
he    published    a    treatise    on    the    improvement    of 
uaual  n,a\'igation.     From  1797  to  1804,  he  resided 
in    Paris    with    Wr    Joel    Barlow,    the    American 
represeut.ative  at  the  French  court.      During  this 
period,  he  invented  a  submarine  or  plunging  boat, 
called   a    Torpflo,    designed   to    be   used   m    naval 
warfare.     He  invited  the  attention  of  the  Freucli 
government  to  his  invention,  and  Bonaji.arte,  then 
T'irst    Consul,   appointed    Volney,    La    Place,   and 
Monge   as  a  commission   to   examine   it.      Sever.al 
experiments  were  made  in  1801  in  the  h.arbour  of 
Brest.     He  coiUd  easily  descend  to  any  depth,  or 
rise  to  the  surface  ;  and  where  there  was  no  strong 
current,  the  boat  was  quite  obedient  to  her  helm 
wliile  under  water.     On  one  occasion,  he  remained 
m  the  torpedo  several  feet  below  the  surface  for 
more  than  four  hours ;  but  the  motion  of  the  bo.at 
while  submerged  was  very  slow,  and  it  was  clearly 
unequal  to  the  stemming  of  a  strong  eun-ent.     The 
French  government  declined  to  patronise  the  pro- 
ject, and  F.  accepted  an  inWtation  from  the  English 
ministrj-,  who  .also  appointed  a  commission  to  test 
the  merits  of  his  torpedo.     He  appears,  however, 
to  have  received  but  little  encouragement,  and  in 
1800  he  returned  to  the   United  States.      Having 
been  supplied  with  the  necess.ary  funds  by  liobert 
Livingston,  who   had   been   American   ambassador 
at  Paris,  F.  had  the  satisfaction  of  proving,  in  1807, 
that  steam  could  be  applied  to  the  propulsion  of 
vessels  with  entire  success.  His  achievement  excited 
universal  admiration,  and  from  that   time   steam- 
boats were  rapidly  multiplied  on  the  watei-s  of  the 
United  States.     His  first  boat,  the  C'krmont,  made 


regidar  trips  between  New  York  and  Albany  at 
the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour ;  but  this  rate  was 
soon  increased  by  improved  machinery.  F.  liad 
married,  in  18UC,  Harriet,  the  daughter  of  Walter 
Livingston.  In  the  midst  of  his  triumphs  and  in 
the  height  of  his  fame,  he  died,  on  the  24th  of 
February  181.5.     He  left  four  chihlreu. 

Others  had  previously  conceived  the  idea  of  using 
the  power  of  steam  in  na\igation,  and  as  early  as 
1789,  a  steam-boat  60  feet  long,  which  sailed  at 
the  rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour,  had  been  tried  on 
the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  and  was  abandoned 
through  fear  that  the  undidation  produced  by  it 
would  injure  the  banks  of  the  Canal.  See  Steaji 
N.vvuiATiux.  This  experiment  was  known  to  F.  ; 
but  to  him  is  unquestionably  due  the  credit  of 
being  the  first  to  carry  the  idea  into  practice  with 
complete  success. 

FUM,  or,  more  properly,  FUNG— the  first  being 
the  Portuguese  pronunciation  of  the  word  ;  the 
Chinese  Phoenix — one  of  the  four  symbolical  ani- 
mals supposed  to  preside  over  the  destinies  of  the 
Chinese  em]iire.  Its  appearance  indicates  an  age  of 
universal  virtue,  the  intiuence  of  which  has  extended 
throughout  creation.  It  is  supposed  to  originate 
from  the  element  of  fire,  and  to  be  born  in  the 
Tan-heu6,  or  Hill  of  the  Fiery  Halo  of  the  Sun ;  to 
have  the  forepart  of  a  goose,  hind-quarters  of  a 
stag,  neck  of  a  snake,  fish's  tail,  fowl's  forehead, 
down  of  a  duck,  dragon's  marks,  the  back  of  a  tor- 
toise, face  of  a  swallow,  and  be.ak  of  a  cock,  witli 
beak,  claws,  and  feathers  of  various  colours,  red 
crest,  and  golden  beak.  It  is  about  six  cubits  high, 
an<l  comes"  from  the  East.  In  mystical  language, 
it  is  called  the  Leih-kw-an,  or  'mandarin  of  time,' 
and  it  is  said  to  have  a  forehead  like  heaven,  eyes 
like  the  sun,  back  Uke  the  moon,  wings  like  the 
wind,  feet  like  earth,  and  a  tail  like  the  plauets. 
On  its  body  are  inscribed  the  five  cardinal  virtues. 
According  to  some  authors,  it  only  perches  on  tlie 
woo-tung  tree,  and  eats  the-  seeds  of  the  bamboo ; 
others  describe  it  .as  swallowing  small  carp.  Other 
accounts  say  it  eats  no  firing  insect,  and  treads  on 
no  growing  plant.  Its  voice  is  said  to  be  Uke  a 
flute,  drum,  or  even  thunder.  When  seen,  it  is 
followed  by  birds.  According  to  Chinese  history,  it 
h;i3  occasionally  appeared  ;  and  a  celebrated  female 
flute-player,  named  Lnng->ni,  is  said  to  have  enticed 
it  from  heaven  with  her  music,  and  then  fled  away 
with  it.  Like  the  phaniix  of  the  Egyptians  and 
roc  of  the  Arabs,  the  bird  may  have  had  a  historical 
origin,  subseqviently  disfigured  I  ly  fiction.  It  is  often 
represented  on  Chinese  works  of  art,  under  the 
form  of  a  gallinaceous  bird,  and  is  embroidered  on 
the  dresses  of  mandarins  of  a  certain  rank.  It  is 
mentioned  by  some  modern  English  poets. — Kidd, 
Jllslory  of  China,  ]i.  "207 ;  Ching-tsze-timg,  172 
sect  ;  Yuen-keeu-luy-han,  148  sect. 

FU'MAGE,  in  the  Law  of  England,  was  properly 
smoke-farthings,  or  a  customary  payment  for  every 
house  that  bad  a  chimney  or  fire-hearth.  This  tax 
is  mentioned  in  Domesd.ay  as  paid  by  custom  to  the 
king  for  eveiy  chimney  in  the  house.  Edward  the 
Black  I'riuce  is  said  to  have  imposed  a  tax  of  a 
florin  for  every  hearth  in  his  French  dominions. 
The  first  statutory  enactment  on  the  subject  in 
England  is  by  13  and  14  Car.  II.  c.  10,  whereby  a 
tax  of  2s.  on  every  hearth  in  aU  houses  ]>aying  to 
church  .and  poor  was  granted  to  the  king  for 
ever.  This  tax  was  abolished  I  William  and  Slary, 
St.  1.  c.  10. 

FUMAUIA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants ;  herbaceous,  with  a  watery  juice ;  their 
leaves  alternate,  much  dirided  ;  the  caljTC  of  two 
deciduous  sepals  ;  the  corolla  of  four  very  irregular 

503 


FUMAEIC  ACID— FUNCTIONS. 


jictala  ■  the  sUmcus  Bomctimcs  four  and  distinct, 
more  generallv  six  and  in  two  bundles  ;  the  ovary 
free  one-celled,  one-seeded,  or  many-seeded ;  the 
seed's  ha\-ing  large  albumen.  The  F.  are  regarded 
as  in  their  botaniciU  charactei-s  approachmg  most 
nearly  to  the  Papaveracea  (Poppy,  &c.) ;  but 
tlieir  general  aspect  is  very  difterent,  and  they  do 
not  possess  the  same  powerfvJ  properties.  Both 
the  foliage  and  flowers  of  some  have  consider- 
able beauty.  IhtUjtm  speclabiUs  is  a  -well-know-n 
favouiite  in  gardens  and  green-houses.  More  than 
one  hundred  species  arc  known,  mostly  natives  of 
temperate  climates  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
Several  species  of  Fumaria  and  CorijdaUs  are 
natives  of  Britain.  The  Common  FuinTORY 
(Frimaria  officinalis)  is  a  very  frequent  weed  m 


Common  Fumitory  {Fumaria  officinalis], 

gardens  and  cornfields,  but  of  rather  delicate 
and  beautifid  appearance.  It  is  annual,  aud  easy 
of  extirpation,  where  it  springs  up  in  excessive 
.abiuidance.  It  was  formerly  much  employed  in 
medicine,  having  a  high  reputation  as  a  tonic  aud 
diaphoretic,  and  although  disused  in  Britain,  is 
still  esteemed  in  France  as  a  remedy  in  scorbutic 
atfeetions,  chronic  eruptions,  &c.  Some  of  the  other 
species  of  fumitory  possess  simil.ar  jiroperties.  The 
leaves  have  an  intensely  bitter  saliue  taste. 

FUMA'RIC  ACID,  known  also  as  Boletic  Acid 
(2HO,C,H50e),  is  of  frequent  occuiTence  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  It  was  first  obtained  by 
Braconnot  from  a  species  of  boletus,  and  has  since 
been  foimd  in  many  other  fungi,  in  numerous 
lichens,  in  various  species  of  Fumaria,  in  Corydalis 
bulbosa,  &c. 

Fumaric  acid  may  also  be  obtained,  in  association 
with  malseic  acid,  by  heating  Malic  Acid  (q.  v.)  to 
350°  F. 

It  crystallises  in  prisms,  which  have  a  very  acid 
taste,  are  only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  dis- 
solve readily  in  alcohol  and  ether.  At  a  tempera- 
ture of  392°  F.,  it  vol.itilises  without  fusing,  and  is 
converted  into  the  mahuic  acid  alre.idy  mentioned, 
which  possesses  the  same  composition  as  fiunaric 
acid,  but  different  properties.  If  malceic  acid  is 
exposed  for  a  long  time  to  a  temperature  of  2G6°,  it 
again  passes  into  fumaric  acid,  so  that  these  acids 
are  mutually  convertible. 

Kekide  has  recently  shewn  [Annalen  d.  Chemie, 
18G1)  that  both  fumaric  acid  aud  malaiic  acid  com- 
bine directly  with  bromine,  and  produce  crystals  of 


dibromo-succinic  acid  ;  and  further,  that  if  fumaric 
acid  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  digested  with  an 
amalgam  of  soiUum,  the  nascent  hydrogen  from  the 
decomjiosed  water  combines  with  the  acid,  and 
converts  it  into  succinic  acid.  Its  comjmunds  aro 
of  no  special  interest, 

FU'MIGATING  PASTILS  are  composed  of 
various  ingredients,  which,  l>y  their  smouldering 
combustion,  evolve  agreeable  odours.  The  follo\ving 
recipe  for  their  composition  is  given  in  the  WUrtem- 
berg  Fharmacopceia :  Take  of  benzoin  and  dry 
kalsam  of  Peru,  each  16  parts ;  of  yellow  sandal- 
wood, 4  parts  ;  of  labdauuiu,  1  part ;  of  charcoal 
from  lime-tree  wood,  9G  parts  ;  of  nitrate  of  jiotash, 
2  parts ;  aud  of  mucilage  of  tragacanth,  enough  to 
form  the  mixture  into  a  jtaste,  from  which  conical 
pastils  arc  to  be  made  by  a  small  mould. 

The  '  Kibbon  of  Bruges '  is  also  employed  for 
aromatic  fumigation  in  the  same  manner  as  pastils. 
It  is  prepared  as  follows  :  Dissolve  two  ounces  of 
nitrate  of  potash  in  a  pint  of  water ;  in  this  lluid, 
steep  good  undressed  cotton-tape,  and  hang  it  up  to 
iby.  Prepare  a  tinctiu'e  composed  of  spirit,  half  a 
pint ;  musk,  h.alf  an  ounce ;  otto  of  roses,  one  drachni ; 
benzoin,  four  ounces  ;  myrrh,  half  an  ounce  ;  orris- 
root,  half  a  pound.  When  this  tincture  has  stood 
for  a  month,  steep  the  prepared  tape  in  it.  The 
tape  when  di-ied  is  fit  for  use.  Light  it,  blow  out 
the  flame ;  and  as  it  smoulders,  a  fragrant  vapour 
will  rise  into  the  air.  For  further  informatiou 
on  this  and  allied  subjects,  see  Piesse's  Art  of 
Perfumery. 

FUMIGATION  (Lat.  fuinitiatio,  from  /«»!«#, 
smoke),  the  cleansing  or  medicating  of  the  air  of  an 
apartment  by  means  of  vapours,  employed  chiefly 
for  the  purjiose  of  detaching  infectious  poisons 
from  clothing,  furniture,  &c.  See  CosTACioif, 
Infection.  Jlost  of  the  methods  of  fimiig.ation 
formerly  employed  have  little  real  value,  and  are 
to  be  looked  on  chiefly  as  grateful  to  the  senses  ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  burning  of  frankincense,  cam- 
j)lior,  &c.  The  really  active  processes  are  noticed 
under  the  article  Dislnfect^v^'i-s. 

FUNCHA'L,  the  capital  and  the  only  town  of 
the  island  of  Madeira  (q.  v.),  is  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  island,  and  consists  chiefly  of  one  street, 
extending  for  about  a  mile  along  the  shore,  and  of 
numerous  streets  and  lanes  at  right  angles  with  the 
main  street,  and  leading  up  the  hill  which  backs 
the  to\\Ti.  Its  roadstead  is  open,  and  its  anchorage 
rocky  and  uneven.  F.  has  a  cathedr.il,  munerous 
churches,  and  small  convents,  and  is  defended  by 
four  forts.  From  it  all  the  produce  of  the  island  is 
exported. 

FUNCTIONS,  a  mathematical  term.  'When 
two  or  more  variables  are  combined  ^vith  const,ant3 
in  an  equation,  and  are  such  that  a  change  of  value 
of  one  implies  a  coiTcsponding  change  of  value  of 
one  or  more  of  the  others,  then  such  variables  are 
said  to  depend  on,  and  to  be  fimctions  of  each 
other ;  and  the  expression  of  the  mode  of  depend- 
ence is  said  to  be  a  function  of  such  variables. 
If  such  au  exi^ression  involves  but  one  variable,  it 
is  said  to  be  a  fimction  of  one  variable ;  if  two 
are  involved,  to  be  a  function  of  two  variables; 
and  so  on.  Thus  sin  x,  e"^,  log.  x,\/  a'  —  r  arc 
functions  of  one  vai-iable — viz.  of  x  ;  e"^  "*"  '*,  Tan 
{ax  +  by),  x^,  are  fimctions  of  two  variables,  x  and  y ; 
so  xyz,  X-  -I-  J/'  -I-  z"  are  functions  of  three  variables, 
and  so  on.  Functions  are  denoted  by  the  symbols 
P!./l  ft  '4',  &c.  Thus  F{x)  means  a  fimction  of  one 
variable,  x,  combined  with  constants  or  not,  as  the 
case  maybe;  4{^'y^)  a  function  of  three  variables. 
These   functional    symbols   are  gaie)-al,   and  their 


FUNCTIONS-FOND. 


specific  forms   are  the   particular   functions  wliicli 
arise  from  operations  in  algebra,  trigonomctrj',  &c. 

Functions  are  implicit  or  exjilicit.  When  one 
variable  is  expressed  in  terms  of  others,  it  is  said  to 
be  an  explicit  function  of  them ;  but  when  all  the 
variables  remain  involved  in  one  expression,  the 
function  is  said  to  be  implicit.  Thus,  or  +  tf  —  r- 
=  0  is  an  implicit  fimction  of  two  variables,  but 
y  =  \lir  —  X-  is  an  explicit  function  of  one  variable. 
In  explicit  fimctions,  the  variable  which  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  others  is  called  the  dependent 
variable,  and  the  others  the  independent  variables. 
ExpUcit  functions  are  usually  written  in  the  form 
s  =  fi^j)  ;  implicit  in  the  form  u  =  F(xi/;)  =  o. 
Functions,  again,  are  algebraical  or  transcendental. 
Algebraical  functions  are  those  which  involve  the 
operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  &c.,  and  of 
involution  and  evolution.  Transcendental  functions 
are  those  where  the  operations  symbolised  are  such 
as  e^,  log  .  X,  sin  x,  &c. — i.  e.,  exponential,  logar- 
ithmic, or  circular.  Functions,  .also,  are  simple  or 
compoimd  according  as  they  involve  one  or  several 
operations,  y  =  sin  x  is  a  simple  function ;  but 
y  =  log.  sin  x  is  compound.  Further,  functions  are 
divided  into  the  continuous  and  the  discontinu- 
ous, the  circulating  and  the  periodic.  Continuous 
functions  are  such  as  are  subject  to  the  follo\\Tng 
conditions  :  1.  As  the  vari.able  gradually  changes, 
the  function  must  gradu.ally  change ;  2.  The  law 
symbolised  by  the  functional  character  must  not 
abruptly  change.  Circulating  functions  are  those 
whose  values  lie  within  certain  limits  for  all  values 
of  the  variables.  y  =  sin  x  is  an  example  at  once 
of  a  continuous  and  of  a  cii-culating  function.  A 
function  is  said  to  be  periodic  when  it  takes  the 
form/"(x)  =  X,  signifying  that  if  on  x  the  operation 
/be  performed  n  times,  the  resulting  value  will  be 

X.    Th.\xs,J[x)  = is  a  periodic  function  of  the 

third  order.    For  performing  the  operation  indicated 

by /the  second  time  on  r-— -  as  the  variable,  we  have 


/=(x) 


1 
1  -  1_ 
1  - 


1  -X 


and  the  third  time 


we  have/3(i)  = 


1-(1 


0- 


The  functional 

calculus  is  a  recent  growth  of  the  transcendental 
analysis.  The  object  of  the  Differential  Calculus 
(q.  V.)  is  generally  to  ascertain  the  changes  in  fimc- 
tions arising  from  the  continuous  and  mlinitesimal 
variation  of  their  subject  variables.  The  object  of 
the  new  functional  calculus  is,  speaking  generally, 
to  investigate  the  forms  of  functions  and  their 
growth,  when  they  are  subject  to  a  continuous 
and  intinitesim.al  ch.ange  as  to  form.  According 
to  Mr  Price  (treatise  on  the  Infinitesimal  Calculiis), 
.as  the  differenti.al  calcidus  investigates  properties 
of  continuous  niunbers,  so  does  the  new  calculus 
the  properties  of  continuous  functions  ;  and  as  there 
is  an  integral  calciilus  of  numbers,  so  tbere  is  an 
inverse  calcidus  of  functions.  Of  the  new  calculus, 
the  Calculus  of  Vari.ations  (q.  v.)  may  be  considered 
the  main  branch.  It  includes,  of  course,  the  subject 
of  functional  equations.  Fimctional  equations  are 
those  in  which  it  is  required  to  determine  from 
equations  the  forms  of  functions  entering  thern  : 
e.  g.,  wh.at  is  the  function  of  x  and  y  which  satisfies 
the  equation  J\x)  x  f{y)  =Ax  +  y)  ?  See  article 
Calculos  of  Functions  in  the  Encyclopcsdia  Metro- 
polUana. 

FUND,     FUNDING     SYSTEM.       Fund 


(Lat.  fundus,  giound,  foundation)  means  a  supply  of 
money  or  a  source  whence  money  may  be  obtained. 
When  we  speak  of  'the  fimds'  in  this  countrj-, 
we  mean  that  great  organisation  for  buj-ing  and 
selling  the  right  to  become  a  public  creditor,  and 
receive  a  share  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt. 
See  Debt,  Natiox.\l.  \\Tien  money  has  in  this 
country  been  borrowed  for  public  purposes,  and  it 
has  been  found  that  it  cannot  be  repaid  as  a  tem- 
iKirary  loan,  the  resolution  to  hold  it  as  a  perpetual 
loan  at  a  certain  interest  has  been  called  '  funding ' 
it ;  and  hence  we  read  from  time  to  time  that 
certain  obhgations  were  converted  from  floating  into 
funded  debts. 

FUND,  Sinking,  a  plan  pursued  for  a  consider- 
able period  for  the  purjjose  of  collecting  money 
for  the  p.ayment  of  the  national  debt  of  Great 
Britain.  It  was  begun  in  1716  by  Sir  Robert 
Walpole.  Certain  taxes  which  had  previously  been 
laid  on  for  limited  periods  were  then  rendered  per- 
))etual,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  interest  of  the 
funded  debt.  They  produced  more  than  enough 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  suqjliis  was  laid  aside,  th.at 
it  might  accumulate  into  a  fund  for  extinguishing 
the  debt.  It  appeared  to  operate  well,  since,  in 
1728,  after  it  had  existed  for  twelve  years,  debt  was 
wiped  off  to  the  extent  of  £6,648,000.  It  was  rot 
observed  that,  during  the  wiping  off,  new  debt  had 
been  created  to  about  the  same  extent,  so  that  the 
nation  w.as  just  in  the  position  in  which  it  would 
have  been  had  it  neither  borrowed  nor  rejiaid.  It 
is  supposed  that  Sir  Robert  may  have  seeu  the 
faUacy  of  the  sinking  fund,  since  in  17.32  he  took 
half  a  million  from  it  to  meet  the  cxpentbtiire  of  the 
year,  instead  of  raising  a  new  loan.  It  w.as  in  17S6, 
however,  that  the  system  was  estabUshed  on  a 
great  scale  by  the  younger  Pitt,  who,  notwithstand- 
ing his  great  practical  abilities,  was  entirely  misled 
by  the  theories  of  Dr  Price  in  his  work  on  Annuities. 
The  system  continued  to  be  couducted  on  an 
enormous  scale,  imtd  another  stiident  of  economy 
and  figures  conclusively  proved  it  to  be  useless ; 
this  was  accomplished  in  1813  by  Dr  H.amilton,  in 
his  Inquiry  concerning  the  Jtise  and  Fro(/rex/i,  t/ie 
Ifedemjition  and  Present  State,  and  the  Management 
of  the  JVational  Debt  of  Great  Britain.  The  fallacy 
which  Dr  Hamilton  shewed  to  pervade  a  sinking 
fund  may  be  best  explained  by  a  simple  examjile. 
Suppose  that  one  requires  to  borrow  £100,  and  lays 
by  £5  a  year  as  a  fimd  to  pay  it  up  viith.  Accu- 
mulating at  compound  interest,  this  fund  will  pay 
back  the  lo.an  in  about  fifteen  yeare.  The  borrower 
will,  however,  gain  no  more  by  the  process  than  if 
he  paid  the  £5  a  year  to  his  creditor,  for  his  debt 
would  be  diminishing  to  precisely  the  same  extent 
as  the  fund  to  pay  it  off  would  be  increasing. 
Suppose  that  while  requiring  only  £100,  the  bor- 
rower raises  £200,  and  lends  out  one  of  them, 
accumulating  the  interest  until  the  whole  amounts 
to  £200 ;  the  borrower  will  no  doubt  be  reeeiWng 
interest  on  £100,  but  he  wiU  be  at  the  same  time 
paying  interest  on  £200 ;  and  he  would  repay  his 
debt  at  the  same  cost  and  with  more  simplicity 
if,  instead  of  borrowing  the  second  hundred  at  5 
per  cent.,  he  paid  over  £5  a  year  to  his  creditor. 
In  these  instances,  nothing  is  lost  by  the  sink- 
ing fund.  But  suppose  that  in  the  last  case  the 
creditor  had  agreed  to  lend  the  £100  at  5  per  cent, 
but  in  consideration  of  the  greater  risk,  woidd 
not  lend  the  £200  at  less  than  6  per  cent.,  while  the 
borrower  can  only  get  5  per  cent,  for  the  half  which 
he  relends — here  the  trans.action  would  cause  a  dead 
loss  of  £2  a  year  over  the  plan  of  repaying  by 
inst-alments.  This  was  exactly  the  case  with  the 
British  sinking  fund.  The  more  money  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  wanted,  the  higher  were  the 


FUXDAMENTAL  BASS— FLNFKlllCUKX. 


terms  demanded  by  the  lenders,  and  the  addition  to 
eaeh  loan  for  setting  aside  a  sinking  fund  increased 
the  rate  nf  interest  paid  ou  it. 

FrXDAMF/XTAL  BASS,  in  Music,  is  the  root 
or  fundamental  note  of  the  harmony.    See  H.\kmony. 

FUXDI,  or  Fl'NDUXGI  (/'os/>o/«m  ej-ile),  a 
kind  of  grain  much  cultivated  in  the  west  of  Africa. 
It  is  allie<l  to  the  millets,  and  still  more  nearly  to 
some  of  the  kinds  of  grain  cultivated  in  India.  See 
P.\SP.u.rM.  It  is  wholesome  and  nutritious,  and 
li.as  been  recommended  to  attention  in  Britain  as  a 
light  and  ilelicate  food  for  invalids.  The  natives  of 
Western  Africa  tlirow  it  into  boiling  water,  pour  off 
the  water,  and  add  palm-oil,  butter,  or  milk.  By 
Europeans  and  negroes  in  Sierra  Leone,  it  is  much 
used  with  stewed  me.it,  and  sometimes  made  into 
pon-idge  with  milk. 

FUNDY,  Bay  of,  an  ann  of  the  Atl.antic,  separ- 
ates Xova  Scotia  from  New  Bnmswick  and  the 
st,at«  of  JIaine.  With  au  average  breadth  of  35 
miles,  it  extends  180  miles  in  length  from  north- 
east to  south-west.  It  forks,  at  its  he.ad,  into 
two  inlets,  the  northern,  called  C'hignecto  Bay,  and 
the  southern,  Miuas  Channel,  which  are  dirided 
by  narrow  necks  of  land  from  the  GuK  of  St 
La^\-rence.  Along  its  north-west  side,  reckoning 
downwards,  it  receives  the  St  John,  which  is  the 
principal  river  of  New  Bnmswick,  and  the  St 
Croix,  which,  through  its  entire  course,  forms  the 
international  boundarj'.  The  navigation  is  rendered 
perilous  by  the  pecidiarity  of  the  tides,  which  are 
said  to  rise  and  fall  fully  70  feet. 

FUNERAL  EXPENSES,  in  Law.  If  limited 
to  the  degree  and  quaUty  of  the  deceased,  funeral 
e.xjjenses  are  a  priWleged  debt,  allowed  before  all 
other  debts  and  charges,  both  in  England  (3  Jii.^l. 
202)  and  in  Scotland  (Stau-,  iv.  35,  3).  If  the  parties 
primarily  liable  neglect  the  duty  of  giring  decent 
bui-ial  to  the  dead,  a  stranger  m.ay  do  so,  and  claim 
reimbursement  out  of  his  effects  before  all  others 
having  riglit,  whether  heii-s  or  executors.  The  amount 
of  expencUture  which  a  court  of  law  wdl  consider 
reasonable  varies  so  entirely  with  the  circumstances, 
that  it  is  needless  to  attempt  to  define  it  otherwise 
than  by  sajing  that  it  must  be  in  accordance  with 
commun  custom  and  common  sense.  In  Scotland, 
it  is  held  (Buchanan  v.  Ferrier,  14th  Februarj-  1S22) 
that  moiu-niug  for  the  widow  and  such  of  the  children 
of  the  deceased  as  were  present  at  the  funeral  is  a 
valid  charge ;  but  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  England, 
it  having  been  decided  (Johnson  t:  Baker,  2  C.  and 
P.  2U7)  that  the  widow  lias  no  claim  for  mournings 
either  against  the  executor  or  the  creditors  of  her 
husbancL  AU  along  there  seems  to  have  been  rather 
greater  liberality  in  this  matter  in  Scotland  than  in 
England,  where  Lord  Holt  held  that  nothing  was 
allowable  against  a  creditor  except  for  the  coffin, 
ringing  the  bell,  pai-son  and  clerk  (1  Salk.  296). 

FUNERAL  KITES.  The  methods  of  disposing 
of  the  dead  have  been  so  various,  and  connected 
with  so  many  ceremoni.al  obsen".ince3  dictated  by 
affection,  rehgious  conviction,  or  superstition,  that 
a  full  consideration  of  the  subject  would  occupy  a 
volume.  Under  the  article  Bcriai,  will  be  found  a 
descrijjtion  of  the  principal  modes  of  interment,  and 
the  accompanying  funeral  rites  of  the  ancients. 

With  the  spread  of  Christianity  came  the  decorous 
interring  of  the  dead  with  religious  ceremonials 
indicative  of  hopes  of  a  blessed  resurrection.  From 
the  moment  of  death  until  interment,  the  body  is 
the  object  of  solemn  ceremonial  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  At  death,  a  crncitix  is  placed 
in  the  hand,  or  at  the  feet,  and  holy-water  is 
sprinkled.  The  chief  funeral  rites  are  solemnised 
in  the  church,  into  which  the  coffin  is  borne  and 
(50 


filaced  on  a  bier.  Tliroughout  France,  the  Nether- 
ands,  and  continental  Europe  generally,  the  ordinary 
cort^ge  of  .a  funeral  is  a  hearse  with  a  bier,  on 
which  is  the  coffin,  covered  witli  a  pall,  followed 
by  carriages  all  in  black,  with  black  horses.  Tlie 
same  arrangement  is  p\irsued  in  England,  but  the 
hearse,  sometimes  over-decorated  with  dark  plumes, 
is  closed  inste.ad  of  being  open.  In  the  more  com- 
mon class  of  funerals,  the  coffin,  shrouded  in  a 
pall,  is  borne  on  si>okes,  or  on  the  shouldci's  of 
bearei-s.  All  tlie  attendants  are  in  black.  A  cei-tain 
etiquette  as  to  p.all-bearers  (p.artic3  who  hold  ribbons 
attached  to  the  pall)  is  observed;  the  relatives  of 
the  deceased  taking  their  place  nearest  the  heail  in 
the  degree  of  consanguinity,  and  the  same  arrange- 
ment is  maintained  in  lowering  the  cotlin  by  conls 
into  the  grave.  Only  in  exception.al  cases  are  bodies 
put  in  letulen  cotfius  and  deposited  in  vaults ;  the 
common  sense  of  the  people  now  appreciating  the 
propriety  of  .allowing  corpses  to  dissolve  and  mingle 
with  the  earth  of  the  grave ;  and  for  this  prac- 
tice, the  numerous  new  cemeteries  ofTer  facilities. 
Scottish  Presbyterians,  as  is  the  case  with  some 
English  dissenters,  have  no  funeral-service,  imless 
we  reckon  as  such  a  pr.ayer,  and  occasionally  the 
reading  of  a  chapter  of  Scriptiu-e,  by  a  clergjTnan 
before  the  body  is  borne  from  the  house ;  but  in 
other  respects  the  Scottish  ceremoni.al  differs  little 
from  the  English.  Formerly,  in  the  case  of  im]iort- 
ant  personages,  the  hearse  was  preceded  by  a  class 
of  imdertaker's  men  to  clear  the  way,  designated 
aanlifjs,  and  gumpheon-men — these  last  bearing  ,a 
pole  shrouded  at  the  top  with  black  silk,  called 
a  gumpheon  {rioii/aloiie,  a  banner),  being  a  relic 
of  an  ancient  heraldic  ceremonial ;  but  this  custom 
has  nearlj-,  if  not  altogether,  ilisappeared.  At 
Scotch  funerals,  the  relatives,  and  in  some  coses 
the  friends  of  the  deceased,  wear  white  cambric 
u-eepcrs  at  the  \\Tists.  Till  within  the  present 
century,  there  was  a  practice  of  giving  a  series 
of  expensive  entertainments  to  guests  at  Scottish 
funerals,  beginning  with  the  hikwake,  and  ending 
with  the  dmhjij  (dirge)  ;  but  all  this  is  gone,  or 
nearly  so.  The  gi\'ing  of  costly  entertainments  w.as 
not,  however,  confined  to  Scotland,  or  to  Ireland. 
Taking  its  rise  in  ancient  customs  which  were 
perpetuated  by  the  Anglo-S.axons,  the  practice  of 
consuming  meat  and  drink  in  a  species  of  gloomy 
festivity  .at  funerals  was  common  in  England,  and 
earned  to  an  extravag.ant  length  at  the  decease  of 
persons  of  distinction,  nn  which  occasion  Doles  (q.  v.) 
were  also  given.  It  had  even  its  counterpart  in 
the  usages  of  the  ancients.  The  nekroihifinon,  or 
funeral-banquet,  is  mentioned  by  Lucian  and 
Cicero.  It  was  always  celebrated  in  the  house 
of  the  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased,  and 
Demosthenes,  the  patriot  orator  of  Greece,  tells  us 
in  his  Oration,  On  tlie  Crown,  that  the  relatives 
of  those  who  were  slain  at  Chaeroneia,  were  enter- 
tained by  him  in  his  own  mansion,  as  if  he  were 
the  nearest  kinsman  of  the  fallen  heroes.  The 
nekrodeipnon  is  often  represented  on  funeral  monu- 
ments. For  some  curious  information  respecting 
old  fimcral  entertainments,  we  refer  to  Brand's 
Popidar  Aiitiquitiex,  edited  by  Ellis.  Without 
losing  as  reg.ards  decorum,  funeral  arrangements 
h.ave  been  greatly  cheapened  in  most  large  towns 
in  England  and  .Scotland  by  means  of  funeral- 
conducting  establishments  belonging  to  societies  or 
private  spccidators.  w.  c. 

FtiNFKIRCHEN  (' Five  Churches ;'  Hungarian, 
Pers)^  an  important  to\\-n  of  Hungary,  capital  of 
the  county  of  Baranya,  is  situated  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Mecseg  Mountains,  near  the  Slavonian 
l>oundary,  105  miles  south-soutli-west  of  Pestli. 
It  is  the  scat  of  a  bishop,  ;md  is  one  of  the  oldest. 


FUNFKIRCHEN— FUNGI. 


aa  well  as  one  of  the  most  pleasantly  situated 
and  beautiful  towns  of  Hungary.  It  formerly 
possessed  a  university.  The  most  important  of  its 
liuildings  are  the  large  anil  imposing  eatheJral, 
the  bishop's  jialacc,  an  Italian  structure,  the 
town-house,  lyeeum,  gyinnasimn,  seminary,  and  the 
ehui-ehns,  wliich  are  numerous  and  Ijcautiful.  It  has 
im])ortant  tanneries,  woollen  ami  lianuel  weaving 
and  si]k-s]iinuing  ;  produees  wine,  fruit,  and  tol>aeci_\ 
has  eoal-mines  anil  ironworks,  .and  a  liourishin" 
trade  in  hogs  and  gall-nuts.     I'op.  lo,9Ul). 

FUNGI,  an   order  of   acotyledonous   or  cry])to- 
ganious  plants,  containing  a  very  gre.at  number  of 
species,  nearly  .idOO  Iieing  knowm,  whilst  it  is  jn-ob- 
able  that  the  whole  number  existing  is  very  nmch 
greater.    They  ,are  amongst  the  lowest  forms  of  vege- 
table life,  and  some  uaturaUsts  of  no  mean  rejiut.ation 
have  entertained  the  notion   that  they  spring  into 
existence  in  certain  circumstances,  not  from  germs 
jireviously  existing,  but  from  a  mucus  eapalile   of 
organis.ation,  or  through  i-haiiges  in  the  cells  of  more 
highly  organised  plants,  and  of  animals  in  states  of 
disease  or  of  decay ;  an  opinion  which,  however,  is 
more  generally  rejected  as  having  no  foundation  in 
accur.ate   observation,  as   not  necessary  to   expl.aiu 
the  readiness  with  which  certain  fungi  "almost  inva- 
riably  spring    up   in    certain    circumstances— from 
which  is  derived  tlio  chief  argument  in  its  f.avour, 
.13  opposed  to  all  analogy  of  ascertained  facts,  and 
as  rendered  improbable  by  the  aljundant  i)ro\nsion 
which  .all  the  fungi  possess  for  the  periictnation  and 
dill'usion  of  the  species.     Fungi  are  cellular  plants, 
the    cells    sometimes    elongated    so    as    to   become 
tilanients.     They  consist  of  a  thalhi.i,  which  spreads 
in   a   matrix,  and  is    nourished   by    it,    and    from 
which  stems  are  thrown   up  into  the   air,   bearing 
the    fructitication.      The    organs    connected    with 
fructification  are  ofSn  the  principal  part  of  fungi, 
and  the   thallus  very  sm.all,    consisting   of   a   few 
cottony  threads,  or  closely  compacted  cells,  or  even 
altogether  undiscernible.      Not  unfrequently,  how- 
ever,  the   proportion   of   the    thallus    is    compara- 
tively gTcat,  and  in  circumstances  unf,avour.able  to 
the  development  of  the  organs  of  fructification,  it 
extends  itself  gre.atly  in  the  matrix,  as  in  the  case  of 
Dry  Rot,  Krgot,  &c.  (ip  v.),  and  even  of  the  common 
mushroom.     The  thallus  of  fimgi  is  called  m;iceliiim 
(Or.,    iiiyi-cH,  a  mushroom),  and  in  muslu-ooms  and 
some   other   kinds    is   further   [>opidarly   knowni  as 
the  spawn.     Fungi  are  nearly  related  to  alga;  and 
to  lichens,  but  differ  from  both   iii  deriWng  their 
nourishment  from  the  eai'th  or  from  the  bodies  u])on 
which  they  grow,  not  from  the  medium  by  which 
they  are  surrounded.     They  differ  also  from  lichens 
in  tlieir  gener.ally  much   softer  substance  and  their 
fug.acious  character  ;  also  in  being  (piite  destitute  of 
green   granules   ([innidiii)  in  the  thallus,  which  are 
characteristic  of  that  order.     They  differ  from  algiia 
in  not  living  immersed  in  w.ater  or  other  liquid,  but 
jiroducing  their  fructification   m  air.      The  lowest 
forms  of  fungi,  and  the  lowest  forms  of  alg;e,  are 
sometimes,   however,  not  easily  distinguished  ;  and 
the  mycelium  of  some  fxmgi  is  cajialde  of  sjireatling 
in   a  liquid,  .and   assuming  a   modified   appearance 
extremely  resendjling  that  of   some  alg.X'.       It  is 
supposed  to  be  tlie   presence   of  the   mycelium  of 
certain  fungi  which  makes  liquors  'mothery;'  and 
to  a  similar  cause   is   ascribed  the  ropiness  of  the 
dough  in  some  bakehouses,  an  e\nl  not  easily  cured. 
■ — From  other  plants  in  general,  fungi  differ  in  their 
chemical  composition,   wbicli   is   remarkably  nitro- 
genous, and  .assimilates  them  to  animal  organisms ; 
whilst  <inlike  other  plants,  tliey  do  not  absorb  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  air,  and  give  out  oxygen,  but, 
like  anim.ols,  absorb  oxygen,  and  give  out  carbonic 
acid ;  so   that  some   natur.alists   have   proposed   to 


constitute  for  them  a  distinct    kingdom  of  nature 
intermediate  between  the  animal  and  the  vegetable. 
Fungi  are  very  various  in  size,  many  being  scarcely 
visible  without  a  microscope,  wliilst  others  are  some 
feet  in  diameter.     Even  the  same  species,  however, 
often  exhibits  great  variety,  not  only  in  size,  but  in 
other  particiUars,  according  to  the  different  circum- 
stances of  its  LTowth,  causing  great  diffieulty  to  the 
botanist,    whilst   further  dilhculty  arises  from    the 
nnxlifications   of  imperfectly   developed  mycelium, 
of  wliich  many  spurious  genera  h.ave  been  consti- 
tuted.    A  great  resemblance  in  general  appearance 
to  fungi  is  sometimes  exhibited  by  diseased  portions 
of  leaves,  &c.,  and  by  the  secretions  caused  by  the 
.attacks    of  insects. — When   the   spore    (seed)    of   a 
fungus  germinates,  it  sends  out  radiating  filaments, 
which  generally  branch  and  interlace,  and  portions 
of  this   mycelium   removed   to  another  favom-able 
situation,  gi-ow  there,  so  tli.at  fungi  are  propag,ated  l)y 
this  means  as  higher  jilants  are  projiagated  by  their 
tubers  or  by  the  division  of  their  roots.     The  fungi 
of  sim|)lest  stnicture  or  lowest  organisation  cimsist 
til  nothing  more,  when  they  have  reached  their  fullest 
development,  th.an  masses  of  spheroidal  cells,  spores, 
breaking  up  into  a  line  powder,  as  in  some  of  the 
small  parasitic  s])ecies  which  are  very  injurious  to 
corn.     .Sometimes  these  cells  are  united  into  jointed 
threads.     In  species  of  rather  higher  organisation, 
the  plant  consists  of  jointed  threails,  but  the  spores 
are  formed  in  the  eidarged  termin.al  joints,  and  are 
dispersed  by  their  bursting.     In  tlie  higher  kinds, 
the  spores  are  produced  in  or  on  peculiar  organs  of 
extremely  v.arious  shajie  and  character.     In  some,  .as 
puff-balls,  the  whole  interior  of  the  plant  is  filled 
with  tlie   fructification.     In  agai-ics,  boleti,  morels, 
&c.,  the  fructitication  takes  jilace  on  a  particular 
membrane,  a  part   of  the   external   surface  <jf   the 
phant,  called  the  liiimeiuum,  variously  situated  (in 
agarics   on  the   under   side  of  the   pikits  or  cap), 
the  extent  of   which   is  often  greatly  increased  by 
WTiiildes,  plates  or  gi//.-<,  pits,  pores,  &c.     These  form 
the  highest  division  of  fungi,  called  l{i/meiioiiii/nt,  s, 
in    the    system    of    Fries,    the   greatest   continental 
.authority  in  mycology,  as  this  department  of  botany 
is  sometimes  tenned.     Berkeley,  who,  without  any 
near  rival,  occupies  the  tii-st  place  among  the  myco- 
logists of  Britain,  divides  fungi  into  two  '  cLasses  ;' 
the  first  class    not   having   the    sjiores   enclosed  iu 
tubidar  sacs  (asri)   or  vesicles,  and  containuig  the 
'  orders'  J/i/iiieiwmycelc.'i  (agarics,  boleti,  &c.),  GasUro- 
mycetfs   (pull-balls,  &c.),   Cvniomycelea   (rust,  smut, 
&e.),  Iliiphomi/ci'ti-n  (mould,  mildew,  bolrytis,  oidium, 
&c.) ;  the  second  class  contaiuitfg  two  orders,  A«co- 
mycilex  (morels,  truflles,  &c.),  in  which  the  sjiores 
are  definitely   aiTanged  iu    iisri,    and    Physomycelf.'i 
(some   kinds  of  uioidd,  ]}lants  which  grow  on  fer- 
menting substances,  and  some  of  the  minute  pests  of 
cultivated  ])l,ants)  in  which  the  spores  are  in  vesicles 
without  definite  arrangement. 

Fungi  generally  grow  in  damp  situations,  l)ut  there 
are  many  which  occur  chiefly  on  dry  soils  or  on 
dry  substances ;  .and  some  ap]ie,ar  in  their  greatest 
perfection  in  the  finest  summer  weather,  although 
many  are  most  abundant  in  the  colder  and  moister 
seasons  of  the  year.  It  h.as  been  commonly  .asserted 
th.at  they  abound  more  in  the  colder  parts  of  the 
world  than  within  the  trojiics,  but  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  this  oiiinion  li,as  its  origin  merely  in  imper- 
fect observation  of  tropical  S])eeies.  The  extreme 
rapidity  of  then-  growth,  the  briefness  of  tlieii-  whole 
existence,  the  readiness  with  which  they  p;iss  into 
decomiiosition,  and  the  difficulty  of  ]ireservuig  most 
of  them  in  a  fonn  fit  for  examination,  have  been 
great  obstacles  to  their  scientific  study.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  some  species  .are  of  very  wide  geo- 
graphic distribution,  whilst  others  are  compar.atively 

557 


FUNGI. 


very  limited.  Some  species  grow  in  earth,  others  in 
various  kinds  of  putrescent  or  fcruieuting  animal  or 
vonctable  matter,  many  in  decaj-int;  i>arts  of  trees 
or%n  dead  wood,  others  on  cUse;>sed  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues,  &c.  It  ajuwai-s  to  bo  the  office  of 
many  of  them  to  hasten  the  decomposition  of  animal, 
and  inoi-e particularly  of  vegetable  sid>stances.  Some 
of  the  minute  kinds  apiH>ar  to  be  the  cause  of  lUsease 
in  the  higher  kinds  of  plants  which  they  attack,  and 
are  formidable  to  the  farmer  and  the  gardener. 
Some  are  in  like  manner  dcstnictive  to  anim.il  life, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Muscardiue  (q.  v.)  or  Silk-worm 
Hot,  .-xnd  cei-taiu  s|wcies  of  liplueria  which  grow 
from  li%-ing  caterpillars.     .See  ExTorimES. 

Some  fungi  are  remarkably  phosphorescent.  Thus 
the  undeveloped  myceliiim  of  some  kind  produces 
a  very  beautiful  luminosity  in  some  German  coal- 
mines ;  .ind  a  species  of  .ag,i.ric  {Aijaricu.^  Gardiurl), 
growing  on  paliiis  in  Brazil,  shines  brightly  in  the 
night  Agaricus  oleariug,  a  u.itive  of  the  south  of 
Eurojie,  is  also  luminous. 

The  chemical  examination  of  fungi  yields  in  lai-ge 
quantity  a  substance  c.illcd  Funri'me,  which,  how- 
ever, is  now  reg.arded  as  consisting  of  cellulose  and 
fatty  matter,  several  other  nitrogenous  substances, 
an  acid  called  Fungic  Acid,  a  kind  of  sug.ar,  &c. 
The  poisonous  ]iroperties  of  some  arc  ascribed  to 
an  alk.iloid  called  Amanitinc.  Others  .appear  to 
owe  their  jwisonous  character  to  an  acrid  vola- 
tile substance.  Many  of  the  smaller  fungi  .are 
import.ant  because  of  the  injury  which  they  cause 
to  crops,  timber,  &e.  A  few  species  are  used  in 
medicine,  of  wiiich  the  only  one  re.oUy  important 
is  Ergot  of  Rye.  One  or  two  .ore  used  as  tinder 
(see  Amadou),  Mosa  (q.  v.),  &c.  The  smoke  pro- 
duced by  burning  the  dust  (spores)  of  ripened 
puff-balls  has  aniesthetic  properties,  and  is  used 
for  stupifying  bees.  Pohiporus  squamosus  cut  into 
slices  makes  the  best  of  razor-strops.  But  the 
cliief  economical  use  of  fungi  is  for  food,  .and  in  the 
mauuf.acture  of  the  .sauce  called  Ketchup  (q.  v.). 

Edible  Fungi. — Many  fungi  of  the  sub-orders 
Ihimenomyrclts,  Gasteromiicetes,  and  Asconvjcetes  are 
edible ;  and  some  of  them  are  much  esteemed  as 
delicacies,  whilst  in  many  countries  they  constitute 
an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  people.  In 
Britain,  very  few  .are  used,  many  of  those  species 
which  are  most  esteemed  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
being  utterly  disregarded,  and  indeed  classed  in 
popular  estim.ation  \vith  toad-stools  as  poisonous. 
The  truth  appears  to  be,  not  that  the  greater  number 
are  poisonous,  and  only  a  few  edible,  but  that  the 
noxious  species  are  comparatively  few,  the  princip.al 
danger  arising  from  the  similarity  of  some  of  the 
jioisouous  and  some  of  the  edible  agarics,  and  from 
the  liabibty  of  some  of  the  etlible  species  to  acquire 
poisonous  properties  in  particidar  situations  and 
circumstances.  This  is  notably  the  case  with  the 
common  mushroom  (Agaricrus  cnmpestris),  which  is 
far  more  generally  used  in  Britain  than  any  other 
edible  fungus,  but  of  which  some  varieties  are 
unsafe,  apparently  in  consequence  of  the  circum- 
stances of  their  growth.  From  the  markets  of 
Home,  and  other  cities  of  Italy,  where  niunerous 
species  of  fungi  .are  extensively  sold,  this  species  is 
rigorously  excluded.  So  important  an  article  of 
food  are  fungi  in  Italy,  that  in  the  m.arket  of  Rome 
alone  they  are  supjiosed  to  be  sold  to  the  value  of 
.about  £4000  a  year.  For  weeks,  both  in  spring  and 
in  autimin,  fungi  form  the  principal  and  almost  the 
sole  food  of  multitudes  of  the  poor  in  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  France ;  .and  besides  those  which  are  eaten 
fresh,  great  quantities  are  used  dried  or  preserved 
in  oil,  vinegar,  or  brine.  The  soaking  of  fimgi  in 
\'incgar  or  brine  takes  away  the  acrid  qualities  of 
some  which  are  dangerous  when  fresh,  and  renders 


them  perfectly  safe.  So  valuable  are  fungi  esteemed, 
that  some  species  are  frequently  cultivated.  The 
cidtivation  of  the  Common  Mushroom  (q.  v.)  is 
familiar  to  lis  in  Britain,  but  other  species  of 
Agaricus,  Boltiun,  &c.,  are  plentifully  raised  in  some 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  by  watering  the 
ground  in  places  appropriate  for  them  with  water  in 
which  matuix;  plants  alwunding  in  spores  have  been 
bruised ;  others  are  obt.ained  by  merely  placing  in 
favom^ablo  circumstances  substances  in  which  their 
spores  are  already  contained.  Thus,  a  species  of 
Folt/poriis,  much  esteemed,  is  procured  in  Italy  by 
moistening  a  porous  stone  (Ital.,  Pietra  fumjliaia) 
over  whiclj  a  little  e.arth  h.as  been  scattered ;  another 
species  of  Pulyporus  by  slightly  ch.arring  and  then 
watering  blocks  of  the  wood  of  the  common  hazel ; 
a  species  of  Agaricus,  by  cutting  off  and  then 
watering  the  heads  of  bkack  pojJar  trees ;  and 
another  Agaricus,  by  pLacing  the  groimds  of  coffee 
in  cii'cumstances  favourable  for  its  growth. 

It  is  a  conunon  notion,  but  utterly  destitute  of 
foundation,  th.at  dangerous  fungi  may  be  distin- 
guished from  those  which  it  is  safe  to  cat  by  their 
discolom-ing  a  silver  spoon  if  they  aie  stirred  with 
it  whilst  tliey  are  being  cooked.  Nor  is  greater 
dependence  to  be  i)laced  on  the  nJe  that  the  more 
readily  deliquescent  fungi  are  poisonous ;  nor  on 
peculiarities  of  colour  of  the  flesh  or  juice,  except  in 
so  far  as  these  chai-.actcrs  may  av.ail  for  the  discrimi- 
nation of  particular  species,  the  qu.alities  of  which 
are  known.  The  edible  fungi  have  gener.ally  an 
agreeable  smell  and  taste,  whilst  some  of  the  poison- 
ous kinds  are  offensive  both  to  the  nostrils  and  the 
]>.alate,  but  no  trustworthy  general  riUe  can  be  laid 
down  on  these  points  ;  and  some  of  those  which  are 
very  pungent  and  acrid  when  raw,  become  bland 
and  wl'.olesome  when  cooked,  their  acridity  being 
dissipated  by  heat. 

Among  the  most  important  edible  fungi  are  : 

Hijmenoviiicctes. — The  Common  Mushroom,  Cham- 
pignon, and  numerous  other  agarics  and  fungi  closely 
allied  to  true  ag.arics,  as  species  of  Corlinaria,  Can- 
thardlus,  &c  These  will  be  noticed  in  the  article 
Mushroom. 

A  uimiber  of  species  of  Boletus  (q.  v.),  and  of  Pohj- 
porus.  See  AsLiDOU.  Fisttdina  fwpatica.  See  Fis- 
TULiN'A.  Several  species  of  Hydnimi  (q.  v.).  Several 
species  of  Clavaria,  some  of  which   are  foimd  in 


Clavaria  Botrytis. 

Britain  ;  beautiful  fungi,  with  a  thickish  stem  which 
divides  into  numerous  small  branches.  It  is  said  th.at 
all  the  species  of  this  genus  are  esculent,  although 
some  .are  very  superior  to  the  rest  in  flavour  and 
deUcacy.  One  sjjecies  {C.jhivu)  is  popularly  kuo'nni 
in  Germany  as  Ziegenbart  or  Goat's-bcard.  They 
grow  on  the  ground  in  woods  and  jiastures. 

Qasleromycctes.  —  Different  kinds  of  Puff-b.all 
(q.  v.),  in  a  young  state,  and  whilst  still  fleshy 
throughout. 

Ancomyceles. — Different   species  of   Morel   (q.  v.). 


FUNG IBLES— FUR  AND  FUKRLERY. 


Ilelvdla  (q.  v.),  Verpa,  Peziza,  &c.  The  Common 
Triiiile  (q.  v.),  and  allied  species.  Cyttaria  Dar- 
v-inii,  which  grows  ou  living  branches  of  South 
American  beeches,  and  forms  a  principal  part  of 
the  food  of  the  natives  of  Ticrra  del  Fuego  during 
some  months  of  the  year. 

'  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  poisonous  properties 
of  mushrooms  vary  with  climate,  and  probably  with 
the  season  of  the  year  at  which  they  are  gathered. 
Another  circumstance  deserving  of  notice  is,  that 
by  idiosyncracy  some  indi\"iduaJs  are  liable  to  be 
seriously  afl'eoted  even  by  those  species  which  are 
usually  regarded  as  innocent.  Some  sjieoies  whiclx 
are  jioisonous  in  tliis  country,  are  used  freely  by  the 
llussians ;  it  appears  they  are  in  the  habit  of  salt- 
ing, boilin",  and  compressing  them  before  they  are 
eaten;  and  this  may  in  some  instances  suffice  to 
account  for  their  ha^-ing  no  noxious  effects. 

'  Symplonui  and  JCffecta. — The  noxious  species  of 
mushrooms  act  sometimes  as  narcotics,  at  others  as 
irritants.  It  woidd  ajipear  from  the  reports  of 
several  cases,  that  when  the  narcotic  symptoms  are 
excited,  they  come  on  soon  after  the  meal  at  which 
tlie  mushiooms  have  been  eaten,  and  that  they  are 
cliietly  manifested  by  giddiness,  dimness  of  sight, 
and  debility.  The  person  appears  as  if  intoxicated, 
and  there  are  singular  illusions  of  sense.  Spasms 
and  convidsions  have  been  occasionally  witnessed 
among  the  symptoms  when  the  case  has  proved 
fatal  In  some  instances,  the  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing have  not  commenced  until  thu-ty  hours  after 
the  meal;  and  in  these,  narcotism  followed  the 
symptoms  of  irritation.  It  might  be  supjiosed  that 
these  variable  effects  were  duo  to  diB'erent  pro- 
perties in  the  mushrooms,  Ijut  the  same  fungi  have 
acted  on  members  of  the  same  family,  in  one  case 
like  irritants,  and  in  another  like  narcotics.  In 
most  eases,  recovery  takes  place,  especially  if  vomit- 
ing be  early  inducctL  In  the  few  instances  which 
have  proved  fatal,  there  has  been  greater  or  less 
inflammation  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  with 
congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain. 

'  Treatment. — The  free  use  of  emetics  and  castor 
oil.' — Taylor  On  PoUona. 

The  esculent  fungi  of  England  are  the  subject  of 
a  work  by  Dr  Badham,  who  enthusiastically  recom- 
mends them  to  more  general  use. 

FU'NGIBIiES.  In  the  law  of  Rome,  the  contract 
of  loan  was  divided  into  mutuum  and  commodatum, 
a  division  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  law  of 
Scotland,  and  by  most  of  the  continental  systems 
wliich  are  fomided  on  the  civil  law.  The  former 
had  reference  to  objects  which  admitted  of  being 
estimated  by  weight,  measure,  or  number,  or  which 
could  not  be  used  without  being  given  away  or  con- 
sumed. These  objects,  consistmg  of  money,  corn, 
wine,  oil,  and  tlie  like,  coidd  be  used  only  by  him 
who  possessed  the  fidl  right  of  ownership,  and  con- 
sequently the  contract  of  mutuuvi  transferred  the 
ownership  to  the  borrower,  who  became  bound  to 
return,  not  the  object  borrowed,  but  its  eqiiivalent. 
Objects  of  this  nature,  from  the  fact  that  they  were 
got  rid  of  one  for  another  i/ungantur),  were  called 
umgibles.  The  other  class  of  movable  objects,  again, 
to  which  the  Roman  contract  of  commodatum,  or 
liire,  properly  so  called,  applied,  were  transferred  to 
the  borrower  on  condition  that  he  should  return 
the  same  individual  objects  to  the  lender. 

FUNGUS  (Lat.  a  mushroom)  is  a  term  apjilied 
in  pathology  and  surgery  with  several  significations. 
Thus,  any  excrescence  from  a  surface  of  skin,  or 
mucous  membrane,  or  even  from  deeper  parts,  is 
sometimes  called  a  fungus,  more  especially  if  it  have 
a  soft  mushroom-like  character,  and  a  broad  short 
pedicle.     When  the  pedicle  is  long  and  narrow,  it  is 


called  Polypus  (q.  v.).  The  growtlis  to  which  the 
term  fungus  is  cluelly  applied  are  those  wliieh  have 
the  characters  of  Cancer  (q.  v.) ;  especially  fungwi 
/ifematOdes,  a  very  dangerous  variety.  But  fungus 
has  yet  another  api)lication  in  ])athologj',  to  those 
minute  incrustations  and  alterations  of  the  skin 
which  are  dependent  upon  the  growth  of  vegetable 
parasites,  as  Favus,  Ring\vorm  (q.  v.),  &c. 

FUNNEL  (Lat.  /undo,  to  pour),  in  steam-vessels, 
is  the  iron  tube  designed  to  convey  away  above  the 
deck  the  smoke  and  gases  set  at  liberty  during  the 
combustion  of  fuel  in  tlie  boiler-llucs,  and  also,  from 
its  height,  to  afford  a  sufficient  draught  to  the 
furnaces.  In  large  ships,  the  funnel  is  of  great 
size  :  and  in  men-of-war,  usually  teleseo])ic,  so  that, 
by  simple  mechanism,  it  may  be  withdra«ii  during 
an  action  from  the  chance  of  injury  by  cannon-shot. 

FUNNEL,  a  conical  vessel  terminating  in  a  tube, 
and  used  for  pouring  liquids  into  narrow-mouthed 
vessels,  and  in  laboratories  for  lilteriug.  See  Filter. 
For  common  jiurposes,  they  are  made  of  tin-plate  or 
copper,  but  when  for  corrosive  Uquids,  they  are  made 
of  glass  or  earthenware.  In  some  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  as  in  the  midland  counties  of  England, 
a  funnel  is  called  a  '  tim-dish ; '  in  other  parts,  a 
'  iiUer.' 

FUR  is  the  term  applied  to  the  incrustation 
which  is  fonned  in  the  interior  of  vessels  (tea- 
kettles, boilers  of  steam-engines,  &c.)  when  calca- 
reous water  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  boiled 
in  them.  Many  spring  waters  contain  carbonate  of 
lime  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid.  When  this 
water  is  boiled,  the  acid  is  expelled,  and  the  car- 
bonate is  deposited,  often  in  association  with  a  little 
siUphate,  forming  a  lining  more  or  less  coherent 
upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  In  steam-boilers, 
this  may  be  jirevented  by  the  adiUtion  of  a  sm.all 
quantity  of  sal-ammoniac  (hydi'ochloratc  of  ammonia) 
to  the  water ;  double  decomposition  takes  place, 
carbonate  of  ammonia  being  formed  and  volatilised, 
while  chloride  of  calciimi  remains  in  solution. 

FUR  AXD  FURRIERY.  The  skins  of  animals, 
haWng  hair  or  fur  as  a  dating,  have  been  used  in 
Europe  as  an  article  of  clothing  for  many  centuries. 
Since  European  countries,  however,  have  become 
more  and  more  cleared  and  inhabited,  fur-bearing 
animals  have  nearly  disappeared  ;  and  the  supjily  is 
now  chiefly  obtained  from  other  regions,  especially 
North  America. 

All  the  chief  fur-bearmg  animals  will  be  found 
described  imder  their  proper  headings :  we  shall 
do  little  more  here  than  barely  enumerate  them. 
Ermine  fur  is  of  a  pm-e  white,  except  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  which  is  black.  The  spotted  appearance  of 
this  fur  is  not  natural ;  it  is  jiroduced  by  sewing 
the  black  tail-tips  on  the  white  fur  at  certain  spots. 
Stoat  fur  is  a  kind  of  inferior  ermine.  Sable  fur, 
obtained  chiefly  from  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia, 
is  valued  in  proportion  to  the  darkness  of  its  colour. 
Marten  fiu*,  especially  that  of  a  rich  dark-brown 
olive  colour,  is  much  sought  for.  Fierij-fox  fur, 
brought  chiefly  from  the  north-eastern  part  of  Asia, 
is  admired  both  for  its  brilliant  fiery  colour  and  for 
its  fineness.  Red-fox  fur,  differing  in  some  parti- 
oUars  from  the  kind  just  named,  is  much  sought 
after  by  the  Chinese  for  trimmings,  linings,  and  robes. 
Silver-fox  fur  has  a  peculiar  lustrous  silver-gray 
colour.  Nutria  h\i,  belonging  to  the  animal  called 
the  coifpou,  is  brought  largely  from  South  America, 
chiefly  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  beaver.  Sea-otter 
fur  has  been  known  in  Europe  about  a  century  and 
a  half,  being  obtained  from  the  otters  which  frequent 
the  seas  washing  the  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Russian 
dominions  ;  it  varies  from  a  beautiful  brown  to  jet- 
black,  and  is  very  fine,  soft,  and  glossy.     Seal  iui  is 

S5U 


FUKFURAMIDE— FURLOUGH. 


olitaiaiil  fn>">  the  seals  frequciitini;  various  coasts, 
ehieriy  in  the  Southern  Oeean.  Baiirr  fur  w;is 
i.nee  much  iu  re<iuest  for  the  manufacture  of  hats  ; 
hut  the  prowiuj;  scarcity  of  the  auimal,  ami  the 
substitutiou  of  silk  hats  for  beaver  hats,  has 
lessened  its  importance.  The  fur  of  various  other 
auim.ils  is  similarly  valued,  either  for  its  warmth  or 
its  beauty ;  such  as  th.-it  of  the  hear,  7-acooii,  badger, 
minx,  li/nx,  )hiw/»<wA  or  mu^k-ral,  rabbit,  liare, 
S'jiiirrel,  and  chiHchilla. 

For  manuf.acturing  purposes,  furs  are  classified 
into  fetttd  and  drcAwtl.  Felted  f ui-s,  such  as  beaver, 
nutria,  hare,  and  rabbit,  are  used  for  hats  and  other 
felted  fabrics,  in  which  the  hairs  or  filaments  are 
m-ade  so  to  interhicc  or  entangle  as  to  form  a  very 
strong  .and  close  jilcxus.  The  quality  of  the  fur  is 
better  when  the  skin  is  fciken  from  the  animal  in 
>riuter  than  in  any  other  se.ison,  giving  rise  to  the 
distinction  between  'seasoned'  and  ' unseiisoned ' 
skins.  The  removal  of  the  fur  from  the  pelt  is 
a  necess.ary  preliminary  to  the  preparation  of  fur 
for  felting  purposes.  In  many  kinds  rif  skin,  such 
.as  that  of  the  hare,  the  fur  is  of  two  kinds — a  close 
short  layer  of  felting  fur  next  the  pelt,  and  longer 
outer  hairs  of  unfeltmg  fur.  The  removal  of  these 
two  is  effected  separately.  The  long  hairs  are  cut 
off  by  a  kind  of  shears ;  and  the  true  fur  is  then 
removed  by  the  action  of  a  luiifc,  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  a  cheese-cutter,  requiring  much  care 
in  its  man.agement.  In  some  sorts  of  skin,  the  long 
hairs  are  removed  by  pidling  instead  of  shearing ;  iu 
others,  the  grcasiness  of  the  pelt  renders  necessai-y 
a  cleansing  process  before  the  shearing  can  be  con- 
ducted, -with  the  aid  of  soap  and  boiling  water ;  and 
in  others,  both  pelt  and  fur  are  so  full  of  grease  as 
to  require  many  rejietitions  of  cleansing.  For  beaver 
skins,  a  machine  of  very  beautiful  construction  is 
employed  in  cutting  the  fiu'  from  the  pelt.  When 
the  coarse  hairs  have  been  removed  to  form  a 
stuffing  for  cushions,  the  skin  is  placed  in  a  machine 
containing  a  broad  keen  bl.ade  equal  in  length  to  the 
width  of  the  skin.  This  blade  has  a  pecidiar  reci- 
procating movement  given  to  it,  producing  a  kind  of 
ehojijiing  effect  on  any  substance  to  which  it  is 
ajiplied,  by  coming  nearly  in  contact  with  another 
blade  placed  parallel  with  it.  The  skin  is  guided 
between  rollers  into  the  space  between  the  two 
blades ;  and  then  the  action  of  the  upper  blade 
crops  off  the  fur  from  the  pelt  iu  a  very  complete 
manner — every  jiarticle  being  removed,  and  yet  the 
pelt  is  not  cut.  The  fur  falls  upon  an  endless  apron, 
which  carries  it  to  a  chest,  or  trunk,  containing 
a  blowng-machine ;  this  machine  separates  the 
fur  into  three  or  four  qualities,  by  blowing  to  the 
furthest  distance  the  lightest  and  most  valuable 
filaments,  leaving  the  heavier  and  coarser  to  be 
dejiosited  sooner. 

Furs  have  their  felting  property  sometimes 
increased  by  the  process  of  cnrrotiinj,  in  which  the 
action  of  heat  is  combined  with  that  of  sidphuric 
acid.  The  chief  employment  of  felted  furs  is 
described  under  H.VT  MAXUFAcrrRE. 

Dressed  furs  are  those  to  which  the  art  of  the 
furrier  is  applied  for  making  muffs,  bo.as,  and  fiu'- 
trimmings  to  garments.  The  fur  is  not  separated 
from  the  pelt  for  these  puqioses ;  the  two  are  used 
together ;  and  the  pelt  is  converted  into  a  kind  of 
leather  to  tit  it  for  being  so  employed.  The  fur- 
hunters  always  exercise  great  care  in  drying  the 
skins  after  remo\Tng  them  from  the  anim.ais,  seeing 
that  any  jiutrefactive  action  would  ruin  the  fur. 
When  brought  to  England,  the  skins  imdergo 
certain  cleansing  processes.  They  are  steeped  and 
scoured  in  a  bath  of  bran,  alum,  and  salt,  to  remove 
greasiness  from  the  pelt ;  and  then  in  a  bath  of 
soap   and  soda,   to   remove   oUiness  from   the   fur. 


Whei\  thoroughly  w.ashed  and  dried,  it  is  found 
that  the  jielt,  liy  the  action  of  the  alum,  has  been 
converted  into  a  kind  of  lauvd  or  kid  leather. 

When  the  skins  are  cleansed  and  dried,  they  arc 
made  up  into  garme  its  and  trimmings  by  sewing 
through  the  ]ielt.  The  skins,  however,  are  very 
irregxdar  in  shajie,  and  often  difl'er  much  in  colour  iu 
different  parts  ;  they  reciuire  to  be  cut  up  into  pieces, 
matched  according  to  tint,  and  sewn  together  edge 
to  edge.  Tliis  requires  much  skill,  especially  where 
the  furs  are  of  a  valuable  sort.  A  fur  garment  or 
trimming,  a])pearing  to  the  eye  .as  if  it  were  one 
uniform  piece,  is  thus  generally  made  up  of  n\any 
curiously  shajjcd  jiieces.  The  shaiiing  for  use,  and 
the  lining  >vith  silk  and  other  materials,  call  for 
no  description. — The  great  source  of  furs  is  the 
Hu<lson's  Bay  Territory  (q.  v.). 

FURFU'KAMIDE,  FU'KFURINE,  .vxd  FIT'R- 
FUROL.  A\Tien  starch,  sugar,  or  bran  is  acted 
upon  by  dilute  sidphuric  .acid  and  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, the  distillate  contains  not  only  Formic 
Acid  (q.  v.),  but  a  small  quantity  of  an  essential 
oil,  which,  after  being  purified  liy  redistillation,  is 
colourless,  has  a  fr.agrant  odour  somewhat  resem- 
Iding  that  of  bitter  almonds,  and  when  tlissolved  in 
cold  sulphuric  acid,  forms  a  beautifid  purine  Uquid. 
This  oil  is  termed  Furfurol,  and  its  composition  is 
represented  by  the  formiUa  C,jH.,Oj. 

If  fm-furol  be  treated  with  ammonia,  it  is  con- 
verted into  Furfuramide  (C';,„Hj„N.j(),.,),  which 
occurs  in  colourless  crystals,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  and  perfectly  neutral. 

If  furfuramide  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  potash, 
it  dissolves,  its  elements  assimie  a  new  arrange- 
ment, and  the  solution  on  cooling  deposits  long 
silky  needles  of  a  powerfidly  allvalme  base,  Fur- 
furine,  which  is  isomeric  with  furfur.amide.  It  is 
dissolved  by  dilute  acids,  and  completely  neutralises 
them ;  and  on  .adduig  ammonia  to  these  solutions, 
the  alkaloid  is  precipitated  unchanged.  It  w-is  dis- 
covered by  the  late  Professor  Fownes  ;  and  as  the 
first  vegeto-alkali  artificially  formed,  its  production 
was  regarded  as  a  great  step  in  organic  chemistry. 

FURIDPU'R,  a  town  of  Bengal  Proper,  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  right 
banlc  of  the  Gan-jcs,  here  called  the  Podda,  in 
hit.  23'  36'  N.,  and  long.  89"  5U'  E.  It  is  115 
miles  to  the  north-east  of  Calcutta.  Excepting  the 
public  est.ablishments,  which  it  possesses  as  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  its  own  n.ame,  the  place  is 
mainly  a  scattered  series  of  native  villages  ;  and,  in 
fact,  it  claims  notice  chiefly  as  having  at  one  time 
been  a  nest  of  river-pirates. 

FURIDPU'R,  or  D.\CC.\  JELALPUR,  the  dis- 
trict mentioned  in  the  preceding  .article,  stretches 
in  N.  lat.  between  23°  3'  and  24°  5',  and  in  E. 
long,  between  89°  30'  and  90'  1.5',  containing  2052 
square  miles,  and  855,000  inhabitants.  It  is  every- 
where intersected  by  branches  or  feeders  of  the 
Ganges,  which,  as  the  surface  barely  rises  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  are  all,  unless  in  the  dry  season, 
well  adapted  to  navigation.  The  soil  is  in  general 
rich ;  and  the  climate,  more  particularly  from  the 
beginning  of  JLarch  to  the  middle  of  June,  is 
excessively  hot. 

FURIES.     See  Eumenldes. 

FURLONG  (the  length  of  a  fun-ow),  a  measure 
of  length,  the  eighth  part  of  a  mile  or  220  yards. 
Sec  Yard. 

FU'RLOUGH,  a  military  term  signifj-ing  leave 
of  absence.  Kon-commissioned  officers  and  i)rivate 
soldiers  on  furlough  must  be  provided  with  a  pass, 
or  they  are  liable  to  be  seized  and  dealt  with  as 
deserters. 


FUFuNEAUX— FUEST. 


FURNEAUX,  the  name  of  an  Enplisli  navigator, 
who  was  secontl  in  command  on  Cook's  second 
voyage,  iudieatt'S  various  localities  in  the  southern 
hemisphere. — 1.  Furneaux  .Strait  separates  the 
Jliddle  and  South  islands  of  the  Kew  Zealand 
chain. — 2.  Furneaux  Island,  in  the  open  Pacific, 
lies  in  lat.  17°  S.,  and  in  long.  14:i°  C  W.— 3.  Fur- 
neaux Islands  are  a  group  in  Bass's  Strait  (q.  v.). 
They  are  mmierous,  the  largest  measuring  35 
mUes  by  10.  The  soil  is  sandy,  and  the  vegetation 
scanty.  The  centre  of  the  cluster  is  about  lat. 
40°  S.,  and  long.  148°  E. 

FURNES,  a  smaU  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  pro- 
^nnce  of  West  Flanders,  is  situated  in  a  marshy  and 
unhealthy  district,  4  miles  from  the  sea,  and  27  miles 
west-south-west  of  Bruges.  At  this  town,  four 
important  lines  of  canal  meet.  F.  is  well  built,  h,as 
a  town-house,  a  tine  Gothic  strxicture,  richly  orna- 
mented with  carvings,  and  has  interesting  remains 
of  the  former  Abbey  of  8t  Willebrod.  It  has  a  great 
trade  in  horses,  cattle,  hops,  and  cheese  ;  and  has 
three  annual  fairs,  at  which  large  quantities  of  Unen 
are  sold.     Pop.  5000. 

FD'RNITURE,  the  name  of  an  organ-stop  or 
register,  consisting  of  two  or  more  ranks  of  pipes  to 
each  note,  all  of  a  higher  pitch  than  the  loth  stop. 

FURNITURE,  Houskuoi.d,  Hiring  of.  If 
a  man  lets  out  furniture  for  immediate  use,  there  is 
au  implied  warranty  that  it  is  tit  for  use,  and  free 
from  all  defects  inconsistent  with  the  reasonable 
and  beneficial  enjojnnent  of  it.  .Sutton  i:  TempJe, 
12  ;  Meason  and  Welsby,  GO.  The  hirer  must  use  the 
fiu'nitui-e  for  a  proper  pui'pose.  If  it  is  applied  to  a 
purpose  inconsistent  with  the  terms  of  the  contract, 
or  if  it  is  sold  by  the  hirer,  the  owner  is  entitled  to 
maintain  an  action  for  its  value.  These  general 
rules  may  be  regarded  as  prevailing  both  in  Eiigland 
and  Scotland.  In  case  of  wilful  injury  done  to  fur- 
niture by  a  tenant  within  the  metropolitan  police 
district,  it  is  jirovided  by  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  71,  s.  38, 
that  the  police  magistrate  may  award  compens.ation 
to  the  amount  of  £1.5.  In  England  .as  well  as  Scot- 
land, the  use  of  furniture  for  hfe  is  often  made  the 
subject  of  a  bequest ;  and  in  this  case,  allowance 
will  be  made  for  ordinary  wear  and  tear  in  the  use 
of  the  furniture. 

Lien  on  Furniture  /or  Rent. — As  a  general  rule, 
all  furniture  foimd  on  the  premises,  whether  the 
property  of  the  tenant  or  of  a  third  party,  may 
be  distrained  for  rent,  on  the  principle  th.at  the 
landlord  has  a  lien  over  it  in  respect  of  the  place 
in  which  it  is  found,  and  not  in  respect  of  the 
person  to  whom  it  belongs.  To  this  rule  there  are 
some  exceptions  in  favour  of  trade,  as  of  tools  in 
actual  use,  &c.  In  Scotland,  the  landlord  has  a 
sin»ilar  right  over  the  furniture  in  a  house,  so  that 
hired  furniture  may  be  seized ;  but  furniture  lent 
without  payment  of  rent  does  not  fall  under  this 
Hypothec  (q.  v.).  Even  where  furniture  has  been 
Bold,  the  landlord  has  a  claim  over  it  while  it 
remains  on  the  premises. 

FURRUCKABA'D  (Happy  Kesideuee),  a  city 
of  the  Doab  (q.  v.),  stands  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ganges,  in  l.at.  27°  '24'  N.,  and  long.  79°  40*  E. 
It  is  a  handsome,  cleanly,  and  healthy  place,  570 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  with  a  considerable 
trade,'  and  a  population  of  about  60,000.  Inde- 
pendently of  its  position  on  the  grand  artery  of 
the  country,  F.  is  within  20  miles  of  the  great 
route  between  Calcutta  and  Delhi.  Here  Lord  Lake 
defeated  the  troops  of  Holkar  in  1805. 

FURRUCKABAD,  the  district  of  which  the 
city  of  the  same  name  is  the  cajiital,  stretches  in 
N.  lat.  between  26°  46'  and  27°  43',  and  in  R  long, 
between  78°  57'  and  80°  2'.     With  a  population  of 

1112 


854,799,  it  contains  only  1909  square  miles,  scarcely 
one-twelfth  of  the  area  being  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  Doab.  The  commercial  crops  are  principally 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  indigo. 

FURS,  in  Heraldry.  Shields  being  often  covered 
with  the  skins  of  wild  animals,  on  which  the  fur 
was  left,  there  came  to  be  certain  kinds  of  fur  wliich 
were  used  in  coat-armour,  as  well  as  in  trimming 
anil  lining  the  robes  of  knights  and  nobles,  and  the 
mantles  which  were  represented  .as  surrounding  their 
shields.  The  j)rincij)al  heraldic  furs  are — 1.  Ermine 
of  which  the  licld  is  white,  and  the  spots  black  ; 
2.  Ermines  of  which  the  field  is  black,  and  the  spots 
white  ;  3.  Erminois  which  has  the  field  gold,  with 
black  spots ;  4.  Vair,  which  consisted  of  pieces  of 
the  sha])C  of  little  ghass  pots  (Fr.  rerre.\  of  which 
the  word  is  a  corrupt  spelling).  It  is  said  that  the 
furriers  used  such  glasses  to  whiten  furs  in,  and 
because  they  were  commonly  of  an  azure  (Ijlue) 
colour,  the  fur  in  question  came  to  be  blazoned 
arr/ent  and  azure ;  whilst  counter- vair,  in  wliich  the 
cups  are  reiiresented  as  phaced  base  against  base, 
in  place  of  edge  to  base,  as  in  vair,  was  or  and  azure. 


FCRS. 


5.  Potent  and  counter-potent,  wliich  are  sup])osed  to 
resemble  the  heads  of  crutches,  placed  diliereutly, 
but  ha^•ing  the  same  tinctures — viz.,  azure  aud 
argent. 

FURST,  Julius,  a  distinguished  orientalist 
of  Jewish  parentage,  was  born  12th  Way  1805,  at 
Zerkowa,  in  the  gr.and-duchy  of  Posen,  Prussia, 
where  his  father  was  Lecturer  on  Circumci.sion  in 
the  synagogue.  F.  was  educated  for  the  rabbinical 
profession,  and  disjilayed  at  a  very  early  age  a  most 
remarkable  power  of  acquiring  luiowledge.  He 
studied  at  Berlin,  where  the  German  philosopliy 
made  sad  havoc  of  his  previous  conrictions.  The 
conflict  in  his  mind  between  science  and  rabbinical 
lore  ended,  in  1S29,  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter,  and 
F.  immediately  proceeded  to  Breslau,  where  he 
continued  his  oriental,  theological,  and  antiquarian 
stuilies,  which  were  completed  at  Halle  in  1831, 
under  Geseuius,  Wegscheider,  and  Tholuck.  In 
1833  he  went  as  a  teacher  of  languages  to  Leipsic, 
where  he  still  lives.  Among  his  numerous  .and 
valuable  writings  m.ay  be  mentioned  Lchrr/elta  ude 
der  Aramdisehini  Jdiome (System  of  Ar.auiaic  Idioms, 
Leip.  1835),  a  work  which  brought  the  Semitic 
languages  witliin  the  sphere  of  comparative  gi-am- 
mar,  then  in  its  infancy,  and  which,  besides,  sought 
to  establish  a  system  of  analytico-historic  investi- 
gation in  regard  to  these  languages  themselves ; 
Pcrlenscltniire  Arumaiselier  Gnomen  vnd  Lieder 
(Pearl-strings  of  Aramaic  Gnomes  and  Songs,  Leip. 
1836),  with  elucidations  and  glossary  ;  Concordanliix: 
Librorum  Sacrurum  Vetcris  Tastamenii  Hehraice  el 
Chaklaiee  (Concordances  of  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  Leip. 
1837 — 1840),  a  work  of  indefatigable  industry  and 
careful  research,  which  has  obtained  for  its  .author 
a  great  reputation  both  in  Germany  aud  other  couu- 
tnes  ;  Ari  yo/u-m  (Leip.  1840),  a  "polemic.il  treatise 
on  the  genuineness  of  the  Sohar  and  the  worth  of 
the  Cabbala ;  Die  Spriiehe  der  Vdter  (The  Sayings 
of  the  Fathers,  Leip.  1S39)  ;  Die  Israelilisehe  Bihel 
(The  Hebrew  Bible,  Berhn,   1S3S),  translated  into 


FUESTENWALDE— FUSEL. 


German  from  tho  original,  by  himself,  in  conjunction 
with  otjjer  scholars ;  Der  Orient ;  Berichte,  Studirn  und 
Kritiien  fur  Jiidincht  QescJiichle  vnd  LiUralur  (The 
East ;  N'oticcs,  Studies,  and  Criticisms  in  connection 
with  'Jewish  Histon,-  and  Literature,  Leip.  1S40) ; 
Z)iV  Jiidliclun  Jitliijiomphilosoplien  des  MUlekilkrs 
(The  Jewish  Religious  Philosophers  of  the  Jliddle 
Aces,  Lei]>.  1S45) ;  Qesdtkhte  der  Jiiden  in  Asien 
(History  of  the  Jews  in  Asia,  Leip.  1840)  ;  Biblio- 
Iheca  Judaica  (1S49— 1S53) ;  and  Ilcbruische^  und 
Chaldaisc/ies  HandwOrterbucli  (Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Manual,  Leip.  ISol— 1854),  preceded  by  a  history 
of  Hebrew  lexicography. 

FU'KSTEXWALDE,  a  small  walled  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  pro\'ince  of  Brandenburg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Spree,  30  miles  cist-south-east 
of  Berlin.  It  has  a  brick  church  of  the  14th  c,  the 
Marienkirch,  which  contains  a  fine  Gothic  Sacra- 
mentshiiuschen  (or  pyx  for  keeping  the  host),  built  of 
sandstone,  and  dating  from  1510.  P.  manufactures 
linens  and  woollens,  and  carries  on  some  trade  by 
river.     Pop.  5S90. 

FiJRTH,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
Bav.aria,  in  Middle  Franconia,  is  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Rednitz  and  the  Peguitz,  about 
5  miles  north-west  of  Niirnberg,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  railway,  laid  out  in  1835.  and 
the  iii-st  that  was  completed  in  Germany.  It  has 
niunerous  chiu-ches,  sj-nagogues,  a  town-hall,  theatre, 
&c.  It  is  the  most  iudustrious  and  most  prosperous 
manufacturing  town  of  Bavaria ;  its  mirrors,  chande- 
liers, snuff-boxes,  lead-pencils,  its  brass  and  wood 
wares,  and  its  articles  of  dress,  are  famous.  The 
m.aking  of  metaUic  leaf,  and  the  manufacture  of 
articles  in  bronze,  are  most  important  branches  of 
industry.  F.  also  produces  pinchbeck  rings,  Avatch- 
keys,  brass  naUs,  spectacles  and  optical  instrimients, 
in  great  abundance.  An  annual  fair,  lasting  four- 
teen days,  takes  place  at  Michaelmas.  Pop.  17,341, 
of  whom  2500  are  Jews,  and  the  rest  Protestants. 
F.  fii-st  ajipears  in  history  about  the  beginning  of 
the  10th  c,  when  it  belonged  to  the  archbishops 
of  Bamberg.  Subsequently  it  acknowledged  the 
authority  ot  the  Burgrafs  of  Nuremberg.  In  1634, 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  Austrian  Croats 
burned  it  to  the  ground.  In  1680  a  great  fire 
almost  laid  it  in  ashes  again.  It  first  began  to 
attain  importance  as  a  seat  of  manufactures  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  last  century. 

FURY  A.ND  HECLA  STRAIT,  Ij-ing  in  l.at.  70° 
N.,  and  long,  from  82°  to  86°  W.,  separates  Meh-ille 
Peninsida  on  the  south  from  Cockbm-n  Island  on  the 
north,  and  connects  Fox's  Channel  on  the  east  mth 
the  Gulf  of  Boothia  on  the  west.  It  is  of  no  value 
whatever  as  a  means  of  communication,  nor  is  ever 
likely  to  be  so,  its  western  entrance  having  been 
ascertained  by  Captain  Parry,  who  discovered  it,  on 
his  second  voyage,  to  be  impenetrably  closed  from 
shore  to  shore  by  the  accumulated  ices  of  many 
years.  It  is  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  a  strong 
current,  which  passes  down  Fox's  Channel  into 
Hudson's  Strait. 

FURZE  ( Ulex),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Le(jummos(j',  sub-order  PapUionacea;,  distin- 
guished by  a  two-leaved  cal\-x  with  a  small  scale  or 
bractea  on  each  side  at  the  base,  stamens  all  imited 
by  their  filaments,  and  a  turgid  pod  scarcely  longer 
than  the  calyx.  'The  Commox  P.  (U.  Europa;us), 
also  called  Whin  and  Gorse,  is  a  shrub  about 
two  or  three  feet  high,  extremely  branched ;  the 
branches  green,  striated,  and  terminating  in  s])ines  ; 
the  leaves  few  and  lanceolate ;  the  flowers  numer- 
ous, solitary,  and  yellow.  It  is  common  in  many 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe  and  in  Britain, 
although  it  does  not  reach  any  considerable  elevation 


on  the  British  mountains,  and  often  sufTcrs  from 
the  frost  of  severe  winters ;  whereas  in  mild 
seasons  its  flowers  may  be  seen  all  winter,  so  that 
there  is  an  old  proverb,  'Love  is  out  of  season  when 
the  furze  is  out  of  blossom.'  It  is  scarcely  known 
in  any  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe ;  and 
Linnoius  is  said  to  have  burst  into  exclamations  of 
gratefid  rapture  when  he  first  saw  a  common  covered 
with  F.  bushes  glowing  in  the  profusion  of  their 
rich  golden  flowers.  F.  is  sometimes  planted  foi 
hedges,  but  is  not  well  suited  for  the  jnirpose,  occu- 
pying a  great  bre.i<lth  of  ground,  and  not  readily 
acquiring  sufhcieut  strength ;  besides,  it  does  not, 
when  cut,  tend  to  acquire  a  denser  habit.  It  is 
usefiJ  as  aflfording  winter  food  for  sheep,  and  on  this 
account  is  burned  down  to  the  ground  by  sheep- 
f.armers  when  its  stems  become  too  high  and  woody, 
so  that  a  suj)ply  of  green  succident  shoots  may  be 
secured.  In  some  parts  of  Wales,  F.,  chopped  and 
braised,  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  winter  fodder 
of  horses.  In  some  places,  it  is  sown  to  yield  greeu 
food  for  sheep  or  other  animals,  but  is  preferable  to 
other  green  crojis  only  on  dry  sandy  soils,  where 
they  coiUd  not  be  advantageously  cultivated.  It 
is  most  extensively  cidtivated  in  Fl.anders.  It  is 
chopped  and  bruised  by  meaus  of  a  mallet,  one 
end  of  which  is  anned  with  knife-blades ;  or  by 
means  of  a  simple  machine,  called  a  gorse-mill. — A 
double-flowering  variety  is  common  in  wardens.  A 
very  beautiful  variety,  called  Irish  F.,  because 
originally  found  in  Ireland  (U.  slrictus  of  some 
botanists),  is  remarkable  for  its  dense,  compact, 
and  erect  branches.  A  dwarf  kind  of  F.  ( U.  nanus) 
occurs  in  some  places,  and  is  perhaps  also  a  mere 
variety ;  if  so,  there  is  only  one  species  known. 

In  fox-hunting  countries,  F.  is  encouraged  on 
account  of  the  excellent  cover  it  affonls.  It  is  also 
a  favourite  cover  for  rabbits. 

FUSE,  FUSEE,  a  tube  of  wood  or  metal,  per- 
forated down  the  side  ■with  a  vertical  row  of  holes, 
and  used  for  firing  shells.  The  tube  is  fiUed  with 
a  composition  of  nitre,  sidphur,  and  gimpowder, 
which  will  burn  gradually.  The  distance  between 
each  hole  representing  a  second,  the  range  and 
time  of  flight  are  computed,  and  that  hole  is  left 
open  which  will  commimicate  the  fire  in  the  fuse  to 
the  loaded  shell  at  the  moment  the  latter  touches 
the  ground  after  being  discharged.  Of  course,  when 
combustion  reaches  this  aperture,  the  shell  is 
burst  by  the  explosion  of  the  contained  gunpowder, 
and  scattered  around  in  nmnerous  fragments.  Fuses 
constracted  on  a  similar  principle  are  used  in 
exploding  military  mines  (q.  v.). 

FUSEL  or  FOUSEL  OIL,  knoA\-u  also  as 
Potato  Spikit,  is  a  frequent  impurity  la  spirits 
distilled  from  fermented  potatoes,  barley,  rye,  &c., 
to  which  it  communicates  a  pecidiar  and  otfensivo 
odour  and  taste,  and  an  unwholesome  property. 
Being  less  volatile  than  either  alcohol  or  water,  it 
acciunidates  in  the  last  portions  of  the  distilled 
liquor.  According  to  Liebig,  it  is  principally  formed 
in  the  fermentation  of  alkaline  or  neutral  liquids, 
while  it  never  occurs  in  acidulous  fermenting  fluids 
which  contain  tartaric,  racemic,  or  citric  acid.  It 
mainly  consists  of  a  substance  to  which  chemists 
have  given  the  name  of  amylic  alcohol,  whose  com- 
position is  reprcsentcdl>ytheforniiilaHO,C,(|lIijO. 
It  is  a  colourless  limjiid  fluid,  which  has  a  persist- 
ent and  oppressive  odour  and  a  burning  taste.  It 
is  only  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  m.ay  be  mixed 
with  alcohol,  ether,  and  the  essential  oils  in  all 
proportions.  Any  spirit  which  produces  a  milky 
appearance,  when  mixed  with  fom-  or  five  times  its 
volume  of  water,  may  be  suspected  to  contain  it. 

Fusel  oil  is  principally  sold  in  tins  country  for  the 


FUSELI— FUSTIC. 


purpose  of  yielding  pear  essence  for  the  so-called 
jargonelle-drops  ;  it  has  likewise  been  patented  as 
a  solvent  for  quinine  ;  and  according  to  Liebig,  it  is 
sometimes  employed  in  lighting  distillery  buildings. 

FUSE'LI,  Hentiv,  the  second  son  of  John  Caspar 
Fuseli,  or  Fuessh,  a  portrait-painter,  and  author  of 
lAvoi  of  the  Sw'uis  Painters,  was  Ijorn  at  Zurich 
in  1742.  He  studied  in  his  native  town  and  at  BerUn, 
travelled  with  Lavater  in  17G1,  and  then  went  to 
Kn^Iand,  where,  by  Keynolds's  advice,  he  devoted 
himself  to  .art.  In  pursuance  of  this  object,  he 
proceeded  to  Italy  in  1770,  where  he  remained  for 
eight  years,  studying  in  particular  the  works  of 
Michael  Augclo,  and  in  177S  returned  to  England. 
In  1790  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  lloyal 
.\cademy,  where,  nine  ye.ars  later,  he  became  pro- 
I 'ssor  of  painting.  He  died  at  Putney  Hill,  near 
London,  16th  April  1S25,  and  was  buried  beside 
his  friend,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  St  Paul's.  His 
most  remarkable  works  are  '  The  Ghost  of  Dion,' 
from  Plutarch  ;  '  Lady  Macbeth  ; '  '  Hercules  and  the 
Horses  of  Diomedcs ; '  and  his  '  Milton's  Gallery,' 
comprising  47  designs  from  Paradise  Lost.  F.'a 
imagination  was  bold,  but  coarse  ;  he  had  more 
genius  than  art  ;  and  his  execution  was  often  spas- 
modic in  the  extreme.  His  art-criticism,  however, 
strange  to  say,  ranks  among  the  best  in  the  lan- 
guage. Uis  literary  works,  with  a  narrative  of  his 
life,  were  published  by  Knowles  (3  vols.,  London, 
1831). 

FUSIBI'LITY.  With  few  exceptions,  all  solids 
which  can  bear  a  high  temperature  without  under- 
going chemical  change,  may  be  melted.  Many  sub- 
stances which  are  popularly  regarded  as  infusible 
— as,  for  example,  platinimi  and  llint — readily  fuse 
before  the  oxj'hydi-ogen  blow-pipe,  or  between  the 
poles  of  a  powerful  galvanic  battery ;  even  carbon 
lias  been  partially  fused  by  the  last-n.amed  means. 
There  are  many  substances  which  cannot  be  melted 
because  they  are  decomposed  by  the  action  of  heat. 
Thus,  wood  and  many  other  organic  compounds  are 
decomposed  into  certain  gases,  which  escape,  and 
into  carbon  and  fixed  salts,  which  are  left.  Simi- 
larly, carbonate  of  lime  (chalk)  is  decomposed  into 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  lime  at  a,  temperature  below 
its  fusing-point.  If,  however,  we  prevent  the  g.as 
from  escaping  by  confining  the  carbonate  of  lime 
in  a  hermetically  closed  gun-barrel,  it  can  be  melted 
at  a  high  furnace-heat. 

A  table  of  '  The  Order  of  Fusibility  of  the  Metals' 
is  given  by  Miller  in  his  Elements  of  Clieniistry,  2d 
edition,  voL  ii.  p.  294. 

FUSIBLE  IMETAL.  Fusible  metal  is  composed 
of  2  p.art3  of  bismuth,  I  of  lead,  and  1  of  tin.  It 
fuses  at  201"  F.,  becoming  pasty  before  it  completely 
melts.  It  expands  in  a  very  anomalous  maimer ; 
its  bulk  increases  regularly  from  32°  to  95° ;  it 
then  contracts  gradually  to  131'  ;  it  then  cxjiands 
rapidly  till  it  reaches  176°,  and  from  th.at  jioint  till 
it  meits,  its  expansion  is  unifonn.  The  faculty  of 
expanding  as  it  cools,  while  still  in  a  comparatively 
soft  st.ate,  renders  the  aUoy  very  serviceable  to  the 
die-sinker,  who  employs  it  to  test  the  accuracy  of 
his  die,  every  line  being  faithfully  reproduced  in 
the  cast  made  of  the  alloy.  The  proportions  of 
the  three  metals  are  sometimes  vai-ied,  and  another 
formula  is  given  in  the  table  in  Fusing  axd 
Freezing  Poixre. 

FUSIL  (Fr.  fusee,  a  spindle)  is  represented 
herahiically  as  longer  and  more  acute  than  a 
Lozenge  {q.  v.). 

FUSILIE'RS  w-ere  formerly  soldiers  armed  with 
a  lighter  fusil  or  musket  than  the  rest  of  the  army  ; 
but  at   present  all    regiments  of  foot    carry  the 


Enfield  rifle.  Fusilier  is  therefore  simply  a  his- 
torical title  borne  by  a  few  regiments — viz.,  the 
Scots  Fusilier  Guards,  the  5th  Korthumberland,  7th 
Royal,  21st  North  British,  23d  Welsh,  87th  Irish, 
101st  and  104th  Bengal,  102d  Maibas,  and  103d 
Bombay  Fusiliers. 

FUSING    AND     FREEZING     POINTS     are 

terms  applied  to  the  temperature  at  which  solids 
assume  the  liquid  form,  and  liquids  become  solid. 
The  following  table  gives  some  of  the  best  deter- 
minations of  the  fusing-point : 


Mercury,  . 

.     —39° 

Alloj-  (ISn,2ni),      . 

23r)<' 

Oil  of  vitriol, 

—30° 

.-      (3Sn,21'b), 

ssa- 

Bi'omlnc, 

9»-5 

Tin,         .        .        . 

4.'il"' 

Oil  of  turpentine, 

W 

Bismutb,     . 

S12'> 

Ice,  . 

3'~ 

Nitrate  of  soda, 

Ml" 

I.ard,    . 

9I» 

Lead,  . 

020° 

riiospliorup,    . 

.      111°5 

Nitrate  of  potash,  . 

C42'> 

Potassium,  . 

136» 

Zinc,   . 

773» 

Yellow  wax,    . 

.     143'>-6 

Antimony,  (about) 

900° 

Stearic  acid, 

158' 

Silver, 

17;3» 

Sodiiini,  . 

.     207°-- 

Copper,  . 

1996° 

I'uslblc  metal  (5Pb,3Sn, 

Gold,  . 

201  P> 

8Bi),     . 

212° 

Cast  iron. 

2780° 

Iodine, 

226»4 

Wrought  iron,  higher 

Sulphur, 

239° 

than   . 

3280° 

We  see  from  this  table  that  alloys  may  have  a 
fusing-point  far  below  that  of  any  of  the  metals 
which  enter  into  their  composition.  Simil.arly, 
mixtures  of  v.arious  silicates  fuse  at  a  temper.aturo 
far  below  that  which  is  required  to  melt  any  one 
of  them,  and  the  same  remark  appUes  to  mixtures 
of  various  chlorides,  carbonates,  &c. 

Most  solids,  when  heated  to  their  fusing-point, 
change  at  once  into  perfect  liquids ;  but  some — as, 
for  example,  platinum,  iron,  glass,  phosjihoric  acid, 
the  resins,  and  many  others — pass  through  an 
intermediate  pasty  condition  before  they  attain 
perfect  fluidity,  and,  in  these  cases,  it  is  drffictUt,  if 
not  impossible,  to  determine  the  exact  fusing-point. 
This  intermediate  condition  is  termed  vitreous  fusion, 
because  it  is  a  characteristic  property  of  glass.  It 
is  in  this  intermediate  state  that  glass  is  worked, 
and  iron  and  jilatinuni  forged. 

As  a  geneiiil  nUe,  the  freezing-point  is  the  same 
as  the  fusing-point — that  is  to  sa}',  if  a  substance  in 
the  liquid  fonn  be  cooled  below  the  fusing-point,  it 
again  becomes  solid ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which 
we  can  cool  a  liquid  several  degrees  below  its  fusing- 
point  ;  thus,  by  keeping  water  perfectly  still,  we 
can  cool  it  to  5',  or  even  to  1''4  before  it  freezes. 
If,  however,  we  drop  a  solid  body  into  water  in  this 
condition,  or  if  we  shake  the  vessel  containing  it, 
congelation  begins  at  once,  .and  the  temperature 
rises  to  32°.  This  phenomenon  is  exhibited  to  a 
still  greater'dcgree  in  \Tscid  fluids,  like  the  oils. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  freezing-point  of  water 
is  depressed  by  the  presence  of  salts.  Thus,  sea- 
water  freezes  at  about  26''6,  and  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt  must  be  cooled  as  low  as 
4 '  before  freezing.  Despretz  has  given  the  freezing- 
jioiuts  of  various  saline  solutions  at  different  degrees 
of  concentration  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Comptes 
Jiendus,  p.  4;J5. 

FU'STIAN,  a  cotton  fabric  having  a  pUo  like 
velvet,  but  shorter,  and  which  is  manufactiu-ed  in 
nearly  the  same  manner  as  velvet — viz.,  by  leaving 
loops  standing  upon  the  face  of  the  fabric,  and 
then  cutting  them  tlirough  so  .as  to  form  ujiright 
threads,  which  are  afterwards  smoothed  by  shearing, 
singeing,  anil  brushing.     See  Velvet. 

FLTSTIC,  a  name  given  to  tivo  kinds  of  dye-wood 
used  for  producing  a  yellow  colour,  and  with  chemi- 
cal additions,  other  colours,  such  as  brown,  olive, 
and  green.  The  name  seems  to  be  derived  from  the 
French  FuMet,  the  name  of  the  Venice  Sumach 
[P/ius  cotiiuis,  see  SuiLvcn),  a  shrub  found  in  tho 


FUStrS-FUTTYG  URH. 


south  of  Eiiroiie :  and  to  have  been  transferreil  to 
a  very  diffcrtMit  plaut,  the  Madura  tindoria  o{  Don, 
or  Morua  tiiiduria.  a  tree  of  the  natural  order 
JUnracrir,  a  native  cf  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Brazil, 
Columbia,  &o.  The  fustic  is  a  large  and  handsome 
tri'C,  the  wood  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  colour,  and  is 
sometimes  used  in  mosaic  cabinet-work  and  turuini;, 
but  chiefly  in  dyeing.  About  10.000  tons  are 
iinwrted  anmially  into"  Britain.  The  tree  is  ii;u-ticu- 
larly  .ibundant  in  C'ani]>eachy.  The  wood  contains 
a  great  quantity  of  colouring  matter,  which  forms 
the  most  diirai)le  of  vegetable  yellow  dy<'S  ;  but 
as  the  colour  is  rather  dull,  it  is  more  used  for 
producing  other  colours.  The  name  Old  Fustic 
IS  sometimes  given  to  it,  and  Youxo  FcsTic  to 
the  wood  of  "/lliiis  eotiims.  These  terms  began 
to  be  employed  about  the  beginning  of  last  centmy, 
from  the  mi.stakcn  notion  fliat  the  one,  in  small 
pieces,  was  the  wood  of  the  young  tree,  and  the 
other,  in  comparatively  lar^e  logs,  of  the  same  tree 
in  a  more  mature  state.— The  Osagk  Or.vxge  (q.  v.) 
of  North  America  (Madura  auraiUiaca)  is  nearly 
allied  to  old  fustic,  and  its  wood  also  atforils  a 
yellow  dye. 

Old  Fustic,  or  Yellow  Wood,  is  employed  for 
dyeing  woollens  yellow,  and  also  to  ijnpart  to  them 
green  and  olive  colours  when  mixed  with  indigo 
and  salts  of  iron.  It  furnishes  a  yellow  colouring 
matter,  which  may  be  obtained  in  crystals  by 
evaporating  its  watery  solution.  This  substance 
is  tenncd  moritannic  acid,  and  its  comjiosition  is 
represented  by  the  formida  C';ollic0.jo-  The 
bichromates  of  potash  and  of  lead  have  to  a  great 
degree  superseded  the  use  of  Old  Fustic. 

Young  Fustic  is  the  wood  of  Jihiis  cotiiiu^  or 
Venetian  sumadi.  It  contains  a  ycUow  colouring 
matter,  to  which  the  name  Fuslcric  has  been  given. 
It  is  generall3'  used  in  combination  with  other 
dyes,  in  order  to  strike  some  partieidar  tint. 

FUSUS  (Lat.  a  spindle),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
molluscs  nearly  allied  to  Mtirex  (q.  v.),  having  a 
spindle-shaped  shell,  mth  a  very  elevated  spire,  the 
first  whorl  often  much  dilated,  and  a  straight  elon- 
gated canaL  The  whorls  are  not  crossed  by  varices, 
as  in  Murex.  The  species  were  formerly,  however, 
mcluded  in  that  genus.  About  100  e.xistmg  species 
have  been  described,  and  more  than  three  times  that 
number  of  fossU  ones.  The  existing  species  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  world,  liNang  generally  on 
muddy  and  sandy  sea-bottoms  at  no  great  depths. 


Koarlng  Buckie,  as  used  by  the  Zetlanders. 

i^.  ani'ujuus  is  known  in  the  south  of  England  as 
the  Ked  Whelk,  and  in  Scotland  as  the  Koauino 
Buckie,  from  the  continuous  sound — as  of  waves 
breaking  on  the  shore — heard  when  the  em])ty  shell 
is  applied  to  the  ear.  In  the  cottages  of  Zetland, 
the  shell,  generally  about  six  inches  long,  is  used  for 
SCI 


a  lamp,  being  suspended  horizontally  by  a  cord,  its 
cavity  cont;uuiug  the  oil,  and  the  %rick  passing 
through  t)ie  canal.  This  mollusc  is  often  dredgoil 
up  with  oysters.  It  is  eaten  by  the  poor,  but  is 
more  generally  used  as  bait  for  cod,  skates,  &c. 

This  genus  makes  its  first  appearance  in  the 
Oolite,  in  which  10  species  have  been  noticed.  The 
nuinbei-s  increase  to  35  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks, 
to  100  in  the  Eocene,  and  to  150  in  the  Miocene  and 
I'liocene. 

FUTA'K,  a  town  of  Lower  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  the  Lower  Bacs,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  iu  lat.  45°  15'  N.,  and  long. 
19°  42'  W.  It  has  a  beautifid  castle  and  garden, 
and  the  inhabitants  grow  vegetiibles  and  tobacco 
extensively.  F.  has  a  great  trade  iu  corn,  and  h;w 
a  fair  in  November,  frequented  by  merchants  from 
Turkey,  Greece,  and  Armenia.     Pop.  7S00. 

FUTEHGU'NGE  (iu  English,  Vidorii  Marhl) 
is  the  name  of  two  places  in  llohilcund,  the  scenes 
respectively,  as  the  name  implies,  of  two  battles 
gained  by  the  British  over  the  Itohillas. — 1.  Eastern 
v.,  a  town  of  the  district  of  Baredlv,  is  situated  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  Bhagal,  iu  lat.  28'  4'  N.,  and 
long.  79°  42'  E.  The  action,  from  which  this  spot  is 
designated,  was  fought  in  1774,  giving  to'the  Nawflb 
of  Oude,  then  an  ally  of  the  English  East  India 
Ctmipany,  a  large  part  of  Kohilcund  ;  and  it  was,  in 
fact,  to  commemorate  that  event,  that  Eastern  F. 
was  built  by  that  prince. — 2.  Western  F.,  a  town 
also  of  the  district  of  Bareilly,  is  situated  in  lat.  28° 
28'  N.,  and  long.  79°  24'  E.  The  conflict  that  dis- 
tinguished this  locality  occurred  in  1796.  The  only 
eminence  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  most  hotly  con- 
tested point  in  the  struggle,  bears  twofold  testimony 
to  the  story,  in  the  memorials  of  those  who  fell — a 
plain  and  simple  monument  of  fourteen  British 
officers,  and  a  carved  and  minaretcd  tomb  of  two 
EohUla  chieftains. 

FUTTEHPU'R,  a  town  of  the  Doab,  on  the 
great  trunk-road  between  Calcutta  and  Delhi,  stands 
iu  lat.  25°  57'  N.,  and  long.  80°  54'  E.,  70  miles 
north-west  of  Allahabad,  and  50  miles  to  the  south- 
east of  Cawnpore.  It  is  a  thriving  place,  with 
about  16,000  inhabitants.  Besides  the  buildings 
belonging  to  the  civil  establishment  of  the  district 
of  its  own  name,  it  contains  a  small,  but  very 
elegant  mosque. 

FUTTEHPUR,  the  district  of  which  the  town 
of  the  preceding  article  is  the  capital,  lies  wholly 
within  the  Doab,  and  occupies  its  entire  breadth 
from  Jumna  to  Ganges.  It  extends  immediately  to 
the  west  of  the  district  of  Allahabad,  in  lat.  from 
25°  25'  to  26°  13'  N.,  and  in  long,  from  80°  12' 
to  81°  23'  E.,  containmg  1583  square  miles,  and 
512,000  inhabitants.  It  yields  large  quantities  of 
cotton,  and  by  means  of  its  bordering  rivers,  and  a 
branch  of  the  Gauges  Canal,  it  possesses  consider- 
able faculties  for  inland  navigation. 

FUTTUHA,  or  FUTWA,  a  town  of  12,000 
inhabitants,  in  the  district  of  Patna,  and  sub-presi- 
dency of  Bengal,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Punpun  and  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25°  .30'  N.,  and 
long.  85°  22'  E.  As  the  Ganges  is  here  deemed 
peculiarly  sacred,  F.  is,  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  the  resort  of  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims. 

FUTT\''GU'RH,  the  military  cantonment  of 
Furruckabad,  stands  about  three  miles  to  the  east 
di  that  city,  on  the  opposite  or  left  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  being  in  lat.  27"  22'  N.,  and  long.  79'  41' 
E.  Its  name  became  peculiarly  famous,  or  rather 
infamous,  in  the  mutiny  of  1857,  less,  however,  for 
the  outbreak  that  occurred  on  the  spot,  than  for 


FUTTYPUn— FVZAEAO. 


the  unparalleled  sufferings  of  tlic  hapless  fugitives 
— men,  women,  and  children. 

FUTTYPU'R,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Saufjor 
and  Xerbudda,  and  sub-presidency  of  the  North- 
west Pro\'ince.s,  stands  on  the  Unjon,  a  tributary 
of  the  Nerbudda,  about  20  miles  from  the  point  of 
junction,  being  in  lat.  22°  SS'  N.,  and  long.  7S"  38'  K 
It  is  a  place  of  some  im])ortancc,  as  being  the 
residence  of  three  Gond  rajahs. 

FUTURE  DEBT  is  a  debt  wherein  the  obUga- 
tion  ti)  )).ay  and  the  time  for  payment  is  fixed  ami 
certain,  but  the  day  for  performance  ha-s  not  arrived. 
Of  such  a  debt,  it  was  said  in  the  civil  law  difs  cedit 
etsi  nondum  venerit ;  and  it  was  distinguished  from 
a  contingent  debt,  i.  e.,  a  debt  payable  on  the  per- 
formance of  a  condition  which  was  uncertain,  in 
which  it  was  said  dies  nee  adit  nee  ren'd.  Thus,  an 
oblig.ation  to  pay  six  months  hence  is  a  futiu-e  debt ; 
an  obligation  to  pay '  if  my  ship  returns  from  Spain,' 
is  contingent.  In  the  event  of  the  death  or  bank- 
ruptcy of  a  person  haWng  large  commercial  trans- 
actions, it  is  often  of  great  importance  that  the  right 
of  the  holders  of  sjich  securities  should  be  accurately 
fixed.  In  Itome,  on  the  death  or  liankmptcy  of 
a  citizen,  a  creditor  holding  a  claim  for  a  future 
debt  was  entitled  to  pajTneut,  deducting  a  per- 
centage proportionate  to  tlie  date  at  which  his  debt 
was  payable  ;  but  a  contingent  creditor  only  received 
a  security  for  payment  in  case  his  debt  shouhl 
become  payable.  This  general  principle  has  been 
introduced  into  the  legal  systems  of  modem  states. 
In  Holland  and  in  France,  the  rights  of  creditors 
having  claims  not  immetliately  payable  are  b.ased 
upon  the  rule  of  the  civil  law.  In  England,  a  future 
debt,  in  order  to  found  a  valid  claim,  must  be  in 
writing,  but  it  may  be  constituted  by  bond,  bdl,  or 
note  or  other  security.  By  common  law,  such  a 
claim  could  not  be  enforced  until  the  actual  time 
for  payment  has  arrived  ;  and  formerly,  in  case  of 
banki'uptey,  a  creditor  on  a  debt  of  this  kind  was  not- 
allowed  to  insist  in  his  claun.  At  the  same  time, 
the  banki'upt's  tlischarge  was  held  not  to  release 
him  from  a  debt  which  had  not  l>ecn  admitted  to 
claim  in  the  process  ;  and  hence  debtors  were  some- 
times ine.arcer.ated  for  years  on  debts  which  they 
were  wholly  imable  to  lUscharge.  See  iMrr.isos- 
MENT  FOR  Debt.  This  st.ate  of  things  was  jiro- 
ductive  of  manifest  injustice  on  both  debtor  and 
creditor;  on  the  latter,  l>y  excluding  him  from 
insisting  in  his  claim  at  a  time  when  he  might  have 
obtained  a  p.artial  payment ;  on  the  former,  by 
pimishing  him  for  his  default  when  he  was  deprived 
of  the  means  of  making  any  return.  The  subject 
was  frequently  discussed  in  parliament  before  a 
remedy  was  applied.  At  last,  by  G  Geo.  IV.  c.  16, 
s.  51,  it  was  enacted  that,  in  cases  of  bankniptcy, 
where  a  del»t  was  not  immediately  i)ayal>le,  the 
creditor  should  be  entitled  to  prove  his  debt,  and 


receive  a  diWdend,  deducting  interest  at  5  per  cent, 
for  the  period  which  was  to  elapse  before  the  date 
when  the  debt  was  payable  in  due  course.  By  s. 
5G,  debts  payable  on  a  contingency  might  be  valued, 
and  a  dividend  paid  on  the  estimated  value.  .Similar 
proWsions  were  inserted  in  the  12  and  l.'i  Vict.  c. 
190,  ."s.  172  and  177.  By  the  last  bankruptcy  act, 
24  and  25  Vict.  c.  l.'J4,  s.  153,  it  is  enacted  that  a 
person  having  a  claim  for  unliquidated  damages, 
which  are  of  the  nature  of  a  future  debt,  may  have 
his  claim  assessed  by  a  jury  either  in  the  court  of 
equity,  c?  before  a  common-law  judge,  or,  in  case 
of  agreement  between  the  parties,  by  the  coui-t 
without  a  jiu-y. 

By  the  common  law  of  Scotland,  the  nde  of  the 
ci\Tl  law,  as  to  the  rights  of  creditors  having  a 
future  claim,  has  .always  been  recognised.  In  the 
event  of  bankj'uptcy,  creditors  in  both  future  and 
contingent  debts  are  allowed  to  rank,  but  the  latter 
only  to  the  extent  of  receiving  a  security  until  the 
condition  is  ]>urified.  ^But  by  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  79, 
s.  53,  which  is  now  the  ruling  statute  as  to  bank- 
ruptcy in  Scotland,  contingent  creditors  may  have 
their  debts  valued,  and  m.ay  vote  in  the  Sequestra- 
tion (q.  v.),  and  draw  dividends  ]tro])ortionate  to  the 
valuation.  It  is  also  enacted,  s.  14,  that  all  crethtora 
whose  debts  are  not  cuiiliii'jenl.  m.ay  concur  in  the 
petition  for  bankruptcy.  But  the  Scotch  law  affords 
to  future  debtors  a  further  pri\ilege,  unknown  to 
the  system  of  the  sister-country — viz.,  that  of 
arrestment  in  seciu'ity,  whereby  a  creditor  having  a 
future  claim  is  enaljled,  in  case  his  debtor  seem  to 
be  wilfully  diminishing  his  means  of  discharging  his 
debt,  to  attach  the  goods  of  the  debtor  as  a  security 
for  the  payment  of  his  debt.     See  Akeestmext. 

FYXE,  Locn,  an  arm  of  the  sea  running  north 
and  north-east  from  the  .Sound  of  Bute,  in  the  south 
of  Ai'gyleshire,  to  beyond  Inverary,  in  the  north,  and 
is  bounded  by  the  district  of  Cowal  on  the  E.,  and 
by  those  of  Argyle,  Knapdale,  and  part  of  Cantne 
on  the  W.  It  is  43  miles  long,  2  to  10  miles  broad, 
and  40  to  70  fathoms  deep.  Its  shores  are  deeply 
indented,  and  bordered  by  low  b.are  hills,  which 
I'ise  higher  and  are  wooded  ne.ar  Inverarj-.  On  the 
west  side,  it  sends  ofl'  a  small  branch  leading  to 
the  Crinan  Carnal  Loch  F.  is  celebrated  for  its 
herrmgs. 

FYZABA'D,  a  rapidly  decaying  city  of  Oude, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ghogra,  here  a 
navig.able  river,  in  lat.  26°  47'  N*.,  and  long.  82°  10'  E. 
Origin.ally  an  appendage,  as  it  were,  of  Ayodha  or 
Oude,  the  ancient  capital  from  which  the  coimtry 
took  its  name,  F.  became,  in  1730,  itself  the  seat 
of  government.  But  in  1775,  immedi.ately  after  the 
annexation  of  part  of  I'ohilcuud  (see  Fctehoun'ge), 
it  w.as  supplanted  by  Lucknow,  which  lay  about  90 
miles  to  the  west,  in  the  direction  of  the  newly 
acqiured  territory. 


G 


THE  seveuth  letter  in  the  Roman 
aliihabet,  aud  in  the  modern  alphabets 
:^  derived  from  it.  For  the  history 
g^^_,  "  of  the  character,  see  Alphabet  and 
<^jji^  letter  C.  The  original  and  proper 
^e  sound  of  G  (corresponding  to  Gr.  7)  is 
Y>r/'cf"  that  heard  in  ;]un,  /jive,  glad.  But  the 
^  C^  same  natural  process  which  timied  the 
(^  i'-sound  of  c  before  e  and  i  into  that  of  « 
i  (see  C),  produced  a  similar  change  on  G,  so 
that  before  e  and  i  it  came  to  be  pronounced 
by  the  Latins  like  dzJi.  The  sibilation  of  the 
letter  g  before  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  had  begim  as 
early  as  the  4th  c.  A.  D.,  as  is  evident  from  the 
misspelling  in  inscriptions ;  in  the  case  of  c,  the 
change  can  be  detected  much  earlier.  From  the 
Latin,  the  rf;/i-sound  of  g  jjassed  into  the  Romanic 
tongues,  and  also  into  English.  As  a  general  rule 
in  English,  in  words  derived  from  the  classical  and 
Romanic  languages,  g  has  the  hissing  sound  before 
e,  i,  and  y ;  it  has  its  natural  soimd  in  all  words 
before  a,  0,  and  u;  and  it  retains  it  in  Teutonic 
words  even  before  e  and  i. 

G,  in  its  proper  power,  belongs  to  the  order  of 
guttiu'als,  /;  or  e,  g,  ch,  gh;  of  the  two  'bare' 
gutturals,  g  is  the  flai  (or  medial),  and  k  the 
sliarp ;  while  gh  and  ch  are  the  corresponding 
Aspirates  (q.v.). 

The  following  are  some  of  the  interchanges 
between  g  and  other  letters  :  Lat.  ager,  Gr.  agros, 
Eng.  aa-e,  Ger.  acker ;  Gr.  triakonta,  Lat.  triginta ; 
Gr.  gonu,  Lat.  genu,  Eng.  knee  ;  Lat.  (g)nosco,  Gr.  gi- 
gnosco,  Eng.  know ;  Lat.  genus,  Eng.  im  ;  Gr.  chen, 
Ger.  gang,  Eng.  goose  and  gander;  Lat,  hesternus, 
Ger.  gesiern,  Eng.  yesler  (day) ;  Lat.  grrmanus.  Span. 
liermano.  The  convertibility  of  g  and  y  is  seen 
in  the  old  English  participles  in  y,  as  yclad,  corre- 
sponding to  Sax.  and  Ger.  ge- ;  in  Ger.  gelb,  Eng. 
yellow;  Ger.  tag,  Eng.  day;  Ger.  mag,  Eng.  may; 
yaie  for  gate;  yard  for  garden,  Lat.  liortns.  In 
Italian,  gi  is  substituted  for  j,  as  Oiulio  for 
Julius  ;  and  in  French,  which  has  no  w,  that  letter 
is  represented  by  gu,  as  guerre,  guarder,  for 
Eng.  war,  ward  or  guard.  G  has  been  frequently 
dropt  out,  as  Lat. '  nosco  for  gnosco  :  Eng.  enough, 
compared  with  Ger.  genug  ;  agone,  with  ge-gangen  ; 
Lat.  magister,  Fr.  maistre  or  mailre,  Eng.  master. 
May,  Lat.  Mahis,  contracted  from  Magiuji,  is  from 
a  root  mag,  or  (Sans.)  mah,  to  grow :  so  that  May  is 
just  the  season  of  growth. 

G,  in  Music,  is  the  fifth  sound  of  the  natural 
diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  the  eighth  sound  of  the 
cliromatic  scale.  It  stands  in  proportion  to  C  as  2 
to  3 ;  is  a  perfect  fifth  above  C,  and  the  second 
harmonic  arising  from  0  as  a  fundamental  note. 
In  the  solmisation  of  Guido  Aretinus,  the  note  G 
was  called  Sol,  Re,  or  Ut,  according  as  the  hexa- 
chord  began  with  C,  F,  or  G.  G  major  ay  a  key 
has  one  sharp  at  its  signature,  viz.,  F  sharp.  6 
minor  has  two  flats  at  its  signature,  viz.,  B  flat  and 
Eilat.  ° 

GAAL,  JozsEF,  a  Hungarian  author,  was  born  at 


Nagy  Karoly  in  1811,  studied  at  the  college  of 
Buda,  and  at  the  imiversity  of  Pesth,  and  entered 
soon  aftenvards  the  administrative  career,  being 
attached  to  the  Hungarian  C'oimcil  of  Lieutenancy. 
G.  began  ■HTiting  eai'ly,  and  proved  equally  success- 
fid  when  gossiping  in  the  colimins  of  Kossuth's 
famous  Pesti  Jlirlap,  and  when  engaged  in  translat- 
ing a  masterpiece  of  Cervantes,  filling  the  periotlicals 
with  tales  aud  novels,  or  furnishing  original  works 
for  the  National  Theatre.  The  sketches  of  country- 
life  as  it  was,  and  as  it  stUl  continues  on  the 
vast  plains  of  Huugaiy,  are  nowhere  to  be  found 
more  vividly  and  more  truly  exhibited  than  in  G.'s 
comedies  and  tales.  The  following  are  some  of 
G.'s  oriffinal  compositions  :  Szirmay  Jlona,  a  novel 
in  2  vols.  (Pesth,  1836);  Peteskei  Noiarius  (The 
Xotary  of  Peleske,  Pesth,  1S38),  a  comedy  in  four 
acts — might  be  called  Oie  Hungarian  comedy  par 
excellence  ;  Szvatophik,  a  tragedy  in  five  acts. 
Tales :  Pusztai  Kaland  (An  Adventure  on  the 
Hungarian  Prairies)  ;  Tengeri  Kaland  az  Al/oel- 
doen  (Seafaring  Adventures  in  Lower  Hungary) ; 
HoHobdgyi  ejszaka  (A  Night  on  the  Heath  of 
HortobiCT).  During  the  sojourn  of  the  Hmigarian 
Diet  at  Debreczin  (1849),  G.  was  editor  of  a  journal 
combating  extreme  radical  views. 

GA'BBRO,  the  name  given  by  Italian  geologists 
to  a  variety  of  greenstone  composed  of  felspar  and 
diallage.  It  is  equivalent  to  euphotide  or  diallage 
rock. 

GABELENTZ,  ILucs  CoKOJf  von  deb,  a  distin- 
guished German  philologist,  was  born  at  Alten- 
burg,  13th  October  1807,  and  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Leipsic  and  Giittingen.  In  1833,  he 
published  his  Elements  de  la  Orammaire  Mandsehoue, 
a  new  gi'ammar,  in  which  the  entire  idiomatic 
character  of  that  language  was  developed  in  concise 
rules.  He  had,  moreover,  a  share  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  journal  devoted  to  Oriental  science 
{Zeitsclirift  fiir  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes),  and 
contributed  to  it  some  interesting  papers  on  the 
Mongolian  language.  Along  -n-ith  J.  Liibe,  he  also 
pubUshed  a  critical  edition  of  the  Gothic  translation 
of  the  Bible  by  Ulfilas,  with  a  Latin  translation, 
and  with  a  Gothic  glossary  and  grammar  appended 
(Leipsic,  1843— 184G).  G.  was  also  the  first  phil- 
ologist in  Germany  who  undertook  a  scientific  treat- 
ment of  the  dialects  of  the  Finnish-Tartar  stem. 
Besides  a  Syrjan  grammar  {Grundzuye  dcr  Syrjiin- 
isehen  Gramrnatik,  Altenbm-g,  1841),  he  fm-nished 
contributions  to  periodicals  on  the  Mordrinian  and 
Samoyed  languages.  He  has  since  pubUshed  some 
contributions  to  the  science  of  language  (Beilriige 
zur  Sprachenktindc).  The  first  tlu-ec  parts  were 
issued  in  18.52,  aud  the  first  volume  of  a  collection 
of  his  Philological  Fragments  (Spracliwissenscliajl- 
liche  Fragment!-)  appeared  in  1859,  and  a  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Passive  Voice  ( Ueher  das  Passivum,  Bine 
Upraclivergleichende  Abliandlung)  in  1860. 

6ABELLE,  a  French  word,  derived  from  the 
German  Oabe,  gift  or  tribute,  and  origmally  used  in 


GABION— GABIUEL. 


Gabion. 


a  general  way  to  designate  every  kind  of  indirect 
tax,  but  more  especially  the  tax  upon  salt.  This 
impost,  first  established  ill  I'iSO,  in  tlie  reign  of 
Philippe  IV.,  was  meant  to  be  only  temporary, 
but  Wiis  declared  perpetual  by  Charles  V.  It 
varied  in  the  dilTerent  provinces.  Those  that  were 
most  heavily  taxed  were  called  pays  tie  (jrande 
(labdlf,  and  tliose  that  were  least  heavily  taxed,  pays 
de  pMte  (jabdie.  It  was  unpopular  from  the  very 
first,  and  the  attempt  to  collect  it  occasioned  fre- 
quent disturbances.  It  was  finally  sujijiressed  in 
17S9.  The  name  r/aheloiis  is,  however,  still  given  by 
the  common  people  in  France  to  tax-gatherers. 

GABION  (Ital.  (jahhia,  related  to  Lat.  cavea, 
hollow),  a  hollow  cylinder  of  basket-work,  employed 
ill  field  or  temporary  fortification,  and  varying  in 
size  from  a  diameter  of  20  inches  to  6  feet,  with  a 
height  of  from  2  feet  9  inches  to  G  feet.  In  con- 
structing it,  stout  straight  .stakes  are  placed  upright 
in  the  ground  iu  a  circle  of  the  required  diameter, 
and  are  theu  wattled  together  with  osiers  or  green 
twigs,  aa  iu  the  formation  of  baskets.  The  appa- 
ratus being  raised,  wlien  completed,  from  the  gi-ouiid, 
tlie  ends  are  fastened,  and  the 
gabion  is  ready  to  be  rolled  to 
any  place  where  it  is  desir.alile  to 
fonu  a  breast-work  against  tlic 
enemy.  Placed  on  end,  and 
filled  with  earth,  a  single  row 
of  gabions  is  proof,  except  at 
the  ])oint3  of  junction,  against 
musketry  fire,  and  by  increasing 
the  number  of  rows,  any  degree 
of  security  can  be  obtained.  The  gabion  has 
the  advantage  of  being  highly  portable,  fi-om  its 
shape,  while  with  its  aid  a  parapet  can  be  formed 
■with  far  less  earth,  and  therefore  iu  less  time,  than 
in  cases  Avhen  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  the 
slopes  on  both  sides,  which  are  necessarily  present 
ill  ordinary  earthen  walls.  The  sap-roller  consists 
of  two  concentric  gabions,  one  4  feet,  the  other  2 
feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  space  between 
them  wedged  full  of  pickets  of  hard  wood.  In 
sapping  (see  Mines),  these  serve  as  substitutes  for 
mantlets. 

fluffed  gabions  are  gabions  rammed  fiUl  of  broken 
branches  and  small  wood ;  being  light  in  weight, 
they  are  rolled  before  soldiers  in  the  trenches,  and 
afford  some,  though  not  a  very  efficient,  protection 
against  musketry  fire. 

Gabionmule  is  a  line  of  gabions  thi'oivu  up  by 
troops  as  a  defence,  after  beinj;-  driven  back  from 
other  more  solid  positions.  In  carrying  a  well- 
defended  fortress,  gabionnade  after  gabionnadc  has 
sometimes  to  be  stormed  before  the  besieged  can  be 
compelled  to  surrender. 

GABTjK,  the  triangular  part  of  an  exterior  wall 
of  a  building  Ijetweeu  the  top  of  the  side-walls  and 
the  slopes  of  the  roof.  The  whole  wall  of  whicli 
the  gable  forms  the  top  is  called  a  gable-end  ;  party- 
walls,  or  the  walls  which  separate  two  contiguous 
houses,  and  which  belong  equally  to  both  houses, 
are  called  in  Scotland  '  mutual  gables.' 

Tlie  gable  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
characteristic  features  of  Gothic  architecture.  The 
end  walls  of  cl.ossic  buildings  had  Pedinients  (q.  v.), 
which  followed  the  slope  of  the  roofs,  but  these 
were  always  low  in  pitch.  In  medieval  architecture, 
gables  of  every  angle  are  used  with  the  utmost 
freedom,  and  when  covered  with  the  moulded  and 
crocketed  copes  of  the  richer  periods  of  the  style, 
give  great  variety  and  beauty  of  outUnc. 

Cablets,  or  small  gables,  are  used  iu  great  profu- 
sion in  the  more  decorative  parts  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, such   as    canojiies,  pinnacles,  &c.,   where 


they  are  introduced  in  endless  variety  along  with 
tracery,  crockets,  and  other  enrichments. 

Tlie  towns  of  the  midtUe  ages  hatl  almost  all  the 
gables  of  the  houses  towards  tlic  streets,  producing 
great  diversity  and  iiicturesqueness  of  effect,  as  may 
still  be  seen  in  many  towns  wliich  have  lieen  little 
modernised.  The  towns  of  Belgium  and  Germany 
especially  still  retain  this  medieval  arrangement. 
In  the  later  Gothic  and  the  I'enaissance  periotls, 
the  simple  outline  of  the  gable  became  stepped 
and  brokeu  in  the  most  fantastic  manner.  See 
Corbie  Steps.  . 

In  Scottish  law,  a  mutual  gable  or  party-wall, 
though  jiartly  built  on  the  adjoining  property, 
belongs  to  the  builder,  and  he  can  prevent  bis 
neighbour  from  availing  himself  of  it  for  the  support 
of  his  house,  until  lie  has  jiaid  li.alf  the  expense  of 
buikling  it.  For  the  law  of  England  on  this  subject, 
see  PAUTy-WALi- 

GABOO'N  RIVER,  The,  t.akes  its  rise  in  tlic 
Crystal  Mountains,  a  chain  in  Western  Africa,  run- 
ning almost  directly  east  and  west,  parallel  to,  and 
aliout  80  or  100  miles  distant  from,  the  coast.  Flow- 
ing first  in  the  direction  of  north  to  soutli,  it 
afterw.ards  curves  toward  the  north,  and  empties 
itself  into  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  about  0°  .30'  N.,  and 
long.  9°  10'  E.  Its  mouth  forms  a  bay  of  some  10 
or  12  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
7  to  1.5  miles.  The  total  length  of  the  river  is  said 
to  be  about  120  miles.  The  G.  is  deep  and  sluggish, 
the  mass  of  its  waters  being  tidal ;  00  miles  from 
its  mouth  the  tide  rises  to  a  height  of  from  seven  to 
nine  feet.  The  cHmate  is  unhealthy ;  lint  the  ]irofits 
of  the  trade  iu  ivory,  which  is  obtained  abundantly 
in  the  territories  through  which  the  river  Hows, 
induced  a  French  colony  to  settle  and  build  a  fort  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  in  1842  or  184.3.  In  the  same 
year,  an  American  mission,  which  still  continues  in 
active  operation,  was  established  at  Baraka,  about 
eight  miles  up  the  river.  The  Gaboon  country, 
besides  ivory — of  which,  when  the  home  demand  is 
brisk,  it  yields  about  80,000  pounds  annually — pro- 
duces ibar-wood,  a  dye-wood  from  which  a  dark- 
red  dye  is  obtained,  eliony,  and  copal  of  inferior 
quality.  The  banks  of  the  river,  from  its  source 
to  the  ocean,  are  occupied  by  about  a  dozen  tribes, 
chief  of  which  is  the  Mpongeve,  who  hold  its 
mouth.  This  division  of  territory  renders  the 
ivory  much  more  costly  than  it  otherwise  woidd  be, 
the  first  owners  iu  the  interior  not  being  allowed  to 
take  it  direct  to  the  white  trader  at  the  coast,  but 
compelled  to  transmit  it  through  the  hands  of  the 
intervening  tribes,  each  of  whom  makes  a  profit. 

GABRIEL  (Heb.  the  man  or  mighty  one  of  God) 
is,  in  the  Jewish  angelology,  one  of  the  seven  arch- 
angels. He  appears  iu  the  book  of  Daniel  as  the 
inteiin-eter  of  the  projihet's  ^■ision  (chap,  viii.),  and 
announces  the  future  appearance  of  the  Messiah 
(chap.  ix.  21 — 27).  In  the  New  Testament,  he 
reveals  to  Zacharias  the  bii'th  of  John  the  Baptist 
(Luke,  i.  11),  aud  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  birth  of 
Christ  (Luke,  i.  20).  According  to  the  Rabbins, 
he  is  the  angel  of  death  for  the  people  of  Israel, 
whose  souls  are  intrusted  to  his  care.  The  Tal- 
mud (Icscrilies  him  as  the  prince  of  fire,  and  aa 
the  spirit  iv'lio  presides  over  the  thunder  and  the 
ripening  of  fniits.  Wlien  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged 
.lerusalem,  G.  is  believed  to  have  entered  the  'X'emiile, 
by  command  of  Jehovah,  before  the  Assyrian 
soldiery,  aud  burned  it,  thereby  frustrating  their 
impious  intentions.  G.  has  also  the  reputation 
among  the  Rabbins  of  being  a  most  distinguished 
linguist,  ha^Tng  taught  Josejih  the  70  langu-ages 
spoken  at  Babel,  and  being,  iu  addition,  the  only 
angel  who  coiUd  speak  Chaldee  and  Sjniac.     The 


GACHATJD-GAELIC  LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATIRE. 


Mohammedans  hold  G.  in  even  greater  reverence 
than  the  Jews,  and  regard  him  as  the  chief  of  the 
four  most  favoured  angels  who  form  the  council  of 
God  ;  he  is  called  the  spirit  of  truth,  and  is  believed 
to  have  dictated  the  Koran  to  Mohammed. 

GACHARD,  Lons  Prosper,  principal  archivist 
of  Bel^num,  was  born  in  France  about  the  year  1800. 
He  was  originally  a  comjjositor ;  but  having  removed 
to  Beli;i»m),  he  Unik  jiart  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
was  naturalise<l  in  1S31.  In  the  same- year  he  was 
apjiointed  to  the  useful  and  honourable  jiost  which 
lie  still  retains  (1862).  G.  has  6i>cnt  much  time  iu 
examining  the  documents  relating  to  Belgian  history, 
■which  are  to  be  found  in  the  national  archives  and 
in  those  of  Spain.  His  princijial  writings  are,  Ana- 
lectes  Bdyiquei  (1830) ;  DocumenU  PolUu]ues  et  Diplo- 
malii[ues  mr  la  Ricolution  Beige  de  1790  (1834) ; 
ilimoirts  mr  Ug  BoUandistes  et  teurs  Travaur  depuU 
1773  jusqu'en  17S9  (1S47)  ;  Correspondance  de  Guil- 
laume  le  Tacilurne  (1847—1851) ;  Cormpondance  de 
PhUippe  II.,  siiT  le»  Affaires  des  Paye-Bas  (1848— 
1851) ;  Correspondance  du  Due  dAlbe  sur  rini-asion 
du  Conile  Louis  de  Sassau  en  Frise  (1850) ;  HelraiU 
et  Mori  de  Charles-Quint  (1854),  and  Rdation  des 
Troubles  de  Gand  sous  Cluirks-Quint  (1856).  Pres- 
cott,  the  American  historian,  speaks  highly  of  G., 
and  of  the  imjjortance  of  his  labours  iu  regard  to 
the  history  and  character  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  See  Prescott's  edition  of  Robertson's  History 
of  Charles  T.  (Boston,  1857).  Recently  (1859),  G. 
published  a  series  of  historical  documents  bearing 
unfavourably  upon  the  characters  of  Counts  Egmont 
and  Horn,  which  had  the  effect  of  stopping  pro- 
ceedings iu  regard  to  the  erection  of  a  national 
monument  to  these  two  noblemen. 

GAD,  the  first-bom  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  was 
the  seventh  son  of  Jacob.  His  name  is  differently 
explained. — The  tribe  of  Gad  numbered  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sinai  more  than  40,000  fighting-men. 
Nomadic  by  nature,  and  possessing  large  herds  of 
cattle,  they  preferred  to  remain  on  the  east  side  of 
Jordan,  and  were  reluctantly  allowed  to  do  so  by 
Joshua,  on  condition  of  assisting  their  countrjineu 
in  the  conquest  and  subjugation  of  Canaan.  Their 
territory  lay  to  the  north  of  that  of  Reuben,  and 
comprised  the  mountainous  district  known  as  GUead, 
through  which  flowed  the  brook  Jabbok,  touching 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  at  its  northern  extremity,  and 
reaching  as  far  east  as  Rabbath-Ammon.  The  men 
of  Gad — if  we  may  judge  from  the  eleven  warriors 
who  joined  David  in  his  extremity — were  a  race  of 
stalwart  heroes ;  '  men  of  might,  and  men  of  war 
fit  for  the  battle,  that  could  handle  shield  and 
buckler,  whose  faces  were  like  the  faces  of  lions,  and 
were  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the  mountains' 
(1  Chron.  xiL  8).  Jephthah  the  Gileadite,  Barzillai, 
Elijah  the  Tishbite,  and  Gad  '  the  seer,'  were  also  in 
all  probabilitj-  members  of  this  tribe. 

GADAMES,  or  more  accurately  GHADAltlES 
(the  C'jdamus  of  the  Ptomans),  the  name  of  an  oasis 
and  town  of  Africa,  the  centre  of  divergent  routes 
to  Tunis,  Tripoli,  Ghat,  and  Tidikelt,  is  situated  on 
the  northern  border  of  the  Sahara,  in  lat.  30°  9'  N., 
long.  9'  17'  E.,  on  the  south-western  boundary  of 
the  jiaahalic  of  Tripoli,  and  310  miles  south-west  of 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  contains  six  mosques 
and  seven  schools  ;  but  the  education  offered  to  the 
yo\mg  is  limited  to  the  reading  of  the  Koran  and 
a  little  Arabic  writing.  The  gardens  of  G.  grow 
dates,  barley,  wheat,  millet,  &c.,  and  are  watered 
by  the  hot  spring  (89'  Fah.),  from  which  the  town 
had  its  origin.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthy, 
though  very  hot  in  summer.  The  revenue  of  G., 
estimated  at  10,000  mahboobs  (£1700),  is  derived 
from  annual  tributes  lericd  on  property,  and  from 
(68 


custom  dues  and  tolls.  It  is  an  important  entreput 
for  manufactures  and  foreign  goods  frum  TrijKili  to 
the  interior,  and  for  exjHjrts  of  ivory,  bees-wax, 
hides,  ostnch-feathers,  gold,  4c.,  from  the  interior 
to  TrijKilL  Prerious  to  1856,  about  50 J  slaves, 
principally  females,  were  annually  imported  at  G.; 
but  iu  that  year  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  sultan, 
peremptordy  forbidding  the  traffic,  which  accord- 
ingly nas  been  completely  abolished.  Pop.  -lOOO, 
who  are  devoted  Mohammedans. 

GAD-FLY.     See  BoT  and  Tabakcs. 

GA'DID.i;,  an  important  family  of  malacoptcrous 
fishes,  having  a  moderately  elongated  bfxly  covered 
with  small  soft  scales,  the  head  naked,  the  tins  all 
soft  and  destitute  of  spines,  the  ventral  tins  placed 
under  the  throat  and  pointed,  one  dorsal  fin  or  more, 
the  air-bladder  large.  Some  of  the  species  are  small, 
but  others  attain  a  large  size.  To  this  family  belong 
the  Cod,  Ling,  Hake,  Dorse,  Haddock.  Whiting, 
Coal-fish,  Burbot,  &c  The  species  arc  widely  distri- 
buted. Most  of  them  are  marine.  A  few,  as  the 
Burbot,  are  fresh-water  fishes.  The  more  important 
species  are  separately  noticed. 

GA'DWALL  (Anas  sirepera,  or  C/iauliodus 
strepera),  a  species  of  duck,  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
mallard,  a  rare  visitant  of  Britain,  but  abundant  iu 
many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  equally 
so  in  Asia  and  in  Xorth  .\merica.  It  is  also  loimd 
in  the  north  of  Africa.  Being  a  bird  of  passage,  it  is 
a  native  both  of  arctic  and  of  tropical  regions.     The 


Gadwall  [Anas  slrcpcra). 

G.  breeds  in  marshes,  and  lays  from  seven  to  nine 
egffs.  Except  at  the  breeding  season,  it  is  usually 
seen  in  small  flocks,  and  an  indi%-idual  is  sometimes 
to  be  found  in  a  flock  of  other  ducks.  Its  voice  is 
loud  and  harsk  It  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table, 
and  is  common  in  the  London  market,  being  imported 
chiefly  from  Holland. 

G^A,  or  GE,  according  to  the  Greek  mj-tholojy. 
the  goddess  of  the  earth,  appears  in  Hesiod  as  the 
first-bom  of  Chaos,  and  the  mother  of  Uranus, 
Poutus,  and  many  other  gods  and  titans.  As  the 
vapours  which  were  supposed  to  produce  divine 
inspiration  rose  from  the  earth,  it  was  natiu-al  that 
G.  should  be  regarded  as  an  oracular  di^-inity  ;  and, 
iu  fact,  the  oracles  at  Delphi  and  Olj-mpia  were 
believed  to  have  belonged  to  her  in  the  earlier  ages 
of  their  history.  Her  worship  extended  over  all 
Greece,  and  she  had  temples  or  altars  in  most  of 
the  important  cities.  At  Rome,  G.  was  worshijiped 
under  the  name  of  Tellus. 

GAELIC  LANGUAGE  .utd  LITERATURE. 
The  term  Gaelic  (Gwyddelian  or  Gadhelie)  is  used 
in  two  senses.    In  its  wider  signification,  it  designates 


GAELIC  L.AJN'GUAGE  AND  LITERATUKE. 


the  northern  branch  of  the  Celtic  languages, 
comjireheuding  the  Irish,  the  Highlaiid-Scottisli, 
and  the  Manx.  .See  Celtic  Nations  and  Irish 
Langl-age  and  LiTEKATrKE.  In  its  narrower  sii,'ni- 
fication,  it  designates  the  Higldand-.Scottish  dialect, 
also  known  by  the  name  of  Erse  or  Irish.  Mr  W. 
F.  Skene,  one  of  the  latest  and  best  informed 
writers  on  the  subject,  holds  that  the  differences 
between  the  language  spoken  by  the  Seotcli  H  igh- 
lauders  and  the  language  spoken  by  the  native  Irish 
are  (1)  'partly  in  the  ])roiiuticiution,  where  the 
accentuation  of  the  language  is  different,  where  that 

Eeculiar  change  in  the  imtial  consonant,  produced 
y  the  intiueuce  of  the  jirevious  word,  and  termed 
by  the  Irish  grammarians  cclipsis,  is  unknown 
except  in  the  sibilant,  where  the  vowel  soinids  are 
different,  and  there  are  even  traces  of  a  consonantal 
permutation;  (2)  partly  in  the  <;>-ami)iur,  where  the 
bcottiah  Gaelic  prefers  the  analytic  form  of  the 
verb,  and  has  no  present  tense,  the  old  present 
being  now  used  for  the  future,  and  the  present 
formed  by  the  auxiliary  verb,  where  the  plural  of 
one  class  of  the  nouns  is  formed  in  a  pecidiar  man- 
ner, resembling  tlie  Anglo-Saxon,  and  a  different 
negative  is  used ;  (3)  partly  in  the  kliom.i  of  the 
language,  where  a  greater  preference  is  shewn  to 
express  the  idea  by  the  use  of  substantives,  and  the 
verl)  is  anxiously  avoided  ;  and  (4)  in  the  vocalmlary, 
which  varies  to  a  considerable  extent,  where  words 
now  obsolete  in  Irish  are  still  living  words,  and 
others  are  used  in  a  tlifferent  sense.' — The  Dean  of 
Z.imwre's  Book,  introd.  ]>)>.  .xiv.  xv.  (Edin.  18C2). 

The  origin  of  the  differences  thus  described  is 
a  question  still  in  dispute.  Mr  Skene  contends 
that  they  are  ancient,  and  enter  into  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  language.  The  Irish  scholars,  on  the 
other  hand,  hoUl  that  they  are  comparatively  modern 
and  unimportant,  and  little  more  than  provincial 
corruptions  of  the  mother-language  of  Ireland.  The 
late  jlr  Kichard  Garnett,  one  of  the  most  learned 
of  English  jihilologists,  is  on  the  Irish  side,  holding 
'that  Irish  is  the  parent  tongue,  that  Scottish 
Gaelic  is  Irish  stripped  of  a  few  inllections,  and 
that  Manx  is  merely  Gaelic  w'ith  a  few  peculiar 
words,  and  disguised  by  a  cori-upt  s\-steni  of  ortho- 
graphy ; '  and,  again,  that  the  language  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands  '  does  not  differ  in  any  essential 
point  from  that  of  the  oi)posite  coast  of  Leinster 
and  Ulster,  bearing,  in  fact,  a  closer  resemblance 
than  Low  German  does  ti>  High  German,  or  Danish 
to  Swedish.' — I'ldloloifical  Essays,  |ip.  '202,  204 
(Loud.  18o9).  That  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  the 
Scottish  Highlands  and  West  Islands,  were,  at  an 
early  period,  peopled  by  the  same  race,  or  races,  is 
admitted  on  both  sides.  Mr  Skene  further  admits, 
that  from  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  c.  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  Ireland  exercised  a 
powerful  literary  influence  on  the  Scottish  High- 
lands ;  that  the  Irish  sennachies  and  bards  were 
heads  of  a  school  which  included  the  West  High- 
lands ;  that  the  Highland  sennachies  were  either 
of  Irish  descent,  or,  if  they  were  of  native  origin, 
resorted  to  bardic  schools  in  Ireland  for  instruction 
in  the  language  and  the  accomplishments  of  their 
art :  that  in  this  way  the  language  and  literature 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands  must  have  become,  by 
degrees,  more  and  more  assimilated  to  the  language 
and  literature  of  Ireland  ;  and  that  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether,  towards  the  middle  of  the 
16th  c,  there  existed  in  the  Scottish  Highlands 
the  means  of  acquiring  the  art  of  •WTiting  the 
language  except  in  Ireland,  or  the  conception  of  a 
written  and  cultivated  literature,  which  was  not 
identified  with  the  language  and  learning'  of  that 
island.  Mr  Skene  holds,  at  the  same  time,  that  a 
vernacular  Gaelic,  preserving  many  of  the  independent 


features  of  a  native  language,  existed  among  the 
Scottish  Higldauders  as  a  spoken  dialect ;  and 
that  a  po))ular  and  unwTitten  literature  existed  in 
that  native  and  idiomatic  Gaelic,  in  the  jioetrj' 
handed  down  Ijy  tradition,  or  compcsed  by  native 
bards  innocent  of  all  extraneous  education  .in  the 
written  language  of  Ireland. 

The  first  books  printed  for  the  use  of  the  Scottish 
Highlanders  were  a  translation  of  Knox's  Prayer 
Book  in  1507,  by  Jolm  Carsewell,  Eishoji  of  the 
Isles  ;  a  translation  of  Cah-in's  Catechism,  in  lO.*)!  ; 
a  translation  of  the  Psalms  of  Daviil,  begun  in  lO.lO, 
and  completed  in  10!)4 ;  and  a  translation  of  the 
Biljle,  published  by  the  Kev.  Kobert  Kirke,  minister 
of  Balquhidder,  in  1090.  All  these  works  are  in 
the  Irish  orthogr.aphy  and  Irish  dialect ;  the  last- 
mentioned  work,  indeed,  is  nothing  more  than  a 
reprint  of  Bishop  Bedell's  Irish  version  of  the  Bible, 
with  a  short  vocabulary  of  Scottish  (Jaelic  words, 
to  adapt  it  to  the  use  of  the  Scottish  Higlilauders. 

The  fii-st  translations  into  the  Scottish  Gaelic 
were  of  Baxter's  Cad  to  the  Unconverted,  published 
in  IVoO;  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  in  17o.'{,  in  1787, 
and  in  1S07  ;  of  the  New  Testament,  in  1767  and 
1796;  of  AUeine's  Alarm,  in  1781;  of  the  Old 
Testament,  in  1783 — 1787,  and  in  1820;  and  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  1826. 

Vocabularies  of  the  Scottish  Gaelic  were  published 
in  1090,  in  1702,  in  1741,  in  179o,  and  in  181.5.  The 
first  Dietionarj',  liy  P..  A.  Armstrong,  appeared  in 
1825 ;  the  largest  and  best  wivs  published  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland, 
in  two  qu.artos,  in  1S2S.  The  best  grammar  is  that 
of  the  Kev.  Alexander  Stewart,  minister  at  Ding- 
wall, published  in  1801,  and  reprinted  in  1812. 

The  oldest  WTitten  poetry  in  the  Scottisli  Gaelic 
is  preseiTcd  in  The  Dean  of  IJsmore's  Book, 
WTitten  between  1511  and  1551,  by  .Sir  James 
Macgregor,  \-icar  of  Fortingall,  and  Dean  of  Lismore. 
It  is  now  in  the  Advocates'  Library  at  Edinburgli. 
Selections  from  it  have  been  published  at  Edinburgh 
during  the  present  year  (1S02),  with  translations  by 
the  P.ev.  Thomas  M'Lauclxlan,  as  well  into  English 
as  into  modern  Scottish  (iaelie,  and  with  a  jirelimi- 
nary  dissert.ation  by  Mr  W.  !•'.  Skene.  The  volume 
contains  nine  pieces  ascribed  to  '  Ossian,  the  son  of 
Finn,'  who  speaks  of  himself  as  contemporary  with 
.St  Patrick,  and  pieces  by  later  and  less  known 
writers,  including  a  few  of  knightly  or  noble  rank, 
such  .as  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  fourth  E.arl  of  Desmond, 
in  Ireland ;  Isabella  Campbell,  wife  fif  the  first 
Earl  of  Argj-Ie  ;  and  'Dimcan  MacCaileiu,  the  Good 
Knight,'  believed  to  be  .Sir  Duncan  Campbell  of 
Gleuurchy.  The  literary  merit  of  the  compositions 
is  very  slender. 

The  bibliography  of  the  scanty  literature  of  tlie 
Scottish  Gaelic  will  be  found  in  Keid's  Bibliolheca 
Scoto-Celtka  (Ghasg.  1832).  The  modem  names  of 
most  note  are  those  of  Pvobcrt  Calder  Maekay,  or 
Kobb  Donn,  as  he  is  more  commonly  called  in  his 
native  Sutherland,  whose  poems  were  published  at 
Inverness  in  1S29 ;  and  Duncan  Ban  JIcIntjTe,  of 
Glenorchy,  whose  poems  were  pul>lislied  at  Glasgow 
in  IS.'H.  The  former  was  born  in  1714,  the  latter 
in  1 724  ;  both  wei'e  self-educated.  The  traditional 
prose  liter.ature  has  been  collected  and  illustrated 
by  Mr  J.  F.  Campbell  of  Islay,  in  three  pleasing 
volumes.  Popular  Tales  of  tlic  West  Higlilanda 
(Edin.  1800—1802). 

Mr  .Skene  has  very  clearly  and  fairly  stated  the 
long-disputed  question  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
famous  Poems  of  Ossian,  published  first  in  English, 
and  afterwards  in  Gaelic,  by  Mr  James  ilacpherson. 
The  conclusions  arrived  at  are  :  1.  That  the  char- 
acters introduced  into  Maephcrson's  poems  were 
not  invented  by  bim,  but  were  really  the  subjects 

£69 


tIAETA— GAGE. 


of  tradition  in  the  Highlands ;  and  that  jwems 
certainly  existed  wliich  mii;ht  bo  called  Ossiaiiio, 
as  rclatiui;  to  the  persons  and  events  of  that  mythic 
a^e.  -.  ^rhat  such  poems,  though  usually  either 
entire  poems  of  no  very  fjreat  leu^fth,  or  fragments, 
had  been  handed  down  from  an  unknown  period  by 
oral  recitation,  and  that  there  existed  many  persons 
in  the  Highlands  who  could  rei>eat  them.  3.  That  * 
such  poems  had  like\viso  been  committed  to  Arating,  ' 
and  were  to  be  found  to  some  extent  in  manuscripts. 
4.  That  Macpherson  had  used  many  such  poems  in 
his  work  ;  but  by  joining  se])arated  jiieces  together, 
and  by  adding  a  connecting  nan-ative  of  his  own, 
had  woven  them  into  longer  poems,  and  into  the 
so-called  epics. 

The  Scottish  Gaelic  speech  is  everywhere  gradu- 
ally, and  in  some  places  rapidly,  losing  giomid ; 
but  it  is  still  used,  wholly  or  partially,  in  the  publio 
religious  services  of  about  ISO  out  of  about  1000 
congi-egations  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

GAETA  (the  Cajeta  of  the  Latins),  a  strongly 
fortified  maritime  towTi  of  the  Neapolitan  province 
Terra  di  Lavoro,  is  picturesquely  situated  ou  an 
abrupt  promontory  projecting  iuto  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  connected  wth  the  mainland  by  a 
low  and  narrow  isthmus  protected  by  solid  walls. 
On  the  summit  of  the  promontory  stands  the 
circular  tower  D'Orlaudo,  said  to  be  the  ancient 
mausoleum  of  Lucius  Munatius  Plaucus,  the  friend 
of  Augustus.  The  beauty  of  the  bay  of  G.,  which 
almost  rivals  that  of  Naples,  has  been  celebrated 
by  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Horace.  Cajeta,  the  ancient 
name  of  G.  derives  its  origin,  according  to  Virgil, 
from  its  being  the  biu-ial-place  of  Cajeta,  the 
nurse  of  iEneas.  On  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Roman  empire,  G.  became  a  centre  of  ci\Tlisatiou 
and  commercial  prosperity,  and  reached  stUl  further 
importance  after  the  decadence  of  the  eastern 
empire.  lu  the  growth  of  this  e.arly  municipality 
is  foreshadowed  the  commercial  life  and  grandeur 
of  the  later  Italian  republics.  Both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  G.  has  sustained  remarkaljlu 
sieges,  and  recently  it  has  been  the  theatre  of 
several  interesting  events.  In  IS-tS,  it  became  the 
refuge  of  Pojie  Pius  IX.,  when  the  revolution  at 
Rome  compelled  bim  to  retire,  lu  1860,  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Neapolitans  on  the  Voltimio  by  the 
forces  of  Garibaldi,  G.  w.as  the  last  stronghold  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  of  Naples,  and  sm-reuderod 
after  a  protracted  siege  to  General  Cialdini.  Many 
interesting  classic  remains  have  been  foimd  in  G., 
including  a  fine  marble  vase  by  the  Athenian 
scidptor  Salpione.  Its  vicinity  abounds  in  remains 
of  Roman  \Tllas,  &c.  The  citadel,  which  is  of  great 
strength,  contains  in  its  tower  the  tomb  of  the 
Constable  Bourbon,  killed  at  the  taking  of  Rome  in 
1527.  The  inhabitants  of  G.,  who  number  about 
15,000,  derive  their  chief  profits  from  the  fisheries 
and  their  coasting-trade  in  oil,  wine,  and  fruit — the 
chief  productions  of  the  surrounding  country. 

G/ETU'LIA,  an  ancient  coimtry  of  Africa,  situated 
south  of  Mauritania  and  Numidi.a,  and  embracing 
the  western  part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara.  Its  inlia- 
bitants  belonged  to  the  great  aboriginal  Berl)er 
f.amily  of  North  and  North-western  Africa ;  they 
were  jiot  in  general  black,  though  a  portion  of 
them  dweUing  in  the  extreme  south,  towards  the 
Niger,  had  appro.\imated  to  this  colour  through 
inteiTuixture  mth  the  natives  and  climatic  causes, 
and  were  called  Melnnorjcbttdi,  or  '  Black  Ga;tulians  ' 
(seo  Ptol,  iv.  C,  s.  10).  The  Gietulians  were  s.avage 
anil  warlike.  They  came  into  collision  with  the 
Romans  for  the  first  time  during  the  Juguithine 
war,  when  they  served  as  light-horse  in  the  army 
of  the  Numidiau  king.     Cornelius  Cossus  Leutulua 


led  a  force  against  them,  and  for  his  success 
obtained  a  triumph  and  the  surname  of  Goetidicus 
(0  A.  11.).  The  ancient  Gajtulians  are  beUcved  to 
be  represented  in  modern  times  by  the  Tuaricks  or 
Tawftreks. 

GAFF,  in  a  ship  or  boat,  the  spar  to  which  the 
head  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  bent,  such  sail  having 
its  foremost  side  made  fast  by  riu'js  to  the  mast,  and 
its  lower  edge,  in  most  instances,  held  straight  by  a 
boom.  The  thick  end  of  the  gaff  is  constructed  with 
'jaws'  to  pass  half  round  the  nList,  the  other  halt 
being  enclosed  by  a  rope  ;  this  sen-es  to  k»ep  it 
close  when  the  sail  is  hoisted  or  lowered.     A  gatl', 


A,  Gaff;  B,  Gaff-topsail-yard;  C,  Boom;  D,  Sheet; 
£,  Gaif-topsail. 

with  the  sail  called  'driver'  or  'spanker,'  and  the 
gaff-topsail,  which  is  a  small  sail  carried  on  the  top- 
mast above  the  gaff,  are  shewn  in  the  accompanying 
illustration. 

GAFFLES,  a  name  applied  to  the  levers  by 
means  of  which  cross-bows  were  bent. 

GAGE,  Tno.iL^s,  an  English  general,  who  became 
governor  of  Montreal  iu  17G0,  and  in  1763  succeeded 
general  (afterwards  Lord)  Amherst  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  army  in  America.  In  1774, 
when  the  diffieidties  between  the  colonies  and  Great 
Britain  had  already  become  very  serious,  Gener.al 
G.  was  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts.  In 
peacefid  times,  his  .administration  might  in  all 
probability  have  been  popidar  and  successfiU ;  but 
he  was  unequal  to  the  exigencies  of  that  trying 
period.  It  may  indeed  be  doubted  whether  any 
one,  whatever  Ids  abilities,  could,  while  restricted 
to  the  rigorous  policy  of  the  home  government,  havf 
succeeded  in  preserving  the  colony  to  the  English 
crown.  In  AprU  1775,  General  G.  sent  an  ex|)edi- 
tion  to  seize  the  military  stores  at  Concord,  and  thus 
provoked  the  battle  of  Lexington,  the  first  explosion 
of  the  American  revolution.  Soon  after  (May  5) 
the  pro\Tncial  congress  resolved  that  *  no  obedience 
w.as  in  future  due  to  him  [Gage],  and  that  he  ought 
to  be  guarded  against  as  an  unn.atur.al  and  uiveterate 
enemy.'  According  to  Bancroft,  '  (Jage  was  neither 
fit  to  reconcile  nor  to  subdue.'  He  was  recalled, 
and  sailed  for  England  in  the  autumn  of  1775.  He 
died  iu  1787. 

GAGE  (Lat.  vadium  or  watVium)  signifies  a  ]iawM 
or  pledge,  and  is  derived,  says  ('owel,  from  the 
French  .703«'.  Hence,  by  changing  g  into  u\  we 
have  vage  and  wager ;  as  *  wager  of  law,'  *  wager 
of  battle,'  wherein  a  jierson  gave  his  pledge  that  be 
would  sustain  his  affirmation ;  and,  in  the  latter 
case,  the  glove  was  sent   as  a  m,aterial  pledge  to 


GAGE— GAGERN. 


be  redeemed  by  mortal  combat.  Hcnco  also  in 
England 

Jislale  in  Gage,  wbioh  was  of  two  kinds — vivum 
vadium,  and  mortmtm  vadium.  See  Mortgage. 
Vivuvi  vadium  wa.s  where  an  estate  in  lands  was 
given  in  security  of  a  debt,  on  condition  that  the 
estate  should  remain  with  the  lender  nntU  he  had 
made  good  the  sum  lent  out  of  the  profits  of  tlu; 
land.  So  as  in  this  case  neither  money  nor  land 
dieth  or  is  lost,  and  therefore  it  is  called  vivum 
vadium  (Co.  Litt.  205  a).  This  mode  of  giving 
sccm-ity  has  long  gone  out  of  use  ;  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  was  the  original  method  in  observance 
before  the  transaction  assumed  the  form  of  a  mort- 
gage. It  exactly  corresponds  with  the  Scotch  form 
of  a  pure  Wadset  (q.  v.). 

GAGE,  or  GAUGE,  an  apparatus  for  measuring 
any  speci.ol  force  or  dimension ;  thus  we  have 
pressure-gage,  wiml-gage  (see  Anemomkter),  rain- 
gage  (q.  v.),  wire-gage,  hutton-gage,  &c.  The  simplest 
form  of  gage  of  cbmension  is  tlie  common  ivire- 
gage,  by  which  the  diameter  of  wire  is  measured. 
It  is  sim])ly  an  oblong  jilate  of  steel,  with  notches 
of  (Ufferent  widths  cut  upon  the  edge ;  these  arc 
numbered,  and  the  size  of  the  wire  is  determined 
by  trying  it  in  the  diQ'ercnt  notches  until  the 
one  is  foimd  wliich  it  exactly  lits.  The  thickness 
of  sheet-metal  is  tried  by  the  same  gage.  There 
is  a  great  want  of  uniformity  in  these  gages — the 
Birmingham  gage  for  iron-wire,  sheet-iron,  and 
steel  ditfering  from  that  used  for  brass,  silver,  gold, 
itc. ;  and  these  again  from  the  Lancashire  gages. 
It  has  been  proposed,  in  order  to  obtain  imiformity, 
and  to  enable  definite  descrijitious  and  orders  to 
be  given  witli  accuracy  and  certainty,  that  instead 
of  the  arbitrary  mmibers  of  varying  signification 
now  in  use,  decimal  parts  of  an  inch,  tenths,  hun- 
di'edths,  thousaudths,  or  still  smaller  fractions,  if 
necessary,  be  used,  and  that  these  be  iised  for  all 
diameters  and  thicknesses,  such  as  ^vires,  sheet- 
metals,  buttons,  watch-glasses,  &c. ;  b»it  such  a  scale 
has  not  yet  come  into  general  use.  The  gage  com- 
moidy  used  for  buttons,  watch-glasses,  and  such  like 
large  diameters,  is  a  rule  witli  a  groove  cut  length- 
wise down  the  middle.  Another  metal  rule,  -vrAh.  a 
brass  head,  slides  in  this,  and  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
pin,  may  be  i)ushed  out  at  pleasure.  The  object  to 
be  measured  is  placed  between  a  and  6  (fig.  1),  and 
the  width  of  this  s]iace  is  measured  by  graduations 
on  the  middle  metal  slide. 


Kg.  1. 


A  very  elegant  and  delicate  gage  has  recently  come 
into  use  for  measuring  w.itch -glasses,  and  is  applicable 
to  many  other  purposes.  On  .an  oblong  piece  of 
sheet-metal,  two  sli'aight  metal  ridges  are  fixed  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  shall  be  inclined  at  a  given 


angle  to  each  other,  as  ah  and  cd  (fig.  2).  Now, 
let  US  suppose  the  angle  to  be  such  that  the 
distance  between  a  and  c  is  2  inches,  and  that 
between  h  and  d  is  1  inch,  while  the  lengths  ah  and 
cd  are  10  inches.  It  is  e\'ident  that  for  every  inch 
of  descent  from  a  and  c  towards  h  and  (/,  there  will 
be  a  narrowing  equal  to  ■j'j  of  an  inch  ;  and  for  eveiy 
tenth  of  an  inch  of  such  descent,  there  will  be  a 
narrowing  of  .^  of  an  inch,  and  so  on :  thus  we 
may,  by  graduating  downwards  from  ac  to  hd, 
measure  tenths  by  imits,  hundredths  by  tenths,  and 
so  on  to  stdl  finer  ([uantities  if  required.  This  is 
appbcable  to  lengths  as  well  as  diameters.  By 
means  of  fine  screws  with  large  graduated  heads, 
Messrs  Whitworth  have  measured  small  pieces  of 
steel  to  the  one-millionth  of  an  inch  (see  MiCKO- 
5IETEK).  I'ressure-gages,  wind-gages,  &c.  will  be 
treated  under  the  special  subjects. — In  railways, 
the  gauge  means  the  distance  between  the  rails. 
See  KiULWAY. 

GAGERN,  Heixeich  Wllhelm  Algist, 
Freiherr  von,  was  born  at  Baireuth,  20th  August 
1799,  and  educated  at  the  military  school  of  Munich. 
On  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  G.  entered  th(! 
army  of  Nassau,  and  ser\'cd  as  lieutenant  at 
Waterloo.  After  the  peace,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  law  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg, 
Gottingen,  Jena,  and  Geneva.  On  returning  home 
in  1S21,  he  entered  political  life  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Grand-ducal  Hesse,  and  after  p.assing 
tlirough  several  public  ofBces,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Second  Ch.amber  in  1832,  in  which  position 
he  vigorously  opposed  the  politics  of  the  goveni- 
nients  and  of  the  Federal  Diet.  In  183.5,  the 
government  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  majority, 
but  G.  continued  to  be  re-elected ;  until,  at  the 
close  of  the  following  year,  seeing  the  fruitless- 
ness  of  his  opposition  to  the  govermnent.al  polities, 
he  declined  re-election,  and  took  a  le.ise  of  his 
f.ather's  estate  at  Mousheim,  with  a  riew  to  the 
practical  study  of  agriculture.  In  184G,  G.  again 
appeared  before  the  public  in  a  work  against  the 
government  of  electoral  Hesse,  which  liad  been 
legislating  in  defiance  of  the  constitution  of  the 
electorate.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  elected 
into  the  Chamber  again  as  representative  of  Worms, 
and  his  return  to  jiublic  life  gave  such  a  fresh 
impulse  to  bberal  politics,  that  in  1848  the  elections 
returned  more  opponents  of  the  government  than 
they  had  done  since  1832.  The  life  of  G.  became 
now  inseparably  connected  with  the  memorable  Ger- 
man movement  of  1848.  He  took  the  lead  on  27th 
February,  by  introducing  a  motion  into  the  Chamber 
to  promote  tlie  representation  of  the  German  people 
in  the  Fr.aukfort  Diet.  A\Tieu  the  jircparatory 
convention  of  delegates  (rfo.s  Vorparlameni)  from 
the  (Jerman  states  assembled  .at  Frankfort  on 
3l8t  March,  G.  took  the  most  jirominent  part  in  its 
deliberations,  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  parliament 
(28th  May)  (see  Gkk.man^')>  be  was  ajjpointed  pre- 
sident, and  continued  to  be  re-elected  every  month 
till  he  w,a3  called  to  the  perjietual  presidency. 
Displaying  more  of  the  qualifications  of  a  practical 
statesman  than  were  possessed  by  most  of  the 
leading  men  who  joined  in  this  movement,  G. 
struggled  on  amid  all  the  divisions  into  which  his 
party  separated,  and  .all  the  difficulties  presented 
by  the  governments.  But  unable,  on  the  one  hanil, 
to  sympathise  ^^^th  the  violence  of  the  democr.atic 
party,  .and,  on  the  other,  to  come  to  an  imderstand- 
ing  with  the  governments,  he  abandoned  the  move- 
ment altogether  on  the  20th  May  1849.  In  1850 
he  served  as  major  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein  war, 
and  when  the  campaign  was  over,  retired  to  the 
Monsheim  estate,  which  had  now  come  into  his 
possession  by  his  father's  death.     In  1852  he  sold 


GAGING— GAIUS. 


his  estite,  and  removed  with  his  family  to  Heidel- 
lierg,  where  he  has  since  resided. 

GAGIXG,  or  GAUGING.  When  this  tenn  is 
used  without  (ULiUfieatinn,  it  refers  specially  to  the 
gaging  of  the  contents  of  casks ;  and  in  many 
jilaccs,  the  iiojiular  name  for  the  excise  oflicer  who 
measures  the  contents  of  c;isks  containing  excis- 
able liquors  is  'ganger.'  Sliding  scales,  which  are 
graduated  according  to  the  m.athematical  rules  for 
determining  the  solid  contents  of  regular  solfds 
approximating  to  the  form  of  the  casks,  are  iised, 
but  cousideraljle  jnactice  and  skill  are  required  to 
apjily  them  with  accuracy. 

GAILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Tarn,  and  on  the  right  baiilc  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  vine-growing  district, 
32  miles  north-east  of  Toulouse.  It  is  ill  built, 
and  has  no  iniblio  building  of  any  importance 
except  the  communal  college.  Distilling,  tanning, 
ship-building,  aud  a  brisk  trade  in  wine  and  brandy 
are  carried  on.     IVj).  (IS57)  5503. 

GAILL.A.RD,  G.vbkiel  Henri,  a  French  historian, 
was  born  at  the  village  of  Ostel,  near  Soissons,  26th 
March  1720.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but 
soon  abaudoned  it  for  liter.ature,  and  afterwards 
turned  his  attention  exclusively  to  history.  His  first 
work  was  entitled  J'Jasai  de  Bhftor'nive  Fraiiraiae  a 
VUaage  des  jeancs  Dcmuwelles,  &c.  (1745),  and  the 
favourable  reception  which  it  met  with  induced 
him  to  jjublish  his  Poefiquc  Fran^'aise  d  l^ Usage  des 
Dames.  In  1757  api>eared  his  IJistoire  de  Marie 
de  Bourgogiie,  Fille  de  Charles  le  Tdniraire ;  which 
was  followed,  in  1766,  by  the  Histoire  de  Francois 
I.,  and  in  17S2  by  the  Hlslolre  de  Cliarlemagne, 
■pric&dee  de  Considerations  sur  la  premiere  Race, 
suivie  de  Considerations  sur  la  seeonde  Race,  et  con- 
tenant  rEloge  dii  Premier  President  de  Lamoignon. 
In  a  diffuse,  one-sided,  and  rhetorical  style,  he 
represented  the  relations  of  France  to  England  and 
Spain  in  his  Histoire  de  la  Jlivalile  de  la  France  el 
de  VAngleterre  (1771 — 1777)  (which  procured  his 
admission  into  the  French  Academy),  and  Histoire 
de  la  Riralite  de  la  France  et  de  I'Espagne.  G.  was 
the  author  of  many  other  works.  He  WTote  eloges 
on  Malesherbes  (his  intimate  friend),  Descartes, 
Charles  ^'.,  Henry  IV.,  Corneillo,  JIolii!re,  &c.  He 
died  13th  February  1806. 

GAI'NSBOROUGH,  a  market-town  and  se.aport 
of  England,  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  is  sitviated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Trent,  about  20  luiles  above 
the  embouchure  of  that  river  in  the  Humber 
mouth,  and  16  miles  north-west  of  Lincoln.  It  is 
a  well-built  town,  consisting  m.aiuly  of  one  long 
street,  ruiming  parallel  with  the  river,  which  is  here 
spanned  by  a  .line  stone  bridge  of  three  elliptical 
arches.  It  was  constituted  a  port  in  1841.  The 
most  interesting  of  the  buildings  of  G.  is  that  called 
the  Old  Hall,  a  curious  structure  composed  of  oak 
timber  framing,  and  forming  three  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangle. It  is  said  to  have  been  occupied,  or  held  in 
property,  by  the  several  lords  of  the  manor  of  G. 
ever  since  the  Saxons  established  themselves  in  this 
neighbourhood.  Among  the  other  public  buildings 
are  the  parish  church — which,  \vith  the  exception 
of  a  fine  old  tower,  dating  from  tlu/  12th  c,  was 
rebuilt  in  1730,  and  the  town-hall,  'niero  are  also 
a  grammar  school,  established  in  1589,  and  other 
educational  institutions;  a  hterary  institute,  and 
several  libraries.  G.  is  favour.ably  situated  in  a 
commercial  jioint  of  view,  vessels  of  200  tons  being 
able  to  reach  its  wh.arfs  by  the  river,  while  by 
means  of  the  Keadby,  the  ('hesterllehl,  and  other 
canals,  it  maintains  communication  with  the  interior 
of  the  country.  In  1800,  530  vessels  of  25,801  tons 
entered  and  cleared  this  port.      G.  has  important 


manufactures  of  linseed  oil,  and  carries  on  malting, 
rope-making,  and  ship-building  extensively.  I'op. 
(1861)  of  pari,  borough,  C202  ;  of  township,  7700. 

GAINSBOROXTGH,  TiiOM.vs,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  English  landscape-painters,  w.os  born  at 
Sudlniry,  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  1727,  and  early 
displayed  a  decided  talent  for  painting.  '  Nature,'  it 
has  been  said,  '  was  his  teacher,  and  the  woods  hia 
academy,  where  he  would  pass  his  mornings  alone, 
making  sketches  of  an  old  tree,  a  marsh,  brook,  a 
few  cattle,  a  shejiherd  and  his  Hock,  or  any  other 
objects  that  c;isually  came  in  view.'  At  14  years  of 
age,  he  was  sent  to  London,  where  he  was  for  some 
time  with  Mr  (iravolot,  the  cngravei',  and  afterwards 
with  Hayraan.  At  1!),  ho  married,  and  set  up  in 
Bath  as  a  portrait-painter,  in  which  capacity  he  was 
veiy  successful ;  Imt  his  genius  first  found  adequate 
expression  in  the  delineation  of  the  rich  and  (juiet 
scenery  of  his  native  coimtry,  and  to  this  he  mainly 
devoted  himself  after  le.araig  Bath  for  London,  in 
1774.  On  the  institution  of  the  Boyal  Academy, 
G.  was  chosen  one  of  the  first  members,  but  never 
took  much  interest  in  its  proceedings.  He  died 
August  2,  1788,  of  a  cancer  in  the  neck.  His  last 
words  exhibited  more  the  enthusiasm  of  the  painter 
than  the  logic  of  the  theologian  :  '  We  are  all  going 
to  heaven,  and  Vandyck  is  of  the  )uu-ty.'  G.'s 
portraits  are  remarkable  as  '  striking  likenesses,' 
but  are  not  c.aretidly  finished.  The  best  are  those 
of  the  Koj'al  Family,  of  Abel  the  composer,  and 
Quin  the  actor.  His  fame,  however,  rests  chiefly 
on  his  landscapes  ;  in  these,  he  shews  himself  a 
faithful  adherent  to  natiu'c,  as  he  knew  it  in  his 
own  beautifiJ  island.  He  is,  in  fact,  to  be  regarded 
as  the  first  tndy  original  Englisli  ]iainter,  and,  in 
the  opinion  of  Sir  Joshua  Hejniolds,  fit  to  be  the 
head  of  au  English  school.  Among  his  finest 
productions  are,  'The  Shepherd's  Boy,'  'The  Fight 
lietween  Little  Boys  and  Dogs,'  '  The  Seashore,' 
and  '  The  Woodman  in  the  Storm.'  His  most  cele- 
brated jjicture  is  '  The  Blue  Boy,'  in  the  Devonshire 
GaUerj'. 

GAItJS,  a  Enm.an  jurist,  most  ]irol).ahly  of  the 
age  of  the  Antonines,  and  the  chief  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  Koman  law  prior  to  Justinian.  Con- 
sidering the  important  jilaee  which  he  holds  iu 
ancient  legal  literature,  it  is  strange  th.at  his  )ier- 
sonal  history  should  be  almost  entirely  luiknoM'u, 
and  that  almost  every  circumstance  connected  ■\\"ith 
him  shoidd  be  .a  subject  of  controversy.  The  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  the  name  is  ])roper]y  Gains  or 
Cuius  is  a  mere  verbal  dispute  ;  but  the  questions 
regarding  his  country,  his  condition,  and  even  his 
reUgion,  have  been  canvassed  at  considerable  length. 
From  his  being  luiiformly  caUed  by  the  single  ajjjiel- 
lation  G.,  it  has  Ijcen  inferred  that  he  was  either 
a  foreigner  or  a  freedman  :  from  his  familiarity  with 
the  Greek  language,  some  have  argued  that  he  was 
of  (xreek  origin;  from  his  being  cited  as  'our'  G. 
by  Justinian,  who  was  a  native  of  Illyricum,  it  is 
ai'gned  by  some  that  G.  must  have  been  an  lllyrian 
by  birth ;  while  others,  arguing  from  the  same  fact, 
and  from  other  equally  inconclusive  data,  have  even 
set  him  down  as  a  Christian.  That  the  last  inference 
is  a  false  one,  cannot  admit  of  a  moment's  doul>t ; 
the  others,  even  if  it  were  ])ossil.ile  to  settle  them 
definitively,  are  of  no  practical  importance.  As  to 
the  precise  age  of  G.,  thus  much  is  certain,  that 
before  the  revision  of  the  Koman  laws,  and  the 
rrform  of  the  legal  studies  by  iJustinian,  the  Jnsti- 
tiilions  of  G.,  as  well  as  four  other  of  his  treatises, 
were  the  received  text-books  of  the  schools  of  law. 
His  /nstitulions,  moreover,  formed  file  groundwork 
of  the  Institutions  of  Justinian.  From  his  being 
thus  preferred  to  Ulpian  or  Bapiiiian,  it  is  not  to  be 


GALA  WATER-GALAGO. 


inferred  that  he  lived  after  them,  but  only  tliat  his 
ivork  was  more  pojiular.  The  latest  jurist  whom  he 
cites  is  Sahniis  Juliaims,  who  lived  under  Hadrian, 
and  the  latest  imperial  ediet  is  one  of  jVntoninus 
Pius,  whence  it  may  fairly  be  concluded  that  he 
survived  Antoninus,  and  probably  wrote  under  his 
successor. 

The  works  of  G.  were  largely  used  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  Dii/eKl,  which  contains  no  fewer 
than  53.5  exti-acts  from  his  writings.  The  jiriucipal 
are,  the  Ediclum  Provinciale,  in  thirty-two  books ; 
the  Aurea,  in  seven ;  the  Edictum  Urbkum ;  On 
Trusts;  On  Mort'ja/jes ;  and,  above  all,  the  Jmti- 
tutioiiK,  in  four  books.  The  last-named  work  is 
that  by  which  G.  is  chiefly  known,  and  it  was 
probably  the  earhest  complete  an<l  .systematic  text- 
book of  Koman  law.  Although  it  w.as  the  basis  of 
Justinian's  Institutions,  both  as  to  its  matter  and 
its  division,  yet  it  was  completely  superseded  by 
that  work,  and  after  a  time  was  entirely  lost,  the 
only  knowledge  of  it  which  remained  being  that 
which  was  gathered  from  the  det.ached  extracts  in 
the  Digest,  and  from  the  Breviariam  Alaricianum, 
or  code  of  the  Visigoths,  which  w.is  known  to  be 
derived  from  it.  The  recovery  of  this  long  lost 
work,  therefore,  woidd  in  any  circumstances  be 
considered  a  fortunate  event ;  but  the  Institutions 
of  G.  di-aw  additional  interest  from  the  remark- 
able manner  in  which  it  has  been  restored  to  htera- 
ture.  It  had  long  been  known  that  the  JISS.  in 
the  library  of  the  chapter  of  ^\■rc>na  were  specially 
curious  in  the  matter  of  jurisprudence;  and  in 
1816,  Niebuhr,  while  on  his  way  to  Eomc,  dis- 
covered, in  a  palimpsest  M.S.,  the  later  writing  of 
which  was  a  copy  of  St  Jerome's  epistles,  portions 
of  the  work  of  some  ancient  jurLsconsult,  the  value 
of  which  he  at  once  recognised,  and  the  specimen 
page  of  which,  as  copied  by  him,  was  soon  after- 
w^ards  pronounced  by  Savigny  to  be  a  portion  of 
the  Institutions  of  Gaius.  On  the  publication  of 
his  report,  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  commis- 
sioned two  German  scholars,  Goschen  and  Hollweg, 
in  1817,  to  make  a  copy  of  the  eutii-e  palimpsest, 
wliich  consists  of  I '27  sheets.  It  was  a  work  of 
immense  labour.  The  original  writing  had  been 
very  carefidly  -na-ihed,  and  in  many  pages  scraped 
out ;  the  lines  of  the  second  writing  ilid  not  cross 
the  original,  as  often  happens  in  palimpsests,  but 
ran  in  the  same  direction,  and  frequently  over  it ; 
whUe  Ci  pages  of  the  palimpsest  had  actually  been 
written  three  times,  G.  ha-vdng  been  erased  to  make 
room  for  a  theological  treatise,  which  in  its  turn  was 
scraped  out  to  make  room  for  St  Jerome  1  It  reflects 
no  small  credit  on  the  skill  and  patience  of  the 
copj-ists  that  they  succeeded  in  recovering  so  much 
as  nine-tenths  of  the  entire  work,  which  was 
l)ublished  in  1821  by  Goschen,  an<l  again,  after  a 
fresh  collation  of  the  MS.  by  Blume,  in  1824 ;  a 
third  and  much  improved  edition,  by  Lachmami, 
appeareil  in  1842.  .-V  comparative  edition  of  the 
Institutions  of  G.  and  of  Justinian,  by  Klenze  and 
Biickiug,  had  appeared  at  Berlin  in  1829. 

The  Institutions  of  (i.  are  divided  into  four  books, 
of  which  the  first  is  devoted  to  the  law  of  jiersons, 
the  second  an.l  thiid  to  the  law  of  things,  and  the 
fourth  to  the  law  of  actions.  The  lirst  book  was 
translated  mto  German  in  1824  by  Von  ErockdoilT, 
and  the  entire  work  h.T3  been  transl.ated  mto  French 
three  several  times— by  Baulet  in  1S2(;,  by  Domenget 
in  1843,  and  by  Pellat  in  1S44.  In  England,  it  has 
attr.vcted  but  little  notice,  except  in  a  few  of  the 
critical  journals,  and  there  chiefly  as  a  literary 
curiosity  ;  nor  has  any  English  translation  of  the 
work  hitherto  apjieared.  _     . 

The  Lex  llomnna  Wishjnthorum,  or  Brevianum 
Alaricianum,  is  in  substance  a  recast  of  the  Institu- 


tions of  G.,  published  in  oOC  by  Alaric  for  the  use 
of  the  Roman  subjects  of  the  west  Gothic  kingdom. 
It  is  chiefly  curious  as  illustrating  the  analogies  and 
the  discrepancies  of  Roman  and  barbarian  law,  and 
as  supplying  the  germ  of  many  of  the  medieval  insti- 
tutions l>y  which  Roman  practice  was  su]>planted. 
See,  in  .addition  to  the  editions  of  the  Institutions 
enumerated  above,  Iluschkc,  Zur  Kritik  und  Inter- 
pmtalion  V07i  Gaius  Inslitulioncn,  in  his  Studien  des 
Romisclien  liechls ;  aLso  Mackeldey's  Leiirbucli  des 
Romischen  lieclits  ;  and  Savigny,  Sjstcni  des  lieutigen 
Hiinu  Rechts, 

GALA  WATER,  a  small  river  of  Scotland,  21 
miles  in  length,  rises  among  the  Moorfoot  Hills  in 
Edhiburghshire,  flows  in  a  south-south-east  direc- 
tion through  a  beautiful  and  romantic  countrj', 
and,  forming  in  the  lower  portion  of  its  course  the 
boundary  between  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh  shires, 
unites  with  the  Tweed  near  Abbotsford. 

GALA'CTIC  CIRCLE  (see  G.iuvxy).  This 
circle  is  to  sidereal  what  the  invariable  ecliptic  is 
to  planetary  astronomy,  the  ground  plane  of  the 
sidereal  system. 

GALACTODENDROX.     See  Cow-tree. 

GALACTO'METER,  or  LACTOMETER,  a  verj- 
simple  instrument  for  testing  the  richness  of  milk  ; 
it  consists  of  a  glass-tube,  graduated  to  100  jiarts. 
Kew  milk  is  poured  in  up  to  the  top  of  the  gratluatcd 
part,  and  allowed  to  stand ;  and  when  the  cream 
has  completely  sci)arated,  the  value  of  its  quan- 
tity is  shewn  by  the  number  of  ]iarts  in  the  100 
which  it  occupies.  Another  form  of  instrument  was 
invented  by  Docffel,  consisting  of  a  small  hydro- 
meter with  a  scale  two  inches  long  di\-ided  into  20 
degrees,  the  zero  being  placed  at  the  point  which 
the  instrument  sinks  in  water,  and  the  2()th  degree 
coiTesponding  with  the  density  rO.'5S3.  This  instru- 
ment is  preferred  by  the  continental  chemists  ;  and 
14°  is  held  to  shew  milk  imdiluted  with  water. 

GALACZ,  an  important  town  of  Moldavia,  and 
the  only  jiort  of  the  jirovince,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  about  three  miles  below 
the  confluence  of  the  Sereth  with  that  river. 
Though  it  has  better  houses  than  most  Moldavian 
towns,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  well  Ijuilt.  It  has 
numerous  churches,  a  large  bazaar,  .always  well 
tilled  with  merchandise,  and  a  great  number  of  stcire- 
houses  for  grain  and  other  produce.  It  was  made 
a  free  port  in  18134,  and  is  the  chief  entrepot  for 
the  commerce  carried  on  between  Germany  and 
Constantinople.  Steamers  passing  G.  ply  regularly 
between  Vienna  and  Constantinople,  and  vessels  of 
300  tons  come  close  up  to  the  town.  The  principal 
articles  of  export  are  maize,  whe.at,  rye,  tallow, 
wool,  masts  and  spars,  timber,  and  preserved  meat ; 
and  the  imports  are  chiefly  British  manufactures 
and  twist,  sugar,  raisins,  and  figs,  oil,  coal,  iron,  and 
tobacco.  In"l85S,  494  laden  vessels  cleared  at  the 
port/  of  Galacz.  The  value  of  the  imports  and 
exports  for  lSo2 — 1855  inclusive  was  as  follows  : 

Trtrt. 

1853, 

1854 

H)i5, 

Several  British  commercial  houses  have  been  estab- 
lished in  (ialacz.     Bop.  40,000. 

GALA'GO  (Galarjo  or  Olalicnus),  a  genus  of 
mammalia  of  the  Lemur  family,  remarkable  for  the 
great  length  of  the  hind-legs  and  the  great  size  of 
the  ears,  which  are  membranous,  and  capable  of 
being  folded  down  as  in  bats.  The  head  is  rounded, 
the  muzzle  short,  the  eyes  very  large ;  all  the  feet 
have  five  toes ;  all  the  uads  are  flat,  except  those  of 

i73 


lini)nrlt. 

Kxporu. 

£-)'ll.7.'i3 

£.'.(.7,110 

.'..'i9,44() 

342.I180 

121,440 

14».2I)0 

624,880 

l,I74,3lii) 

t;  AL  ANG  ALE— G  ALATL\>'S. 


the  first  digits  of  the  hind  feet,  wliicU  are  armed 
with  sharp  daws ;  the  tail  is  very  long,  anil  ahnost 
bushy.  The  species  are  natives  of  Africa  and 
Madagascar,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  rahbit  to 
that  of  a  rat,  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
very  lively  and  active,  feeding  partly  on  fniits  and 
partly  on"  insects  ;  one  of  them  (O.  Seiierjatensiji)  is 
known  in  Senegal  as  the  ijuin  animal,  from  living 
much  in  acacias,  and  feeding,  or  being  supposed  to 
feed,  on  their  gum.    '  These  pretty  anmials  have  all 


Galago  MonoU  (from  Koutledge's  Natural  History) 


the  actiAaty  of  birds,  leaping  from  bough  to  bough. 
They  watch  insects  flitting  among  the  leaves,  listen 
to  the  fluttering  of  the  moth  as  it  darts  through 
the  air,  lie  in  wait  for  it,  .and  s^n-iug  with  the 
rapidity  of  an  arrow,  seldom  missing  their  prize, 
which  is  caught  by  their  hands.'  When  they  leap, 
they  always  seize  with  their  hands  the  branch  on 
which  they  intend  to  rest.  They  make  nests  of 
grass  and  leaves  for  their  young  in  the  branches 
of  trees.  They  are  a  favourite  article  of  food  in 
SenegaL 

GALA'NGALE  (Alpm'ia),  a  genua  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  ZingiberaceiE  or  Scitaminerv, 
having  perennial  stems  with  terminal  inflorescence 
and  succulent  fruit.  The  root-stocks  possess  stimu- 
lating properties  similar  to  those  of  ginger.  The 
true  G.  is  the  produce  of  A.  nalanoa,  a  native  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  cultivated  there ; 
having  a  stem  six  or  seven  feet  high,  broad  leaves, 
and  a  branched  panicle  of  greenish-white  flowers. 
The  root-stock,  when  young,  yields  a  kind  of  arrow- 
root, and  is  used  as  an  article  of  food ;  it  acquires 
pungency  and  aromatic  properties  as  it  becomes 
older.  G.  is  much  used  in  the  East  for  the  same 
purposes  as  ginger ;  it  is  also  used  to  a  very  con- 
sider,able  extent  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but 
very  little  in  Britain.  Inferior  kinds  are  obtained 
fi'om  several  species  of  Alpinia;  and  from  a  plant 
of  an  allied  genus,  Kaemp/eria  Galanga,  the  root- 
stock  of  wliicn  is  commonly  sold  in  the  bazaars  of 
Northern  India. 

GALA'NTHtrS.     See  Snow-dkop. 

GALAPA'GOS  ISLANDS  (so  named  from  ;/aM- 
pac/o,  the  Spanish  word  for  tortoise)  are  a  volcanic 
group  in  tlie  Pacific,  situated  on  or  near  the 
equator,  aiul  in  long,  between  89°  and  92°  AV. 
They  are  thirteen  in  nimiber,  the  largest  measuring 
CO  miles  by  1.5,  mth  an  elevation  "of  4000  feet. 
They  can  harcUy  be  said  to  be  peopled,  being  ^^sitcd 
chiefly  for  their  turtles,  which  are  of  enormous 
size.  The  ten  princip.il  members  of  the  cluster 
are  Albemarle,  Indefatigable,  Chatham,  Cliarles, 
07  i 


James,   N.arborough,    Hood,    B.arrington,    Biudloos, 
and  Abingdon. 

GALASHIE'LS,  a  flourishing  m.inufacturin'.; 
town,  and  burgh  of  barony,  of  Scotl.and,  is  situate  d 
on  both  banks  of  the  Gala,  about  one  mile  frnni  its 
junction  with  the  Tweed,  and  is  partly  in  Selkirk- 
shire and  partly  in  lloxburghshire.  It  is  32  miles 
south  from  Edinbiu-gh  by  road,  and  'S3\  by  railwiiy. 
The  to^^■n  is  of  comparatively  modem  erection,  the 
greater  p.art  of  it  taring  been  built  within  the 
last  20  years.  The  superior  of  the  barony  is  Hugh 
Scott  of  Gala.  The  government  of  the  town  is 
imder  the  Police  Act  of  13  and  14  Vict.  cap.  2;i, 
and  for  all  purposes  of  the  act  the  burgh  is  held 
to  be  wholly  in  Selkirkshire.  The  town  is  gener- 
jvlly  well  built,  particularly  the  modem  houses  in 
the  suburbs,  and  the  new  factories ;  but  it  is 
imhappily  much  crowded.  The  staple  trade  is  the 
maniifacture  of  woollen  goods,  known  as  '  tweeds ' 
and  plaidings.  A  few  shawls  are  still  occasionally 
made.  There  are  16  woollen  factories,  all  of  wliich, 
with  the  exception  of  two,  are  driven  cither  by 
steam  or  steam  .and  water-power  combined.  The 
total  number  of  '  sets  of  machines '  in  these  is  60, 
which  turn  out  goods  annually  to  the  value  of 
.£300,000.  Pop.  mthin  the  burgh  in  1861,  6.''i00.  0. 
has  a  grain  market,  held  every  Tuesd.ay.  The  mills 
employ  upwards  of  2200  hands.     (1871 — pop.  9678.) 

GALATA,  a  subiu-b  of  Constantinople  (q.  v.). 

GALA'TIA  was  in  ancient  times  the  name  of 
a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  so  called  from 
;  a  body  of  Gauls  who  settled  there.  In  the  3d  c. 
fl.0.,  great  hordes  of  Gaids,  imder  Brennus,  invaded 
Greece.  Some  of  them  took  jiossession  of  Byzan- 
tium and  the  Propontis,  passed  the  Hellespont  on 
the  inritation  of  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithj-nia,  in 
the  year  278  B.C.,  subdued  Troas  and  the  north 
of  Phrygia,  and  were  first  checked  by  Attains, 
king  of  Pergamus,  in  a  great  battle  .about  the 
year  239  B.  c,  and  compelled  by  him  to  settle 
permanently  -nathin  certain  limits.  The  state  of 
G.,  which  hitherto  h.ad  had  no  accurately  defined 
boundaries,  was  now  confined  between  Paphla- 
gonia,  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  Lycaonia,  Phrygi,a,  .and 
Bithynia.  It  was  .also  called  Gallogrsecia,  and  was 
jieopled  by  numbers  of  Phrygians,  Greeks,  and 
Paphlagonians,  as  wcU  as  Gauls  or  Celts.  The 
form  of  government  was  at  first  purelj'  .aristocratic, 
but  at  a  Later  period  the  twelve  tetrarchs  who  shared 
the  government  among  them,  in  conjunction  with 
a  sen.ate  of  300  members,  succeeded  in  maldng  their 
dignity  hereditary.  At  length  one  of  them  (.30  B.  c), 
supported  by  Pompey,  assumed  the  title  of  king. 
After  his  death,  the  kingdom  descended  to  Amyntas, 
but  was  shortly  after  conquered  by  the  Komans, 
and  converted  into  a  Roman  pro\'ince,  divided  under 
Theodosius  into  Galatia  prima,  with  the  capital 
Ancyra,  and  Galatia  secuiida,  with  the  capital 
Pessinus.  The  majority  of  the  G.auls  of  G.  retained 
their  old  Celtic  language  as  late  as  the  time  of 
Jerome  (4th  c),  who  s.ays  that  they  spoke  the  same 
dialect  as  the  peojile  .about  Tre\'es ;  and  as  Jerome 
h.ad  himself  lived  there,  and  was  a  good  scholar,  ho 
m.ay  be  reg<arded  as  an  authority  on  the  subject. 
(r.  w.as  tmce  ^Tsited  by  the  Apostle  Paid. 

GALA'TIANS,  Epistle  to  the.  This  epistle 
was  ^vritteu  by  the  Apostle  Paul  during  his  resi- 
dence .at  Ejihesus,  jirobably  almut  the  year  50  A.  D., 
and  is  generally  reckoned  the  third  or  fourth  of  the 
Paulino  epistles  in  the  order  of  time.  The  circum- 
stance which  called  it  forth  was  the  difl'usion, 
throughout  the  Galatian  churches,  of  Judaistic 
[ir.actices  and  notions,  chief  among  which  stood  the 
famous  rite  of  circumcision,  regarded  by  Paul  as  the 
sjTnbol  of  .all  that  was  exclusive,  external,  merely 


GALATIN  A— G  ALBANtJM. 


ethnical,  and  therefore  thoroughly  antagonistic  to 
the  universality  of  the  gospel.  Paul  had  himself 
been  the  iirst  to  preach  Christ  in  this  region,  and 
as  the  majority  of  his  converts  were  Gentiles, 
it  would  naturally  vex  him  all  the  more  keenly 
to  see  them  lapsing  into  practices  inconsistent 
with  their  new  faith,  and  for  which  they  had  not 
even  the  excuse  that  might  have  been  proffered 
for  the  Jews,  viz.,  tliat  antiquity  had  made  such 
customs  venerable.  It  would  also  appear  that  the 
Judaising  adversaries  of  Paul  had  been  circulating 
injurious  reports  concerning  himself,  hinting  that 
he  was  no  divinely  appointed  apostle,  but  at  best 
a  mere  messenger  of  the  chiwch  of  Jerusalem, 
that  he  had  quarrelled  with  Peter,  the  great  apostle 
of  the  circumcision,  and  that  he  coiUd  play  'fast 
and  loose'  on  this  very  question  of  circimicision 
itself.  In  his  reply  to  the  imderhand  attacks 
of  his  calumniators.  Paid  asserts  the  truth  of  his 
gospel,  passionately  declaring  that  he  ^"ould  pro- 
nounce a  cui-se  on  the  voiy  angels  from  heaven,  if 
they  would  dare  to  preaeii  another,  vindicates  his 
apostlesliip,  and  gives  the  true  version  of  the  story 
of  his  variance  with  Peter.  He  then  proceeds  to 
discuss  the  relation  of  Judaism  to  (.Christianity,  and 
closes  with  a  series  of  exhortations  and  ailraoni- 
tions,  the  first  of  which  is  the  well-known  '  Stand 
fast  therefore  in  the  libert)'  wherewith  Christ  hath 
made  us  free,  and  be  not  entangled  again  with  the 
yoke  of  bondage'  (v.  1).  The  commentaries  on 
Galatiaus  are  very  numerous  ;  among  others  may 
be  mentioned  those  of  Luther,  Winer,  Iluckert,  De 
Wette,  Meyer,  EUicott,  and  Afford. 

GALATI'NA,  S.  Prerr.o  in  Galatina,  a  to-rni  in 
the  south  of  Italy,  in  the  pro^ance  of  Otranto,  is 
situated  in  a  fertile  but  unhealthy  plain,  13  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  Leccc.  Some  maintain  that 
it  is  a  very  ancient  place,  but  there  seems  no  his- 
torical gromid  for  the  assertion.  G.  is  a  thriving 
commercial  town,  and  possesses  fine  public  edifices 
and  handsome  churches.  Pop.  S400.  Eaimondo 
Orsino,  Prince  of  Taranto,  and  Lord  of  Galatina, 
siUTOunded  the  town  with  ramparts,  as  a  tribute 
to  the  citizens  for  having  ransomed  him  from  the 
Turks  for  12,000  ducats. 

GALATO'NE,  a  very  ancient  town  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Otranto,  about  nine 
miles  north-east  of  Gallipoli,  is  situated  in  a  very 
rich  but  insalubrious  plain.  Pop.  5500.  In  the 
struggle  between  Joanna  Queen  of  Naples  and 
Alfonso,  G.,  having  declared  for  the  former,  was 
besieged  by  Alfonso,  and  its  ramparts  destroyed.  It 
has  been  possessed  by  several  illustrious  families. 

GA'LAXY,  The  (Gr.  gala,  galalctos.  milk),  or 
the  Jlilky-Way,  is  the  great  luminous  band  which 
nightly  stretches  across  the  heavens  from  horizon  to 
horizon,  and  which  is  found,  when  carefully  traced, 
to  form  a  zone,  completely  encircling  the  whole 
sphere  .almost  in  a  great  circle.  At  one  part  of 
its  course,  it  opens  up  into  two  branches,  one  faint 
and  interrupted,  the  other  bright  and  continuous, 
which  do  not  reunite  till  after  remaining  distinct 
for  about  150°.  This  great  zone  has  occupied  the 
same  position  in  the  heavens  since  the  carUest  ages. 
The  reader  will  find  its  course  mapped  out  on  any 
celestial  globe,  and  a  verbal  accoimt  of  it  in  Sir  John 
Herschel's  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  by  which  he  may 
test  the  accuracy  of  the  chart.  That  course,  as 
traced  by  the  naked  eye,  following  the  line  of  its 
greatest  brightness,  conforms  nearly  to  that  of  a 
great  circle,  called  the  Galactic  Circle,  inclinetl  at  an 
angle  of  about  G.T  to  the  equinoctial,  and  cutting 
that  circle  in  0  hours  47  minutes,  and  Vl  hours  47 
minutes  right  ascension.  Throughout  the  space 
where,  as  above  stated,   it    is    clivided  into    two 


branches,  this  great  circle  is  intermeiliate  to  the  two, 
lying  nearer  that  which  is  the  brighter  and  more 
continuous.  The  most  ca-sual  survey  of  the  Galaxy 
shews  that  it  is  wanting  in  regidarity  of  outline. 
Besides  the  two  great  branches  into  which  it  divides, 
it  has  many  smaller  ones  which  spring  out  from  it. 
At  one  point,  it  diffuses  itself  very  broadly,  and 
opens  out  into  a  fan-like  expanse  of  interlacing 
branches  nearly  20'  in  breadth.  At  the  same  point 
the  branches  terminating  abruptly,  a  wide  gap 
])resents  itself  in  the  zone,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
which  it  recommences  its  coiu-se  with  a  similar 
assemblage  of  branches.  At  other  points,  its  course 
is  described  by  Sir  John  Ilerschel  as  '  irregular, 
I)atchy,  and  winding ; '  while  at  more  than  one 
point,  in  the  midst  of  its  brightest  parts,  broad  dark 
spaces  occur.  One  of  these.  Known  from  early  times 
among  navigators  as  the  '  coal-sack,'  is  a  singular 
pear-shaped  vacancy  of  about  8°  in  length,  and  5° 
broad,  occurring  in  the  centre  of  a  bright  area  over- 
lying portions  of  the  constellations  of  the  Cross  and 
Centaur.  The  '  coal-sack  '  occupies  about  half  the 
breadth  of  this  bright  space,  and  presents  only  one 
star  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  though  it  contains 
many  telescopic  stars.  Its  lilackness,  which  attracts 
the  most  superficial  oljserver,  is  thus  due  to  the 
contrast  with  the  brUliant  ground  by  which  it  is 
surrounded. 

The  Galaxy  was  examined  by  Sir  William  Herschcl 
with  his  powerfid  telescope,  and  found  to  be  com- 
posed entirely  of  stare.  How  a  collection  of  stara 
can  assume  such  appearances  as  are  presented  in 
the  Galaxy,  is  explained  in  the  article  Stars  (q.  v.). 

GALEA,  Servius  Sulpicius,  Roman  emperor 
from  Jime  G8  A.D.  to  January  69,  was  born  24th 
December  3  B.  c,  of  a  respectable  family.  He  was 
raised  to  the  consulship  in  33  A.  D. ;  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  pro\'ince  of  Aquitauia  imder 
Tiberius,  of  Germany  under  Caligula,  of  Africa 
under  Claudius,  and  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis 
under  Nero,  he  distinguished  himself  for  bravery, 
strictness,  and  justice.  His  friends  had  urged  him, 
on  the  death  of  Caligida,  to  take  possession  of  the 
throne,  but  he  continued  faithful  to  Claudius,  and 
therefore  stood  high  in  his  favour.  In  C8,  Julius 
Vuidex  rose  with  the  Galhc  legions  against  Nero, 
and  called  on  G.  to  assume  the  im])erial  dignity, 
and  thus  rid  the  earth  of  its  oppressor.  G.,  who 
had  been  informed  that  Nero  was  contriving  his 
death,  came  forward  against  him  at  first  as  the 
legate  of  the  Roman  pcojile,  and  it  was  only  when 
he  heard  of  Nero's  death  that  he  proceeded  to  Rome 
to  take  possession  of  the  throne  offered  him  by  the 
Praetorians.  G.  was  now  ujiwards  of  70  years  old, 
and  it  soon  appeared  that  his  character  had  dete- 
riorated, a-s,  indeed,  had  already  been  manifested 
in  his  later  administrations.  Indulgence  to  greedy 
favoiuites,  ill-timed  severity,  above  all,  avarice, 
which  led  him  to  withhold  the  usual  donatives  to  the 
troops,  made  him  unpopular.  The  legions  in  Ujiper 
Germany  called  on  the  Praetorians  to  choose  another 
emperor  ;  G.  thought  to  soothe  them  by  adopting 
Piso  as  his  coadjutor  and  successor;  but  he  thus 
offended  Otho,  who,  as  administrator  of  Lusitania, 
had  supported  G.,  and  looked  to  be  rewarded. 
The  Pra-'torians,  who  had  received  no  donative  on 
occasion  of  Piso's  adoption,  were  easily  excited  to 
insurrection  by  Otho,  and  the  emperor  having 
gone  out  to  quell  the  rebellion,  was  cut  down  by 
the  soldiers  as  he  crossed  the  forum. 

GA'LBANUIM,  a  gum  resin  used  in  medicine  in 
the  same  cases  as  assafa'tid.a.  It  is  principally 
employed  in  chronic  catarrh,  and  has  been  given 
(especially  -by  the  Germans)  iu  amenorrhcoa  and 
chronic  rheimiatism.     It  is  generally  administered 


n.vLi:— (;ali:na. 


in  the  form  of  the  compottnd  r/alltamim  pill,  which 
I'ODtains  gallmmim,  sagaiKMuiiii,  assafatiila,  myrrh, 
ami  soft  soap.  It  is  soiiu'tiiiios  appliod  oxter- 
nallv  in  plasters  as  a  milil  stiinulaiit  in  iiululent 
sneiliiigs.      It    is   lirou^lit    from   tlie    Levant,  and 


ajipcara  in  '  commeR'C   eitlicr   in 


tears  or  in  large 
masses.  It  is  soft,  ductile,  whitish,  or,  when  long 
kept,  yellowish  in  eolovir ;  has  a  peculiar  lialsaniio 
oilonr,  and  an  acrid,  liitter  taste.  Altlion;;h  it  has 
been  known  fiiim  the  earliest  aues,  ai\d  is  men- 
tioned liy  Jloses  (Exod.  xxx.  .•i4)  under  the  name 
cliellienah  (translatetl  galbanum  in  the  luii^lish 
Bible),  it  is  still  unccrt.ain  from  what  plant  it  is 
derived,  nalhuiium  officinale,  ftruUi  (jdllianifeTn, 
and  Opoiilia  nalliani/fm,  all  of  the  natural  order 
i'mbrtlifenr,  have,  on  various  jiiounds,  been  sup- 
j)oscd  to  be  the  source  of  j;albanuni ;  and  the  ecm- 
lidenec  with  which  they  have  been  so  represented 
has  perhaps  i>revented  travellere  from  making 
that  inciuiry  into  the  subject  which  otherwise  they 
miffht  have  made.  It  is  lii;_'hly  probable  that 
galb.-inum  is  the  produce  of  an  innbellifcrous  ]>lant. 
litibon  Oalbaiium,  a  plant  of  this  order,  found  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  yields  a  gum  resin  very 
similar  to  galbanum. 

GALE,  or  SWEET  GALE  (Myrica  rink),  a  small 
shrub  of  the  same  genns  with  the  Korth  American 
Candleberry  (q.  v.),  and  very  nearly  allied  to  it— 
a  native  of  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world, 
growing  iu  bogs  and  in  moist  gravelly  soils,  very 


Gale  {Mijrica  gale)  : 
a,  a  scale  of  the  catkin,  inside ;  b,  stamens ;  c,  an  anther. 

abundant  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  but  very  local. 
It  h.as  small  lanceolate  slightly  serrated  leaves, 
which  are  sprinlded  with  resinous  dots,  and  emit 
a  most  agree.able  fragi-.tnce.  Its  berries  are  small, 
and  sprinkled  with  golden  resinous  dots.  The 
northern  nations  formerly  used  this  ]ilant  instead 
of  hops.  The  leaves  were  also  employed  as  a 
remedy  for  itch,  and  have  the  power  of  keeping 
away  moths.  A  decoction  of  them  is  efficacious 
against  bugs.  By  distillation  they  yield  a  yellow 
essential  oil.  In  the  HigMauds  of  Scotland,  beds 
are  often  made  of  the  twigs  of  gale,  which  is  there 
called  )iod/i. 

GALEN,  CiiRisToni  BERsnARD  von.  Bishop  of 

Miinster,  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  time, 
W;i3  born  at  Bispink,  in  Westphalia,  I.5th  October 
101)0.  After  comj)leting  his  studies  in  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Miinster,  and  at  the  universities  of  Cologne, 
Mayence,   Louvain,  and  Bordeaux,  he  held  several 


political  offices,  and  was  at  last  made  Bishop  of 
illlnster,  14th  November  1C50.  The  \"igour  of  his 
administration  immediately  began  to  appear  in 
restoring  church-discipline,  in  allaying  a  famine 
which  ])revailed  at  the  time,  in  jiroraoting  trade, 
and  ridding  the  country  of  foreign  troops.  He  soon, 
however,  fell  into  disagi'ecments  with  the  inhabitants 
of  Miinster,  who,  on  applying  to  Holland,  received 
;!,"),{((l()  guilders  to  assist  them  against  him  ;  but  with 
the  supjiort  of  1201)  cavalry  from  the  emperor,  the 
liishop  reduced  the  town  into  submission  iu  IGGO, 
and  continued  to  maintain  his  ascendency  by  severe 
measures.  In  1GG4,  on  being  appointed,  .along  with 
the  Markgraf  of  Bailen,  dii'cctor  of  the  military 
alTairs  of  the  Eheiiish  alliance,  he  proceeded  with 
most  of  his  own  troops  to  the  seat  of  the  war  against 
the  Turks.  After  his  return,  he  entered  into  alliance 
with  England  against  the  Netherlands,  but  the  war 
was  soon  concluded,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty 
brought  about  by  Louis  XIV.  iu  ICGG,  according  to 
which  the  States-general  )iromised  the  restoration 
to  tlie  liishop  of  all  his  lands.  A  dispute,  however, 
afterwards  arose,  and  in  1G72,  f!.  again  went  to  war 
with  the  Dutch  in  allianee  with  France.  After  some 
successes  obtained  in  union  with  Turenue,  he  suf- 
fered such  a  heavy  loss  during  the  siege  of  Coevorden, 
by  a  storm  which  ])laced  his  camp  under  water,  th.at 
he  wUlingly  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  allies  in 
1G74,  iu  which  he  promised  to  give  up  all  his  con- 
quests in  the  Nethcrlan<is.  In  the  following  year, 
he  changed  sides,  and  entered  into  alliance  with  the 
emjicror  against  the  French.  By  taking  part,  also, 
with  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg in  the  war  with  Sweden,  he  added  the 
duchy  of  Bremen  and  other  places  to  his  possessions. 
In  I67S,  he  obtained  considerable  jwcuniary  com- 
pensation for  being  drawn  into  war  with  East 
Friesland ;  but  while  the  peace  negotiations  were 
going  on  he  died,  lOth  September.  The  family  of  G. 
is  one  of  the  oldest  iu  Westjihalia,  and  is  at  present 
represented  by  Count  M.atthi.as  von  Galen,  whose 
brother,  Coimt  Ferdinand,  has  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Prussian  service  as  au  able  diplomatist. 

GALE'NA,  or  LEAD-GLANCE,  a  mineral  which 
is  essentially  a  sulphuret  of  lead,  the  projiortions 
being  13'3  sulphur  and  SG'7  le.ad ;  but  usually  eon- 
tainmg  a  little  sdver,  and  sometimes  copper,  ziiie, 
antimony,  or  selenium.  It  is  of  a  lead-gray  colour, 
with  a  metallic  lustre,  is  found  massive,  or  some- 
times gi'anidar,  or  crystallised  iu  cubes  or  octahe- 
drons. It  is  vciy  easily  broken,  and  its  fr.agments 
are  cubical.  It  occurs  iu  veins,  beds,  and  iml>eddcd 
masses,  often  accompanyuig  other  metallic  ores,  in 
jirimitive  and  secondary  rocks,  but  most  of  all  in 
what  is  known  as  transition  or  mountain  lime- 
stone. It  is  found  very  abiuulantly  in  some  parts 
of  Britain.  Almost  all  the  lead  of  commerce  is 
obtained  from  it.  It  sometimes  contains  so  much 
silver,  that  the  separation  of  that  metal  is  profit- 
ably carried  on.  The  lead  is  extracted  from  it 
by  a  very  simple  process.     See  Lead. 

GALENA,  a  thriving  city  of  the  United  States, 
North  America,  is  situated  in  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  state  of  Illinois,  on  both  sides  of  the  Galena 
river,  and  three  miles  from  the  jimction  of  that 
stream  with  the  Mississip|ii.  It  is  4o0  miles  north 
of  St  Louis,  and  250  miles  north -north -west  of 
Springfield.  The  city,  owing  to  the  irregularity  of 
the  ground  on  which  it  is  built,  has  a  bold  and 
[lieturesque  appearauce.  Li  and  around  the  town, 
iiigh  Iduffs,  rising  frequently  to  a  height  of  more 
than  200  feet,  every^vhere  occur.  The  streets  rise 
iu  terraces,  one  above  another,  comnninicating  by 
flights  of  steps  ;  and  among  the  public  buildings  are 
numerous   churches   and   schools,  a    United   States 


GALENICAL,  GALENIST— GALEN  U.S. 


marine  hospital,  and  a  custom-house.  G.  owes  its 
oriyiu  ami  rapid  growth  to  the  rich  mines  of  lead 
which  siinnund  it.  Tu  lS."i7,  34,183,250  Ihs.  of 
lead,  valued  at  8U1,.3l'4  d..llars,  were  exported 
from  (jalena.  Copper  is  also  found,  though  not  in 
great  quantity.  G.  has  maiuifactures  of  pottery, 
soap,  and  eiindles  ;  it  has  also  lead  fiuTiaccs,  iron 
fouu<h-ies,  anil  machine-shops;  lireweries,  carriage- 
nianufaetories,  and  numerous  mills.  Besides  lead, 
it  exports  horses,  cattle,  pork,  and  agiicidtural 
lu-oduce.  In  ISl'J  the  lir.st  house  was  built  at  G.  ; 
in  1859  it  contained  14,001)  inhaljitauLs. 

GALENICAL,  GALENIST,  two  worils  having 
reference  to  the  controversies  of  the  jieriod  of  the 
revival  of  letters,  when  tlic  authority  of  Galen  w.os 
strongly  asserted  against  all  innovations,  and  parti- 
cularly against  the  introduction  of  chemical,  or  rather  ' 
akhaniml  Meas  and  methods  of  treatment  into 
medicine.  The  Galenists  ailhered  to  the  ancient  j 
formulas,  in  which  drugs  were  prescribed,  either  iu 
substance  or  iu  the  form  of  tinctures  and  extracts, 
&c.  ;  while  the  chemists  i)rofesscd  to  extract  from 
themthe  essences,  or  quintessences  {'/iilnta  esuentia, 
the  fi/l/i.  essence,  supposed  to  be  particidarly  pure, 
as  requiring  live  processes  to  extract  it),  i.  e.,  sub- 
stances in  small  bulk,  ]ires\imedto  contain  the  whole 
virtues  of  the  original  drugs  in  a  state  of  extreme  ' 
concentration,  or  puritied  from  all  gross  and  per- 
nicious, or  superlluous  matter.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  now-a-days,  that  upon  both  sides  of  this  I 
controversy  there  was  a  great  deal  of  blind  error 
ami  rash  dogmatism,  which  on  the  side  of  the 
chemists,  as  in  Par.acelsus,  took  the  form  of  quackery  \ 
and  mysticism ;  while  the  (ialeui.sts,  on  the  other  j 
hand,  were  the  supporters  of  tradition  and  all  its 
encumbrances,  and  too  often  the  envenomed  par- 
tisans of  old  blunders  or  misconceptions,  as  0]jposed  1 
to  new  forms  of  truth.  But  the  original  idea  of 
those  who  afterwai'ds  became  identified  with  the 
sect  of  the  ( (aleuists,  was  rather  to  free  the  ancient 
medicine  from  the  irrational  dogmas  and  methods 
of  cure  with  which  it  had  been  overlaid  by  the 
Arabians  and  the  monks,  than  to  insist  upon  mere 
antiquity,  or  upon  fialen's  authority  in  particular, 
as  demanding  tile  blind  assent  of  mankind  iu  opjjo- 
sition  to  new  truth.  Now  that  chemistry  has  really 
given  us  new  methods  of  preparing  drags,  which 
supersede  many  of  those  that  have  been  nsed  from 
time  iumiemorial,  it  is  still  customary  with  some  to 
call  preparations  by  the  latter  methods  Galenical, 
as  contrasted  with  the  crystalline  alkaloids,  or  the 
]ierfectly  pure  acids  and  bases,  which  contain  the 
virtues  of  most  of  our  most  valuable  vegetable 
medicines.  See  G.ile.v,  P.VRACEiars,  Alchemy,  and 
the  several  articles  on  the  materia  mcdic.a. 

GALE'NUS,  Cl.\udu's,  commonly  called  G.\i,e.n', 
a  very  eelebr.ated  physician,  born  at  Pergamns,  in 
Mysia,  130  .\.i).  In  his  17th  year,  his  father,  Nieon, 
who  had  hitherto  destined  him  to  be  a  jthilosopher, 
in  consequence  of  a  dream,  chose  for  him  the  ])ro-  ! 
fession  of  medicine.  This  stdjject  he  first  studietl 
at  Pergamus,  afterwards  at  Smyrna,  Corinth,  and 
Alexandria.  lie  returned  to  his  native  city  in  his 
29tli  yeai',  and  was  at  once  appointed  jihysician 
to  tin'  school  of  gladiators.  In  his  34th  year,  he 
went  to  Home,  where  he  stayed  for  about  four 
years,  and  gained  such  a  rei)utation,  that  ho  was 
offered,  but  declined,  the  post  of  jdiysician  to  the  ,' 
emperor.  He  returned  to  his  native  country  in  his  ' 
38th  year,  and  had  scarcely  resiiraed  his  ordinary 
course  of  life,  when  he  received  a  summons  from 
the  Emperors  M.  Aurelius  and  L.  Verus  to  attend 
them  in  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  Italy,  whither 
they  had  gone  to  make  preparations  for  a  war  with  j 
the  northern  tribes.  He  joined  the  camp  towards 
193 


the  end  of  the  year  169;  but  a  pestilence  breaking 
out,  the  emperors  and  their  court  set  off  for  Kome, 
whither  G.  accom])anicd  or  followed  them.  On  the 
return  of  M.  Aurelius  to  the  seat  of  war,  G.  obtained 
pei-mission  to  be  left  at  Kome,  alleging  that  such 
was  the  will  of  ^Esculapius,  as  revealed  to  him  in  a 
di-eani.  How  long  G.  stayeil  at  Kome  on  this  second 
occasion  is  not  known,  but  we  ascertain  from  his 
works  that  he  .attended  M.  Aurelius  and  his  two 
sons,  Commodus  and  Sextus,  and  that  at  about  the 
end  of  the  2d  c.  he  was  emjiloyed  to  comjiound  a 
celebrated  medicine  called  Thcriaca  for  the  Em|ierfir 
!  Severus.  If  the  statement  of  one  of  his  Arabic 
biographers  be  correct,  who  expressly  says  that 
G.  was  only  twice  at  Kome,  we  must  infer  that 
the  gi-eatcr  part  of  his  middle  and  more  advanced 
I  life  w.os  spent  in  that  city.  The  i>Iace  and  date  of 
his  death  are  not  known  with  certainty,  but  it  is 
believed  that  he  died  in  Sicily  about  the  year  201. 

The  works  that  are  still  extant  under  the  name  of 
G.  consist,  according  to  Choulant,  in  his  Handhiich 
tier  Bnclufrkinuh  J'iir  die  adlcre  Mnliciii,  of  S3 
treatises  acknowledged  to  be  genuine;  19  whose 
genuineness  has  been  questioned;  45  undoubtedly 
spurious;  19  fragments;  and  15  conmientaries  on 
different  works  of  Ilijipocratcs.  Besides  these,  he 
wrote  a  great  number  of  works  whose  titles  only 
are  jirescrved,  and  altogether  it  is  believed  tlip.t 
the  number  of  his  distinct  treatises  cannot  have 
been  less  than  500. 

We  may  divide  his  works  into  (1)  those  on 
an.atomy  and  physiology;  (2)  those  on  dietetics 
and  hygiene  ;  (3)  those  on  pathology  ;  (4)  those  on 
diagnosis  and  semeiology  ;  (5)  those  on  jiharmaey 
and  materia  medica ;  (G)  those  on  therapeutics, 
including  surgery  ;  (7)  his  commentaries  on  Hippo- 
crates ;  and  (8)  his  philosophical  and  miscellaneous 
works.  We  have  most  of  these  works  in  Greek, 
the  language  in  which  they  were  originally  WTitten  ; 
some  are,  however,  lu'cservcd  only  iu  Ijatin  trans- 
lations, and  a  few  only  in  Arabic.  His  most 
important  anatomical  and  physiological  works  are 
— Ve  Anatomicis  Atl>»inhitratio)iiljni^,  and  l)e  Usii 
Partiuia  Corporis  Uiimani.  Of  the  latter,  Dr 
tireenhill  (Smith's  Diclioiiari/  of  Greek  and  Homan 
liiographij)  remarks  that  '  it  is  no  less  admirable 
for  the  deep  religious  feeling  with  which  it  is 
written,  than  for  the  scientific  knowledge  and 
acutcness  displayed  in  it.'  Eor  a  good  general 
account  <»f  G.'s  anatomical  and  physivtlogical  know- 
ledge, we  may  refer  to  a  menuiir  ]>ublished  by  the 
late  Professor  Kidd  of  Oxford  in  the  sixth  volume 
of  The  Transactions  of  the  Provincial  Medical  and 
Siiri/ical  Association,  entitled  'A  (,'ui'sory  Analysis 
of  the  Works  of  tJalen,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  Ana- 
tomy and  Physiolog'y,'  and  Darembcrg's  E.rpositioii 
des  Connalisanees  de  Oalien  snr  I'Anaiomie,  la  Phy- 
siolor/ie,  et  la  Pathologic  du  Sijstimt  Nerveux  (Paris, 
1841),  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage.  His 
auatoniical  and  jihysiological  writings  arc  by  far  the 
most  valuable  of  his  works.  They  contain  undoubted 
evidence  of  his  familiarity  with  practical  anatomy  ; 
but  whether  lie  derived  his  knowledge  from  tlissec- 
tions  of  human  bodies  or  those  of  the  lower  animals, 
is  uncertain.  The  hatter  is  the  moat  prob;ible  view 
—  (1)  because  he  frequently  recommends  the  dis- 
section of  ajies,  bears,  goats,  &c. ;  and  (2)  because 
he  mentions,  .as  something  extraordinary,  that  those 
physici.ins  who  attended  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius 
in  his  wars  against  the  Germans  had  an  oji]iortnnity 
of  dissecting  the  bodies  of  the  b.arbariaus.  Much 
curious  information  regarding  G.'s  views  on  dietetics 
and  hygifcne  will  be  found  in  Ad.ains's  Commentary 
cm  the  First  Book  of  Patdus  .Egineta.  His  path- 
ology was  very  speculative  and  imperfect.  In  his 
diagnosis  and  prognosis,  he  laid  great  stress  on  the 

6T7 


GALKiaXES— C.ALIA>I. 


piOsc  on  which  subject  ho  may  bo  considered  as 
the  first  and  KK'atcst  authority,  for  all  subsequent 
writers  adopted  his  system  without  alteration.  He 
likewise  placed  CTeat  coufideuce  in  the  doctrine  of 
criticiU  davs,  which  he  believed  to  be  intiucuoed  by 
the  moon."  In  materia  medica,  his  authority  was 
not  so  high  as  that  of  Dioscorides.  Numerous  ingre- 
dients, mauy  of  which  were  probably  inert,  enter 
into  most  of  his  prescriptions.  He  seems  to  place 
a  more  impUcit  faith  in  amulets  than  m  medicine, 
and  he  is  supposed  by  CuUen  to  be  the  author  of 
the  auodjTic  necklace,  which  was  so  long  famous 
in  En"land.  We  cannot  attempt  to  enter  into  his 
system  of  therapeutics.  Wc  may,  however,  observe, 
that  his  practice  is  based  on  two  fundamental 
priucijiles— (1)  that  disease  is  something  contrary 
to  nature,  and  is  to  be  overcome  by  that  which  is 
contrary  to  the  disease  itself ;  and  (2)  that  nature 
is  to  be  preserved  by  that  which  has  relation 
to  natme.  Hence  arise  two  general  indications 
of  treatment— the  one  taken  from  the  affection 
contrary  to  nature,  which  affection  requires  to 
be  overcome  ;  the  other  from  the  strength  and 
natural  constitution  of  the  body,  which  requires 
to  be  preserved. 

Before  G.'s  time,  the  medical  profession  was 
divided  into  several  sects,  who  were  always  dis- 
puting with  one  another ;  as,  for  example,  the 
Dogniivtici,  Empirici,  Eclectici,  Pneumatici,  and 
Episynthetici.  After  his  time,  all  these  sects  seem 
to  have  merged  in  his  followers.  The  subsequent 
Greek  and  Roman  medical  writers  were  mere  com- 
pilers from  his  writings ;  and  as  soon  as  his  works 
were  translated  (in  the  9th  c.)  into  Arabic,  they 
were  at  once  adopted  throughout  the  East,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  In  short,  G.  reigned  jiara- 
moimt  throughout  the  civilised  world  tUl  within 
the  last  300  years.  The  records  of  the  London 
College  of  Physicians  afford  a  striking  illustration 
of  this  fact,  in  so  far  as  England  is  concerned. 
In  1559,  Dr  Geynes  '  was  cited  before  the  college 
for  impugning  the  infallibUity  of  Galen.  On  his 
acknowledgment  of  his  error  and  humble  recan- 
tation, signed  with  his  own  hand,  he  was  received 
into  the  coUege.' 

The  Greek  text  has  been  pubUshcd  four  times. 
The  first  edition  was  the  Aldine,  printed  in  1525,  in 
5  folio  volumes  ;  the  latest  and  most  accessible 
ecUtion  is  that  of  C.  G.  Kuhn,  in  20  octavo  volumes, 
the  publication  of  which  'extended  from  1S21  to 
1833.     A  good  critical  edition  is  stUl  requiied. 

GA'LEEITES  [galerus,  a  cap),  a  genus  of  fossQ 
sea-urchins,  peculiar  to  and  abundant  in  the  Chalk 
measures.  The  generic  name,  as  well  as  that  popu- 
larly given  to  them  in  the 
districts  where  they  abound, 
viz.,  '  Su^ar-loaves,'  is  des- 
criptive of  the  elongated  and 
more  or  less  conical  shape  of 
their  shell.  The  body  in 
breadth  is  nearly  circular  or 
polygonal.  The  under  surface 
is  entirely  flat,  and  has  the 
mouth  ])laced  in  its  centre, 
with  the  vent  near  the  margin. 
There  arc  live  avenues  of 
pores  reaching  from  the  mouth  to  the  summit. 
These  fossils  are  often  found  silicified.  The  species 
figured  is  one  of  the  most  abundant ;  it  has 
received  its  specific  name  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  white  caps  worn  by  the  priests  of  Jupiter. 

GALE'RTUS,  Valerius  M.vxiJinxrs,  a  Koman 
emperor  of  humble  parentage,  was  born  near 
Sardiea,  in  Dacia,  entered  the  imperial  army,  and 
rose  from  one  grade  of  military  rank  to  another, 


Calcritcs  Albogalcrus. 


until  Diocletian  conferred  on  him,  along  with  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus,  the  title  of  Ca>sar  (292  a.d.),  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  On  the  abdi- 
cation of  Diocletian  (305  A.D.),  he  and  Constantius 
became  .4 iij/Kif I,  or  joint-rulers  of  the  lioman  enijiire. 
On  the  death  of  Constantius  at  York  (306  A.D.),  the 
troops  in  Britain  and  Gaul  immediately  declai-ed 
their  allegiance  to  his  son,  Constautine  (.ifterwards 
Constantino  the  Great),  much  to  the  chagrin  of  G., 
who  expected  the  entire  sovereignty  of  Home  to 
fall  into  his  hands.  He  died  in  311  A.D.  G.  was  a 
brave  soldier  and  a  skilfid  commander,  but  ajipears 
to  possess  no  other  claims  to  the  respect  of  posterity. 
He  hated  the  Christians  'with  a  perfect  hatred;' 
and  it  is  beheveil  that  it  was  he  who  forced 
Diocletian  to  issue  his  famous  edict  against  them, 
wliich  caused  the  last  of  the  imperial  persecutions. 
His  mother,  an  ignorant  pagan  fan.atic,  is  said  to 
liave  exercised  much  intluence  over  him ;  but  it  is 
highly  probable  that  his  treatment  of  the  adherents 
to  the  Christian  faith  was  also  deterinined  by  a 
politic  opposition  to  Constantius  and  his  son,  who 
tolerated,  and  even  respected  the  new  oiiinions  and 
practices. 

GALIA'NI,  Ferdinando,  an  Italian  savant,  was 
born  in  Chieti,  a  province  of  the  Abruzzi,  in  1728, 
and  exhibited  at  an  early  period  an  extraordinary 
aptitude  for  learning.  Philosojihy,  Tiistory,  archa;- 
ologjs  and  more  especially  the  science  of  political 
economy,  were  his  favoiu-ite  studies ;  but,  neverthe- 
less, he  first  attracted  notice  by  a  clever  squib  on 
the  death  of  the  public  executioner.  This  consisted 
of  a  collection  of  essaj's  eulogistic  of  the  deceased, 
in  which  the  style  of  the  president  and  leading 
members  of  the  Neapolitan  Academy  was  admir- 
ably imitated.  It  was  entitled,  A  Collection  of 
Papers  in  honour  of  Vomenico  jannacone,  Public 
Executioner,  revised  and  issued  by  the  President  of 
the  Academy,  Gian  Antonio  Sergio,  Advocate,  and 
excited  universal  comment  in  Naples.  The  young 
delinquent  was  condemned  to  a  period  of  seclusion, 
prescribed  for  penitential  exercises.  His  next  pub- 
lication, Delia  Moneta,  was  more  deser%'ing  of  his 
pen,  and  evinced  his  gi-eat  learning  and  powers  of 
reflection.  It  must  be  reganled  as  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  science  of  political  economy.  The 
leatUug  principle  which  it  seeks  to  establish  is,  tli.at 
coin  is  a  merchandise,  and  that  its  value  and  interest 
ought  to  be  left  free  like  other  goods.  By  the 
adoption  of  the  sage  monetary  doctrines  propounded 
by  an  economist,  who  barely  numbered  20  years, 
the  financial  ruin  of  Na])le3  is  s.aid  to  have  been 
then  averted.  In  1751,  he  visited  the  chief  cities 
of  Italy,  and  was  everj-\vhere  honourably  received. 
From  Pope  Benedict  XIA^  he  received  repeated 
proofs  of  favour  and  confidence.  HaWng  contracted 
durmg  his  ti-avels  intimate  friendships  with  some  of 
the  most  famous  naturalists  of  his  country,  he  imme- 
diately entered  with  enthusiasm  into  their  pursuits, 
and  on  his  return  to  Naples  collected  a  rich  assort- 
ment of  the  stones  and  volcanic  matter  of  Vesuvius, 
which  he  subsequently  presented  to  the  pope, 
accompanied  by  a  learned  thesis.  On  one  of  the 
stone  sj)ecimens,  he  engraved  the  following  sugges- 
tive inscription,  '  Bcatissime  paler,  fac  lU  lapides  isti 
panes  fant;'  and  received,  by  way  of  answer,  the 
rich  prebend  of  Anialfi,  for  which  he  had  previously 
([ualilied  himself  by  entering  into  holy  orders.  In 
1759,  he  became  secretary  to  tlie  Neapolitan  Embassy 
at  Paris,  where  his  wit,  vivacity,  and  learning  made 
him  a  univers.al  favourite.  In  1707,  he  visited 
England,  whose  social  and  poUtieal  institutions 
he  studied  deeply.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  he 
WTotc  another  treatise  on  jiolitical  economy,  entitled 
Dialoghi  sul  Commercio  del  Orano  (Dialogues  uiion 
the  Trade  in  Corn),  in  which  he  argues  against  both 


OALICIA— GALILEI. 


the  extreme  protectionists  and  the  pure  free-traders. 
Being  recalled  to  Naples,  he  was  successively 
appointed  to  various  jiosts  of  trust  and  imjiortance. 
He  died  at  Najiles  in  1787,  leaving  behind  him  rare 
collections  uf  musical  MSS.,  ancient  coins,  sculptures, 
medals,  precious  stones,  cameos,  &c. 

GALI'CIA,  formerly  a  province  in  the  north- 
west of  Spain,  with  an  area  of  11,19.5  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  1,776,879  souls,  has 
been  divided,  since  1833,  into  the  minor  ]>rovince3 
of  Coruna,  Lugo,  Orenso,  and  I'ontevedra.  The 
countiy  is  mountainous,  being  covered  by  several 
offsets  of  the  Asturian  chain,  rising  in  their  highest 
peaks  to  the  height  of  about  UOOO  feet.  Capes 
Ortegal  and  Finisterre  project  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  numerous  rivers  form  Jlias,  or  small  estuaries 
at  theij-  mouths,  and  afford  secure  havens  and 
roads.  The  principal  river  is  the  Miuho,  which, 
with  its  feeders,  the  Sil  and  the  Avia,  is  navigable 
as  it  approaches  the  sea.  G.  is  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  portions  of  Europe,  and  has  a  mild  nourish- 
ing climate.  Rich  meadows  and  dense  forests  occur 
everywhere,  liut  the  soil  is  more  suited  to  the  culti- 
vation of  garden-produce  than  of  corn.  The  inhabit- 
ants, who  are  called  Gallegos,  are  a  robust,  vigorous, 
and  industrious  race.  They  visit  various  parts  of 
the  coiuitry,  and  are  employed  in  Madrid  as  water- 
carriers,  porters,  &c.  Fishing  and  uavigation  are  the 
occupations  most  largely  followed.  Linen  manufac- 
tui-es  have  been  recently  established.  The  principal 
towns  are  St  .Jago  di  C'omposteUa,  and  the  two 
strongly  fortilied  seaports  Coruna  and  Fcn-oL 

GALICIA,  a  crown-land  belonging  to  the 
Austrian  mon.archy,  including  the  former  king- 
<lom3  of  Galicia  and  Lodonieria,  the  duchies  of 
Auschwitz  and  Zator,  and  the  gi-and-duchy  of 
Cracow.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Poland  and 
Russia,  on  the  R.  by  Russia,  on  the  S.  by  the 
I'.ukowina  and  Hungary,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Silesia.  It  has  an  area  of  29,941  square  miles,  anil 
its  jiopulation  iu  1857  amomited  to  4,,')07,470,  the 
great  body  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics.  The 
country  is  a  high  terrace,  situated  at  the  northern 
base  of  the  Carpathians.  TTie  northern  portion 
forms  an  extensive  plain,  broken  only  by  low  ranges 
of  hills.  There  are  many  large  rivers — those  in 
the  west  being  feeders  of  the  \  istula,  those  in  the 
cast,  of  the  Danube  and  Dniester.  The  climate  of 
O.  is  colder  than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the 
Austrian  empire  ;  the  soil,  with  the  cxccjitiou  of 
some  sandy  and  marshy  districts,  is  fertile,  and 
produces  corn,  which  is  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  Flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  hops,  &c.,  are 
likewise  cultivated.  Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are 
raised  iu  considerable  numbers.  Wolves  and  bears 
are  still  foimd  in  the  mountainous  districts.  Salt  is 
the  most  important  mineral.  Industry  has  lately 
made  marked  jirogress.  Commerce  is  on  the  increase. 
The  roads  are  good ;  and  a  raUway  has  been 
recently  constructed.  For  administrative  purposes, 
G.  has  been  divided  into  three  goverimients — viz., 
Lemberg,  Cracow,  and  Stanislawow.  (x.  takes  its 
name  from  the  old  foi-trcss  and  tovn\  of  Halicz,  on 
the  Dniester.  The  original  Slavonic  inhabitants,  the 
Ruthenes,  were,  towards  the  end  of  the  9th  c.,  con- 
quered by  the  Russians  of  Kiew.  The  western  por- 
tion of  the  country  had  already  become  dependent 
on  Roland,  and  afterwards  on  Hungary.  In  1.S82 
it  was  restored  to  Poland,  and  continued  to  belong 
to  that  country  till  the  ))artition  of  1773,  when  G. 
became  one  of  the  crown-lauds  of  Austria.  In  1846, 
Cracow,  with  the  territory  belonging  to  it,  was,  by 
a  treaty  of  the  three  powers  (Austria,  Ru.ssia,  and 
Prussia),  given  up  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and 
by  him  aimexed  to  the  crowu-land  of  Galicia. 


GALICZ.    See  Halicz. 

GA'LILEE,  the  name  applied  to  a  porch  or  chapel 
placed  at  the  entrance  to  a  church,  beyond  which 
women  were  not  |)ermitted  to  pass.  In  abbeys,  for 
cxainjile,  the  monks  came  to  the  galilee  to  see  their 
female  relatives.  A  portion  of  the  nave  was  some- 
times marked  off  by  a  step,  or,  as  at  Durham,  by  a 
line  of  Ijlue  marble,  to  mark  the  boundary  to  which 
women  were  limited.  There  are  fine  specimens  of 
galilces  at  Lincoln,  Ely,  and  Durham. 

GALILEE  (Heb.  Oalil,  a  'circle'  or  'circuit')  is 
the  name  originally  applied  to  a  small  district 
lielonging  to  the  Jewish  tribe  of  Naphtali  (see 
Josh.  XX.  7).  Here  were  situated  the  20  towns 
which  Solomon  gave  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  for 
his  assistance  in  building  the  temple.  Phre-nician 
colonies,  in  consequence,  apjiear  to  have  established 
themselves  here,  or  the  towns  perhaps  reverted  by 
some  chance  to  their  oriijinal  Canaanitish  occu- 
jiants,  for  at  a  later  period  we  find  Isaiah  (i.x.  1) 
speaking  of  the  district  as  '  Galdce  of  the  nations.' 
These  '  nations,'  or  Gentiles,  ajipear  to  have  greatly 
increased  in  numbers,  and  to  have  finally  spread 
themselves  over  all  the  surroimding  country,  until, 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  name  '  Galilee ' 
endjraced  the  whole  northern  portion  of  Palestine 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan.  As  early 
as  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  (book  I.  chap.  v. 
verses  20 — 23),  the  number  of  Jews  in  G.  was 
vei-y  small ;  Strabo,  a  contemporary  of  Christ, 
states  that  in  his  day  it  was  mainly  inhabited  by 
Syrians,  Phteuicians,  and  Arabs,  to  whom  Josephus 
adds  Greeks.  The  jiriucipal  towns  at  the  dawn  of 
Christianity  were  Tiberias,  Tarichi-ca,  and  Sepphoris ; 
those  that  figure  in  the  gospels  are  Cana,  Caper- 
naum, Nazareth,  and  Nain.  The  Jewish  inliabitants 
of  G.  sjioke  a  broader  and  coarser  dialect  than 
their  southern  bretlu'en  of  Jud;ea,  and  were  held  in 
low  estimation  by  the  latter,  partly  on  account  of 
their  more  liberal  sentiments  in  regard  to  religion. 
It  has  been  thought  hkely  that  this  liberality,  the 
existence  of  which  is  indisput;ible,  was  owing  to 
their  intercourse  with  their  different  heathen  neigh- 
Ipours.  Every  one  of  the  disciples  was  a  Galilean 
cither  by  birth  or  residence,  and  consequently 
may  not  have  been  a  Juv  at  all  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  term  ;  i.  e.,  in  being  able  to  boast  of 
having  '  Abraham  for  his  father.'  The  first  three 
gospels  are  chiefly  taken  up  with  recoRls  of  the 
Saviour's  ministrations  in  this  pro\Tuce.  After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  despised  G.,  as 
if  retributively,  became  the  refuge  of  the  proud 
doctors  of  Jewish  law,  and  the  city  of  Tiberias 
the  seat  of  Rabbinical  learning.  The  ruins  of 
many  fine  synagogues  are  still  extant  iu  the  old 
towns  and  villages  of  this  region.  At  present, 
G.  belongs  to  the  pashalic  of  Damascus,  in  the 
Turkish  province  of  Syria  or  Soristan,  and,  as 
of  yore,  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty  ami  fertUity. 
It  still  has  a  considerable  number  of  Jewish 
inhabitants. 

GALILEI,  Galileo,  the  creator  of  experi- 
mental science,  was  bom  at  Pisa  on  the  loth  of 
February  1564.  He  belonged  to  a  Florentine 
family  more  ancient  than  opulent,  ii.,  by  desire 
of  his  father,  exclusively  directed  his  early  studios 
to  medicine,  and  the  prevailing  Aristotelian  phil- 
osophy, the  dogmas  of  which  he  soou  ventured  to 
disbelieve  and  despise.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  made  one  of  his  most  important  discoveries. 
Hap]iening  on  one  occasion  to  observe,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Pisa,  the  oscillation  of  a  lamp  casually 
set  in  motion,  (!.  was  struck  with  the  apparent 
measiu'cd  regularity  of  its  vibrations;  and  having 
tested    the    correctness     of    this    observation    by 


GALILEI. 


comparins  the  beat  of  his  own  pulso  with  the 
action  of  the  iieniluliun,  be  concluded  that  by 
means  of  this  ccniiJity  of  oscillatinn  u  simiile 
iwnduluin  (q.  v.)  uiij^ht  become  an  invalualile  aj;ent 
in  the  exact  n>e;ism-ement  of  time.  Thia  discovery 
he  subse(iuently  utilised  by  the  successful  appli- 
cation of  the  pendidum  in  constructing  a  clock 
for  astionomical  purposes.  G.'s  irrepressible  bias 
towanls  mechanical  coustructions  and  experimental 
science  received  a  new  impulse  from  his  intercourse 
witli  a  friend  of  his  father's,  Ostilio  Kiccio,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics,  who,  in  compliance  with  the 
youth's  entreaties,  initiated  liim  into  the  i>rinciples 
of  matliematics.  Such  was  Ci.'s  absorption  and 
delight  iu  his  new  studies,  that  his  father  at 
length  sanctioned  his  abandonment  of  the  art  of 
medicine,  in  order  that  he  might  concentr.ate  his 
powers  on  his  chosen  sciences.  The  first  fruit  of 
Lis  geometrical  investigations  was  the  invention  of 
a  hydrostatic  b.alance,  by  which  the  specific  gravity 
of  solid  bodies  might  be  ascertained  with  the 
nicest  accuracy.  In  15S9,  the  fame  of  G.'s  extraor- 
dinary learning  having  reached  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  this  enlightened  prince  appointed  him 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  luiiversity  of  Pisa, 
where  lie  cuvcrtly  inculcated  many  of  those  great 
inniiv.ations  in  physical  science  which  have  since 
added  sucli  lustre  to  his  memory.  About  this  period 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  then  very  imperfectly 
comprehended  laws  of  bodies  in  motion  ;  and  in 
opposition  to  all  received  systems,  he  propounded 
the  novel  theorem,  that  all  falling  bodies,  great  or 
small,  descend  with  equal  velocity.  This  soon  led 
him  to  the  discovery  of  '  the  three  laws  of  motion,' 
and  the  law  regulating  the  motion  of  falling  bodies, 
which  is  expressed  by  the  formida  8  =  J  ft-.  This 
theory  of  falling  bodies  was  proved  correct  by 
several  experiments  which  were  made  from  the 
summit  of  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  greatly  to 
the  ch.agrin  of  the  Aristotelians,  whose  enmity  to 
G.  now  gi'ew  more  decided.  In  consequence,  he 
deemed  it  pnulent  to  relinquish  his  chair  .at  Pisa, 
and  retired  to  Padua,  where  he  accepted  the  ofl'er 
of  the  Venetian  sen.ate  to  lecture  on  mathem.aties 
in  the  univei-sity  for  the  sjiaee  of  six  years.  It  is 
also  said,  however,  that  G.  lost  his  chair  at  Pisa, 
from  having  ridiculed  the  mechanical  i)retensious 
of  John  de  Jledici,  son  of  Cosmo  I.  G.'s  engage- 
ment at  Padua  was  eventually  prolonged  to  the 
term  of  18  years  ;  but  so  urgent  was  Lis  desire  to 
return  to  his  birthplace,  that  he  sought  a  restoration 
to  his  former  post  at  Pis.a,  and  w.as  gr.atified  by  an 
assent  being  eagerly  accorded  by  Cosmo  de'  Mecbei, 
with  exemption  from  any  but  a  voluntary  exercise 
of  the  duties  of  the  professorship.  Dm-ing  his 
sojoiu-n  at  Padua,  his  course  of  lectures  enjoyed 
extraordinary  jiopularity ;  crowds  of  jnipils  flocked 
to  hear  him  from  .all  parts  of  Europe  ;  and  he 
w.as  the  first  to  adapt  the  Italian  idiom  to  jihilo- 
sophical  instniction.  Among  the  various  and  noble 
discoveries  with  which  he  enriched  science,  may  be 
noticed  a  species  of  thermometer,  a  proportion.al 
compass  or  sector,  and  more  important  than  all, 
the  construction  of  the  refracting  telescope  for 
astronomical  investigation.  In  1009,  he  offered 
his  lirst  complete  telescope  to  the  Doge  of  Venice, 
Leonardi  Deod.ati,  by  whom  it  was  tested  from  the 
tower  of  St  Wark  with  equal  surprise  and  delight. 
In  the  R.ame  year  he  constructed  a  microscope  ;  and 
then  this  indefatig.able  interpreter  of  tlic  mysteries 
of  nature  commenced  liis  astronomical  researches 
by  means  of  his  own  telescope,  lie  speedily  con- 
cluded tliat  the  moon,  instead  of  being  a  self- 
linninous  and  perfectly  smooth  sphere,  owed  her 
illumination  to  reflection,  and  iiresented  an  imequal 
Burf.ace,  deeply  furrowed  by  valleys  and  mountains 


of  great  extent.  The  Milky  Way  he  jironoimced  a 
track  of  countless  separate  st.ars  ;  and  these  dis- 
coveries were  crowned  by  a  still  more  inipurtant 
series  of  observations,  which  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the  four  s.atellites  of  Jupiter  ou  the  night  of 
the  7th  of  January  1010  (though  it  was  not  till 
tlie  l.'ith  of  the  same  month  that  he  came  to  the 
conclusion  th.at  they  were  satellites,  and  not  lixed 
stars),  which  he  n.amed  the  Medieean  stars,  in  honour 
of  liis  constant  protectors  in  that  family.  He  also 
was  the  lirst  to  note  movaljlo  spots  (»n  the  disc  of 
the  sun,  from  which  he  inferred  the  rot;ition  of  th.at 
orb.  Encircled  by  the  lustre  of  these  sublime  dis- 
coveries, he  dep.arted  from  Padua,  and  returned  to 
Tuscany  in  1010,  where  renewed  quarrels  with  the 
Aristotelians  disquieted  and  embittered  his  exist- 
ence. In  1011,  he  «sitod  liome,  and  w.as  received 
with  great  distinction,  being  enrolled  a  member 
of  the  Lincei  Academy ;  but  four  years  later,  on 
repeating  the  visit,  his  reception  was  widely  different, 
as  by  that  time  in  his  work  on  the  sol.ar  sjiots 
he  had  o]ien!y  advocated  the  Coperuiean  system, 
and  was  in  consequence  denounced  as  a  propounder 
of  heretical  views.  He  repaired  .again  to  Itome,  to 
demand  .an  experimental  inquiry  into  the  soundness 
of  his  views ;  but  the  grand  duke  aiipreheuding 
inquisitorial  dangers  for  his  favom-ite,  sunmioned 
hini  back  to  Tuscany ;  at  the  same  time  the  pope, 
through  the  f.anious  Canlinal  Bcllarmine  (a  sincere 
friend  of  G.'s),  commanded  him  to  alistain  from  all 
future  advocacy  of  his  heretical  doctrines.  Some 
time  after,  he  ^vrote  his  most  famous  work  iu  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  three  fictitious  interlocu- 
tors, the  one  in  f.avour  of  the  Copernic.an  system, 
the  second  an  advocate  of  the  Ptolemaic,  and  the 
third  a  rabid  supporter  of  the  Aristotelian  school. 
Of  course,  the  whole  weight  of  the  jtron/  falls  into 
the  Coperuiean  scale ;  and  nothing  can  exceed  the 
classic  beauty  of  this  composition,  or  the  com- 
pactness of  the  chain  of  its  argument.  In  IC.'JO, 
G.  contrived  to  obtain  the  jiapal  imiirimatur, 
which  was  subsequently  revoked;  but  having  got 
a  similar  authorisation  at  Plitrence,  he  i)ublished,  in 
1032,  tills  exponent  of  his  opinions  under  the  title 
of  Uii  Dkdoyo  iniorno  i  due  Massimi  Slstemi  del 
Mondo.  Hardly  had  the  work  been  issued,  when 
it  was  given  over  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. Pope  Urban,  previously  Cardinal  Barberini, 
and,  imtil  now,  a  friend  and  eulogist  of  G.,  ■\\as 
led  to  believe  that  G.  had  s.atirised  him  in  this 
work  under  the  title  of  Simplicio,  as  one  who  is 
careless  about  scientific  truth,  and  who  timidly 
adheres  to  the  saws  of  antiquity.  He  resolved 
to  })unish  the  audacious  philosopher.  In  spite  of 
his  70  years  and  heavy  infirmities,  G.  was  sum- 
moned before  the  Inquisition  to  answer  for  his 
heresies.  After  a  wearisome  tri.al  and  incarceration, 
his  judges  condemned  G.  to  abjure  by  oath  on  his 
knees  the  sublime  truths  of  his  scientific  creed.  This 
he  was  weak  enough  to  do.  His  latest  biographer, 
M.  Philarfcte  Chasles,  however,  denies  that  G. 
was  jiut  to  the  torture,  and  pronounces  the  letter 
of  G.  to  Peinecci,  from  which  Tiraboselii  quotes  to 
]irove  it,  a  forgery.  His  famous  whisper,  E  pur 
si  mnore  {' Hwt  nevertheless  it  does  move'),  is  also 
in  d.anger  of  being  regarded  as  a  fiction.  G.  was 
sentenced  to  an  indefinite  term  of  imprisonment  m 
the  Inquisitiou,  which  was  soon  connnutcd  by  I'ope 
Urban,  at  the  request  of  Ferdinand  the  (.Irand, 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  into  permission  to  reside  at  .Siena, 
and  fin.ally  at  Florence,  shcndd  the  prisoner's  health 
require  the  ch.angc.  In  his  retreat  at  Arcetri, 
he  continued  with  unflagging  ardour  his  learncil 
researches,  even  wlicu  hearing  giew  enfeebled  an<l 
sight  Wiis  extinguished.  He  died  ou  the  Sth  of 
January  1642,  at  the  age  of  78,  and  was  interred 


GALINGALE— GALL. 


by  ducal  ordci-a  in  the  cathedral  of  Santa  Croce, 
wliere  a  majestic  monument  symljolises  his  great 
achievements.  Hia  disjxisition  was  truly  genial  ; 
lie  enjoyed  with  keenness  the  social  wit  and  banter 
of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the  generous  ])leasurc3 
of  the  hancjuet ;  and  the  readiness  with  whicli  he 
offered  or  acce])ted  atonement,  modified  a  some- 
what irasciUe  disposition.  Tlie  great  deficiencies 
in  liis  character  were  a  want  of  tact  to  keep  out  of 
diflieulties,  and  a  want  of  moral  courage  to  defend 
liiniself  when  involved  in  them.  Hia  biting  satii'ical 
turn,  more  than  his  physical  discoveries,  was  the 
cause  of  his  misfortunes.  The  dignitaries  of  the 
church  who  jiersecuted  G.,  warned  liim  beforehand 
in  tile  frieutUiest  way  to  be  '  more  prudent.""  Their 
conduct  in  persecuting  opinion,  or  rather,  in  G.'s 
case,  ik'/nonslratijit  Juff,  is  of  course  utterly  inex- 
cusable ;  but  that  is  no  reason  why  we  should  run 
to  the  other  extreme,  and  declare  G.  to  be  a  martyr. 
No  great  man  had  ever  less  claim  to  the  title.  It 
is  also  right  to  add,  tli.at  the  congregation  of  the 
Inquisition  by  which  G.  was  condemned,  is  not 
believed  by  Human  Catholics  to  speak  with  the 
plenary  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church,  nor  are 
its  decisions  regarded  as  infallible  even  by  the  most 
extreme  idtraniontanes.  G.  was  of  small  stature, 
but  of  a  robust  and  healthy  frame ;  liis  counte- 
nance was  attractive,  and  his  conversation  cheerful. 
He  loved  art,  and  cultivated  especially  music 
and  poetry.  Ariosto  he  knew  almost  by  heart, 
and  appreciated  keenly  the  beauties  of  tliis  great 
classic.  Tasso,  on  the  other  hand,  ho  unduly 
depi'cciated,  and  inllicted  much  pain  on  the  sen- 
sitive spirit  of  the  poet  by  his  severe  criticism 
entitled  ConshlercrJoni  al  Tusso.  His  owni  style 
is  nervous,  flowing,  and  elegant.  His  collected 
works  have  been  published  in  1.3  volumes,  8vo 
(.Milan,  1811),  and  at  various  other  places.  His 
devoted  pupil,  Viviani,  has  written  a  life  of  G. ;  see 
also  Drinkwater  in  the  Li'irary  of  Useful  Know- 
Ifdge ;  Sii-  David  Brewster  in  Lardner's  Cahiiiel 
Cijdopadia ;  and  M.  Philariito  Chasles's  Galileo 
Oalilei :  sa  I'iV,  non  Pmcc.%  et  ses  Contemporains, 
(Vapres  les  DocumenU  OrUiinavx  (Paris,  1862).  We 
may  briefly  rccapit\ilato  Ci.'s  most  important  con- 
tributions to  physical 
science  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  :  1.  The  rela- 
tion between  space  and 
time  in  the  case  of  falling 
bodies,  also  the  'three 
laws  of  motion ; '  2.  The 
path  of  projectiles  is  a 
parabola ;  3.  The  iso- 
clironism  of  the  pen- 
dulum ;  4.  That  air  has 
weight,  also  p.artial  dis- 
covery that  suction  is 
owing  to  the  pressure 
of  the  atmospliere  ;  5. 
The  re-invention  of  Aris- 
totle's theory  respecting 
sound;  6.  The  invention 
of  tlie  telescope;  7.  The 
discoveiy  of  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter,  phases 
of  Venus,  and  spots  on 
the  sun.  For  the  nature 
of  these  discoveries, 
see  Pe.vduloi,  Faluxg 
1jODIE.S,  Projix'tile.s,  &c. 
GALIXGALE,a  n.ame 
„  ,.       ,    ,_  ,  ,    often  applied  to  the  tubers 

G.%hnsale  (Cyptrm  lon'jm) :  ^f   c'„pen,s  lon'pis,    and 

n-uit.  plant.     See  Cvperus. 


GALIPEA.     See  Ancostttr.v  B.vrk. 

GALIUM.     See  Beb.straw. 

GALL.    A  sj-nonym  for  bile,  the  secretion  of  the 
Liver  (<!.  v.) 

GALL,  Fkanz  Jo.sKnr,  the  founder  of  jihicn- 
olog)',  was  bom  at  Tiefenbrunn,  near  Pforzheim,  on 
the  borders  of  Baden  and  Wiirtemberg,  9th  March 
1758.  He  studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  settling 
there,  became  known  as  a  practical  jihysician,  and 
by  the  publication  of  his  J^/iilomphixch-Jlediciiiische 
Unlersudiumjen  i'lbcr  Nntur  und  Kunsl  iiii  gesitnden 
und  ki-unken  Zuslande.  dr^i  Mengdicn  (Vienna,  1701). 
But  he  acquired  a  much  more  extended  reputation 
by  his  lectures  on  the  stnicture  and  functions  of 
the  braui,  which  he  began  to  deliver  in  1796.  See 
PuBEXOLOGY.  His  views  were  so  subversive  of 
received  doctrines  on  the  subject  of  mind,  that  a 
spirit  of  opposition  was  excited,  and  the  lectures 
were  prohibited  in  1802  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. Along  with  his  pupil  Dr  Spurzheim  (q.  v.),  . 
who  became  his  associate  in  1804,  G.  quitted 
Vienna  in  180.i,  and  during  his  travels  through 
Germany,  Holland,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland, 
expoundeil  his  views  in  many  of  the  universities 
and  jirincipal  cities,  where  he  found  many  adherents 
as  well  as  opponents.  In  1807,  he  settled  as  a 
physician  in  Paris,  and  there  began  luetiiring  and 
writing  for  the  propagation  of  his  opinions.  As  a, 
foreigner  teacliin"  science  to  the  French,  he  was 
discountenanced  by  Napoleon.  On  14th  March 
ISflS,  he  and  Spurzheim  presented  to  the  Institute 
of  France  a  Memoir  of  their  discoveries,  on  which  a 
committee  of  the  members  of  that  body  (inclxiding 
Pinel,  Portal,  and  Cuvier)  drew  up  an  unfavourable 
Report.  Of  this  there  is  a  translation  in  the  Ediii- 
burt/fi  Medical  and  Surtjical  Journal  for  January 
1809.  G.  and  Spurzheim  thereupon  published  their 
Memoir,  with  a  reply  to  the  Heport,  in  a  volume 
entitled /Jc'cAo-c/ifs  skj-  le  iSi/sti-me  Nerveux  cii  (jeiiHral, 
el  gur  cdui  da  Cerveau  en  particulier  ;  suiin  d'Ohser- 
vatioiis  sur  le  Bapporl,  &c.  (Paris,  1809,  4to).  This 
was  followed  by  their  larger  work,  Aiiatomiu  it 
Phijsiolo(jie.  du  Sydeiiie  .X'crreux,  &c.  (Paris,  181U  - 
1819,  4  vols.  4to),  with  an  Atlas  of  100  plates  ;  but 
the  two  phrenologists  h.aving  parted  in  181.3,  the 
name  of  G.  alone  is  preli.xed  to  vols.  3  and  4  ;  and 
it  alone  is  borne  by  a  reprint  of  the  jihysiological 
portion  of  the  work,  entitled  .Vur  les  l-'oiictioim  du 
Cerveau,  et  sur  cedes  de  chacune  de  ses  Parties  (Paris, 
1825,  G  vols.  8vo).  Of  the  contents  of  that  edition, 
there  is  a  summary  in  the  Phrenohgical  Journal,  x. 
459.  A  German  translation  of  it,  entitled  I'oH- 
st(indie/e  Gei-steskunde,  &c.,  appeared  at  Nuremberg  in 
18.33  ;  and  an  inditrerent  English  version  by  I)r 
Winslow  Lewis,  junior,  at  Boston,  United  States,  in 
1835  (6  vols.  12mo).  A  translation  of  the  chaptcra 
On  the  Functions  of  thf.  Cerebellum  is  included  in  a 
volume  with  that  title,  published  by  G.  Combe 
(Edin.  1838,  8vo).  In  answer  to  accusations  of 
materialism  and  fatalism  brought  against  his  system, 
G.  had  early  jmblished  a  part  of  the  work  under 
the  title  of  JJis  IJisposititins  innees  de  TAme  el  de 
C Esprit,  &c.  (Paris,  1812).  He  continued  to  practise 
medicine  and  ptu-sue  his  researches  at  Montrouge, 
near  Paris,  till  his  death,  22d  August  1828.  A 
catalogue  of  his  collection  of  skidls,  &c.,  is  printed 
in  the  Phrenulo'jiml  Journal,  vols.  vi.  and  vii.  As  a 
thinker,  he  was  original  and  independent;  .-is  an 
obser\-cr,  industrious  and  persevering  ;  as  a  writer 
and  lecturer,  forcible  and  clear.  Even  those  who 
reject  his  system  as  insufficiently  borne  out  by  facts, 
allow  that  he  has  conferred  signal  service  on  science 
by  his  discoveries  in  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  brain,  and  that  by  stirring  to  the  bottiin 
many  questions   regarding  mind,  and  the  organic 

SSI 


GALL. 


crmiUtions  by  which  its  phenomena  are  nffected, 
ho  has  contriliiitcd  to  ilee|)un  tlie  founilatioua  of 
psycholog)',  anil  to  render  it  applicable  to  Imman 
sll'airs.  It  is  long  since  the  apprehension  of  danger 
to  religion  and  morality  from  his  doctrines  died 
away  among  the  intelligent  and  well  informed.  In 
Great  Britain,  nhrenolog)' became  known  less  through 
G.'s  writings  than  through  those  of  Spurzhelm,  M-ho 
came  over  to  England  in  1814.  .So  early,  however, 
as  1803  it  h.ad  been  criticised  in  the  Kdinhunjli 
li'erUii;  ii.  147.  See  further,  Transactions  of  the 
Plirenuloykal  Hocktii,  p.  1  (Edin.  1824) ;  Phrenological 
Journal,  vols.  5,  8,  9,  11,  15,  16,  17,  and  19;  a 
Hietorical  Xotice  of  Ute  Discover>j  of  the  Anatomy 
of  the  Brain,  appended  to  (}.  Combe's  Phrenolorjij 
Applied  to  Painlinrj  and  Sculpture,  p.  151  (Lond. 
1865) ;  Professor  Laycock  on  Mind  and  Brain,  ii. 
1G4,  168  (EiUu.  1800). 

GALL,  St,  one  of  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing towns  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  the  canton 
of  the  same  name,  is  jileasantly  sitii.ated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Stein.^ch,  at  an  elevation  of  2081  feet 
.ibove  sea-level,  and  is  distant  40  miles  from  Zurich 
in  a  straight  line  oast-north-east.  It  is  a  \A-oll-built 
town,  surrounded  by  old  walls  ;  but  the  ditch  h.as 
been  filled  up  and  converted  into  garden-grounds. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Abbey 
Church,  wliich  was  completely  modernised  in  the 
course  of  last  century ;  the  monastery,  portions  of 
which  are  now  occupied  by  public  govermnent 
oflices,  and  by  the  convent  library,  containing  1506 
MSS.,  and  among  them  several  of  the  cl.issics, 
that  were  at  one  time  thought  to  have  been  lost. 
See  Gall,  St,  Aedey  of.  The  greatest  building  is 
the  schoolhouse,  which  contains  a  natural  history 
museum  and  the  town  library.  The  luanuf.ictures 
of  St  G.  consist  chiefly  of  cotton  goods,  particularly 
of  Swim  muslins.  It  has  also  hnen  manufactures, 
carries  on  bleaching  and  embroidery  extensively, 
and  is  the  gi'eat  mart  for  the  produce  of  Appeuzell 
and  Thiu-gau.     Pop.  12,000. 

GALL,  St  (Ger.  St  Oallen),  Abbey  or,  a  cele- 
brated Swiss  Benedictine  monastery,  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  canton  in  which  it  is  situated.  It 
was  foimded  early  in  the  7th  c.  by  St  (Jail,  or 
Gallus,  an  Irish  monk,  a  disciple  of  Coluinbanus, 
and  one  of  that  distinguished  band,  who  in  that 
age,  from  the  various  monasteries  of  Ireland  and  the 
kindred  establishment  of  lona,  carried  the  elements 
of  learning  and  civihsation  over  a  large  portion  of 
the  continent  of  Europe.  Gallus  had  accompanied 
Columbanus  to  Anegray  and  Luxeuil,  and  ulti- 
m.itely  himself,  in  company  Vfith  a  few  followers, 
rei)aired  to  Switzerland,  where,  in  a  hermitage  on 
the  banks  of  the  Steinach,  he  acquired  such  f.ame 
for  sanctity  by  his  teaching  and  example,  that  on 
his  de.ath,  there  arose,  in  honour  of  his  memory, 
what,  in  progi'ess  of  time,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  many  magnificent  establishments 
of  the  Benedictine  order.  The  succession  of  alibots 
from  the  days  of  Gallus  is  carefully  chronicled,  and 
the  share  wliich  each  of  them  had  in  the  erection 
and  enlargement  of  the  monastic  buildings.  It 
will  be  enough  to  say  that,  through  the  jiiety 
and  munificence  of  the  faithful,  the  .abbey  of  St 
G.  gi'adually  became  one  of  the  master-pieces  of 
mediev.al  architecture  ;  and  that  the  genius  and 
slciU  which  were  la\-ished  on  its  construction,  and 
on  the  decortition  of  its  halls  and  cloisters,  h.ad  a 
large  share  in  developing  the  Christian  art  of  the 
period.  The  monks  of  St  G.,  too,  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  best  friends  and  preservers  of  ancient 
literature.  They  were  indefatigable  in  the  collec- 
tion and  tr.anscription  of  MSS. — biblical,  p,atristic, 
sacred  and  profane  history,  classical,  liturgical,  and 


legendary.  Some  of  the  M.S.S.  which  are  still  shewn  in 
the  library  are  monuments  of  the  skill  and  industry 
of  the  copyists;  and  sevenU  of  the  classics,  especially 
(,>uintilian,  Silius  ItaHcns,  and  Ammiaiius  Mari-ej- 
liiuis,  have  been  preserved  solely  through  the  MSS. 
of  .St  Gall.  For  a  time,  the  abbey  was  subject  to 
the  Bishop  of  Constance,  and  an  animated  dispute 
was  for  a  long  time  maintained  between  that  prelate 
and  the  monks  as  to  the  right  of  electing  the 
abbot.  It  ended,  however,  in  the  recognition  of  the 
right  of  free  election ;  and  ultimately,  from  the 
growth  of  the  mon.istic  pos-iessions,  and  the  imjior- 
tant  position  which  the  abbot  held,  the  monastic 
domain,  which  comprised  a  great  ])art  of  Northern 
.Switzerland,  became  a  distinct  jurisdiction,  within 
which  the  abbot,  like  many  of  his  brethren  in  the 
great  Benedictine  monasteries,  exercised  all  the 
rights  of  a  suzerain.  For  several  centuries,  the 
abbey  of  St  G.  held  one  of  the  highest  jilaces  in 
the  order.  Its  schools  enjoyed  "wide  reputation. 
Its  memViei's  held  a  distinguished  place  among  the 
scholars  of  medieval  Germany  ;  and  many  of  them, 
.as,  for  ex.ample,  Notker,  are  known  to  have  culti- 
vated not  only  the  ordinary  learning  of  the  schools, 
but  also  physic,  mathematics,  and  astronomy.  The 
school  of  St  G.,  too,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
for  the  cultivation  of  music,  and  its  MS.S.,  preserved 
in  its  library,  have  been  extensively  made  use  of 
by  the  restorers  of  ancient  ecclesi.ostical  music. 
A  town  of  consider.able  imiiortance  grew  up  around 
the  monastery,  and  was  called  by  the  same  name ; 
and  as  the  wealth  and  influence  w-hich  attached  to 
the  dignity  of  the  abbot  began  to  make  it  an  object 
of  ambition  to  the  rich  and  powerful  families,  we 
find  the  succession  of  abbots,  in  the  l.'ith  and  14th 
centuries,  sadly  degenerated  from  their  jtious  antl 
learned  predecessors  in  the  office.  A  stringent 
reform  was  enforced  about  the  time  of  the  council 
of  Const.ince  ;  but  the  burghers  of  St  G.  had  grown 
dissatisfied  under  this  rule  ;  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Reformation  in  1525,  they  threw  oU"  their 
subjection,  and  embraced  the  new  doctrines.  At 
the  close,  however,  of  the  religious  war  in  1532,  the 
Catholic  religion  was  re-established,  and  the  abbot 
reinstated,  though  with  diminished  authority,  in 
his  ancient  dignity.  At  the  French  Kcvolution, 
the  abbey  of  St  G.  was  secul.arised  (1708),  and  its 
revenues  were  soon  afterwards  sequestrated  (1805). 
By  a  later  ecclesiastical  arrangement,  the  abbacy 
of  St  G.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  bishopric, 
which,  in  1823,  w;xs  united  to  that  of  Chur.  They 
were  afterwards,  however,  separated  ;  and  in  1847, 
St  Gallen  wiis  erected  into  a  bishopric,  with  a 
distinct  jurisdiction. 

G.\LL,  St,  C.vXTOy  of,  a  Swiss  canton,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Thurg.au  and  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
E.  by  the  Vorarlberg,  .S.  by  the  Grisous  and 
Glanis,  and  W.  by  Zurich  and  Schwytz.  The 
country  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous ;  the 
general  slope  of  the  surface  being  towards  the 
north  and  north-west.  Several  of  the  summits 
attain  a  height  of  6000  or  7000  feet,  one  (the 
G.allanda)  a  height  of  8800,  .and  one  (Scliirbe)  that 
of  9000.  The  Rhine  touches  the  canton  of  St  G. 
near  Pfeflfers,  and  for  about  .50  miles  forms  its 
e.a.stern  boundaiy.  The  chief  rivers  that  intersect 
the  canton  are  the  Seez,  the  Tamina,  and  the  Thur. 
Portions  of  the  Lakes  of  Constance,  Ziirich,  and 
Walleustadt,  lie  within  its  boundaries.  The  chief 
ju'oduce  of  the  canton  consists  of  fruit,  especially 
a]^]>les  and  cherries,  wine,  kir.^c/iwasser,  corn,  maize, 
and  jiotatocs.  The  amount  of  corn  ju'oduced  is  but 
trifling,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  land  is 
devoted  to  p.asture.  Iron  is  found  in  considerable 
abund.ance,  and  of  good  quality,  .at  Gunzenberg ; 
and  coal,  as  also  peat,  is  r.aised  mthin  the  canton. 


GALLA  OX-GALLA.S. 


The  manufactures  are  of  linen,  muslin,  cotton,  lace, 
embroidery,  and  glass ;  and  wax-ljleaching  and 
tanning  are  also  extensively  carried  on.  The  linen- 
trade  is  of  very  old  standing.  Its  seat  is  the  town 
of  St  Gall,  which  was  celebrated  for  its  linens  as 
early  as  the  13th  c,  but  it  has  in  later  times  been 
almost  entirely  rei)laced  by  the  manufacture  of 
cotton. 

The  erection  of  St  G.  into  a  distinct  canton  is 
comparatively  of  recent  date.  It  w.is  formed  upon 
the  secularisation  of  the  domain  of  the  abbot  by 
the  union  of  the  abbey  territory  with  several  dis- 
tricts previously  subject  to  the  older  cantons — viz., 
the  Rheinthal,  Sargans,  Werdenberg,  Sax,  Gaster, 
Utziiacli,  together  with  the  town  of  Kapperschwyl ; 
so  that  the  new  canton  of  St  G.  actually  encloses 
upon  all  sides  the  canton  of  Appenzell,  which  forms, 
as  it  were,  an  island  within  the  new  district.  The 
language  is  a  Swabiau  dialect  of  German.  The 
canton  of  St  G.  sends  eight  members  to  the  National 
Council.  Its  government  is  one  of  the  most  demo- 
cratic in  Switzerland.  It  consists  of  a  Great  Couucd, 
the  members  of  which  are  chosen  for  two  years  by 
the  votes  of  all  citizens  above  21  years ;  and  who 
appoint  from  among  themselves  for  four  years 
an  executive,  called  the  Lesser  Council,  consisting 
of  seven  members.  The  local  prefects  and  other 
district  oflicers  are  elected  annually  in  their  several 
districts.  The  area  of  the  cantou  is  772  square 
miles.  Poi).  (1S60)  181, OiM,  of  whom  111,087  were 
Catholics,  and  the  rest  chiefly  Calvinists.  Chief 
town,  St  Gall  (q.  v.). 

GALLA  OX,  or  SANGA,  a  rem.arlcable  species 
or  variety  of  ox  inhabiting  Abyssinia.  The  chief 
peculiarity  is  the  extraordinary  size  of  the  horns, 
which  rise  from  the  forehead  with  an  outward,  and 
then  an  inward  curve,  jiroducing  a  very  perfect 
figrirc  of  a  lyre,  and  finally  curve  a  little  outwards 


GuUa  Ox  (copied  from  Yascy's  work  on  The  Ox). 

at  the  tip,  to  which  they  taper  gradually.  In  a 
specimen  presented  by  Mr  Salt  to  the  Museum  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London,  the  length  of 
each  horn  measured  round  the  outer  side  is  three 
feet  ten  and  a  h.alf  inches,  the  circumference  of  each 
at  the  b.ise  is  one  foot  three  inches,  the  distance 
between  the  tips  three  feet  four  inches.  A  space  of 
abont  three  or  four  inches  between  the  horns  is 
occupied  by  a  tuft  of  hair.  Bruce  represents  the 
enormous  growth  of  the  horns  as  a  kind  of  dis- 
ease or  monstrosity,  accompanied  with  emaciation 
of  the  animaL    Salt  controverts  this  account,  but 


figures  the  animal  so  as  rather  to  confirm  it.  The 
G.  0.,  however,  differs  from  the  common  ox  in 
having  a  hump  on  the  shoulders,  in  the  abrupt 
descent  of  the  back  towards  the  tail,  in  the  greater 
length  of  the  legs,  and  in  the  narrower  space 
between  the  horns. 

GALLAND,  Antoixe,  a  French  orientalist  and 
numismatist,  was  born  in  1646  at  Rollot  near 
Montdidier,  in  Picardy.  In  1670  he  accompanied 
the  French  ambassador,  Nointel,  to  Constantinople, 
when  he  visited  Jerusalem  and  other  places.  Ho 
returned  to  France  in  1675,  but  subsequently  made 
two  voyages  to  the  East.  Colbert  and  Louvoi's  inter- 
ested themselves  on  his  behalf,  and  procured  him 
the  means  of  devoting  himself  to  study.  In  1701,  he 
was  m.ide  a  member  of  the  Acadfimie  des  Inscriptions, 
and  in  1700,  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  de 
France.  lie  died  17th  February  1715.  The  greatest 
part  of  G.'s  writin<p  relate  to  Numismatics  and  the 
East,  but  the  thing  which  has  secured  him  the 
most  imperishable  reputation,  is  his  translation  of 
the  Arabian  NigliU  in  12  vols.  {Mille  et  Une  Kuits, 
Contes  Arabes,  Paris,  1704—1708).  This  was  the 
first  translation  of  these  grotesque  and  gorgeous 
stories  ever  m.ade  into  any  langtiage  of  Christen- 
dom, and  for  a  good  while  G.  got  the  credit  of 
being  himself  the  author  as  well  as  the  translator. 
Among  his  other  writings,  we  may  mention  Paroles 
rcmarqiiables,  bons  Mots,  et  ilaximes  ilea  Oricntatix 
(Paris,  1694),  and  Les  Conlea  et  Fables  Imlknnes  de 
Bidpal  H  de.  Lohman  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1724). 

GALL  AS  ('invaders'),  a  race  inhabiting  the 
south  and  cast  of  Abyssinia.  The  general  name  by 
which  the  tribes  designate  themselves  is  Oroma 
(orma,  men).  Although  generally  belonging  to  the 
negro  race,  they  are  not  purely  negroes,  but  form 
with  the  FiUahs,  Mandingoes,  and  Nubas,  as  it 
were,  the  transition  to  the  Semitic  variety,  and 
seem  to  belonij  to  that  great  family  inhabiting 
the  cast  of  Africa,  from  the  frontiers  of  the  Cape 
land  to  Abyssinia,  and  usually  denominated  the 
Kafirs.  They  are  a  '\ngorous,  well-formed  peojile, 
of  a  dark-browu  colour,  with  hail-  frizzled,  but  not 
quite  woolly,  round  faces,  and  small  sharj)  eyes, 
aiul  are  distinguished  not  less  by  their  energy  and 
warhke  spirit,  than  by  their  mental  capacities. 
They  first  appear  in  history  in  the  IGth  c,  as  a 
barbarous  people,  extending  their  conquests  from 
the  interior  of  Africa,  laying  waste,  by  constant 
incursions,  the  countries  of  Eastern  Africa,  to  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia,  gradually  subduing  or 
expelling  the  original  inhabitants  (hence  their 
name),  occupying  great  part  of  Abyssinia,  and 
advancing  as  far  as  the  Red  vSea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  It  is  only  of  Late  years  that  Iheir  power  in 
Abyssinia,  and  their  incursions  into  that  coimtry, 
have  been  partially  checked,  chiefly  by  the  vigorous 
government  of  the  king  of  Shoa,  who  has  suudued 
some  of  the  G.  tribes,  and  induced  them  to  pro- 
fess such  Christianity  as  exists  in  Abyssinia.  They 
still,  however,  occupy  manj-  districts  of  Abyssinia, 
and  extend  their  power  to  an  indefinite  extent 
over  the  countries  situated  south  and  south-west 
of  it.  Politically,  the  G.  do  not  form  a  single 
nation,  but  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes, 
forming  separ.-ite  kingdoms  and  states,  which  are 
frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  Most  of  the  G. 
follow  pastoral  avocations.  Some,  however,  through 
intercoui-sc  with  the  semi-christi.Tn,  semi-civilised 
Abyssinians,  have  become  tillers  of  the  soil.  The 
wandering  G.  are  mainly  engaged  in  hunting  and 
the  slave-trade.  The  larger  nimiber  of  the  G.  arc 
still  heathens,  though  Jlohammedanism  has  lately 
made  great  progress  among  them.  Their  rehgion 
bears  a  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Kafirs. — Compare 


GALLATIN-GALLFLV. 


JoiiiarJ,  Xotices  eiir  lea  Gollas  (Paris,  1839);  Bckc, 
0/1  t/ie  Ori(ii<i  o/the  Gallas  (London,  1848). 

GALLATIX,  Al.DKr.T,  an  eminent  financier  and 
dii'loniatist,  was  born  20th  .lannary  1761,  at  Geneva, 
and  educated  at  the  nniversity  of  that  city.  In  ITSil 
ho  emi.i;r,ated  to  the  United  States  ;  and  was  lor 
a  short  time  teacher  of  French  in  Harvard  Collej;e 
at  C.imbridge,  JLosisachusetts.  In  17SG  he  settled 
In  the  western  jiart  of  I'ennsylvania,  and  was  a 
representative  from  that  st.ate  in  the  Federal  Cou- 
jiress  from  1795  to  1801.  He  soon  became  one  of 
the  alilest  debaters  in  tli.it  body,  and  was  for  several 
years  the  recognised  leader  of  the  Kepublican  party. 
He  took  an  active  i)art  in  ahnost  every  question 
before  Congi-ess,  and  w;is  especially  distinguished 
for  his  ready  and  profound  knowledge  of  politic;il 
economy  and  finance.  The  first  formation  of  the 
'  Committee  of  W.ays  and  Means  '  was  Jne  to  his 
suggestion.  In  ISOl,  I'resident  Jefferson  ajipointeil 
G.  secret.ary  of  the  Treasury,  whicli  office  he  filled 
V  ith  eminent  ability  during  a  period  of  twelve  years. 
He  had  an  imi)i)rtant  sh.are  in  the  negotiations 
for  peace  with  England  in  1814,  and  signed,  with 
Adams,  Cl.ay,  and  the  other  commissioners,  the 
treaty  concluded  at  Ghent  on  the  14th  of  December 
of  that  year.  From  181G  to  1S23,  G.  was  minister 
ii'sideut  of  the  United  States  at  Paris.  In  182G,  he 
W.1S  sent  to  England  as  ambassador  extraordinary, 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  disputed  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  the  British  posses- 
sions, and  other  imjiortaut  questions.  On  his  return 
from  Europe  in  1827,  he  retired  from  public  emjiloy- 
ment,  and  became  a  resident  of  New  York  city. 
In  184.3,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  New 
York  Historical  .Society,  which  position  he  held  tiU 
his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the 
first  president  of  the  American  Ethnological  Society. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  valuable 
piibUeations  on  the  currency  and  other  subjects. 
He  made  the  Languages  and  characteristics  of  the 
native  tribes  of  North  America  a  subject  of  jiro- 
found  study,  and  published  several  papers  on  this 
department  of  ethnolocj'.  G.  died  12th  of  Angust 
1849,  in  his  89th  year. " 

GALL-BLADDER.    See  Lr-er. 

GALLE'GO,  one  of  the  principal  afllueuts  of  the 
Ebro,  rises  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Pyrenees  in 
the  province  of  Huesca,  flows  south,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  90  miles,  joins  the  Ebro  a  mile 
below  Zaragoza. 

GAXLEON  (augmentative  of  Galleij),  a  name 
formerly  applied  to  ships-of-war  of  three  or  four 
gim-dccks,  but  subsequently  transferred  to  the  large 
merchant-vessels  which  every  year  brought  to  Spam 
the  gold,  silver,  and  other  we.alth  contributed  by 
its  Me>dcan  and  South  American  colonies.  ITiey 
were  armed,  but  being  heavy  unmanageable  vessels, 
and  of  immense  value,  were  eagerly  sought  after  as 
prizes  whenever  a  war  broke  out. 

GALLERY,  in  a  mtUlary  sense,  is  a  covered 
passage,  cut  through  the  earth  or  masonry  in  a  forti- 
fication, either  as  a  means  of  communication,  or  as 
a  position  whence  a  musketry-fire  can  be  maintained 
throiigh  loopholes.  For  the  latter  purpose,  galleries 
arc  formed  occasionally  in  the  counterscarps  of  dry 
ditches,  where  their  defemhrs  exercise  a  flankin" 
fire  upon  the  ditch.  With  regard  to  listening 
fi.allerie3,  see  Minis,  Mii.itap.y. 

In  a  naval  signification,  a  gallery  is  a  sort  of 
Ijalcony  projecting  from  the  stern  and  stern-quarters 
of  large  ships.  As  an  adjunct  to  the  principal 
cabms,  gaUenes  fonn  an  .agreeable  resort  durin,"  fine 
weather.  Under  the  article  Davit,  the  gallery  of  a 
man-of-war  is  shewn. 
6S4 


GALLERY,  a  word  with  several  applications  in 
architecture.  A  long  pass,ago  or  corridor  is  called 
a  gallery.  A  long  room,  such  as  is  frequently 
used  for  exhibiting  pictures— a  raiseil  floor  in  any 
apartment,  supported  on  ]>illars — a  long  passage  in 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  or  supported  on  canta- 
livers  (as  the  A\liispering  Gallery  of  St  Paul's)  : 
all  these  are  called  galleries.  They  were  of  very 
frequent  use  in  the  buililings  of  the  miildle  .ages. 
Tlie  KootUoft  ((|.  V.)  is  a  gallery  running  ,acro.i<  a 
church  at  the  entrance  to  the  choir,  and  sujiporting 
a  Large  cross.  Organ  galleries  are  also  frequent, 
eitlier  in  the  position  of  the  roodloft,  or  at  one  end 
of  the  nave  or  transept,  or  corbelled  out  from  the 
side-walL 

In  old  barom'al  halLs,  the  end  next  the  door  w.as 
usually  screened  off  for  the  domestics,  and  above 
the  screen  was  almost  invariably  a  g.allery  for 
musicians. 

In  the  older  German  and  French  churches,  the 
side-aisles  were  divided  into  two  stories — the  upper 
forming  a  gallery  said  to  be  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  women. 

The  aiTangeraent  of  galleries  in  tiers  one  over  the 
other,  now  so  nuich  used  in  churches,  theatres,  &c., 
is  entirely  modem,  d.ating  from  the  17th  cent\iry. 

GALLEY,  a  long,  low-built,  narrow  ship  with  one 
deck,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  steam,  and  still  extant  there.  G.alleys 
are  propelled  by  sails  and  numerous  oars,  the  latter 
being  usually  worked  by  convicts  or  galley-slaves, 
who  are  chamcd  to  them.  The  Largest  vessels  of 
this  class  wore  those  of  the  Venetians,  some  i  caching 
a  length  of  162  feet,  and  canying  12  guns :  of  thesci 
half-ijnUeijs  and  ijuarter-galh'ijs  were  dimiiuitivcs. 
From  their  small  elevation  al)ove  the  sea  and  swift 
movement,  they  were  formidable  enemies,  even  to 
much  larger  vessels,  w  hen  smooth  water  gave  jilav 
to  their  evolutions.  During  the  great  French  war, 
numberless  g.alleys,  fitted  as  gun-boats,  were  ready 
to  issue  from  the  Mediterranean  ports  of  Spain  and 
France  whenever  a  British  ship  was  becalmed  or 
disabled  near  the  shore.  The  celebrated  Algcrino 
corsairs  committed  most  of  their  piracies  iuswift 
galley.s,  wliich  were  commonly  rowed  by  the  forced 
labour  of  Christian  slaves. 

On  board  an  English  ship,  the  rjaJlfy  is  the  jilace 
where  the  cooking  is  carried  on  for  the  whole  ship's 
company ;  it  is  on  one  of  the  lower  decks,  in  the  fore- 
part of  the  vessel. 

Oalkij  is  likewise  applied  to  some  of  the  boats  of 
a  ship-of-w.ar ;  the  capt.ain's  g.alley  being  usually 
a  swift  and  elegant  boat  propelled  by  sLx  alternate 
oars. 

GALLEY,  in  Heraldry.     See  Lv5irn.\i). 

GALLEY  HALFPENCE.  These  were  coins 
of  Genoa,  brought  into  England  by  the  g.alley-men, 
or  men  that  came  up  in  the  galleys  with  wine  or 
merchandise,  and  thence  called  galley  half])ence. 
They  were  broader  tlian  the  Knglish  h.alfjjcnny, 
but  not  so  thick,  and  jirnbiibly  b.ase  metal,  because, 
by  11  Hen.  IV.  c  o,  .and  13  Hen.  IV.  c.  6,  g.alloy 
h.alfpence  were  prohibited  as  a  legal  tender.  The 
galleys  unloaded  at  the  east  end  of  Lower  Thames 
Street,  thence  called  Galley  Quay,  where,  in  the 
17th  c,  were  struck  ti-adesmon'.s  tokens,  thereof 
called  Galley  Quay  halfjience  (Timlis). 

GALLEY-SLAVE.     See  Bao.ne.s. 

GALL-FLY  (Cynips),  a  Linnnoan  genus  of  insects, 
now  forming  the  family  Gnllicola; '{La.t.  g.all-inha- 
biting)  of  entomologists,  and  belonjing  to  the  or.lei 
Jli/imiioptem  (q.  v.),  section  Terehrantia  (Lat. 
boring),  which  section  is  characterised  by  the 
fcnuales  being  furnished  with  an  ovipositor.  Gall- 
flics  are  nearly  allied  to  ichneumons,  but  principallv 


GALLIARD— GALLICAX  CllVRCll. 


differ  from  tliem  in  depositing  their  eggs  not  in  the 
bodies  of  tlio  Iiu-v:d  of  other  insects,  nor  in  their 
nests,  but  in  plants,  on  tlie  juices  of  wliicli  their 
larva!  are  nuurishe<l.  The  ovipositor  of  the  female 
is  long,  slender,  in  part  spirally  rolled  uj)  when  not 
in  use,  anil  lodged  in  a  gi-oove  on  the  under-side  of 
the  abdomen,  near  the  origin  of  which  it  is  attached; 
it  has  at  its  extremity  lateral  teeth  forming  a  kind 
of  saw.     r.y  means  of  this  organ,  the  insect  makes 


Bcdcgiiar  gall  of  Wild  PlOsc. 

a  minute  puncture  where  she  is  to  deposit  her  egg, 
>\hieh  is  sometimes  in  a  leaf,  and  then  generally  in 
one  of  the  ribs  of  the  leaf,  sometimes  in  a  young 
shoot  or  twig,  sometimes  in  a  bud,  or  iii  some  other 
part  of  a  jilaut,  not  excepting  the  roots  ;  each  species 
of  gall-lly  choosing  some  particular  plant,  anil  some 
particular  part  of  the  plant,  to  \vhieh  it  eonliues  its 
attacks.  An  irritant  ilnid  is  supposed  to  be  lodged 
in  the  piincture  along  with  the  minute  egg,  as  a 
tumour  immediately  begins  to  form,  becoming  an 
excrescence  known  as  a  (jatl.  The  egg  itself  increases 


Various  kinds  of  Galls  : 

0,  oak-npplo  pall;   b,  h,  berry-shiipel  grills  on  r.ak  leaf; 

c,  turr;int  galls  ;  (/,  gall-fly,  magnificil. 

in  size  before  it  is  hatched  ;  the  gall  very  rapidly 
attains  its  fnll  dimensions  ;  and  within  it  the  larva 
of  the  gall-fly  feeds  on  the  juices  of  the  plant  in 
their  most  concentrated  form  ;  for  galls  are  found 
to  contain  the  peculiar  jirinciples  of  tlie  ])lants  on 
which  they  grow  in  gi'eater  abundance  than  the 
adjoining  or  other  jiarts.  It  is  not  until  the  lar^-a 
has  undergone  its  transfonnations,  tirst  into  the 
piij'a,  and  then  into  the  perfect  insect,  that  it  cats 
its  way  out  of  the  gall  in  which  it  has  previously 
existed.     8ee  (tALUs. 

GA'LLIARD  (from  the  French  gaillard,  and  that 


again  from  gai,  sprightly)  is  the  name  of  a  lively 
ilanee,  the  same,  according  to  Brossard,  as  the 
lliiinanesca,  a  favourite  dance  with  the  Indians.  The 
air  is  mostly  in  J  or  J  time,  but  sometimes  also  in 
J  or  1  time.  The  tempo  is  also  quick  and  lively, 
with  a  flowing  melody.  A  writer  in  \iiteg  (iiiU 
Queries  (vol.  vii.  p.iges  ilG,  '217)  says  that  lie  knows 
at  least  a  hundred  difUrent  galliard  tunes,  which 
arc  distinguished  by  dilTurent  names,  probably  to 
inilicate  -Hith  whom  they  were  favourites,  such  as 
'J'/ie  King  nj  Denmark' s  O'uUiard ;  The  Karl  o/Hsmjc's 
Gidliard  ;  &c. 

GALLIC  ACID  (C,.H,0,„,2H0)  occurs  in  the 
form  of  colourless  silky  neeiUcs  which  lose  their 
water  of  crystallisation  at  21 2 ' ;  they  dissolve  slightly 
in  colli  water,  but  require  only  three  parts  of  boiling 
water  for  their  solution,  anil  they  are  freely  soluble 
ill  alcohol.  Solutions  of  gallic  acid  have  an  acid 
reaction  and  a  sour  astringent  taste  ;  with  the  per- 
s;dt3  of  iron  they  yield  a  deep  blue  colour,  and  no 
ajiparent  reaction  occui-s  when  they  are  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  gelatine.  The  gaUates  of  the 
alkalies,  especially  if  an  excess  of  the  base  be  present, 
s))eedily  absorb  oxygen,  and  liecome  brown  when 
exposed  to  the  air;  and  hence  they  may  be  usefully 
employed  in  Eudiometry.  Gallic  acid  possesses  the 
property  of  reducing  the  salts  of  gold  and  sUver, 
and  it  is  on  this  account  that  it  has  been  employed 
in  ])hotograpliy. 

Gallic  acid  exists  i-rady  formed  in  small  quantity 
in  gall-nuts,  in  valonia  (the  acorn-cu])  of  Qw  reus 
cer/iiojis),  in  ilivi-divi  (the  pod  of  Casnlplna  curim-ia), 
in  sumach,  and  other  vegetables.  It  is  formed  in 
association  with  glycose  from  Gallotannic  Acid  (q.  v.), 
when  the  latter  is  boiled  with  dilute  sulpliiirie  or 
liydroclJoric  acid  ;  it  is  likewise  ]]roduccd  by  boiling 
a  solution  of  gallotannic  acid  with  caustic  alkidies, 
or  (more  slowly)  by  sinqdy  exposing  a  solution  of 
gall-nuts  to  the  air,  the  process  of  oxygenation  being 
ajiparently  favoiu-ed  by  the  presence  of  a  ferment 
eontaiucd  in  the  gall-nut. 

To  obtain  gallic  acid,  we  mix  powdered  gall-nuts 
with  water,  and  expose  them  freely  and  for  a  long 
time  to  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  70°  or  80°.  The 
tannin  or  gallotannic  acid  becomes  gradually  con- 
verted into  gallic  acid.  We  pour  away  the  su]ier- 
nataiit  brown  tiiiid,  and  take  up  the  gallic  acid 
from  the  residue  with  boiling  water,  decolorise  with 
animal  charcoal,  and  crystallise. 

Wlicn  gallic  acid  is  exposed  to  a  temjierature  of 
from  410°  to  420°,  it  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid 
and  Pi/ror/aUic  Aeil  (q.  v.)  (OijHcOq),  which  is 
sublimed,  31  or  32  parts  of  the  latter  acid  being 
yielded  by  100  of  gallic  acid.  The  reaction  is 
represented  by  the  fonmila - 

Gallic  Aciii.         Caibonic  .\cid,    ryrogallic  Aciil. 

"T^THcOiT    =     SCO,     4-    'Ci,H„67 

If  gallic  acid  is  mixed  w'ith  five  times  its  weight 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  a  crimson  solution  is  formed,  which, 
if  gradually  dropped  into  water,  deposits  a  red  sub- 
stance, partly  in  grannies  and  partly  in  crystals. 
The  crystals  arc  Ji'iijii/d/lic  arid  (C,  ;HjOs,2Jlb). 

G.allic  acid  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  astringent. 
The  late  I)r  Todd  regarded  it  as  the  best  styptic 
tii.at  we  possess  in  all  cases  of  internal  h.-i-morrhagc, 
•whether  h.TUioptysis,  luTinatemesis,  or  luematuria. 
The  sjTiiiitoms  of  j^right's  disease  of  the  kidney 
have  also  been  much  alleviated  liy  its  use.  It  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  from  three  to  ten  grains  three 
or  four  times  a  day.  As  a  topical  agent  in  arresting 
h.finorrhage  from  external  wounds,  it  is  greatly 
inferior  to  tannin. 

GA'LLICAN  CHURCH,  the  Church  of  France, 
less,   however,    considered    under   the    rel.ation    of 

6^5 


GALLICAN  CHURCH. 


ceograpliic-il  boundaries  than  in  its  constitution  and 
priuciiiles  of  cluiich  povernmcnt.  The  Christian 
faith  was  wiilely  tlifluscU  in  France,  even  diu'inf;  tlie 
lifetime  of  the  apostles ;  aiul  it  especially  tloiirishcd 
among  the  desccmlants  of  the  Greek  colonics  of  the 
soutli^  and  in  the  numerous  tOM-ns  and  cities  upon 
the  r.hone  and  its  confluent  rivers.  In  the  perse- 
cutions to  which  the  early  i)rofessors  of  Christianity 
were  subjected,  the  Christians  of  these  cliurches 
had  their  fiUI  share ;  and  one  of  the  most  touching 
monuments  of  early  Christian  literature,  is  the 
letter  of  the  Christians  of  Lyon  and  Vienue  to 
their  brethren  in  Asia,  on  the  martjTS  of  these 
churches,  wliich  Eusebius  has  prcser\-ed  in  his  Ecde- 
siastkal  Jlistory  (book  v.  e.  1).  Although  shivriug 
in  the  generiil  literary  inferiority  to  their  eastern 
bretlireu  which  characterises  Western  ecclesiastics 
diu-ing  the  early  jwriod,  the  church  of  Gaul  numbci-s 
several  eminent  names  in  the  liter.iture  of  the  3d, 
4th,  and  5th  centuries.  The  works  of  Iicnteus, 
Bishop  of  Lyon,  are  .among  the  most  important  for 
the  history  of  doctrine  of  all  the  early  p.atristic 
remains ;  and  in  the  following  century,  Sulpicius 
Severus,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Hilary  of  Aries,  Vincent 
of  Lerins,  Prosper,  Victor,  Eucherius,  Salviau,  and 
other  writers,  combine  to  foiTu  a  body  of  literature 
of  which  the  later  modern  representatives  of  the 
French  Church  are  not  amreasonably  proud.  The 
hierarchical  organisation,  also,  of  the  church  of 
Gaul  was,  .at  a  very  early  jieriod,  among  the  most 
complete  and  regular  throughout  the  churches  of 
western  Christendom ;  and  in  the  coimcil  lield  at 
Aries  in  314,  we  even  recognise  the  titles  of  many 
bishops  of  sees  which  are  still  represented  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  French  episcopacy. 

But  the  history  of  the  G.  C,  so  far  as  regards 
tlie  development  of  those  peculiar  principles  which 
have  acquired  a  distinctive  name  and  st.atus  in 
Roman  Catholic  theology,  begins  at  a  much  later 
period.  We  shall  see  elsewhere  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  p.ai)acy.  See 
r.^PACy.  It  will  be  enough,  in  this  place,  to  oliscrve, 
that,  from  eirciimstances  which  .are  differently 
Anewed  by  the  opposite  schools  of  thcologj',  the 
Roman  pontiffs  began,  from  the  very  d.ate  of  the 
establishment  of  the  Western  Empire,  to  exercise  a 
large  and  widely  extended  influence  over  the  civil  <as 
■well  .as  ecclesiastical  affau-s  of  the  sever.al  Eiu'0]iean 
kingdoms.  On  the  other  hand,  owing  to  the  inti- 
mate connection  between  the  church  and  state  in 
most  of  these  kingdoms,  .and  especially  to  the  fcud.al 
relations  between  the  crowTi  and  the  church  digni- 
taries, most  of  whom  held  the  tempor.alities  of  their 
benefices  imder  the  crown  by  the  ordinary  feuda- 
tory tenure,  the  cro^\^l  also  asserted  a  correlative 
claim  to  certain  privileges  in  respect  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  The  satisfactory  adjustment  of  these  con- 
flicting claims  was  the  gi'cat  problem  of  medieval 
polity  ;  and  the  alternations  of  the  struggle  between 
them  form  the  staple  of  mediev.al  history.  More  than 
one  of  the  French  sovereigns  engaged  in  a  conflict 
with  the  Roman  see  as  to  the  respective  authority 
of  the  two  powers ;  these  conflicts  natur.ally  called 
out  a  division  of  opinion  among  the  members  of  the 
church  of  France,  one  p.arty  supporting  the  pap.al 
claims,  and  the  other  maintaining  the  adverse  pre- 
rog.atives  of  the  French  crown,  and  the  prixnlegos 
of  the  national  clmrch  of  Fr.ancc.  The  Latter 
p.arty,  professing  to  represent  the  rights  of  the  G. 
C.,  have  given  a  name  to  the  princijiks  which  they 
profess  ;  and  the  appelLation  of  Gallicaniam  has  come 
to  designate,  in  general,  that  system  in  Roman 
Catholic  theology  which,  while  it  recognises  the 
prim.acy  of  the  lloman  pontiff,  by  divine  right,  over 
the  universal  church,  yet  asserts  the  independence 
of  natii>nal  churches  in  many  details  of  self-govern- 


ment and  of  local  discipline,  and  limits  the  exei-cise 
of  the  pa]).al  prerogatives  by  canons  and  decrees  of 
general  councils  and  by  the  laws  of  the  universal 
church.  It  must  be  added  th.at,  while  the  Gallican 
theory  to  this  extent  claims  an  exemption  from 
dependence  upon  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  it  acquiesces,  on  the  other  hand,  to  an 
almost  proportionate  degree,  in  the  assumption  of 
ecclesi.astical  authority  on  the  part  of  the  stivte. 
Gallicanism,  in  trutli,  in  many  of  its  details,  falls 
into  the  grossest  form  of  Enastianism. 

We  can  recognise  the  working  of  these  principles 
in  the  opposition  which  the  so-called  Isidorian 
Decretals  (see  Isidouian  Decretals,  Hinxmar  of 
Rhedis)  encountered  in  France ;  and  although  the 
body  of  the  clergy  stood  aloof,  they  were  carried  to 
their  most  extreme  extent  by  Philippe  the  Handsome 
in  his  contest  with  Boniface  Vlll.  The  conflicting 
claims  of  the  riv.al  popes  in  the  ^\'cstL•rn  Schism  (see 
Western  Schism)  tended  still  more  to  weaken  the 
pap.al  .authority ;  and  the  expedient  which  w.as  then 
adopted  for  the  extinction  of  the  schism — viz.,  that 
of  convening  a  general  council  to  jirououncc  upon 
the  respective  claims  of  the  iirctcndei  s  to  the  pajiacy, 
gave  prominence  and  signilicaney  to  what  h.as  since 
been  regarded  as  one  of  the  leading  dogmas  of  G.alli- 
canism — the  superiority  in  point  of  authority  of  a 
gener.al  council  to  the  pope.  The  details,  too,  of  the 
disciplinary  enactments  of  the  councils  of  Constance 
and  Basel,  which  wore  drawn  up  in  this  spirit, 
were  mainly  directed  towanls  the  limitatioi\  of  the 
p.apal  authority  in  the  exercise  of  church  patronage 
within  the  limits  of  the  nation.al  church  ;  and  these 
enactments  were  in  the  main  cmliodied  into  the 
French  law  by  the  celel)rated  Pr.agm.atic  Sanction 
of  1438.     See  Pragmatic  Saxctiox. 

The  Pragmatic  .S.anction  was  superseded  in  lolij 
bj'  the  concordat  of  Leo  X.  with  Francis  I.  The 
Large  sh.are  in  the  dispensation  of  church  patron.age 
which  tlie  French  crown  enjoyed  under  that  con- 
coi-dat  had  the  effect  of  still  further  n.ationalising 
the  French  Church,  and  increasing  the  jealousy  of 
the  crown  as  to  tlic  papal  interference.  The  great 
jurists,  Pithou  and  Duping,  in  asserting  the  liberties 
of  the  church,  equ.ally  enforced  the  iirivileges  of 
the  crown.  In  the  development  of  the  .absolutism 
of  the  monarchy,  which  reached  its  height  under 
Louis  XIV.,  the  ecclesiastical  prerogative  of  the 
crown  was  enlarged  .as  much  as  its  political 
authority;  and  a  contest  which  arose  between 
this  monarch  and  Innocent  XI.,  on  the  right  of 
the  crown  to  the  so-caUed  Droit  de  Hajale  (see 
Rf.c.alia),  led  to  the  well-known  declaration  of 
the  French  clergy  in  1682,  which  h.as  since  been 
regarded  as  the  charter  of  Gallicanism.  This  formu- 
lary emanated  from  an  assembly  of  the  French 
clergy,  held  by  roy.al  authority  in  1GS2,  at  which 
the  cclcbr.ated  Bossuct  was  present.  It  consists  of 
four  .articles.  The  first  declares  th.at '  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  .St  Peter  and  his  successors  in  the  Roman 
see  as  vicars  of  Christ  on  earth,  .although  divinely 
bestowed,  is  confined  to  things  spiritual  and  apjier- 
taining  to  salvation,  and  does  not  extend  to  ci\al 
or  temporal  affairs.'  The  article  therefore  declares 
'  that  princes  .are  not  subject  in  temporal  things  to 
any  ecclesiastical  authority ; '  th.at  they  cannot  be 
deposed  '  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  power 
of  the  keys,  and  that  their  subjects  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed from  their  subjection  or  released  from  their 
.allegiance.'  The  second  article  renews  the  declara- 
tion of  the  coimcil  of  Constance  with  regard  to  the 
superiority  of  a  gener.al  coimcil  over  the  pope,  and 
declares  th.at  th.at  .article  is  not  to  be  restricted  in 
its  application  to  a  period  of  schism  such  <as  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  council.  The  third  asserts  th.at 
the  .authority  of  the  pope  is  '  to  be  restricted  by  the 


GALLIENUS— GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS. 


canons  of  the  universal  church,'  and  that '  the  rules, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  Gallican  kingdom 
and  church  remain  in  full  force.'  This  is  the  article 
which  asserts  the  celebrated  '  Gallican  Liberties.' 
The  fourth  article,  while  it  concedes  to  the  pope 
'  the  chief  part  in  questions  of  faith,'  and  professes 
that  '  his  decrees  extend  to  each  and  every  church,' 
nevertheless  maintains  'that  his  jiulgment  is  not 
irreformable,  unless  it  shall  have  been  confirmed  by 
tlie  consent  of  the  entire  church.'  The  chief  nUes, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  C.  C.  referred  to 
in  the  third  article  are,  that  the  G.  C.  does  not 
receive  all  the  decrees  of  coimcUs  and  of  popes  in 
matters  of  discipline,  and  that  those  only  are  in 
force  which  are  so  received;  that  the  G.  C.  holds 
itself  free  to  receive  or  reject  the  rules  of  the 
Roman  chancery;  that  the  Komau  pontiff  cannot 
levy  any  impost  from  the  French  clercry  without 
their  own  consent ;  that  he  cannot  bestow  of  his 
own  motion  on  a  foreigner  any  benefice  within  the 
French  Church ;  that  neither  he  nor  his  legates  can 
hear  French  causes  in  '  the  first  instance,'  and  that 
even  in  cases  of  appeal  he  is  bouud  to  assign  native 
judges  to  hear  the  appeal,  even  when  the  appellant 
shoidd  be  a  metropolitan  or  primate ;  that  the 
French  bishops  shall  not  be  required  to  attend  any 
general  council  uidess  with  the  permission  of  the 
crown.  The  last  of  these  '  customs,'  as  also  those 
which  make  the  reeeiWng  or  not  receiring  the 
general  canons  of  discipline  option.al  in  France, 
and  which  practically  throw  the  decision  into  the 
hands  of  the  civil  power,  have  been  with  much 
show  of  reason  denominated  the  '  Slaveries '  rather 
than  the  '  Liberties '  of  the  GaUican  Church. 

This  '  Declaration '  was  strenuously  enforced  by 
Louis  XIV.  It  was  imposed  upon  the  universities 
and  all  public  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  its  accept- 
ance was  m.adc  a  condition  of  ajipointment  to  olfices 
in  the  church ;  but  it  was  in  the  same  proportion 
distasteful  to  the  popes.  It  was  condemned  by 
Alexander  VIII.  in  1690,  by  Clement  XL  in  170G, 
and  again  by  Pius  VI.  in  1794;  but  both  the 
acceptance  of  the  articles  by  the  French  clergy,  and 
the  condenuiation  of  them  by  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
are  understood  to  be  with  certain  reservations  as  to 
the  particidar  doctrines.  Withiu  tlie  present  cen- 
tury, and  esjiecially  since  the  late  colUsion  between 
the  ei\nl  and  ecclesiastical  authority,  the  opinions 
of  the  French  clergy  have  undergone  a  decided 
change.  The  GaUican  doctrines  are  now  much  less 
commonly  held,  and  in  a  less  extreme  form.  The 
same  doctrines  were  also  adopted  in  other  national 
churches,  and  especially  in  the  ecclesiastical  princi- 
palities of  Germany  (see  Febronlvnism),  and  in  the 
German  empire  under  Joseph  II.  Here,  also,  they 
have  fallen  into  discredit  with  the  chiu-ch  party. 

The  G.  C.  \mdenvent  very  extensive  modifications 
at  the  close  of  the  ISth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  not  merely  by  the  enactment  of 
wh.at  was  called  the  '  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy,'  and  which  introduced  into  the  constitution 
of  the  church  a  large  infusion  of  the  presbyterian, 
and  even  the  democratic  element,  but  by  the  con- 
cordat of  Tins  VII.  with  Bonaparte  as  First  ConsiU, 
which  reduced  the  number  of  sees,  brought  the 
ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  country  into  harmony 
with  its  new  political  distribution  into  departnienis, 
diminished  the  niunber  of  festivals,  and  confirmed 
the  suppression  of  the  ancient  religious  cstablisli- 
ments,  ancl  the  confiscation  of  the  church  property 
threushont  France.  Under  the  present  emperor, 
the  Church  of  France  has  recovered  somewhat  of 
her  old  external  prestige.  Compare  De  Maistre's 
De  VEglise  Oallkam  ;  Dupin,  Les  Liberies  de  VL'gllse 
Oallicane  (Paris,  1824) ;  and  Fraysinous,  Lcs  Vraia 
Priiicipes  de  VEgliae  Gallkane. 


GALLIE'NUS,  Publics  Licinh-s,  a  Roman 
emjicror  from  the  year  259  A.  D. — when  his  father 
Valerian,  who  had  made  him  co-rcgcnt  with  himself, 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians — to  203  A.  l>. 
His  authority  was  limited  almost  entirely  to  Italy, 
'  for  throughout  the  provinces  the  legions  for  the 
!  most  part  revolted,  and  raised  their  commandcra  to 
I  the  dignity  of  Caisars.  Hence  the  period  is  known 
in  history  as  the  Time  of  the  Thirty  TjTants.  In 
the  East,  the  honour  of  the  Roman  arms  was  main- 
tained by  Avirelian,  Probus,  and  others,  who  found 
a  useful  ally  iu  Odcn.athus,  ruler  of  Palmj-ra,  and 
his  wife  Zenobia  (q.  v.),  to  whom  G.  inti-usted  the 
care  of  the  war  against  the  Persians.  In  the  West, 
however,  dangera  thickened  about  him.  Aurcolus 
was  ]>roclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  of  Illyricum, 
and  having  marched  into  Italy,  seized  Milan,  and 
proceeded  towards  Rome.  The  war  between  the 
two  was  carried  on  for  some  time  with  imdecided 
success,  but  G.,  while  besieging  his  adversary  iu 
Mediolanimi  (MUan),  was  murdered  by  some  of  his 
officers,  268  A.  D.  He  was  succeeded  by  Claudius  II. 
GALLINA'CEOUS  BIRDS  (Lat.  r,aUm,  a  cock), 
or  RASORES  (Lat.  scrapers),  an  order  of  birds,  more 
generally  valuable  to  man  than  any  other  order,  con- 
taining at  once  the  most  important  species  domes- 
ticated as  poultry,  and  those  most  sought  after  as 
game.  The  common  Domestic  Fowl  may  be  regarded 
as  the  type  of  the  order.  Like  it,  the  g.allinaceous 
birds  in  general  have  a  small  head ;  a  rather  shoi-t 
bill,  with  the  upper  mandible  a  little  arched ; 
nostrils  jilaced  on  the  sides  of  the  bill,  and  usually 
in  a  soft  membranous  space  at  its  base ;  the  figure 
bidky ;  the  wings  short,  and  not  governed  by  power- 
fid  muscles,  nor  adapted  for  long  or  rapid  flight; 
the  feet  with  three  toes  before,  and  one  behind — 
which  is  articidated  higher  than  the  others,  and  is 
sometimes  wanting — adapted  for  w.alking  on  the 
gi-ound  and  for  scraping,  which  is  much  resorted  to, 
in  order  to  prociu-e  food  and  for  other  piu-poses ;  the 
digestive  organs  complex,  the  crop  large,  the  rjizzard 
very  musciilar,  the  intestine  long,  with  two  very 
large  caca.  The  head,  at  least  of  the  males,  is  very 
generally  fiu'nished  with  append.ages,  as  a  crest, 
comb,  wattles,  &c.  The  feet  of  the  males  arc  also 
often  furnished  mth  spurs,  and  at  least  during  the 
breeding  season  the  males  are  very  quarrelsome. 
The  males  of  many  species  are  birds  of  splendid 
]ilumage ;  that  of  the  females  is  sober,  but  females 
of  very  advanced  age  often  assume  a  phmiage  simil.ar 
to  that  of  the  males.  Some  of  the  gallinaceous  birds 
are  polj'gamous,  some  pair  at  the  breeding  season  ; 
the  nest  of  all  of  them  is  artless,  and  the  males  take 
no  part  in  incubation,  nor  in  the  rearin"  of  the 
yoimg.  The  young  are  comparatively  feathered 
when  hatched,  and  arc  immediately  able  to  run 
about  and  pick  up  food  for  themselves,  but  are  for 
some  time  most  affectionately  tended  and  i>rotceted 
by  their  mother,  and  by  her  the  pi-oper  food  is 
sought  for  them  and  pointed  o>it  to  them,  or  broken 
into  sufficiently  small  pieces,  and  laid  before  them. 
The  gallinaceous  birds  have  unmclodious  voices. 
Except  the  c\uassows,  thej'  make  their  nests  on  the 
ground.  Some  of  them  are  found  in  .almost  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Besides  those  already  named,  guans, 
pheasants,  grouse,  partridges,  quails,  ptannig.ins, 
peacocks,  turkeys,  guinea-fowls,  tragopans,  and  tina- 
mous,  may  be  mentioned  as  examples  of  this  order. 
Pigeons  are  generally  ranked  in  it  by  ornithologists, 
biit  rather  doubtfully,  as  they  differ  not  a  little 
from  the  true  gallinaceous  birds.  See  Cot.tnirBrD.3i. 
Interesting  analogies  have  been  pointed  out  between 
this  order  of  birds  and  the  order  of  Ruminants 
among  Mammals,  in  the  complexity  of  the  digestive 
organs,  bulkiness  of  the  frame,  low  intelbgence, 
easy  domestication,  usefidness  to  man,  and  pronenesa 

5S7 


OALLIN  ULE  -GALLON. 


to  variation  from  the  influence  of  external  circum- 
stances, >;'""b'  "s*  *"  iliffennt  breeds. 

CAXLIXULE  (GtilliimUi),  a  genus  of  Imils  of 
the  family  Unllitln;  closely  allied  to  the  Coots  (ij.  v.), 
and  havini;  the  uiiper  mandihle  similarly  extending 
on  the  f..r;head  in  a  n.iked  s.ift  Jilate,  Imt  the  toes 
furnished  %vith  an  undivided  nani^w  marginal  mem- 
brane. This  membrane,  however,  and  the  great 
length  of  the  toes,  enable  the  pallinules  to  swim  well, 
anif  all  of  them  are  aquatic.  The  species  are  pretty 
numerous,  some  of  them  confined  to  tropical  regions. 
One  only  is  found  in  Britain,  the  I-'ommon  (.!.  ((/. 
clthivpiix),  also  known  as  the  W.\ti;r-iikx,  or  MooR- 
IIF.X.  It  is  a  verv  widely  dilttisod  species,  being 
fouTnl  in  nu)st  jiarts  of  the'wipild.  The  O.  is  about 
l;i  inches  in  length,  the  tail  very  short ;  the  gener.al 
colour  of  the  iihnnage  deep  olive  browni  on  the 
ui>per  i)arts,  blackish  gray  beneath,  the  ridge  of  the 
wing  and  the  under  tail-coverts  ivliite.  The  bill  is 
red  at  the  b.ose,  and  yellowish  green  at  the  tip;  the 
legs  and  toes  green.  In  situations  favoiu-able  for 
tlieiu,  such  as  artilieial  ponds,  gallinides  may-  often 
be  seen  in  considerable  numbers  together,  swimming 
with  a  peculiar  nodding  motion  of  the  head.  They 
seek  tlieir  food  both  on  the  surface  of  the  -water  and 
by  diving,  partly  also  among  the  grass  of  meadows 
and  riveV-banks.  A  frequent  jerking  of  the  tail  is 
very  characteristic  of  them.  When  alanned,  they 
sometimes  seek  safety  by  flight,  but  more  frequently 
by  hiding  .among  rushes  or  reeds.  They  make 
their  nests  near  the  water  which  they  frequent, 
and  usu.illy  on  the  groimd  among  stump.s,  roots, 
and  reeds  ;  the  nest  eontaius  from  seven  to  ten 
eggs.     Tlie  tlesh  of  the  G.  is  well  tiavoured. 

G.\'LLIOT,  a  Dutch  vessel  carrying  a  main  and 
a  mizzen  mast,  and  a  Lirge  gaff-maiusail.    Galliots — 


LtuUii  IJalliot  (fiom  tlie  Luij's  Oun  Luuk  of  Bual^). 

strong-lmilt,  fl.at-bottomed  ships — of  400  to  oOO  tons 
burden,  were  formerly  used  also  as  bomb- vessels. 

GALLI'POLI  (the  CaUlpoUs  of  the  Greeks),  .an 
important  commercial  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Neapo- 
litan province  of  Terra  di  Otranto,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Taranto, 
on  a  steep  insul.ated  rock  in  the  sea,  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  fine  .arched  bridge  of 
stone.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  although  somewliat 
diilieidt  of  access,  owing  to  the  rocks  surrounding 
its  entrance,  and  in  time  of  war  is  an  important 
position,  being  strongly  protected  by  fortifications 
and  a  castle,  as  well  iis  by  the  jieculiarity  of  its 
site.  G.  is  remarkable  for  its  oil-tanks,  excavated 
in  the  solid  limestone,  iu  which  the  famous  oil  of 
Tuglia   is  deposited  for  exportation.      I'op.   10,053. 


It  is  the  sec  of  a  bishop.  In  1834,  the  revenue 
from  the  oil-trade  amounted  to  8,187,355  franes. 
Other  interesting  features  of  the  place  are  the 
.ancient  fountain,  a  fine  monument  of  antiquity, 
and  adorned  with  antique  figures  in  bas-relief ;  the 
castle,  erected  by  Charles  of  Aujon,  commanding 
the  liort  and  bridge,  and  iiossessing  considerable 
defensive  strength  ;  and  the  cathedral,  erected  in 
U)2'.)  by  Francesco  Bisehettini,  and  containing  some 
fine  paintings  of  Coppola. 

It  is  said  that  Christianity  was  introduced  here  .as 
early  as  44  A.  u.  In  1,50,  the  town  was  sacked  by 
the  Vand.als ;  in  1284,  it  iv.os  destroyed  and  almost 
de]>opulated  by  Charles  of  Anjou ;  and  during 
subsequent  centuries,  suffered  severely  from  the 
Venetians,  French,  iSpaniarJs,  and  Turks.  See 
Vhigiji  ill  Skllia  td  ii  (JaUipoU,  by  Barou  lliedesel. 

GALLIPOLI,  ri-siN.siL.v  ok  (the  ancient 
Thracian  Chersonesus),  a  )iortion  of  the  j)rovinee  of 
Uumili,  iu  Eurojieau  Turkey,  is  situated  between 
40°  3'  and  40°  3S'  N.,  and  sejuarates  the  strait  of 
Dardanelles  on  the  east  from  the  Gulf  of  Saros  on 
the  west.  It  extends  in  a  south-west  direction,  is 
abo\it  55  miles  in  length,  and  v.aries  from  4  to  13 
miles  iu  breadth.  The  principal  tomi  on  the 
peninsida  is  (5.allipoU  (q.  v.). 

GATjLIPOLI,  an  im]iortaut  town  and  seaport  of 
Turkey  in  Eurojio,  iu  the  province  of  Itumili,  is 
sitviated  on  the  peninsula  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  the  strait  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, and  is  90  miles  south  of  Adrianople,  and 
about  l.'iO  miles  west-south-west  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  once  fortified,  but  its  only  defence  now  is  '  a 
sorry  square  castle  ■n'ith  an  old  tower.'  G.  is 
poorly  and  irreguLarly  built,  its  houses  miserable, 
and  its  streets  dirty,  but  its  baz.aars  are  extensive 
and  well  stocked.  It  is  the  most  important  town 
ou  the  Hellespont,  has  two  ports,  and  uunierons 
fountains  and  mosques;  and  its  iidiabitants,  com- 
prising merchants  of  .all  nations,  carry  on  a  llouriih- 
ing  tr.ade  iu  corn,  wine,  od,  &c.     Pop.  30,000. 

(!.  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop.  In  the  town  ami 
neighbourhood  are  seen  m.any  remains  of  ancient 
sculi)ture  and  architecture,  the  most  noteworthy  of 
which  are  the  m.agaziue  and  cellars  built  by 
Justinian.  The  tow-n  w.as  t.aken  by  the  Turks  in 
1357,  and  formed  the  earliest  Turkish  possession  in 
Eiu'ope. 

GA'LLIPOT,  the  name  given  to  a  pot  painted 
and  glazed,  commonly  used  for  medicine.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain,  some  deriving  it 
from  the  Dutch  yleyi',  cl.ay,  or  <y?t'(',  glaze,  and 
others  from  the  Spanish  gala.  There  seems  to  be 
some  doubt  whether  the  word  'g.alley'  does  not 
apply  to  the  sh.ape.  Glazed  coloured  tiles,  however, 
Were  called  '  galletyles.'  The  earliest  mention  of 
gallipots  is  iu  Sir  T.  How,ard's  Household  Book  of 
the  year  1405,  edited  by  the  Hoxburghe  Club, 
Archaol.  Juur.  ISOl,  p.  138. 

GA'LLIVATS,  large  row-boats,  fcmnerly,  and 
still  to  some  degree,  used  in  eastern  water.s.  They 
r.arely  exceed  seventy  tons,  carry  two  m.asts  with 
high  triangul.ar  sails,  and  are  generally  armed  with 
a  few  small  swivel  gims,  fastened  on  the  bulwarks. 
The  Malay  pir.ates  employ  these  swift  but  some- 
what fragile  vessels. 

GALLOMA'NIA.     See  Anoi.om.wi.v. 

CrALLON,  the  standard  measni'e  for  liipiids  and 
di'y  goods  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  It  lias 
existed  as  a  measure  from  the  earliest  times,  and,  in 
consequence,  has  ^mdergone  many  changes.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  III.,  it  was  enacted  that  the  gallon 
shoidd  be  8  lbs.  of  12  ounces  each,  .an  ounce  being 


GALLOON— GALLOWAY. 


tbe  weight  of  G40  dry  graias  of  wheat  from  the 
miildle  of  the  car. 

Ill  lO.'iO,  thore  wore  three  distinct  gallon  measures 
—  viz.,  1,  tlic  galkiti  measure  in  common  use,  which 
contained  aljnut  '2'.il  cubic  inches  :  2,  tlie  custuniary 
standard  at  the  Guildhall,  whicli,  though  not  a 
lo^al  standanl,  was  frerjuently  referred  to  as  such, 
even  by  the  law-olfieera  of  the  crown  ;  and  tliough 
generally  estimated  at  2.31  cubic  inches,  in  reality 
contained  only  224:  3,  there  was  also  the  legal 
standard  measure,  jircserved  at  tlie  Treasiiry,  which 
contained  282  cubic  inches. 

Besides  these  three,  there  was  another  gallon 
measure  frequently  employed  for  measuring  corn, 
called  the  Winchester  gallon.  This  measure,  though 
directed  in  William  lll.'s  reign  to  contain  209  cubic 
inches,  was  soon  afterwards  chan_'ed  to  272)  cul>ic 
inches,  at  which  value  it  remained  for  a  long 
period. 

In  170G,  the  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  was  made 
the  standard  wine  gallon. 

These  measures  were  gradually  changed  in  v.alue, 
and  appropriated  to  the  measurement  of  particular 
substances,  till,  in  1823,  just  liefore  the  p.assing  of 
the  '  Act  for  Ascertaining  and  Establisiiing  Uni- 
formity of  Weights  and  Measiu'es,'  they  stood  thus  : 
the  gallon 


In  old  dry  or  corn  mcisure, 

In  ol  1  wine  nic.Tslirc, 

In  old  ale  and  hecT  mcasuri?. 


=  269'0  cubic  inclics. 
=  330  8  j      //  » 


In  January  1S2G,  when  the  above-mentioned  act 
came  into  operation,  all  these  measures  were 
abolished,  and  it  was  enacted  that  the  stamlard 
measure  of  capacity  for  all  lifiniils  and  for  dry 
goods  not  measured  by  he.apiug,  shall  be  a  gallon 
containing  10  lbs.  av.  of  distilled  water,  weighed 
in  air  (tlie  barometer  being  at  33  inches,  and  the 
thermometer  at  (12°). 

This  gives  277-7-t  ciibic  inches  for  the  imperial 
gallon,  and  by  subdivision  or  multiplication  of  this 
standard,  the  other  measures  can  easily  be  fomid. 
Sec  Wkights  and  JlEiisuKfi?. 

G.\LLOO'N,  a  narrow  faViric  composed  of  silk 
or  worsted,  or  of  both.  It  is  usually  employed  for 
binding  garments,  curtains,  &c.  The  small  Ijand 
worn  round  gentlemen's  hats  is  an  example. 

GALLOTA'NNIC  ACII>  (('..H^^O,,)  is  the 
most  important  of  the  various  forms  of  tannin  or 
tannic  acid.  It  usually  occurs  as  a  sjiongy,  light, 
inodorous,  colourless,  or  faintly  yellow  mass,  whicli 
is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  which  possesses 
a  strongly  astringent,  but  not  a  bitter  taste.  It 
is  freely  soluble  in  water,  the  solution  reddening 
litmus  jiaper,  and  dissolving  the  carbonates  with 
eri'ervescence.  With  the  persalts  of  iron,  gallotaimic 
aeiil  gives  a  blackish  blue  jirecipitate  of  g.allotannate 
of  iron,  and  even  when  the  iron  solution  is  extremely 
dilute,  a  violet  tint  is  evolved.  This  gallotannate 
of  iron  is  tlie  basis  of  ordinary  writing  ink  (q.  v.) ; 
and  the  reaction  that  we  have  described  is  so 
sensitive,  that  gallotannic  acid  is  emiiloyed  in  the 
laboratory  as  a  test  for  the  detection  of  the  persalts 
of  iron.  Gallotannic  acid  likewise  precipitates  tartar 
emetic,  nearly  all  the  vegetable  alkaloids  (morjihia, 
quiiiia,  &c.),  tlie  albimiinates,  and  gelatine.  If  a  jiiece 
of  raw  hide,  freed  from  hair,  l>e  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  gallotannic  acid,  tlie  gelatigenous  tissue 
ami  the  acid  combine,  and  leather  is  funned  ;  and  if 
the  skin  be  of  suilicient  size,  all  the  gallotannic  acid 
is  removed  from  the  solution. 

Gallotannic  acid  fuses  when  exposed  to  lieat,  and 
at  a  temperature  of  about  120'  it  is  decomposed, 
and  yields  iiviogallic  acid  (C,;H„0„)  and  nieta- 
gallic  acid  (C,;H,OJ,  while  water  and  carbonic 
acid  are  exiielfed.  When  a  watery  solution  of 
gallotannic  acid  is  excluded  from  the  air,  it  remains 


unchanged ;  but  if  the  air  is  allowed  free  access 
to  it,  a  fimgous  or  mouldy  growth  is  developed, 
oxygen  is  absorbed,  carbonic  acid  is  given  off,  and 
the  gallotannic  acid  becomes  decomposed  into  Gallic 
Acid  (q.  V.)  and  sugar.  The  same  decompositiim 
is  more  rapidly  induced  by  the  action  of  dUutc 
sulphuric  acid,  the  reoctiou  being  exhibited  in  the 
following  formula : 


Gallotaonlc  Acid. 


S'iSir. 


<-'.4H,,03,  -t-  8H0  =  3(C,.H„0,„)  -i-  C,,H,.,0,, 

On  boiling  gallotannic  acid  in  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  i>otash,  gallic  acid  is  also  formed. 

The  composition  of  the  salts  of  this  acid  is  but 
imperfectly  known,  but  the  acid  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  tribasic.  None  of  the  salts  crystallise, 
and  when  in  solution  or  in  a  moist  state,  they 
ra]ndly  absorb  oxygen,  and  become  decomposed. 

•  lallotaniiic  acid  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  the 
gall-nut,  which  contiiins,  according  to  I'elouze,  as 
much  as  40  per  cent,  of  this  aci<l,  and  35  per 
cent,  of  g.allic  acid  (Guibonrt  has  found  that  some 
nuts  contain  as  much  as  Go  jier  cent,  of  gallotannic 
acid) ;  it  is  likewise  found  in  all  ])art3  of  the  gall 
or  dyer's  oak  (Qinrcus  iiifudoriu),  in  sumach  (Ithua 
coritiria),  and  in  green  tea. 

The  best  method  of  obtaining  it  is  from  powdered 
gall-nuts,  by  extraction  with  commercial  ether 
(which  contains  a1>ont  10  per  cent,  of  water),  in  the 
percol.ation  or  displ.acement  apparatus. 

Gallotannic  acid  is  employeil  in  mediciiio,  in 
chemistry,  and  in  the  arts.  Its  uses  in  medicine 
are  due  to  its  powerful  astringent  action.  It  is 
employed  topically  as  a  styptic  in  wounds,  bleeding 
gums,  piles,  &c.,  and  internally  as  an  astringent  in 
Inemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  stomach,  bowels,  &c. ; 
as  we  know  that  it  becomes  converted  into  gallic 
acid  in  its  pass.age  through  the  sy.stcm,  it  is  ])rob.ably 
the  latter  .acid  which  acts  on  remote  parts  when 
gallotannic  acid  is  administered.  Internally,  it  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  from  three  to  ten  gi-ains,  three 
or  four  times  a  day,  in  ))ills  or  in  solution.  It  may 
be  used  as  an  astringent  gargle  r>r  lotion,  in  tlie 
form  of  a  watery  solution  containing  three  or  more 
grains  to  the  ounce.  The  compound  oiiilment  oj 
:inlts,  which  is  the  best  topical  remedy  for  piles 
\\ithont  hamorrh.age,  owes  its  efiieaoy  to  the  gallo- 
tannic acid  contained  in  the  powdered  galls. 

In  chemistry,  it  is  used  in  solution  as  a  test  fi>r 
gelatine,  persalts  of  iron,  &c. ;  and  in  the  arts,  it 
serves  various  nsefid  processes,  especially  in  relation 
to  the  preparation  of  leather,  and  the  manufacture 
of  white  wiues. 

GA'LLOWAY,  the  name  of  an  ancient  province 
in  the  south  of  Scotland,  still  employed  to  designate 
the  counties  of  Kirkcudbright  and  Wigton.  The 
extent  and  early  history  of  G.  are  alike  obscure. 
By  some  historians,  it  has  been  asserted  to  have 
comprehended,  in  .addition  to  Kirkcudljright  and 
Wigton,  Nithsdale,  Annandale,  Tcviotd.ale,  Cariick, 
Kyle,  Cumiingham,  and  Iteufrcwshire ;  but  the 
evidence  for  such  assertion  is  not  satisfactory. 
Gallwegia  is  mentioneil  in  1124,  in  a  charter  granted 
by  Ua\-id  I.  of  Scotland  to  the  monks  of  Selkirk, 
and  at  that  time  its  dimensions  appear  to  have 
been  no  larger  than  those  the  modern  application  of 
the  name  implies.  Of  the  eight  tributary  piinces 
who  are  said  to  have  waited  upon  Edgar  kiug  of 
England  at  Chester,  in  973,  one  was  '  jacobus  rex 
Gafwallia;.'  The  name,  however,  must  have  come 
into  use  after  the  time  of  Bede  the  historian  (died 
7,3o),  for  in  speaking  of  the  province,  which  then 
formed  p.art  of  the  Bernician  or  Northumbrian 
kingdom,  he  makes  no  mention  of  it.  Its  origin 
is  doubtful,  but  has  obvious  reference  to  the  GaeUo 


GALLOWAY— GALLS. 


jK-oplc  by  wliom  it  waa  possessed.  The  original 
mhaliitaiits  of  the  country  appear  to  have  been  of 
Celtic  ori^'in  ;  they  are  believed  to  have  formed  two 
distinct  tribes,  the  Selgova)  and  Novantes— the 
former  holding  the  country  east  of  tlie  Uee,  along 
with  a  portion  of  Dumfriesshire,  while  the  latter 
held  the  portion  lying  to  the  west.  After  the 
dep.arturc  of  the  Romans,  in  the  tir.^t  half  of  the 
Titli  c,  G.  was  overrun  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  of 
Northumln-ia,  by  whom,  however,  the  native  Celtic 
inhabitants  do  not  appear  to  have  been  ever 
thoi-oughly  subdued.  About  the  12th  c.,  G.  is 
spoken  of  by  English  writers  as  'the  land  of  the 
riets,'  and  its  inh-abitauts  as  '  the  Picts.'  In  Scottish 
charters,  the  inhabitants  were  called  simply  '  Gallo- 
vidienses,'  or  men  of  (lalloway.  G.  was  now  ruled 
by  its  own  princes  and  its  own  laws,  the  kings  of 
Scotland,  however,  exercising  a  nominal  sovereignty 
over  it.  It  was  not  imtil  the  reign  of  Alexander 
II.  that  the  power  of  these  great  chieftains  was 
completely  broken  by  the  crown.  The  last  of  them, 
Alan  of  Galloway,  const.able  of  Scotland,  died  in 
I2;i;{,  when  his  gi-eat  possessions  were  divided  among 
his  three  daughters.  For  the  extent,  pojnilation, 
natunJ  productions,  &c.,  of  G.,  see  ICiEKCUDBEionT- 

SIIIBE  and  WlGTOXSHIKE. 

G.iLLOWAY,  Mull  of,  a  rocky  headland,  tlio 
southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  called  the 
Rinns  of  GaUoway,  in  Wigtonshire,  is  the  most 
southern  pouit  of  Scotland.  It  is  IJ  mile  long,  and 
\  of  a  mile  broad.  On  this  headland,  in  hit.  5i° 
3S'  K,  and  long.  4'  52'  W.,  is  a  light-house,  325  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  light  of  which  is  seen 
at  the  distance  of  21  nautical  miles. 

GALLOWS,  Pit  and  G.     See  Foss.v  et  Furca  ; 

also,  E.XECUTION,  HA2JGINC.. 

GALLOWS-BITS,  the  name  applied  on  board 
ship  to  two  strong  frames  of  oak,  ou  which  the  spare 
topmasts  and  yards  are  lashed. 

GALLS,  or  GALL-NTJTS,  are  of  various  shapes, 
but  the  oak-galls  chiefly  used  in  commerce  are 
nearly j^lobular,  with  slightly  pointed  excrescences 
Bi)aringly  placed  on  their  surface.  They  arc 
remarkable  for  containing  a  pecidiar  acid  called 
f/allic,  which  is  only  an  altered  condition  of  tannic 
acid,  and  their  value  is  entirely  due  to  the  great 
accumulation  of  this  principle  in  the  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  vegetable  tissue  which  constitutes  the 
gall.  This  galhc  aciil  (q.  v.)  is  easily  separated  in 
the  foi-m  of  beautifid  white  acicular  crystals,  which, 
after  a  little  exposure,  become  pale  yellow.  It  is 
in  extensive  demand  as  a  fixing  agent  for  photo- 
grajiliic  pictiu'es.  Until  this  demand  was  created, 
only  three  or  four  kinds  of  galls  were  known  in  com- 
merce, and  these  were  almost  wholly  employed  for 
dyeing  puqioses,  a  small  quantity  of  the  common 
Turkish  galls  being  also  used  medicinally ;  now, 
several  othei-s  are  miported  in  considerable  quan- 
tities.    Tlie  following  are  the  chief  : 

I.  Tlie  Turkish  galls,  of  two  kinds,  Hue  and  while; 
these  are  by  far  the  most  common  in  use.  They  are 
chiefly  imported  from  Constantinople  and  Smyrna, 
from  which  places  the  average  imports  of  the  last 
live  years  have  amounted  to  300  tons— an  enormous 
quantity,  when  we  consider  how  they  are  produced, 
and  the  industiy  necessary  to  collect  so  vast  a 
quantity.  They  are  each  about  the  size  of  a  round 
nutmeg,  and  the  blue,  which  are  the  best,  are  entire, 
being  gathered  before  the  escape  of  the  insect. 
The  so-called  white  galls  arc  of  a  yellowish-brown 
colour,  and  each  is  perforated  with  a  small  round 
hole,  about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
whence  the  insect  has  escaped.  These  galls  are 
produced  by  a  species  of  Cynips  (C  quercus-ijalli) 
on  the  dyer's  oak  (Quercua  inj'ectorki),  a  native  of 


Asia  Minor,  from  the  Bosphorus  to  SjTia,  and  from 
the  Grecian  .:Vi-chipelago  to  the  frontiers  of  iVisix 
Of  this  kind  of  gall,  sevcr.il  varieties  are  known 
in  commerce,  as  tlie  Aleppo  galls ;  the  Syrian  or 
Mosul  gidls,  which  are  the  oest  known  ;  the  Tripoli 
Taraplus  or  Tarablous  galls,  obtained  from  Con- 
stantinople ;  and  the  SmjTua  galls. 

2.  The  small  Aleiijio  or  coriander  gall,  which  is 
generally  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea.  They  are 
always  perforated  or  empty  galls,  and  are  of  ,1 
brownish-yellow  colour,  round,  and  witli  small  blunt 
spines.  The  quantity  used  in  this  country  is  not 
very  large. 

3.  The  large  Bassorah,  Bussorah,  or  Mecca  galls, 
which  are  the  largest  galls  known  in  commerce ; 
they  are  as  large  as  an  Orleans  plum,  smooth,  except 
a  ring  of  curious  slightly  raised  excrescences  some- 
times found  round  the  middle,  dividing  the  gall  into 
two  hemispheres.  They  arc  reddish  brown,  anil  are 
said,  when  on  the  trees  [Qiiercus  i»/i:cloria),  to  be 
coloured  as  brightly  as  aii])les.  These  are  tlie 
apples  of  Sodom,  or  the  Dead  Sea  apjilcs,  Viright  to 
the  eye,  but  fiUed  with  a  gritty  .astringent  matter, 
which  is  likened  to  ashes ;  it  is  formed  on  the 
Qiieixus  infectoria  by  Ci/nijJS  iiwana.  These  arc 
not  extensively  imjiortcd. 

4.  The  acorn  gall,  Knoppcrn,  Knobben,  Hun- 
garian, or  German  gall.  This  is  found  chiefly  in 
Hungary,  and  is  much  used  by  the  German  dyei-s ; 
it  is  also  occasionally  used  in  this  country.  It  is  a 
curious  iiTegular-shapod  brown  gall,  deeply  fur- 
rowed, and  covered  with  angular  excrescences.  It  is 
produced  on  the  common  oak  {(^iicrcus  pcilunatlala) 
by  Ci/n'qis  Qur-n-iis  cali/cis. 

5.  The  small  East  Indian  galls  called  Mahco,  and 
Sumi'ut-ool-toorfa,  are  obtained  from  the  Indian 
Tamarisk  [Tamarix  Indlca),  They  are  very  small, 
aliout  the  size  and  colour  of  tares,  and  are  so  rough 
and  irregular  in  form,  that  they  look  rather  like 
little  lumps  of  di-ied  garden-sod. 

6.  The  Chinese  galls,  or  Woo-jiei-tsze.  These 
very  curious  vegetable  excrescences  were  regarded 
only  as  curiosities  ten  years  since,  but  they  now 
form  regular  articles  of  commerce.  They  are  of  a 
very  uregular  sh.ape,  branching  out  sometimes  like 
fingers.  Their  length  seldom  exceeds  two  inches  ; 
they  are  rarely  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  at  the  base,  where  they  spring  from  the 
tree,  but  they  spread  out  as  much  sometimes  as  an 
inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches.  When  broken,  they 
are  found  to  consist  of  a  thin  shell,  not  thicker  than 
a  w.alnut-shell,  of  a  dark-yellowish  or  reddish-brown 
colour  internally,  .and  semi-tr.ansparent ;  but  exter- 
nally they  are  covered  with  very  line  down,  and 
consequently  look  like  the  young  horns  of  a  stag 
when  just  budding.  They  are  ])roduced  on  the 
lilniK  semi-alaia  (see  Suiii.vcii),  by  an  insect  not 
yet  known  to  science.  Since  the  Japanese  ports 
have  been  opened  to  British  commerce,  considerable 
imports  of  these  curious  galls  have  been  received 
from  that  country.  They  are  rather  more  branched, 
the  branches  or  lobes  being  smaller  than  in  the 
Chinese  variety,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  are 
identical. 

A  very  great  many  galls  are  known  in  most  parts 
of  the  world,  and  in  our  own  country  the  oaks  yield 
numerous  species,  but  those  above  enumerated  are 
the  galls  of  commerce  :  few  others  have  ever  been 
found  to  pay  the  expense  of  collecting.  Galls  are 
extensively  used  in  dyeing,  chiefly  for  the  i)roduc- 
tion  of  black  colours,  with  logwood  and  the  salts  of 
iron,  either  for  dyeing  in  the  piece,  or  ]n-inting 
patterns  ;  in  each  case,  the  material  is  first  submitted 
to  the  action  of  a  solution  of  the  galls,  and  afterwards 
to  another  of  the  dye-wood  and  iron  salt.  They  are 
also  an  important  constituent  ia   writing-ink  (seg 


GALL-STONE-GALVANL 


Ink),  ami  are  used  in  tanning  the  finer  kinds  of 
fancy  leathers. 

GALL-STONE.  See  CALCtTLUS,  Biuaby. 
GALOCHES.  See  Goloshes. 
GALT,  .John',  a  distinpiished  Scottish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Irvine,  on  the  2d  May  1779.  His  father, 
who  was  a  captain  of  a  ship  in  the  West  Indian 
trade,  left  Ayrshire  in  1780,  and  fi.\ed  his  residence 
ill  Greenock.  lu  that  town,  G.  received  his  educa- 
lion,  and  was  then  placed  in  the  eustom-house.  He 
remained  there  till  1804,  when,  panting  after  literary 
ilistiiiction,  he  proceeded  to  London  with  an  epic 
poem  on  the  battle  of  Largs  in  his  jjortmanteau.  On 
reaching  the  metropolis,  he  printed  his  e])ic,  but 
bcconiin;;  dissatisfied  ■with  its  merits,  he  ultimately 
witlidrew  it  from  the  market.  After  a  few  years,  his 
health  began  t'>  fail,  and  he  was  obliged  to  seek  relief 
in  a  more  genial  climate.  At  Gibraltar,  he  made  the 
acipiaintanoo  of  Lord  BjTon — flushed  ■nnth  his  first 
success  in  tlie  Encjli.sh  Bards  and  Scotch  Hcviewers 
— and  his  friend  Mr  Hobhouse,  and  the  three 
travellers  became  fellow-voyagers.  Separating  from 
his  new  friends,  G.  visited  Sicily,  then  Malta,  and 
finally  repaired  to  Greece,  where  he  again  renewed 
his  acquaintance  with  Byron,  and  had  an  interview 
with  Ali  Pacha.  He  then  proceeded  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  afterwards  to  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  On  one  occasion,  when  detained  by  cpiarantine, 
he  sketched  six  dramas,  which  were  afterwards 
given  to  the  world.  On  his  return,  he  pubhshed 
i.eUers  from  (he  Levant  ^^■ith  considerable  success, 
but  first  displayed  the  possession  of  distinct  and 
individual  power  in  The  Ai/rsliire  Lerfattes,  which 
was  pubhshed  in  Blachcood's  Magazine  in  1820. 
The  Annals  of  the  Parish,  a  far  superior  work, 
appeared  the  year  after,  and  met  with  unquestion- 
able success.  HaWng  hit  on  the  tnie  vein,  he 
worked  it  assiduouslv,  and  produced  Sir  Andrew 
Willie,  The  Entail,  The  Steam-boat,  and  The  Pro- 
vost, with  great  rapidity.  He  then  diverged  into 
the  walk  of  historical  romance,  and  published 
IHnfian  Gilhaize,  a  tale  of  the  Covenanters ;  Tlic 
Spaewij'e,  J'othelan,  and  The  Omen.  These  works, 
although  fiUl  of  striking  scenes,  and  aboimding  in 
powerful  writing,  were  not  so successfid  as  his  earlier 
and  less  ambitious  pcrfomiances.  G.,  whose  hands 
were  always  eqiially  full  of  literary  and  commer- 
cial undertakings,  was  now  busily  engaged  in  the 
form.ation  of  the  Canada  Company  ;  but  before  he 
left  England  for  his  distant  scene  of  labour,  he 
gave  to  the  world  The  Last  of  the  Lairds. 

He  departed  for  Canada  in  1826,  but,  disap- 
pointed in  his  expectations,  he  returned  to  England 
m  the  course  of  a  year  or  two,  and  recommenced 
his  literary  laboms  with  his  >isual  rapidity.  In  a 
short  time,  he  published  a  novel,  Lawrie  Todd, 
which  was  followed  hy  Soiilhrnnan,  a  romance  of  the 
days  of  Queen  Mary ;  and  this  by  a  Lifi  of  Lord 
Jii/ron,  which  ran  through  several  editions,  but 
which  w.as  roughly  handled  by  the  critics.  In  18.'54, 
he  published  Literary  Miscellanies  in  three  volumes. 
He  now  returned  to  Scotland,  utterly  broken  in 
health  and  spirits;  and  after  suffering  several 
attacks  of  paralysis,  he  expired  at  Greenock  on  the 
11th  of  AprU  1830.  ,        ..        ,    » 

G.  was  a  voluminous  and  unequal  vnnter ;  but 
while  several  of  his  productions  are  already  for- 
gotten, othei-s  of  them  wiW  perish  only  with  the 
language.  In  depicting  provincialism,  in  repre- 
senting life  as  it  flows  on  in  small  towns  and 
villages— comuuinities  in  which  the  successfiU  shop- 
keeper may  aspire  to  be  the  chief  magistrate,  and 
in  which  the  minister  is  the  most  important  per- 
sonage—he is  without  a  rival.  He  has  founded  a 
Bchool  of  writei-s  in  Scotland,  but  as  j-et  his  followers 


have  produced  no  work  equ.al  to  'J'/ie  Provod  or  The 
Annals  oj'tlie  Parish. 

GALT,  a  thriving  town  in  the  county  of  Water- 
loo, Canada  West,  princijwlly  built  of  stone.  It 
stands  on  both  sides  of  the  Grand  River,  about  5o 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Lake  Erie.  The  eastern 
and  western  parts  of  the  town  are  connected  by 
two  wooden  bridges,  resting  on  massive  stone  piers. 
Tlje  environs  of  the  town  are  noted  for  their  beauty. 
The  first  house  of  G.  Wios  built  in  ISIti,  amid  a 
dense  forest  of  pines,  which  then  covered  its  site. 
The  inhabitants  now  number  abcmt  4<X(0,  the 
majority  being  of  Scotch  descent.  It  contains  ten 
places  of  public  worahip,  fom-  being  Presbyterian, 
three  Methodist,  one  Episcopal,  one  lloman  Catholic, 
and  one  Baptist ;  the  last-named  belongs  to  the 
coloured  popidation.  It  supports  one  grammar  and 
one  connnon  school  :  the  average  attendance  at 
the  latter  being  about  500 ;  and  has  an  extensive 
library  and  p\iblic  rea(Un";-room  in  connection  with 
a  mechanics'  institute.  Among  its  iudustiial  estab- 
lishments are  several  woollen  manufactories  and  iron 
foundries.  The  manufacture  of  edge-tools  is  carried 
on  to  a  large  extent.  The  trade  of  the  town  is 
greatly  promoted  by  the  Great  Western  P.ailway,  a 
branch  of  which  passes  through  Gait.  The  local 
affairs  of  G.  arc  managed  by  a  mayor  and  council 
of  fifteen  membei-s. 

GALVA'NI,    LuiGl,    a    famous    physician    and 
anatomist,    w.as   born    at   Bologna,   9th    September 
1737.     At  an  early  age,  he  evinced  a  strong  inclina- 
tion to  devote  himself  to  a  monastic  life,  and  his 
stiulies  in    the  university    of   Bologna  were,  with 
this  view,  chieHy  directed  to  schol.astic  philosophy, 
r-\thcr  than  to  general  science.      Swayed,  however, 
by  the  persuasion   of   his  friends,  he  relinquished 
his   intention   of   entering  the   church,  and   deter- 
mined to  follow  the  profession  of  medicine,  select- 
ing  for  special    investigation   the    departments   of 
physiology  and  comparative  anatomy.    At  this  time, 
he   enjoyed   the   benefit    of    studying   under  some 
of  the  most  eminent  medical  professors  of  the  d,\v 
— Becearia,   Tacconi,  and  Gale.izzi,  whose  talented 
daughter  he  subsequently  married.  So  distinguished 
Ijy  his  knowledge  and  ability  did  he  soon  become, 
that  in  17(i2  he  was  elected  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  institute  of  his  native  city,  when  his  lectures, 
although  not  remarkable  for  eloquence,  were  clear, 
accurate,   and   comprehensive,   and   enjoyed    much 
popularity.     His  writings  are  not  numerous,  but  all 
contain  valuable  scientific  matter,  and  are  charac- 
terised   by   a    rare   precision    and    minuteness    of 
detaUs.    Two  treatises,  which  added  considerably  to 
his  reputation,  are — Considerations  on  the   Urinary 
Orijans,  and  On  the   Organs  of  Hearing  of  Binls. 
But  to  a  purely  casual  discovery  G.  owes  the  wide 
celebrity  attached  to  his  name.     M.any  versions  of 
this  circumstance  have  obtained  credence  ;  but  the 
simple  fact  seems  to  be,  th.at  G.'s  wife,  a  woman  of 
]>enetrating  intellect,  hajipened  one  day  to  witness 
with  surprise  the  convulsive  muscular  movements 
produced  in  a  skinned  frog  by  its  inanimate  body 
having  been  accidentally  brought  into  contact  with 
a  scalpel  which  lay  ou  the  table,  and  had  become 
charged   by  cont,act   with   an   adjoining   electrical 
machine.     She  h.a-stened  to  communicate  the  inter- 
esting ]ihenomenon  to  her  husband,  who  at   once 
instituteil  a  prolonged  series  of  experiments.     Sec 
G.U.VANISM,  and  Electricity,  A.nimau     G.  died 
4th  December  1798.     Some  time  previously,  ho  had 
lost  iu  his  wife  a  cherished   companion,  and  was 
deprived   of   all  his   public   emoluments,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oaths  prescribed 
by  the  Cisalpine  Kepublic,  of  which  Bologna  then 
formed  a  part.      His  writings  havo  been  chielly 


GALVANISED  IKON— GALVANISM. 


published  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Bologna  Institute 
of  Sciences,  iucliuling  the  most  renmrkable  produc- 
tiiiu  of  his  jieii,  the  treatise  entitled  l)e  Viribus 
J\t-rfn\'it<tli'i  ill  Motu  Mitscttlari  Coiiinuntiti-iiis. 

GALVANl'SKD  IRON.  This  n.ime  is  given  to 
plates  of  iron  co.ated  with  zinc,  without  any  refer- 
ence, as  its  naine  would  inijily,  to  g.ilvauism.  Most 
probably,  it  was  aj'plied  l>v  its  French  inventor  for 
the  speei.al  puri>osc  of  misleading',  and  for  concealing 
the  real  nature  of  the  manufacture. 

The  valne  of  giving  a  thin  coating  to  iron,  of 
some  e;u>ily  fusible  mctnl  much  less  liable  to  o.\ida- 
tion  than  itself,  has  been  long  known  and  acted  upon, 
as  in  the  case  of  tinned  iron,  or  tin,  as  it  is  com- 
monly cilled;  but  this  conhl  not  be  applied  on  a 
very  large  scale,  such  as  for  roofing,  or  for  large  iron 
structures,  such  .is  have  of  late  been  extensively 
erected  for  various  purposes. 

It  is  not  known  exactly  when  zinc  coating  w.is 
first  used  in  France,  where  it  was  iuvented ;  but  the 
first  English  patent  w.is  taken  out  in  18S7  by  Mr  H. 
W.  I'rawfurd,  who  applied  it  chiefly  to  sheets  of 
corrugated  iron,  or  sheet-iron,  bent  by  a  pecidiar 
)>roccss  into  alternate  semicircular  elevations  and 
dejiressions  ;  and  this  soon  became  extensively 
cniiJoyed  for  rooting  purjioses,  cspeci.ally  for  rail- 
way sheds,  which  were  then  beginning  to  be  in 
great  request. 

The  process  employed  by  Mr  Crawfurd  was  first 
to  remove  the  rust  and  scale  from  the  iron,  liy 
inimei-sing  it  in  dUute  su]i>huric  acid,  either  hot  or 
cold;  but  the  former  st.ate  was  preferred;  and  for 
this  purpose  the  acid  was  ke]it  warm  in  a  large 
leaden  bath,  sunk  in  the  gi-onnd  for  easier  access. 
After  the  sheets  or  other  articles  of  iron  have  been 
acted  upon  by  the  acid  for  a  few  miuutes  more 
or  less,  according  to  their  requirements,  they  are 
plunged  into  cold  w.ater,  to  remove  the  acid,  and 
afterwards  scoured  with  sand,  and  again  washed 
clean  with  water.  The  iron  being  now  ready  to 
receive  its  coating  of  zinc,  it  is  plunged  into  a  b.ath 
of  that  metal,  which,  previous  to  its  being  melted, 
is  coated  with  a  thick  Layer  of  dry  sal-ammoniac 
(hydrochlorate  of  ammonia) ;  this  melts  .also,  and 
forms  a  viscid  coating  over  the  metal,  which  prevents 
that  rapid  oxidation  to  which  the  molten  metal  is 
otherwise  liable.  The  bath  itself  is  constructed  of 
fire-clay,  and,  in  some  of  the  large  works  visited  by 
the  writer,  contains,  when  fully  charged,  from  a  ton 
and  a  half  to  two  tons  of  molten  zinc.  The  iron  is 
simply  dipped  into  the  zinc  bath,  or  made  to  pass 
through,  and  when  piUled  out  is  effectually  coated. 

The  enormous  demand  which  has  arisen  for 
galvanised  iron,  especially  in  the  form  of  sheets, 
telegraph  wire,  and  bolts  for  ships,  has  led  to 
improvements  in  its  preparation;  these  have  been! 
chiefly,  however,  in  the  application  of  machinery  to 
aid  the  workmen. 

JInri.atic  acid,  as  well  as  sidjihuric  acid,  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  pickling  or  first  process,  and  for 
the   coarser  materials   the   scouring   with    sand   is 
usually  dispensed  with.     The  sheets  are  made  to 
pass  between  two  iron  rr.llers  in  the  zinc  b.ath,  and 
are    thus    more   easily   drawn   through    and    kejit 
perfectly  smooth.    Ships'  bolts,  nails,  scre^^•s,  chains, 
Ac,  <are  dipped  in,  in  bundles,  or  in  the  case  of  nails,  I 
&c.,   in   iron   strainers ;    when   removed,   the    zinc  ' 
makes  them   adiiere  together  ;   and  to   cfTect   their  ' 
Bei)aration,  they  have  to    bo    placed  iu   a  crucible 
with  powdered  charcoal,  in  which  they  arc  heate<l  ' 
to  redness,  and  repeatedly  shaken  as  they  cool ;  by 
this  means,  they  are  easily  separated.  1 

The  important  article  of  telegraph  wire,  of  which  ' 
the  single   firm  of  Jlessrs  Johnston   &  Co.,  Man-  ! 
Chester,  annu.ally  turns  out  some  thousands  of  miles, 
la  managed  entuely  by  machinery.     The  iron  wire 


j  is  brought  from  the  drawing-mill,  and  after  pickling 
I  in  dilute  muriatic  acid,  is  p.issed  tlirough  a  pijjo 
kept  at  white  heat  by  jiassing  through  a  furnace; 
!  this  fiunace  having  a  row  of  such  pipes  set  like 
the  tubes  of  a  boiler,  but  .ill  at  the  same  level,  ami 
open  at  each  end,  so  that  the  wire  has  a  clear 
ji.iss.ige  through.  The  machinery  being  started,  the 
wire  is  slowly  drawn  through,  and  liecoming  red 
hot  in  the  ])ipes,  is  inuuediately  detlected  down- 
wards into  the  zinc  bath  Ipctween  gnioved  rollers, 
whence  it  rises,  aiul  is  drawn  forward ;  and  by  the 
time  it  is  suliiciently  cooled,  rc.iches  the  coiling 
reels,  and  is  m.ide  up  into  coils  ready  for  use. 
j  There  is  a  vaiiety  of  galvanised  iron  railed 
I  gnlraiiiiied  tinned  iron.  This  w.os  introduced  by 
Messrs  Morewood  and  Kogei-s,  who  condjined  several 
jiatents  to  complete  their  process,  which  is  .is 
follows  :  A  large  wooden  bath,  sntiicicntly  Large  to 
hold  the  largest  sheets  of  iron,  is  jjrep.ired,  and  the 
sheets  or  other  articles,  after  being  pickled,  and 
scoured,  and  washed,  as  in  the  usual  jirocess,  are 
transferred  to  it.  On  tlie  bottom  of  the  b.ith  is 
lirst  ]ilaced  a  layer  of  lini'ly  granulated  zinc,  then  a 
sheet  of  the  iron,  then  another  layer  of  granulated 
zinc,  and  so  on  as  far  as  convenient ;  and  the  liatll 
is  filled  up  with  a  diluted  solution  of  muriate  of  tin, 
of  the  strength  of  two  (plaits  of  the  muri.ite  to  three 
hundred  g.aUoiis  of  water.  The  alternate  arrange- 
ment of  zinc  and  iron  constitutes  a  sort  of  galvanic 
battery,  which  is  calleil  into  activity  by  the  liipiid, 
and  a  thin  deposit  of  tin  takes  ]]l,iee  all  over  the 
iron,  which  jiroccss  is  usually  completed  in  about 
two  hours.  The  ]ilates  are  then  removed  from  the 
'  bath,  and  after  being  drained  for  a  short  time,  are 
;  taken  to  the  zinc  bath  pieiiarcd  exactly  as  in  the 
ordinary  jirocess,  %\  here  tliey  are  dipj)ed  or  p.issed 
tlirough  the  rollers.  By  this  process,  a  very  even 
deposit  of  zinc  is  produced,  which  in  cooling, 
crystallises  all  over  tlie  surface  vci-y  beautifully; 
but  it  is  too  expensive  for  the  ordinary  purposes 
to  which  galvanised  iron  is  a]>plied. 

Experience  has  shewn  that  this  material  cannot 
always  be  used  cconoiiiieally ;  the  action  of  stc.im 
upon  it  i)roduccs  very  rapid  decomposition;  there- 
fore it  is  particularly  unsuit.ible  for  railw'ay  stations 
or  sheds  under  which  the  locomotives  stand  and 
discharge  their  steam.  It  was  extensively  employed 
for  public  urinals  in  Liverpool,  and  so  rapid  was 
their  decay,  that  at  the  end  of  three  months  hardly 
one  was  left  stamling.  But  if  not  exposed  to  a 
certain  class  of  ileleterious  chcniic.il  iuHuences,  it  is 
by  far  the  most  cconomic.il  means  of  employing  iron 
for  covering  buildings,  as  it  requires  no  jiaint,  and 
withstands  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  for  a  very 
considerable  length  of  time. 

GA'LVANISJM  is  tliat  br.inch  of  the  science  of 
electricity  which  treats  of  the  electric  currents 
arising  from  chemical  .action,  more  luirticnlarly 
from  th.at  attending  the  dissolution  of  metals.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Dynamical  Electricity,  because 
it  deals  with  current  electricity,  or  electricity  in 
motion,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  Frictional 
Electricity  (q.  v.),  which  is  called  Statical  in  conse- 
quence of  its  investigating  the  electric  comlition  of 
bodies  in  which  electricity  remains  insul.ated  or 
st.ationary.  ITiese  terms,  although  in  the  main  thus 
properly  applied,  are  in  .ill  strictness  ajiplicable  to 
both  sciences.  Frictional  electricity,  though  small 
in  quantity,  can  p.ass  in  a  sensible  current,  and 
g.ilvanic  electricity,  though  small  in  tension,  can  be 
made  to  manifest  the  attractions  and  re]iulsii>ns  of 
stationary  electricity.  Thus  the  series  of  discharges 
which  arc  tr.insmitted  iu  a  -wire  connecting  tlie 
prime  conductor  of  a  machine  in  .action  with  the 
ground,  possesses,  though  feebly,  the  characteristics 
of  a  galvanic  current ;  and  the  insulated  poles  of  a 


GALVANISM. 


many-celled  galvanic  battery,  manifest  before  the 
current  begins  the  electric  tension  of  the  friction 
machino.  The  other  branches  of  current  elec- 
tricity will  be  found  under  IxDUCTioN  OK  Electric 
CrauENTs,   JlAGSETO-ELUcrniciTY,    and    Thekmo- 

ELKCTUIMTV. 

Iliiiiorkal  Sketch. — The  science  of  galvanism  dates 
from  the  close  of  the  18th  centuiy.  In  the  year 
1780,  Oalvani,  m  makinc^  investigations  on  the  nerv- 
ous irritability  of  cold-blooded  animals,  discovered 
by  accident  that  the  liinljs  of  a  recently  killed  frog, 
when  hung  by  the  crural  nerve  on  a  metal  support 
near  an  electric  machine,  contracted  convulsively 
at  the  recurrence  of  each  spark.  This  he  properly 
accounted  for  by  the  back-stroke.  .See  Electricity. 
.Six  years  afterwards  (I7SG),  in  experimenting  on 
atmospheric  electricity  with  frog  limbs  as  delicate 
electroscopes,  he  obtained,  also  accidentally,  the 
same  con\Tilsions  by  bringing  the  copper  hook  on 
which  the  nerve  hung,  and  the  limb  itself,  simul- 
taneously in  cont.act  with  an  iron  raihng.  The 
similarity  of  the  result  led  him  to  attriljute  it  to  the 
same  cause— viz.,  electricity  cither  existing  in  the 
limb  itself  or  produced  in  the  conducting  arc  of 
metal.  On  consideration,  he  adopted  the  former  hj-po- 
thc.sis,  an<l  looked  upon  the  limb  as  a  self-charging 
Leyden  jar,  with  the  nerve  as  the  brass  knob  and 
wire ;  the  interior  of  the  muscle  as  the  inner  coat- 
ing, its  extqrior  the  outer  coating,  and  the  metal 
are  as  the  discharging  tongs.  See  Electkicitv, 
Ani.m.vl.  He  first  i)ui)lished  his  researches  in  1791. 
V'olta,  1702,  discarded  the  account  given  by  Galvani 
of  his  experiment ;  and  from  the  f.act  that  the  con- 
vulsions in  question  took  ])lace  with  more  energy 
when  there  were  two  metals  in  the  conducting  arc 
instead  of  one,  attributed  the  source  of  electricity 
to  the  heterogeneity  of  the  niet:il3  emjiloyed.  He 
maintained  that  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  two 
diU'erent  metals  an  electric  force  arising  from  their 
heterogeneity  is  generated,  which  throws  them  into 
different  tensions.  This  doctrine  forms  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  cmilncl  tlieof)/  of  galvanism. 
In  reply  to  Volta,  Galvani  jiroved  incontestably  that 
the  contraction  in  the  limbs  of  the  frog  took  place 
when  only  one  metal  was  employed,  and  even  when 
the  conductor  was  not  of  metal  .at  all.  Subsequent 
discovery  has  proved  Galvani  to  be  partly  right  in 
attributing  the  cause  of  these  convidsions  to  animal 
electricity,  and  Volta  also  to  be  partly  right  in  attri- 
buting them  to  electricity  generated  in  the  metal 
arc,  for  both  causes  may  be  at  work  in  producing 
the  result.  Volta's  theory  of  contact  is  now,  how- 
ever, generally  considered  erroneous,  and  a  chemical 
tlworij  better  attested  by  experiment  has  been 
originated,  which  attributes  the  source  of  galvanic 
electricity  to  the  chemical  action  of  a  Uquid  on  a 
metal  coupled  with  another  metal  less  easily  acted 
on  than  itself.  Fabroni,  a  professor  at  Florence, 
was  the  first  (1792)  to  suggest  chemical  action  as 
one  of  t;ie  causes  at  work  in  (J.alvani's  experiment. 
Volta  did  not  accept  of  Galvani's  \'indication,  but 
supported  his  theory  by  several  apparently  con- 
clusive experiments.  In  1790,  he  constructed,  as  the 
crowning  endence  of  the  truth  of  his  reasoning,  his 
pile,  and  with  it  properly  begins  the  history  of 
galvanism.  To  Galvani  is  thus  due  the  merit  of 
discovering  a  new  manifestation  of  elec'tricitj';  to 
Volta  is  due  the  merit  of  displaying  in  it  a  source 
of  power  of  incalculable  importance,  and  which, 
but  for  his  genius,  might  have  remamed  among  the 
barren  curiosities  of  science.  Hence  it  becomes  a 
(juestion  of  some  difKculty  to  decide  to  which  of 
the  two  the  science  we  are  discussing  owes  its 
origin— whether  it  is  to  be  called  Galvanism  or 
Voltaism.  Priority  of  discovery  has  kd  men  generally 
to  decide  in  favour  of  Galvani,  although  Volta  has 

131 


almost  equal  claim  to  have  his  name  attached  to 
the  science. 

The  first  account  of  Volta's  pile  reached  Eng- 
land in  a  letter  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  by  the  in- 
ventor (180U).  A  few  weeks  afterwards  Carlisle  and 
Nicholson  decomposed  water  with  it,  and  afterwards 
several  salts.  They  were  tl^e  lirst  to  use  jilatinum 
electrodes.  Davy,  in  the  same  year,  traced  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  pile  to  chemical  action.  WoUaston 
(ISUI)  reiterated  the  same  theory,  and  went  the 
length  of  attributing  even  frictional  electricity  to 
chemical  action.  He  proved  likewise  the  identity  of 
the  two  electricities,  and  shewed  ti:at  by  duninish- 
ing  the  electrodes  to  mere  points,  the  electricity  of 
the  machine  cotdd  produce  the  same  chemical  effects 
as  that  of  the  pile.  In  1802,  Cruikshank  improved 
the  construction  of  the  pile  by  disposing  the  plates 
horizontally  in  a  trough  insteail  of  vertically  in 
column.  The  main  features  of  electro-chemical 
decomposition  were  discussed  by  Davy  in  his 
famous  Bakerian  lecture  of  1806.  In  1807,  the 
same  philoso]>her  obtained,  for  the  first  time  by 
galvanic  agency,  the  metals  potassium,  sodium, 
barium,  .strontium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  Deluc 
(1809)  ffrst  made  dry  piles  of  gold  and  silver 
paper,  and  these  were  altered  and  imjiroved  by 
Zamboni  (1812).  In  1813,  Davy  discovered  the 
electric  light  and  voltaic  arc  (see  Electric  Light) 
by  means  of  the  colossal  battery  then  jilaced 
at  his  disposal  at  the  Royal  Institution,  flirsted 
(1820)  first  observed  the  action  of  the  current  on 
the  magnetic  needle ;  and,  a  few  months  after- 
wards. Ampere  discovered  the  law  of  this  action, 
and  originated  an  electric  theory  of  magnets  wliich 
has  proved  wonderfully  fertile  in  practical  results. 
In  the  same  year  Schweigger  invented  the  galvau- 
ometer.  In  1825,  Becquerel,  Avith  the  aid  of  his 
differential  galvanometer,  investigated  the  conducti- 
bility  of  metals.  Kemp,  in  1820,  first  used  amal- 
gamated zinc  for  the  galvanic  battery.  In  1827, 
Ohm  gave  a  mathematical  theory  of  the  pile,  rigidly 
deduced  from  Volta's  fimdamental  principle,  anil  in 
perfect  keeping  with  experiment.  Faraday  (1831 — • 
1832)  puUished  his  discoveries  of  the  induction  of 
electric  currents,  and  of  the  evolution  of  electricity 
from  magnets,  which  have  since  enriched  the  science 
with  the  Induction  Coil  (q.  v.)  and  the  Magneto- 
electric  Machine  (q.  v.).  This  distinguished  elec- 
trician discovered  (1833—18.34)  the  ddinite  u.ature 
of  electro-chemical  decomposition,  and  proved  that 
electro-chemical  and  chemical  equivalents  were  iden- 
tical. In  I8.3G,  Daniell  constructed  his  constant 
batterj-.  Spenser  in  England,  and  Jacobi  in  Kossia, 
made,  simiUtaneously  (1837),  the  discovery  of  electro- 
metallurgy. CJrovc  (1839)  constructed  his  nitric- 
acid  battery.  Faraday  (18-tO)  proved,  apparently 
beyond  dispute,  the  truth  of  the  chemical  theory. 
Smee's  battery  dates  also  from  this  year.  In  1843 
Whe.atstone,  by  means  of  his  rheostat  and  resistance 
coils,  investigated  the  resistances  offered  by  v;irioua 
conducting  substances  to  the  current.  In  the  same 
ye.ar  Bunsen  introduced  his  carbon  l>atter}-. 

The  rivalrj'  which  has  all  along  existed  between 
the  advocates  of  the  chemical  and  confcict  theories 
has  been  highly  conducive  to  the  .advancement  of 
the  science,  each  ))arty  calling  in  the  aid  of  inven- 
tion .and  discovery  to  support  the  truth  of  their 
statements.  Among  the  more  distinguished  con- 
tact-theorists may"  be  mentioned  Volta,  Hitter, 
I'faff,  Biot,  Deluc,  Ohm,  and  Fechner  ;  and  among 
the  chemical  theorists,  Fabroni,  Da\y,  W'ollastou, 
Parrot,  De  La  Rive,  and  Faraday.  Davy  Latterly 
maintained  a  theory  of  distribution  and  cquUi- 
briuiu  of  electricity  midway  between  the  two,  which 
numbered   among   its   supporters   Jseger,  Berzelius, 

Ermann,  and  Prechtl. 

503 


GALVAinSM. 


Galvaxio  Path. — Wheu  two  plates  of  copper  and 
.ini:Ut;auiated  zinc  (zinc  whose  surface  lias  been 
rubWd  over  with  mercury)  arc  placetl  in  a  vessel 
(ti".  1)  containing  water  to  wliich  a  small  quan- 
tity o£  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added,  so  long  as 


Fig.l. 

they  are  kept  from  touching,  either  within  or  with- 
out the  liquid,  they  remain  apimrently  unaffected. 
If,  however,  they  be  made  to  touch,  bubbles  of 
hydrogen  gas  are  formed  in  abimdance  at  the  copper 
plate,  and  their  formation  continues  imtil  the  plates 
are  again  separated.  If  the  contact  be  main- 
tained for  some  time,  and  the  plates  and  liquid  be 
afterwards  examined,  it  is  found  that  the  copper 
plate  weighs  exactly  the  same  as  before,  that  the 
zinc  plate  has  lost  in  weight,  and  that  the  liquid 
contains  the  lost  zinc  in  solution  in  the  form  of 
the  siilphate  of  that  metal.  The  contact  need  not 
be  affected  by  the  plates  themselves.  If  wires  of 
copper,  or  any  other  conductor  of  electricity,  bo 
soldered  to  the  plates,  or  fixed  to  them  by  binding 
screws,  and  be  made  to  touch,  the  changes  just 
mentioned  take  place  as  if  the  plates  were  in  con- 
tact. ^\^len  the  wires  are  thus  joined,  and  so  to 
speak,  form  one  connecting  wii'e  between  the  plates, 
they  exhibit  very  peculiar  properties.  If  a  portion 
of  the  conuectiug  wire  be  placed  parallel  to  a  mag- 
netic needle,  and  the  needle  brought  near,  its  north 
end  no  longer  points  to  the  north,  but  to  a  point 
either  to  the  east  or  west  of  it,  and  this  de%'iation 
ceases  with  the  separation  of  the  wires.  It  is  not 
even  necessary  that  the  ivires  be  in  contact,  for  if 
their  ends  be  put  into  a  vessel  containing  a  con- 
ducting liquid,  the  s.ame  changes  occur,  though  to 
a  diminished  extent,  the  contact  being  completed 
through  the  liquid.  The  ends  of  the  wires,  when  so 
immersed,  shew  strong  chemical  affinities.  If  the 
conducting  liquid  were  a  solution  of  the  sidphate  of 
copper,  the  wire  from  the  zinc  becomes  coated  with 
the  copper  of  the  solution  whilst  the  other  attracts 
its  oxygen  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  wastes  away 
in  entering  into  combination  with  them.  The 
connecting  wires  are  foimd,  therefore,  in  actual 
or  virtual  combination,  to  possess  very  marked 
magnetic  and  chemical  properties.  The  arrangement 
just  described  constitutes  a  i/alvanic  pair,  which  may 
be  generally  defiued  to  be  two  dissimilar  conducliiir/ 
plates  immersed  in  a  liquid  which  can  act  chemically 
on  one  of  them,  and  capable  of  being  placed  in  con- 
duclin(]  connection ;  and  the  properties  just  referred 
to,    form   the    characteristic    powers    of    galvanic 


electricity.  These  properties  arise  from  the  wires  in 
connection  being  the  seat  of  a  constant  discharge  or 
flow  of  electricity,  for  they  are  possessed,  though  to 
a  very  feeble  extent,  by  the  electricity  of  the  fric- 
tion electric  machine.  If  the  prime  conductor  of  a 
powerful  electric  machine  (see  ELECTRicm')  be  con- 
nected with  one  of  the  binding  screws  of  an  insulated 
galvanometer,  and  a  wire  connected  ynih  the  ground 
bo  fixed  into  the  other,  the  plate  on  being  turned 
causes  a  current  of  electricity  to  pass  from  the 
machine  to  the  ground  through  the  coil  of  the  gal- 
vanometer, the  neeiUe  of  which  will  then  shew  a 
deviation  of  one  or  two  degrees.  The  deviation,  so 
far  as  direction  is  concerned,  is  the  same  as  that 
which  would  be  produced  by  placing  the  wires 
coming  from  the  copper  and  zinc  respectively  in  the 
same  binding  screws  as  those  connected  with  the 
machine  and  the  ground.  This  would  indicate  that 
the  cojiper  plate  stands  electi'ically  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  zinc  plate  as  the  prime  conductor  of  the 
machine  to  the  groimtl.  The  electricity  of  the  con- 
ductor is  positive,  and  that  of  the  ground  by  induc- 
tion negative ;  so  that  in  the  galvanic  pair  the  copper 
plate,  by  analogy,  gives  off  jiositive  electricity,  and 
the  zinc  plate  negative.  Again,  let  the  wire  from 
the  machine  end  in  an  insidated  vessel  containing  a 
solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  and  let  the  end 
of  a  fine  platinum  wire  connected  with  the  ground 
be  made  to  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  solution, 
and  let  the  machine  be  kept  in  action  so  as  to 
send  a  current  of  electricity  through  the  wires  and 
liquid,  at  the  end  of  some  minutes  the  point  of  the 
platinum  wire  ^vill  be  covered  with  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  copper.  The  wire  connected  with  the  zinc 
in  the  galvanic  pair  and  that  connected  with  the 
ground,  are  thus  shewn  to  display  the  same  chemical 
power ;  and  this,  again,  shews  us  that  the  zinc  plate, 
like  the  groimd  in  the  above  experiment,  is  the  seat 
of  negative  electricity.  The  electric  contlition  of 
the  plates  before  contact  reveals,  with  the  aid  of  the 
condenser,  the  presence  of  positive  electricity  in  the 
copper  plate  and  negative  in  the  zinc  plate.  If  the 
wu-e  joined  to  the  zinc  plate,  or  as  we  may  write  it 
shortly,  zinc  wire  (not,  however,  uecessariiy  a  zinc 
wire),  be  connected  with  the  groimd,  and  the  insu- 
lated copper  wire  be  made  to  touch  the  lower  plate 
of  a  condenser  whilst  the  finger  touches  the  upper, 
on  both  being  withdra\\'n,  the  leaves  of  the  electro- 
scope diverge  with  the  positive  electricity  sent  to 
it  from  the  copper  plate.  It  can  be  shewn,  more- 
over, that  the  current  is  not  confined  to  the  con- 
necting wire,  for  if  a  magnetic  needle  be  suspended 
between  the  plates  when  they  lie  noi-th  and  south, 
shghtly  aljove  the  siu-faco  of  the  liquitl,  it  will 
deviate  from  its  usual  position  when  the  wires  are 
joined,  and  in  the  opposite  way  to  that  which  it 
shews  when  held  above  the  wiie  placed  in  the  same 
dii'ectiou.  The  current  thus  passes  within  the  liquid 
from  the  zinc  to  the  copper  the  opposite  way  to  that 
in  which  it  runs  in  the  connecting  wires,  so  that  it 
makes  a  complete  circuit.  Hence  we  may  conclude, 
generally,  that  in  the  ijalvanic  pair  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity runs  within  tlie  lii/uid  from  the  cliemically 
aclii'e  to  the  chemically  passive  plate,  and  without  the 
lirpiid,  from  the  chemically  passive  to  tlte  chemically 
active  plate,  making  a  complete  circuit;  and  that  if 
the  connection  be  interrupted  the  paii'  shews  electric 
polarity,  the  chemically  j'assive  plate  being  the  posi- 
tive pole,  and  tlie  cliemically  active  plate  the  negative 
pole. 

The  theory  of  the  action  of  the  galvanic  pair 
may  be  thus  given.  When  the  two  plates  are  put 
mti)  the  water  and  sidj)huric  acid,  they  assume 
opposite  electi'ic  states.  There  is  developed  at  the 
smfaco  of  the  zinc  .an  electric  force  arising  from  its 
affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  which  throws 


GALYASlS^l. 


the  whole  arrangement  into  a  state  of  polarity. 
This  is  roughly  shewn  iu  fig.  2.  The  zinc  plate 
with  its  wire  becomes  polarised,  shewing  nega- 
tive electricity  at  the  extremity  furthest  from  the 


Kg.  2. 

liquid,  and  positive  electricity  at  the  extremity 
next  the  liquid.  The  copper  pl.ate  with  its  wire  is 
polarised  iu  the  opposite  way,  being  positive  at  its 
ovitcr  end,  and  negative  at  its  end  next  the  liquid. 
The  compound  molecules  of  water.  (HO),  consist- 
ing of  oxygen  (O)  and  hydrogen  (H),  are  likewise 
polarised,  but  the  polarisation  takes  place  in  the 
indi'i'idual  molecides.  It  appears,  moreover,  to  have 
reference  to  their  compound  nature,  and  we  may 
imagine  them  placed  in  series  such  as  the  one 
in  the  figure,  with  their  oxygen  or  negative  pole 
toward  the  zinc,  and  their  hydrogen  or  positive  pole 
toward  the  copper.  The  positive  parts  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  negative  parts  in  the  figure 
by  "being  shaded.  When  the  ends  of  the  wires 
are  brought  near  each  other,  we  might  anticipate 
iu  these  circumstances  that  a  spark  discharge,  as 
with  frictional  electricity,  would  restore  quiescence. 
Thi.s,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  the  electric 
tension  is  so  low  that  nothing  short  of  contact  can 
effect  a  discharge.  \Vlieu  the  discharge  thus  takes 
pl.ice,  the  polarity  of  the  circuit  for  the  instant 
ce.ases ;  the  tendency  to  union  of  the  zinc  with  the 
.atom  of  oxygen  next  it  is  completed  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  oxide  of  zinc.  But  in  order  to  accom- 
plish this,  the  hydrogen  of  the  molecule  of  water 
next  the  zinc  thus  set  free  unites  -n-ith  the  oxygen  of 
the  neighbouring  molecule  to  re-form  w.ater,  and 
the  same  transference  and  union  is  continued  along 
the  whole  series  until  the  hydrogen  of  the  molecule 
next  the  copper  is  thrown  on' the  copper,  where, 
being  imable  to  unite  chemically  with  it,  it  assumes 
its  natural  gaseous  state.  In  this  way  the  chemical 
action,  although  only  manifested  at  the  plates,  is 
not  confined  to  them,  but  takes  place  throughout 
the  liquid  between  all  the  contiguous  molecules 
gi\-ing  passage  to  the  current.  The  oxide  of  zinc 
formc>d  on  the  zinc  plate  is  instantly  dissolved  by 
the  sulphuric  acid  present  in  the  water,  Icai-ing  the 
plate  as  clean  as  before.  After  the  first  discharge, 
therefore,  the  whole  arrangement  resumes  its  first 
condition,  so  that  a  second  polarisation  and  di.scharge 
instantly  follows,  which  is  succeeded  by  a  third, 
and  so  on.  An  unvntemipted  series  of  discharges  is 
thus  transmitted  along  the  completed  circuit,  con- 
stituting what  is  termed  a  current  of  electricity. 

Mature  of  the  Galvanic  Circuit.— In  a  n-ire  where 
a  current  of  galvanic  or  frictional  electricity  is 
passing,  there  is  no  point  which  forms  the  seat 
of  positive  or  negative  electricity,  but  it  appears 
electrically  homogeneous  throughout.     It  exerts  no 


Fig.  3. 


statical  inductive  action  on  surrounding  objects, 
neither  attracting  nor  repelling  them,  for  the 
electric  action  bemg  more  easily  propagated  along 
the  wire  than  in  any  other  direction,  takes  place 
only  in  it.  The  laws  of  induction  and  distri- 
bution applicable  to  frictional  statical  electricitj' 
hold  true  iu  ciu-i'ofit  electricity  oidy  at  the  section 
of  the  Avire  or  conductor  along  which  the  action 
is  transmitted.  As  tested  by  the  m,agnetie  needle, 
there  is  no  part  of  the  circuit  which  possesses 
more  power  than  another.  This  homogeneity  gives 
rise  to  the  hypothesis,  that  every  moleciJe  of  the 
circuit,  whether  soUd  or  liquid,  acts  in  the  trans- 
mission of  the  electric  force,  and  is  similarly  afl'ected 
in  its  passage.  In  this  way  the  plates  and  connect- 
ing wires  shew  the  same  molecular  j)olarity  as  the 
liquid,  only  the  discharge  does  not  effect  an  inter- 
change among  the  molecules,  but  leaves  them  in  the 
same  condition 
as  before.  Each 
moleciUe  of  the 
connecting  wire 
may  be  \iewed, 
■as  in  fig.  3,  to 
be  the  seat  of  ;' 
electric  polarity 
and  discharge 
with  its  negative 
f.aces  turned  towards  the  copper,  and  its  positive 
towards  the  zinc ;  whenever,  therefore,  we  go 
with  the  current,  we  meet  each  molecule  on  its 
negative  side,  and  whenever  we  go  contrary  to  the 
cmTent,  we  meet  each  molecule  on  its  positive 
side.  Any  portion  of  the  circuit  such  as  that 
represented  iu  the  figure,  shews  its  negative  face 
to  the  approaching  current,  and  its  positive  face  at 
the  other  extremity.  A  break  in  the  connecting 
wire  thus  separates  two  contiguous  molecules  ;  that 
ending  the  copper  wire  shews  itself  i>ositive,  and 
that  ending  the  zinc  \vire  negative.  This  is  in 
perfect  keeping  with  experiment,  for  wlierever  a 
break  or  change  of  medium  is  made  in  the  circuit 
without  stopping  the  current — as  in  the  electric 
light,  chemical  decompositions,  the  visible  passage 
of  electi-icity  in  vacuous  tubes,  and  the  like — the 
ends  or  poles  exhibit  opposite  powers,  from  the 
pole  meeting  the  current  discharging  negative,  and 
the  other  positive  electricity.  The  polarity  dis- 
played at  such  interruptions,  or  visible  passages 
of  the  current,  is  necessarily  different  from  the 
polarity  of  friction.al  electricity,  for  the  dynamical 
manifestation  of  electric  force  cannot  be  the  same 
as  the  statical ;  in  the  same  way  that  motion,  for 
instance,  the  djniamical  manifestation  of  the  force 
of  gravity  is  essentially  different  from  weight,  its 
st.atical  manifestation.  Within  the  g.alvanic  i)air  itself 
the  same  polarity  is  shewn  ;  the  zinc  plate,  without 
the  liquid  or  the  wire  connected  with  it,  is  fouml  to 
act  as  a  negative  pole,  and  the  similar  co])per  pl.ate 
and  \vire  as  a  positive  pole ;  but  within  the  hquid 
of  the  cell,  the  zinc  plate  shews  the  same  chemical 
affinities  .as  the  exterior  positive  pole,  and  the 
siniUar  copper  pl.ate  .acts  as  the  exterior  negative 
[lole.  The  terms  positive  and  negative  poles  are 
merely  relative,  for  every  molecule  or  series  of 
molecules  would  thus  appear  to  have  its  opposite 
poles.  They  ser\'e,  however,  conveniently  to  express 
the  relations  of  two  consecutive  parts  of  the  circuit. 
Considerable  confusion  sometimes  arises  from  speak- 
ing of  the  zinc  plate  as  at  once  the  ]iositive  element 
and  negative  pole,  and  the  copper  the  neg.ative 
clement  and  positive  pole  of  the  ^'alvanic  pair,  and 
such  expressions  seem  even  inconsistent.  The  truth 
is,  that  the  zinc  and  copper  pLates  must  have  each 
both  poles  from  the  very  nature  of  the  circuit ; 
but  as  the  outer  poles  only  of  these  plates  are  of 


GALVANISM. 


practical  importance,  these  are  considered  to  bo  the 
poles. 

According  to  the  one-fluid  theory  of  electricity,  a 
force  13  developed  at  the  seat  of  the  action,  whicli 
has  the  jKiwer  of  liberatinj;  the  electric  fluid,  and 
of  maintaining  it  in  motion  throuuhoiit  the  circuit, 
constituting  a  current  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
term.  According  to  the  two-iluid  theory,  two 
such  cunx'nts,  one  of  the  positive  the  other  of 
the  negative  Ihiid,  are  made  to  move  in  opposite 
directions  throughout  tlie  circuit.  The  propelling 
force  is  consecjuentl}-  termed  tleclro-motive,  and  the 
galv.anic  pair  is  colled  the  elect ro»ioloi:  The  terms 
curivnt  and  electromotive  have  their  origin  in  the 
supposed  fluidity  of  electricitj',  but  being  quite 
definite  in  their  appUcatiou,  they  may  be  used  with- 
out any  such  admission.  A  current— or,  according 
to  the  two-fluid  theory,  a  positive  current — may  be 
taken  to  signify,  apart  from  all  supjiosition,  sini])ly 
the  pecidiar  electric  condition  of  the  conductor, 
which  forms  the  line  of  discharge  between  a  positive 
and  a  negative  source  of  electricity,  and  electro- 
motive force  may  be  used  simply  to  denote  that 
which  propagates  and  maintains  this  discharge.  In 
the  same  way,  when  we  speak  of  the  direction  of 
the  current,  we  only  use  a  convenient  way  of 
shewing  at  which  end  the  positive  and  negative 
electricities  arise,  the  current  being  always  repre- 
sented as  moWng  from  the  positive  to  the  negative. 
The  greater  the  electromotive  force  is,  the  more 
powerfully  is  the  discharge  effected,  and  the  more 
is  it  able  to  force  its  way  through  imperfect  con- 
ductors. The  measure,  therefore,  of  electro-mntivc 
force  is  the  tension  of  the  electricity  wliicli  it 
generates. 

Origin  of  Oahanic  Electricity. — It  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  the  source  of  the  eleetro-motive  force 
in  the  galvanic  jjair  is  the  chemical  action  which 
takes  place  at  the  zinc  plate.  It  must  ajipear,  even 
to  the  most  cursory  observer,  highly  jirobable  that 
the  seat  of  the  most  active  change  going  forward  in 
the  pair  is  hkewise  the  origin  of  the  force  accom- 
panying it.  It  is  foimd,  moreover,  when  we  tax  the 
galvanic  current  with  electro-chemical  work,  that  the 
amount  of  work  done  by  it  is  exactly  proportion- 
ate to  the  quantity  of  zinc  dissolved.  These  and 
similar  considerations  seem  to  argue  strongly  that 
galvanic  action  has  its  source  in  chemical  action. 
Volta,  however,  and  several  of  the  most  eminent 
authorities  in  the  science,  maintain  that  the  electro- 
motive force  has  its  seat  at  the  surface  of  contact  of 
heterogeneous  metals,  and  that  chemical  action  is 
not  the  cause,  but  the  manifestation  of  it.  Tliis 
view  of  the  origin  of  galvanic  electricity  is  called  the 
contact  tlieorij,  iis  distinguished  from  the  chemical 
titeorij,  the  one  we  have  hitherto  followed.  The 
contact  theory  supposes  that  at  the  surfaces  of  con- 
tact of  two  heterogeneous  substances,  an  electro- 
motive force,  invariable  in  direction  .and  amount,  is 
generated  and  subject  to  modification  only  by  the 
resistance  offered  Ijy  the  conducting  circuit.  The 
galvanic  pair  (fig.  1)  is  accounted  for  liy  this  theory 
in  the  following  way.  Let  us  suppose,  for  the  sake 
of  explanation,  that  both  zinc  and  copper  plates  are 
connected  by  copper  wires.  The  seat  of  electro- 
motive force  is  at  tlie  junction  of  the  copper  wire 
with  the  zinc.  At  this  point  the  two  metals  assume 
opposite  electricities— the  copper  the  negative,  and 
the  zinc  the  positive  ;  and  since  a  conducting  cir- 
cuit through  wires,  plates,  and  liquid  is  established, 
these  electricities  travel  in  opposite  directions,  and, 
meeting,  neutralise  each  other  within  the  liquiil, 
to  give  place  to  succeeding  similar  discharges  of 
electricity.  The  discharge  within  the  liquid  takes 
place  electrolytically.  The  theory  is,  in  this  case, 
BufEcient  and  consistent,  but  it  must  be  kept  in 


mind,  that  in  a  circuit  so  perfectly  homogeneous, 
the  source  of  force  m.ay  be  jilaced  anywhere  without 
altering  its  conditions.  The  fimdameutal  evidence 
of  the  contact  theory  consists  in  an  exjierinicnt 
like  the  following  :  A  ]piece  of  zinc  is  made  to  touch 
the  lower  brass  or  copjier  plate  of  a  condenser,  while 
the  linger  rests  on  the  ujipcr.  After  the  zinc  and 
finger  are  removed,  and  the  upjjcr  plate  lifted,  the 
gold  leaves  diverge  with  negative  electricity.  Here 
the  mere  contact  of  metals  ajipears  to  give  rise  to 
electricity.  The  jiositive  electricity  of  the  zinc  goes 
to  the  gi'ound,  and  the  negative  electricity  of  the 
cop]>er  is  insidated  in  it — the  electro-motive  force 
originating  at  the  surface,  where  the  copper  and 
zinc  meet.  If  this  experiment  were  capable  only 
of  this  interpretation,  it  would  be  decisive  of  the 
cjuestion  at  issue.  It  is  foiuid,  however,  that  in 
order  to  succeed  well  with  it,  the  fingers  must^be 
moist,  and  that  no  electricity  can  be  ot)tained  if  it 
be  conducted  in  a  gas  where  no  free  oxygen  is 
present — siieh  as  nitrogen  or  carbonic  acid.  Hence 
it  appears,  that  even  in  the  testing  experiment 
of  the  contact  theory,  where  it  is  supposed  that 
contact  alone  can  give  any  explanation,  chemical 
action,  arising  from  the  sweat  of  the  fingers  and 
oxygen  of  the  air  acting  on  the  zinc,  is  present. 
Faraday's  experimental  researches  seem  to  place 
beyond  dispute  the  truth  of  the  chemical  theory. 
We  shall  here  quote  two  of  his  mauy  beautiful 
experiments  illustrative  of  the  subject,  which  ai-e 
of  themselves  quite  convincing.     Let  (tig.  4)  A  and 


Fig.  4. 

B  lie  two  glass  vessels  containing  suljihuret  of  potas- 
sium. Tw'O  platinum  jdates,  V  and  P',  are  put  into 
the  vessel  A,  and  an  iron  ]>late  F,  with  a  jilatinuiu 
pl.ate  P"  in  B.  To  the  platinum  plate  P'  a  platinum 
wu'c  7),  and  to  the  iron  plate  F  .an  iron  wire  f^  are 
attached.  From  P  and  P",  ^vires  proceed  to  the 
galvanometer  G.  The  sidphuret  of  potassium  is,  for 
a  li(iuid,  a  gooil  couductor  of  electricity,  but  is 
chemically  inactive  when  associated  with  platinum 
and  iron  in  a  circuit.  When  the  wires  /)  and  /  are 
joined,  if  an  electro-motive  force  were  develojied  at 
their  surface  of  contact,  all  the  conditions  necessary 
for  a  circuit  being  jircsent,  a  current  woidd  be 
generated,  which  would  dellect  the  needle  of  the 
galvanometer.  This  last,  however,  gives  not  the 
slightest  evidence  of  a  current.  If  zinc  be  interposed 
.at  the  junction  of  ji  and  f,  the  galvanometer  is 
equally  unaffected:  but  if  a  ])ieceof  paper  moistened 
with  sulphuric  acid  be  placed  between  the  ends  of 
these  wires,  a  decided  defiection  ensues,  and  the  iron 
becomes  the  jiositive  element  of  a  platuinm-iron 
pair.  We  have  thus  conclvisive  eWdence,  th.at  the 
simjile  contact  of  the  iron  ami  the  iil.atimuu  is 
unattended  by  electro-motive  force,  and  that  this  is 
developed  only  by  the  chenucal  action  upon  the  iron 
of  an  inter])osed  liquid.  Again,  iuto  one  of  the 
vessels  just  referred  to,  let  two  j)lates,  one  of  copper, 
the  other  of  silver,  be  i>laced,  and  let  commiuncation 
l>e  established  l)etween  them  and  the  galvanometer. 
The  needle  at  first  dcllccts  briskly  in  a  direction 
which  shews  that  the  co)>pcr  is  the  positive  element 


GALVANISM. 


of  tlie  pair,  it  tlien  tT-idually  returns  to  its  first 
position,  and  again  deflects  in  tlic  opposite  direction  ; 
shewing  that  tlie  silver  is  now  the  positive  element. 
After  some  time  it  ret\irns,  and  again  deflects  in  the 
original  direction,  and  goes  on  tlius  changing.  If 
the  plates  be  examined  during  these  changes,  it  is 
observed  th.it  sidphuret  of  copper  is  formed  ivhen 
the  cojiper  is  positive,  and  snl])hiiret  of  silver  when 
the  silver  is  positive  ;  the  alternate  action  being 
attributable  to  the  relative  condition  of  the  pLates 
when  coated  with  their  sulpliurets.  The  electro- 
motive force  of  a  silver  copper  pair  is  tlius  she«Ti 
to  be  not  invariable  in  ilirectioii  as  the  contact 
theorists  maintain ;  but  to  change  its  direction 
with  the  seat  of  chemical  action. 

Chemical  condition:*  of  the.  Galvanic  Pair. — We 
have  hitherto  supposed  that,  in  the  galvanic  i)air, 
the  zinc  alone  had  affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the 
water,  but  chemistry  teaches  us  that  cop])er  likewise 
h.as  the  same  affinity,  though  to  a  le.ss  degi'ee. 
Hence  we  must  conclude  that  there  originates  .at 
the  copper  an  electro-motive  force  acting  contrary 
to  tliat  of  the  zinc;  and  that  the  electro-motive 
force  of  the  i)air  is  the  ditforence  of  these  opposing 
forces.  Wex'e  we  to  take  two  similar  ])lates  of  zinc 
instead  of  one  of  zinc,  and  the  other  of  copper, 
we  should  thus  h.ave  two  eqijal  forces  tending 
to  propel  two  equal  currents  in  opposite  directions. 
In  this  case  the  two  forces  would  equilibrate  each 
other,  and  electrical  and  chemical  inaction  would 
be  the  consequence,  a  conclusion  quite  in  keeping 
with  experiment.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to 
couple  the  zinc  with  a  metal  such  as  copper,  less 
oxidable  than  itself.  In  keeping  with  this  theory,  it 
is  found  th.at  if  the  zinc  be  coupled  with  a  metal 
less  o.xidable  still  than  copper,  the  resultant  electro- 
motive force  is  increased.  A  pair  consisting  of  zinc 
and  silver  gives  an  electricity  of  higher  tension,  and 
consequently  a  more  powerfid  current  than  one  of 
zinc  and  copper,  and  one  of  zinc  and  platmum  a 
stronger  current  still ;  silver  being  less  oxidable 
than  cop])er,  and  jilatinimi  less  than  silver.  As  zinc 
forms  the  principal  element  of  expense  in  main- 
taining the  current,  a  platinum-zinc  pair  is  more 
economical  than  either  of  the  other  two  just  n,amed, 
because,  for  the  same  quantity  of  zinc  dissolved,  it 
gives  the  best  electrical  residt.  The  greater,  then, 
the  disparity  in  oxidability,  or  in  liability  to  be 
ail'ected  by  the  exciting  liquid  of  the  metals  of  the 
jiair,  the  greater  is  its  power. 

In  the  galvanic  cell  we  have  found  that  not  oidy 
the  metals,  but  likewise  the  elements  of  the  liquid, 
act  as  if  they  assumed  opposite  electricities.  The 
zinc  is  positive  with  reference  to  the  copper,  and  the 
hydrogen  stauds  in  the  same  relation  to  the  oxygen. 
In  the  '  Electro-chemic:J  order  of  the  Elements ' 
(q.  v.),  the  elements  are  approximately  arranged 
according  to  the  part  they  would  pl.ay  if  associated 
in  a  galvanic  pair,  beginning  with  potassium,  the 
most  electro-positive,*  and  ending  with  oxygen,  the 
most  electro-neg.ative  ;  e.ach  being  positive  to  the 
one  succeeding,  and  negative  to  the  one  preceding  it. 
Chemically  speaking,  electro-positive  has  much  the 
same  meaning  as  oxidable.  We  may  here  repeat 
the  more  common  elements  in  the  same  order : 
Potassium,  sodium,  m.agnesium,  zinc,  iron,  lead, 
co]>per,  silver,  platinum,  hydrogen,  carbon,  chlorine, 
sulphur,  oxygen.  If  it  were  proposed  to  ascertain 
from  tliis  list  the  action  of  a  platinum-iron  pair 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  (HC'l), 
we  should  ]iroceed  to  argue  thus  :  Iron,  jircceding 
platinum,  is  positive  in  relation  to  it.  Chlorine 
succeeds     hydrogen,    and    ia    relatively    negative. 

*  Accoidin^  to  Bunsen,  the  new  metal,  caesium,  is 
the  most  clectro-positivc  substance  yet  known. 


Chlorine,  the  negative  element  of  the  liquid,  would 
accordingly  be  discharged  at  the  electro-positive 
iion,  and  the  proto-chloride  of  iron  (FeClj  would 
Ije  formed.  Tiie  electro-positive  hydrogen  would 
be  disengaged  at  the  electro-negative  jJatinum. 
The  interjiolar  current,  consequently,  proceeds 
from  the  j>latinum  to  the  iron.  If,  however,  no 
chemical  affinity  I'xisted  between  iron  and  chlorine, 
no  electricity  would  be  generated,  as  chemical  is 
essential  to  galvanic  action.  From  such  a  list 
alone  we  cannot  predict  the  result  of  any  supposetl 
combination.  The  metals  themselves,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  frequently  change  their  rehative  j)usi- 
tions,  accortUng  to  the  action  of  the  liijuid  in  whicli 
they  are  put,  so  th.at  the  order  given  is  by  no 
means  absolute.  The  electro-negative  ])late  remaiug 
in  presence  of  the  electro-positive  totally  unall'ected, 
and  more  so  than  if  it  were  placed  by  itself  in  the 
exciting  liquid.  1  lyilrochloric  acid,  for  instance, 
readily  attacks  iron  ;  but  if  a  piece  of  zinc  be  jiut 
into  the  liquid,  and  be  made  to  touch  it,  the  iiDji 
will  remain  untouched  imtil  the  zinc  has  been  first 
dissolved.  Wherever,  therefore,  iron  is  exposed 
to  corrosive  action,  it  may  be  protected  from  it  by 
couphng  it  with  zinc.  This  accounts,  in  some 
degi'ee,  for  the  durability  of  iron  coated  with  zinc, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  'Galvanised  Iron'  (q.  v.).  In  tlie 
same  way  zinc  protects  copper  from  corrosive  action. 
On  the  other  hand,  zinc  ccuTodes  more  readily  in 
presence  of  these  metals,  and  hence  the  necessity 
for  using  zinc  nails  for  zinc  roofs  instead  of  iron 
or  copjier  nails.  When  pure  zinc  is  put  into  dilute 
suli)hui-ie  acid,  almost  no  change  is  \'isilile,  whilst 
ordinary  conunereial  zinc  is  rajjidly  dissolved  by  il. 
This  arises,  in  all  ]irobability,  from  dili'erent  portions 
of  the  latter  standing  in  diflerent  chemical  relation.s, 
arising  from  the  heterogeneoiis  strnctiu-e  introduced 
by  extraneous  substances.  Galvanic  pairs  are  thus 
established  within  the  metal,  and  the  met.al  dissolves 
in  consequence.  In  .a  designed  galvanic  pair,  local 
circuits  would  thus  be  formed  at  different  parts  of 
the  zinc  plate,  which,  besides  occasioning  a  useless 
waste  of  the  metal,  would  lessen  the  strength  of  the 
main  circuit,  were  it  n(jt  found  that  amalgamated 
zinc  possesses  the  properties  of  the  pure  metal. 

(Jiiantity  and  Ten.iion  of  Electricity. — It  is  founil 
that  the  tension  of  the  electricity  of  a  galvanic 
pair,  as  tested  by  the  amount  of  divergence  of  the 
gold  leaves  of  a  condensing  electrometer,  is  not 
increased  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  plates.  For 
the  same  pair,  therefore,  metals  and  liijuid  included, 
the  electro-motive  force  is  constant  wliatever  be  th*,* 
active  surface.  Although  the  tension  is  not  increased, 
the  quantity  of  electricity  transmitted  in  the  q\\t- 
reut  is  mcreased.  If  tlie  interjiolar  communication 
of  the  two  jilates  lie  made  by  a  good  conductor,  sucli 
as  a  thick  copper  wire,  tile  power  which  the  current 
has  to  deilect  the  magnetic  needle  is  doubled  when 
we  doul.ilc  the  surface  exjJCfsed  to  the  action  of 
the  liquid.  The  thick  wire  oilers  no  resistance  to 
discharge,  and  the  tension  of  the  electricity  given 
f)ll"  in  tile  two  cases  is  not  ]»ut  to  proof.  The 
quantity  of  electricity  is  shewn  thus  to  increase  with 
the  surface  of  the  plates.  The  distinction  between 
electricity  of  quantity  and  electricity  of  tension  is 
well  illustrated  in  comi>aring  the  electricity  of  the 
galvanic  pair  with  that  of  the  machine.  A  Winter's 
electric  machine,  such  as  thetwM-foot  phate  describe<l 
in  the  .article  Ei.KCTitiriTY,  gives  reatUIy,  when  in 
good  order,  a  spark  of  twelve  inches,  and  causes  a 
visible  disturbance  of  the  leaves  of  an  electrometer 
at  a  distance  of  20  feet  from  it.  If  such  a  machine 
be  made  to  send  a  current  through  a  moderately 
sensible  galvanometer  in  the  w,ay  dcscriljed  at  tlie 
beginning  of  the  article,  it  ^vill  make  the  needle 
dcltect  one  or  two  degrees.     If  a  galvanic  pair  be 


GALVAXISM. 


connected  \rith  the  same  galvanometer,  consisting 
of  very  tine  iron  and  copper  wires  about  an  eightieth 
of  au  inch  in  diameter,  immersed  for  about  an 
inch  into  a  few  ounces  of  water  containing  one 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  needle  will  dellect  three 
or  lour  times  what  it  did  before.  The  electricity 
of  the  current  produced  in  the  diminutive  pair  is 
greater  in  quantity  than  that  of  the  machine,  but 
Its  tension  is  immeasurably  smallir.  ShoiUd  a  break 
be  made  in  the  circuit,  the  power  of  the  terminal 
jwles  to  attract  or  repel  is  almost  infinitesimal,  and 
discharge  between  them  through  the  air  cannot  be 
effected  even  at  a  microscopic  tlistance.  The  elec- 
tricity given  off  by  the  machine  is  small  in  quantitj', 
but  exalted  in  tension.  Could  the  electricity  of  the 
machine  have  the  quantity  of  that  of  the  pair,  or 
coidd  the  electricity  of  the  pair  be  endowed  •with  the 
tension  of  the  machine,  a  current  of  tremendous 
power  would  be  the  result.  The  tension  of  elec- 
tricity is  generally  estimated,  previous  to  discharge, 
by  its  iwwer  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  and  the 
quantity,  during  discharge,  by  its  chemical  and 
magnetic  effects. 

GALVAific  Battery. — ^When  a  number  of  copper 
and  zinc  pairs,  similar  to  the  one  already  referred 
to,  are  put  together,  so  that  the  copper  plate  of  one 
cell  is  placed  m  conducting  connection  with  the  zinc 
j)late  of  the  next,  in  the  manner  sheivTi  in  fig.  5, 
they  constitute  a  galvanic  battery.  The  term  battery 
is  sometimes  also  applied  to  a  number  of  cells  acting 
as  one  combination,  in  whatever  way  they  m.ay  be 
connected.  When  the  terminal  copper  and  zinc 
plates  (tig.  5)  are  connected,  the  cunent  runs  from 


each  copper  to  each  zinc  plate  mthout  the  liquids, 
and  from  each  zinc  to  each  copper  plate  ^nthin  the 
liquids ;  and  when  the  contact  is  broken,  the  zinc 
pole  shews  negative,  and  the  copper  pole  positive, 
electricity.  The  galvanic  battery  acts  thus  in  aU 
respects  as  a  compound  galvanic  pair.  If  the  polar 
■wires  be  connected  with  a  tangent  galvanometer, 
the  deflection  of  the  needle  caused  by  the  battery 
will  be  exactly  the  same  as  that  effected  by  one  of 
the  cells,  proWded  the  wire  be  thick,  and  a  good 
conductor ;  but  if  the  zinc  end  be  connected  -with 
the  ground,  and  the  electric  tension  of  the  insulated 
copper  pole  be  tested  by  a  condenser  and  torsion 
balance,  its  tension  is  foimd  to  be  as  many  times 
greater  than  the  tension  of  the  same  ])ole  of  one 
cell  examined  in  the  same  way,  as  there  arc  cells 
in  the  combination.  Thus,  if  two  cells  be  taken, 
the  tension  is  doubled ;  if  three,  tripled ;  and  so 
on.  The  electro-motive  force  of  a  batter;/  is  therefore 
proportional  to  the  numher  of  celis,  supposing,  of 
course,  that  they  are  arranged  consecutively,  as  in 
the  figure.  Hence  the  electricity  of  a  battery  is 
better  al)le  to  force  its  way  through  imjierfect 
conductors  than  that  of  the  simple  pair.  When 
the  interpolar  communication  is  formed  by  a  thick 


short  wire,  a  single  cell  iiroduccs  as  powerful  an 
ell'ect  on  the  magnetic  uceiUe  as  a  battery  ;  but  if 
it  be  formed  by  a  bad  conductor,  such  as  a  long 
and  thin  wire,  or  a  liciuid,  the  efi'eit  is  very  different. 
The  ciureut  of  the  pair  is  then  nearly  stopped,  and 
its  inllueuce  on  the  needle  small,  while  that  of  the 
battery  continues  to  flow  comparatively  iniimpaired. 
In  the  presence  of  considerable  resistance,  the  quan- 
tity of  electricity  transmitted,  or,  as  it  is  termed, 
the  strength  of  the  current,  dejiends  not  only  on 
the  size  of  the  plates  of  e.ach  couple,  but  also  on 
the  niuuber  of  couiJes.  That  the  electric  tension 
should  miUtiply  with  the  number  of  cells,  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  consideration,  that  instead  of 
one  polarising  force,  there  are  several,  all  acting  in 
the  same  direction,  each  one  exalting  the  jwlarity 
of  the  molecules  produced  by  the  other. 

Different  Forms  of  the  Galvanic  Battery. —  Volta's 
pile  is  shewn  in  fig.  6.  It  consists  of  a  munber 
of  circidar  plates,  each  made  <ip 
of  a  plate  of  copper  and  a  plate 
of  zinc  soldered  together,  built 
up,  the  copper  plates  facing  one 
way,  and  the  zinc  the  other, 
each  compound  plate  beini; 
separated  by  a  circular  piece 
of  wooUen  cloth,  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  common  salt, 
or  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  In 
consequence  of  the  great  num- 
ber of  pairs,  the  electric  ten- 
sion of  the  jtoIcs  of  Volta's 
pile  is  considerable.  One  ftir- 
nished  vvith  from  60  to  UHi 
plates  can  charge  an  electro- 
scope without  the  condensing 
plates.  It  is  from  this  battery 
that  the  term  'pdc'  is  applied 
to  the  galvanic  or  voltaic  ,, 
batterj'.     Volta    used    another  r~^ 

form  of  battery,  which  he  called  { (^ 

a  crown  of  cups.    This  consisted  jig.  q. 

of  a  number  of  cells  like  those 

in  lig.  1,  arranged  in  a  circle,  so  that  the  fii-st  and 

last  were  contiguous. 

Zamboni's  Dry  Pile  consists  of  several  lumdreds, 
and  sometimes  thousands,  of  discs  of  paper  tinned 
on  one  side,  and  covered  with  binoxide  of  man- 
ganese on  the  other,  put  together  consecutively,  as 
in  Volta's  pile,  and  placed  imder  pressure  in  an 
insulating  glass  tube  closed  with  brass  ends,  which 
serve  as  the  poles.  The  electric  tension  of  the 
poles  of  this  arrangement  is  considerable,  but 
the  strength  of  the  current  which  j)asses  when  the 
poles  are  joined,  is  next  to  nothing.  The  most 
important  application  of  the  dry  pile  is  in  the 
construction  of  a  very  delicate  electrometer,  which 
is  named  after  its  inventor,  Bohnenberger's  electro- 
meler. 

TIte  Galvanic  Trough,  introduced  by  Cruikshank, 


W/7//7/////mW//l 


vemsmmtsmmmmmm^mms^ 


fig 


is  a  trough  (fig.  7)  into  which  rectangular  plates  of 
copper  and  zinc,  like  those  of  Volta's  pile,  are  fixed, 


GALVANIS.M. 


the  cells  included  between  each  pair  being  filled 
Tvith  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  inner  surface  of 
the  trough  is  coated  ■nith  an  insulating  substance. 

Wollaston's  Battery. — Each  coujile  of  this  battery 
(fig.  8)  is  made  up  of  a  plate  of  copper,  doubled  up  so 
as  to  include  a  plate  of  zinc,  from 
Tvhich  it  is  kept  apart  by  strips  of 
wood.  Both  faces  of  the  zinc  arc  thus 
equally  exposed  to  chemical  and  gal- 
vanic action,  a  device  by  which  the 
qiiantity  of  electricity  is  increased. 
I  ig.  9  shews  a  battery  of  five  of  these. 
The  connecting  strips  of  metal  are 
fixed  to  a  wooden  rod,  which  allows 
of  them  being  lifted  or  lowered 
together.  When  the  battery  is  put  in 
action,  the  whole  is  lowered,  and  the 
five  couples  are  immersed  in  five 
troughs  filled  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (1  of  the  acid  to  12  of  water). 
When  out  of  action,  the  whole  is  lifted 
and  fixed  by  binding  screws  to  the  two  supporting 
pillars.     When  the  number  of  pairs  is  small,  as  in 


I'is-  8. 


the  figure,  it  is  of  little  consequence  whether  one 
large  trough  or  five  small  ones  be  used. 

Smee's  Balterii. — In  Smee's  couple,  the  position  of 
the  plates  of  Wollaston's  couple  is  reversed.  It 
consists  of  a  silver  jilate,  with  a  zinc  plate  on  either 
side,  kept  separated  from  it  by  slips  of  wood,  the 
twci  zinc  plates  being  fastened  by  a  coupling.  There 
arc  thus  two  positive  plates  to  one  negative,  instead 
of  two  negative  to  one  positive,  as  in  WoUaston's 
couple,  and  this  is  found  to  increase  still  more 
the  strength  of  the  current  produced.  The  silver 
plate  is  platinised — that  is,  covered  over  with  finely 
divided  platinum — and  this  is  found  to  lessen  the 
adhesiou  of  the  hych'ogen  bubbles  to  the  plate, 
thereby  greatly  impro\"ing  the  constancy  of  the 
action.  Smee's  battery  has  the  same  arrangement 
as  Wollaston's. 

Grove's  Gas  Batiery. — This  battery  is  more  intended 
for  instruction  than  use.  One  of  its  cells  is  shewn  in 
fig.  10.  Into  the  two  outer  necks  of  a  three-necked 
bottle,  two  glass  tubes  arc  fittc<l  by  means  of  corks 
through  wliich  they  pass.  Kach  of  these  tubes  is  open 
below,  and  a  platinum  wire  enters  them  hermetically 
above,  to  wliich  a  long  strip  of  platinimi  is  soldered, 
extending  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  Little 
cups  containing  mercury  stand  at  the  upper  ends  of 
these  wires.  The  whole  apparatus  is  filled  with 
shghtly  acid  water,  and  the  poles  of  a  galvanic 
battery  are  placed  in  the  little  cups.  Water  is 
thereby  decomposed  :  oxygen  forms  in  the  one  tube 
and  hydrogen  in  the  other,    ^^^len  the  battery  wires 


are  removed,  no  chanoe  takes  place  till  metallic 
connection  is  established  between  the  cups,  and  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  gradually  disappear,  attended 
by  an  electric  current  wliich 
passes  from  the  oxygen  to 
the  hydrogen.  When  several 
of  these  are  put  together  in 
a  batteiy,  the  connection 
being  always  oxygen  to 
hydrogen,  they  can  decom- 
pose water.  The  most  im- 
portant fact  illustrated  by 
Grove's  battery  is,  that  the 
oxygen  and  hydi-ogeu,  liber- 
ated by  galvanic  agency, 
when  left  to  themselves,  pro- 
duce a  cuiTcnt  the  opposite 
to  that  which  separated 
them.  When  the  poles  of 
the  decomposing  battery 
were  in  the  mercury  cups, 
hydrogen  is  given  off  at  the 
negative,  and  oxygen  at  the 
positive  pole ;  and  as  oppo- 
site electricities  attract,  it  is 
manifest  that  the  hydrogen 
in  this  action  is  positive,  and  i 
the  oxygen  negative.  When  I 
the  two  gases  form,  by" 
means  of  the  platinum  jilates, 
a  galvanic  pair  by  them- 
selves, the  cuiTcnt  must  ]>roceed,  as  in  all  cases,  from 
the  positive  to  the  negative  within  the  liquid,  and 
the  reverse  way  between  the  jjoles  ;  but  this  is  the 
opposite  of  the  direction  of  the  original  current. 
It  is  therefore  manifest  that  where  oxygen  or 
hytlrogen  is  set  free  at  any  point  in  a  galvanic 
circuit,  they  will  tend  to  send  a  counter-current. 
This  action  is  called  (lalvanic  jmlarisation.  This 
accounts  for  the  sudden  falling  oft'  in  strength 
ill  all  galvanic  couples  where  hydrogen  is  set  free 
it  the  negative  plate.  The  bubbles  of  the  gas 
ilhering  to  the  plate,  not  only  lessen  the  surface  of 
coutact  between  the  plate  and  the  liquid,  but  exert 
an  electromotive  force  conti'ary  to  that  of  the'pair, 
and  this  goes  on  increasing  until  the  action  becomes 
greatly  reduced.  In  all  improved  forms  of  the  pair, 
it  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  adopt  some  means 
for  preventing  the  disengagement  of  hydrogen  at 
the  negative  plate,  and  this  is  done  in  all  constant 
batteries  by  employing  two  fluids  instead  of  one. 
The  best  known  constant  batteries  are  those  of 
DauieU,  Grove,  and  Bunsen. 


Fig.  11. 

DanieWs  Battery.- 
in  fig.  11,   and   a 


Fig.  12. 

—A  cell  of  this  battery  is  shewn 
section  of  it  in  fig.   12.     The 
590 


GALVANISM. 


containing  vessel,  e,  is  of  copper,  wliich  serves  likewise 
as  the  nejrative  clement  of  the  pnir.  Inside  of  this 
is  anotlier  vessel,  (/,  of  jkhvus  iinijlazed  e.irthenware 
containing  a  rod  of  zinc,  :.  The  space  between  tlie 
copi>er  and  the  jiorons  cell  is  tilled  with  a  solution 
of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  which  is  kei>t  concentrated 
by  crystals  of  the  salt  lying  on  a  projecting  shelf,  «, 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  placed  with  the  zinc  in 
the  jioTOUs  cell.  When  a  tangent  g.alv.anomet<'r  is 
included  in  the  circuit,  the  needle  keeps  steadily  at 
the  same  point  for  hours.  The  rationale  of  its  action 
is  given  as  follows :  the  ])orous  cell  which  keeps 
the  rtmds  from  mingling,  does  not  hinder  the  pass.-ige 
of  the  current ;  when  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  that 
would  ultimately  be  freed  .it  the  coi)i>er  reach  the 
jMirous  cell,  they  displ.icc  the  copper  in  the  sulj>hate 
of  copper,  and  copper  instead  of  hydrogeu  is  thrown 
on  the  copper  ]>late.  To  give  .a  graphic  representa- 
tion of  this  action,  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
siUphate  of  copper  (CuOjSOj)  should  be  represented 
not  as  the  union  of  oxide  of  co])per  (IJuO)  and 
sulphuric  acid  (.SO,),  but  as  CuSOj,  the  direct  com- 
bination of  the  met.al  (Cu)  with  a  salt  radical  (.SO^) 
called  sulpliion.  and  that  the  dissolution  of  the  zinc 
does  not  arise  from  tlio  decomposition  of  water,  but 
of  the  compound  of  suljilimic  acid  and  water  (HO), 
reg.irded  as  the  sulphionide  of  hydrogen  (H,SO,,). 
Tailing  these  letters  to  represent  the  molecules,  and 
beginning  'Nnth  the  cojjpcr  (C!u)  of  the  outer  vessel, 
and  ending  with  the  ziuc  (Zu)  of  the  rod,  we  have 
the  arrangement  before  discharge,  Cu,CuSOj,CuSO^ 


l''H,SO<    H,S04    Zn;    and   after   it,   CuCu  SO^Cu 

SOTPH  SO,,H  SOTZn.  The  discharge,  therefore, 
effects  a  deposition  of  copper  at  the  cojiper,  and  the 
form.ation  of  sulphionide  of  hyilrogen  at  the  ])orous 
'cell,  and  of  sulphionide  of  zinc  at  the  zinc  rod. 
Instead  of  hydi'ogeu  in  its  nascent  state  being 
deposited  at  the  copper,  we  have  copper  in  the  same 
condition  ;  but  the  galvanic  poLarisation  caused  by 
the  latter  is  very  much  inferior  to  that  residting 
from  the  former,  and  hence  the  superior  electro- 
motive force  of  Daniell's  cell.  The  porous  cell  keeps 
the  sulphate  of  zinc  from  reaching  the  copper,  and 
thus  ob\'iates  another  source  of  diminished  force 
in  the  one-fluid  battery.  The  suli)hate  of  zinc  once 
formed,  is  itself  subjected  to  the  decomposing  action 
of  the  ])ile,  and  zinc  is  deposited  on  the  copper-pl.ite, 
thus  tending  to  give  a  zinc-zinc  instead  of  a  copper- 
zinc  p.air.  The  constancy  of  Daniell's  battery  is  not 
imlimited,  for  the  sulph.ate  of  ziuc  which  residts 
from  the  action,  being  a  bad  conductor  of  electricity, 
enfeebles  the  current.  From  its  great  speciric 
gravity,  however,  it  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell, 
and  may  be  removed  by  a  siphon,  and  replaced  by 
fresh  liquid.  A  batteiy  of  Daniell's  cells  is  put  up 
in  the  usual  way. 

Grove  ft  Batten/  consists  of  platinum-zinc  couples. 
Fig.  1."?  shews  an  excellent  arrangement  of  a  cell  of 
it.  The  outer  cell  of  glass,  </,  is  filled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (1  part  of  acid  to  8  of  water),  in  which 
•  a  cylindi'ical  pl.ato  of  zinc,  z,  is  immersect  Inside 
the  zinc  is  a  porous  cell,  d,  containing  concentrated 
nitric  acid  and  the  j)latinum  plate,  /),  which  is  bent 
into  the  form  of  an  S  (lig.  1-t),  to  increase  its  surface. 
Grove's  couple  is  very  much  superior  in  power  to 
any  of  the  preceding,  though  it  is  inferior  in  con- 
stancy to  Daniell's.  When  the  iioles  are  joined, 
sulphate  of  zinc  is  formed  in  the  outer  cell,  and 
hyponitric  acid  (NO^)  vapours  are  given  oil' by  tlie 
nitric  acid.  As  these  vapours  are  injurious  to 
the  health  when  breathed  for  any  time,  the  porous 
cell  is  closed  with  a  stopper  of  wood,  to  prevent 
or  lessen  their  escape,  the  connection  between 
the  exterior  and  the  platinum  pl.ate  being  made  Iiy 
a  strip  of  metal  passing  through  the  wood.     The 


chemical  action  of  Grove's  couple  may  be  shewn  in 
the  same  way  as  Daniell's,  talung  nitric  acid  (NOj' 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


to  be  the  oxide  of  h^-ponitric  acid  (XOi).  Before 
discharge,  the  molecules  stand  thus,  beginning  with 
the  platinum :  Pt,  NO^.O  NO^T?  |''H,S07H;S07,Zn ; 

and  after  it,  IVTO;;  o3«J7  OpH  SOTiH,  SO^,Zn. 
The  hyponitric  acid  gas  (NO4)  discharged  .at  the 
platinum  plate  is  absorbed  by  the  nitric  acid,  in 
which  it  is  soluble,  so  that  the  plate  is  left  free. 
The  cells  of  a  Grove's  battery  are  connected  with 
the  platinum  of  the  one  to  the  zinc  of  the  other. 

Biuisen's  Battery. — Bunsen's  cell  has  the  same 
chemical  action  as  Grove's,  the  platinum  being 
rei)laced  by  carbon.  There  are  two  forms  of  the 
cell — the  one  invented  and  employed  by  Professor 
Bmisen,  and  generally  adopted  in  (jcnuany ;  and 
the  modification  introduced  by  Archerau,  generally 
found  in  Engl.and  and  France.  The  Bunsen  cell, 
properly  so  called,  has  a  carbon  cylinder  immersed 
in  nitric  acid,  aud  the  porous  cell  coutaiuin;;  the 
zinc  and  siUphuric  acid  placed  within  it.     Fig.  lo 


Fig.  15. 

represents  a  battery  of  four  cells,  shewing  how  the 
diflerent  cells  .are  connected :  f/  is  the  containing  glass 
vessel ;  c,  the  carbon  cylinder  ;  d,  the  porous  cell ; 
.and  z,  the  zinc.  The  other  form  of  the  Bunsen  cell 
is  shewn  in  fig.  IG.  In  it  the  s.ame  arrangement  is 
ado])tcd  as  in  Grove's  cell.  The  latter  form  of  the 
Buusen  cell,  in  conseqiience  of  the  preponderance  of 
the  positive  surface,  gives  the  greater  rpiantity  of 
electricity.  For  the  manufacture  of  the  Bunsen 
carbons,  see  Carbon  tor  Electric  Puri-osi-s. 
Bunsen's  battery,  in  point  of  cheapness,  is  preferable 
to  Grove's,  where  the  platinum  forms  an  expensive 
item,  but  is  inferior  to  it  in  point  of  eomijaetness. 
In  these  couples,  the  platinum  and  carbon  may  be 


GALVANISM. 


replaced  by  iron,  which  is  nearly  as  electro-negative 
as  cither  in  concentrated  nitric  acid.  In  MuUer's 
P/ii/nik,  the  following  niuubers  are  given  as  the  rela- 
tions of   the  electromotive  forces  o£  the   diUerent 


couples :    Bnnsen's,    SOO ;    Grove's,    7S0 ;    Dauieirs 
470  ;  and  Wollaston's,  20S. 

G-VLVANOMirrERS. — The  two  most  reliable  evi- 
dences of  the  strength  of  the  galvanic  ciuTent  are, 
its  power  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  and  to 
effect  chemical  decomposition.  To  measure  one  or 
other  of  these,  is  the  object  of  a  galvanometer  or 
voltameter.  A  magnetic  galvanometer  shews  the 
strength  of  the  current  by  the  amoimt  of  the 
deflection  of  the  needle,  and  shews  its  direction 
by  the  way  in  which  it  deflects.  The  manner 
in  which  a  needle  shoidd  t\irn  when  inflxienced 
by  a  current  is  easily  kept  in  mind  by  Ampere's 
nde  :  Sitppoife  the  diminutive  ^fi^|  it  re  of  a  nitin  to  he 
plnri'd  ill  the  circuit,  so  tliat  the  current  shall  enter 
by  his  feel,  and  leave  hi/  !iis  head;  when  lie  loots 
u-ith  his  face  to  the  needle,  its  north  pole  alvxiys 
turns  to  his  left.  The  deflecting  wire  is  suppo.sed 
always  to  lie  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  The 
Asiatic  Galvanometer,  or  Galvanometer,  is  used  either 
simply  as  a  galvanoscope,  to  discover  the  existence 
of  a  current,  or  as  a  measurer  of  the  strengths 
of  weak  currents.  Wlien  a  needle  is  placed  under 
a  straight  wire,  through  which  a  current  passes,  it 
deflects  to  a  certain  extent,  and  when  the  wire  is 
bent,  so  a.s  also  to  pass  below  the  neetUo,  it  deflects 
still  more.  This  is  easily  understood  from  the 
above  nde.  The  supposed  figure  has  to  look 
down  to  the  needle  when  in  the  upper  wire,  and 
to  look  u])  to  it  in  the  lower  wire,  so  that  his 
left  hand  is  turned  in  dillerent  ways  in  the  two 
positions.  The  current  in  the  upper  and  the  lower 
wire  moves  in  opposite  directions,  thus  changing  in 
the  s.xme  way  as  the  (igiu-e ;  and  the  deflection 
caused  by  both  wires  is  in  the  same  direction. 
By  thus  doubling  the  irire,  we  double  the  deflecting 
force.  If  the  wire,  instead  of  making  only  one  such 
circuit  round  the  needle,  were  to  make  two,  the 
force  would  be  again  doiibled,  and  if  several,  the 
force  (leaving  out  of  accoiint  the  weakening  of 
the  current  caused  by  tlie  additional  wire)  would 
be  increased  in  proportion.  If  the  circuits  of  the 
wire  be  so  multiplied  as  to  form  a  coil,  this  force 
would  be  enoi-mously  increased.  Two  needles,  as 
nearly  the  same  as  possible,  placed  parallel  to 
each  otlier,  with  their  poles  in  op]>osite  ways,  as 
shewn  in  tig.  17,  and  suspended,  so  as  to  move 
freely,  by  a  thread  without  twist,  have  little 
tendency  to  place  themselves  in  the  magnetic 
meridian,  for  the  one  would  move  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  the  other.  If  they  were  exactly  of 
the  same  power,  they  would  remain  indifferently 


in  any  position.  They  cannot,  however,  be  r,o 
accurately  piaired  a.s  this,  so  that  they  always  take 
up  a  fixed  position,  arising  from  the  one  being 
somewh.at  stronger 
than  the  other. 
This  position  is 
sometimes  in  the 
magnetic  meridian, 
sometimes  not,  ac- 
cording as  the 
needles  are  less 
or  more  i>crfcctly 
matched.  Such  a 
compound  needle  is  called  astatic,  as  it  stands 
apart  from  the  directing  magnetic  influence  of 
the  earth.  If  an  a-static  needle  be  placed  in  a 
coil,  as  in  fig.  17,  so  that  the  lower  needle  be 
within  the  coil,  and  the  U))per  one  above  it, 
its  deflections  will  be  more  considerable  than  a 
simjilc  needle,  for  two  reasons :  in  the  fii-st  ])!ace, 
the  jiower  which  keeps  the  needle  in  its  fixed 
jiosition  is  small,  and  the  needle  is  consequently 
more  easily  inl!\ienced ;  in  the  second  jjlace,  the 
force  of  the  coil  is  exerted  in  the  .'•ame  direction 
on  two  needles  in.stead  of  one,  for  the  upper 
needle  being  much  nearer  the  >ij)per  part  of  the 
coil  than  the  lower,  is  deflected  alone  by  it,  and 
the  deflection  is  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the 
lower  needle.  An  jistatic  needle  so  placed  in  a  coil 
constitutes  an  astatic  galvanometer.  One  of  these 
instruments  is  shewn  in  fig.  IS.     Konnd  an  ivoiy 


Fig.  18. 

bobbin,  AI!.  a  coil  of  fine  copper  wire,  c.irefully 
insulated  with  silk,  is  woimd,  its  ends  being  con- 
nected with  the  binding  screws,  s,  s.  The  astatic 
needle  is  ])laced  in  the  bobbin,  which  is  jirovided 
with  a  vertical  slit,  to  admit  the  lower  needle,  and 
a  Lateral  slit,  to  allow  of  its  oseill.Mions,  and  is 
^us])ended  liy  a  cocoon  thread  to  a  hook  supported 
l)y  a  brass " franu'.  The  upper  needle  moves  on 
a  graduated  circle ;  the  com]iound  needle  hangs 
freely,  without  torn-lung  the  bobbin.  The  whole  is 
included  in  a  glass  case,  and  rests  on  a  stand,  sup- 
ported by  three  levelling  screws.  When  used,  the 
bobbin  is  turned  roimd  by  the  screw,  Q.  until  the 
needle  stands  at  the  zero  po'int,  and  the  wires  through 
which  the  current  is  sent  are  fixed  to  the  binding 
screws.  The  number  of  degrees  that  the  needle 
deflects  may  then  be  read  ofl'.  It  is  manifest  that 
on  deflection  taking  place,  the  different  portions  of 
the  coil  are  ilifferently  situated  with  respect  to  the 


GALVAKISM. 


needle,  than  when  it  is  at  zero ;  the  deflecting  force 
of  the  coil,  therefore,  differs  with  the  position  of  the 
needle,  so  that  the  deflections  caused  by  different 
curreuts  are  not  in  the  proportion  of  the  angles 
of  delation,  or  their  functions ;  up  to  from  15°  to 
20°,  it  is  found  for  most  instruments  that  the 
strength  of  the  current  is  proportional  to  the  angle 
of  deviation ;  beyond  that,  the  relations  of  strength 
indicated  by  different  angles  must  be  .Tscertained 
exjierimentally,  which  can  be  done  with  the  aid  of 
a  thermo-electric  pUe. 

Tangmt  Galvanometer. — This  instrument  is  shewn 
in  fig.  19.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  thick  strip 
of  copper,  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  circle,  from  one 
to  two  feet  iu  diameter, 
with  a  small  magnetic 
needle,  moving  on  a 
graduated  circle,  at  its 
centre.  When  tlie  needle 
is  small  compared  with 
the  ring,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  needle 
in  any  direction  it  lies 
holds  the  same  relative 
position  to  the  disturb- 
ing power  of  the  ring. 
This  being  the  case,  it 
is  easy  to  jn-ove  that  the 
etrenrjtlis  of  currents  cir- 
culatinij  in  the  ring  are 
proportionate  to  the  tan- 
gents of  the  angles  of 
deviation  of  the  needle. 
Thus,  if  the  deflection 
caused  by  one  galvanic 
couple  was  45°,  and  of 
another  60°,  the  relative  strengths  of  the  currents 
sent  by  each  would  be  as  the  tangent  of  45°  to  the 
tangent  of  60° — viz.,  as  1  to  Vl'.i.  The  needle  can 
never  be  deflected  90°,  for  as  the  tangent  of  90° 
is  infinitely  large,  the  strength  of  the  deviating 
current  must  be  infinitely  gi'eat,  a  strength  mani- 
festly unattainable.  The  tangent  galvanometer  can 
consequently  be  used  to  measure  the  strongest 
cuiTcnts.  One  great  advantage  attending  its  use, 
is  that  the  current,  in  passing  through  the  thick 
copper  wire,  experiences  almost  no  resistance,  and 
consequent  diminution  of  strength,  so  that  it  can 
measure  a  current  mthout  afi'ecting  it. 

VoUameler. — This  was  invented  by  Faraday  for 
testing  the  strength  of  a  current.  Fig.  20  shews 
how  it  may  be  constructed.  Two  platinum  plates, 
each  about  half  a  square  inch  in  size,  are  placed  in 
a  bottle  containing  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid;  the  plates  are  soldered  to  wires  which  pass 


Fig.  20. 


Fis.  21. 


ap  through  the  cork  of  the  bottle ;  binding  screws 
arc  attached  to  the  upper  ends  of  these  wires ;   a 
glass  tube  li.\ed  into  the  cork  serves  to  discharge 
6oa  ° 


the  gas  formed  within.  When  the  binding  screws 
are  connected  with  the  poles  of  a  battery,  the  water 
in  the  bottle  begins  to  be  docomjiosed,  and  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  rise  to  the  surface.  If,  now,  the  outer 
end  of  the  discharging  tube  be  ]>laced  in  a  trough 
of  mercury  (mercury  docs  not  dissolve  the  gases), 
and  a  graduated  tube  (tig.  21),  likewise  filled  with 
mercury,  be  placed  over  it,  the  combined  g;»ses  rise 
into  the  tube,  and  tlie  quantiti/  of  gas  given  off  in 
a  given  lime  measures  the  strength  of  tlie  current 
The  voltameter  chooses  as  a  test  the  work  which 
the  cm-rent  can  actually  perform,  and  establishes  a 
uniform  standard  of  comparison.  The  Indications 
of  the  tangent  galvanometer  are  comparable  only 
with  its  own,  but  the  quantity  of  gas  discharged 
by  the  voltameter,  corrected  for  pressure  and  teni- 
poniture,  is  something  quite  al)Solute.  However, 
by  eomp.armg  the  indications  of  both  instruments 
with  each  oilier  when  placed  in  the  same  circuit, 
an  absolute  standard  may  likewise  be  got  for  the 
tangent  gidvanometer.  If,  for  instance,  the  current 
given  by  a  battery  should  give  2  cubic  inches  iu  a 
minute,  as  shewn  by  the  voltameter,  and  produced 
at  the  same  time  a  deflection  of  45'  in  the  galvan- 
ometer, the  ratio  of  2  to  the  tangent  of  45° — viz.,  2 
to  1=2,  is  constant,  for  correct  measurements  of 
the  strength  of  eun-euts,  however  taken,  must  bear 
to  each  other  a  constant  ratio.  If  the  angle  of  deria- 
tion  for  anotlier  euirent  was  30°,  we  have  therefore 
only  to  imdtiply  2  by  the  tangent  of  30°,  to  ascer- 
tain the  amount  of  gas  that  would  be  liberated  by 
a  current  of  that  strength  in  a  minute.  This  found, 
we  know  the  meaning  of  a  deflection  of  30°  of  the 
galvanometer  iu  question  in  a  ])erfectly  comparable 
standard.  The  ]ilates  of  the  voltameter  must  be 
small,  for  when  they  are  large,  a  small  quantity  of 
electricity  is  foiuul  to  pass  without  decomposing  the 
water.  It  is  found  .also  tliat  a  minute  quantity  of 
the  oxygen  forms  binoxide  of  liydi'ogen  with  the 
water,  and  remains  iu  solution,  so  that  when  very 
gi-eat  accuracy  is  requiied,  the  hydrogen  alone  ought 
to  be  measured. 

Kesistances  to  the  CiTKRENT.— It  is  found  that 
the  dimensions  and  material  of  substances  included 
in  the  circuit  exercise  an  important  influence  on  the 
.strength  of  the  cm-rent.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  ascertain  the  relative  amount  of  the 
resistance  offered  by  conductors  of  various  forms 
and  materials.  The  rheostat,  invented  by  AVheat- 
stone,  is  generally  employed  for  this  purpose,  and 
for  tins  object  is  constructed  so  as  to  introduce 
or  withdraw  a  con- 
siderable amoimt  of 
higldy  resisting  wire 
from  the  circuit 
without  stopping 
the  current.  It  is 
shewn  in  fig.  22. 
Two  cylinders,  C, 
C,  about  6  inches 
iu  length,  and  11 
inch  in  diameter, 
are  jJaced  parallel 
to  each  other,  both 
being  movalilc  round  their  axis.  One  of  them,  C, 
is  of  brass,  the  other,  C,  is  of  well-dried  wood. 
'I'hc  wooden  cylinder  h.as  a  spiral  groove  cut  into 
it,  making  forty  turns  to  the  inch,  in  which  is 
placed  a  line  metallic  wire.  One  end  of  the  wire 
is  fixed  to  a.  brass  ring,  whicli  is  seen  in  the 
figure  at  the  further  end  of  tlie  wooden  cj'linder ; 
and  its  other  end  is  .attached  to  the  nearer  end 
(not  seen  in  the  figure)  of  tlie  brass  cylinder,  C. 
The  brass  ring  just  mentioned  is  connected  with 
the  binding  screw,  S,  by  a  strong  metid  spring. 
The  further  end  of  the  cylinder  (?,  h.os  a  similar 


^^1- 


GALVAJJISM. 


connection  with  the  binding  screw,  S'.  The  key, 
H,  fits  the  projecting  staple  of  either  cylinder, 
and  can  consequently  turn  both.  As  the  brass 
cylinder,  C,  is  turned  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
hands  of  a  watch,  it  uncoils  the  wire  from  the 
wooden  cylinder,  C,  making  it  thereby  revolve 
in  the  same  way.  When  the  wooden  cylinder  is 
turned  contrary  to  the  hands  of  a  watch,  the  reverse 
takes  place.  The  number  of  revolutions  is  shewn 
by  a  scale  placed  between  the  two,  and  the  fraction 
of  a  revolution  is  shewn  by  a  pointer  moving 
on  the  graduated  circle,  P.  When  the  binding 
screws,  S  and  S',  are  included  within  a  cucuit,  say 
S  with  the  positive,  and  S'  with  the  negative  jiole, 
tlie  current  passes  along  the  wire,  on  the  wooden 
cylinder,  C,  till  it  comes  to  the  point  where  the  wire 
crosses  to  the  brass  cylinder,  C  ;  it  theu  passes  up 
tlie  cylinder,  C,  to  the  spring  and  binding  screw,  S'. 
The  resistance  it  encounters  within  the  rheostat  is 
met  ouly  in  wire,  for  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  largo 
cylinder,  C,  the  resistance  it  encounters  up  to  S'  may 
be  considered  as  nothing.  When  the  rheostat  is  to 
be  used,  the  whole  of  the  wije  is  wound  on  the 
wooden  cylinder,  C,  the  binding  screws  are  put  into 
the  circuit  of  a  constant  cell  or  battery  along  with 
a  galvanometer,  astatic  or  tangent.  If,  uow,  the 
resistances  of  two  wires  are  to  be  tested,  the 
g.ilvanomcter  is  read  before  the  first  is  put  in  the 
circiut.  After  it  is  introduced,  in  consequence  of 
the  increased  resistance  offered  by  it,  the  needle 
falls  back,  and  then  as  much  of  the  rheostat  vrire  is 
unwound  as  i\-iU  bring  the  needle  back  to  its  former 
j)lace.  The  quantity  of  wire  thus  uncoiled  in  the 
rheostat  is  shewn  by  the  scales,  and  is  manifestly 
equal  in  resisting  power  to  the  introduced  wire. 
The  first  is  then  removed,  the  rheostat  readjusted, 
and  the  second  wire  included,  and  the  same  xm- 
winding  goes  on  as  before.  To  fix  our  ideas,  let 
the  quantity  of  wire  unwound  in  the  first  case  be 
40  inches,  and  in  the  second  case  60  inches  ;  40 
inches  of  the  rheostat  wire  offer  as  much  resistance 
to  the  current  as  the  first  wire,  and  60  inches  of  it 
as  much  as  the  second.  We  have  thus  40  to  GO  as 
the  ratio  of  the  resistances  of  the  two  mres.  The 
wire  of  the  rheostat,  from  its  hmited  length,  can 
only  be  comparable  with  small  resistances ;  and 
where  great  resistances  are  to  be  measured,  supple- 
mentary resistance  coils  of  wires,  whose  resistances 
have  been  ascertained,  are  introduced  into  the 
circuit,  or  removed  from  it,  as  occasion  requires, 
leaving  to  the  rheostat  to  give,  as  it  were,  only  the 
fractional  readings.  This  being  premised,  it  will  be 
casUy  imderstood  how  the  follo^^-ing  residta  have 
been  ascertained.  It  is  proved,  for  instance,  that 
the  resistatices  of  wires  of  the  same  material,  and 
of  uniform  Oiidcness,  are  in  tlie  direct  ratio  of  their 
lengtlii,  and  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  tlie  squares  ofthfir 
diameters.  Thus  a  wire  of  a  certain  length  offers 
twice  the  resistance  of  its  half,  thrice  of  its  third, 
and  so  forth.  Again,  wires  of  the  same  metal,  whose 
diameters  stand  in  the  ratio  of  1,  2,  ."J,  &c.,  offer 
resistances  which  stand  to  each  other  as  I,  -[,  ^,  &c. ; 
therefore,  the  longer  the  wire  the  greater  the 
resistance  ;  the  thicker  the  wire  the  less  the  resist- 
ance. The  same  holds  true  of  liquids,  but  not  with 
the  same  exactness.  For  this  reason,  the  larger  the 
plates  of  a  galvanic  pair,  and  the  nearer  they  are 
placed  to  each  other,  the  less  ■n'ill  be  tlie  resistance 
offered  to  the  current  by  the  intervening  hquid. 
The  following  table,  constructed  by  Etl.  Becquerel, 
gives  the  specific  resistances  of  some  of  the  more 
common  substances,  or  the  resistance  which  a  wire 
of  them,  so  to  speak,  of  the  same  dimensions,  offers 
at  the  temperature  54°  F. :  Copper,  1  ;  silver,  •!• ; 
gold,  1-4;  zinc,  37;  tin,  OG  ;  iron,  7'5 ;  lead,  11  ; 
platinum,  11-3  ;  mercury  (at  57°),  50".    For  liquids, 


the  resistances  are  enormous  as  compared  with 
the  metals.  With  copper  at  32°  F.  as  1,  the 
foUomng  liquids  stand  thus :  Saturated  solution 
of  the  suli)hate  of  copper,  at  48°  F,  16,88.),520; 
ditto  of  chloride  of  sodium  at  56°  F.,  2,903.538  ; 
sidphate  of  zinc,  15,801,207  ;  sulphuric  acid,  diluted 
to  -jV,  at  68°  F.,  1,0.32,020  ;  nitric  acid,  at  55'  F., 
976,000  ;  distilled  water,  at  59°  F.,  6,754,208,000. 
The  slightest  admixture  of  a  foreign  metal  alters 
the  resistance  very  decidedly  :  i  per  cent  of  iron  in 
copper  wire  increases  the  resistance  more  than  25 
per  cent.  It  has  been  found  also  that  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  a  ^vire  increases  as  its  temperature 
rises.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add,  th.at  the 
conducting  powers  of  metals  are  inversely  as  their 
specific  resistances,  the  least  resisting  being  the 
best  conducting. 

Ohm's  Law. — This  law  is  singularly  in  accordance 
with  experimental  results.  It  assumes  that  the 
electro-motive  force  for  a  particiUar  galvanic  pair  is 
constant,  and  that  the  strength  of  the  current  it 
produces  is  the  quotient  which  results  from  dividing 
it  by  the  resistance  of  the  circuit.  This  resistance 
arises  from  two  soiuces,  the  first  being  the  resist- 
ance within  the  cell  offered  by  the  exciting  liquid,  and 
the  second  the  interpolar  resistance.  If  e  represent 
the  electromotive  force ;  I,  the  resistance  within 
the  cell ;  w,  the  interpolar  resistance ;  and  S,  the 
strength  of  the  current,  or  the  quantity  of  electricity 
actually  transmitted,  the  statement  of  the  law  for 

one  couple  stands  thus :  S  =  -. .  The  applica- 
tion of  the  law  in  a  few  particular  cases  will  best 
illustrate  its  meaning.  If  we  increase  the  number 
of  cells  to  71,  we  increase  the  electromotive  force  n 
times,  and  at  the  same  time  we  increase  the  liquid 
resistance  n  times,  for  the  current  has  n  times  as 


much  of  it  to  travel,  then  S  = 


nl  ■ 


If  IT  be 


small  compared  with  nJ— that  is,  if  the  external 
connection  be  made  by  a  short  thick  wire — it  may  be 

neglected,  and  so  S  =  -^  =  ^.     This  shews  that  one 

cell  gives  in  these  circumstances  as  powerfiJ  a 
current  as  a  large  batteiy.  But  if  nl  be  small  with 
respect  to  to — as  in  the  interjwlar  circuit  of  an 
electric    telegraph   battery — nl  may   be    neglected, 

and  S  =  — .     Here  we  learn  that  the  energy  of  the 

w 
current  increases  directly  as  the  number  of  cells. 
We  may  learn  from  the  same  that  the  introduction 
of  the  coil  of  long  thin  wire  of  a  galvanometer  into 
such  a  circuit,  introducing  but  a  comparatively 
small  increase  of  resistance,  causes  a  very  slight 
(Uminution  of  the  current  strength.  If,  again, 
we  increase  the  size  of  the  plates  of  a  galvanic 
pair  n  times,  the  section  of  the  hquid  is  propor- 
tionately increased,  so  that  whilst  the  electro- 
motive force  remains  the  same,  the  cell  resistance 

diminishes     n    times :     therefore    S  =  y- ,     or 

I  +  w 

n 
If  the  exterior  resistance  is  small, 


I  +  nw 


nl  may  be  neglected,  and  S  =  -t-,  and  the  strength 

is  thus  shewn  to  increase  n  times.  These  are  only 
a  very  few  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  this  law. 
With  the  aid  of  a  tangent  galvanometer,  which 
gives  the  value  of  S  expressed  in  cubic  inches  of 
voltameter  gas,  we  can  easily  ascertain  the  value  of 
c  and  I  for  any  pair.  By  making  two  observations 
with  two  wires  of  known  resistance  separately 
included    in    the    circuit,    we    have    two    simple 


GALVAMSJi. 


equations  with  two  miknowu  mi.iiitities,  from  which 
e  and  I  can  be  easily  foiuid.  In  doiiif;  so,  we  must 
adopt  a  iiiiil  o/rtfixliuici',  sucli  as  that  iiro]K)sed  liy 
Jacobi— viz.,  that  oflered  by  a  copiier  wire  1  nittre 
(.'!!•■.■!  inches)  long,  and  1  millimetre  (0393  inch)  in 
diameter.  The  resistance  of  the  liquid  of  the  i>air 
woidd  be  cxpi-essed  in  units  of  this,  and  the  electro- 
motive force  in  cubic  inches  of  explosive  gas  with  a 
ciix'uit  olVerin:;  a  unit  of  resistance. 

TuF.  EFFKri-s  OF  THE  G.vi.v.vxic  CiT.RENT  m.ay  be 
elassilicd  under  physiological,  mechanical,  magnetic, 
heating,  luminous,  and  chemical.  The  mechanical 
eflfects  relate  to  the  mutual  attraction  or  repulsion 
of  one  current  to  another,  la-  to  a  part  of  itself. 
These,  along  with  the  magnetic  effects,  w  ill  be  found 
treated  of  under  M.\cxeto  ELECTKlcnv.  The  heat- 
ing and  luminous  eliects  have  been  partly  discussed 
imder  Electric  Light.  We  shall  here  only  further 
refer  to  the  heating  of  wires,  and  to  the  galvanic 
spark.  The  luminous  effects  of  galvanic  electricity 
of  very  high  tension  will  be  given  under  Induction' 
Coil.  The  chemical  effects  have  been  already 
referred  to,  but  a  fuller  consideration  of  these  will 
now  be  given  under  the  heail  Electrolysis  in  this 
article. 

The  p/n/iiolorfical  effects,  as  shewn  by  the  con^nil- 
sious  of  Galvani's  frog  preparation,  were  the  first 
obsen-ed  manifestation  of  the  cun-ent.  Frog-limbs, 
as  prepared  by  Galvani,  when  included  in  a  circuit, 
form  a  galvauoscope  of  excessive  sensibility,  which 
rivals  the  linest  galvanometer  in  delicacy  of  indica- 
tion. There  is  one  peculiarity  in  their  action  which 
deserves  to  be  noted.  The  limbs  contract  only 
when  the  circuit  is  completed  and  broken,  and 
remain  undisturbed  so  long  as  the  current  p.asses 
steadily  throiigh  them.  The  more  frequently,  there- 
fore, the  cuiTent  is  stopped  and  renewed,  the  greater 
is  the  physiological  effect.  The  same  is  exiicricnced 
when  a  current  is  passed  through  the  human  body. 
When  the  terminal  wires  of  a  Ixittcry  are  lifted 
one  by  each  hand,  except  it  consist  of  a  very  large 
number  of  cells,  almost  the  only  sensation  felt  is  a 
slight  shock  on  completing  and  breaking  the  circuit. 
I)u  Bois  Reymond,  the  great  authority  on  animal 
electricity,  states  that  the  nerves  of  motion  are 
affected  only  by  changes  in  the  electric  tension  of 
the  cuiTent,  whereas  the  nerves  of  sensation  are 
affected  not  only  by  these,  but  also  by  the  steady 
continuance  of  the  cun-ent,  and  that  the  excitation 
of  the  nerves  dependent  on  the  changes  of  tension 
increases  wnth  their  frequency  and  suddenness. 
Frictional  electricity  in  this  way  owes  its  superior 
physiological  power  to  the  instantaneous  nature  of 
its  discharge.  It  is  only  currents  of  gi'eat  tension 
which  affect  the  ordinai-y  human  nen"es.  The 
poles  of  a  lattery  of  50  Bunsen  cells,  capable  of 
giving  a  brilliant  electric  light,  for  instance,  may 
lie  handled  without  much  inconvenience.  This  may 
be  attributed  ])ai-tly  to  the  non-conducting  nature 
of  the  skin.  If  the  cun-ent  enter  the  body  by  a 
cut  or  wovuid,  the  sensation  is  affected  even  when 
the  current  is  weak.  The  physiological  effect  is  also 
nivich  heightened  by  moistening  the  hands  with  salt 
anil  water,  or  liy  holding  metal  handles  instead  of 
wires,  so  as  to  inqirove  the  conducting  connection. 
Another  cause  of  this  insensibility  m.ay  be  attri- 
buted to  the  fact  that  the  current  is  not  restricted, 
as  it  is  in  part  of  the  frog  preparation,  to  the 
nerve,  but  passes  through  all  the  conductors  of 
the  system.  The  nerves  of  the  palate  can  be  affected 
by  a  very  feeble  current;  that  of  sight  by  <ine  jiro- 
eeeding  from  a  battery  of  one  or  two  cells,  and  that 
of  hearing  by  a  battery  of  some  30  cells.  See 
Eleitricity,  Medical. 

Jlenliiifi  Eff':d«. — When  a  strong  current  passes 
through  thin  wires,  an  intense  heat  is   proiluced, 


sufficient  to  bring  them  to  a  white  heat,  and  1o 
fuse  them.  This  is  turned  to  practical  use  in 
exploding  gunj>owder,  in  engineering  and  miniuL; 
operations.  Two  wires  of  a  Ijattery  placed  at  a  tafu 
distance  are  insulated  from  each  other,  and  their 
ends,  which  are  connected  by  a  line  iron  wire,  are 
sealed  up  in  a  tin  cartridge  tilled  with  gunpowder, 
and  laiil  in  the  exploding  charge.  When  all  is 
adjusted,  the  battery  connection  is  comjileted,  and 
the  current  making  the  iron  wire  red  hot,  ignites  the 
gunpowder  in  the  cartridge,  and  that  again  the 
charge.  In  this  way,  all  danger  is  avoided.  Experi- 
ments on  the  heating  effects  of  the  current  through 
wires  have  proved  that  the  Iteat  develuptd  is  pru/wr- 
tiumd  to  the  resistance  of  the  wires,  and  to  the  si/uan's 
of  the  strength  of  the  currents;  and  that  the  strength 
of  the  current  being  the  same,  any  length  of  wire  may 
be  heated  to  the  same  redness. 

Galvanic  Spark. — When  the  wires  connected  with 
a  powerful  galvanic  battery  are  brought  together, 
no  current  passes  except  they  are  made  to  touch, 
or  nearly  so  ;  and  if  then  separated,  the  curre2it 
continues  with  the  evolution  of  sparks,  though 
removed  for  some  dist.ance.  Jacobi  found  that  the 
poles  of  a  battery  of  twelve  Grove's  cells  could  be 
brought  as  near  as  -00005  of  an  inch  without  a 
spark  passing.  In  Gassiot's  water  battery  of  35-20 
well-insulated  cells,  however,  a  sjiark  passed  when 
the  poles  were  brought  to  -02  of  an  inch,  anil 
continued  to  do  so  uninternqjtcilly  for  weeks  and 
months  together.  AMien  the  galvanic  spark  is 
examined  with  a  microscope,  it  is  found  that  the 
light  only  appeai-s  at  the  negative  pole. 

Electrolysis  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of  gal- 
vanism which  treats  of  the  laws  and  conditionj  of 
electro-chemical  decomposition.  As  this  deeomi)osi- 
tion  is  generally  attended  by  electro-chemical  com- 
bination, it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
electrolysis  from  the  more  general  subject  of  Ekdm- 
chemistry,  -which  embraces  all  chemical  changes 
residting  in  or  from  the  galvanic  current.  In  one 
case,  however,  the  application  of  the  term  is  strictly 
correct — viz.,  w-here  decompositions  are  effected  by 
electrodes  (poles,  see  Anode),  which  are  not  .attacked 
by  the  elements  of  the  electrolyte  (the  substance 
deconq)Osed)  discharged  at  them.  Tliroughout  the 
article,  there  have  been  frequent  allusions  to  electro- 
chemical changes,  but 
here  we  shall  discuss 
moi'c  particularly  the 
laws  of  electro-chemical 
decomposition.  Ko  sub- 
stance is  decomposed 
by  the  current  so  long 
as  it  is  in  a  solid  or 
gaseous  state,  and  it 
must  first  be  brought 
to  a  liquid  state,  either 
1>V  solution  or  fusion, 
before  the  current  acts 
on  it.  The  decompo- 
sition of  -water  by 
platinum  jilates  is 
always  taken  as  the 
typo  of  electrolj-tic 
action.  Fig.  23  repre- 
sents a  very  convenient 
apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose. A  glass  basin  i^ 
made  so  as  to  admit  a 
below,     througli 


w-hich  two  wires  ]\ass 
having  slips  of  platinum 
plate  soldered  to  them 
open   below,  are   hung 


rig.  2:;. 

.above.      Two  glass  tubes, 
the   pl.ates,  to   hook; 


projecting  from  an  uju-ight  support.     The  bowl  i 


OALVANLSM. 


fUle<l  with  acidulated  water;  and  the  tubes,  after 
being  filled  with  the  same,  are  inverted,  and  hung 
with  their  lower  ends  enclosing  the  jilates.  When 
the  wires  projecting  down^vanls  from  tlic  cork  arc 
connected  with  the  poles  of  the  l>attery,  hydrogen 
rises  from  the  negative,  and  oxygen  from  the  jjositive 
electrode,  to  Mil  each  its  separate  tube.  As  the 
decomposition  proceeds,  twice  as  much  hydrogen  is 
liberated  as  oxygen.  When  the  tubes  are  filled, 
they  may  be  removed  and  examined.  The  oxygen 
thus  obtained  smells  strongly  of  ozone.  Hydrogen 
is  here  the  tji)e  of  the  metals  or  other  electro-]iositive 
substances  (cations),  which,  during  electrolysis,  are 
always  <Uscngaged  at  the  negative  electrode;  and 
oxygen  of  the  salt  radicals,  chlorine,  iodine,  sulphur, 
&c.,  which,  being  cleetro-ucgativc  (anions),  always 
appear  at  the  jiositive  jiole.  Jloreover,  the  propoi-- 
tions  of  the  volumes  of  the  two  gases  being  that  of 
their  chemical  comljining  volumes,  reminds  us  that, 
when  a  body  is  decomposed,  its  components  are 
ahv.ays  separated  in  the  jiroportions  in  which  they 
were  united,  viz.,  those  of  their  chemical  eijuivalents. 
If  the  tubes  of  this  apparatus  were  graduated,  it 
would  serve  for  a  voltameter.  If,  instead  of  one 
such  voltameter  included  in  the  circiut,  we  had 
several,  we  should  lind  that,  whatever  amount  of 
gas  was  hberated  in  one  of  these,  the  same  amount 
woidd  be  liber.ated  in  all,  and  that  independent  of 
the  size  of  the  plates,  and  amoimt  of  acid  in 
each.  We  learn,  therefore,  that  the  chemical  power 
of  the  current  is  the  same  at  every  point  of 
the  circuit  where  it  is  manifested.  If,  instead  of 
two  or  three  voltameters  m  the  circuit,  we  had 
one  and  two  decomposing  cells  of  the  following 
description.  A  test  tube,  having  a  platinum  wire, 
on  which  the  glass  has  been  fused,  passing  through 
the  bottom,  is  partially  Idled  with  protochloride 
of  tin,  which  is  kept  fused  by  the  heat  of  a  spirit- 
lamp.  The  platinum  wire  at  the  bottom  of  tlie 
tube  forms  one  electrode,  and  one  descending  from 
the  top  forms  the  other,  chpping  below  the  fused 
chloride.  If,  then,  this  cell  be  included  in  the 
circuit  along  with  the  voltameter,  and  a  similar 
cell  containing  fused  cMoride  of  lead,  so  that  the 
current  enters  the  tubes  liy  the  upper  electrodes, 
and  leaves  by  the  lower,  the  water,  protochloride  of 
tin,  and  chloride  of  lead,  are  decomposed  simultane- 
ously by  the  current  passing  through  each.  In  the 
voltameter,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  .are  disengaged  ;  in 
the  tubes,  metallic  tin  is  deposited  at  the  lower 
electrode  of  the  one,  and  lead  at  the  other  ;  whilst 
chlorine  is  liberated  .at  the  upper  electrodes  of  both. 
If,  now,  the  quantity  of  hydrogen,  tin,  and  lead  thus 
set  free  be  weighed,  it  will  be  found  that  their 
weights  are  in  the  proportion  of  their  chemical 
equivalents.  From  such  experiments  as  these, 
Far.aday  made  the  first  grand  electrolytic  general- 
isation to  the  following  eflect :  W/ieii  the  current 
passeti  thromih  a  scrk's of  hinanj  electrohjtt.%comktini] 
of  an  eiiuivalent  of  each  of  the  elemcntarii  bodies,  the 
quantities  of  the  separated  elements  of  the  eleclroli/leii 
are  in  the  same  proportion  as  their  chemical  equi- 
valents. It  is  not  only  in  cells  exterior  to  the 
battery  that  this  law  holds,  but  in  the  cells  of  the 
battery  itself.  If  the  battery  which  effected  the 
above  decomposition  consisted  of  six  cells,  for  e.ach 
equivalent  of  hydrogen,  tm,  and  lead  separated 
without  the  b.attery.one  equivalent  of  zinc  in  each 
cell  woidd  h.ave  been  dissolved,  and  an  equivalent 
of  hydrogen  disengaged  at  each  of  the  copper  plates, 
if  the  cells  were  one-fluid.  The  above  law  holds 
also  for  binary  compoimds,  whose  elements  do  not 
stand  in  the  relation  of  an  equivalent  of  the  one  to 
an  equivalent  of  the  other,  but  with  this  modifica- 
tion, that  the  weights  of  the  electro-negative  ele- 
ments alone,  separated  in  the  action,  are  in  the  ratio 


of  their  equivalents.  Thus,  if  the  same  current  pass 
through  two  decomposing  cells,  one  containing  a 
solution  of  the  subchloride  of  copper  (C'UjCl),  and 
the  other  of  the  chloride  of  copper  (C'uCl),  the  same 
quantity  of  chlorine  will  be  diseng.iged  in  both,  but 
twice  as  much  copper  is  dejiosited  in  the  first  as  in 
the  second.  Had  there  been  a  sesquiehlorlile  of 
copper  (CUjClj)  in  the  same  way  for  one  equivalent 
of  chlorine  disengaged,  there  woxdil  be  §  of  an 
equivalent  of  coj)per.  Daniell  proved,  in  exten- 
sion of  Faraday's  law,  that  the  binary  constituents 
of  the  oxisalts  followed  the  same  law  as  binary 
elementary  compoimds  ;  he  shewed  that,  if  a  volta- 
meter, and  a  vessel  lUvidcd  into  two  compartments 
by  a  poi-ous  diaphragm,  both  containing  suljth.ate 
of  soda  (NaO,S03),  be  inchule<l  in  the  same  circuit, 
after  some  time,  the  conijiartment  into  which  the 
positive  pole  di]is  contains  free  sulphuric  acid  (SO,), 
and  that  the  other  compartment  contains  free  soda 
(XaO);  and  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  vol- 
t.ameter,  and  the  soda  and  sidphuric  acid  of  the 
sulphate  of  soda,  when  weighed,  stand  in  the  ratio 
of  their  chemical  equivalents.  The  decomposition 
here  taking  place  was  found  to  be  the  same  in  all 
similar  salts.  One  effect  of  the  decomi)osition  in 
the  above  instance,  however,  seemed  singtdar — nearly 
as  much  oxygen  and  hydrogen  was  decomposed 
at  the  electrodes  as  in  the  volt,ameter,  so  that 
the  current  appeared  to  do  double  work  within  the 
cell.  To  account  for  tliis  anomaly,  Daniell  suggested 
a  new  theory  of  oxisalts,  to  which  we  have  already 
referred  in  passing.  According  to  it,  sulphate  of 
soda  (NaO.SOj)  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  such, 
l)ut  as  sulphionide  of  sodium  (NaSO,),  a  binary  salt 
similar  to  the  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl);  with  this 
difference,  that,  in  the  former  case,  the  salt  radical 
sulphion  (SO4)  was  compoimd,  and  in  the  hatter  it 
w.as  sim])le  (Cl).  This  being  the  case,  the  primary 
stage  of  decomposition  will  be,  the  metal  sodium  (Xa) 
set  free  at  the  negative,  and  the  sulphion  (SO.)  at 
the  positive  electrode;  but  sodium  being  highly 
o.xid.able,  cannot  preserve  its  metallic  condition  in 
the  presence  of  water ;  it  therefore  decomposes  the 
water,  taking  its  oxygen,  and  setting  free  its  hydro- 
gen, so  that  the  hydrofjen  does  not  come  directly 
ifrom  elcctrolj-tic  action,  but  from  a  purely  chemical 
.secondary  action — viz.,  that  of  sodiimi  on  water.  The 
suljjhion  (SOj)  breaks  uj)  into  sulphuric  acid  (SO3), 
which  remains  in  solution,  and  oxygen  (0),  which 
escapes.  This  view  of  the  matter  appeared  to  him 
to  lie  borne  out  by  the  fact  that,  when  a  similar  salt 
of  a  less  oxidable  metal,  the  sidphate  of  copper,  for 
instance,  is  exposed  to  the  same  action,  the  copper 
retains  its  metallic  condition,  and  no  hydrogen 
escapes  .at  the  negative  electrode ;  sulphate  of 
eop])er  (CuOSO,)  is  in  this  way  more  properly 
sulphionide  of  cop]jer  (C'u80j).  Smiilarly,  nitrate  of 
soda  (NaONOj)  is  NaXO^,  uitriouide  of  coi)per,  .and 
the  like  composition  is  given  to  all  oxisalts.  This 
view  of  the  composition  "of  salts  reduces  all  electro- 
lytes to  the  same  general  foruuUa;,  such  as  MK, 
M,R„  &c.;  M  being  a  metal,  or  electi-o-positive  con- 
stituent, and  R  a  salt  radical,  or  electro-negative  ; 
and  the  electrolytic  law  might  be  given  thus :  When 
the  same  current  passes  through  a  series  of  electro- 
li)tes,  tlte  weiijhts  of  the  separated  electro-negative  consti- 
tuents are  to  each  other  as  their  chemical  equivalents. 
The  accuracy  of  the  electrolytic  law  is  somewhat 
compromised  by  the  fact  th.at  liquids  possess,  to  a 
ceitain  extent,  the  power  of  conducting,  ])hysically. 
electricity  -without  electrolytic  action,  so  that  all 
th.at  passes  in  this  way  is  chemically  lost.  Fortu- 
nately, the  error  thus  introduced  is  very  small,  and 
can  be  therefore  practically  disregarded. 

Electeo-mct.\llckc.y   is   the   art  of   depositing, 
electro-chcmically,  a  coating  of  metal  on  a  surface 

605 


GALVANISM— G^VLVESTOX. 


preparwl  to  receive  it.  It  may  be  divided  into  two 
great  divisions— electrotype  and  electro -plating, 
gilding,  4c,  the  former  including  all  cases  where 
the  eivating  of  metal  luis  to  be  removed  from  the 
surface  on  wliich  it  is  deposited,  and  the  latter  all 
cases  where  the  coating  remains  permanently  fixed. 
Gold,  platinum,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  cobalt, 
nickel,  can  be  deposited  electrolytically. 

Kleetroli/pe — the  art  of  copying  seals,  medals, 
engraved  plates,  ornaments,  &c.,  by  means  of  the 
galvanic  current  in  metal,  more  especially  copper. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  done  will  be  best 
understood  by  taking  a  particiUar  instance.  Suppose 
we  wish  to  copy  a  seal  in  copper  :  an  impression  of 
it  is  first  taken  in  gutta  pcrcha,  sealing-wax,  fusible 
mct.il,  or  other  substincc  which  takes,  when  heated, 
a  sharp  impression.  While  the  impression— say,  in 
gutta  percha — is  still  soft,  we  insert  a  -n-ire  into  the 
side  of  it  As  gutta  percha  is  not  a  conductor 
of  electricity,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  side  on 
which  the  impression  is  taken  conducting ;  this 
is  done  by  brushing  it  over  with  plumbago  by 
a  camel-hair  brush.  The  wire  is  next  attached  to 
the  zinc  pole  of  a  weakly  charged  Danicll's  cell,  and 
a  copper  plate  is  attached  by  a  vrirc  to  the  copper 
pole  of  the  cell.  When  the  impression  and  the 
copper  plate  are  dippetl  into  a  strong  solution  of 
the  siUphate  of  cop)>er,  they  act  as  the  negative 
and  positive  electrodes.  The  copper  of  the  solu- 
tion begins  to  deposit  itself  on  the  impression,  first 
at  the  "black-leaded  surface  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
connecting  wire,  then  it  gradually  creeps  over  the 
whole  conducting  surface.  After  a  day  or  two,  the 
impression  is  taken  out;  and  the  copper  deposited 
on  it,  which  has  now  formed  a  tolerably  strong  plate, 
can  be  easily  removed  by  inserting  the  point  of  a 
knife  between  the  impression  and  the  edge  of  the 
plate.  On  the  side  of  tliis  plate,  next  the  copper,  we 
nave  a  perfect  copy  of  the  original  seaL  If  a  medal 
or  coin  is  to  be  taken,  we  may  proceed  in  the  same 
way,  or  we  may  take  the  medal  itself,  and  lay  the 
copper  on  it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  first  cast, 
so  to  speak,  that  we  take  of  each  face  is  negative, 
shewing  depressions  where  the  medal  shews  relief ; 
but  this  is  taken  as  the  matrix  for  a  second  cojiy, 
which  exactly  resembles  the  original.  The  adhesion 
between  the  two  is  slight,  and  they  can  be  easily 
sep.arated.  The  cell  of 
a  battery  is  not  needed 
to  excite  the  current. 
A  galvanic  pair  can  be 
made  out  of  the  object 
to  be  coated  and  a  piece 
of  zinc.  Fig.  24  shews 
how  this  may  be  done. 
B  is  a  glass  vessel, 
containing  sulphate  of 
copper ;  A  is  another, 
supported  on  B  by  a 
\\'ire-frame,  and  con- 
taining a  weak  solution 
Fig.  24.  of  sidphuiic  acid.     The 

glass  vessel.  A,  is  with- 
out a  bottom,  but  is  closed  below  by  a  bladder. 
A  piece  of  zinc,  Z,  is  put  in  the  sulphuric  acid,  and 
a  wire,  D,  coated  with  insidating  varnish,  estab- 
lishes a  connection  between  it  and  the  impres- 
sion, C,  which  is  laid  below  the  bladder.  Electro- 
type is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  arts  ; 
by  means  of  it,  engraved  copper  plates  may  be 
multiplied  indefinitely,  so  that  proof-impressions 
need  be  no  rarity ;  wood-cuts  can  be  converted  into 
copner ;  bronzes  can  be  copied ;  and  several  like 
applications  are  made  of  it  too  numerous  to  mention. 
By  connectimj  a  copper  pl.ate  ready  for  corrosion 
with  the  positive  pole,  and  making  it  a  positive 

606 


electrode,  it  can  be  etched  with  more  certainty 
than  witii  the  simple  acid,  and  without  the  acid 
fumes. 

MUctro-plntinri. — This  is  the  art  of  coating  t!i? 
b-aser  metals  with  silver  by  the  gijvanic  ciuieut. 
It  is  one  theoretically  of  great  simplicity,  but 
requires  in  the  successful  application  of  it  very 
considerable  experience  and  skill.  Articles  that 
are  electro-plated  are  generally  made  of  brass, 
bronze,  copper,  or  nickel  silver.  The  best  electro- 
plated goo(ls  are  of  nickel  silver.  When  Britanuia 
metal,  iron,  zinc,  or  lead  are  electro-plated,  they 
must  be  first  electro-coppered,  as  silver  does  not 
ailhere  to  the  bare  surfaces  of  these  metals.  Great 
care  is  taken  in  cleaning  the  articles  previous  to 
electro-plating,  for  any  siirface  impurity  would  spoil 
the  success  of  the  operation.  They  are  first  boiled 
in  caustic  potash,  to  remove  any  adhering  grease ; 
they  are  then  immersed  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  to  dis- 
solve any  rust  or  oxide  that  may  be  formed  on  the 
surface  ;  and  they  are  lastly  scoured  with  fine  sand. 
Before  being  put  into  the  silvering  bath,  they  are 
washed  with  nitrate  of  mercury,  which  leaves  .a 
thill  film  of  mercury  on  them,  which  acts  as  a 
cement  between  the  article  and  the  silver.  The 
b.ith  where  the  electro-plating  takes  place  is  a  large 
trough  of  earthenware  or  other  non-conducting 
substance.  It  contains  a  weak  solution  of  cyanide 
of  silver  in  cyanide  of  iwtassium.  A  plate  of  silver 
forms  the  positive  electrode  ;  and  the  articles  to 
be  pLated,  hung  by  pieces  of  wire  to  a  metal  rod 
lying  across  the  trough,  constitute  the  negative 
electrode.  When  the  plate  is  connected  with  the 
copper  or  positive  pole  of  a  one  or  more  celled 
galvanic  b.attery,  according  to  the  strength  required, 
and  the  rod  is  joined  with  the  zinc  or  negative 
pole,  chemical  decomposition  immediately  ensues  in 
the  bath,  the  silver  of  the  cyanide  begins  to  deposit 
itself  on  the  suspended  objects,  and  the  cyanogen, 
liberated  at  the  plate,  dissolves  it,  re-forming  the 
cyanide  of  silver.  According,  then,  as  the  solution 
is  weakened  by  the  loss  of  the  metal  going  to  fomi 
the  electio-coating,  it  is  strengthened  by  the  cyanide 
of  silver  formed  at  the  plate.  The  thickness  of 
the  plate  depends  on  the  time  of  its  immersion. 
The  electric  ciuTcut  thus  acts  as  the  carrier  of 
the  metal  of  the  plate  to  the  objects  immersed.  In 
this  way,  silver  becomes  perfectly  plastic  in  our 
hands.  We  can  by  this  means,  without  mechanical 
e.xertion  or  the  craft  of  the  workman,  convert  a 
piece  of  silver  of  any  shape,  however  irregiUar,  into  a 
imiform  jJate,  which  covers,  but  in  no  way  defaces, 
objects  of  the  most  comphcated  and  delicate  forms. 
A\Tien  the  plated  objects  are  taken  from  the  bath, 
they  appear  duU  and  white ;  the  dulness  is  first 
removed  by  a  small  circular  brush  of  brass  wire 
driven  by  a  lathe,  and  the  fin.al  polish  is  given  by 
burnishing.  The  process  of  clectro-gililiug  is  almost 
identical  with  that  of  electro-plating.  Success  in 
either  is  attained  by  jiroper  attention  to  the  strength 
of  the  battery,  the  strength  of  the  solution,  the 
temperature,  and  the  size  of  the  positive  electrode. 

GALVESTON,  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  state 
of  Texas,  North  America,  is  situated  on  the  north- 
east extremity  of  Galveston  Island,  at  the  opening 
of  the  bay  of  the  same  name  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico ;  lat  29°  IS'  N.,  long.  94°  50'  W.  It  is  the 
largest  and  most  commercial  city  of  Texas.  Its 
harbour,  the  best  in  the  state,  has  12  feet  of  water 
over  the  bar  at  low  tide.  Its  streets  are  straight, 
spacious,  and  elegant ;  and  its  princijial  buildings 
— the  Roman  Catholic  University  of  St  Jlary's, 
the  Eoman  Catholic  Cathedral,  and  the  Episcop,il 
Church — are  large,  imposing  edifices  of  brick  in 
the  Gothic  style.  G.  has  also  numerous  churches, 
a   convent   of   Ursuline   nuns,    and   a   number   of 


GALWAY. 


schools  of  varioua  kinds.  Here  nearly  all  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  state  is  transacted.  lu  1858, 
61  foreign  vessels,  of  26,373  tons,  entered  and 
cleared  the  jMrt ;  but  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
trade  is  along  the  coast.  In  1856,  the  number  of 
entrances  of  coasting-vessels  was  3594,  1065  being 
steamers,  rcgiUar  lines  of  which  ply  from  this  town 
to  New  York  and  New  Orleans,  as  well  as  to 
the  south-west  towns  of  Texa.s.  The  principal 
trade  is  in  shipping  cotton,  of  which  from  300,000 
to  400,000  bales  were  exported  iu  18.59.  The 
toiivni  has  good  wharfs,  several  ship-buUding  yards, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  cotton-presses,  &c.  Popu- 
lation estimated  in  1850  at  4177 ;  in  1859.  at  10,000. 
The  Bay  of  Galveston  extends  northward  from  the 
city  to  the  mouth  of  Trinity  River,  a  distance  of 
about  35  mUes,  and  is  from  12  to  18  miles  broad. 
The  island  of  Galveston  is  a  long  strip  of  low- 
Ijing  ground  with  a  mean  elevation  of  from  3  to 
4  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  about  28  miles  long, 
and  from  IJ  to  3.^  miles  broad.  It  was,  from  1817  to 
1821,  the  haunt  of  the  notorious  pirate  Lafitte,  who 
was  dislodged  in  the  latter  year,  and  his  settlement 
broken  up. 

GA'LWAY,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Ireland,  a  seaport,  and  coimty  of  itself, 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Corrib,  on  the 
north  shore  of  Galway  Bay,  50  miles  north-north- 
west from  Limerick,  and  130  miles  west-south-west 
from  Dublin.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  on  two  islands  in  its  channel,  its  parts  being 
united  by  two  bridges.  It  is  connected  with  Lough 
Corrib  by  a  canal,  and  forms  the  terminus  of  the 
Alidland  Great  Western  Railway.  A  line  of  steamers 
has,  with  a  few  interruptions,  run  for  the  last  four 
years  between  G.  and  the  North  American  colonies, 
seven  days  being  considered  the  usual  time  for  a  fair 
passage.  The  old  town  of  G.  is  poorly  Ijuilt  and 
irregidar,  and  some  of  its  older  houses  have  a  some- 
what Spanish  appearance,  which  is  accounted  for 
by  the  commercial  intercourse  which  at  one  time 
subsisted  between  G.  and  Spain.  To  one  of  these 
houses,  which  is  marked  with  a  skull  and  cross- 
bones,  a  very  remarkable  story  is  attached,  of  a 
mayor  of  G.,  James  Lynch  Fitzstephen,  who,  in 
1493,  like  Brutus  of  old,  condemned  his  own  son 
to  death  for  murder,  and  in  order  to  prevent  his 
being  rescued,  actually  caused  him  to  be  hanged 
from  his  own  window.  The  new  town  consists 
of  well-planned  and  spacious  streets,  and  is  built 
on  a  rismgground,  which  slopes  gradually  toward 
the  sea  and  the  river.  The  suburbs  are  mainly 
collections  of  WTetched  cabins,  inhabited  by  a 
miserably  poor  class  of  people.  One  of  these 
suburbs,  called  CladJagh,  is  inhabited  by  fishermen, 
who  exclude  .-dl  strangers  from  their  society,  and 
marry  within  their  own  circle.  These  fishermen 
still  speak  the  Irish  language,  and  the  Irish  costimie 
is  still  worn  by  the  women.  They  annually  elect  a 
'  mayor,'  whose  function  it  is  to  administer  the 
laws  of  their  fishery,  and  to  superintend  all  internal 
regulations.  One  of  the  (irincipal  buildings  of  G. 
is  the  parish  church  of  St  Nicholas,  founded  in  1320, 
in  connection  with  which  is  an  ecclesiastical  body 
called  the  Koyal  College  of  Galway,  consisting  of  a 
warden  and  eight  vicars  choral,  who  are  elected  by 
the  Protestant  members  of  the  corporation.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Chiu-ch  a  similar  ecclesiastical 
arrangement  formerly  existed.  The  see  of  Enach- 
dune,  of  which  G.  formed  a  part,  was  united  to 
that  of  Tuam  in  1324  ;  but  in  1484,  G.  was  consti- 
tuted a  wardenship,  with  a  distinct  jurisdiction, 
similar  to  that  of  an  episcopal  see.  The  warden- 
ship,  in  later  times,  was  held  by  one  of  the 
bishops  of  the  neighbouring  sees.  The  right  of 
electing  the  warden,  however,  was  vested  in  certain 


Catholic  clans  or  families  of  the  town — Blakr-s, 
Bodkins,  LjTiches,  Frenches,  &c.— who,  by  a  curious 
local  custom  were  distributed  into  13  tribes.  This 
smgular  system,  almost  without  example  in  the 
Cathohc  Church,  continued  in  use  until  about  30 
years  ago;  when,  in  1831,  the  wanlenship  of 
G.  was  erected  into  an  episcopal  see,  the  bishop 
of  which  is  appointed  by  the  same  rules  which 
regulate  other  Episcopal  appointments  in  Ireland. 
Among  the  other  edifices  are  three  monasteries 
and  five  nunneries ;  the  Queen's  College,  opened 
in  1849 ;  Erasmus  Smith's  College,  with  an  endowed 
income  of  £126  a  year ;  the  county  court-house ; 
barr.icks,  &c.  G.  has  numerous  flour  and  other 
mills,  also  breweries,  distilleries,  foundries,  &c., 
extensive  s.-ilmon  and  sea  fishing,  a  good  harbour, 
w-ith  docks  that  admit  vessels  of  500  tons,  and  a 
light-house.  The  exports  consist  mainly  of  corn, 
flour,  bacon,  fish,  kelp,  and  marble.  In  1861,  369 
vessels,  of  98,255  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 
G.  returns  two  members  to  ])arliament.  Pop. 
(1861)  of  town,  16,786;  of  pari,  b.,  24,990;  which 
shews  a  decrease,  since  1851,  of  7001  in  the  foi-nier, 
and  of  9156  in  tlie  latter.  (1871— pop.  of  t.  1.3,184.) 
G.  was  taken  by  Richard  de  Burgo  in  1232,  and 
the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  leading  families  now 
resident  in  this  quarter  settled  here  about  that  time. 
From  the  13th  till  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  G. 
continued  to  rise  in  commercial  importance.  During 
the  l.-itter  part  of  the  17th  c,  it  suffered  consider- 
ably for  its  adherence  to  the  royalist  cause.  In 
1052,  it  Wiis  taken  by  Sir  Charles  Coote  after  a 
blockade  of  several  months ;  and  in  July  1691,  it 
was  compelled  to  surrender  to  General  GiiikeU. 

GALWAY,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  foi-ms 
the  southern  portion  of  the  province  of  Connaught, 
and  is  second  in  size  of  all  the  Irish  counties,  Cork 
being  the  largest.  It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  two 
navigable  rivers,  the  Shannon,  and  its  aflluent  the 
Suck;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
has  an  area  of  1,566,354  acres,  of  which  the  one 
half  is  arable,  and  .almost  the  whole  of  the  remainder 
uncultivated.  Pop.  (1851)  297,897,  (1861)  254,256. 
The  county  of  G.  is  watered  in  the  east  by  the 
Shannon,  the  Suclc,  and  their  feeders;  and  in  the 
west  by  Loughs  M.ask  and  Corrib,  and  by  the 
streams — none  of  them  of  any  great  importance — 
which  fall  into  the  loughs  and  into  Galway  Bay. 
In  the  most  southern  portion  of  the  county  are  the 
Slieve-Baughta  Mountains ;  and  in  the  west  are  the 
well-known  Twelve  Pins,  a  striking  moimtain  group, 
with  a  general  height  of  about  2000  feet ;  and  the 
Maain-Turk  mountains,  of  about  an  equal  height. 
This  western  portion  of  the  county  is  exceedingly 
wild  and  romantic;  the  hills  are  separated  by 
picturesque  glens,  and  by  secluded  and  beautiful 
loughs.  South-west  from  Lough  Corrib  to  the  sea 
is  the  district  called  Coniiemara,  which  contains 
vast  bogs,  moors,  lakes,  and  morasses,  and  presents 
a  peculiarly  bleak  and  dreary  aspect.  North-east 
of  Connemara  is  Joyce's  Country,  and  south-east  of 
it  is  lar-Connaught,  or  Western  Connaught.  The 
coast-line  is  stated  to  be  alwut  400  miles  in  length, 
and  the  shore  is  much  broken,  and  is  fringed  with 
numerous  islands.  On  the  coasts  of  Connemara 
{CHii-na-vtai;  'bays  of  the  sea')  and  lar-Connaught, 
there  are  more  harbours  for  vessels  of  largo  size 
than  on  any  equal  extent  of  coast  perhaps  in  Europe. 
The  climate  is  mUd  and  humid,  and  in  low-lying 
localities,  is  sometimes  unhealthy.  The  richest  soil 
occurs  in  the  district  between  the  head  of  Galw.ay 
Bay  and  the  Shannon.  Agriculture  and  fishing  are 
the  most  gener-il  pursuits;  kelp  is  largely  manu- 
factured ;  also  woollens,  Hnens,  friezes,  felt  hats,  are 
manufactured.  The  lakes  and  loughs,  as  well  .is 
the  coasts  of  G.,  are  well  stocked  with  fish.    The 

607 


(i.M.WAY  )iAY- CAMA. 


conntv  of  G.  abounds  in  ancient  remains  of  the 
Celtic'  as  well  as  of  the  English  porioil.  Jtallig  and 
cromUrli/i  are  nmnerous ;  nioniustic  ruins  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  county  ;  a  very  tine  specimen  of 
this  chiss  is  that  of  Knocknioy,  near  Tuam ;  and 
there  are  no  fewer  than  seven  round  towers  in 
the  comity.  ('•■  county  sends  two  jncmbera  to 
liarliameut     (1S71— pop.  235,073.) 

G.\LWAY  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties 
of  (i.ilway  and  (.'hire.  It  is  a  noble  sheet  of  w.atcr, 
and  offers  great  facilities  for  an  extended  commerce. 
Grcit  ellorts  have  been  made  to  obtain  a  public 
grant  for  the  construction  of  a  liarlmur  of  refuge; 
anil  a  eom]>any  was  formed  in  ISoS  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Transatlantic  packet-service  alluded 
to  in  the  .article  Gai.wa^'.  A  scries  of  niisad ven- 
tures, however,  has  hitherto  .attended  its  efforts ; 
but  it  is  hoped  that  its  operations  will  be  resumed 
with  greater  vigour  in  the  present  year  (18G2). 
G.  B.  is  30  miles  in  length  from  west  to  east,  and 
h;is  an  average  breadth  of  about  10  miles.  At  its 
entrance,  and  between  the  IS'orth  and  South  Sound.s, 
are  the  islands  of  Arran. 

GA'LYZIN,  or  GOLYZIN,  also  frequently 
Galizi.n",  G.iutzix,  or  Gallitzin,  one  of  the  most 
numerous,  powerful,  and  distinguished  Russian 
families.  It  derives  its  origin  from  the  Lithuanian 
prince  Gedimin,  the  founder  of  the  Jagelloniau 
dynasty  of  riders  iu  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia. 
Among  the  leading  members  of  the  family  may  be 
mentioned — 1.  The  princes  Michail  .and  Dimitri 
G.,  Russian  commanders  under  Wassili  IV.,  grand- 
duke  of  Warsaw,  who  were  taken  prisoners  by  the 
Poles  .at  the  battle  of  Orscha  in  1514.  Dimitri  died 
in  captivity,  and  Michail  was  only  released  after  a 
conlinemeiit  of  3S  years. — 2.  W^vssiLI  G.,  surnamed 
the  Great,  bom  in  1G33,  was  the  coimcUlor  and 
favourite  of  .Sophia,  the  sister  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  regent  during  his  minority.  Wassili  was  a  man 
of  liberal  culture  and  ci\-ilised  tastes.  His  great  aim 
Avas  to  bring  Russia  into  contact  with  the  west  of 
Europe,  and  to  encour.age  the  arts  and  sciences  in 
the  native  gj-mnasia,  and  at  the  court  itself.  His 
design  to  many  Sophia,  and  plant  liimself  on  the 
Russian  throne,  however,  miscarried.  .Sophia  was 
placed  by  her  brother  in  a  convent,  and  Wassili  was 
banished  to  a  spot  on  the  Frozen  Ocean,  where  he 
died  of  poison. — 3.  BoKis  G.,  cousin  of  the  pre- 
vious, w.as  Peter  the  Gi"eat's  tutor,  and  one  of  the 
administnators  of  the  kingdom  during  the  czar's 
first  journey  abroad. — 4.  Dimitei  G.,  also  a  cousin 
of  Wassilf  s,  was  a  distinguished  Russian  statesman  ; 
amb.assador  .at  the  Turkish  court ;  afterwards  direc- 
tor of  tlie  imperial  finances  ;  and  finally  head  of  the 
reform  party  of  Galyzin  and  Dolgoruki,  whieli  mshed 
to  limit  the  .alisolute  authority  of  the  czar.  Dimitri's 
plan  failed ;  the  two  families  were  banished,  and 
Dimitri  himself  ended  his  d.iys  in  the  dungeons  of 
Schiisselburg. — 5.  Miciliei.  G.,  born  about  1G75, 
was  brother  of  Dimitri,  and  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Paissian  gener.als.  He  w.as  the  insep.ar,able 
companion  of  Peter  the  Great  in  all  his  camiiaigns. 
His  most  famous  achievement  was  the  conquest  of 
Kiiil.anil.  He  died  at  Moscow,  1730. — ti.  Dl>UTRI  G., 
b'lrn  1738,  went  >as  Russian  amljassador  to  France 
in  1763,  .and  to  Holland  in  1773.  He  died  in  1803. 
He  wrote  one  or  two  books,  but  he  owes  the 
preservation  of  his  name  mainly  to  his  wife,  tlie 
celebrated  Amat.ik,  Princess  G.,  daughter  of  tlic 
Prussian  general.  Count  von  Schmettaiu  This  lady 
(born  at  Berlin,  August  28,  1748)  w.as  remarkable 
for  her  literary  culture,  her  grace  and  amial>ility  of 
ilisposition,  her  sympathetic  relations  witli  scholars 
and  poets,  but,  above  all,  by  her  ardent  i)ietism, 
003 


which  found  its  most  congenial  sphere  in  the  mystic 
and  venerable  sanctities  of  Rcmian  Catholicism. 
Having  separated  from  her  husband,  she  toolc  up 
her  residence  in  Mlinster,  where  she  g.athered  round 
her  a  circle  of  learned  comjianions.  Here  resided 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  Von  Fui-steuberg, 
Goethe,  Jaeobi.  and  others,  but  her  most  attached 
friends  were  Hemsterhuis  and  Hamann.  8hc  is 
the  Diotima  to  whom  the  former  of  these,  under 
the  name  of  Dioklas,  addressed  his  Lftdr  ttiiy 
lAthisisme  (17S5).  She  largely  eontriljuted  to  the 
couversion  of  Count  Stolberg  and  his  family  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  .and  called  forth  that  excess  of 
religious  feeling  which  for  a  considerable  jjcrioil 
characterised  many  circles  of  German  society,  and 
which  Voss  so  sharply  reproved  in  his  )!'«'  xi-ard 
Fritz  Stolherq  eiii  Unfreicr  (How  Fritz  Stolberg 
became  a  Slave).  The  Princess  AmaUe  died  August 
24,  ISOG. — Compare  Denkwiirdiikiileti  aus  dem  Leben 
(lir  Fiirstin  Amalie  ron  G.  (Miinstcr,  1828).— 7. 
Dimitri  Auoustine  G.,  son  of  the  foregomg,  was 
liorn  at  the  H.ague,  December  22,  1770.  He  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  in  his  17th  yee.r,  shortly  after  his 
niothei- ;  and  through  the  intluenee  exercised  over 
him  by  a  clerical  tutor  durmg  a  voyage  to  America, 
he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  priesthood.  In 
1795,  Dimitri  Augustine  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
the  United  States  by  Bishop  Carroll  of  B.altimore, 
and  betook  himself  to  a  bleak  region  among  the 
AUeghanj'  Jlountains,  in  Penusylvania,  where  he  was 
known  as  '  Father  Smith.'  Here  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  town,  called  Loretto,  which  has  now  a 
population  of  GOOO.  He  was  austere  .as  regards  his 
])ersonal  mode  of  life,  but  liberal  in  the  highest 
degree  to  others,  and  an  all'ectionate  and  indefatig- 
able pastor.  He  wrote  various  controver.'iial  works, 
some  of  which  are  still  largely  read  iu  the  United 
.St.ates.  We  m.ay  mention  his  Defence  of  Catliolic 
Principles,  Letter  to  a  Prolextnnt  Friend,  and  Appeal 
to  the  Prutestanl  Public.  He  died  at  Loretto,  M.ay 
6,  1840. — 8.  Pkixce  Eilani'KI.  G.,  born  iu  Paris, 
1804,  studied  iu  that  city,  and  afterwards  entered 
the  Russian  anny.  He  translated  into  French 
Wrangel's  book  on  Ivorthern  Siberia,  and  wrote 
an  interesting  work,  entitled  La  Flnlan<le.  »Vo(f« 
recucillies  en  1848  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1852).  He  died  at 
Paris,  February  1853. 

GAMA,  DoM  Vasco  da,  the  diseovoi-er  of  the 
maritime  route  to  India,  was  born,  it  is  not  precisely 
known  when,  at  Sines,  a  small  se.aport  of  Portugal. 
He  was  descended  of  .an  ancient  famUy,  which  was 
even  supposed  to  have  royal  blood  in  its  veins, 
though  not  legitimately.  At  an  early  period,  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  intrepid  mariner ;  and 
after  the  return  of  Bartolommeo  Di.az,  in  1487,  from 
douljliug  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  King  Jolio,  in 
easting  about  for  a  proper  man  to  undertake  the 
discovery  of  .a  southern  passage  to  Inilia,  lixed  on 
(i.,  so  great  was  the  conlidence  which  his  abilities 
inspired.  The  intentions  of  .loio  were  frustrated  by 
death;  but  his  successor,  Manoel  the  Fortunate, 
litted  out  four  vessels,  manned  altogether  with  160 
men,  and  intrusted  them  to  the  command  of  G., 
presenting  him  at  the  same  time  with  lettei-s  to  all 
the  ]iotentates  whom  it  was  thought  Idvcly  he  might 
re(piire  to  Ansit :  among  others,  one  to  the  mythical 
'  Prester  John,'  then  supposed  to  bo  reigning  in 
splendour  somewhere  in  the  east  of  Africa.  The 
little  fleet  left  Lisbon  8th  July  1497,  but  h,aving 
been  tormented  by  tempestuous  "winds  almost  tlie 
whole  w.ay,  only  .arrived  at  the  haven  now  known  as 
Table  Bay  on  the  Kith  of  Novcmlier,  where  they 
cast  anchor  for  a  few  days.  On  the  19th  November, 
(i.,  after  encountering  a  series  of  frightful  storms, 
;uid  being  obliged  to  sternly  sup))res3  a  mutiny 
among  his  territied  crew,  who  wanted  him  to  return 


GAMA  GRASS-GAMALIEL. 


to  Portugal,  sailed  round  the  southern  extremity  of 
Africa,  and  touched  at  various  places  on  the  hitherto 
unknown  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  At  Melinda, 
where  he  foinid  the  jieople  far  more  civilised  than 
he  expected,  he  obtained  the  services  of  a  well- 
educated  pilot,  a  native  of  Guzerat,  in  India,  who 
seemed  familiar  with  the  astrolabe,  the  compass, 
and  quadrant.     Under  his  guidance,  G.  struck  out 


13  or  14  vessels.  As  he  approached  the  coast  of 
India,  an  unaccountable  agitation  of  the  water  was 
observed  by  all.  There  was  no  wind  to  cause  it, 
and  the  superstitious  sailors  were  greatly  alarmed. 
'  Why  fear  ? '  said  G. :  '  the  sea  trembles  before  its 
conquerors.'  His  firmness  and  courage  succeeded  in 
making  Portugal  once  more  respected  in  India;  but 
wlule   engageil   in  his  successful   schemes,  he  was 


to  sea,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  arrived  at  suri)rised  by  death  at  Cochin,  December  1525.  His 
Calicut,  in  India,  on  the  iOth  of  i\Iay  14'.)8.  His  boily  was  conveyed  to  Portugal,  and  burie<l  with 
recqition  by  the  ruler  of  Calicut  (the  '  Samudri-  J  great  pomp.  In  the  character  of  G.,  resolution  was 
Itajah,'  or  Prince  of  the  Coast,  shortened  into  I  found  combined  with  prudence  and  great  presence 
Zamorin)  was  not  very  favomable,  nor  did  G.'s  of  mind.  Hia  justice,  loy.alty,  honour,  and  religious 
mtercuui-sc  with  him  subsequently  improve.  Tlie  fervoiu-  distinguished  him  above  most  of  the  great 
Arab  merchants  residing  there  were  jealous  of  the  !  navigators  and  conquerors  of  his  time.  His  dis- 
new-comers,  who  might  interfere  with  their  mono-  covery  of  a  passage  tu  India  .almost  vies  in  impnrt- 
(inly  of  traffic,  and  incited  the  Hindus  against  them,  anee  with  the  discovery  of  America  by  Coluniljus, 
I  >ther  complications  also  arose,  and  the  resiUt  was  which  took  place  only  a  few  years  before.  CoiLsult 
that,  on  his  departure,  G.  had  to  fight  his  way  out    Barros,   Decades;    Castanpeda   and   Latitau,   JJi«l. 


C'unqu.  Portuij.;  and  Cooley,  HUt.  Mar.  D'ucov. 
His  achievements  are  also  celebrated  by  Camoens  in 
the  Lusiad. 


f  the  harbour.  Satisfied  -n-ith  the  discoveries 
he  had  made,  the  I'ortuguese  commander  now 
tiu-ned  his  course  homeward,  touched  at  several  of 
the  jilaces  he  had  previously  \nsited,  and  in  Sep- 
tember 1499,  cast  anchor  at  Lisbon,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction.  High-soimding 
titles  were  conferred  on  him.  He  was  allowed 
the  rare  privilege  of  prefixing  Dom  to  his  name, 
and  obtained  a  large  indemnity  for  his  trouble, 
besides  certain  monopolies  in  the  commerce  about 
to  be  opened  with  Imlia.  King  Mannel  inmiediately 
despatched  a  squadron  of  l.'j  ships,  imder  Pedro 
.'Vlvarez  Cabral,  to  India,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing Portuguese  settlements  in  that  country.  In 
this  they  were  sueccssfid  only  in  a  few  phaces.  At 
Calicut,  forty  Portuguese,  who  had  been  left  behind, 
were  mm-dered  by  the  natives.  To  avenge  this 
injury,  and,  more  particularly,  to  secure  the 
Indian  Ocean  commerce,  the  king  fitted  out  a  new 
squadron   of   20   ships,   which  set  sail   under   G.'s 

conunand  in   1502.      This  fleet   reached   in  safety  ,  ,-.•       ,-,,  _L-ri_- 

the  east  coast   of  Africa,  founded  the  Portuguese  :  =^"  "^^f  *  invaluable  property  of  bearing  e 
colonies   of    Mozambique   and    Sofala,   which    still    l^^^lS^t^  «;ithout  m^iu-y 
exist,  and  sailed  to  Travancore. 


On  his  way,  G. 
captured  a  richly  laden  vessel  tilled  mth  Mussul- 
maus  from  all  parts  of  Asia,  on  their  way  to 
Mecca.  He  barbarously  set  it  on  fire ;  and  the 
whole  crew,  amounting  to  about  300,  were  burned 
or  slain,  with  the  exception  of  some  20  women 
and  children.  What  adds  to  the  tr.agic  character 
of  this  fearful  incident  is,  that  it  occurred  through 
a  mistake.  G.  confoumled  these  Asiatic  followers 
of  the  Prophet  with  the  Moors  of  Africa,  the 
hereditary  enemies  of  his  nation,  and  proceeded 
to  extremities  on  that  assumption.  On  reaching 
Calicut,  G.,  after  a  delay  of  a  few  days,  bombarded 
the  place,  destroyed  a  fleet  of  29  sliips,  and  com- 
pelled the  rajah  to  conclude  a  peace  with  suitable 
indemnification.  If  this  act  of  vengeance  or  of 
punishment,  executed  as  it  was  with  jirudence  and 
determination,  inspired  the  natives  with  fear  of  the 
power  of  the  Portuguese,  it  contributed  to  confirm 
the  alliances  made  mth  several  of  tlie  native  princes. 
So  rapid  had  been  G.'s  proceedings,  that  before  the 
close  of  December  1503,  he  was  back  in  Portugal 
with  13  richly  laden  vessels.  He  was  not,  however, 
again  employed  for  a  i>eriod  of  20  years ;  and  it  would 
appear  that  Manoel,  for  some  reason  or  other,  faded 
jiroperly  to  appreciate  his  great  services.  Alean- 
whUe,  the  Portuguese  conquests  in  India  increased, 
and  were  presided  over  by  five  successive  viceroys, 
wlule  G.  was  Ijnng  inactive  at  home.  The  fifth  of 
these  \'iceroys,  however,  was  so  imfortimate,  that 
King  JoSo  III.,  the  successor  of  Manoel,  was  com- 
pelled to  have  recourse  to  the  old  hero;  and  in  1524, 
bearing  the  title  of  viceroy,  G.  set  sad  once  more 
for  the  scene  of  his  former  triiunphs  with  a  fleet  of 
135 


GAMA  GRASS  (Tiipmcum),  a  genus  of  Grasses, 
distinguished  by  unisexual  flowers  phaced  in  sjjikes, 
which  are  fertile  at  the  base,  and  barren  towards 
the  e.xtremitj',  the  sjiikelets  having  two  glumes  and 
about  two  florets,  the  female  florets  immerseil  in  the 
thick  and  sinuous  joints  of  the  rachis,  so  that  the 
spike,  when  the  seed  is  ripened,  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  cylindrical  bone.  Only  two  species  are 
known,  of  which  T.  dadijloules,  the  Gama  Grass  of 
Mexico,  distinguished  by  ha\Tng  spikes  usually  three 
together,  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  fodder-grass, 
and  is  cultivated  not  only  in  Mexico,  but  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  now  also  to  some 
extent  in  Kurope.  In  favourable  circimistanees,  it 
yields  a  very  abundant  crop,  and  attains  a  height  of 
nine  or  ten  feet,  its  root-leaves  measuring  six  feet 
in  length.      It  possesses  what  for  some  climates  is 

excessive 
er,  from 
frost.  It  seems  eminently  adajited  to  the  chniate  of 
tlie  Austrahan  colonies. — The  other  species,  the 
Gama  Grass  of  Carolina  (T.  moiiostachyon),  distin- 
guished by  solitary  spikes,  is  not  so  much  esteemed. 
— Gama  Grass  is  said  to  derive  itsi  name  from  a 
Spanish  gentleman  who  first  attempted  its  cidtiva- 
tion  in  Mexico. 

GAMA'LIEL,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  Gamli'tl  (Mi/  rewarder  is  God ;  or.  Mine 
also  is  Gorl),  the  most  celebrated  bearer  of  which 
is  Gamaliel  I.,  or  the  Elder  {hasaken),  probably  the 
one  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts,  v.  34, 
and  xxii.  3).  Both  here  and  in  the  Talmuilical 
writings,  he  appears  only  in  his  capacity  of  a 
teacher  of  the  law,  and  a  prominent  Pharisaic 
member  of  the  Sanhedrim  (q.  v. ) ;  but  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life,  or  the  d.ite  of  his  birth  and 
death,  we  learn  nothing  from  these,  the  only  sources. 
He  was  the  son  of  Simeon,  the  same,  it  may  be 
assmned,  who  was  first  honoured  by  the  title  of 
Kaljan  (our  master) — a  mark  of  distinction  after- 
wards bestowed  on  Gamahel  himself — and  thus 
the  grandson  of  the  celeljrated  Hillel.  Whether  (as 
woijd  follow  from  Pesachim,  88  b.)  he  actually 
]>resided  over  the  Sanhedrim  (in  the  reigns  of  Tibe- 
rius, Caligida,  and  Claudius)  or  not,  certain  it  is 
that  the  laws  and  ordinances  which  were  issued 
by  that  body  during  his  life  bore  the  stamp  of  the 
.all-embracing  hiunanity  and  enlightened  liberality 
which  from  the  'regal'  House  of  Hillel  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  School  of  Hillel — principally  as  opposed 
to  the  particularising  .and  austere  school  of  Shamai. 
To  the  refinement  and  erudition  hereditary  in  his 
family — tu  which,  alone,  on  accomit  of  its  exalted 

600 


(;a:mb-ga.mbling. 


position,  even  the  otherwise  strictly  forbiiUlcn  study 
of  Ciret'k  science  and  philosoiiby  had  been  allowed 
(of.  Derech  Eretz,  iv.)— G.  apjieare  to  have  added 
a  rare  degree  of  discretion,  and  of  that  practical 
irisdora  wliich  betimes  revokes  or  adapts  social 
laws,  .iccording  to  the  wanta  of  the  common- 
wealth. For  the  benelit  of  suUcrers  of  all  kind.s, 
that  most  stringent  law  of  the  hniited  Sabbath- 
day's  journey  was  relaxed  ;  the  licence  hitherto 
nllowed  to  the  absent  husband,  of  annulling  his 
letter  of  divorce  (if  he  regretted  his  rashness),  even 
after  its  delivery,  before  any  coiu-t  of  two  or  of 
three  men,  was"  abolished  (Gittin,  32) ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  prevent  confusion,  prei^cnse  or 
involuntary,  the  strictest  accuracy  with  respect 
to  the  names  of  the  husband,  wife,  and  witnesses 
contained  in  these  documents  was  most  rigorously 
enforced,  .\gaiii,  the  widow  was  to  receive  her 
marriage-portion  (Kethuba)  from  the  recalcitrant 
heirs,  simply  on  her  asseveration  that  she  had  not 
received  it  during  her  husband's  lifetime :  while 
formerly  she  had  not  been  permitted  to  make  oath 
even  in  the  matter  (Gittin,  34).  But  no  less 
imimrtant,  and  testif>-ing,  at  the  same  time,  to  a 
sj)irit  free  from  prejudice,  are  the  other  laws 
resjiectiug  the  treatment  of  the  Gentiles,  which 
may  ]iroi>erly  be  ascribed  to  G.'s  influence,  if  indeed 
they  were  not  inaugurated  by  himself.  Gentile  and 
Jew,  it  was  enacted,  shoidil  henceforth,  without 
distinction,  be  allowed  the  gleanings  of  the  hari-est- 
lield  ;  even  on  the  day  spX-cially  set  aside  to  his 
idol-worship,  the  former  shoidd  be  greeted  with 
the  s.ilutation  of  peace.  Of  his  poor,  the  same  care 
was  to  be  taken ;  his  sick  were  to  be  tended,  his 
dead  to  be  buried,  his  mourners  to  be  comforted, 
exactly  as  if  they  belonged  to  the  Jewish  com- 
munity (Gittin,  5'.»  b.,  Gl  11'. ;  Jer.  Gitt.  c.  5)— cer- 
tainly no  mean  tribute  to  the  principle  of  the 
equ.aiity  of  the  himian  race,  and  a  practical  can-ying 
out  of  Hillers  motto,  the  words  of  the  Scripture 
(Lev.  xix.  18),  'And  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour 
as  thyself'  (cf.  Sabbath,  30  b.  IT.).  The  consideration 
of  these  and  other  legislative  acts,  all  tending 
towards  that  social  improvement  and  consolidation 
('/"iW-uHi/uo/nm)  which  was  G.'s  avowed  and  acknow- 
ledged aim,  seems  also  to  set  at  rest  that  old  and 
barren  dispute,  whether  G.,  when  he  iutcqwsed  on 
behalf  of  the  apostles,  and  referred  their  matter  to 
God  himself,  was  secretly  a  Christian,  or  whether 
he  was  '  a  cowardly  tyrant,  who  even  sought  to 
witlihold  from  them  the  pri\-ilege  of  martyrdom.' 
Tolerant,  ]>eacefid,  as  free  from  fanaticism  on  the 
one  hand,  as  on  the  other  from  partiality  for  the 
new  sect,  which  he  seems  to  have  placed  simply 
on  a  par  with  the  many  other  sects  that  sprang 
up  in  those  days,  and  disappeared  as  quickly :  he 
exhorts  to  long-sufl'criug  and  good-will  on  all  sides. 
Of  his  relation  to  St  Paul,  of  the  '  Law'  he  taught 
him  (Acts,  xxii.  3),  as  well  as  of  the  inlluence  which 
his  mind  might  have  exercised  over  that  of  the 
'  apostle  of  the  GentUes,'  we  shall  treat  under  the 
name  of  this  latter. 

When  G.  died  (about  seveuteen  years  before  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple),  '  the  glory  of  the  law ' 
was  said  to  have  departed,  and  with  him  '  ilied  the 
reverence  before  the  law  and  the  purity  of  tin; 
aliiiliiidice'  (Pharisaism),  (Sota,  49).  His  memory 
lias  always  been  held  in  the  highest  honour.  The 
story  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  we  need 
scarcely  .-vdd,  is  as  devoid  of  any  historical  foun- 
dation as  tliat  of  the  transmission  of  his  bones 
to  I'isa.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  G. 
has  been  placed  on  the  list  of  Christian  Saints,  and 
that  his  day  is  celebrated  on  the  3d  of  August 

GAMB,  an  heraldic  oorru])tion  of  the  French 
word  jambe,  the  leg.     See  Jamui:. 


GAMBA.     See  Viol  Di  G.\MB.v. 

GA'IMBESON,  or^YAMBFA'S,  a  word  of  doubt- 
ful origin,  implying  a  covering  for  the  liody,  was 
the  name  of  a  thickly  quilted  tunic  stuil'ed  with 
wool,  and  worn  by  knights  imder  the  hauberk, 
as  a  padding  for  the  armoiu-.  As  it  was  sutliciontly 
strong  to  resist  ordinary  cuts,  it  waa  sometimes 
worn  without  other  armour.  The  surcoat  was 
also  quilted  or  i/amhoi.^ed  with  cotton  wool,  aa  in 
that  of  the  Black  Prince,  still  hanging  above  his 
tomb  in  Canterbury  cathedral. 

GA'MBIA,  a  river  of  Western  .iVfrica,  whose 
basin,  and  that  of  the  Senegal,  constitute  the 
region  known  as  Sencgambia,  enters  the  Atlantic 
in  lat.  13°  30'  N.,  and  long.  16°  .34'  W.,  after  an 
estimated  couree  of  fuUy  1000  miles.  It  is  four 
miles  broad  at  its  mouth,  having  a  reach  of 
double  the  width  immediately  inside.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  150  tons  uji  to  Barraconda,  a 
town  on  its  right  bank,  about  200  miles  from 
the  sea. 

GAMBIA,  a  British  settlement  occupying  the 
banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  as  far  ui> 
as  Barraconda,  though  not  continuously.  The 
principal  station,  Bathurst,  is  situated  on  the  island 
of  St  Mary,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambi;i.  Other 
])osts  are  Fort  James  and  Fort  George,  the  former 
also  situated  on  St  Mary's,  and  the  latter  on 
Macarthy's  Island,  180  miles  from  the  sea.  Pop. 
of  settlement  in  1851,  5693,  of  whom  191  were 
whites.  The  climate  is  comparatively  unhealthy. 
The  export  trade,  already  considerable,  is  steadily 
increasing,  comprising  chiefly  wax,  hides,  ivory,  gold 
dust,  rice,  palm-oil,  horns,  timber,  and  ground- 
nuts. The  last-named  article  alone  had  augmented 
from  10,808  tons,  value  £130,496,  in  18.50,  to  1,''>,705 
tons,  value  £188,464,  in  1858.  The  foreign  com- 
merce with  France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States,  respectively  employs  12,500,  5500,  and 
3800  tons.  In  1855  there  were  in  this  settlement 
seven  schools,  attended  by  1349  pupils. 

GA'MBIER  ISLANDS,  a  Polynesian  group, 
imder  a  French  protectorate,  in  lat.  23°  8'  S., 
aud  long.  l.'?4°  55'  W.  They  number  five  Larger, 
and  several  smaller  islands,  all  of  coral  form.ation. 
With  the  exception  of  Pitcairu's  Island,  they  alone, 
on  the  route  between  Chili  and  Tahiti,  yield  good 
water  in  sufficient  abimdance  for  the  supply  of 
shipping. 

GA'MBIR,  or  GAilBEER,  an  astringent  sub- 
stance resembling  Catechu  (q.  v.),  aud  used  for 
the  same  purposes.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  pure  astringents.  It  is  prepared  from  the  leaves 
of  the  G.  shrub,  Uncaria  Gamhir,  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies  and  Malay  Archipelago.  The  genus 
Uncaria  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Ciiichoiiacece. 
The  G.  shrub  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  great  quantities  of  G.  being 
used  by  the  Malays  for  chewing  with  betel.  G. 
is  obtained  by  boiling  or  infusing  the  leaves  in 
water,  and  evaporating  either  by  the  heat  of  a 
fire  or  of  the  sun.  It  is  used  in  Europe  both 
in  medicine,  and  extensively  in  tanning.  It  is 
often  called  Terra  Japonlca  in  commerce.  When 
examined  by  the  microscope,  it  is  found  to  consist 
in  great  part  of  a  midtitude  of  small  crystals  of 
catechbie. 

GAJIBLING,  or  GAMING,  the  art  or  pr.actice 
of  pl.ajdng  a  game  of  hazard,  or  one  depending 
]iartly"on  skill  and  partly  on  hazard,  with  a  view, 
more  or  less  exclusive,  to  a  pecuniary  gain.  (James 
of  this  natiu-c  were  forbidden  by  the  ilomans  both 
under  the  Kepublic  and  the  Empire  (Cic.  Philip,  ii. 
23;  Big.  ix.  tit.  5;  Cod.  iii.  tit.  43).     The  ground 


GAMBLING—GAMBOGE. 


on  which  this  was  done  was  the  tendency  of  such 
practices,  not  to  demoralise  the  populace,  but  to 
render  them  effeminate  and  unmanly.  Horace 
(Carm.  iii.  24)  complains  that  youths  of  condition, 
instead  of  riding  and  hunting,  had  betaken  them- 
selves to  illegal  games  of  chance.  It  belonged  to 
the  fediles  to  attend  to  the  pubUo  interest  by 
punishing  violations  of  the  gaming  laws.  Durini; 
the  saturnalia,  which  was  a  period  of  general 
hcence,  these  games  were  permitted  (Martial,  iv. 
14),  and  a  like  indulgence  at  other  seasons  was 
extended  to  old  men  both  amongst  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  (Eurip.  Med.  G7  ;  Juv.  xiv.  4).  Nor 
has  this  vice  been  confined  to  civilised  nations, 
cither  in  the  ancient  or  the  modem  world  ;  Tacitus 
(De  Mor.  O'er.  c.  '2}  mentions  its  existence  amongst 
our  own  barbarian  forefathers,  and  it  is  known 
to  prevail  amongst  many  half-civdised  and  even 
savage  tribes  at  the  present  day.  In  general,  it  is 
resorted  to  as  a  refuge  against  the  depressing 
sensations  of  hinguor  and  vacancy,  which  the  want 
of  active  exertion  causes  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
have  no  inner  life  ;  and  the  classes  most  addicted  to 
it  in  all  countries  are  the  idle,  and  mere  men  of 
business  in  their  idle  hours. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  England,  as  in  Rome,  the 
ground  on  which  gambling  was  first  prohibited  was, 
not  its  demoralising,  but  its  effeminating  induencea 
on  the  community.  The  act  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  9 
(1541)  has  in  \'iew,the  double  object  of  'maintaining 
artillerj'  and  debarring  unlawfid  games.'  By  '  artU- 
lery'  appears  to  be  meant  archery,  and  the  act, 
reciting  two  others  in  the  same  reign,  proceeds  on 
the  preamble,  that  the  skill  of  the  people  in  this 
mai-tial  art  '  is  sore  decayed,  and  daUy  is  like  to  be 
more  and  more  minished.'  The  cause  of  this  degene- 
racy is  stated  to  have  been  the  practice  among 
the  people  of  '  many  and  sundry  new  and  crafty 
games,'  which  not  only  diverted  popular  attention 
from  the  more  manly  and  patriotic  art  of  shooting 
with  the  bow,  but  gave  rise  to  murders,  robberies, 
and  other  felonies.  The  act  then  proceeds  to  make 
anxious  provisions  for  the  revival  of  the  art  of 
shooting  with  yew  bows,  and  for  the  abolition  of 
the  said  g.imes — among  which  '  carding'  is  expressly 
mentioned — in  any  common  house.  On  this  act 
followed  IG  Cliarles  II.  c.  7,  and  9  Anne,  c.  14,  the 
latter  of  which  declared  that  all  bonds,  or  other 
secmities  given  for  money  won  at  play,  or  money 
lent  at  the  time  to  play  with,  should  be  utterly 
void,  and  all  mortgages  or  encumbrances  of  lands 
made  on  the  same  consideration,  should  be  made 
over  to  the  use  of  the  mortgager.  This  statute 
applied  to  Scotland,  where  the  nuUity  was  found  to 
affect  any  one  holding  a  bond  or  bill  as  trustee  for 
the  winner,  but  not  onerous  or  bond-fidi:  endorsers, 
without  notice  of  the  objection  (Bell's  Com.  i. 
p.  28,  Shaw's  edition).  Such  continued  to  be  the 
statute  law  till  1845,  when  there  was  passed  the 
act  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  109,  which,  though  it  repealed 
the  obsolete  proWsious  of  33  Henry  VIII.  and  16 
Charles  II.  c  7,  entirely  aifinned,  and  even  extended 
the  prohibitions  of  the  fonner  enactments  against 
card-playing  and  other  gan>es  in  common  houses, 
and  other  public  places.  By  this  statute,  also,  the 
common  law  of  England  was  altered,  and  wagers, 
which,  with  some  exceptions!,  had  hitherto  been 
considered  legal  contracts,  were  declared  to  be  no 
longer  exigible  in  a  court  of  law.  This  prohibition, 
however,  only  applies  to  bets  and  wagers  made  on 
imlawfid  games.  In  Scotland,  an  opposite  nde  had 
been  followed,  the  judges  having  held,  irrespective 
of  the  character  of  the  game,  or  of  any  statutory 
prohibition  regarding  it,  th,at '  then-  proper  functions 
were  to  enforce  the  rights  of  parties  arising  out  of 
serious  transactions,  tmd   not    to    pay   regard   to 


iponsiones  ludicrce.'  The  partial  assimilation  which 
has  now  been  effected  in  this  respect  between  the 
laws  of  tlie  two  countries,  is  one  the  desirableness 
of  which  had  been  pointed  out  by  many  eminent 
English  judges,  from  the  time  of  Lord  Mansfield 
down  to  the  passing  of  the  act,  and  which  was  at 
last  adopted  in  accordance  with  the  report  of  a 
select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1844. 
By  tliis  statute,  it  is  also  proWded  that  cheating  at 
play  shall  be  punished  as  obtaining  money  under 
false  pretences.  It  also  facilitates  proceedings 
ag.iinst  common  gaming-houses,  by  enacting  tliat 
where  other  evidence  is  awanting,  it  shall  be  stifficient 
to  prove  that  the  house  or  other  place  is  kept  or 
used  for  plajHng  at  any  unlawfid  game,  and  that  a 
bank  is  there  kept  by  one  or  more  of  the  players 
exclusively  of  the  others ;  or  that  the  chauces  of 
any  game  played  therein  are  not  alike  favourable 
to  all  the  players,  including  among  the  players  the 
mau.ager  or  managers  of  the  bank.  In  order  to 
constitute  the  house  a  common  gaming-house,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  prove  that  any  person  found 
plaj^ing  at  any  game  w,as  jilaying  for  any  money, 
wager,  or  stake.  The  jiolice  may  enter  the  house  on 
the  report  of  a  superintendent,  and  the  authority 
of  a  commissioner,  without  the  necessity  of  an 
allegation  of  two  householders ;  and  if  any  cards, 
dice,  balls,  counters,  tables,  or  other  instruments  of 
gaming  be  found  in  the  house,  or  about  the  person 
of  any  of  those  who  shall  be  found  therein,  such 
discovery  shall  be  eWdence  against  the  establish- 
ment until  the  contrary  be  made  to  appe;ir. 
Those  who  shall  appear  as  witnesses,  further,  are 
protected  from  the  consequences  of  haring  been 
engaged  in  imlawful  gaming.  This  enactment  docs 
not,  of  course,  apply  to  the  playing  of  games  in 
private  houses  merely  for  purjioses  of  amusement, 
even  though  a  small  pecuniary  stake  shoidd  be 
added  to  enhance  the  interest  of  the  players ;  but 
where,  from  the  heaviness  of  the  stakes,  and  the 
systematic  and  repeated  character  of  the  playing, 
there  coidd  be  no  question  that  the  crime  of 
gambling  was  being  committed  in  point  of  fact, 
the  mere  circumstance  of  the  house  being  in  other 
respects  a  private  one,  would  not  protect  the 
players  from  the  statutory  penalties.  In  addition 
to  the  discouragement  given  to  gambling  in  Scot- 
land by  the  rule  that  bets  and  money  gained  at 
play  could  not  be  recovered  by  an  action,  it  was 
also  prohibited  by  statute.  The  act  1G21,  c.  14, 
enacts  that  plajnng  in  taverns  is  prohibited  under 
a  jjecuniary  penalty  for  the  first  offence,  and  a 
loss  of  licence  for  the  second.  Playing  in  private 
houses  is  also  forbidden,  if  the  master  of  the  house 
do  not  play.  This  act,  ilr  Bell  says,  is  not  in 
desuetude  {Com.  i.  p.  28),  and  the  act  of  Anne, 
c.  14.  in  so  far  as  not  repealed,  also  applies  to 
Scotland. 

In  most  of  the  states  of  Germany,  gaming  is 
allowed,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  pr.actiscd 
at  the  German  watering-places  is  well  known. 
The  princes  of  the  petty  states  often  derive  a  large 
portion  of  their  revenue  from  the  tenants  of  their 
gaming  establishments,  whose  exclusive  pri\Tleges 
they  gxiarantee.  Abstracts  of  the  laws  of  different 
countries  relating  to  ganung  were  prepared  by 
J.  M.  Ludlow,  Esq.,  and  laid  before  the  select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons.  They  will 
be  found  in  a  condensed  form  in  volimie  3  of 
the  Political  Dictionary  of  the  Standard  Library 
Cijdopadia. 

GAMBO'GE,  or  CAMBOGE,  a  giim-resin,  used 
in  medicine  and  the  arts,  brought  from  the  East 
Indies,  and  beUeved  to  be  the  i>roduee  chiefly  of 
Cambogia  g'ltta,  also  known  as  Ucbradendron 
gambogioides,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Gult[ftrtv, 

Cll 


GAMBOGE-GAME. 


a  native  of  Ceylon.  Siam.  Cambodia,  &c.  The 
camlHiw-troc  attains  a  height  of  forty  feet,  has 
smootli  oval  leaves,  small  jwlyfainous  Howers,  and 
clustered  suceuleut  fruit.  The  fruit  is  about  two 
inehes  in  diameter,  sweet  and  eatable,  and  is  also 
much  used  as  an  ingredient  iu  sauces.     When  the 


^rv^' 


Gamboge  {Hebradendron  pamboffioiden) : 

a,  back  view  of  a  male  flower  ;  b,  side  view  of  male  flower  ; 

c,  an  anther,  with  its  umbilicate  lid. 

bark  of  the  tree  is  wounded,  G.  exudes  as  a  thick 
viscid  yellow  juice,  which  hardens  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  Another  species  of  the  same  genus  (C. 
pktiiria)  oceiu's  in  the  Mysore,  and  is  bebeved  to 
produce  G.  of  similar  quahty.  The  finest  G.  comes 
from  Hiava.— Amerkan  G.,  which  is  very  similar,  and 
used  for  the  same  purposes,  is  obtained  from  Vimiia 
Oiiianensis,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Hyperkina; 
a  native  of  Mexico  and  Sm-inam. 

G.  occurs  in  commerce  in  three  forms  :  1.  in  rolls 
or  xoUd  njlinders ;  2.  in  ]>ipes  or  holloio  ajlinders ; 
and  3.  in  cahes  or  amorjihous  masses.  The  first  two 
kinds  are  the  purest.  Good  G.  contains  about  70 
per  cent,  of  resin  and  20  ))er  cent,  of  gum,  the 
remainder  being  made  up  of  woody  fibre,  fecida, 
and  moisture.  On  evaporating  to  tlryne.ss  the 
ethereal  textm-e  of  the  piu-e  gum-resin,  we  obtain  a 
deep  orange-coloured  or  cherry-red  substance,  to 
which  the  terms  gamboijk  and  ijamhodic  add  have 
been  applied.  Its  composition  is  represented  by 
the  foinuda  CjoH^jOs,  according  to  Johnston  (Pliil. 
Trans.  1839). 

As  the  detection  of  G.  in  quack  medicines,  &c.,  is 
occasionally  of  great  medico-legal  imjiortance  (death 
having  often  taken  place  in  consequence  of  the 
administration  of  Morison's  pills  and  similar  pre- 
paratiims),  we  may  mention  the  following  simple 
mode  of  procedure.  Digest  one  portion  of  the  sus- 
pected substance  in  alcohol,  and  .another  in  etlier. 
In  each  case,  if  G.  is  present,  we  obtain  an  orange- 
coloured  tincture.  The  ethereal  tincture  dropped  in 
water  yields,  on  the  evaporation  of  the  ether,  a 
thin,  bright-yellow  film  of  gainbogic  acid,  which  is 
soluble  in  caustic  potash.  The  alcohoHc  tincture 
dropped  into  water  jdelds  a  bright,  opacjue,  yellow 
emiUsion,  which  liecomes  transparent,  and  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  on  the  addition  of  caustic  potash. 
On  the  addition  of  acetate  of  lead  to  either  of 
these  solutions,  we  have  a  yellow  precipitate  of 
gambogiate  of  le.ad  ;  similarly,  sulphate  of  cojiper 
yieUU  a  browm,  and  the  salts  of  iron  a  dark-brown 

CI'J 


precipitate  of  the  respective  gainbogiates  of  copper 
and  iron. 

I  n  doses  of  a  dnichm,  or  even  less,  G.  nets  as  an 
acrid  poison,  causing  extreme  vomiting  and  purging, 
followed  by  fainting  and  death.  In  small  doses  of 
from  one  to  three  gr.tins,  combined  with  aloca  and 
ginger  or  arom.atic  powder,  it  may  be  given  iu  e;i8e 
of  obstinate  constipation,  in  cerebral  atl'cctions  (as 
apoplexy,  or  where  there  is  an  a])oplectic  tendency), 
iu  dropsy  (especially  if  connected  with  hepatic 
obstruction),  and  as  a  remedy  for  tape-worm.  The 
use  of  G.  is  objectionable  when  there  is  an  irritable 
or  intlamm.atory  condition  of  the  stomach  or  intes- 
tines, or  a  tendency  to  .abortion  ;  an<l  it  is  not  very 
often  prescribed  by  orthodox  practitioners. 

G.  is  much  used  by  painters  to  produce  a  beautiful 
yellow  colour.  It  is  ,ilsn  employed  for  staining 
wood,  and  for  m.aking  a  gold-coloured  lacker  for 
brass.  It  has  a  shelly  fracture,  is  destitute  of 
smell,  and  has  an  acrid  t;iste.  It  burns  with  a 
dense  smoke  and  many  sparks. 

GAJIE.  Certain  wild  animals  are  selected  by 
what  are  called  the  game-laws  from  all  other  ani- 
m.als,  and  protected,  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of 
those  on  whose  lands  they  are  found.  Game-laws 
of  one  kind  or  another  exist  in  all  modern  countries, 
and  in  recent  times  the  tendency  seems  every- 
where to  be  to  render  them  more  stringent.  In 
ancient  times,  our  kings  distinguished  themselves 
by  the  severity  of  the  forest  laws,  from  which 
the  modem  game-laws  are  descended ;  but  the 
crown  has  now  little  to  do  with  game,  except  where 
certain  ancient  forests,  parks,  and  free  warrens 
are  to  be  found,  and  these  continue  to  this  day  to 
be  privileged  places  in  many  res]>ects.  The  g.ame- 
laws  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  .are  still 
quite  distinct,  .and  though  in  the  most  material 
parts  they  agree,  yet  there  are  sever.al  peculiarities 
to  be  .attended  to.  The  English  statutes  on  the 
subject  now  in  force  .are  the  Game  Act  1  and  2 
Will.  IV.  c.  32,  and  its  amendments,  o  and  0  W'ill 
IV.  c.  20,  and  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  G.5 ;  the  Night 
Poaching  Act,  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  09,  and  its  amend- 
ment, 7  .and  S  Vict.  c.  29  ;  the  Lar9eny  Act,  24  .and 
2.5  Vict.  c.  96;  the  Hares'  Killing  Act,  11  and  12 
Vict.  c.  29,  and  the  Game  Licenses'  Acts,  23  and  24 
Vict.  c.  90,  and  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  35.  These,  however, 
only  constitute  the  statute  law  on  the  subject,  and 
there  is  interwoven  with  them  the  common  law, 
both  of  which  rcqtiire  to  be  t.aken  together.  Our 
present  space  precludes  oiu-  giving  more  than  the 
substance  of  the  leading  doctrines  on  the  subject. 

Blaekstone  laid  down  the  doctrine,  that  at  cnm- 
mon  law  the  sole  right  of  hunting  and  killing  g.ame 
belonged  to  the  crown,  and  that  the  subject  could 
onlj'  claim  this  right  by  tr.acing  title  to  the  crown. 
This  doctrine  has,  however,  been  clearly  shewn  to 
be  erroneous,  and  Professor  Christian  was  the  first 
to  point  it  out.  It  is  no w  well  settled  that  at  ci  .m- 
mon  Law  the  owner  of  the  soil,  or,  if  he  has  gi-anted 
a  lease  without  reserving  the  right,  then  the  lessee 
or  occupier,  has  the  right  to  kill  and  catch  every 
wild  animal  that  comes  on  his  lands.  This  is  still 
the  law,  but  the  game-laws  h.ave  made  it  necessaiy 
that  the  owner,  or  other  person  h.aving  the  legal 
right,  sh.all,  before  doing  so,  t.ake  out  a  game-licence 
— in  other  words,  pay  a  tax  to  the  state.  Not  only 
is  a  game-hcence  nccess.ary  iu  all  cases,  but  there 
is  a  certain  season,  called  the  close  season,  during 
which  it  is  unlawful  for  every  person,  whether 
having  the  legal  riglit  or  not,  to  c'atch  or  kill  game. 
Game  is  defined  to  include  the  following  animals 
only — viz.,  hares,  pheasants,  jiartridges,  grouse, 
heath-game,  moor-game,  black-game,  and  bust.ards. 
The  close  season  .applies  only  to  the  winged  g.ame, 
so  th.at  hares  can  be  lawfully  killed  all  the  year 


GAMMA-GANDO. 


round.  But  no  game  must  be  killed  on  Simdaya 
or  Cliristmas-day ;  to  do  so,  subjects  the  offender 
to  a  penalty  of  £5.  Though  the  above  animals 
alone  are  game,  the  game  acts  also  protect  certain 
other  animals— viz.,  woodcocks,  snipes,  quails,  land- 
rails, and  conies ;  that  is  to  say,  any  person  illegally 
trespassing  in  pm-suit  of  these  may  be  fined  £'2. 
The  eggs  of  game  are  also  protected.  In  general, 
the  game-laws  consist  merely  of  a  net-work  of 
penalties  directed  against  the.se  illegal  trespasses, 
and  these  will  be  more  properly  stated  under  the 
head  of  I'o.lcIIlNtt  (q.  v.).  Trespasses  in  the  night- 
time, in  pursuit  of  game,  arc  pmiished  more  Severely 
than  those  in  the  daytime ;  and  when  there  are 
several  persons  acting  together,  exceeding  live,  the 
]ieualties  are  increased,  and  still  more  so  when  the 
poacliers  are  armed  with  dangerous  weapons,  and 
use  violence. 

As  between  landlord  and  tenant,  the  general  rule 
is,  that,  if  there  is  uo  ]irovisiou  to  the  contrary  in 
the  lease,  the  tenant  has  the  e.vclusive  right  to  kill 
the  game,  and  not  the  laiuUord;  hence,  the  land- 
lord, in  order  to  jireserve  the  right,  must  always 
introduce  an  express  clause  in  the  lease  for  his 
protection.  When  that  is  done,  then  the  tenant 
may  be  punished  like  other  j)ersons  for  poaching. 
Formerly,  it  was  attempted  to  protect  lands  against 
poachers  by  setting  spring-guns  and  man-traps, 
and  the  English  courts  were  inclined  to  hold  this 
to  l>e  legal.  But  to  ])ut  an  end  to  all  doubt,  a 
statute  WiLS  passed,  and  is  now  in  force,  which 
expressly  prohibits  spring-gims  except  to  protect 
dwelhng-houses  (24  and  25  Vict.  c.  100,  s.  31). 

In  order  to  cUscountenancc  poaching,  game  is 
declared  to  be  not  a  legal  article  of  sale  except  by 
licensed  game-dealers  ;  this  licence  costs  £2.  The 
game-dealer  can  only  buy  his  game  from  licensed 
sportsmen,  and  it  is  an  ollence  for  any  of  the  public 
to  buy  game  except  fri>m  these  licensed  dealers,  or 
to  sell  game  'without  a  licence;  but  sportsmen  are 
not  jirohibited  from  making  presents  of  game  to 
any  person. 

As  regards  game-licences,  these  are  now  of  two 
kinds :  one  is  annual,  and  costs  £3 ;  the  other  lasts 
aljout  half  the  year,  ami  costs  £2.  A  gamekeeper's 
licence  costs  £2.  These  licences  are  necessary,  not 
merely  to  kill  game,  but  also  to  kill  doer,  wood- 
cocks, snipes,  quails,  landrails,  and  conies  or  rabbits. 
An  exemption,  however,  exists,  as  regards  hares  and 
rabbits,  when  the  owner  or  occui>ier  kills  these  on 
his  own  enclosed  ground,  or  directs  another  person 
to  do  so,  in  which  ca.se  no  licence  is  necessary ; 
but  this  exemption  only  applies  when  the  lands 
are  enclosed  or  fenced,  and  the  owner  or  occupier 
has  otherwise  the  legal  right  to  kill  the  hares 
and  rabbits.  No  licence  is  required  for  merely 
hunting  with  st.aghounds,  greyhounds,  or  beagles, 
or  killing  deer  in  one's  own  park.  Moreover, 
attendants  or  friends  going  out  with  licensed  sports- 
men, jn-ovided  these  merely  assist,  and  do  not  play 
a  principal  part,  do  not  require  a  licence.  But  in 
all  other  cases  it  requires  a  Ucence,  not  only  for 
killing,  l)ut  fijr  pursuing  game,  or  even  for  lifting 
and  taking  away  dead  game  from  a  highway  or 
field.  Assessed  taxes  must  also  be  paid  for  dogs — 
viz.,  for  each  dog  12s.  See  on  the  foregoing  sub- 
jects, I'aterson's  Game-laws  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  i)olicy  of  the  game-laws  has  often  been 
questioned.  Mr  Bright  obtained  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  lS4o,  who  examined  the 
subji'ct.  These  laws  are  represented,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  be  far  too  stringent,  to  be  badly  admin- 
istered by  interested  justices,  and,  lastly,  to  be 
opposed  to  the  moral  sentiments  of  the  lower 
orders,  wlio  persist  in  treating  such  offences  as 
venial,  if  not  praiseworthy.      On  the  other  hand. 


owners  of  land  say  that  they  are  entitled  to  pro- 
tection against  tresi)assers,  and  this  is  the  only 
■way  by  w-liich  they  can  be  protected. 

In  .Scotland,  several  of  the  foregoing  statutes, 
such  as  the  Night  Poaching  Act  and  tlie  Game 
Licences'  Act,  also  apply.  There  is  a  simdar  act  as 
to  day-poaching — viz.,  2  and  ."!  Will.  IV.  c.  68,  and 
as  to  hares,  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  .SO.  The  provisions 
in  the  English  act  as  to  game-dealers  and  the  sale 
of  game  also  ap))ly.  But  in  Scotland,  not  only  a 
game-certificate,  bvit  a  qualification,  is  recjuisite  to 
enable  a  person  to  .shoot,  except  he  h:w  the  permis- 
sion of  a  qualified  person.  So  it  is  in  Ireland,  but 
not  in  EnglaniL  In  Scotland,  the  close  season 
differs  slightly  from  that  of  England,  and  so  does 
the  definition  of  game.  The  law  as  between  land- 
lord and  tenant  is  also  so  far  diU'ereut,  that  the 
presumption  is  the  reverse  m  Scotland ;  for  if 
nothing  is  said  in  the  lease,  the  right  to  the  game 
belongs  to  the  landlord,  and  not  to  the  tenant. 
A  tenant  has  also  a  right  of  action  against  the 
landlord  for  excessive  preserving,  if  extraordinary 
injury  is  there! ly  done  to  his  crops^a  right  which 
does  not  exist  in  England  or  Ireland.  See  Paterson's 
Oame-laics,  Irvine's  Game-taws. 

In  Ireland,  the  law  is  nearly  the  same  in  substance 
with  that  of  England  ;  but  there  are  distinct  statutes 
anil  minor  differences  as  to  the  qualification  to  kUl 
game,  as  to  the  definition  of  game,  of  close-time,  &c. 
See  Paterson's  Game-laws,  Levinge's  Game-laws. 

GAMMA,  GAMME,  or  GAMMUT,  the  name 
given  to  the  system  of  musical  notation  invented 
by  Guido,  the  first  note  of  -which  he  called  by  the 
Greek  letter  Gamma.  L.atcr,  the  whole  scale  got 
the  name  of  Gamma,  but  it  afterwards  fell  uito 
disuse  with  Guide's  Sohnisation.  In  modern  music, 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  scale  or  compass  of  wind 
instruments. 

GAMMARUS,  a  genus  of  Crustacea  of  the 
section  Edrioph- 
Ihalma  (q.  v.),  and 
order  Amphipoda, 
of  wliich  one 
species,  O.  pulex, 
is  extremely  com- 
mon in  springs  and 
ri\-ulet3  in  Britain, 
particularly  where 
decaj-ing  vcget.able 
matter  has  accu- 
mulated. It  gene- 
rally keeps  near  the 

bottom;   swims  on   Fresh-water  Slirunp  (ffnmmorMJ 
its  side,  with  a  kind  putex),  iii.\gnitied. 

of  jerking  motion, 

and  feeds  on  dead  fishes  or  any  other  animal  matter. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Fresh-water  Shrimp. 

6AMRUN.    See  Gombroon. 

GAND.     See  Ghent. 

GA'NUI.V,  a  beavitifiU  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Valencia,  and  34  miles  south-south-east 
of  the  town  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Alcoy,  about  two  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is 
well  built,  with  streets  regular  and  spacious ;  is 
surrounded  with  w.alls  and  towers,  has  numerous 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  and  a  magnificent  ducal  palace, 
adorned  with  gilding  and  nz>d<jiis  or  coloured  tiles. 
Its  gardens  are  fertile  and  luxuriant  beyond  descrip- 
tion. It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woollen,  and 
silken  fabrics,  and  a  trade  in  rice,  hemp,  silk,  and 
timber.     Pop.  0000. 

GANDO.  1st,  A  kingdom  or  empire  of  Sfidan, 
situ.atcd  on  both  sides  of  the  Niger.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north-west  by  the  empire  of  Songhay,  and  on 

C13 


GANDOLFO-  GANGES. 


tbe  south-east  by  the  empire  of  S6koto.  It  con- 
sists of  the  proWnees  of  Western  Kebbi,  Matiri, 
Zabirma,  Deudina,  parts  of  Giu-ma,  Borgu,  and 
Yoniba,  Yatiri,  and  Nfipc.  The  country  is  fertile, 
and  the  vegetation  iu  many  places  luxuriant.  The 
principal  productions  are  the  yam,  the  date,  and 
the  banana.  The  inhabitants  are  of  the  FiUah 
(q.  V.)  race,  and  mostly  Mohammedans.  ^Vhcn  Dr 
Barth  visited  G.  in  ISo.'i,  the  monarch  or  sultan 
was  Khalilu,  nephew  of  the  gi-eat  reformer  Imfim 
Othnian  (see  I'YlaH).  He  is  described  by  that 
traveller  as  a  '  man  without  energy,  and  most 
inaccessible  to  a  European  and  a  Christian '— liWng, 
in  fact,  in  a  state  of  monkish  seclusion,  and  employ- 
ing a,  younger  brother  to  '  kecj)  up  a  certain  show  of 
imiierial  ihgnity.'  It  is  not  surprising  that  under 
such  a  ruler  Dr  Barth  shoidd  find  '  most  of  the 
provinces  plunged  into  an  abyss  of  anarchy.' — 2d, 
Gan'do,  a  city,  and  capital  of  the  above  kingdom, 
lies  in  a  narrow  vallc)',  surroimded  and  commanded 
by  hilly  chains.  '  It  is  intersected,'  says  Dr  Barth, 
'  from  north  to  south  by  the  broad  and  shallow  bed 
of  a  torrent,  which  exhibited  fine  pasture-groimds  of 
fresh  succulent  herbage,  while  it  was  skirted  on 
both  sides  by  a  dense  border  of  luxuriant  vegetation, 
which  altogether  is  much  richer  iu  this  place  than 
either  in  Sukoto,  or  AVumo,  bein^  siu'passed  oidy  by 
the  fine  vegetable  ornament  of  Kauo.'  The  interior 
of  the  place  is  very  pleasant  and  animated,  and  the 
inhabitants  are  industrious  and  successful  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  cloth. 

GANDOLFO.    See  Castel-Gaot>olfo. 

GANGA,  or  SAND-GEOUSE  {Pterodes),  a  genus 
of  gaUinaceous  birds,  of  the  family  Tetraonidcv, 
closely  aUied  to  grouse  and  ptarmigan,  but  distin- 
guished by  a  pointed  tail.  The  toes  are  not  feathered. 
The  species  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  wai-m  parts  of 
Asia  and  of  Africa,  and  are  most  abimdant  in  arid 
sandy  plains.  Two  species,  the  Banded  Sand-grouse 
{P.  arenarius)  and  the  Pin-taUed  Sand-grouse  (P. 
setarius),  are  found  in  the  south  of  Eurojic.  The 
latter  species  is  very  abundant  on  the  arid  plains  of 
Persia.  In  Eurojje,  it  is  found  as  far  north  as  the 
south  of  France,  chiefly  iu  the  sterile  Landes.  It  is 
always  to  be  seen  in  the  markets  of  MacWd.  The 
Banded  Sand-OTOuse  is  abundant  on  the  vast  steppes 
of  the  south  of  Russia.  The  African  species  of  this 
genus  are  often  to  be  seen  iu  large  flocks  near  places 
to  wliich  they  resort  to  drink. 

GANGA  SAGOR,  a  low  swampy  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  great  western  or  holiest  branch  of  the 
Ganges,  particularly  sacred  in  the  estimation  of 
the  Hindus.  Midtitudes  of  pilgrims  annually  resort 
to  it,  at  the  time  of  full  moon,  in  November  and 
in  January.  Infanticide  formerly  took  place  to  a 
vast  extent  at  these  festivals,  but  is  now  jjrohibited 
by  the  British  government. 

GA'NGES,  a  river  prominent  alike  in  the  religion 
and  in  the  geography  of  the  East,  diWdes,  at 
least  towards  the  sea,  India  in  its  largest  sense 
into  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Hither  and  Fartlier. 
Its  entire  length  is  more  than  1500  miles.  Its 
general  direction  during  the  first  half  of  its  course 
13  south-east ;  it  then  flows  east  through  the  plain 
of  Bengal,  as  far  as  llajmuhal,  a  distance  of  about 
400  miles,  after  which  it  again  proceeds  in  a  south- 
eastern direction,  and  enters  the  sea  through  a 
multitndinous  delta.  For  the  purposes  of  detailed 
description,  the  stream,  which  exhibits  such  a  great 
variety  of  phases  in  the  diS'erent  parts  of  its  course 
may  be  conveniently  broken  down  into  five  sec- 
tions :  (1)  from  its  springs  to  Gangotri ;  (2)  from 
Gangotri  to  IJurdwar;  (3)  from  Hiurdwar  to  Alla- 
habad; (4)  from  Allahabad  to  Secbgunge,  or  the 


head  of  the  Delta ;  (5)  from  Seebgunge,  or  the  he.ad 
of  the  Delta,  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

From  Us  Sjirings  to  Gangotri. — The  Bhageerettee, 
Bhagirathi,  or  Bhaghireti,  generally  regarded  as 
the  true  G.,  rises  in  Gurhwal,  near  lat.  30'  54'  N., 
and  long.  79°  7'  E.,  from  a  snow-field  imbedded 
between  three  mountains  of  about  22,000  feet  in 
height.  The  actual  spot  from  which  it  is  seen  to 
issue  is  itself  13,800  feet  above  the  se.a.  After  a 
course  of  ten  mUes,  throughout  which  the  torrent 
is  all  but  inaccessible,  it  reaches  the  temjile  of 
Gangotri,  the  first  work  of  man  on  its  lianks,  .at 
an  elevation  of  10,300  feet,  so  as  to  li.ave  descended 
about  350  feet  iu  a  mile. — From  Gangotri  to  JIurd- 
xcar. — After  a  run  of  seven  miles,  the  stream 
is  joined  on  the  right  by  the  .Tahnu%-i,  consider- 
ably larger  than  itself,  iu  lat.  31"  2'  N.  and  long. 
78°  54'  E.;  and  the  united  waters,  13  miles 
further  down,  burst  through  the  Himalaya  Proper, 
in  lat.  30°  59'  N.,  and  long.  78°  45'  E.  Still  90 
miles  lower,  it  receives,  tlie  Ahdcnanda  with  a 
volume  one  half  greater  than  its  own,  and  here 
it  first  receives  the  name  Ganges.  A  distance  of 
47  miles  more  carries  the  stUl  rapid  current  down 
to  Hurdwar,  on  the  verge  of  the  gi-eat  plain  of 
Hindustan,  at  an  elevation  of  1024  feet,  shewing 
a  descent  of  9270  feet  in  157  miles,  or  of  nearly  00 
feet  in  a  mile. — Fromllurdmir  to  Allahahiul. — This 
portion  of  the  river,  measuring  488  miles,  and 
averaging  a  fall  of  22  inches  in  a  mile,  is  beset 
almost  throughout  by  shoals  and  rapids.  It  is 
na\-igable,  however,  for  river-craft  the  whole  way 
to  Hurdwar,  for  passenger-steamers  to  within  100 
miles  of  the  mountains,  and  for  loaded  barges  up  to 
Cawnpore,  which  is  140  miles  above  Allahabad. 
This  last-mentioned  city  stands  at  the  confluence 
of  the  G.  and  the  Jumna. — From  AUahahad  to 
Secht/unge,  or  the  head  of  tlw  Delta. — This,  the 
longest  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  stream,  measures 
563  miles  in  length,  and  has  a  fall  of  about  five 
inches  in  a  mile.  Notmthstandiug  many  sho.als,  it 
is  practicable  throughout,  even  in  the  driest  season 
of  the  year,  for  vessels  drawing  fully  IS  inches. 
About  270  mUes  below  Allahabad,  the  G.  is  joined 
on  the  left  by  the  Ghogi'a,  having  previously 
received  the  Gumti  on  the  same  side,  and  the 
Tons  and  the  Kmnminassa  on  the  right.  About 
half-way  between  Allahabad  and  the  Ghogra  is 
the  city  of  Benares.  Between  the  Ghogra  and 
Secbgunge,  the  principal  afSnents  are  the  Sone  on 
the  right,  and  the  Guuduk  and  the  Coosy  or  Sim 
Kosi,  on  the  left.  Along  this  entire  section,  the  G. 
varies  largely  both  in  breadth  and  in  depth,  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  state  of  the 
water. — From  Secbgunge,  or  the  head  of  the  Delta, 
to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. — Here  the  descent,  along  a  line 
of  283  nules,  averages  about  three  inches  in  a  mile. 
Hitherto  swollen  by  its  feeders,  the  G.  now  begins 
to  send  olT  branches,  parting  at  Secbgunge  with 
the  Bhagrutti,  and  next,  70  miles  further  down, 
iWth  the  JeUinghi,  at  the  tovm  of  the  same  name, 
which,  after  sejxarate  courses  of  about  120  miles 
each,  unite  to  form  the  Hoogly  of  ( 'alcntta.  Below 
the  point  of  departure  of  the  .Tellinijhi,  it  throws 
out  similar  ofi"-;ets,  the  JIarabhanga,  the  Gorae,  the 
Chuntlni,  and  the  Kirtynassa.  Meanwhile,  tlii.s 
waste  towards  the  right  is  in  a  gi-eat  measure  com- 
pensated by  aflluents  on  the  left,  more  especially 
by  various  channels  of  the  Bralimaputra — the  two 
great  net-works  of  waters  intertwining  themselves 
together  in  a  manner  too  complex  for  delineation, 
and  at  last  indenting  a  long  line  of  co.ast  with  at 
least  20  estuaries.  The  mouth  of  the  Hoogly,  the 
most  available  of  all  the  branches  of  tlie  G.  as  the 
means  of  communicating  with  the  outside  world,  is 
in  lat.  21'  40'  N.,  and  long.  88°  E.     By  it  the  largest 


GANGES. 


sliip3  reach  Diamond  Harbour,  while  vessels  of  con- 
siderable biirden  ascend  to  Chandernagore.  Between 
the  Hoogly  and  the  G.,  above  the  Delta,  there  are 
two  routes.  When  the  water  is  high,  the  Bhagrutti 
and  the  Jellinghi  afford  the  requisite  facUities ; 
but  in  the  dry  season,  the  intercourse  is  main- 
tained by  the  Sunderbund  or  Sunderbans  Passage, 
a  circuitous  course  to  the  north-east,  which  opens 
into  the  Chundni. 

As  a  whole,  however,  the  G.  is  incapable  of  being 
definitely  described.  It  varies  not  merely  from 
season  to  season,  but  also  from  year  to  year. 
From  year  to  year  it  exchanges  old  passages  for 
new  ones,  more  particularly  in  the  alhnnal  basin  of 
its  lower  sections.  Even  as  far  up  as  Futtehpore, 
immediately  above  Allahabad,  this  characteristic  is 
remarkably  exempUHed.  The  river  has  in  this  part 
a  bed  of  the  average  width  of  four  miles,  within  the 
limits  of  which  it  changes  its  course  annually,  in 
the  lapse  of  four  or  five  years  shifting  from  the  one 
limit  to  the  other.  Between  season  and  season, 
ag.iiu,  the  fluctuations  are  still  moru  conspicuous. 
To  take  Benares  as  an  instance,  the  stream  ranges, 
according  to  the  time  of  the  year,  from  1400  feet  to 
3(I(K)  feet  in  breadth,  and  from  .3.5  feet  to  78  feet  in 
deptli.  Lower  do^ra,  the  %-ieissitudes,  without  being 
more  striking  in  themselves,  produce  more  striking 
results.  About  the  close  of  July,  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  Delta  forms  an  inundation  of  more 
than  100  miles  in  diameter,  presenting  nothing  to 
the  eye  but  ullages  and  trees,  and  craft  of  every 
sort.  To  prevent  or  mitig.ate  this  evil,  expensive 
dams  have  been  constructed,  having  collectively  a 
length  of  above  1000  mUes.  The  influence  of  the 
tides  extends,  at  the  dry  season,  a  distance  of 
240  miles  from  the  sea.  The  minimum  quantity 
of  water  delivered  per  second  has  been  estimated 
at  .3l5,.3.30  cubic  feet,  and  the  maximum  at  494,'20S 
cubic  feet.  Like  all  rivers  that  overflow  their 
banks,  the  G.  holds  in  suspension  a  large  admix- 
ture of  mud  and  sand — foreign  elements  eminently 
unfavourable  to  steam-narigation,  as  causing  quick 
wear  and  decay  of  the  cocks  and  valves  of  the 
engines.  It  has  been  computed  th.at  it  delivers, 
on  an  average,  annually  into  the  sea  534,600,000 
tons  of  solid  matter. 

Amongst  the  rivers  which  at  the  classical  and  the 
Paurdnic  period  of  India  were  held  in  peculiar 
sanctity  by  the  nation,  the  G. — or,  as  it  is  called, 
the  Gangd,  (feminine) — undoubtedly  occupied  the 
fovemost  rank.  In  the  vedic  poetry,  it  is  but 
seldom  mentioned ;  and  whenever  its  name  occui's, 
whether  in  the  liymns  of  the  Khjveda  or  the 
ritual  text  of  the  Yajurvecki,  no  legendary  fact  or 
mythical  narrative  is  connected  w^th  it  Xor  does 
the  law-book  of  Manu  justify  the  conclusion  that 
its  author  was  acquainted  with  any  of  the  mj-ths 
which  connect  this  river  in  the  epic  poems  and  in 
the  Purilnas  witli  the  I'antheon  of  Inili.a.  The 
earliest,  and  by  far  the  most  poetical  legend  of  the 
G.,  occui-s  in  that  master-piece  of  Sanscrit  poetry, 
the  Ramdtiana.  V^c  give  its  substance,  because  it 
explains  the  principal  e])ithets  by  which  this  river 
is  sj)oken  of,  or  invoked,  in  ancient  and  modern 
Hindu  poetry,  and  because  it  may  be  looked  upon 
as  the  ty])e  of  the  many  fables  which  refer  to 
the  piu'ifying  and  supematm-al  properties  of  its 
■watei-s.  There  Uved,  says  the  UAnuhjana,  in 
AyodhyJl  (the  modem  Oude),  a  king,  by  the  name 
of  Sagara,  who  had  two  wives.  KesinI  and  Simiati ; 
but  they  bore  him  no  issue.  He  tlierefore  repaired 
to  the  Himalaya ;  and  after  a  hundred  years'  severe 
austerities,  Bhrigu,  the  saint,  became  favourable 
to  his  wishes,  and  granted  him  posterity.  Kesinl 
bore  him  a  son,  who  was  named  Asamanjas,  and 
Siimati    brought    forth    a    gourd,    whence    sprang 


60,000  sons,  who  in  time  became  as  many  heroes. 
Asamanjas,  however,  in  gromng  uj),  was  addicted 
to  cruel  practices,  and  was  therefore  banished 
by  his  father  from  the  kingdom.  His  son  was 
Ausum,at,  who  thus  became  heir  to  the  throne  of 
Ayoilhyl.  Now,  it  happened  that  Sag.ara  resolved 
to  perform  a  great  horse-sacrifice ;  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  sacred  law,  chose  for  this  purjwse  a 
beautiful  horse,  which  he  confided  to  the  care  of 
Ansuhiat.  But  while  the  latter  was  engaged  in  the 
j  initiatory  rites  of  the  sacrifice,  a  huge  serpent 
j  emerged  from  the  soil,  .and  carried  off  the  horse  to 
j  the  mfcrnal  regions.  j'liereupon,  Sagara,  being 
informed  of  the  obsti->;ction  which  had  befallen  his 
pious  imdertaking,  ordered  his  60,0(X)  sons  to 
recover  the  horse  from  the  subterranean  robber. 
These  then  set  to  work,  digging  the  earth,  and 
striking  terror  into  all  creation.  Ha\-ing  explored, 
for  many  years,  the  infernal  regions,  they  at  last 
foimd  the  sacred  horse  grazing,  and  watched  by  a 
fiery  saint,  in  whom  they  recognised  the  serpent,  the 
cause  of  their  troubles.  Enraged,  they  attacked  him ; 
but  the  saint,  who  was  no  other  being  than  Vishnu, 
at  once  reduced  them  to  ashes.  Waiting  in  vain 
for  the  return  of  his  sons,  Sagara  sent  his  grandson, 
Ansuraat,  in  search  of  them  and  the  s.acred  horse. 
Ansum.at  went,  and  soon  ascertained  the  fate  of  his 
relatives  ;  liut  when— mindful  of  his  duties — he 
wished  to  sjuinkle  consecrated  water  on  their  a.shes, 
so  as  to  enable  theu'  soids  to  rise  to  heaven,  Garuda, 
the  bird  of  Vishnu,  and  brother  of  Sum.ati,  came  in 
sight,  and  told  Ansmnat  that  it  was  improper  for 
him  to  use  terrestrial  water  for  such  a  libation, 
and  th.at  he  ought  to  provide  the  water  of  the 
Gangil,  the  heavenly  daughter  of  Ilimavat  (the 
Himahaya).  Ansumat,  bowmg  to  the  behest  of  the 
king  of  birds,  went  home  with  the  horse  to  Sagjira  ; 
I  and  the  sacrifice  being  achieved,  Sagiira  strove  to 
cause  the  descent  of  the  (i.angtl,  but  all  his  dcA-ices 
!  remained  fruitless  ;  and  after  30,000  years,  he  went 
to  heaven.  Nor  was  -Ajisimiat  more  successfiU  in 
his  attempt  with  the  austerities  he  performed  for 
the  same  purpose,  nor  his  son  Dwilipa,  who,  obeying 
the  law  of  time,  after  .SO.OOO  years,  went  to  tho 
heaven  of  ludr.a.  Dwilipa  had  obtained  a  son, 
named  Bhagirath.a.  He,  too,  was  eager  to  obtain 
the  descent  of  the  Gangil ;  and  hanng  completed  a 
coiu-se  of  severe  austerities,  he  obtained  the  favour 
of  Brahman,  who  told  him  he  would  j-ield  to  his 
pr.aj'ers,  jwoWded  that  Siva  consented  to  receive  the 
sacred  river  on  his  head,  as  the  earth  woiUd  be  too 
feeble  to  bear  its  .fall  when  coming  from  heaven. 
And  now  Bhagir.atha  recommenced  his  penance, 
until  Siva  consented,  and  told  the  Gangil  to  descend 
from  heaven.  The  river  obeyed ;  but,  enraged  at 
his  command,  she  assimied  a  form  of  immense  size, 
and  increased  her  celerity,  thinking  thus  to  carry 
him  off  to  the  infernal  regions.  Yet  the  god 
becoming  aware  of  her  intentions,  caught  and 
entangled  her  in  his  matted  haii%  out  of  which  she 
coidd  find  no  means  of  extricating  herself  thdugh 
erring  there  for  many  years.  Nor  would  she  have 
been  released,  had  not  Bh.agiratha,  by  his  renewed 
pen.ance,  appeased  the  god,  who  then  allowed  her  to 
descend  from  his  he.ad  in  seven  streams — Hladint, 
P.1vin!,  and  JCalint,  which  went  eastwards ;  and  Siti, 
SuehakshiLS,  and  Sindhu,  which  went  westwards, 
whilst  the  seventh  stream  followed  Bhaglratha 
wherever  he  proceeded.  But  it  so  hajipened  that 
the  king  on  his  journey  passed  by  the  hermitage 
of  .an  irascil)le  saint  whose  name  was  Jahnu. 
The  latter  seeing  the  Gangil  overfiooding  in  her 
arrogance  the  precincts  of  his  sacrificial  spot,  and 
destroying  his  s,acred  vessels,  became  impatient,  and 
drank  up  all  herw.aters;  theicupon  all  the  gods 
became  terrified,  and  promised  him  that,  in  future, 


GANGES  CA^AL-GANGOTUI. 


the  Gaiiffft  woulil  pay  him  filial  respect,  and  Iwcome 
his  daiiflhtor,  if  he  would  restore  her  again  to 
exist<'iiee.  Quieted  bj'  this  jiromise,  Jahnu  then 
allowed  her  to  ilow  out  from  liis  ear,  and  therefore 
she  is  still  called  .TAhiiavi,  or  the  daughter  of  Jahnu. 
But,  hccause  Bha<:iratlia,  by  dint  of  his  exertions, 
enabled  his  ancestors,  now  sprinkled  with  the 
waters  of  the  Gangl,  to  ascend  to  heaven,  Brahman 
allowed  him  to  consider  her  as  his  daughter,  whence 
she  is  called  Bhftgiratht.  And  she  is  also  called  the 
river  of  '  the  three  paths,'  because  her  waters  flow 
in  heaven,  on  earth,  and  pervailed  the  subterranean 
regions. — Such  is  the  account  of  the  J^umdi/ana^ 
and  its  substance  is  repeated  by  the  Mahdtthdrata 
and  several  of  the  Purlnas,  though  they  differ  in 
the  names  of  the  streams  formed  in  her  descent 
by  the  Gang!,  some  (for  instance,  the  VUhnu-  and 
Vdyu-PurAiui)  restricting  their  number  from  seven 
to  four,  called  by  the  Visltiiu-PiirAna  Siti,  Alaka- 
nandil,  Chakshu,  and  Bhadi-A.  A  further  deviation 
from  the  original  nirth  was  caused  by  sectarian 
influence ;  for,  whereas  in  the  Itdnuhjana,  the 
Gaugl  springs  from  the  Himavat  (Himalaya),  whose 
daughter,  therefore,  she  is,  and  whereas  Siva  plays 
the  most  prominent  part  in  her  descent  to  earth, 
the  Vishnu- Purdna  assigns  her  source  to  the  nail 
of  the  great  toe  of  Vishnu's  left  foot,  and  allows 
Siva  merely  to  receive  one  of  her  branches  on  liis 
he.aiL  The  following  passage  from  this  Purina 
will  shew  the  ideas  of  the  \'ishuuite  sect  on  the 
history  and  the  properties  of  this  river :  '  From  that 
third  region  of  the  atmosphere,  or  seat  of  Vishnu, 
proceeds  the  stream  that  washes  away  all  sin, 
the  river  Gang!,  embrowned  with  the  unguents  of 
the  nymjths  of  heaven,  who  have  sported  in  her 
waters.  Having  her  source  in  the  nail  of  the  great 
toe  of  Vishnu's  left  foot,  Dhruva  (Siva)  reverses 
her,  and  sustains  her  day  and  night  devoutly  on 
his  head,  and  thence  the  seven  Kishis  practise  the 
exercises  of  austerity  in  her  waters,  wreatliing  their 
braided  locks  with  her  waves.  The  orb  of  the 
nio(»n,  encompassed  by  her  accumulated  current, 
derives  augmented  lustre  from  her  contact.  Falling 
from  on  high,  as  she  issues  from  the  moon,  she 
alights  on  the  summit  of  lleru,  and  thence  flows  to 
the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  for  its  purification. 
The  Slti,  Alakananda,  Chakshu,  and  Bhadi-a,  are 
four  branches  of  but  one  river,  divided  according  to 
the  regions  towards  which  it  proceeds.  The  branch 
that  is  known  as  Alakanandji  was  borne  affection- 
ately by  Siva,  \ipon  his  head,  for  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years,  and  was  the  river  which  raised  to  heaven 
the  sinfid  sons  of  Sagara  by  washing  their  ashes. 
The  offences  of  any  man  who  bathes  in  this  river 
are  immediately  expiated,  and  unjirecedented  virtue 
is  engendered.  Its  waters,  ofl'erud  by  sons  to  their 
ancestors  in  faith  for  three  years,  yield  to  the  latter 
rarely  attainable  gratification.  Men  of  the  twice- 
born  orders,  who  ofl'er  sacrifice  in  this  river  to  the 
lord  of  sacrifice,  Pumshottama,  obtain  whatever 
they  desire,  either  here  or  in  heaven.  Saints  who 
are  purified  from  all  evil  by  bathing  in  its  waters, 
and  who.se  minds  are  intent  on  Kesava  (Vishnu), 
acquire  thereby  final  liberation.  This  sacred  stream, 
heard  of,  desired,  seen,  touched,  bathed  in,  or  hynined 
day  by  day,  sanctifies  all  beings ;  and  those  who, 
even  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues,  exclaim 
"  GaugiljGanga,"  atonefor  the  sins  committed  dunng 
three  pre\^ou3  lives.'  How  far  the  belief  expressed 
in  the  latter  passage  was  carried  at  a  period  prob- 
ably succeeding  that  of  the  composition  of  the 
Vislina- Pur&na  may  be  seen  from  a  legend  which 
occurs  in  the  Krhjdyo'jnHdra,  the  sixth  di\nsion  of 
the  Padma-Purdiia.  This  Pm-ilna  relates  that  a 
king,  Manobhadra,  having  "rown  old  and  weak, 
resolved  upon  dividing   his  kingdom   between   his 


two  sons.  He  therefore  convoked  a  council  of  his 
ministers,  when,  of  a  sudden,  a  vulture  and  his 
mate  fhw  into  the  hall,  to  the  surprise  i>f  the  whole 
as.sembly.  Questioned  about  the  purpose  of  their 
visit,  they  replied  that,  having  witnessed  the  evil 
luck  of  the  two  princes  in  a  former  birth,  they  now 
came  to  rejoice  in  their  happiness.  The  king's 
curiosity  having  been  roused,  the  male  vulture  then 
saiil,  that  in  the  age  called  Dwapara.  the  two  jirinces 
hail  been  two  men  of  low  caste,  called  Gara  atid  .San- 
gara,  and  when  deiul,  were  brought  before  Yama,  the 
judge  of  the  dead,  who  sentenced  thera  to  be  thrown 
into  a  fearful  hell.  Their  lives  had  indeed  been 
faultless;  no  sin  had  been  committed  by  them,  but 
whenever  they  gave  alms,  they  did  not  ofl'er  them  to 
a  Brilluuana,  and  thus  roljljing  the  latter  ipf  the 
jiroperty  wliich  otherwise  would  have  come  t"  him, 
they  became  candidates  for  hell.  He,  the  vulture, 
had  come  to  the  same  place,  because,  when  being  a 
noble  Brilhm.aua,  Sarvasa,  he  slighted  his  parents. 
Now  the  period  of  their  sentence  liaving  expired,  he 
was  reborn  as  a  member  of  the  vulture  tribe,  which 
is  UWug  on  the  flesh  of  the  dead,  whereas  they 
became  a  couple  of  locusts.  Once,  however,  a  hurri- 
cane arose,  and  tlu'ew  the  locusts  into  the  Ganges  ; 
there  they  died  ;  but  having  found  their  death  in 
the  water  of  the  river  which  destroys  all  guilt,  the 
sen'ants  of  Vishnu  came  with  heavenly  chariots  to 
conduct  them  to  his  town.  Ha\'ing  st.ayed  there  uj) 
to  the  end  of  the  third  Kalpa,  they  were  bidden  by 
Brahman  to  enjoy  themselves  in  the  paradise  of 
Indra  ;  and  after  a  certain  time  they  were  reborn  in 
the  family  of  Manobhadra,  ultimately  to  rule  his 
country.  All  the  hymns  addressed  to  the  Ganges 
— and  a  remarkable  one  occurs  in  the  same  divi- 
sion of  the  Padma- Purdna — i)artly  allude  to  the 
legends  mentioned  before,  or  to  other  feats  of  jiurifi- 
cation  workeil  by  the  sacred  water  of  this  river.  I  ts 
efficacy  is  deemed,  however,  greatest  at  the  spot 
where  the  Ganges  joins  the  Yamuni,  or  .Tunma,  at 
Allahabad,  and — the  latter  river  having  i)reviously 
received  the  Saniswati  below  Delhi — where  in  reality 
the  waters  of  the  three  sacred  rivers  meet.  In  some 
represent.ations  of  Siva,  the  Gangfl,  is  seen  in  his 
hair,  and  the  river  issuing  from  her  mouth  ;  she  is 
also  pictured,  as  Moor  teUs  in  the  Jlindu  Puntheun, 
as  )>art  of  the  Trivenl  or  sacred  triad  of  the  rivers 
just  named,  when  she  is  white,  and  bears  the 
forehe.id  mark  of  Siva ;  on  her  right  is  Saniswatl, 
red,  and  with  a  roll  of  paper  in  her  hand  ;  on  her 
left,  YamuuA,  as  Lakshini,  the  deity  of  this  river, 
blue,  and  holding  a  golden  jar.  Tlie  whole  groiij)  Ls 
riding  on  a  fish  ;  the  fish,  the  clothing  of  the  god- 
desses, and  the  glory  encircling  their  heatls,  being 
of  gold. — Gang!  is  also  considered  as  the  mother 
of  the  god  of  war.     See  Kartikeya. 

GANGES  CANAL,  a  modern  imitation,  in  some 
measure,  of  the  more  ancient  works  of  the  kind  on 
the  .lumna  (q.  v.),  has  two  main  objects  in  view  - 
the  irrigating  of  the  Doab,  and  the  avoiding  of  the 
difficulties  in  the  navigation  of  the  river  above 
Cawnpore.  Extending,  on  the  right  of  the  Ganges, 
from  Hurdwar  to  the  city  last  mentioneil,  it 
measures,  including  its  branches,  810  miles— ."i50  for 
the  trunk,  and  4<)1)  for  the  offsets.  In  its  course,  it 
crosses  the  Solani  on  perhaps  the  most  magnificent 
atpieduct  in  the  world.  This  noble  work,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  £30ll,0t)0,  consists  of  fifteen  arclies,  each 
having  a  span  of  50  feet ;  while  tlie  piers,  sunk  20 
feet  below  the  bed  of  the  stream,  are  [irotected  on 
eveiy  side  against  the  force  of  the  cuiTcnt  by 
ingeniously  compacted  masses  of  piles  and  stones. 

GANGLION,    in    Anatomy.     See    Brain  and 

Nervous  Syste.m. 

GANGO'TKI,  a  temple  erected  on  the  highest 


GANGRENE— GANNET. 


accessible  spot  on  the  Ganges  (q.  v.),  about  10,000 
fi-ft  aljove  the  level  of  the  sea,  stands  on  the 
right  lianic  of  the  river,  here  called  the  Bhagirathi, 
about  ten  miles  from  its  source.  Immediately  in 
front,  till-  stream  expands  into  a  small  liay,  which 
is  sut)divided  into  pools,  taking  their  names  respec- 
tively from  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  other  gods  of  the 
native  mythology.  Though  the  water  is  specially 
sacred,  and  ablution  i>cculiarly  efEcacious,  yet,  from 
various  causes,  the  jiilgrinis  are  by  no  means  nume- 
rous. Besides  the  length  and  ruggedness  of  the 
journey,  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  subsistence 
by  the  way,  there  is  no  accommodation  for  visitors, 
the  only  dweUing-bouse  in  the  locality  Ijeiug  occu- 
pied by  the  officiating  Brahmans.  Superstition, 
however,  has  found  a  remedy  in  the  exportation  of 
flasks  of  the  holy  element,  sealed  by  the  attendant 
priests. 

OA'NGREXE,  the  loss  of  vitality  in  a  part  of  the 
living  body,  whether  external  or  internal,  the  part 
becoming  often,  in  the  first  instance,  more  or  less 
red,  hot,  and  painful,  then  livid,  and  finally  dark 
and  discoloured,  lilack  or  olive-green,  according  to 
circumstances,  and  jiutrescent ;  after  which  a  separ- 
ation takes  place  grailually  between  the  li^Tng  and 
dead  parts,  and  if  the  patient  survive,  the  disor- 
ganised and  lifeless  texture  is  thrown  off,  and  the 
part  heals  by  the  formation  of  a  Cicatrix  (q.  v.)  or 
scar,  indicating  the  loss  of  substance.  Gangrene  is 
an  occasional  consetjuence  of  Inflammation  (q.  v.), 
but  is  often  also  determined  by  more  specific  causes, 
such  as  Tji)hus  Fever  or  Erysipelas  (q.  v.) ;  some- 
times, also,  by  the  action  of  poisons  on  the  system, 
and  not  unfrequently  by  disease  or  obstruction  of 
tlie  arteries  of  a  i>art.  This  last  is  especially  the  case 
in  the  f(»rm  called  senile  gangrene.  Gangrene  admits  | 
only  to  a  slight  extent  of  medical  treatment;  but 
there  is  sometimes  a  necessity  for  surgical  inter- 
ference, to  preserve  a  <i.sefid  stimiji,  or  to  arrest 
bleeiling.  Generally  speaking,  the  strength  must  be 
maintained  by  a  nourishing  but  not  too  stimidatinL' 
diet,  and  the  part  carefidly  preserved  from  external 
injury,  and  from  changes  of  temperature.  I 

GA'NGWAY  (Saxon,  r/angwe'i),  the  entrance  to  a  1 
shij).  There  is  a  gangway  on  each  side,  consisting 
of  steps  or  cleats  nailed  to  the  planks  of  the 
side,  up  which,  by  aid  of  a  rope,  it  is  necessary  to 
eliiulx  Wlien,  however,  a  vessel  is  in  harbour,  a 
portable  flight  of  ste))S,  called  an  accommodation- 
ladder,  is  usually  hoisted  out,  by  wliich  the  ascent 
is  sufficiently  easy. 

GAN-HWUY,  or  NGAN-HOEE,  one  of  the  five 
eastern  provinces  of  China  Pro]ier.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Vang-tze-kiang,  on  which  river  its  capital, 
Gan-king-foo,  is  situated.  in  the  south-eastern 
parts  of  the  province  are  some  extensive  tea-planta- 
tions, and  it  also  jiroduces  rice,  grain,  and  a  limited 
quautitv  of  silk.  Pop.  according  to  the  census  of 
1S12,  ;«,168,05n  ;  area,  4S,4C1  square  miles. 

GANJA'M,  a  town  in  the  sub-presidency  of 
Madras,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rosikoila, 
immediately  above  its  entrance  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  in  lat.  19'  2:!'  N.,  and  long.  85°  7'  E.  It 
was  once  the  capital  of  the  district  of  its  own 
name,  and  was  remarkaljle  for  its  fine  buildings. 
But  in  1815,  when  the  town  was  ^-isited  by  deadly 
fevers  and  agues,  all  the  public  establishments 
were  removed  to  Chicacole  (q.  v.) ;  the  fort  and 
cantonments  gradually  fell  into  ruin,  and  the  place 
sank  into  decay. 

GANJAM,  the  district  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
reding  article,  lies  on  the  north-west  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  immediately  to  the  south  of  Cuttack, 
stretching  in  N.  lat.  from  IS"  IS"  to  19°  52',  and  in 
E.  long,  from  83°  5U'  to  85°  15',  and  containing  G400 


square  miles,  and  920,930  inhabitants.  The  chief 
products  are  rice,  maize,  sugar-canes,  millet,  pulse, 
oil-seeds,  wax,  gums,  dj'c-stutTs,  and  arrowroot.  On 
the  northern  boundary  is  the  .salt-lake  Chilka, 
42  miles  long,  I.j  broad,  and  only  0  feet  deei..  The 
country  does  not  offer  a  single  haven  to  Bhijis  of 
any  burden.  Small  vessels,  however,  may  enter  the 
liosikoUa. 

GAN.JEH.    See  Elizabetopol. 

GANXAT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  .Mher,  is  pleasantly  situated  f.n  the  Andelot,  a 
tributary  of  the  Allier,  amid  hills  covered  with 
vines  and  timber  trees,  34  miles  south-south-west  of 
Wouliiis.  In  former  times,  it  was  fortified  by  walls 
and  ditches,  tlie  latter  being  supiilied  with  water 
by  the  stream  on  which  the  town  stands.  O.  has 
tanneries  and  breweries,  and  a  trade  in  com,  wine 
and  cattle.     Pop.  5055.  ' 

GAXNET  {.Sitlu),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds, 
of  the  family  Ptkcunijti;  having,  a  long,  strong, 
conical  bill,  the  face  and  throat  naked,  the  feet 
with  four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  all 
united  by  the  web.  To  this  genus  the  Booby  (<£.  v.) 
belongs.  Another  species  is  the  Commo.v  G.,  or 
Solan  Goose  (S.  Baseana),  a  bird  which  breeds  on 


Conuuon  Gaimet,  or  tiolan  Goose  {Sula  Basaana). 

insular  rocks  in  the  northern  seas,  and  migrates  in 
ivinter  to  wanner  and  even  tropical  regions.  Tlie 
name  Solan  or  Solaml  Goose  is  from  Solent,  an  old 
name  of  the  English  Channel.  The  entire  length  of 
the  G.  is  about  three  feet ;  its  general  colour  milk- 
white,  the  crown  and  b,ack  of  tlie  head  pale  yellow, 
the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings  lilack.  The  (i.  lays 
usually  a  single  egg,  of  a  chalky  white  colour;  the 
young  bird,  when  newly  hatched,  has  a  naked  bluish- 
black  skin,  but  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  thick 
white  down,  so  that  it  resembles  a  powder-)mtT", 
or  a  mass  of  cotton  ;  and  when  the  true  featliera 
appear,  they  are  black,  witli  lines  and  spots  of 
dull  white,  so  that  the  plumage  of  the  young  is 
very  unlike  that  of  the  mature  bird.  The  G.  is 
long-livcil,  and  takes  about  four  years  to  come  to 
maturity.  Its  motions  on  land  are  veiy  awkwanl ; 
but  it  is  a  bird  of  verj'  powerful  wing  and  gr.aceful 
flight.  It  extends  its  fhght  to  gi-eat  distances  from 
the  rocks  which  it  inhabits,  jim-suing  shoals  chiefly 
of  such  fish  as  swim  near  the  surface,  jiarticularly 
herring,  pilchards,  and  others  of  the  same  family. 
The  i>rcsence  of  a  sho:U  of  pilchards  often  becomes 
known  to  the  Cornwall  fishermen  from  the  attend- 
ant gannets.     The  G.  may  often  be  seen  sailing  in 


GANOID  FISHES— GAOL  DELIVERY. 


the  air,  when  suddenly,  seeing  a  fish,  it  falls,  -with 
unerriug  precision,  perpeuiliciilnrly  upon  it.  Gannets 
are  sometimes  taken  by  means  of  a  board  with  a  tish 
fasteneil  to  its  u|iper  surface,  made  to  float  a  little 
beneath  the  siu-face  of  the  water,  the  force  with 
which  the  biixl  falls  beinj;  sufficient  to  drive  its 
sharp  bill  through  the  board,  from  which  it  cannot 
draw  it  back.  Luiuly  Isle,  the  Bass  Rock,  Ailsa, 
St  Kilda,  and  Sidiskerry,  are  the  most  celebratod 
British  breeding-places  of  gannets.  The  number 
of  gannets  that  annually  visit  the  Bass  Koek  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth  is  estimated  at  nearly  twenty 
thousand.  The  young  are  killed  chiefly  for  the 
sake  of  their  feathers,  which  bring  a  good  jirofit 
to  the  person  who  rents  the  rock.  There,  and  in 
similar  localities,  they  are  to  be  seen  in  ]irodigious 
numbers,  the  air  around  the  rock  being  filled  with 
them,  like  bees  around  a  hive,  and  the  rock  itself 
whitened  by  them  and  their  accumulated  excre- 
ments. Their  nests  are  formed  of  sea-weeds  and 
marine  grasses.  On  Great  Gannet  Rock,  near  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  they  are  described  as  placed  in 
regular  rows.  From  this  ruck,  great  numbers  of 
gannets  are  taken  to  be  cut  into  bait  for  the  cod- 
tisheries.  The  G.,  diu'ijig  incubation,  will  often  allo^v 
itself  to  be  touched  with  a  stick  without  rising  from 
the  nest.  Its  flesh  is  rank  and  oily,  but  edible ;  but 
that  of  the  young  baked,  is  eaten  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  many  places,  and  is  even  reckoned  as  a 
delicacy.  The  eggs  are  considered  by  many  con- 
noisseurs to  be  a  decided  delicacy.  They  are  boiled 
for  twenty  minutes,  and  eaten  cold,  ^^^th  vinegar, 
salt,  and  pepper.  The  voice  of  the  G.  is  harsh,  and 
the  cries  of  the  multitudinous  bii'ds,  when  distm'bed 
at  their  breecUng-places,  are  deafening. — A  species 
of  G.  {S.  varieffata),  extremely  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  is  said  to  be  the 
chief  producer  of  guano. 

GA'XOID  FISHES,  one  of  the  four  orders  of 
fishes  in  the  clossitication  of  Agassiz,  character- 
ised by  ijanoid  scales — shining  scales  (Gr.  rjanoa, 
splendour),  covered  with  enamel,  angular,  either 
rhomboidal  or  polygonal.     Ganoid  scales  are  often 


Various  forms  of  Ganoid  Scales. 

large,  thfck,  and  bony ;  they  are  usually  placed  in 
oblique  rows,  and  united  to  each  other  by  a  kind  of 
hook  .at  the  anterior  angle.  Recent  ganoid  fishes 
do  not  form  a  natural  group,  but  differ  in  very 
important  parts  of  their  organisation.  Some  of 
them  have  an  osseous,  some  a  cartilaginous  skeleton. 
Recent  ganoid  fishes  are,  however,  comparatively 
few  ;  whereas,  among  fossil  fishes,  the  ganoid  tj^pe 
is  extremely  ])revalent.  The  sturgeon  is  an  example 
of  a  ganoid  fish. 

GA'NTLKT,  or  GAUNTLET  (Fr.  <janl,  a  glove), 
an  iron  glove,  which  formed  part  of  the  armour 
of  knights  and  men-at-arms.  The  back  of  the 
hand  was  covered  with  plates  jointed  together,  so 
as  to  pennit  the  hand  to  close.  Gantlets  were 
introduced  about  the  13th  eenturj'.  They  were 
freejuently  thrown  down  by  way  of  challenge,  Uke 
CIS 


gloves.  They  are  frequently  used  in  heraldry,  the 
fact  of  their  being  for  the  right  or  left  hand  being 
expressed  by  the  worils  '  dexter '  or  '  sinister.' 

In  the  phrase  'to  nm  the  g.antlet,'  the  word  is 
probably  a  corruption  for  rjanrilope  (from  gumi,  a 
passage,  and  the  root  occurring  in  c-tope — D.  loopcn, 
Ger.  tau/en,  to  run).  The  German  has  aanMnlavfen 
(lane-run),  meaning  a  military  punishment,  which 
consists  in  making  the  cidi>rit,  naked  to  the  waist, 
pass  repeatedly  through  a  lane  formed  of  two  rows 
of  soldiers,  each  of  whom  gives  him  a  stroke  .as  he 
passes  with  a  short  stick  or  other  similar  weapon. 

GANTUNG  PAS.S,in  lat.  31°  38'  N.,  and  long. 
78°  47'  E.,  leads  eastward  from  Kunaw.ar,  a  district 
of  Bussahir  in  Hindustan,  into  Chinese  Tartary.  Its 
height  is  18,295  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  overhung 
by  a  peak  of  its  own  name,  .about  3000  feet  loftier. 
The  place  is  imspeakably  desolate  and  rugged.  It 
is,  of  couree,  beset  with  pcr|ietual  snow,  and  bein" 
devoid  of  fuel,  it  is  Init  little  frequented.  Gerard, 
one  of  the  few  travellers  that  have  Wsited  it,  crossed 
it — and  that  in  July — amid  snow  and  sleet.  One 
I)ecidiarity  in  the  scene,  according  to  the  traveller 
just  mentioned,  is  th.at  the  whitened  surface  pre- 
sents here  and  there  dangerous  pools  of  still  water. 

GANYME'DES,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  was, 
according  to  Homer,  the  son  of  Tros,  or,  .according 
to  others,  of  Laomedou,  Ilus,  or  Erichthonius.  The 
most  beautiful  of  mortals,  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  king  of  the  gods,  who  despatched  his  eagle  to 
carry  him  ofi'  to  heaven,  where  he  succeeded  Hebe 
in  the  office  above  referred  to.  The  Greeks  believed 
th.at  Zeus  gave  Tros  a  pair  of  divine  horses  .as  a 
compensation  for  kidnapping  his  boy,  and  comforted 
him  at  the  same  time  by  informing  him  that  G.  had 
become  immortal  and  free  from  all  earthly  ills.  At 
a  later  period,  G.  was  identified  with  the  dirinity 
who  presided  over  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  The 
Greek  astronomers  hkemse  placed  him  .among  the 
stars,  under  the  name  of  Aquarius  (the  wiiter- bearer), 
in  allusion  to  his  celestial  function.  He  w.a3  also  a 
favourite  subject  of  ancient  art. 

GAOL.     See  Prison. 

GAOL  DELIVERY,  Commission  op,  is  one  of 
the  four  commissions  issued  to  judges  of  assize  in 
England,  imder  which  they  discharge  their  duties  on 
circuit.  See  Assize.  Commission  of  gaol  delivery 
empowers  the  judges  to  try  and  deliver  every 
prisoner  who  shall  be  in  the  gaol  when  they  arrive 
at  the  circuit  town.  It  is  directed  to  the  judges, 
w^th  whom  are  coupled  the  serjeants-at-law  and 
Queen's  counsel  on  the  circuit,  the  clerk  of  .assize, 
and  the  associate.  It  constitutes  the  persons  to 
whom  it  is  directed  the  Queen's  justices,  and  orders 
four,  three,  or  two  of  them,  of  whom  one  must  be 
a  judge  or  Serjeant,  to  proceed  to  try  prisoners.  It 
was  anciently  the  course  to  issue  special  writs  of 
g.aol  delivery  for  each  p,articular  prisoner,  which 
were  called  the  ^\Tits  de  bono  et  inato ;  but  these 
being  found  inconvenient  and  oppressive,  a  general 
commission  for  .all  the  prisoners  has  long  been 
established  in  their  ste.ad  (Stephen,  Comm.  iv.  371). 
It  is  not  incumbent  on  the  commissioners  to  deliver 
all  the  prisoners  in  the  gaol,  but  they  cannot  try 
any  one  who  was  not  in  custody  or  on  bail  at  the 
opening  of  the  commission.  A  commission  of  gaol 
delivery  has  power  to  order  that  the  proceedings 
at  any  trial  shall  not  be  published  till  all  the  trijils 
are  finished.  VioLation  of  this  order  is  contempt  of 
court,  and  is  pimishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
At  common  Law,  a  commission  of  gaol  delivery  is 
suspended  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  sitting 
in  the  same  county ;  but  by  2.5  Geo.  III.  c.  18,  the 
session  at  Newgate  of  oyer  and  terminer  and  gaol 
delivery  is  not  to  be  interrupted  by  the  commencement 


GAP^-GARELKRS. 


of  term  anrl  sitting  of  the  Kind's  Bencli  at  West- 
minster. By  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  3G,  a  special 
court  has  been  created  for  London  and  the  suburbs, 
called  the  Central  Criminal  Court  (q.  v.),  for  which 
a  special  commission  of  gaol  delivery  is  issued. 

GAP,  a  small  tow-n  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Kautes  Alpes,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Luie,  about  50  mUes  south- 
east of  Grenoble.  It  is  approached  through  walnut 
avenues,  and  surrounded  by  slopes  on  which  the 
vine  flourishes  at  tlio  height  of  2558  feet  above 
sea-level.  When  seen  from  a  certain  distance,  the 
town  has  a  ])icturesque  appearance ;  but  on  a  closer 
insjiection,  it  is  found  to  be  merely  a  labj-rinth 
of  dirty,  narrow,  and  ill-paved  streets.  The  chief 
public  liuilding  is  the  cathedral,  with  a  mausoleimi 
m  marlile  of  the  Constable  de  Lesdiguiftres.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  coarse  woollens,  linens, 
agricultural  iinjilements,  and  leather.     Pop.  5453. 

G.,  the  ancient  Vnpiiictim,  was  formerly  capital 
of  the  district  of  Dauphiue,  to  which  it  gave  the 
name  of  Gapeni;ois.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  17th  c,  it  is  said  to  have  had  about  16,000 
inhabitants.  Since  that  jieriod,  however,  it  has 
steadily  declined  in  size  and  importance.  It  was 
sacked,  and  almost  wholly  reduced  to  ashes,  by 
Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy  iu  lGfl2. 

GAPES,  a  disease  of  gallinaceous  birds,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  a  tremnlode  worm  (Fasciola  trachealis) 
in  the  windpipe.  This  cntozoon,  allied  to  the 
Fluke  (q.  v.),  is,  however,  a  creature  of  vei-y  different 
general  form,  being  a 
red,  wavy,  cylindrical 
worm,  taperiiig  at  the 
tail,  and  forking  near 
the  upper  e.\tremity, 
the  branch  which  is 
sent  off  terminating  in 
a  sucker  for  adhesion, 
whilst  the  mouth  ter- 
minates the  principal 
trunk.  The  whole 
length  seldom  exceeds 
an   inch.      Twenty   of 

_      .  ,    _      ,     ,.  these  worms,  of  vari- 

Fasciola  Tracheahs  :  o„g   ^^.^^^^   ^^^.^    ^^^^ 

A,  the  .hole  worm  ;  I!   the  upper  {^^^jj  j^  jj^,.  ^^n^pipg 

extremity,    maKiiineil :    a,  -the     «  .      ,         i  ■  i 

suekeratthecnduf  its  branch;  "'    •''    smgle    chicken. 

b,  the  head,  with  mouth.  Pheasants,  jiartridires, 

&c.,  are  also  liable 
to  be  infested  by  them.  They  produce  infl;uuma- 
tion,  and  sometimes  suffocation  and  death.  A 
common  remedy  is  to  introduce  into  the  bird's 
throat  the  end  of  a  feather,  well  oiled,  and  to  turn 
it  round,  so  as  to  dislodge  the  worms,  which  arc 
then  either  brought  out  by  the  feather,  or  coughed 
out  by  the  bird.  Another  cure  is  to  give  a  little 
Epsom  salts  mixed  with  the  food.  Urine  is  often 
used  in  the  same  way.     See  Sci.Kr.osTOTiA. 

GARANCEUX  is  a  term  now  applied  to  the 
rough  preparation  which  was  fonnerly  called  garan- 
cine — namely,  the  spent  madder  acted  on  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  as  mentioned  under  Garancink. 

GA'RANCINE,  a  manufactured  product  of 
madder;  hence  its  uame,  derived  from  the  French 
garance.  The  discovery  of  the  process  for  makin" 
this  material  is  due  to  the  French,  and  it  has  proved 
one  of  the  most  valuable  additions  to  our  dyeing 
materials  that  has  been  made  during  the  present 
century. 

It  was  first  practically  used  in  the  dyeing  estab- 
lishment of  ilessra  Lagier  and  Thomas  at  Avignon, 
where  it  was  introduced  with  the  hope  of  turning 
the  spent  madder  to  account ;  but  the  rude  manner 
iu  which  it  was  prepared  prevented  it  from  becoming 


generally  used  for  a  long  time,  and  our  ignorance  of 
the  organic  chemistry  of  madder  at  first  hindered 
its  improvement.  It  was  first  ]irepared  by  drying 
and  ]iulvcrising  or  grinding  the  spent  madder  which 
had  lieen  used  in  the  ordinary  processes  of  dyeing 
madder  styles;  this  was  then  saturated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  was  supposed  to  char  the  woody 
tissue,  and  destroy  the  alizurine  and  some  other 
organic  products  of  the  madder,  but  to  have  no 
effect  upon  the  purpurine,  which  was  consequently 
available  for  fresh  dyeing  processes.  Subsequent 
experience  shewed  these  views  to  be  wrong,  and 
garancino  is  now  prepared  from  pure  ground 
madder-root  which  has  not  previously  beeu  tised. 

For  this  inirpose,  the  ground  madder  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  left  for  a  day,  and  then  fresh  water 
is  added,  and  the  whole  drawn  off.  By  this  means, 
the  sugar,  and  probably  the  whole  of  the  rid>ian, 
another  principle  of  the  madder,  are  dissolved 
and  removed.  SiUphuric  acid  is  then  added,  and 
the  temperature  raised  to  about  90'  F.  for  some 
hours,  after  which  it  is  well  washed  with  cold 
water,  strained,  pressed,  and  dried,  and  afterwards 
ground.  In  this  state,  it  has  a  fine  choeolate-brown 
colour,  and  looks  somewhat  like  ground  coffee. 
The  advantages  of  garancine  over  madder  are,  that 
it  is  miue  easily  used,  and  the  colours  it  gives 
are  brighter  and  more  intense,  although  not  so 
permanent. 

GARAY,  Jjvxos,  a  distinguished  Hungarian  poet, 
was  born  at  Szegsz&rd  in  1812.  G.'s  poetical 
genius  manifested  itself  from  early  boyhood ;  for  it 
was  noticed  by  his  teachers,  that  whenever  he  had 
to  make  a  school  pomum  of  Latin  verses,  he  would 
usually  bring  at  the  s.ame  time  an  elaborate  -Magyar 
version.  His  C.ialdr  (the  Warrior)  was  pnblislieil  in 
1S34,  and  from  that  moment  till  his  death,  G.  was 
one  of  the  most  assiduous  workmen  iu  the  field  of 
Hungarian  literature,  being  attached  in  succession 
to  the  editorial  staff's  of  the  Jiegeloi,  Hajzolalolc, 
Hirniik,  and  Jelenkor.  G.'s  dramatic  works  are — 
Csdh,  a  tragedy  in  five  acts  (1835) ;  Arhoc:,  a  tragedy 
in  five  acts  (1837) ;  Ornzdi/li  Ilona,  an  historical  drama 
in  tlu'ce  acts  (18.'i7) ;  Utol.iC  Magyar  K/ian,  a  tragedy 
in  five  acts  ;  Buthory  Lrzsehcl,  an  historical  dr.ama  in 
five  acts.  The  first  comjilete  edition  of  G.'s  poetical 
works  was  pubhshed  at  Pesth  iu  1843.  A  collection 
of  tales  apifeared  under  the  title  of  Toltrtijzok  in 
1S45;  and  tlie  historical  legends  of  Hungarj',  under 
the  title  of  Arpdilok,  in  1847.  A  new  series  of  poetry, 
uuder  the  title  Balatoni  Kar/i/ldk,  was  published  in 
1S4S.  He  died  at  Pesth,  ^November  5,  185.'J.  His 
last  work  was  Szent  Li.Uzl6,  a  long  historical  poem 
in  12  cantos  (2  vols.,  Erlau,  1850).  A  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  was  published  after  his  death 
by  Franz  Ney  (I'esth,  1853) ;  and  a  select  luuuber 
of  them  have  been  translated  into  Gennan  by 
Kertbeny  (Pesth,  1854  ;  2d  etUt.,  Vicuna,  1857). 

GARll,  or  GARBE  (Fr.  rtcrhn,  Ger.  garbe),  a 
sheaf  of  any  kind  of  grain.  .'V  garb  is  frequently 
used  in  heraldry.  If  it  is  blazoned  a  garb  simply, 
then  wheat  is  understood  ;  if  any  other  kind  of 
graiu  is  intended,  it  must  be  mentioned — e.  g.,  '  a 
garb  of  oats.' 

G.\RBLERS,  GARBLE  (Fr.  garher,  to  make 
clean).  To  garble  siguifies  to  sever  and  divide  the 
good  and  sulficient  from  the  bad  and  insufficient. 
Garbles  signify  the  dust  or  soil  that  is  severed.  By 
1  Rich.  III.  it  was  provided  that  no  bow-staves 
shoiUd  be  sold  nngarljlcd ;  and  by  12  Ed.  IV.  c.  2, 
it  is  enacted  that  bow-staves  be  searcheil  and 
surveyeil,  and  that  such  as  be  not  good  and  sulfi- 
cient be  marked.  1  James  I.  c.  19  was  passed  to 
preserve  the  purity  of  drugs.  By  this  statute, 
thirty-two  kinds  of  drugs  are  specified  as  garbleable ; 

Cl'J 


GAKCIA— GARDA. 


Hnd  it  was  ilcclarc'l  that  all  tlicse  drugs,  &c., 
wire  to  be  ;,'arljlud  and  sealed  by  the  j;arbler 
before  sale,  on  ])ain  of  forfeiture  of  the  same  or 
the  value  thereof.  Power  was  given  to  an  oUieer, 
called  the  garbler,  at  all  times  of  the  day  to  cuter 
iuto  any  sho|is,  warehouses,  or  cellars,  to  view  aud 
search  for  such  drugs  and  s])ices,  and  to  garble  and 
make  clean  the  same.  This  statute  w;is  repealed 
by  C  Anne,  c.  IG ;  but  a  similar  power  to  that 
exercised  by  the  garblers  is,  by  S.i  Geo.  III.  o.  I'M, 
uow  reposed  in  the  Apothecaries'  Hall  of  Loudon. 

GARCIA,  M.\N-UKL,  a  well-known  musical  genius, 
•was  born*  at  Seville,  in  .Sjjain,  in  1775.  After 
acquiring  a  considerable  reputation  as  a,  singer 
in  Cadiz  and  Madrid,  lie  went  to  Paris  in  ISOS, 
where  he  obtained  great  success  at  the  Italian 
Opera;  and  in  1811  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  he 
was  received  with  e(iu.a!  favour  in  Turin,  Rome, 
and  Kaples.  From  ISlC  to  KSl'4,  he  was  constantly 
enraged  as  a  singer,  either  in  Paris  or  London. 
Subsequently,  with  a  select  operatic  company,  com- 
posed in  part  of  members  of  his  own  family,  he 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  visited  New  York  and 
Mexico.  On  the  road  between  Mexico  and  ^"era 
Cruz,  he  was  robbed  of  all  his  money  ;  and  after  bis 
return  to  Paris,  he  was  compelled  "to  open  a  class 
for  singing,  as  his  voice  had  become  greatly  impaired 
by  age  and  fatigue.  Many  of  G.'s  pupils  reached  a 
high  degree  of  excellence,  but  none  equalled  his 
eldest  daughter  Maria,  afterwards  Madame  Mali- 
bran  (q.  v.).  He  was  less  successful  as  a  comjioser, 
although  several  of  his  works,  especially  £1  Pocta 
CalcuUsta  and  II  Califo  di  Bar/dad,  were  much 
admired.  G.  died  at  Paris  in  Juiie  1832.— Pauli.ne 
Viardot-Gaecia,  second  daughter  of  Manuel,  w;vs 
boru  at  Paris  in  1821.  She  has  also  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  an  operatic  singer. 

GARCILA'SO,  sumamed  (by  himself)  the  Inca, 
was  born  at  Cuzco,  Peru,  in  1540.  He  was  the  son 
of  (iai'cilaso  de  la  Vega,  who  belonged  to  the  same 
family  as  the  poet  of  that  name,  aud  who  was  one 
of  the  conq\ierors  of  Peru.  G.'s  father  manied 
Elizabeth  Palla,  a  princess  of  the  race  of  the  Incas, 
and  niece  of  the  famous  Huayna  Capac,  the  last 
emjieror  of  Peru,  and  G.,  though  a  Spaniard  and  a 
Christian,  was  exceedingly  i)roud  of  the  royal  blood 
which  flowed  in  his  mother's  veins.  At  the  age 
of  20  he  proceeded  to  Spain,  and  never  again  visited 
America.  During  the  greater  portion  of  his  life  he 
lived  at  Cordova,  where  he  died  in  IGIG.  His  first 
work  was  a  History  of  Florida  {La  Florida  del 
ynca.  Lisbon,  1605).  It  contains  an  account  of  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  Fernando  de  Soto.  In 
1G09  appeared  the  iirst,  ami  in  IGlG,  shortly  before 
his  death,  the  second  part  of  his  work,  on  the  //!,s-- 
tory  of  Peru,  entitled  Commentarios  Reales  que  tratan 
del  Oritjen  de  los  Incas  de  sits  Leyes  y  Gohieriio. 
This  work  is  vahiable,  not  so  much  for  any  great 
historical  talent  which  it  betokens  in  the  author,  as 
on  account  of  its  being  almost  the  only  source  of 
information  which  we  possess  concerning  the  ancient 
l^eruvians.  G.  well  understood  his  mother-tongue, 
and  was  thus  enabled  to  correct  the  errors  which 
other  Si>anish  -writers  had  fallen  into  from  ignorance 
of  the  Peruvian  language.  G.'s  Jlistoii/  of  Peru  was 
translated  into  Knglish  by  Sir  Paid  Piycaut  (Lond., 
1688) ;  and  iuto  French  (2  vols.  Amsterdam,  1727). 

GARCILA'SO  DE  LA  VEGA,  a  Spanish  soldier 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Toledo,  in  1500  or  1.50;!.  He  , 
early  adopted  the  profession  of  arms,  and  gained  a  i 
distiu"uished  reputation  for  bravery  in  the  wars 
carried  on  by  the  Emperor  Charles  "V.  against  the 
French  and  Turks,  but  was  mortally"  wounded 
•while  .storming  a  castle  near  Frejus,  in  the  south 
of  France,  and  died  at  Nice,  November  I53G,  in  the  ! 


thirty-third  year  of  his  age.      G.,  though  i>renia- 

I  turely  cut  off,  lived  long  enough  to  win  immor- 
tality, and  though  he  wrote  little,  he  revolutionised 
tlie  national  jroetic  taste  of  his  eountryraen.  For 
the  short  metre  of  the  older  romances  and  redon- 
dilhis,  he  substituted  the  heiulecasyllabic  verse  of 
the  Italians.  His  pieces  consist  of  only  37  sonnets. 
5  canzones,  2  elegies,  1  ej>istle,  and  3  pastor.'jls. 
Singular  to  say,  tliey  do  not  contain  a  trace  of 
military  ardour,  but  are  inspired  by  a  tender 
sweetness  and  melancholy  wliich  apjiear  to  have 
deeply  affected  his  countrjanen.  '  His  sonnets,'  says 
Tickuor,  in  his  History  of  SpanUh  Literature,  'were 
heard  everj^vherc ;  his  eclogues  were  acted  like 
})opular  dramas.  The  gi'catest  geniuses  of  his  nation 
express  for  him  a  reverence  they  shew  to  none  of 
his  predecessors.  Lope  de  Vega  imitates  him  in 
every  possible  Avay  ;  Cervantes  praises  him  more 
than  he  docs  any  other  poet,  and  cites  him  oftener. 
And  thus  G.  has  come  down  to  us  enjoying  a 
general  admiration,  such  as  is  hardly  given  to  any 
other  Spanish  poet,  and  to  none  that  lived  before 
his  time.'  The  best  of  tlic  niiiiuruus  editions  of 
G.'s  poems  is  that  by  Azara  (Mailrid,  1765).  They 
have  also  been  translated  into  EngUsh  by  Wiff'eu 
(Lond.  1823). 

GARCI'NIA.     See  Mangosteen. 

GAJRD,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  river  Rhone,  is  trian- 
gular in  shape,  its  southern  extremity  reaching 
into  the  Mediterranean  in  a  headland  which  has 
a  coast-line  of  about  ten  miles.  It  has  an  area 
I  of  2201  square  miles,  and  in  1856  a  jiopidation  of 
•419,697.  One-third  of  the  area  is  arable,  one-third 
•waste  land,  and  the  rcmaiuder  occupied  by  forests, 
plantations,  vineyards,  and,  on  the  coast,  by  exten- 
sive and  unhealthy  marshes.  It  is  watered  mainly 
by  the  Rhone,  and  by  its  tributaries,  the  Gard — 
from  which  the  dei)artmeut  has  its  name — and  the 
Ceze.  Of  its  surface,  the  north-west  is  occupied  by 
a  branch  of  the  Cevennes  ;  the  remainder  slopes 
toward  the  Rhone  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
soil  is  in  general  dry,  the  best  land  occumng  in 
the  river-valleys.  Coal  is  found  in  several  places, 
and  salt-works  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the 
south.  The  rine  (which  yields  about  26,400,000 
gallons  of  wine  annually),  the  ohve,  and  the  mul- 
berry are  the  principal  products.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods  ;  hats, 
ribbons,  gloves,  &c.  Wine  is  largely  exported. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  four  arroudisse- 
ments  of  Nlmes,  Alais,  Uzes,  and  Lu  Vigan ;  the 
chief  town  is  Nimes. 

GARDA,  L.A.GO  L)i,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  Alpine  lakes,  and  the  largest  in  Italy,  was 
the  Lacus  Benacus  of  the  Romans.  Its  modern 
name  is  derived  from  the  small  village  of  Garda, 
situated  on  its  eastern  shore,  and  containing  3000 
iiih.aljitants.  G.'s  chief  tributary  is  the  river  Sarca, 
which  rises  from  the  glacier  of  Monte  Adamo,  but 
it  also  receives  several  smaller  streams  descending 
from  the  valleys  of  Ledi-o,  Tavalo,  aud  Vesta.  The 
northern  extremity  of  the  lake  enters  the  territory 
of  Trent  in  the  Italian  Tyrol.  On  the  E.  it  h.os 
the  province  of  Verona  ;  on  the  W.,  that  of  Brescia  ; 
very  variable  ;  the  average  generally  exceeds  120 
and  on  the  S.,  that  of  Mantua.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  Riva  to  Peschiera,  is  32  miles ;  and  its  bre.atith, 
from  Desenzano  to  Garda,  10  miles.  Its  depth  is 
feet ;  in  the  direction  of  jSIallesine,  it  reaches  700 
and  800  feet ;  and  its  maximum,  .as  yet  ascertained, 
is  1900  English  feet.  The  ])riiicii)al  islands  are 
Trimelone,  Olive,  and  St  Pietro.  The  scenery  is 
grand.  Alpine  spui-s  border  the  lake  on  both  sides, 
and  descend  steeply  to  its  shores,  but  contain  within 


GARDAIA— G.4EDE  NATIOXALE. 


themselves  also  many  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys. 
'J'lie  waters  of  this  lake  are  remarUalily  clear,  and 
aliiiuiiil  in  fish  of  various  kinds.  Ow'ing  to  the 
extent  of  its  surface,  and  the  violent  winds  to  which 
it  is  'e.vposed,  waves  often  rise  on  it  to  a  consider- 
able hei,i;ht,  t,'iving  its  waters  the  ap|)eai;anee  of  a 
rough  sea.  The  only  outlet  is  the  river  Mincio  at 
I'eschiera,  which  desccn<l3  to  Mantua,  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  I'o.  The  mild  climate  iu 
the  district  of  the  lake,  and  the  beauty  of  its 
vicinity,  have  caused  its  shores  to  be  lined  with 
beautihd  Wllas.  Especially  attractive  to  the  scholar 
is  tlie  neck  of  land  called  Sfrmione  (the  Sirmio  of 
Catullus),  where  the  remains  of  that  poet's  country- 
liouse  are  still  traceable.  Since  the  ])eace  of  Villa- 
franca.  Lake  G.  forms  the  barrier  which  separates 
Veuetia  from  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

GAKDAI'A,  or  (JHAKDEIA,  an  important 
trading  town  of  Algeria,  in  the  Sahara,  chief  to\™, 
and  seat  of  the  Djcnim.la  or  elective  council  of  the 
Re|)ublic  of  the  Seven  Cities  of  the  Mzab  di^rict, 
is  situated  amid  savagely  naked  and  rocky  moun- 
t.ains,  in  lat.  .■{2°  2S'  N.  and  long.  4°  38'  E.,  312 
miles  in  direct  line  south-south-east  of  Algiers. 
It  is  fortified  by  an  enclosing  wall,  sumiounted  by 
nine  towers,  and  pierced  by  ten  g.ates ;  contains 
six  moscpies,  one  remarkable  for  its  size  ;  and  has  a 
flourishing  trade  l>y  means  of  caravans  with  Tunis, 
Algiers,  Fez,  Marocco,  Sfulan,  and  Timbuctn,  in 
slaves,  dates,  barley,  pottery,  ]irovisions,  oil,  wool, 
cotton,  indigo,  leather,  gohl-dust,  ivory,  and  all  the 
varied  raw  i)roduce  of  Central  and  Northern  Africa. 
G.  is  surroimdcd  by  extensive  orchards,  imgated 
from  wells,  some  of  which  are  1)00  feet  deep.  In 
the  \ieinity  are  the  ruins  of  a  tower,  supposed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Komans.  The  Mzab  republic 
or  couftderacy  pays  to  the  French  an  annual  tribute 
of  .'iO.llOO  francs,  14,000  francs  of  which  are  con- 
tributed liy  G.  alone.  In  return  for  this,  the 
French  secure  them  from  all  wars  and  marauders, 
and  ojien  to  them  freely  the  markets  of  the  Tell, 
or  coast  i-egions  of  Algeria.  I'op.  13,000.  See  the 
Great  Sahara,  ]]'a)ideriiii/.^  Suuth  of  the  Atlas 
Mountain.^,  by  H.  B.  Tristram  (London,  1S60). 

GARDANT,  in  Heraldry,  is  said  of  an  animal 
which  is  represented  fidl-faced,  and  looking  forward. 
See  Pa.ssa>t-Gakdaj«t. 

GARDE  NATIONALE,  the  celebrated  burgher 
defenders  of  order  in  Paris  and  certain  other  French 
towns,  was  for  the  first  time  introduced  into  Paris 
duririg  the  Revolution  of  I7S9.  It  had  existed  for 
a  long  time  previous  in  some  of  the  French  towns, 
having  been  at  first  employed  to  defend  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  city,  and  subsequently  to 
guarii  the  persons  and  property  of  the  citizens. 
When,  in  JiUy  1780,  the  entire  lower  ordei-s  of  the 
caj)ital  rose  and  demanded  anus,  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution,  sitting  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  seized 
the  opportunity  to  decree,  without  consulting  the 
government,  the  formation  of  a  national  guard  for 
l',aris  of  48,000  citizens,  which,  in  the  first  instance, 
they  named  the  Parisian  JMilitia.  Each  electoral 
district  was  to  enrol  a  batt.alion  of  800  men, 
divided  into  four  companies  of  200  men  each,  15  of 
these  companies  forming  a  legion.  The  officers  of 
the  b.attalions  were  to  be  elected  by  the  privates  ; 
but  the  higher  ofticers  were  named  by  the  Com- 
mittee. The  dcN-ice  chosen  as  the  badge  of  the 
service  was  of  blue  and  red,  the  colours  of  the  city, 
to  which  white,  the  colour  of  the  army,  was  added, 
to  denote  the  intimate  union  which  shoidd  subsist 
between  the  defenders  of  national  liberty  and  the 
military.  Thus  arose  the  celebrated  tricolor,  after- 
wards adojrted  as  the  national  badge,  and  now  borne 
in  honour  wherever  the  French  name  extends.     On 


the  king  consenting  to  the  removal  of  the  regular 
troojis  from  Paris,  Laf.ayette  (q.  v.)  was  named 
Ccjmmandant  of  the  National  Guard  of  the  city. 
Ere  many  more  days  had  elapsed,  the  friends  of 
municipal  freedom  had  organiseil  themselves  into 
burgher  tioops  iu  every  im]iiirtant  town,  and  the 
N,ational  Guard  h.ad  become  a  recognised  institution 
of  the  whole  kingdom,  the  entire  nimiber  raised 
being  not  umler  .'fOO.OOO.  The  force  soon  acquired 
an  extraordinary  degree  of  discipline  and  eliiciency 
— in  a  great  degree  from  the  nundjer  of  old  soldiers 
who,  having  deserted  the  crown,  were  elected  to 
commissions  by  the  nninicipal  troojis. 

Throughout  17S'.I.  the  National  (luard  looked  on 
supinely  at  the  excesses  of  the  democratic  party  in  the 
provinces,  and  joined  the  mob  in  Paris  diu-ing  the 
atrocities  of  the  5th  October  ;  but,  under  Lafayette, 
better  counsels  i)revailed,  aiul  tlie  national  anny 
restored  order,  rescuing  the  royal  family  on  the  1 1th 
of  October.  For  some  months  after  this  time,  the 
National  Guard  limdy  withstood  the  more  vi<ilent 
insurrectionists,  who  would  have  deluged  the  cajiital 
with  blood  ;  but  irresolution  and  indeci-sion  marked 
their  actions  in  August  1702,  and  they  stood  tamely 
by  during  the  appalling  nuissacrcs  in  the  prisons. 
As  the  Revolution  held  its  sanguinary  course,  the 
National  Guard  receded  more  and  more  from  the 
moderate  views  which  it  had  at  first  supported, 
until,  in  1704,  we  find  it  among  the  most  devoted 
adherents  of  Robespierre  and  his  bloody  trimn- 
virate,  ever  ready  to  lend  its  aid  in  the  execution 
of  their  merciless  decrees.  Later  in  the  year,  how- 
ever, when  the  Reign  of  Terror  stood  balanced 
between  jiower  and  death,  the  National  Guard 
proved,  under  the  command  of  Barras,  faithful  to 
the  Convention,  which  had  deposed  Robespierre  and 
his  terrible  colleagues.  In  1705,  the  National  Guard 
aided  in  the  disarmament  of  the  popidaee  ;  the  reign 
of  the  multitude  ceased,  and  the  force  itself  was 
thoroughly  re-organised,  all  elements  of  internal 
turbidencc  being  carefully  excluded  from  its  ranks. 
Under  this  constitution,  none  were  eligible  to  serve 
as  National  (juards  but  citizens  of  substance, 
labourers  and  the  lowest  classes  being  deemed 
dangerous.  Not  many  months  after,  so  great  was 
the  reaction,  that  the  corps  had  become  quite 
royalist  in  its  feelings,  carrying  their  sympathies 
at  length  to  open  rebellion  against  the  Conven- 
tion ;  but  they  sustained  an  utter  defeat  from  a 
small  body  of  troo])S  of  the  regular  army,  who, 
under  Barras  and  Nai)oleon  Bonaparte,  defended 
the  Convention.  After  this  reverse,  the  National 
Gu.ard  ceased  practically  to  exist.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  however,  that  in  1794  the  latter  general 
had  been  otTcred  the  command  i)f  the  National 
Guard  by  Robespierre,  and  had  declined  it :  had 
he  accepted,  how  different  might  have  been  the 
fate  of  Europe. 

In  1805,  on  the  eve  of  the  gi'cat  continental  cam- 
l)aign,  which  ho  expected  woiUd  denude  France  of 
its  regidar  troops,  Na])o!eon  rc-instituted  the  G.  N., 
takuig  cai-e,  however,  that  no  elective  or  democratic 
principles  shoidd  pervade  the  body.  By  a  decree 
of  September  23,  iu  which  the  whole  enqiire  was 
included,  every  man  in  good  health  was  required  to 
serve,  between  the  ages  of  21  and  60 :  the  officers 
were  to  be  named  by  the  Em])eror.  The  companies 
were  localised  among  the  villages  and  townships  ; 
ten  companies  formed  a  cohort,  and  several  cohorts, 
according  to  the  district,  formed  a  legion.  This 
force  was  maintained  in  succeeding  years  in  discip- 
line and  efficiency  :  and  iu  I8I2,  before  the  great 
Russian  cami)aign,  the  Emperor  placed  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  National  Guard  on  permanent  duty.  He 
reaped  the  advantages  of  this  step  when,  in  1S13, 
after  the  disastrous  issue  of  that  year's  warfare,  ho 

C2l 


GARBELEGEN— GARDENING. 


found  1(X\0(X1  woU -drilled  steady  troops  ready  to 
n-iilaoe  his  liist  veterans,  and  till  some  of  the 
\Tuancies  in  the  ranks.  In  ISU— when  .vivancinc 
to  meet  the  allies,  he  jKirted  fivm  his  emjiri'ss  and 
his  son,  the  little  king  of  Korae,  for  the  last  time 

JCaimleou  solemnly  eommittcd  them  to  the  ]>n>- 

teetiou  of  the  Nation.al  Ou.ai\l  of  P.-iris.  After  the 
IJourbon  restoration,  the  N.itional  Guaril  continued 
an  important  h.xly  in  the  state  until  ISiT.  when,  its 
attitude  becomint;  iusubordin.itc,  Charles  X.  dis- 
solveil  it,  but  negleeteil  to  diMnn  the  members. 
Enraged  at  tliis  slight,  these  men  were  am«ing 
his  most  formidable  opiwnents  at  the  revolution 
of  1S30.  Vnder  Louis  Philipiw,  in  that  year, 
the  0.  N.  was  re.est.ibhshed  throughout  France, 
Lafayette  being  .appointeil  U>  the  command-in-chief, 
a  p<ist,  however,  from  which  he  was  removed 
shortly  afterwards,  as  his  jwwer  liecime  danger- 
ously "gr^.^*-  I"  l-"^'*'-  *^'^"  National  Gu.ird  of  Lyon 
wasimplicated  in  the  insurrection  there  :  and  in  the 
following  ve;u-,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  urban 
lesions  of  I'aris  took  jvirt  in  the  sanguinary  distiu-b- 
.■uices  of  the  Quartier  St  Meri,  in  which,  how-evcr, 
thay  were  overcome  by  the  lirmncss  and  fidelity  of 
the  suburban  legions  of  the  banlinu  Fechng  its 
power  over  the  Citizen  King  of  its  own  creation, 
the  Xatiouid  Gu.inl  verged  more  and  more  towards 
republican  principles,  xmtil,  in  tlie  critical  moments 
of  the  reform  iusurrectiou  of  1S4S.  the  guard  of 
the  capital  deserted  from  Louis  Philipiie  to  the 
revolutionists,  and  so  put  au  end  to  tlie  Orleans 
dNTiasty.  In  the  troubles  of  the  spring  .and  summer 
o{  IS-iS.  the  G.  X.— a  few  legions,  subsequently 
dissolved,  excepted — ste.idfastly  supported  order, 
and  opposed  tlie  Socialists.  Ou  the  election  of 
Louis  Xajwleou  to  the  presidency,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  dissolve  the  Guards  in  153  communes  ; 
and  he  reorganised  the  rem.ainder  on  a  footing  to 
insure  the  absence  of  Socialistic  \news. 

By  an  ordinance  of  .Tunc  1851,  the  Nation.al 
Gu.ird  was  placed  nearly  <ni  the  footing  of  Louis 
Philippe's  reign  ;  but  by  a  subsequent  decree 
of  1852.  which  still  holds,  the  entire  force  was 
dissolved,  .and  reformed  on  a  more  military  Kasis, 
in  certain  dep.artmeiils  only.  Kow,  all  otficers  are 
n.amed  by  the  emperi>r,  by  whom  .alone  the  forma- 
tion of  s)ieci.al  corps  can  be  sanctionetl.  In  revolu- 
tionary times,  a  uation,al  gu.ord  h;is  been  est.ablished 
in  otlier  coiuitries  also,  and  still  continues  to  exist 
in  Belgium  and  lt;ily.  In  the  southern  portion  of 
the  latter  kingdom,  the  services  of  the  national 
g<i:ird  are  at  present  (1862)  in  frequent  requisition 
in  the  cause  of  order. 

G.VRDELEGEX,  a  small  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  is  situated  .about  30  miles  north-north-west 
of  Magdeburg,  on  the  Milde.  It  h:is  manufactures 
of  leather,  sever.al  mills  and  distilleries,  .and  live 
■annual  fairs.  I'oji.  5itV2.  G.  is  very  old.  Tradition 
says  that  in  ancient  times  it  was  called  Isenburg 
(Caslrum  Isidk),  from  being  a  sanctuary  of  the 
goddess  Isis,  and  that  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Fr.anks.  Be  this  .as  it  m.ay,  it  was  certainly 
destroyed  by  a  Duke  Dervau  in  633  A.  n.,  and 
rebviUt  about  924  Subsequently,  for  a  long 
]>criod,  it  was  the  scat  of  princely  mark£;rafs,  who 
were  called  Counts  of  Gardelegen.  Until  147S,  it 
remained  a  free  tow-n.^ 

GARDE'NIA,  a  genus  of  trees  and  slirubs,  of  the 
natural  order  CiticJwnacetr,  natives  of  tropical  .and 
sub-tropical  coimtries,  m.any  of  which  are  now 
favoimtes  in  our  green-houses  and  hothouses,  on 
account  of  their  beautiful  and  fragrant  flowers. 
Some  of  them  are  hardy  enough  to  endure  the  open 
air  in  summer.  The  corolla  is  funnel-shaped,  or 
approaching  to  salver-shaped,  the  tube  much  longer 


than  the  calyx ;  the  fruit  is  a  berry  crowned  with 
the  calyx.  O.  rfuriifn  and  0.  ratlieaiu  are  .anumg 
the  species  best  known  in  Britain,  and  bear  the 
u;ime  of  Cape  J,asmine.  but  arc  u.atives  of  Jajian.  The 
fruit  of  the  former,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg  and  orange-coloureil,  is  sold  in  tbe  shojis 
of  China  and  Jaj>an  lor  dyeing  silks  yellow.  A 
beautifiil  yellow  resin  exudes  from  wounds  in  the 
bark  of  Ir'aHiorea  aad  (?.  j/i/nimiVcra,  Indian  si>ecies. 
The  wood  of  G.  TliunlH-n/u  and  ti.  JloOniLHiinia  is 
very  har>l.  and  is  used  for  agricultural  iuij 'li  meats, 
wheel  axles.  &c,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hoj^  Both 
of  these  species  are  known  in  Britain  as  esteemed 
hothouse  plants. 

GARDENrNG,  or  HORTICULTFRE,  differs 
from  agriculture  in  the  comjiaratively  small  extent 
of  ground  used,  the  much  "reater  variety  of  pro- 
ductions sought  from  it,  and,  consequently,  also  to 
no  sm.all  extent  in  the  manner  of  cultivation.  The 
dilTerent  ordinary  productions  of  the  garden  are 
usiually  cl.assed  <inder  the  three  heads  of  floioers, 
FriiiU,  and  Culinani  Vetjetaiilcs,  concerning  which 
see  Flower -G.4JSDES,  Fkuits,  and  Kitvubn-cuidkn. 
In  large  gardens,  these  dejmrtments  are  kept  very 
distinct,  p.articularly  the  lirst  and  last  of  them ; 
but  in  sm.all  gardens  they  are  generally  more  or  less 
combined. 

ANtere  circumstances  permit  a  choice  of  situation, 
a  ganlen  ought  to  be  as  fully  .as  possible  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  in  t lie  northern  j^arts  of  the 
world  a  gentle  slope  to  the  south,  south-east,  or 
south-west  is  even  preferable  to  a  jierfect  leveL  But 
a  slope  in  the  opjwsitc  ilirections  is  by  all  means  to 
be  avoided.  The  form  of  a  g.ardeoi,  unless  where 
some  peculiarity  of  situ.ation  determines  it  other- 
wise, is  usually  a  par.allelogram  ;  and  it  is  considered 
desirable,  at  least  in  the  case  of  a  walled  ganlen, 
that  it  shovdd  be  longer  from  east  to  west  than  from 
north  to  south,  in  order  to  have  as  much  as  j>ossible 
of  the  best  exixisure  of  w.all  for  fruit-trees.  This  is 
also,  sometimes  increased  by  the  enclosure  within 
a  fence  of  some  other  kind,  of  a  piece  of  gromid 
called  a  slip,  e-Kterior  to  the  wall  A  wall,  cither  of 
brick  or  stone,  is  the  best  enclosure  for  a  garden ; 
brick  being  preferable  on  account  of  its  more  perfect 
.adaptation  to  fruit-trees  (see  W.41-L-tkees)  ;  but 
where  this  is  deemed  too  exjiensive,  hedges  of  thorn, 
holly,  &c,  .are  resorted  to.  Hedges  atford  good 
shelter  from  winds,  but  h.ave  the  disiulvantages  of 
harlxmring  Vurds  .and  snails  to  an  inconvenient 
degree,  and  of  withdrawing  to  their  own  support 
much  of  the  strength  of  the  adjacent  soiL  The 
garden,  if  in  the  form  of  a  j%ar.allelogr,am,  is  usually 
di\-ided  into  sm.aller  p.arallclogr;uns ;  a  large  garden, 
in  the  lirst  instance,  by  cross-walls,  smaller  ganiens 
.at  once  by  ini/fc,  and"  the  ph-tx  thus  formed  are,  if  ! 
neceiis.arj',  broken  <ip  by  paths  into  smaller  plots  | 
or  fefrfjt  "for  different  kinds  of  plants.  The  patlis 
witliin  the  plots  are  made  by  mere  treading  with 
the  foot,  when  the  groimd  has  been  newly  dug.  .and 
are  intended  only  for  a  single  season  ;  the  walks 
are  penu.anent,  and  .are  c.arifxilly  made,  usu.ally  by 
throwing  out  the  e.arth  to  the  depth  of  at  least  a 
few  inches,  .and  s<ipplying  it«  place  with  stones, 
cinders,  brokeji  bricks,  slag  from  furnaces,  or  the 
like — whatever,  in  fact,  is  least  likely  to  afford 
nutriment  to  plants— the  surface  being  covered  with 
gravel,  which  is  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  frequent 
stirring  with  the  hoe  or  Dutch  hoe.  The  walks  are 
seJdom  less  than  five  feet  in  width.  The  groimd 
occupied  by  them  is  still  usefiU  for  the  noiuishment 
of  pl.onts,  and  particul.arly  of  trees  or  shriibs,  grow- 
ing near  them.  They  have  generally  Edgings  (q.  v.) 
to"  separate  them  neatly  from  the  adjoining  culti- 
vated ground  ;  and  in  d.amp  situations,  it  is  thought 
desirame  to  have  them  .as  much  elevated  in  the 


QAKDENINQ. 


centre  as  is  consistent  with  comfort  in  wiUking  on 
them. 

The  soil  of  a  carilen  is   often   prcpanxl  with  a 
degree  of  cai-e  which  is   im)Kis«iblo  in  rv;r.»ril  to  a 
farm.      A  clot'p,  rich,  and  easily  iHnietniMo  soil  is 
desirable :     ami  where   the    immeiUate    e.\(ieu3e    is 
not  miuh  rogarvUnl,  the  soil  of   a  j;ai\leu  is  some- 
times   aUnost    entirely   artificial ;    more   genei-ally, 
means  arc  used  fur  amelioratmg  the  orii;inal  soil. 
Of    these   means,    one    of    the    most    important    is 
trendiiiiij,   hv  which   the   soil   is    deeiienod,   and   it 
is   dosival^lo"  that   the   soil   of   a  <rai\len    should  be 
at    least   three    feet   deei).      The   proper   depth    of 
trenchiu;.;,  however,  dei)end3  on  the  original  depth 
of  the  sod  and  the  nature  of   the  sulisod  ;    where 
the  soil  is  pretty  unifoiin  to  a  considerable  depth, 
the  deepest    trenching    is    advantageous ;    and   the 
available    sod    may    often    be   deciH'nwl    by  incor- 
poratim;  a   portion  of  the  sulwod  with   it,  but  if 
too  much  of  a  subsoil  misuiteil  for  vegetation  is  at 
once  thrown  up  by  trenching,  it  may  conunuuicate 
its  own  barrenness  for  yciirs  to  the  soil,  ere  it  is 
mellowed  by  ox^wsure"  to  the  air,  manure's,  .-uid  the 
processes  of  ciUtivation.     A  still"  clay  soil  is  very 
unsuitable    for   m.iuy   of    the   crojis   renjuired   in   a 
gaixUui,  and  oui;ht  to  bo  mixed  with  as  much  s.ind 
and  vegetiible  matters  as  can  e;isily  be   procure-d, 
both  atUie  formation  of  the  g;u\len  and  aftorwanls. 
It  is  of  coui-se  necessary,  in  iiU  cases,  that  a  garden 
l>e  thoroughly  drained;    it  is  idso  of   gre>at  conse- 
quence to'have  the  means  of  irrigation,  or  at  le;ist 
of  abimdaiit  watering,  which,  even  where  the  climate 
is   geneiiilly  moist,   gre-atly   tends   to   increase   the 
proiiuce  iiidiy  seasons,  ami  is  lUmost  always  neces- 
sary to  the  perfection  nt  certain  croi>s.     liidccxl,  if 
waU-r  can  be  obtaineil  to  form  a  small  pond,  or  to 
jiass  through  the  ganleii  ivs  a  iwilet,  it  may  not 
oidy  be  tinned  to  aicount  for  purixisos  of  ornament, 
but  ;dso  of  utility,  in  the  cultivation  of  many  plants 
which  cannot  lu)  sueeesiUidly  cultivated  otherwise. 
This  use  of  water  is  f;ir  from  being  so  common  as  it 
misht  be  in  British  garilens  ;  even  a  cranberry- plot, 
altIiou"h  a  plejisant'thing  and  of  easy  attainment, 
being  seldom  thought  of;   the  Chinese   are  better 
acquainted  with  it,"and  cidtiv.atc  iupiatic  plants  to 
an  extent  that  luas  nevei-  been  eiiualle<l  amongst  any 
other  people. 

A  hber;d  supply  of  manure  is  necessary  for  a 
ganleu ;  the  kinds  of  ni.iuure-  must  be  accommoilatcd 
to  the  soU  and  to  the  ditl'erenit  plants,  and  must  often 
also  depend  in  jiart  im  other  ciremnstauccs.  Care 
must  be  t;Ucen  not  to  over.losc  with  guano,  or  indeed 
>vith  stroiiu  manure  .•("  any  kind,  by  which  plants 
mii;ht  be  kdled  rather  than  nourished.  Farm-y;ml 
or  stable-yai\l  nuuiure  ouuht  in  generid  to  bo  sub- 
ject<.Hl  to  a  piwe-ss  of  decomiKwiUon  in  heaps  before 
bein^'  used;  and  gi-eat  advantage  is  derived  from 
mixuic  it  with  other  substances  to  form  Comp<>sts 
(n  V  °  Nor  ouuht  anv  of  the  weeds  and  other 
refuse  ve-etable  produce  of  the  garden  to  be  thrown 
away  or\lissipat«l  in  smoke,  but  all  shoidd  be 
cathered  into  some  corner  approjinated  to  the 
pmiKwe,  there  to  deeomiK«e  and  form  a  heap  of 
vc'-etable  mould,  which  is  for  many  purposes  one 
of  the  best  manures  that  can  be  used.  1  e.it  is, 
in  some  sods  .ind  for  some  plants,  a  very  usefiU 
manure  or  ingredient  in  the  form.-ition  of  comi>osts. 

A  garelen  "ought  to  be  d,hul  or  dug  with  the 
spiule^  in  the  end  of  autumn,  except  where-  the 
presence  of  a  crop  prevents,  the  gnnmd  being  left 
very  rough,  to  exiiose  the  sod  as  much  as  iK>ssiblo  to 
the  intluences  of  Uie  weather.  When  t ho  crop 
are  nlanteil  ill  sprinj,  a  very  slight  stirring  of  the 
surface  is  .-dl  that  is  recpiUed.  The  usclulness  of  a 
.rarden,  however,  is  much  incre.iseil  by  niakmg  a 
Considerable  part  of  it  proiliice  crops  even  during 


winter.  Greens  of  various  kinds  .ire  commonly 
obtained  from  tlie  giinlen  during  winter,  even  in 
the  northern  ivirts  ot  Uritain  ;  the  v.ariety  of  winter 
creiiM  in  the  southern  parts  is  greater ;  but  nowhere 
is  a  system  of  constant  cropping  so  thoroughly 
maintained  aa  in  the  market-gardens  aremiid 
London.  Of  course,  constant  criipping  re(iuire;s 
freiiuent  and  abundant  manuring ;  and  care  is 
tiikeu  that  each  crop  is  succeeiled  by  one  of  a 
iHunpletely  different  kind,  a  rule  wliicli  is  indeed 
lUways,  sis  far  as  jiossilile,  to  bo  observed  both  in 
horticulture'  and  .•igriculture\ 

In  layius;  out  large  ganlens.  fruit-trees  trameil  on 
espaliers  are  not  imfreqnently  planted  arouu<l  the 
bonlers  of  plots;  in  8m:dler  givrdens,  goosetwrry 
and  currant  bushes  generally  occupy  this  situa- 
tion, often  ill  addition  to  a  plot  entire'ly  devoted  to 
these  bushes.  Fruittre'es  are>  often  also  planted 
aa  standarils  in  the  plots  devoted  to  culinary  vege- 
tables. The  pro<luctiveness  of  a  ganlen  may  cer- 
tainly thus  be  incre',-we<l,  .as  gremnd  didy  nnmured 
wdl  "yield  a  gn-ater  re'tuni  of  difl'erent  knids  of 
proiUu-e  than  of  one  kind,  whilst  the  owner  Ikis  the 
achlitional  ple.-isiuv  of  iho  greater  viiriety  ;  but  it  is 
to  be  re-membered  th.it  the  rewts  of  trees  and  bushes 
spivad  a  long  way  through  the  soil,  and  render  it 
less  suitable  for  nianv  crops. 

The  implements  most  neccss-iry  in  gardening  are 


the  spade,  fork,  rake,  hoe,  Dutch  lioe,  garden-line, 
wheell).-irrow,  pruiiini;-kiiife,  luid  watermg-eau. 

The  practice  of  garelening,  of  course,  vanes  much 
in  ditTerenit  countries,  on  account  of  tlie  differe-nce  of 
climate,  although  some  of  its  rules  are-  of  univer8.il 
appUcation.     t.>f  the  history  of  ganlening,  little  neejls 
Ui  be  said.     We  know  little  of  the  gardemng  of  tlie 
most  ancient  nations,  except  that  it  was  practised, 
both  for  the  Siike  of  the  produce  and  for  pleasure, 
in  aU  the  scats  of  civilisation;  and  that  the  Greeks 
borrowed   their    methods   of    g.ardeumg    from    the 
rcrsians,  the  Romans  in  their  turn  copymg  from 
the  Greeks.     Of  the  garvlening  of  the  Koiuans,  some 
account  has  been  transmitted  U)  us,  from  which  wo 
know  that  they  had  attained  to  no  small  prolicieney 
in  it     Diu-inii'the  middle  aijos,  gaalemng  continued 
to  be  sedulously  prosccutixl  in  all  the  more-  civilised 
piuts  of  Euro|w ;  Cli,arlemagne  enacted  laws  which 
contributeil  much  to  its   promoUon ;    and  even  in 
comp.-uatively  biubarous  re-gions  it  was  carried  to 
cre-at  iier-fection  by  the  moidts,  traces  of  whose  skill 
and  dihgence  are-  stiU  to  be  seen  in  the  vicmity  of 
many  a  ruined  monastery.     The  practice  long  pre- 
vailed of  forming  -ardens,  if  situateil  on  a  sIoim.-,  into 
terraces,  and  many  a  line  exiuuple  of  this  kind  of 
garden  still  rem.iius  at  old  country-seats.     In  a  fe\v 
places.  al3«,  may  be  seen  remaining  siwcunens  of 
the  clipiKd  hedi?.-s  and  fant^istically  clipped  trevs 
.ind  bushes,  which,  untd  hist  century,  seem  to  have 
been  thou-ht   the    cliief  ornaments   of  a   garelen : 
other  puerile  conceits  being  often   associateil  with 
them,  some  of  wliich  .ire  not  yet  entire-ly  exploded, 
altlioiigh    a    green    bush    in    its   natunU    form    w 
universally  reganlcd  as   more   beautiful  than   one 
ra.iile  to  greiw  into  the   sha]*   of  a  vase  or  of  a 
i«.'acock.      But   the   history  of   taste  in  g.irelening 
.iccoixls   with   the   history   of   taste   in  laying   out 
parks  .ind  ple.isure-gronnds,  concerning  which,  see 
L.A..NDSCAI'E-OARDK.NINC.. 

The  market-gardenmg  of  the  ncighbourhoml  ol 
London  is  on  a  scile  proportionate  to  the  creat"*f 
and  wealth  of  the  city  ;  large  fields,  instead  of  little 
plots,  are  devotixl  to  one  kind  of  crop,  and  as  an 
illustration  it  may  l)C  mentioneil,  that  trom  one 
g.ir<len  idone  -JOO.IKW  gherkins  (young  cucumbers  for 
pickling)  have  been  sent  to  market  in  a  smgle  day. 
\t  Mitch.im,  near  London,  and  at  a  few  other  places 
in  England,  medicinal  plants  are  largely  cultivated. 


n.UtDES  SUISSES— GARDDfER. 


Jfiirserifs  are  ganlens  dcvot«<l  to  the  raising  of 
youii!;  plants,  both  trees  and  some  kinds  of  culinary 
herhs^  ami  of  j;arJen-seeds. 

The  oultivatiou  of  the  more  important  garden- 
plants  is  noticed  under  their  several  heails.  See 
also  Grafting,  Gueen -house,  IIotuoise,  Hotbed, 
Stove,  &c. 

GARDES  SUISSES,  a  celebrated  coq>3  in  the 
French  army,  constituted  'G.inlcs'  by*  royal  decree 
ill  IGIO.  They  eomprised  upw.irds  of  "2000  men, 
were  always  unswerving  iu  their  lidelity  to  the 
Bourbon  kings,  and  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
heroic  end.  On  the  10th  August  1792,  they  with- 
stood the  Parisian  revolutionary  moli,  and  defended 
the  pal,aoe  of  the  Louvre  till  .almost  every  man  was 
cut  down.  Puring  tlie  resistance  they  ofl'ered,  the 
royal  family  was  enaliled  to  esca])e  to  such  shelter 
as  the  National  Assembly  afforded. 

GARDE- A''ISURE,  the  heraltlic  tenn  used  for 
what  is  commonly  called  the  visor,  or  front  part  of 
the  hebuet,  used  for  the  defence  of  the  face  and  eyes. 

GA'RDINER,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  North 
America,  is  situated  iu  the  south-west  of  the  state 
of  Maine,  ou  the  right  bank  of  the  Kennebec, 
seven  miles  below  Augusta.  It  has  numerous  saw, 
paper,  and  other  mills ;  has  tanneries,  machine- 
shops,  a  foundry,  a  woollen  factory,  and  a  pottery. 
G.  is  at  the  head  of  the  ship-navigation  of  the 
Kennebec,  and  GODO  tons  of  shij^ping  are  owned 
here.  Pop.  (1850)  0480,  but  since  the  recent  incor- 
poration of  part  of  the  territory  of  G.  with  other 
townships,  its  pojiulation  has  decreased. 

GARDINER,  Stephen,  a  celebrated  English 
prelate  and  statesman,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Dr 
Lionel  Wood\-ille,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  brother  of 
Elizabeth  (Jrey,  (jueen  of  Edward  IV.,  was  born  at 
Bury  St  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  in  148.3.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  HaU,  Cambridge,  and  in  1520  became 
master  of  his  Hall.  Soon  after,  through  the  patronage 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was  introduced  to  Car- 
dinal Wolse}',  who  m.ade  him  his  secretarj-.  In  this 
capacity  he  acquiretl  the  confidence  and  favom'  of 
Henry  Vlll.,  and  from  his  knowledge  of  the  ci\Tl 
and  canon  law,  was  sent  to  Rome  in  1527,  to  conduct 
the  negotiation  with  the  pope  f'-)r  the  king's  divorce 
from  Catharine  of  Ai'agon.  He  was  then  usually 
called  Dr  Stephens.  His  exertions  were  unsuccess- 
ful ;  but  having  rendered  ser"\'iccs  at  the  papal  court 
to  the  Bishop  of  Norwich,  he  was  by  him  afterwards 
appointed  Archdeacon  of  Norfolk,  while  he  promoted 
Wolsey's  interests  as  a  candidate  for  the  pontificate. 
On  his  retm'u,  he  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1531  was  advanced  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Leicester.  In  November  of  the  same 
year,  he  was  installed  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Not- 
withstanding his  allegiance  to  the  pope,  ho  warmly 
supported  the  king's  supremacy,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
in  defence  of  it,  entitled  De  Vera  Ohedientin.  He 
was  sent  on  embiissies  to  France  and  Germany,  and 
invariably  opposed  all  measures  tending  to  a  religious 
reformation  in  England.  He  had  a  principal  hand 
in  the  downfall  and  execution  of  Thomas  Cromwell, 
in  1540,  and  he  drew  up  an  impeachment  of  heresy 
against  Henry's  Last  queen,  Catharine  Parr ;  but  in 
a  personal  interview  \vith  Henry  she  re-established 
herself  iu  the  king's  favour,  and  G.  fell  into  disgrace. 
At  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  .January  28,  1.547, 
for  refusing  to  comply  witli  the  Reformed  doctrines, 
he  M'as  committed  to  the  Fleet  prison,  but  released 
in  the  following  December.  In  I54S,  he  was  again 
seized,  and  committed  to  the  Towur,  and  on  his 
refusal  to  sign  certain  articles  submitted  to  him,  was 
deprived  of  his  bishoju-ic.  When  Mary  ascended 
the  tlu*oue  in  1553,  he  was  set  at  liberty,  restored 
to  his  see,  and  appointed  lord  chancellor  and  first 
624 


minister  of  state.  He  took  the  lead  in  all  the 
bitter  persecutions  of  the  Protestants  during  Mary's 
reign,  and  is  charged  with  great  caprice  and  extrenie 
cruelty  ;  but  Dr  Maitland  shews  that  many  of  the 
statements  reg.arding  G.  are  gross  misrepresenta- 
tions, and  that  in  very  many  instances  the  parties 
brought  before  his  court  were  arraigned  for  treason 
or  sedition,  rather  than  for  heresy ;  and  Roger 
Aseham  freely  confesses  that  (i.  interposed  to  pro- 
tect him  when  summone<l  by  the  council  on  a 
charge  of  heterodoxy.  The  man.agement  of  tho 
queen's  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain  was  intrusted 
to  him,  and  he  officiated  .at  their  niipti.als.  He  died 
November  12,  15.5.5.  A  treatise,  entitled  Kt'cessary 
Doctrine  of  a  C/trislian  Man,  jiriutcd  in  154,3,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  joint  production  of  G.  and 
Cranmer.  (i.'s  character  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  criticism  ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted 
that  he  was  a  zealous,  though  not  a  spiritually 
minded,  ecclesiastic.  His  devotion  was  that  of  an 
out-and-out  pnrtisan  ;  but  it  w.as  nevertheless  real, 
after  its  fashion,  for  G.  wotild  have  given  his  life 
to  advance  the  cause  which  had  conunanded  his 
sympathies  and  his  support. 

GARDINER,  Colonel,  jAsres,  son  of  Captain 
Patrick  Gardiner,  was  born  at  (^arrideu,  in  Linlith- 
gowshire, January  11,  1088,  and  when  only  14  years 
old,  obtained  a  commission  in  a  Scots  regiment  in 
the  Dutch  service.  He  afterwarils  entered  the 
English  army,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Ramilies  in  17')0.  G.  fought  with  great 
distinction  in  all  the  other  battles  of  Marlborough. 
In  1714 — 1715,  he  was  made  captain-lieutenant  in  a 
regiment  of  dragoons.  Some  time  after,  he  gave  a 
conspicuous  proof  of  his  coiu'age,  when,  along  with 
eleven  other  daring  fellows  (eight  of  whom  were 
killed),  he  tired  the  barricades  of  the  Highlanders 
at  Preston.  From  an  early  jieriod,  G.  was  noted 
for  his  licentiousness,  which  was  so  marked,  that 
ordinary  officers,  making  no  jjretensions  to  religion, 
rather  shimned  his  society,  for  fear  of  being 
corrupted ;  yet  his  constitution  enabled  him  to 
pursue  his  ^•icious  courses  with  apparent  impunity, 
and  in  consequence  of  his  continual  gaiety  and  good 
health,  he  was  known  as  'the  happy  rake.'  But  in 
the  year  1710,  he  suddenly  became  the  subject  i>f 
profoimd  religious  impressions.  The  circumstances, 
as  narrated  by  Dr  Doddridge  (who  had  them  from 
the  hero  himself),  contain  much  that  is  marvellous, 
supernatural,  and  exceedingly  improbable.  Dodd- 
ridge himself  is  hardly  satisfied  with  G.'s  account, 
and  hints  at  the  possibility  of  the  whole  being  a 
dream,  instead  of  a  '  visible  representation  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  cross,  surrounded  on  all 
sides  with  a  glory,'  &c.  He  also  mentions  that  G. 
'  did  not  seem  very  confident'  whether  the  voice 
which  came  to  him  was  really  '  an  audilile  voice,  or 
only  a  strong  impression  on  his  mind  eqiuilly 
striking.'  Considerable  do\ibt  has  recently  been 
cast  ou  the  whole  story  by  the  publication  of  tho 
AiUohiorjraphy  of  Dr  Alexander  Carlylf,  eilitcd 
by  John  Hill  Burton  (Eilin.  Blackwood  and  Sous, 
1860),  in  which  Carlyle  denies  altogether  the 
truth  of  Doddridge's  version  of  the  story,  at  least 
of  the  supernatural  portion  of  it.  The  attend- 
ant circumstances,  however,  are  of  little  moment 
one  way  or  another ;  the  great  fact  is  tho  conver- 
sion of  the  brave  but  wicked  soldier  into  a  pious 
and  excellent  Christian,  and  regarding  this  there  has 
never  been  any  doubt.  In  1724,  G.  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  ni.ajor,  and  in  172(1  he  married  Lady 
Francis  Erskinc,  daughter  <jf  the  fourth  Earl  of 
Btichan,  by  whom  he  had  13  children,  only  five  of 
whom  survived  him.  In  1730,  he  became  Heutenant- 
colonel  of  dragoons,  and  in  1743  colonel  of  a  new 
regiment  of  dragoons.     He  was  killed  at  the  battle 


GARESSIO— GARGOYLE. 


of  Prestonpaus,  Septomlici'  '21,  1745;  and  the  spot 
on  whicli  he  fell  is  marked  by  a  monument.  The 
Life  of  Colonel  Gardiner,  -written  by  Dr  Doddridge, 
is  a  favom-ito  volume  with  tlie  more  religious 
portion  of  the  public. 

GARE'SSIO,  a  town  iji  the  north  of  Italy,  iu  the 
pro\'inco  of  Mondovi,  and  17  miles  south-e.ist  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Tanaro.  Tradition  assigns  to  G.  an  antiquity 
which  seems  contirnicil  liy  the  numerous  Latin 
inscriptions  and  remains  found  in  its  neighbour- 
hood ;  but  owing  to  the  many  wars  by  whicli  it  h:is 
been  devastated,  its  authentic  arcliives  have  been 
entirely  lost.  Many  varieties  of  marble  are  quarried 
here,  especially  the  species  known  as  Persigliano. 
l"o]i.  ()•->()(). 

GARFISH  {Belone),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Scuiiibrresocithr,  having  the  body  greatly 
oli>ngated  and  covered  with  minute  scales.  They 
are  remarkable  U>r  the  green  colour  of  their  bones. 
The  llesh  is  wholesome,  and  is  often  used  ;is  food. 
One    species   only,   the    C'om.mox    G.    (B.  vuhjaris). 


Garfish  [Belone  vvXgaris). 

occurs  in  the  British  seas.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Greenbone,  Gorcbill,  and  Mackerel-guide,  receivmg 
the  last  name  because  it  visits  the  coasts  just 
before  the  mackerel,  coming,  in  fact,  from  the  deep 
to  the  more  shallow  water  for  the  same  reason,  to 
deposit  its  sjiawn.  It  is  usually  about  two  feet  in 
length  ;  the  tail  is  forked  ;  the  pectoral  and  ventral 
fins  are  small ;  the  upper  part  of  tlie  head  and  back 
is  of  a  dark  greenish-blue ;  the  cheeks  and  gill 
covers,  the  sides  and  the  belly,  arc  silvery  white,  the 
dors.al  fin  and  tail  are  gi-eenish-brown,  the  other 
fins  white.  The  G.  is  a  very  lively  fish  ;  it  swims 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  not  unfrequently 
springs  out  of  it.  It  is  brought  to  the  London 
market  in  considerable  quantities.  The  fiesli  has  a 
flavour  some\vhat  like  that  of  mackerel.  .Some  of 
the  species  of  G.,  iu  other  parts  of  the  world,  attain 
a  much  larger  size.  Other  species  are  fresh-water 
fishes  of  warm  climates,  as  India  and  Guiana. 

GA'KGANEY  (Anas  qaerquedida  or  Qucnptcdula 


Gargunoy,  or  Summer  Te.il  {Anns  querquedtiJd), 


circia),  a 
than  tlie 
196 


species  of  duck  or  teal,  considerably  larger 
common  teal,  although  not  so  large  as  the 


wild  duck,  nor  even  as  the  widgeon ;  a  rare  British 
bird,  more  common  in  the  south  of  Europe,  found 
.also  in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  in  Asia,  at  least  as 
far  to  the  east  as  Calcutta.  The  male  G.  is  a 
beautiful  bird ;  the  prevaihug  colour  dark  brown, 
finely  varied  on  the  cheeks  and  neck,  with  short 
hair-like  lines  of  white  ;  the  8[)eculum  grayish-green, 
margined  with  white  ;  a  consijicuous  white  streak 
over  each  eye,  extending  to  tlie  neck.  The  female 
is  smaller  than  the  male,  the  colours  more  dull,  and 
the  white  streak  obscure.  The  G.  is  very  much 
esteemed  for  the  table. 

GAKGA'NO  (anc.  Garr/ntms),  a  group  of  moun- 
tains in  the  province  of  Capitanata,  Naples,  forming 
a  ijeninsula,  wdiich  stretches  eastward  for  about 
•20  miles  into  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  group  is 
composed  of  tliree  chains  of  mountains,  one  of 
which  turns  to  the  north-east,  the  other  to  the 
south,  and  the  third  to  the  west.  Its  greatest 
length  is  48  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  '24,  tho 
circumference  being  about  120  miles.  The  soutliern 
chain  is  bleak,  sterile,  and  rocky,  broken  up  into 
deep  v.alleys,  gorges,  and  ravines.  The  northern 
side,  on  the  contrary,  is  entirely  covered  with  woods, 
pastures,  olives,  pines,  orange  and  lemon  trees  ;  and 
the  valleys  on  tliis  side  are  lovely  and  fertile,  espe- 
cially those  of  Rodi,  Ischitella,  Vico,  and  Stignano. 
Owing  to  the  great  abundance  of  aromatic  i)lants 
which  grow  among  the  rocks  of  the  mountains,  G. 
is  still  as  famous  for  its  honey  as  in  tho  time  of 
Horace,  who  sings  its  praise.  Monte  St  Angcio,  one 
of  the  Gargano  chain,  is  famous  for  tho  sanctuary 
dedicated  to  St  Mich.iel  in  the  year  492,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  legendary  appearance  of  the  saint  to  St 
Lorenzo,  Archbishop  of  Sii>ontuin.  An  annual 
festival  of  .St  Michael  is  celebr.ateil  at  this  shrine, 
when  crowds  of  pilgrims  flock  to  the  moimtain,  and 
increa.se  greatly  its  picturesque  effect  by  their  gay 
and  varied  costumes.  Moimt  G.  possesses  extensive 
alabaster  quan-ies,  which  as  yet  have  never  been 
efficiently  workecL 

GA'RGARA,  or  GAI^GARUS.     See  Ida. 

GA'RGLE,  orGA'RGARISM,  aelassofmcdicmca 
intended  to  be  churned  about  in  the  mouth  and 
throat,  with  a  view  of  cleansing  the  pai-ts  when 
affected  with  disch.arges  from  ulcers  ;  or  of  acting 
as  Astringents  (q.  v.)  or  Stimulants  (q.  v.),  in  relaxed 
sore  thro.at.  The  best  gargles  are  conqiosed  of 
vinegar  or  hytlrochloric  acid  largely  diluted ;  of 
chlorine  water  or  Condy's  disinfecting  liquor  iu 
putrescent  cases  ;  of  port-wine,  alum,  and  capsicum 
(cajenne  pepper),  when  a  stinndating  effect  is 
required ;  of  tannin  or  oak-bark  decoction  with 
.alum  or  i>orax,  in  ease  a  pure  astringent  is  needed. 
Gargles  are  vei-y  useful  in  the  later  stages  of  sore 
throat,  in  almost  all  its  varieties. 

GA'RGOYLE,  a  projecting  spout,  leading  the 
water  from  the  roof-gutters  of  buildings.  Gargoyles 
of  various  forms  have  been  used  in  almost  all  styles 
of  architecture,  but  were  pecidiarly  developed  in 
connection  with  Gothic  architecture.  In  some  of  tho 
larger  medieval  buildings,  where  the  height  of  the 
walls  is  consideralile,  the  gargoyles  liave  to  project 
very  far,  in  order  to  fulfil  their  duty  of  throwing 
the  rain  off  the  walls,  and  are  in  such  eases  of  a 
large  size.  The  gargoyles  of  French  buildings  have 
usu.ally  great  prominence,  much  more  than  in  Eug- 
I  land.  Some  gargoyles  are  small  and  plain,  others 
large  and  ornamental,  acconUng  to  their  various 
positions.  They  are  carved  into  all  conceiv.ablo 
forms — angelic,  human,  and  of  the  lower  orders; 
and  as  in  fountains,  tho  water  is  generally  spouted 
through  the  mouth.  In  hate  castellated  buildings, 
they  frequently  assume  the  form  of  small  cannons 

62fi 


GAKGOYLE-GARIBALDI. 


pn-iccting  from  the  parapet     In  motlern  times  the 
use  of  leaden  pii)es  to  convey  away  the  water  from 

Gargoyles. 


SI  Stephen's,  Viemui 


SL  Alknmnds  Church,  Derby  | 
circa  1450. 


Horeley  Church,  Uerbyshire; 
circa  1450. 


roofs  has  almost   entirely  superseded  the   use  of 
gargoyles. 

GARIB.\LDI,  GirsErrE,  was  born  at  Nice,  22d 
July  18(17,  of  respectable  parents.  His  fatlier,  the 
owner  of  a  trading  vessel,  having  been  engaged 
all  his  life  in  maritime  pursuits,  young  G.  soon 
acquired  a  strong  ])redilection  for  the  hazards  of 
a  seafaring  life.  \\'ith  the  permission  of  his  father, 
he  adopted  the  profession  of  a  s.iilor,  and  made  his 
first  voy.ige  to  Odessa  under  the  command  of  an 
able  and  experienced  seaman,  Captain  Pesante.  He 
subsequently  Wsited  Home,  Cagiiari,  Vado,  Genoa, 
&e.,  with  various  commanders,  and  soon  became  a 
skilfid  and  fearless  mariner,  distinguished  by  his 
prompt  decision  in  action  and  imperturbable  pre- 
sence of  miml.  In  1830,  he  was  himself  in  com- 
mand of  the  brig  JSfo're  Dame  de  Grace  ;  and  about 
this  time  his  sentiments  of  patriotism  seem  to  have 
gained  increased  intensity,  owing  to  his  intercourse 
•\vith  a  ferrid  Italian  patriot,  a  casual  ]i.asscnger  on 
board  his  vessel.  From  1S33,  his  acquaintance  with 
Mazzini  and  the  leadere  of  the  Italian  liberal  move- 
ment dates,  and  from  that  period  his  unquenchable 
hatred  of  despotism,  and  devotion  to  the  service  of 
univereal  freedom,  exercised  a  iiredomiuant  influ- 
ence on  all  his  actions,  and  lUtimately  became  the 
single  motive  of  his  career.  In  18.34,  having  com- 
promised himself  by  participating  in  a  futile  revo- 
lutionary outbreak  at  Genoa,  he  was  compelled  to 
save  his  life  by  flight;  and  after  extreme  hardship, 
succeeded  in  gaining  French  territory  simultane- 
ously with  the  publication  in  Italy  of  the  sentence 
of  his  condemnation  to  death.  G.  now  resumed 
his  seafaring  lite,  and  after  some  unimpoi-tant 
voy.ages,  sailed  for  South  America.  When  Rosas, 
the  dictator  of  Buenos  Ayres,  declared  war  against 
the  rejiublic  of  Uruguay,  G.  offered  his  services  to 
the  l.attei',  and  soon  gave  proof  of  so  remarkable  a 
talent  for  military  leadership,  that  he  was  raised  to 
the  supreme  command  both  of  naval  aiul  military 
operations.  In  1848,  war  having  broken  out  between 
Austria  and  the  liberals  of  Italy,  G.  hastened   to 


Europe.     He  bore  an  effective  part  in  the  whole  of 
the   lt.ahan  campaign,  but  especially  distinguished 
himself  at  Kome  by  his  resistance  to  the  French 
forces,   who   during   four   weeks   were   successfully 
kept  at  bay,  and  repeatedly  renulsed  by  the  repub- 
lican forces  of  Kome,  under  the  ilirection  of  Garibaldi. 
Rome  haWng  at  length  succund)ed  to  the  immensely 
superior  forces  at  the  <Usi>osal  of  Gcner.al  Ouilinot, 
G.  marched  forth  from  the  city  .as  the  French  ponred 
in.    After  a  retreat  of  unjwralleled  diflicidty  through 
districts   densely  occupied  by  Austrian  forces,  G., 
accompanied  by  his   devoted  and  heroic  Brazilian 
wife,  set  sail  in  a  small  lishing-ci-aft  towards  Venice ; 
but  being  pursued  by  Austrian  vessels,  they  were 
compelled   to   land  at  random,   and   not   far   from 
the  shore  his  wife,  exhausted  by  the   dangers  and 
terrible    exertions   of    their    flight,  expired   in  the 
arms  of  her  husband.     G.  at  length  reached  Genoa 
in  safety,  and  from  thence  embarked  for  Tunis.     He 
afterwards  revisited  South  America,  and  acquii-ed 
the  command  of  an  American  tnuUng-vessel.      In 
that  capacity,  he  touched  at  several  English  ports, 
where   he    w;is  received   with   every   testimony  of 
public  admiration  and  sympathy.    During  the  inter- 
val wliich  elapsed  between  the  war  of  1848  and  that 
of   18.59,   G.  publicly  accepted  the   substitution   of 
monarchy,  such  as  it  existed  in  Piedmont,  for  the 
republican  form  of  government,  for  which  ho  had 
originally  combated,  and  was  therefore  free  to  servo 
as  an  irregular  auxiliary  of  the  Piedmontese  forces 
on  the  commencement  of  hostilities.     His  services 
in  that  capacity  were  both  brilliant  and  effective, 
notwithstanding  the  limited  scope  assigned  for  his 
operations.      In  the   course   of  the   following  jear 
(1860),  the  most  triimiph.ant  and  momentous  enter- 
prise of  his   marvellous   career    was   accomplished. 
The   chief   residt  of   the   pe.ace   of  Villafranca,  by 
which  the  Italian  w.ir  of  1S59  was  brought  to  an 
abrupt   and    unsatisfactoi-y    termination,    was    the 
immediate  resumption  by  the  Italian  people  of  the 
revolution.ary  and  progressive  responsibilities,  which 
during  the  campaign  had  been  vested  by  the  nation 
in    the   government   of   Sartlinia.      Thus,   early   in 
18G0,    insurrectionary   ilisturbances    broke    out    in 
Palermo,  and  although  speedily  quelled  in  the  city 
by  the  gi'eat  numerical  strength  of  the  Neapolitan 
garrison,  they  were  constantly  repeated  throughout 
the  interior  of  the  island,  where  the  insurgents  were 
fiUl   of   elation   and   daring,   in   consequence  of  G. 
having  transmitted  to  them  the  assurance  that  he 
would  speedily  appear  himself  to  head  their  struggle. 
In  fulfilment  of  this  promise,  G.  assembled  at  Genoa 
a  volunteer  force  of  1070  patriots,  and  on  the  oth 
of  M.ay  set  sail  for  the  island   of  Sicily.     On  the 
11th,   his    two    small    transport    steamers    having 
reached    Marsala    in    safety,    the    landing    of    his 
followers    was   successfully    effected   in    sight,    and 
jiartLally  under  fire,  of  the  Neapolitan  fleet.    On  the 
15th,  in  the  battle  of  Calatafimi,  3600  Neapolitan 
troops  were  routed  by  G.'s  small  force,  and  to  this 
opening    ^^ctorv    may    be    largely    attributed    the 
subsequent   success   of   the   entire   expedition.      It 
at  once  cleared  the  way  to  Palui-mo,  and  inspired 
G.'s   sohliers   with  irresistible  confidence.     On   the 
ISth  of  the  same   month,  G.   and  his  little  army 
of   heroes    occupied   the   heights   which    comm.aud 
P.alermo,   and   after   a  desper.ate  conflict  with  the 
royalist  troops,  fought  his  w.ay  into  that  unhappy 
city,    which   for   several   svd)sequeut   days   had   to 
sustain  a  ruthless   bombardment  from  the   united 
lire  III  the  Neapolitan  garrison  and  fleet. 

The  intervention  of  the  British  fleet,  seconded  by 
tile  isolated  and  destitute  condition  of  the  garrison 
shut  up  in  the  forts,  induced  the  Neapolitan  general 
to  capitulate ;  and  on  his  departure  \nth  his  troops, 
C!.    remained  in  uiulisputcd  possession  of  the  city 


GAEEEP—GARLIC. 


ami  strousholds  ot  Palermo.  His  first  imlilic  enact- 
ment was  the  universal  armament  of  the  citizens 
On  tlie  20th  of  July,  at  tlie  head  of  2500  men,  he 
gave  battle  at  Melazzo  to  7000  Neapolitans,  who 
were  completely  defeated,  and  compelled  to  evacuate 
the  fortress.  On  the  25th,  the  Neajiolitans  were 
driven  back  into  Messina,  where  U.  made  his 
triuniphal  entry  on  the  27th,  tlie  mutinous  garrison, 
terrified  at  hi.s  approach,  havinj,'  compelled  their 
general  to  submit.  Towards  the  middle  of  August, 
G.  made  a  descent  in  Calabria,  and  was  immediately 
joined  by  largo  bodies  of  volunteers  from  all 
directions,  by  whom  he  was  accompanied  on  his 
memorable  and  eventfid  march  to  Naples.  On  the 
5th  of  Sei)tcm1)cr,  O.'s  armv,  wliich  then  amounted 
to  25,000  or  30,000  men,  occ\ipied  Salerno  on 
the  withdrawal  of  the  royalists,  and  on  the  7th, 
amidst  the  frenzied  enthusiasm  of  the  inhabit- 
ant.s,  G.  entered  Naples,  with  only  one  or  two 
friends,  to  prove  to  Europe  that  his  advent  was 
that  of  a  welcome  liberator,  and  not  of  a  terror- 
inspiring  eoncjueror.  On  the  previous  day,  the 
capital  had  sullenly  witnessed  the  withdrawal  of 
King  Francis  II.  to  tlie  fortress  of  Gaeta.  Before 
the  close  of  the  month,  G.  had  enacted  several 
judicious  public  reforms,  calculated  to  increase  the 
popularity  of  the  Sardinian  government,  of  whicli 
he  was  the  declared  representative,  although  for  a 
brief  space  he  accepted  the  title  and  |)owers  of 
Dictator.  On  the  1st  of  October,  his  military  duties 
became  again  paramount,  as  the  royalist  troops, 
numbering  15,000  men,  came  forth  from  Capua,  and 
attacked  fiercely  tlie  whole  line  of  the  Oaribaldiana, 
spread  along  the  Volturno.  For  some  lioius  a 
terrible  suspense  reigued,  and  more  than  once  it 
seemed  as  if  success  were  about  to  desert  the 
patriots  at  the  last  moment ;  but  finally  the  royalists 
were  driven  back  to  Capua  in  disorder,  and  G. 
announced  the  result  in  his  famous  telegram — 'Com- 
plete victory  along  the  entire  line.'  This  was  G.'s 
last  triumph  ;  A'ictor  Emmanuel,  having  re-assumed 
the  command  of  his  army,  crossed  the  papal  frontier, 
routed  the  troops  under  Lamoriciftre,  and  passed  on 
into  tlic  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  he  was  met  by 
(;.,  who  immeiliately  relinquished  into  his  sovereign's 
liaiids  the  unconditional  disposal  of  the  southern 
volunteer  army,  and  the  absolute  sway  over  the 
Neapolitan  provinces.  G.  absolutely  declined  all 
personal  distinction  or  aggrandisement;  and  having 
bid  farewell  to  his  heroic  comrades,  he  set  sail,  on 
the  9th  of  November,  for  his  home  on  the  rock  of 
Caprera,  there  to  remain  in  grand  simphcity  and 
retirement  till  his  country  may  again  require  his 
aid  and  invoke  his  presence. 

The  almost  fabulous  success  whicli  has  tracked 
this  great  soldier's  enterprises  throughout  his  entire 
career  is  the  best  eWdcnce  of  his  military  geuius  and 
heroic  quahtiis.  In  himself,  he  presents  a  imique 
combination  of  the  social  and  endearing  virtues  which 
attract  and  rivet  enthusiastic  friendshiji,  and  of 
those  stern  and  comuianding  attributes  which  cari-y 
terror  into  the  hearts  of  ojiponeuts,  and  impose  sub- 
ordination and  a  sense  of  duty  on  the  most  in-egular 
masses  ot  troo))s.  Of  a  jiatriarchal  simplicity  in 
tastes  and  habits,  he  resembles  more  tlie  chief  of  a 
warlike  ti-ibc  than  the  general  of  an  army ;  his  smile 
of  apiu'obation  ever  glatldcns  the  performance  of 
duty  l)y  his  men,  but  his  reproof  of  the  laggard  or 
craven-hearted  is  scathingly  fierce.  G.  has  come 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  incorruptible  of 
patriots  and  most  glorious  of  heroes,  either  in  ancient 
or  modern  times  ;  and  the  land  which  has  produced 
and  nurtured  such  a  s]iirit  and  character  may  be 
held  to  have  proved  that  it  has  a  jiolitical  and  moral 
vitality,  at  least  as  powerful  as  any  other  portion  of 
Christendom. 


GA  RIEP,  otherwise  Oraxge,  is  a  river  of  South 
Afnca,  which,  after  a  w  estward  course  of  1000  miles 
enters  the  Atlantic  in  lat.  2S°  m  S.,  and  long.  16°  M 
E.  It  rises  in  the  Moid  aitx  Sources,  near  lat.  29°  S. 
and  long.  30°  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  about  10,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Throughout  neariy  its  whole  length, 
It  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Cajie  Colony, 
separating  it  below  the  confluence  of  the  V'aal  from 
still  independent  tribes,  and  above  that  jmint  from 
th.;  Orange  Free  State  or  Orange  Sovereignty.  For 
the  purposes  of  navigation,  this  river  is  almost 
useless. 

GARIGLIA'NO  (the  Liria  of  the  ancients,  which 
separated  Latium  from  Campania)  is  the  largest  and 
most  important  river  of  the  Neapolitan  proWnces. 
It  rises  in  the  Abruzzi,  in  the  valley  of  Nersa,  and 
discharges  itself  into  the  Mediterranean,  in  the 
Gidf  of  Gaeta,  after  traversing  the  [irovince  of  Terra 
di  Lavoro.  The  sluggish  course  of  its  mudily 
waters  (which,  however,  arc  stocked  with  fish, 
especially  eels)  has  been  mentioucd  by  more  than 
one  of  the  ancient  poets  : 

Non  rura  qure  Liris  quiet:\ 

Mordet  aqui,  tacituriius  amnis. — Hor.  Od.  i.  31. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  name  G.  is  derived  from  an 
Arabic  word,  i/aril,  which  signifies  mai-sh,  plain ; 
it  was  generally  adopte.l  in  the  11th  c,  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Saracens,  who  had  held  possession  for 
some  time  of  the  neiglibouring  plains,  and  had 
erected  a  castle  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which 
they  entitled  GarUianum.  This  derivation  is  appro- 
priate to  the  marshy  swamps  surrounding  the  river, 
amidst  wliieh  Marius  found  concealment When  pur- 
sued by  Sulla.  The  banks  of  the  C.  are  memor- 
able for  the  famous  battle  fought  there  between  tlie 
French,  in  1503,  and  the  Sjianiards,  commanded  by 
Gon.salvo  de  Cordova,  surnamed  the  Great  Captain, 
iu  which  tlie  former  were  totally  routed. 

GA'ELAXD.     See  Crowx. 

GARLIC  (AU'mm  sativum,  see  Alluhh),  a  bulb- 
ous-rooted jilant,  a  native  of  the  East,  cultivated 
from  the  e.arUest  ages.  The  stem  rises  to  the 
Iieight  of  about  two  feet, 
unbranched,  and  bear- 
ing at  top  an  umbel  of 
a  few  whitish  flowers, 
mixed  with  many  small 
biUbs.  The  upper  part 
of  the  stem  before 
flowering  is  rolled  to- 
gether into  a  ring.  The 
leaves  are  grass-like, 
obscurely  keeled,  and 
not  fistulous  like  those 
of  the  onion.  Three 
alternate  stamens  arc 
3- pointed,  the  middle  ' 
]ioiiit  bearing  the  anther. 
The  bidb  consists  of 
about  12 — 15  ovate- 
oblong  cloves  or  sub- 
ordinate bulbs,  which 
are  axillary  butU  of  its 
scales  thus  developed ; 
it  contains  a  viscid 
juice,  which  is  some- 
times used  as  a  cement 
for  porcelain,  and  h;»s  a 
]icnetratiiig  and  power- 
ful aHiac'Oiis  odour, 
which  indeed  perwtdes 
the  whole  plant,  with  a  pungent  aromatic  taste.  It 
is  in  general  use  as  a  condiment  with  other  articles 
of  food,  and  to  many  it  is  in  this  way  very  agreeable ; 

627 


Common  Garlic  (Allium 
srilivum). 


GARLIC— GAKNET. 


to  otlicrs,  it  is  dissiisting.  It  is  much  more  laigfly 
uscil  iu  many  other  countries  thau  in  Britain  :  in 
Siwin,  it  enters  into  the  conij>osition  of  ahnost  every 
tlish.  Oarlic,  or  its  fresli  juice,  is  also  iiseil  in  medi- 
cine. It  is  stiuuilaut,  tonic,  and  promotes  digestion ; 
it  has  also  diuretic  and  snJorilic  properties,  and  is 
a  good  expectorant,  promotin;;  all  the  excretions. 
Applied  externally,  it  is  a  ruhefaeient,  and  is  uswl 
to  stinuUate  indolent  tiuuom-s.  .\  liuimeut  of  oil 
and  garlic  juice  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  chest  in 
infantile  convulsions.  In  sonic  cases  of  deafness, 
much  benefit  is  obtained  from  a  clove  of  g.-vrlic  or  a 
few  drops  of  the  juice  jiut  into  the  ear.  Garlic  is 
also  used  .is  an  anthelmintic.  It  owes  its  properties 
chietly  to  vll  of  garlic  (see  following  art.).  Garlic 
.ibouiids  also  iii  mucilage.  The  cultiv.ation  of  garlic 
is  extremely  easy;  it  is  generally  propagated  by 
its  cloves. — Many  of  the  species  of  Allium  are 
popularly  called  g.arlic,  with  some  distinctive  addi- 
tion. A.  oleraceum  is  sometimes  called  Wild  Garlic 
in  England,  and  its  young  and  tender  leaves  are 
used  .as  a  pot-herb.  Its  leaves  .ire  semi-cylindrical, 
and  grooved  on  the  upper  side.  The  st.imens  are 
all  simple. 

G.4RLIC,  Oil  ok.  ^^^^eu  cloves  of  garlic  are 
distilled  with  -water,  about  0-2  per  cent,  of  a  brown 
heavj'  oil,  with  an  .acrid  taste,  and  a  strong  disagree- 
able smell,  passes  over.  By  careful  rectiticition 
from  a  salt-water  bath,  aliout  two-thirds  of  the  oil 
may  be  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  liipiid, 
which  is  lighter  than  w.ater,  and  which,  when  treated 
with  chloride  of  calcium  (in  order  to  dry  it),  and 
subsequently  distilled  from  fr.agraents  of  potassium, 
comes  over  pure  .and  colourless  as  sidphide  of  allyl, 
an  organic  compound  of  very  considerable  interest, 
whose  formida  is  CjH,,,.S.  The  crude  oil  also  con- 
tains oxide  of  allyl  (CjHj.O),  and  a  compound  of 
allyl  still  richer  in  suljihur  thau  the  sidphide. 

Sulphide  of  allyl  exists  not  only  in  oil  of  garlic, 
but  also  in  the  oils  of  onions,  leeks,  cress,  alliaria, 
radishes,  asafaHida,  &.C.  It  is  a  light,  clear,  pale- 
yellow  oil,  with  a  penetrating  odour  of  gai-lic ;  it 
boils  at  284°,  and  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol  and 
ether. 

Sul)>hide  of  aUyl  may  be  obtained  from  essenti.ol 
oil  of  black  mustard  (which  in  its  piuified  form  is 
represented  by  CgH^.C^NSn,  and  m.ay  consequently 
be  regarded  .as  sulphocyanide  of  allyl)  by  distil- 
lation with  sulphide  of  potassium.  The  reaction  is 
e.xhibited  in  the  following  e'luatiou  : 

SulphocfanMc 
of  Potastium. 


Oil  of  aluilard. 


Siilpliide  of     Sulphide  of 
Potassium.  AUjfL 


c,H„aNs,  +  Ks  =  c.n„s  -i-  k,c,ns. 

We  may  perform  the  converse  experiment,  and 
obtain  oil  of  mustard  from  oil  of  garlic  by  mixing 
alcoholic  solutions  of  sulphide  of  .allyl  and  corrosive 
sublimate,  when  ,a  white  jirecipitate  is  formed, 
represented  by  C.H^.S.illgS  +  C,H,Cl,2HgCl,  and 
distilling  this  compound  with  sidpliocyanide  of 
potiissium,  iu  which  case  oil  of  mustard  will  be 
found  among  the  products. 

The  pungency  of  horse-radish,  scnn-y-grass,  and 
other  allied  plants,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  this 
essential  oil  of  mustard  or  sidphocyanide  of  ally!. 

We  shall  jiostiione  the  further  consideration  of 
sulphocyaniile  of  allyl  to  the  aiiiicle  Mistaku,  Oil 
OF,  but  sh.all  take  this  opportunity  of  very  briefly 
noticing  the  chief  members  of  the  allyl  scries,  which 
has  recently  beeu  studied  with  very  fruitful  results 
by  several  of  our  most  eminent  chciuists. 

Free  allyl  (CaH,,,  or,  more  pi-obably,  OoHj,C,,H,.,) 
is  a  very  volatile  comljuatible  tluid,  with  ,a  combined 
odour  of  ether  and  radishes.  It  is  obtained  by 
the  action  of  sodium  on  iodide  of  allyl. 

Allyhc   alcohol  (0,1K0,H0)   is  metameric  with 


acetone  and  propylic  aldehyde,  but  it  differs  from 
them  in  its  projK-rties.  It  is  obtained  by  the  action 
of  ammonia  on  oxalate  of  allyl. 

Allylic  ether  or  oxide  of  allyl  (O^HjO)  h.as  been 
formed  in  at  le.ast  two  dillereut  ways,  but  the 
reactiiuis  accompanying  its  formation  are  too  com- 
plicated fm-  notice  iu  this  article.  It  exists  ready 
formetl  in  small  (luantity  in  oil  of  garlic,  and  some 
other  oils  that  resemble  it,  and  may  be  obtained  by 
the  decomposition  of  oil  of  black  must.aril. 

The  chloride,  bromide,  and  ioilide  of  allyl  have 
all  been  obtained.  The  iodide  is  a  colourless  liquid, 
of  siiccilic  gravity  I'VSO,  with  an  ethereal,  and 
somewhat  alliaceous  odour.  It  is  decomposed  by 
digestion  with  a  watery  solution  of  ammoni.a,  and 
oil  distillation  with  pot;ish,  a  vohatile  b.ose  with  a 
lishy  animoniac.al  odour  is  formed.  It  is  probably 
alli/lla,  or  allyl-amine  (C6H,N  or  C„H^,H„N),  the 
b.asic  volatile  alkali  of  the  allylic  series,  which  h.as 
also  been  obtained  by  a  different  process,  and 
corresponds  to  ethylia  or  ethyl-amine  in  the  ethylic 
series. — Miller's  dements  of  Chemistry,  2d  edit., 
1862,  vol.  3,  pp.  57-i — 584  ;  Gorup-Besauez,  Lehrhiich 
d.  C/iemic,  vol.  2,  jip.  2G0— 272  ;  and  the  recent 
memoii's  of  Berthclot  and  Luca,  Hofmaim  and 
C.ahours,  &c. 

GA'KNET,  a  precious  stone,  some  of  the  varieties 

of  which  arc  of  great  beauty;  while  some  are  less 
highly  prized  than  other  not  more  beautiful  minerals, 
because  much  more  common.  Oaruets  arc  found 
most  generally  in  mica-slate,  hornblende  slate,  and 
gneiss ;  less  frequently  iu  granite  and  granular  lime- 
stone; sometimes  iu  serpentine  and  lav.a.  Thero 
are  numerous  varieties,  differing  consideraljly  in 
chemical  composition ;  anhydrous  silicates  of  alumina 
and  lime  or  magnesia,  coloured  with  oxide  of  iron, 
of  manganese,  or  of  chrome.  The  colour  is  various, 
generaUy  some  shade  of  red,   brown,  black,  green, 


Garnet: 

1,  a  detached  crystal ;  2,  portion  of  rock  with  imbedded 

crystals. 

or  yellow.  Colourless  and  white  specimens  also 
occur.  Ked  garnets  sometimes  contain  so  much 
iron  as  to  be  attracted  by  the  m.agnet.  The  coarser 
v.ariety  of  G.,  known  as  Common'  G.,  is  generally 
found  m>assive,  often  forming  a  very  cousiderable 
part  of  the  rock  in  which  it  occurs,  so  as  even  to  be 
used  as  .a  flux  in  the  smelting  of  iron.  Cryst.allised 
garnets  are  also  often  \'ery  numerous  in  the  rock 
which  contains  them  ;  the  crystals  are  sometimes 
very  small,  almost  imperceptible  gr.ains  ;  sometimes 
they  are  .as  large  as  a  man's  list.  The  primary  form 
of  the  crystal  is  a  cube,  but  the  cummoii  secondary 
forms  are  a  rhombic  dodecahedron,  and  an  acute 
double  eight-sided  [lyramid,  the  summits  of  which 
arc  abruptly  acuminated  liy  four  planes. — NoBLE 
G.,  or  PuEL'ioffs  G.,  also  called  Almandi/ie,  is 
generally  of  a  crimson-red  colour,  sometimes  of  so 
deeii  a  tint,  that  jewellers  hollow  it  out  beneath, 
or  place  at  the  Ijack  of  it  a  plate  of  silver.  It  is 
sometimes  transparent,  sometimes  only  translucent. 
It  is  found  in  some  of  the  mountainous  jnarts  both 
of  England  and  .Scotland,  but  the  finest  garnets 
are  imported  from  Syriam,  in  i'cgu.     A  Syriam  G., 


(;AI;XISII,  OAItNISIIMEXT,  GAKXISIiEE-GAURICK. 


of  a  vc-lvt'ty  lilack  colour,  without  defect,  is  valued 
at  about  half  the  juice  of  a  I)lue  sappliire  of  the 
same  weight.  The  lar^e  specimens  of  the  precifnis 
G.  are  generally  engraved  with  tigurcs,  and  thus 
acquire  a  very  high  value. — A  variety  of  (J.,  known 
as  Gromularia,  from  its  resemblance  in  furm,  size, 
and  colour,  to  a  green  gooseberry,  is  brought  from 
Siberia. — (Cinnamon  Stone  (q.  v.)  i.s  a  variety  of 
garnet. — Pyrope,  Vesuvian,  and  Epidote  are  nearly 
allied  to  it. — Powrlered  garnets  arc  often  nsfd  fur 
polisliing  and  cutting  other  stones ;  thia  powder  is 
known  to  lapidaries  as  liid  Eiiwry. 

GARNISH,  GARNISHMENT,  GARNISHEE 

(Fr.  garnir,  to  furnish).  In  English  law,  to  garnish 
is  to  warn,  and  garnishment  signifies  a  warning 
given  to  one  for  his  appearance  in  court.  But 
garnishment  in  its  more  usual  sense  is  a])plied  to 
the  notice  which  a  jierson  sued  in  an  action  of 
detinue,  and  pleading  the  interest  of  a  third  jiarty, 
is  entitled  to  require  to  be  served  on  that  party. 
By  the  custom  of  London  and  certain  other  towns, 
a  practice  has  existed  from  time  immemorial, 
whereby  a  plaintiff  suing  in  the  local  court  was 
entitled  to  attach  the  jiroperty  of  the  defendant  in 
the  handa  of  a  third  jierson,  who  was  called  the 
garnishee.  See  Foreign  Attachmknt.  But  until 
the  (lassing  of  the  t'oinmon  Law  Procedure  Act, 
1S54,  there  existed  no  means  in  England  whereby 
a  creditor  could  attach  the  property  of  his  debtor  in 
the  hands  of  third  jiersons  in  direct  satisfaction 
of  his  claim.  By  sections  GO — 6.3  of  this  statute, 
it  is  now  provided,  that  any  one  ha\-ing  obtained 
a  judgment  in  one  of  the  superior  courts  at  West- 
minster, may  require  liis  tlebtor  to  be  examined 
as  to  the  debts  due  to  him,  and  on  the  statement  of 
the  judgment  debtor,  all  debts  owing  to  him  Viy 
third  parties,  called  garnishees,  may  be  att.ached  in 
satisfactinn  of  the  plaintiff's  claim.  If  the  garnishee 
pay,  he  is  forthwith  discharged  of  the  debt  to  his 
creditors,  but  if  he  fail  to  pay,  and  does  not  dispute 
the  debt,  the  judge  may  order  cxecntinn  against 
him.  It  is  to  be  obser\-ed  tliat,  under  this  statute, 
garnishment  can  still  be  obtained  only  where  judg- 
ment has  been  obtained.  Debts  due  to  a  defendant 
during  the  currency  of  an  action,  therefore,  cannot 
be  attached.  In  this  resjicct,  the  remedy  is  less 
effectual  than  the  custom  of  foreign  attachment.  In 
Scotland,  del  its  due  to  a  defender  may  be  attached, 
both  after  judgment  and  on  the  dependence  of  an 
action.     See  Arrestmknt. 

GARNISHED,  in  Heraldry.  Any  charge  is  said 
to  be  garnished  with  the  ornament  set  on  it. 

GARONNE  (ane.  Gariimna],  the  princiji.al  river 
in  the  south-west  of  France,  rises  within  the 
Spanish  frontier  ill  the  Val  d'Aran,  at  the  b.ise  of 
Mount  JIaladetta,  in  the  Pyrenees.  About  2G  miles 
from  its  source,  it  enters  the  French  territory  in 
the  department  of  the  Haute  Garonne,  flows  in  a 
general  north-east  course  to  Toulouse,  then  bends 
to  the  north-west,  and  contmues  to  tlow  in  that 
direction  imtil,  joined  by  the  Dordogne,  about  20 
miles  below  Bordeaux,  and  widening  afterwards  into 
the  estu.ary  which  bears  the  name  of  the  Giroiule, 
it  enters  the  Atlantic  at  the  Pointe  de  Grave.  The 
basin  of  the  G.  is  upwards  of  200  miles  in  length, 
and  about  an  equal  extent  in  width  at  its  broadest 
part ;  although  narrowing  in  the  nortii-west  to  a 
width  of  only  25  miles.  The  total  length  of  the 
river  is  about  350  miles ;  and  its  natural  navi- 
gation, which,  however,  is  much  impedcil  above 
Toulouse,  commences  at  Cazferes,  2G2  miles  from 
its  enibo\ichure.  At  Bordeaux,  the  river  attains  a 
breadth  of  1G03  feet.  Its  principal  affluents  are 
the  Tarn,  Avoyion,  Lot,  and  Dordogne,  on  the  right ; 
and  on   the   left,  the  Save,  Gers,  and  Baiae.     At 


Toulouse  it  is  joined  hy  the  Canal  du  Midi,  which, 
running  eastward  to  the  Mediterranean,  forms 
with  the  G.  a  means  of  communication  between 
that  sea  and  the  Atlantic.  The  valley  of  the  G. 
is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  and  its 
abundant  produce  of  corn  and  wine. 

Tlie  estuaiy  of  the  (Jironde  is  40  miles  in  length, 
and  about  4  miles  in  average  breadth.  Below  BKaye, 
its  shores  consist  of  bare  rocks  and  bleak  and  dreary 
heath. 

GARONNE,  Haute,  a  department  in  the  south 
of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Pyrenees, 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  departments  of  Hautes 
Pyrenees  and  Gers.  It  has  an  area  of  23G9  square 
miles,  and  a  pojiidation  of  481,247.  It  is  watered 
throughout  by  the  CJaronne,  from  which  it  derives 
its  name,  and  within  tlie  basin  of  which  it  wholly 
!  lies.  Occupied  in  the  south  by  a  branch  of  the 
Pyrenean  range,  the  slope  of  the  department,  and 
the  course  of  its  streams,  are  tow.ard  the  north 
and  north-east,  where  the  land  is  generally  level. 
The  soil  is  on  the  whole  good ;  that  in  the  -valleys 
is  remarkably  j>roductive,  and  brings  forth  heavy 
crojis  of  grain,  maize,  flax,  and  potatoes.  Orchard- 
fruits,  with  melons  and  tobacco,  are  produced  in 
abundance,  and  the  aunual  yield  of  wine  is  about 
14,300,000  gallons,  two-thirds  of  which  is  exported. 
Minerals  also  abound,  but,  with  the  exception  of 
iron,  have  not  yet  been  obtained  in  any  great 
quantity.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics  ami  hardware  ;  and  these,  with 
timber,  cattle,  w^ie,  and  preser\'ed  meats,  are  the 
principal  exports.  The  department  of  Haute  G.  was 
formerly  divided  between  the  jirovinees  of  Languedoo 
and  Gascony.  It  is  diWded  into  the  four  arron- 
dissements  of  Toulouse,  Maret,  St  Gaudens,  and 
Villefranche,  with  Toidouse  as  capital. 

GARRICK,  Davip,  actor  and  author,  was  born 
at  Hereford  in  1710,  and  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Lichfield.  After  a  .short  residence  at 
Lisbon  with  an  uncle,  who  was  a  wine-merchant  iu 
that  city,  he  returned  to  Eni^land,  and  in  1735 
became  a  jjuiiil  of  the  famous  Dr  Johnson ;  but  in 
the  course  of  six  months,  master  and  pupil  both 
proceeded  to  London,  with  the  view  of  improving 
their  fortimes.  G.  attem)ited  the  study  of  law,  but 
an  irresistible  instinct  soon  urged  him  to  the  stage. 
He  made  his  dibitl  at  Ipswich  in  1741,  as  Aboan, 
in  the  play  of  Oroonohx,  and  obtained  a  great  suc- 
cess. Encouraged  b)'  this,  he  ventured  to  appear 
before  a  London  audience  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year,  and  in  the  character  of  itichard  III. 
was  received  with  prodigious  applause.  The  fasliion- 
able  theatres  were  emptied  to  gaze  upon  the  new 
star  that  was  shedding  an  unwonted  lustre  on  the 
obscurity  of  the  Goodman's  Fields'  st.age,  and  the 
I  other  theatrical  celebrities,  such  as  Quin  and  Gibber, 
!  could  not  conceal  their  chagrin  and  disgust.  In  the 
1  following  year,  G.  accepted  an  engagement  at  Dublin, 
'  where  he  excited  the  Hibernian  enthusiasm  to  a 
uiiracidous  degree.  The  playhouse,  we  are  told,  w.a3 
so  crowded,  '  that  a  very  mortal  fever  was  produced, 
which  was  called  fiarrick's  fever.'  In  1747,  he 
became  joint-patentee  of  Drury  Lane,  and  two  years 
after,  married  Mademoiselle  Violette,  a  foreign  dan- 
'  nmse  ;  a  circumstance  which,  somehow  or  other,  he 
'  feared  might  expose  him  to  ridicule,  and  to  prevent 
such  a  thing,  he  got  his  friend  Mr  Edward  Moore 
'to  write  a  diverting  poem  upon  his  marriage.' 
This  was  not  the  only  occasion  when  his  sensitive- 
ness to  malicious  banter  induced  him  to  forestall  the 
wits  and  critics,  and  so  blunt  the  edge  of  their  jests 
and  criticisms.  Before  acting  Macbeth  for  the  first 
time,  he  WTote  a  humorous  pamphlet,  reflecting  on 
the   '  mimical   behaviour   of    a   certain   fashionable 


GARRISON— GARROTTE. 


faulty  actor,'  to  wit,  Garrick  himself.  In  1763  he 
paid  a  Wsit  to  lUly,  and  in  1709  projected  and 
conducte.1  the  memorable  jubilee  at  Stratford- 
upon-Avon  in  honour  of  Shakspearc.  He  died  in 
London,  January  20,  1779,  having  accumulated  a 
fortune  of  ilW^OOO.  G.  ranks  as  one  of  the  very 
greatest — perhaps  the  very  (greatest — of  English 
actors.  He  exhibited  a  Shaksperian  universality 
in  the  representation  of  character,  and  was  equally 
at  home  in  the  highest  flights  of  tragedy  and 
the  lowest  depths  ot  farce.  But  the  naturalness 
which  so  wonderfully  markoil  liim  on  the  stage, 
often  foi-sook  him  in  real  life.  He  was  jealous 
to  an  extreme,  and  had  an  unboimded  stomach 
for  flattery.  His  friend  Goldsmith  hits  off  his 
character  happily  in  the  poem,  entitled  Helaliation. 
As  a  dramatic  author,  H.  does  not  hold  a  high 
place.  He  wrote  about  40  pieces,  some  original,  but 
mostly  adaptations  of  old  plays.  His  nvmierous 
prologues  and  epilogues,  however,  deserve  consider- 
able praise. 

GA'RRISON  (Fr.  gurnison,  from  low  Latin  gar- 
nisio,  nuhtary  furniture),  the  troops  occupying  a 
town  or  fortress,  either  for  defensive  purposes,  or 
merely  as  ordinary  quarters. 

GARRISON,  William  Lloyd,  a  distinguished 
American  abolitionist,  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  advocates  of  immediate  emancipation  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Ncwburyport,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1805.  Before  he  was  20  years  old,  he 
had  acquired  no  inconsiderable  reputation  by  the 
articles  which  he  contributed  to  the  Salem  Gazelle 
and  other  newspapers.  He  became,  in  1826,  the 
conductor  of  a  paper  of  his  own,  the  Free  Press, 
published  at  Newliuryport ;  it  was,  however,  unsuc- 
cessful, and  was  soon  discontinued.  In  1829,  he 
became  joint-editor  of  the  O'enius  of  Universal 
Emancipation,  an  anti-slavery  journal  pubhshetl  in 
Baltimore.  This  paper  had  previously  advocated 
the  gradual  aljoUtion  of  slavery ;  but  Mr  G.,  in  the 
verytirst  number  that  was  issued  after  his  connec- 
tion with  it,  distinctly  avowed  the  doctrine  that 
immediate  emancipation  is  the  right  of  the  slave, 
and  the  duty  of  the  master.  Having,  soon  after, 
severely  denounced  certain  persons  engaged  in  the 
domestic  slave-trade,  which  he  stigmatised  as 
'  domestic  piracy,'  he  was  tried  and  convicted  for  a 
libel,  t'nable  to  pay  the  jjcnalty  imposed  by  the 
court,  he  was  sent  to  prison,  where  he  remained 
several  weeks.  At  length,  a  generous  friend  paid 
the  fine,  and  released  him.  Ou  the  1st  of  January 
1831,  G.  issued  in  Boston  the  Krst  number  of  the 
Liberator,  a  weekly  anti-slavery  paper,  with  which 
his  fame  has  since  become  inilissolubly  associated. 
The  unsparing,  not  to  say  i-irident  denunciation 
with  which  G.  assailed  the  institution  of  slaveiy 
and  all  those  voluntai-ily,  however  remotely,  con- 
nected vrith  it,  was  not  long  in  arousing  attention 
in  every  part  of  the  coimtry ;  whUe  it  excited 
in  the  Southern  States  the  utmost  exasperation. 
Almost  every  day  brought  him  letters  from  the 
South,  containing  threats  of  \-ioIence,  and  even  assas- 
sination. At  length,  the  legislature  of  Georgia 
went  80  far  as  to  offer  a  reward  of  5000  dollai's 
to  any  one  who  should  aiTest  .and  prosecute  him 
to  conviction  imder  the  laws  of  that  state.  Me.an- 
whilc,  he  was  repeatedly  mobbed  at  home,  and  his 
life  was  more  than  once  in  the  utmost  peril  even 
in  Boston.  But  notliing  could  turn  him  from  his 
course.  Although  there  has  been  some  abatement 
in  the  tone  of  the  Liberator,  G.  h.as  not  in  a  single 
material  point  modified  his  views  in  regard  to 
slavery  in  the  31  years  during  which  that  ])aper 
has  been  published.  The  early  severity  of  his 
denunciations,  as  his  friends  allege,  with  some  show 
630 


of  reason,  was  necessary,  in  order  to  arouse  the 
conscience  of  the  nation  from  its  .apathy  respecting 
the  wrongs  of  the  African  race.  It  wouhl  perhajis 
be  less  easy  to  excuse  the  unsparing  invective  with 
which  Mr  G.  has  so  often  assailed  those  fiiends  of 
emancipation  who  have  thouglit  it  right  to  pursue  a 
conrsi'  different  from  his  own. 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  Mr  G.  and  his  devoted 
followers  have  alw.ays  disclaimed  any  purpose  of 
exciting  the  slaves  to  assert  their  own  freedom  by 
force.  They  profess  to  i-ely  solely  on  arguments 
and  '  moral  suasion '  addressed  to  the  consciences  of 
the  dominant  race.  They  arc  also  non-resistants ; 
and  not  only  refuse  to  hold  any  office  in  the  federal 
republic,  but  are  conscientious  even  against  voting 
for  such  an  office,  for  they  consider  this  would  be 
an  indirect  acknowledgment  of  the  rightfulness  of 
a  government  supported  by  military  power,  and 
contaminated  by  a  compromise  with  slavery. 

GA'RROT  (Clangula),  a  genus  of  the  oceanic 
section  of  Ducks  (q.  v.),  having  the  bill  shorter  than 
the  head.  One  species,  the  Goldkn-eye  (C.  vulgaris 
or  C.  chrysopJUJialmus),  a  bird  not  quite  so  large  as  a 


Golden-eye  (' 


\aris), — Hale. 


widgeon,  is  a  common  winter  TOitant  in  Britain, 
appearing  in  small  flocks,  most  frequently  in  severe 
weather,  not  only  in  estuaries,  but  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  inland  partes  of  the  country,  as  it  docs  ou 
those  of  aU  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Euro|>e, 
and  equally  on  those  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia 
and  North  America.  It  breeds  in  arctic  and  sub- 
arctic regions,  preferring  wooded  districts,  and  forms 
its  nest  either  ou  the  groimd,  in  the  crevice  of  a 
rock,  or  the  hole  of  a  tree.  The  parent  birds  are 
said  to  transport  their  young  from  the  nest  to  the 
water,  holding  them  under  the  bill,  and  supported 
by  the  neck.  The  La])ps  take  advantage  of  the 
predilection  of  the  golden-eyes  for  making  their 
nests  in  holes,  by  setting  np  boxes  for  them,  and 
then  robbing  them  of  their  eggs. — Another  British 
species  is  the  II  vuLEQtnN  G.,  or  II.\klequin  Duck 
(C.  histrionica),  but  it  is  only  a  rare  winter  visitant. 
Like  the  golden-eye,  it  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world  generally.  The  male  is  cm-iously 
streaked  and  marked  with  white. — The  Bupfkl- 
IIEADED  G.,  or  BUFFEL-HEADED  DucK  (C  albeola), 
is  of  extremely  rare  occurrence  in  Britain,  but  is 
very  common  in  North  America,  where  it  is  often 
called  the  Spirit  Duck,  a  name  which  is  said  to  have 
been  bestowed  in  allusion  to  its  power  of  eluding 
ohservatiou  by  diving.  It  is  rather  smaller  than 
the  golden-eye  and  harlequin  garrot.  The  flesh  of 
the  g.irrots  is  eaten,  but  not  very  higlily  esteemed. 

GARRO'TTE  (Sp.anish  garrole,  a  stick  or  cudgel), 
a  mode  of  execution  practised  in  Spain  and  the 


GARROVILLAS  DEALCONETAR-GAETER  KIXG  OF  ARMS. 


Spanish  colonies.  Originally,  it  consisted  in  simply 
placing  a  cord  roimd  the  neck  of  a  criminal,  who 
was  seated  on  a  chair  fixed  to  a  post,  and  then 
twisting  the  cord  by  means  of  a  slick  (whence  the 
name)  inserted  between  it  and  the  back  of  the 
neck,  till  .strangulation  was  produced.  Afterwards,  a 
brass  collar  was  used,  cont.ainiug  a  screw,  which  the 
executioner  turned  till  its  point  entered  the  spinal 
marrow  where  it  unites  with  the  brain,  causing 
instantaneous  death.  The  inquisitors  were  wont  to 
grant  as  a  favour  this  mode  of  strangtdation,  before 
being  buraed,  to  such  condemned  persons  as  recanted. 
If  the  executioner  was  unskilful,  however,  tlie  pain 
was  sometimes  very  great.  Llorentc  (llixt.  dp  Cinq., 
t.  iii.  p.  472)  mentions  that  at  an  Anlo  da  1\'  (q.  v.) 
at  Ouen9a,  a  poor  Jew,  who  had  obtained  this  dismal 
privilege  of  preliminary  strangiUation,  noticing  the 
bungling  manner  in  which  the  executioner  had 
performed  the  ojicration  on  the  two  who  jireceded 
nim,  said  to  the  latter  :  '  Peter,  if  you  are  likely  to 
strangle  me  so  clumsily,  I  would  much  rather  be 
burned  alive.'  The  same  process  was  also  applied  as 
a  species  of  tortiu'e  to  the  limbs,  or  to  such  portions 
of  the  body  as  might  be  injiu-ed  ivith  comparative 
impunity.  It  is  probable  that  the  Sjiauiards 
adojited  the  garrotte  from  the  Moors  ;  at  all  events, 
in  its  primitive  form,  it  exactly  resembles  the 
pimisliment  of  the  bowstring  in  use  among  Moham- 
medan nations. — Garrotting  is  also  the  name  given 
in  England  and  Scotland  to  a  species  of  robbery 
which  li;is  recently  become  rather  common,  in  which 
the  robbers  suddenly  come  behind  their  victim,  and 
throwing  a  cord,  or  handkerchief,  or  something 
of  the  sort,  round  his  neck,  produce  temporary 
strangulation  till  their  purpose  is  eflVctcd. 

GARROVILLAS-DE-ALCONET^VR,  a  smaU 
town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of  Caoeres  is  situ- 
ated 20  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tagiis.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  some 
trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  fruit.     Pop.  6573. 

GARTER.     See  Ben-d. 

GARTER,  Order  of  the.  Tlie  order  of  the 
garter  was  instituted  by  King  Edward  III.,  and 
though  not  the  most  ancient,  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  nulitary  orders  of  Europe.  Seldeu 
says  that  it  'exceeds  in  m.ijesty,  honour,  and  fame 
all  chivalrous  orders  in  the  world.'  It  is  said  to 
have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  to 
the  king's  party  such  soldiers  of  fortune  as  might 
be  likely  to  aid  in  assert- 
ing the  claim  which  he 
was  then  making  to  the 
crown  of  France,  and 
intended  as  an  imitation 
of  King  Arthur's  rouud 
table.  The  round  table 
was  erected  at  Windsor, 
and  the  knights  and 
nobles  who  were  invited 
from  all  parts  of  the 
world  were  exercised  at 
tuts  and  tourn.anients 
as  a  ]ireparation  for  the 
magnificent  feasts  that 
were  spread  before  tboni. 
That  general  'jousts  and  tournaments'  of  this 
description  were  held  at  Windsor,  is  known  from 
the  letters  summoning  them  liearing  date  Ist 
Januan'  1344,  and  (pioted  by  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  in 
his  Orders  of  KniijhUiood,  i.  p.  C ;  and  from  the 
narrative  of  Froissart,  who  connects  them  with  the 
institution  of  the  order.  The  original  number  of  the 
knights  of  the  garter  w;is  twenty-five,  his  majesty 
himself  making  the  twenty-sixth.     The  story  that 


Star  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter. 


Collar,  Badge,  and  Garter. 


the  Countess  of  SaUsbury  let  fall  her  garter  when 
dancing  with  the  king,  and  that  the  king  picked  it 
up  and  tied  it  rouud  his  own  leg;  but  that,  obser\-ing 
the  jealous  glances  of  the  queen,  he  restored  it  to 
its  fair  owner  with  the  exclamation :  Honi  soil 
(jui  mal  y  peiise,  is  about  as  well  authcuticated  as 
most  tales  of  the  kind, 
and  ha-s,  moreover,  in 
its  favour  that  it 
accoimts  for  the  other- 
wise unaccountable 
em))lera  and  motto  of 
the  order.  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas,  whose  error 
does  not  usually  lie  in 
the  direction  of  credu- 
lity, says,  that  though 
the  writei's  on  the 
order,  have  treated  it 
with  contempt,  they 
have  neither  succeeded 
in  shewing  its  absurd- 
ity,  nor  suggested  a 
more  probable  theorj'. 
Various  dates  are  assigned  to  the  order  of  the  garter. 
Froissart,  as  above  mentioned,  gives  1.344,  and  fixes 
on  St  George's  day  (23d  April),  1344;  lint  Stow,  and, 
it  is  said,  the  statutes  of  the  order,  fix  it  six  yc.wa 
later — viz.,  13.50.  The  original  statutes  have  long 
since  jicrished,  and  little  reliance  can  be  ))laced  on 
the  modern  copies  of  tliem,  and  nothing  is  known 
on  the  subject  with  ))recision  till  the  compil.ation  of 
the  Black  Book  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  In  these  circumstances.  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas  is  of  opinion,  tliat,  though  founded  at  the 
former  period,  it  was  not  till  the  latter  that  the 
order  was  finally  organised,  and  the  companions 
chosen.  It  was  founded  in  honour  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  St  EdAvard  the  Confessor, 
and  St  George ;  but  the  last,  who  had  become  the 
tutelary  saint  of  England,  was  considered  its 
special  patron ;  and  for  this  reason  it  has  always 
borne  the  title  of  'The  Order  of  St  George,'  as 
well  as  of  'The  Garter.'  A  list  of  the  original 
knights,  or  knights-founders,  is  given  by  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas. 

The  well-knoin-n  emblem  of  the  order  is  a  dark- 
blue  ribbon  edged  with  gold,  bearing  the  motto 
liiini  suit  i/ui  mal  y  jmite,  in  golden  letters,  with  a 
buckle  and  pendant  of  gold  richly  chased.  It  is 
worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the  knee.  The  mantle  is 
of  blue  velvet,  lined  with  white  taffeta,  and  on  the 
left  bre.ast  a  star  is  embroidered.  The  hood  and 
STuxoat  are  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with  white 
taffeta.  The  hat  is  of  bl.ack  velvet,  with  a  plume  of 
white  ostrich  feathers,  in  the  centre  of  which  there 
is  a  tuft  of  black  herons'  feathers,  all  fastened  to 
the  hat  by  a  band  of  diamonds.  The  collar  is  of 
fold,  and  consists  of  20  jiieces,  each  in  the  form  of  a 
garter.  The  '  George '  is  the  figure  of  St  George  on 
horseback  encountering  the  Dragon ;  is  worn  to  the 
collar,  and  there  is  a 'lesser  George' pendent  to  a 
broad  dark-blue  ribbon  over  the  left  shoiUder.  The 
Star,  which  is  of  eight  points,  is  silver,  and  has 
upon  the  centre  the  Cross  of  St  George,  gnlos, 
encircled  with  the  garter.  The  officers  of  the  order 
arc— the  Prolate  (tlie  Bishop  of  Winchester),  the 
(.'liancellor  (the  Bishop  of  Oxford),  the  Registrar 
(the  Dean  of  Windsor),  the  Garter  King  of  Arms 
(q.  v.),  and  the  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod 

GARTER  KING  OF  AR:\IS  is  also  the  Prin- 
cipal King  of  Arms  in  England,  lliongh  held  by 
the  same  person,  they  are  distinct  offices.  The  first 
was  instituted  for  the  service  of  the  order  of  the 
Garter  (see  Gakter),  not  on  its  first  foundation, 
but  afterwards  by  Henry  V.  as  sovereign,  -with  the 

C31 


GAKTH— GAS. 


advice  ami  consent  of  tlio  kniglits-companions.  Tlie 
pcoili.ir  duty  of  G.irtor  King  of  Amis  is  to  attend 
upon  tlie  knights  at  their  solemnities,  to  intimate 
their  election  to  those  who  are  chosen  by  the  order, 
to  call  them  to  lie  inst;Jled  at  Windsor,  to  cause 
their  arms  to  be  hung  up  over  their  stalls,  and  to 
marshal  their  funeral  processions,  and  those  of  royal 

1>ersouages,  and  of  members  of  the  higher  nobility, 
n  the  capacity  of  principal  King  of  .Vrms,  he  grants 
and  eonlirms  arms,  under  the  authority  of  the 
Karl  Marshal,  to  whom  he  is  not  subject  as  Garter 
King  of  Arms.  All  new  grants  or  patents  of  arms 
in  England  are  first  signed  and  sealed  by  Garter 
King  of  Arms,  and  then  by  the  king  of  the  province 
to  which  the  applicant  belongs.  Sec  Heralu'.s 
College. 

GARTH,  Sami'el,  an  eminent  physician,  and  a 
poet  of  considerable  re]>utation,  w.as  born  at  liolam, 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  in  IGGO.  Ho  w;is  a 
member  of  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  and  graduated 
as  M.D.  in  1G91.  In  the  following  year,  he  settled 
in  London,  and  was  admitted  into  the  C'oUege  of 
Physicians,  in  which  institution  he  subsequently 
held  several  important  otHces.  His  professional  skill 
was  associated  with  great  conversational  powers, 
and  he  soon  acquired  a  very  extensive  practice. 
The  year  1700  presents  an  incident  in  G.'s  life 
which  did  him  everhisting  honour.  He  it  was  who 
8tep])ed  forward  to  provide  a  suitable  interment 
in  Westminster  Abbey  for  the  neglected  corpse 
of  Dryden,  which  he  caused  to  be  brought  to  the 
College  in  Warwick  Lane ;  and  he  pronounced  a 
eiJogium  over  the  gi-e.at  poet's  remains.  On  the 
accession  of  George  I.,  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  was  appointed  jihysielan  in  ordin.ary 
to  the  king,  and  jiliysiciau-general  to  the  aiTuy. 
He  died  in  London,  January  18,  1718. 

G.  is  best  known  in  our  literary  history  as  the 
author  of  TJte  DUpen^ary,  a  poetical  satii'e  on  the 
apothecaries  and  those  physicians  who  sided  with 
them  in  opposing  the  project  of  gixing  medicine 
gratuitously  to  the  sick  poor.  The  sketches  of 
some  of  his  contemporaries — as,  for  instance,  Drs 
Goxdd,  Tyson,  and  How,  who  are  introduced  into 
the  poem  as  '  obsequious  Umbra,'  '  slow  Carus,'  aud 
'shrill  Querpo' — are  severe ;  aud  although,  doubtless, 
exaggerated  by  poetic  Ucence,  must  have  been  true 
to  nature,  or  the  work  could  not  have  obtained  such 
an  immediate  and  extensive  circidation.  The  first 
edition  came  out  in  1699,  and  the  second  aud  tliird 
followed  in  the  course  of  a  very  few  months.  In 
1700,  he  brought  out  the  sixth  edition  with  con- 
siderable additions.  In  1715,  he  jjublished  a  poem 
entitled  Claremonl,  and  in  1717  he  superintended 
and  contributed  to  a  translation  of  Ovid's  Mtta- 
rtwrphoses  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  writers  of 
that  age — Addison,  Pope,  Ga}',  Congrieve,  aud  Kowe 
being  amongst  the  contributors. 

I'lipo  frequently  refers  to  hira,  both  in  his  letters 
and  in  his  poems,  with  great  respect — 

And  we,  too,  boast  our  Garth  and  Addison. 
The  second  Pastoral  was  dedicated  to  G. ;  and 
in  a  letter  to  Jervis  in  1718,  Pope  states  that  he 
entertains  '  the  truest  concern  for  his  loss.' 
^  GARTNER,  Friedricu  vox,  a  distinguislied 
(^lerman  architect,  was  born  at  Coblentz  in  179-2. 
His  father,  also  an  architect,  removed  in  1804  to 
Munich,  where  young  G.  received  his  first  education 
in  architecture.  To  complete  that  education,  he 
travelled  in  1812  to  Paris,  and  in  ISUto  Italy,  where 
he  spent  four  years  in  the  earnest  study  of  anti- 
quities. The  fruits  of  this  Labour  ap])eared  in  1819 
in  some  views,  accompanied  by  descriptions,  of  the 
princip.al  monuments  which  have  been  preserved  in 
Sicily  (Anaidden  der  am  Mekten  er/taltenen  Monu- 


meiile Sicilien^,  Lit/io^imphien  mil  erluiilenidem  Te::!). 
After  a  visit  to  Kngland,  he  was  called,  in  18211, 
to  the  chair  of  Architecture  in  the  academy  of 
Munich.  With  this  appointment  began  his  work 
as  a  jiraetical  architect.  Many  of  the  architectural 
orn.aments  of  Munich,  and  various  other  buildings 
throughout  Germany,  as  well  as  the  new  royal 
palace  at  Athens,  are  built  after  his  ])lan3.  In 
the  style  of  his  works,  which  have  all  a  common 
impress,  (J.  represents  the  renaissance  of  the 
medieval  architecture  in  its  Romanesque  forms. 
The  round  arch  with  its  accompaniments  prevails 
in  them  all.  G.  was  rewarded  with  the  fellowship 
of  several  academies,  witli  ortlers  of  his  own  ami 
foreign  countries,  with  a  degree  from  Erlangen, 
with  the  office  of  head  government-surveyor  of 
buildings,  and  with  the  directorship  of  the  .\c.ademy 
of  Arts  in  Munich.  He  died  in  the  mitlst  of  his 
labours,  21st  April  1847. 

GARTSHE'HRIE,  a  village  of  Lanarkshire,  in 
the  parish  of  Old  M.mkland,  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  ironworks.  In  the  immediate  neighliour- 
hood  are  the  ironworks  of  Duudyvau,  Clyde,  and 
Calder,  all  of  which,  together  with  Coatbridge,  con- 
tribute to  the  iron-trade  of  Glasgow.  See  article 
Lanark-shire. 

GAS,  An.\lysis  of.  This  department  of  analysis 
originated  in  the  attempts  of  various  chemists, 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the  ISth,  and  the  fii-st 
quarter  of  the  present  century,  to  determine  the 
volume  of  oxygen  in  specimens  of  atino.sjdieric 
air  taken  from  ditl'erent  localities.  The  general 
principle  on  which  the  early  Eudiometers  (q.  v.) 
were  constructed,  was  that  of  cxiwsing  atmospheric 
air  to  the  action  of  some  substance  which  combined 
with  its  oxygen.  Various  eudiometers  and  eudio- 
metrical  processes  were  devised  by  Priestley,  De 
Martfi,  Guyton,  Seguin,  Volta,  BerthoUet,  Hoi)c, 
Henry,  Pepys,  Ure,  &e.,  which  are  now  only  of 
interest  in  an  historical  point  of  view.  They  were 
not  only  almost  exclusively  limited  to  the"  deter- 
mination of  the  quantity  of  oxygen,  but  they  were 
more  or  less  imperfect  in  their  action ;  and  the 
analysis  of  the  gases  generally  did  not  become 
developed  into  a  system  until  Professor  Bunsen  of 
Heidelberg,  some  20  years  ago,  ))cgan  to  devote 
himself  to  the  subject.  Ingenious  instruments  for 
the  anal^'sis  of  gaseous  mixtures  have  recently 
been  devised,  not  only  by  Bunsen,  but  bj'  Reguault 
and  Reiset,  Williamson  and  Russell,  and  Frank- 
land  and  Ward.  The  instrument  derised  by  the 
last-named  gentlemen  we  shall  presently  describe; 
but  before  doing  so,  we  must  say  a  few  words  on 
the  collection  of  gases  for  analysis.  In  collecting 
gases,  we  usually  em]>loj'  small  glass  vessels,  the 
conteuts  of  w'hich,  consisting  of  water,  mercury, 
or  air,  are  disjilaced  by  the  gas  to  be  analysed. 
Of  these  three  liuidj,  w-ater  is  the  least  capable 
of  general  application,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  rise 
to  jihenomena  of  absorption  and  ^'iffusion,  which 
modify  the  composition  of  the  gas  that  is  to  be 
collected,  and  gases  are  more  or  leiss  soluble  in 
it.  For  tlie  best  methods  of  collecting  g.ases  from 
mineral  springs  and  waters,  from  volcanic  lakes, 
geysers  or  boiling  sjirings,  from  ojieuings  in  rocks, 
clefts  of  glaciers,  furnaces,  fissures  in  volcanic 
craters,  &c.,  we  must  refer  to  Buusen's  Oaxumclnj, 
translated  by  Roscoc,  18,57.  Again,  it  must  be  recol- 
lected th.at  the  n.atnre  of  the  gas  that  is  evolved 
often  varies  with  the  progressive  phases  of  a  decom- 
jiositiou,  as,  for  example,  in  the  process  of  coking,  or 
in  the  phenomena  of  combustion  aud  decomposition 
ocevu-riug  in  the  strata  of  a  furnace.  In  these  cases, 
it  is  necessary  to  collect  a  series  of  specimens  during 
the  progress  of  the  decomposition. 


GAS. 


Our  limiti'J  si>ace  will  not  allcjw  of  our  entering 
into  the  various  details  of  the  eoa)|ilicateil  ajijiar- 
atu3  employed  by  Frankland  and  Ward,  which  is 
regarded  as  tlie  best  that  has  yet  been  invented. 
A  full  account  of  it  may  be  foimd  in  their  ilemoir 
in  the  Qiuii-lcrli/  Jounail  uf  the  Clieiiiical  Societi/,  or 
in  Williams's  Handbook  of  C/iemkiil  Manipulation. 
The  following  remarks,  which  we  take  with  slight 
modifications  from  their  Memoir,  will,  we  trust, 
sutliciently  explain  the  manner  of  using  this  appar- 
atus. We  take  as  an  cxami>le  an  analysis  of  atmo- 
spheric air.  A  few  (three  or  four)  cubic  inches  of 
air,  freed  from  carbonic  acid,  having  been  introduced 
into  the  tube  I,  it  is  transferred  into  F  for  measure- 
ment by  opening  the  cocks  /,  I',  and  placing  the  tube 


A,  a  tripod,  with  Icvellinjf 
screws;  liB,  u  vertical 
pillar,  to  which  is  .itt.iched, 
C,  a  mercurial  trough, 
movable  by  a  rack  and 
pinion,  aa;  \)\1,  a  glass 
cylinder,  30  incties  long, 
Willi  an  internal  diamelcr 
of  4  inches,  containing 
three  tubes,  F,(i,  II,  which 
communicate  with  one 
another  and  with  the  exit- 
pipe,  A,  by  the  apparatus 
K  /  E.  The  l■c^t  if  the 
figure  will  be  sufficiently 
intelligible  from  the  des- 
cription given  in  the  text. 


F  in  connection  with  the  exit-i)i()c  h  ;  the  trans- 
ference can  1)0  assisted,  if  necessary,  by  elevating 
the  mercurial  trough  C.  (The  part  marked  b  in  the 
figure  is  merely  the  tubular  well  of  the  mercurial 
trough  C)  When  the  air,  followed  by  a  few  droiis 
of  mercury,  has  passed  comiJetely  into  F,  the 
cock  I  is  shut,  and/turned,  so  as  to  connect  F  and 
H  with  /(.  Mercury  is  allowed  to  flow  out  until 
a  vacuum  of  two  or  three  inches  in  length  is  formed 
in  H,  and  the  metal  in  F  is  just  below  one  of  the 
graduated  lUvisions  ;  the  cock  /  is  then  reversed, 
and  mercury  very  gradually  lulmitted  from  G,  until 
the  highest  point  in  F  exactly  corresponds  with  one 
of  the  divisions  upon  that  tulie  :  we  will  assume  it 
to  be  the  sixth  division,  there  being  ten  divisions  in 
all.  This  adjustment  of  mercurj',  and  the  subse- 
quent readings,  can  be  very  accurately  made  by 
means  of  a  small  horizontal  telescope,  placed  at  a 
distance  of  about  si.x  feet,  and  sliibng  on  a  vertical 
rod.  The  height  of  the  mercury  in  H  must  now  be 
accurately  determined ;  and  if  from  the  number  thus 
read  off,  the  height  of  the  sixth  division  above  the 
zero  of  the  scale  in  H  is  deducted  (the  scale  on  H 
is  not  marked  in  the  figtire),  the  remainder  will 
express  the  true  volume  of  the  gas,  no  corrections 
being  retjuired  for  variations  of  temperature,  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  tension  of  aqueous  vapotir,  &c. 


Hydrogen,  in  the  proportion  of  half  the  volume  of 
the  air  used,  must  now  be  passed  into  I,  and  from 
thence  into  F,  when  the  volume  of  the  mixed  gases 
must  be  again  determined,  as  before.  An  electric 
spark  must  now  be  passed  through  the  mixed  gases 
m  F  by  means  of  the  platinum  wires  at  m.  A  slight 
explosion  occurs,  after  which  wo  observe  a  consider- 
.able  contraction  in  the  volume  of  the  mixed  gases. 
The  determination  of  this  contraction  terminates 
the  analysis.  One  third  of  the  contraction  thus 
determined  represents  the  volume  of  oxygen  con- 
tained in  the  air  sutimitted  to  analysis,  and  in  this 
case,  as  oxygen  and  nitrtmen  were  the  only  gases 
])resent,  the  estimation  of  the  fonner  also  determines 
the  latter.  Such  an  analysis  .is  that  which  we  have 
described  is  termed  a  direct  determination ;  in 
other  cases,  we  employ  an  indirect  method. 

1.  The  method  of  direct  determination  is  ajipli- 
cable  to  mixtures  of  the  following  gases :  carbonic 
acid,  oxygen,  defiant  gas,  and  carbonic  oxide.  If 
all  these  gases  are  present  in  the  specimen  to  be 
analysed,  a  few  drops  of  a  concentrated  solution 
of  potash  is  introtluced  into  the  apparatus,  after 
a  measured  quantity  of  the  gas  has  been  trans- 
feiTcd  to  it  as  before  ;  the  carbonic  acid  is  speedily 
absorbed  by  the  jiotash,  and  converted  into  car- 
bonate of  pot.ash.  The  remaining  gas  is  remeasured 
at  the  same  pressure  as  before,  and  the  dill'erence 
of  the  two  measurements  represents  the  volume  of 
the  carbonic  acid  that  was  present.  The  remaining 
gas  is  next  brought  into  contact  with  a  few  drojis 
of  a  strong  solution  of  i>yrogalhc  acid,  which  is 
introduced  into  the  apjiaratus.  In  a  few  minutes, 
the  whole  of  the  oxygen  is  .absorbed  by  the  acid 
solution,  which  assumes  a  deep  blood-red  Colour. 
The  remeasiu-emcnt  of  the  gas  at  the  oiiginal 
l)rcssure  gives  the  volume  of  oxygen  in  the  mixture. 
The  absorption  of  the  oU-fiant  gas  is  effected  by 
the  introduction  into  the  tube  I  of  a  coko-bidlet 
saturated  \\ith  a  solution  of  anhydrous  sulphuric 
acid  in  oil  of  vitiiol.  This  absorjition  occupies  far 
more  time  than  th.at  of  the  preceding  g.as,  an  hour 
or  more  being  required,  and  the  residual  g.as  contains 
sidphurous  acid  and  the  vapour  of  anhydrous  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  must  be  removed  by  a  few 
drops  of  a  strong  solution  of  pot.ash.  The  residu.il 
gas  being  agaiu  me;isured  in  F,  the  duninished 
pressure  represents  the  volume  of  oleliant  g;vs.  The 
carbonic  oxiile  is  then  determineil  by  a  solution  of 
dichloride  of  copper,  which  is  best  prepared  by 
allowing  a  concentrated  solution  of  the  proto- 
chloride  to  be  in  contact  with  eopi)er  turnings  in 
a  stoppered  bottle  for  some  days.  The  g.as  must  be 
l)rouglit  in  contact  for  ten  minutes  with  a  little  of 
this  solution,  introduced  into  the  apjiaratus.  The 
pressure  of  the  gas  is  again  measured,  and  deter- 
mines the  volume  of  carbonic  oxide  that  has  been 
absorbeiL  Tliis  gas  is,  however,  usu.ally  determined 
by  the  indirect  method. 

2.  The  method  of  indirect  determin.ation  is  espc- 
ciiUly  applicable  to  mixtures  of  the  following  gases  : 
hydrogen,  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  and  nitrogen.  We  exjilode  a  known  volume 
of  the  mixture  of  these  g.oses  in  the  tube  F,  with  an 
excess  of  oxygen,  and  determine  (1)  the  diminution 
of  volume  after  the  explosion,  and  (2)  the  volume  of 
carbonic  acid  iiroducicl  by  the  combustion.  The  gas 
that  remains  after  the  absorption  of  the  carbonic 
acid  (by  a  solution  of  potash),  consists  merely  of 
nitrogen,  with  any  excess  of  oxygen  beyond  what 
was  necessary.  'J'he  volume  of  oxygen  determined 
by  explosion  with  hydrogeu,  subtracted  from  the 
residual  g.as,  gives  the  amount  of  nitrogen  contained 
in  the  mixture.  For  the  determination  of  the 
respective  volumes  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  and  light  carbtirettedhydrogen,  we  have  the 

C3.3 


GAS. 


following  ilatn — viz.  ( 1 )  the  volume  tif  the  gas  taken 
for  analysis,  whicli  wo  will  c.-»ll  A  ;  (2),  the  volume  of 
the  comliustil'le  pases  contaiiieil  in  it,  wliieh  wc  will 
call  A',  anil  which  is  ascertained  by  ileductiuf;  from 
A  the  amuimt  of  nitrogen  determined  as  above ; 
(3),  the  contraction  of  volume  on  explosion,  'whieli 
wo  will  call  C ;  and  (4)  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid 
generated  on  explosion,  which  we  will  call  D  ;  and 
we  likewise  know  that  on  exploding  one  volume  of 
hydrogen  with  an  excess  of  oxygen,  the  contraction 
of  Volume  is  expressed  by  lo;  that  on  similarly 
exploding  one  volume  of  carbonic  oxide,  the  con- 
traction is  expresseil  by  Oo,  while  one  volume  of 
carbonic  acid  is  produced  ;  and  that  with  light  car- 
burctted  hyilrogen  the  contraction  is  represented  by 
20,  while  one  volume  of  carbonic  acid  is  produced. 
Hence,  if  we  call  «',  ;/•,  ;/,  :,  the  unknown  volumes 
of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  and  light  car- 
burettcd  hydrogen,  wc  see  at  once  that  w  =  A— A', 
and  X  =  A'— D;  and  the  .ibove  ntimerical  data  give 
us  the  equations 

C  =  -5-  +  ^  +  2c,     and  X>  =  y  +  z;  whence 

3A'  -  2C  +  D       J         2D  -  3A'  +  2C 
y  =  0 ,  and  2  = g , 

which  affords  the  complete  solution  of  the  analytical 
problem. 

If,  on  the  application  of  these  formiUaj  to  the 
results  of  an  analysis,  one  of  the  quantities  «',  x, 
y,  z  is  found  =  0,  or  a  small  negative  result,  it 
obWously  follows,  th.it  the  gas  whoso  volume  is 
represented  by  the  letter  in  question,  is  not  present 
in  the  mixture. 

For  further  details  regarding  this  somewhat 
difficult  branch  of  chemical  analysis,  we  must  refer 
to  Bunsen's  treatise,  and  to  the  .irticles  'Auiolyse  fUr 
Gase,'  in  the  second  edition  of  Liebig,  Poggendorff, 
and  Wohler's  JIamlworterhuch  tier  Chemie;  and 
'  Gasometric  Analysis,'  in  the  EnglUih  Cyclopccdia — 
Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  iv. 

GA.S  (Lionriso  by)  is  the  best  and  most 
economical  mode  of  obtaining  artificial  light  as 
yet  brought  into  use  ;  though  hardly  knowii  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  has  since  been 
gradually  extending.  It  may  now  be  said  to  be 
universal  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  Eiu'oiie  ;  it  is 
making  rapid  progress  in  North  .\merica,  where  it 
has  long  been  used  in  the  princijial  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Canada,  and  it  is  spreading 
rapidly  in  the  smaller  towns.  Its  introduction  into 
South  America  and  into  Asia  luas  been  more  recent, 
and  its  progress  there,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
is  much  slower.  It  has  also  been  introduced  into 
the  priiicip.al  towns  in  Australia  and  Tasmania. 

From  1G5S  to  1739,  the  attention  of  men  of  science 
in  England  had  been  repe.itedly  turned  to  the  streams 
of  innanimable  air  issuing  from  wells  and  mines  in 
the  coal  districts,  various  commtmications  on  the 
subject  having  been  read  before  the  Royal  Society 
of  London.  Intlie  last-mentioned  year,  the  Kev.  Dr 
John  Clayton,  dean  of  Kildarc,  gave  an  account  of 
experiments  in  wliicb  he  had  lUstilled  gas  from  coal. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1792  that  the  possibility  of 
applying  gas,  distilled  from  coal,  to  the  production 
of  artificial  li"ht  was  demonstrated.  In  th.at  year, 
Mr  William  Murdoch  constructed  ajuiaratus  by 
which  be  lighted  his  house  and  offices  at  Redruth, 
in  Cornwall.  In  1708,  he  Ughted  part  of  the  m.anu- 
factory  of  Messrs  Bolton  and  Watt  at  Soho,  and  in 
1805  he  lighted  the  cotton-mills  of  Messrs  Phillips 
and  Lee  at  Salford.  A  proposal  w.as  made  by  M.  Le 
Bon  to  light  a  portion  of  Paris  with  gas  in  1802. 
In  the  succcedin"  year,  Mr  Winsor  commenced 
lecturing  on  the  subject  in  London.    He  being  a  man 


of  a  sanguine  and  enthusiixstic  temper,  his  strong 
statements  probably  ten^lud  to  retard  rather  than 
advance  the  new  art.  He  promised  to  every  depositor 
of  £5  an  income  exceeding  .(.500  per  annum,  and  ho 
urged  the  government  to  take  the  matter  into  their 
own  hands,  as  a  certain  means  not  only  of  clearing 
off  the  national  debt,  but  of  securing  a  permanent 
and  large  revenue  to  the  country.  The  chartered 
Gas  Company  of  London,  which  w.as  the  first  com- 
)iany  incorporated,  obtained  their  act  of  parliament 
in  1810.  At  that  time,  Mr  Winsor,  who  li.ad  been 
instrumental  in  establishing  the  company,  was 
employed  by  them,  but  in  1813  they  found  it  neces- 
sary to  engage  the  late  Mr  Samual  Clegg,  who,  from 
the  year  1805,  had  been  eng.agcd  in  promoting  the 
use  of  gas,  and  to  whose  ingenuity  and  scientific 
skill  the  chartered  comp.any,  as  well  as  the  cora- 
munit)',  were  greatly  indebted.  Mr  Clegg  was  the 
inventor  of  the  hydrauhc  main,  of  the  wet-Umo 
purifier,  and  of  the  wet  g.osmeter,  all  which  were 
essential  to  the  success  of  gas  lighting. 

As  the  first  g.as  applied  to  artificial  lighting  was 
obt.ained  from  coal,  so,  owing  to  the  economy 
attending  its  manufacture,  the  use  of  any  other 
material  only  occurs  when  coal  cannot  be  obtained 
except  at  an  exorbitant  price,  an<l  where  other  gas- 
yielding  materials  .are  unusually  cheap.  Resin  and 
oils  are  the  best  substitutes  for  coal. 

Destructive  distillation  by  the  .action  of  heat  is 
in  all  cases  the  means  employed  to  disengage  the 
gas  from  the  raw  m.aterial,  the  app.aratus  and  pro- 
cesses being  modified  to  suit  the  material  operated 
upon.  As  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas  is  not  only 
the  most  general,  but  also  the  most  interesting  of 
these  processes,  and  as  the  mode  of  storing,  distri- 
buting, and  using  the  gas  is  the  same  in  all,  the 
manufacture  of  coal-gas  only  will  be  here  described. 

As  a  branch  of  manufacturing  industry,  coal-gas- 
works occupy  an  important  position,  uot  only  from 
the  immense  capital  ])ermanently  embarked,  and  the 
great  nimiber  of  hands  employed  in  them,  but  also 
from  the  demand  created  by  them  for  coal,  lime,  &c., 
and  for  u'onwork,  br.asswork,  and  gasmeters.  In 
London  alone,  the  aggregate  share  capital  of  17 
g<as  companies  amounts  to  £5,000,000,  independently 
of  Large  sums  of  borrowed  ca]iit.al.  In  England, 
there  are  above  400  gas  companies  ;  in  Scotland, 
above  ISO  ;  in  Ireland,  above  00 ;  and  there  are  in 
the  three  Idngdoms  about  130  gas-works,  the  pro- 
perty of  indi\-iduals  or  of  corporations.  The  coals 
best  adapted  for  the  manufactiu-e  of  g,as,  are  those 
known  in  England  by  the  name  of  c.annel,  and  in 
Scotland  Ijy  the  name  of  ])aiTat  coals.  The  English 
caking  co.als,  of  which  a  great  part  are  obtained  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle-on-TjTie,  are,  how- 
ever, from  their  cheapness  and  the  superior  qu,ality 
of  the  coke  which  remains  after  ihstdl.ation,  more 
extensively  used  than  any  other.  In  Scotland, 
p.arrot  coals  are  used  almost  exclusively.  Cannel 
is  used  exclusively  in  Liverpool,  Manchester,  and 
some  other  towns ;  a  proportion  of  cannel  or  of 
Scotch  ])arrot  is  used  with  caking  coal  in  London 
and  other  places  to  improve  the  (juality  of  the  gas, 
but  in  Engl.and  geucr.ally  the  gas  is  made  from 
caking  coal.  The  coke  of  the  English  cannel  coals 
is  of  fair  quality,  though  inferior  to  that  of  the 
caking  co.als.  The  coke  of  the  Scotch  parrot  coals 
is  very  iuferior,  that  of  some  being  altogether 
worthless. 

The  English  caking  coals  yield  from  8000  to 
10,000  cubic  feet  of  g.as  per  ton,  of  illuminating 
power  var^ang  from  10  to  12  sperm  candles  to  a 
burner  consuming  five  feet  per  hour.  The  English 
cannel  coals  yield  about  10,000  cubic  feet  per  ton, 
of  ilhmiinating  power  varying  from  20  to  24  sperm 
candles.     The  Scotch  parrot  co.als  are  very  various 


GAS. 


in  quality,  yii-kling  from  SOOO  up  to  13,000  cubic 
feot  \nr  ton,  varj-ing  in  illuminatinj;  power  from  IG 
up  to  35  candles.  As  a  general  rule,  the  jKirrot 
coals  which  yield  the  greatest  quantity  of  gas,  yield 
also  gas  of  the  highest  illuminating  power. 

In  the  process  of  distillation,  gas,  tar,  and  ammo- 
niacal  liquor  come  off  together,  and  arc  separated 
by  t lie  action  of  the  apparatus  employed— a  large 
residuum  of  coke  remains  in  the  retort.  Tlie  gas 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  heavy  carburettcd  hydrogen 
(oletiant  gas),  specific  gravity,  985;  heavy  hydro- 
carbon vapours  of  v.arious  kinds ;  light  carburctted 
hydrogen,  specific  gravity,  555  ;  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, specific  gravity,  1191  ;  sulphide  or  sulphiiret  of 
carbon  in  minute  quantity  ;  carbonic  oxide,  s]iecilic 
gr.ivitv,  972 ;  carbonic  acid,  specific  gravity,  1524. 

The  value  of  coal-gas  depends  on  the  proportion 
of  olefiant  gas  and  heavy  hydrocarbons  which  it 
contains.  Great  attention  is  required  in  heating  the 
Tetoi-ts ;  if  their  temperature  be  too  low,  the  tar  and 


licpior  are  increased  in  Quantity,  and  the  gas  dimin- 
ished in  quantity  and  deterioratod  in  quality.  If 
the  temperature  be  too  high,  the  olcliant  gas  ia 
deconijiosed,  and  light  carburctted  hydrogen  formed. 
While  different  parts  of  the  apparatus  necessary  for 
producing,  purifying,  storing,  and  sending  out  the 
gas  are  capable  of  many  variations  in  size,  form,  and 
construction,  the  order  iu  which  they  come  into  use 
is  almost  inv.ariable.  First  there  are  the  retorts, 
aaaiieion  and  dip  pipe^,  htjdrauUc  main,  then  the 
tar- well  and  condenser,  the  exhauster,  the  washer  or 
scrul)ber,  the  purifier,  the  station-meter,  the  gas- 
holder, and  the  governor— the  parts  printed  in  italica 
being  iudispensable.  Besides  the  above,  valves  of 
various  forms,  simple  and  complicated,  are  em|)loyed. 
These,  in  some  of  theii-  arrangements,  display  great 
ingenuity.  Water-traps  also  have  to  be  applied  for 
collecting  and  removing  the  w.ater  and  tar  which 
condense  in  the  pipes.  The  annexed  wood-cut  shews 
an  arrangement  conuuon  in  small  gas-works. 


ELEVATION  OF  OAS-WORES. 


Eetorts,  ka. 


Tar  Wea 


Condenser. 


Washer. 


Dry-Lime  Purifier. 


The  retorfc!  are  now  generally  made  of  fireclay, 
though  cast-iron  retorts  .ire  still  frequently  to  be 
met  with.  They  arc  made  D-shaped,  cyliudi-ical,  kid- 
nej'-shaped,  and  elliptical.  Tlie  sizes  most  common  arc 
from  6  to  9  feet  in  length,  and  from  12  to  20  inches 
in  diameter.  In  large  works,  two  9-feet  lengths  are 
joined  together,  forming  one  retort  18  feet  long, 
witli  a  month  at  cich  end — a  mode  of  constniction 
which  is  found  to  jKissess  consider.able  advantages. 
Tlie  retort  is  built  horizontally  into  an  arched  oven, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  equally  heated  throughout 
from  a  furnace  beneath.  From  one  to  seven  retorts, 
and  sometimes  a  greater  number,  are  set  in  the  same 
oven.  The  open  mouth-piece  of  the  retort  is  of  cast 
iron,  and  projects  outwards  from  the  front  w'all  of 
the  oven  sufficiently  far  to  .idmit  between  the  month 
and  the  front  of  the  oven,  an  opening  to  which  the 
ascension-pipe  is  connected  for  convej'ing  the  gas  to 
the  hydraidic  main.  WHien  the  co.al  to  be  distilled 
is  introduced  into  the  retort,  the  mouth  is  closed 
with  a  lid,  which  is  kept  tight  by  a  luting  of  clay  or 
other  material  round  the  edge,  and  made  fast  with 
a  screw. 

The  hydraulic  main  is  a  large  pipe  made  of  thick 
plate  or  cast  iron.  It  is  first  about  half  filled 
with  w.ater,  which  in  the  course  of  a  short  time  is 
entirely  displaced  by  the  liquid  product  of  distilla- 
tion. The  dip-pipes,  which  are  the  cojitinuation  of 
the  .ascension-pipes,  dip  into  the  liquid  through 
which  the  gas  bubliles  uji  into  the  u]>pcr  portion  of 
the  hydrauUc  main.  The  gas  and  li(]uid  come  oflf 
at  the  end  of  the  liydraulic  main,  and  flow  together 


till  they  reach  the  tar- well,  into  which  the  hqnid,  by 
its  greater  gravity,  falls.  The  liquid  consists  of  tar 
and  ammouiacal  water.  These  are  withdr.'\^^^l  from 
the  tar-well,  and  become  the  raw  material  from 
which  other  products  are  manuf>acture<l.  From  the 
tar,  naphtha,  pitch-oil,  pitch,' and  coke  arc  obtained; 
and  from  the  water,  salts  of  ammonia  are  prepared. 
The  t.ar  and  ammoniacal  water  being  of  different 
densities  are  easily  sep.aiated  by  being  allowed 
to  settle  in  a  vessel.  .See  G.is-t.\r,  Naphtha, 
Ammos'L\,  S.vl-ammoniac,  &c.  When  a  retort 
is  opened  for  withdrawing  the  exhausted  charge 
of  coal  and  rene\ving  it,  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
on  the  hydraulic  main  forces  the  liquid  to  .ascend 
the  dip-pipe,  and  thus  seals  it  against  the  gas  in 
the  hydraulic,  which,  but  for  this,  woiJd  rush  up 
the  dip-pipe,  descend  the  ascension-pipe,  escape  .ind 
ignite  at  the  open  moiith  of  the  retort.  In  the  tar- 
well  there  is  also  a  di|v])ipe,  inserted  into  a  deep 
vessel,  to  prevent  the  g.as  from  entering  the  well. 
A  similar  contrivance  ia  resorted  to  wherever  it  ia 
necessary  to  introduce  or  draw  off  liquids  at  any 
part  of  the  apjiaratus.  The  tar-wcll  must  be  placed 
so  low,  that  all  the  liquid  in  the  pipes  loading  to  it 
from  the  hydraulic  main,  and  from  it  to  the  con- 
denser, must  incline  towards  it. 

The  simplest  form  of  condenser  consists  of  a  series 
of  upright  ]ii]>cs,  each  pair  being  connected  at  the 
top  by  an  arch  pipe.  These  are  erected  upon  a 
horizontal  chest,  the  top  of  which  has  an  opening 
into  the  bottom  of  each  upright  pipe.  Immcuiatcly 
under  the  centre  of  each  arch  pipe,  a  plate  descencis 


6AS. 


from  tlio  top  of  tlie  chost,  ami  reaohcs  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  bottom.  Wlien  in  ojieration,  the 
chest  is  always  lilled  with  liijuiil  to  such  a  height, 
that  tliosc  i.liites  dip  into  it,  and  ]ircvont  the  gas 
from  passinj;  throngh  the  chest  liorizontally.  When 
.admitted  into  the  clicst,  the  gas  finds  no  exit  but  by 
ascending  the  first  u]>right  jiipc  ;  and,  j  lassing  over  the 
arch,  it  descends  to  thechest  again  through  tnc  second 
upright  jiiiK'.  There  being'no  dip-]ilatc  between 
the  second  and  tliird  ui)right  iiijKs,  the  gas  ascends 
the  third  jiipe  and  descends  the  fourtli,  and  so  on 
tlirongh  tlie  condenser.  Tlie  upright  pipes  arc  kei)t 
cool  by  exposure  to  the  atmosplicre,  ami  sometime* 
a  thin  stream  of  water  is  caused  to  How  over  them. 
As  the  gas  ascends  and  descends,  conling  rapidly  iu 
its  p.issage,  the  liquid  which  has  been  carried  along 
in  a  state  of  vapour,  condenses,  aud  f:dls  into  the 
chest,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  back  by  au 
overflow-pipe  to  the  tar-well. 

The  exJiauster,  when  used,  is  now  the  next  part 
of  the  apparatus.  It  is  a  species  of  iiump,  driven 
by  steam-power,  and  is  made  in  various  forms, 
both  direct-acting  and  rot;iry.  It  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  relieving  the  retorts  of  the  resistance  or 
pressure,  created  in  the  passing  of  the  "as  through 
the  api)aratus,  and  in  raising  the  gasholders.  The 
use  of  the  exhauster  greatly  lessens  the  deposit  of 
carbon  iu  the  retorts  in  the  form  of  graphite,  and  is 
attended  with  other  important  advantages. 

At  this  stage  of  the  process,  the  liquid  products 
have  been  sejiarated  from  the  g.iseous.  A  portion 
of  the  ammonia  and  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
carbonic  acid  have  still  to  be  removed.  As  yet, 
there  are  no  means  practically  applicable  for  the 
removal  of  the  sulphide  of  carbon  ;  but  the  quantity 
produced  is  so  minute  as  to  be  uninjurious,  and 
sufficient  ammonia  remains  iu  the  gas  to  form  the 
hannloss  salt  siilphate  of  ammonia  .is  the  product  of 
combustion.  To  remove  ammonia  from  the  g.as,  the 
washer  or  scrubber  is  iised.  Iu  the  washer,  the  g.i3 
is  forced  to  pass  through  water  to  a  dejith  of 
several  inches,  or  through  a  solution  containing  an 
ingredient  \vith  which  the  ammonia  will  cuuibinc. 
The  scrubber,  which  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
washer,  is  an  upright  vessel,  in  which  the  gas  is 
made  to  pass  through  brushwood,  or  layers  of  small 
stones,  or  coke,  through  which  water  may  be  made 
to  percolate. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  purifiers — the  wet  and  the 
dry.  Either  may  be  used  separately,  or  they  m.iy  be 
used  in  succession.  Lime  is  the  purifying  material 
which  is  most  effective  ;  a  preparation  of  the  oxide 
of  iron,  however,  is  rapidly  coming  into  general  use. 
Lime  is  used  in  the  wet  purifier  in  the  fonn  of 
cream  of  lime.  The  wet  purifier  is  a  cylindrical 
vessel,  into  which  the  gas  is  introduced  through  a 
wide  pijie,  which  descends  through  the  centre  of  the 
vessel,  and  is  furnished  with  a  very  broad  flange  on 
the  lowest  part.  The  vessel  is  filled  with  the  cream 
of  lime  to  the  height  of  several  inches  above  the 
flange  of  the  wide  pipe.  The  gas  enters  through 
the  wide  pipe,  passes  under  the  tiange,  aud  upwards 
through  the  cream  of  lime.  The  cream  of  lime  is 
kept  in  agitation  by  revolving  arms.  Two  or  more 
of  these  vessels  must  be  used  in  succession,  in  order 
effectually  to  remove  the  sulphuretted  liydrogen. 
The  dry  purifier  is  a  square  or  oblong  vessel  con- 
taining a  series  of  perforated  trays,  on  each  of  which 
the  ])urifying  material  is  spread.  Slacked  lime  {in 
the  form  of  dry  hydrate)  is  used  iu  this  purifier  in 
layers  of  from  2.],  to  3i  inches  on  each  tray.  The 
lime  absorbs  the  suljihuretted  hydrogen,  a  portion  of 
the  ammonia,  and  the  carbonic  aci<I.  When  satu- 
rated, it  is  removed,  and  the  vessel  is  refilled  with 
fresh  material.  The  refuse  lime  is  extensively  used 
as  a  manure.    When  the  oxide  of  iron  is  emi)loyed 

03C 


as  the  jnirifying  material,  the  preparation  is  spread 
in  the  s:une  manner  as  the  lime,  but  to  a  nuich 
greater  thickness.  When  by  the  absorption  of 
,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  oxide  of  iron  h.as  become 
sulphurct  of  iron,  it  is  taken  out,  and  by  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  it  is  reconverted  into  oxide,  and 
can  be  used  again  and  again.  A  gi-eat  recommenda- 
tion for  the  use  of  the  oxide  of  iron  is  the  abatement 
of  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  unpleasant  smell  of 
the  refuse  lime.  When  oxide  of  iron  is  used,  a 
se))arate  lime  purifier  is  necessary  for  removing  the 
carbouic  acid.  A  narrow  chamber,  nearlj'  full  of 
water,  runs  roimd  the  upper  edge  of  the  dry  purifier ; 
into  this  chamber  the  sides  of  the  cover,  which  is 
of  sheet-iron,  are  let  downi,  and  the  gas  is  thus 
prevented  from  escaping. 

After  passing  the  purifier,  the  gas,  which  is  now 
tit  for  use,  is  measured  by  the  station-meter,  an 
instrument  similar  in  principle  to  the  consumers' 
meter,  afterwards  described.  It  is  then  conveyed 
to  the  gasholder,  to  be  stored  and  issued  as 
required. 

The  gasholder  is  an  inverted  cylindrical  vessel  of 
sheet-iron,  placed  in  a  tank  of  cast  iron,  stone,  or 
brick  containing  w.ater.  A  pipe  ascends  from  the 
bottom  of  the  tank  through  the  water,  to  admit  the 
gas  to  the  space  between  the  surface  of  the  water 
aud  the  crown  of  the  gasholder.  Another  pipe 
descends  through  the  water  and  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  for  the  issue  of  the  gas  to  the  main-piiie.  The 
water  is  for  the  purjiose  of  retaining  the  gas  within 
the  vessel.  The  buoyancy  of  the  gas  raises  the  gas- 
holder, and  the  weight  of  the  gasholder,  or  such 
part  of  it  as  is  not  taken  ofl'  by  balance-weights, 
impels  the  gas  through  the  pipes.  When  b.alance- 
weights  are  necessary,  they  are  attached  to  the 
edge  of  the  crown  of  the  g.isholder  by  long  chains, 
which  pass  over  pulleys  on  the  top  of  columns 
wliich  serve  also  to  guide  the  motion  of  the  vessel 
in  rising  and  falling.  Gasholders  are  constnicted  of 
all  sizes  up  to  200  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  ma<le  to 
contain  quantities  up  to  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
cubic  feet.  In  large  establishments,  telescopic  gas- 
holders are  used,  and  economy  of  space  and  cost  are 
thereby  effected — two  concentric  gasholders  being 


Telescope  Gasholder. 

contained  in  one  tank.  The  outer  vessel  of  a  tele- 
scope gasholder  has  no  crown.  The  upper  edge  is 
turned  first  inwards  and  then  do\vnwards,  forming 
an  inverted  hollow  chamber.  The  under  edge  of  the 
ijmer  vessel  again  is  turned  outwards  and  upwards, 
foi-ming  a  hollow  chamber,  which,  when  the  vessel 
rises  out  of  the  tank,  will  be  full  of  water.    The 


GAS. 


inner  side  of  the  inverted  chamber,  round  the  top  of 
the  outer  vessel,  fits  into  the  inside  of  the  chamber 
round  tlie  bottom  of  the  inner  vessel,  and  enters  it 
when  that  vessel  has  nearly  ascended  to  the  top  of 
the  tank.  Tlic  water  in  the  chamber  retains  the 
pas,  and  the  two  vessels  then  rise  together.  The 
inner  vessel,  it  will  be  observed,  ascends  fii-st ; 
both  then  ascenil  and  descend  together,  till  the 
outer  vessel  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
on  which  it  rests,  and  the  inner  vessel  then  also 
descends  into  the  tank.  Three  gasholders,  or  lifts, 
as  they  are  termeil,  are  occasionally  jilaced  in  the 
same  tank. 

Before  reaching  the  main-pipes,  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  is  regulated  by  the  governor.  In  small  estab- 
lishments, the  governor  is  very  fi-equently  dispensed 


Gas  Governor. 

with,  and  the  ])ressure  adjusted  with  sufficient 
nicety  by  the  regulation  of  the  outlet  valve.  The 
governor  consists  of  a  small  gasholder,  the  inlet- 
pipe  to  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  tank, 
and  terminates  with  a  )ilate  having  a  circular 
orifice  in  its  centre.  In  this  orifice  hangs  a  cone, 
which  is  attached  to  the  crown  of  the  .small  holder. 
When  the  g,as  is  i.^suing  slowly,  the  holder  rises, 
taking  with  it  the  cone,  and  so  restricting  the  orifice 
by  wliich  the  g.as  enters.  When  the  gas  issues 
rapiiUy,  the  holder  falls,  and  with  it  the  cone, 
therel  >y  enlarging  the  inlet. 

Tlic  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  works  by  main- 
])ipes  of  east  iron,  to  which  branch  or  service  pipes 
are  connected  wherever  a  sn]>]>ly  is  M'anted.  The 
main-jiipes  require  to  be  skilhdly  arranged  with 
respect  to  size,  carefully  jointed,  and  laid  with  as 
few  changes  in  tlieir  inclination  as  possible  ;  but  as 
such  changes  are  unavoid.ilile,  it  is  necessary  to 
jirovide  for  the  remov.al  of  water,  which,  flowing 
along  with  the  gas  in  the  fi'rni  of  vai>our,  condenses 
in  the  pipes,  and  lodge.?  ;it  low  points.  For  this 
])uq)OseT  a  vessel,  similar  in  construction  to  the  tar- 
well,  is  connected  to  the  main-i»ipe,  and  the  water  is 
removed  by  a  pump.  When  little  condensation  is 
anticipated,  and  when  there  is  no  risk  of  the  water 
affecting  the  How  of  the  gas,  a  small  ]>ipe  merely  is 
attached  to  the  main,  with  a  stop-cock  to  run  off 
the  water.    The  service-pipes  should  incline  towards 


the  main ;  and  where  this  cannot  be  attained, 
provision  should  Ijc  made  for  drawing  off  water. 

GasJUtinijs. — The  small  pipes  for  fitting  up  the 
interiors  of  houses  are  either  of  wrought  iron  or  of 
soft  metal.  To  ensure  pennanent  efficiency,  it  is  of 
the  utmost  imimrtance  that  these  pi|)e3  should  bo 
coiiacious;  they  should  be  laid  emdij,  witli  an 
inclination  towards  the  meter ;  and  where  the 
inclination  is  materially  disturbed,  a  box  should  bo 
provided  for  the  collection  and  removal  of  water. 

G.-V3  for  street  lighting  is  usually  supplied  by  con- 
tract, a  specifie<l  burner  being  used,  and  the  lights 
being  lighted  and  extinguished  at  stipulated  hours. 
Ijights  in  privat<!  establishments  were  originally 
charged  for  on  the  s.ame  system.  The  uncertainty  of 
such  a  mode  of  charge  directed  the  attentiim  of  g.i8- 
engineers  to  the  construction  of  meters  at  a  very 
early  jieriod.  Accordingly,  in  181G,  Mr  Clegg  took 
out  his  first  patent  for  the  wet  g.asmeter,  which,  as 
subsequently  improved  by  Malam,  Crosley,  and 
others,  came  into  general  u.se  about  the  year  1822. 
Dry  gasmetera  are  now  extensively  manufactured 
on  a  principle  first  jjatented  by  Mr  A.  A.  Croll,  a 
gentleman  who  has  also  patented  various  modifi- 
cations of  the  app.aratus  and  processes  used  in  the 
manufacture  and  i)urification  of  gas. 

The  wet  g.ismeter  consists  of  a  hollow  circular 
case,  somewhat  more  than  half  filled  with  w.iter. 
The  measiu-emeut  is  made  by  the  cylinder,  a  hollow 
drum  or  wheel,  which  revolves  on  a  horizontal  axis 
inside  the  ease,  the  elasticity  of  the  gas  supplyin" 
the  motive-power.  The  cylinder  is  divideil  into 
four  ehambei-s  by  partitions  running  in  a  slanting 
direction   from   back    to    front,   and    presenting  a 


Wet  Meter — front  box  open  : 

-\,  entrance  pipe;  B,  valve  chamber;  C,  float,  with  valve  on 

the  upper  end ;  D,  surplus  or  waste-water  box. 

section  of  a  fonr-threaded  Archimedean  screw.  A 
convex  cover  is  fixed  on  one  end  of  the  cylinder. 
This  cover  h.as  an  opening  in  the  centre,  which 
admits  the  pipe  by  which  the  gas  enters  the 
ejdinder ;  the  opening  being  below  the  surface  of 
the  water,  so  as  to  be  sealed  by  it.  The  ]<il>e,  after 
entering  the  opening,  is  turned  up,  so  that  its  mouth 
is  .above  the  water.  The  g.as  thus  admitted  within 
the  cover,  finds  its  way  through  a  slit  into  one  <if 
the  four  chambers  into  which  the  cylinder  is  divided. 
The  chamber  which  first  comes  into  action  is  at  the 
moment  almost  entirely  uiuler  the  water.  The  gas 
presses  between  the  water  and  the  partition  of  the 
chamber,  and,  in  raising  the  ]iartition,  turns  the 
cylinder  on  its  axis,  and  brings  the  chandjcr  above 
the  water,  filling  it  at  the  same  time.  The  outlet 
slit  of  the  chamber  is  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder 

ti3; 


GAS. 


opposite  to  the  inlet  slit,  and  is  ojren  to  the  case  of 
tne  meter.  It  is  not,  however,  diicctly  oiipoaito  to  | 
the  inlet  slit,  but  is  so  arranged  that  it  remains 
scaled  jinder  water  till 
the  chanibir  is  completely 
tilled  with  gas,  by  whicli  I 
time  the  revolution  of  the 
cylinder  has  bi  ought  the 
inlet  slit  of  the  next 
chamber  above  the  water, 
and  it  is  ready  to  receive 
the  gas.  The  filling  of  j 
the  ne.xt  chamber  carries 
round  the  one  already 
tilled,  causes  its  descent 
into  the  water  as  it 
revolves,  and  completely 
cxjicls  the  gas  by  the 
outlet  slit.  Two  chambers 
only  can  be  in  action  at 
one  time.  These  chambers 
are  made  with  great  accu- 
racy, and  are  liable  to  no 
variation  but  the  eularge- 

I ^^-^Xtll     mcnt  caused  by  the  evapor- 

— I  ^Nteii  .j^jyjj  pf  j]jg  \vater  and  the 

"Wet  Meter — side  section,  consequent  depression  of 
the  M-ater-line.  On  the 
front  of  the  case  of  the  meter  is  placed  a  box,  into 
which  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  extends,  haviug  a 
spiral  worm-wheel  on  its  cud.  The  worm-wheel 
commimieates  motion  to  an  upright  spindle,  which 
again  moves  the  traiu  of  wheels  by  which  the 
handles  of  the  index  are  worked.  The  front  box 
also  contains  the  tilling  and  overHow  pipes  for  the 
supply  and  adjustment  of  the  water,  the  entrance- 
chamber  bj'  which  the  gas  is  admitted,  and  in  which 
the  float-valve  is  placed.  This  valve  is  supported 
and  kept  open  by  a  float  wliich  descends,  closes 
the  valve,  and  shuts  off  the  gas  when  the  water  is 
depressed  too  much. 

An  act  of  the  British  legislature  has  recently  been 
passed,  according  to  which  all  gasmeters  must  be 
so  constructed  as  not  to  register  more  than  2  jier 
cent,  in  favour  of  the  seller,  and  3  per  cent,  in 
favom'  of  the  purchaser  of  gas.  Thus  allowing  5  per 
cent,  for  variation  caused  by  the  depression  of  the 
water-line  on  wet  gasmeters.  All  meters  fixed 
since  the  act  came  into  oi)eration  must  bear  the  seal 
of  an  inspector  appointed  uudcr  the  act.  Previous 
to  the  passing  of  this  act,  wet  g.iameters  were  made 
so  that  when  the  water-line  was  properly  adjusted, 
they  could  not  measure  more  than  24  per  cent,  in 
favour  of  the  seller,  but  they  wo>dd  register  from 
8  to  12  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the  purchaser  before 
the  water-line  was  sutfieicntly  depressed  to  close  the 
float-valve.  In  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Crosley, 
there  was  a  defect  wliich  was  unfortunately  adhered 
to  by  many  meter-makers  in  England,  tliough  it 
was  abandoned  by  most  of  the  makers  in  Scotland. 
This  defect,  known  as  '  the  high  spout,'  arose  from 
the  i)ipe  or  spout  which  receives  the  gas  in  the  frout 
box,  and  conveys  it  into  the  cylinder,  Ijeing  made  to 
project  considerably  above  the  water-line.  This 
was  intended  to  prevent  the  consumei's  of  gas  from 
being  subjected  to  the  inconvenience  of  their  lights 
being  rendered  unsteady,  or  being  extinguished  by 
water  coming  over  the  edge  of  the  spout  and  lodging 
in  the  bend  which  enters  tlfe  cylinder ;  but  if,  in 
supplying  water  to  the  meter,  the  overflow-pipe 
which  adjusts  the  water-line  were  closed,  by  tlie 
replacing  of  the  plug  before  all  the  suqilus  water 
had  rim  off,  too  much  w.atcr  woidd  be  contained  in 
the  meter,  and  its  measuring  capacitj'  would  conse- 
quently be  restricted  to  the  prejudice  of  the  pur- 
chaser ;  and  this  having  been  ascertained  to  have 


occurred  in  vaiious  instances,  much  dissatisfaction 
was  the  natural  result.  The  provisions  of  the  act 
regulating  measures  used  in  sales  of  gas  enforce  the 
making  of  wet  gasmeters  with  '  the  low  spout,' 
and  consequently  remove  this  objection  entirely. 
Much  skill  and  ingenuity  have,  since  the  passing  of 
the  act,  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  wet  gasmeters,  in  order  to  lessen, 
and,  if  possible,  lemove  tlie  risk  of  the  float-valve 
closing  more  frequently  tliau  foruuTly,  wliich  it  will 
be  apt  to  do  owing  to  the  limitation"  of  the  descent 
of  the  water  by  the  restriction  of  the  variation  of 
tlie  measurement  to  3  per  cent,  instead  of  from  8  to 
12  per  cent,  against  the  seller. 
The    ilry   gasmeter   possesses   some   advantages, 


Dry  Meter— front  view  open. 

which,  were  it  in  other  respects  equally  esteemed 
with  the  wet  meter,  would  give  it  the  iirefcrence. 
Once  adjusted,  it  gives  no  further  trouble  ;  it  is  not 
liable  to  derangement  in  frosty  weatlier;  and,  in 
passing  thi'ough  it,  the 
gas  takes  up  no  addi- 
tional moisture  to  in- 
crease the  risk  of  annoy- 
ance from  deposit  of 
water  in  the  pijies.  But 
doubts  are  entertained 
by  many  of  the  durability 
of  the  machine  as  an 
efficient  and  correct 
measure.  The  meter  is 
made  in  various  forms, 
and  consists  of  cham- 
bers separated  from  each 
other  by  partitions;  gene- 
rally there  are  two,  but 
some  makers  use  three 
eliambers.  Each  cham- 
ber is  di\'ided  into  two 
]iarts  by  a  flexible  parti- 
tion which  moves  back- 
wards and  forwards,  its 
motion  being  regulated 
by  valves  beautifully 
contrived  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  meter  bears  Dry  Meter- 
some  resemblance  to  a 
double  or  triple  steam-engine.  Following  out  this 
resemblance,  Mr  CroU  thus  describes  his  meter: 
'  It   consists  of   a   cylinder  divided  by  a  plate  in 


-side  view  opon. 


OA& 


the  centre,  into  two  separate  cylindrical  compart- 
ments, which  are  closed  at  the  opposite  ends  by 
metal  discs ;  these  metal  discs  serve  the  purpose 
of  pistons,  and  they  are  kept  in  their  places  by  a 
kind  of  universal-joint  adapted  to  each ;  the  space 
throui;h  which  the  discs  move,  and,  consequently, 
the  means  of  measurement,  is  governed  by  metal 
arms  and  rods,  which  space,  when  once  adjusted, 
cannot  vary.  To  avoid  the  friction  attending  a 
piston  workin*;  in  a  cylinder,  a  baud  of  leather  is 
attached,  which  acts  as  a  hinge,  and  folds  with  the 
motion  of  the  disc ;  this  band  is  not  instnmicntal  in 
the  measuring,  so  that  if  it  were  to  contract  or  expand, 
the  registering  of  the  meter  woidd  not  be  affected, 
inasmuch  as  A  would  only  decrease  or  increase  the 
capacity  of  the  hinge,  the  disc  still  beiug  at  liberty 
to  move  tluou^h  the  required  space  ;  the  leather  is 
also  distributed  in  such  a  manner,  being  curved,  and 
bentUng  only  in  one  direction,  that  it  prevents  any 
wrinkles  or  creases  forming,  and  renders  it  therefore 
much  more  durable.  The  arrangement  of  the  valves 
and  arms  are  somewhat  difl'eront  to  that  of  a  steam- 
engine,  although  similar  in  principle.' 

(jonsimiers  of  gas  shoidd  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
purpose  of  the  meter  is  to  inform  them  how  much 
gas  they  are  expending ;  and  that  while  the  seller  of 
gas  cannot  %nsit  it  but  at  loug  intervals,  the  pur- 
chaser may  from  day  to  day,  if  he  pleases,  ascertain 
the  quantity  which  has  passed  through  the  meter, 
and  so  detect  irregiUaritv  or  waste,  which,  if  allowed 
to  go  on,  woiUd  no  doubt  be  put  down  to  error  on 
the  part  of  the  seller  of  gas. 

Gas-burners. — The  burner  made  on  the  argand 
principle  is  still  the  best  when  carefully  used,  but  it 
is  expensive,  somewhat  troublesome  to  keep  clean, 
and  involves  outlay  for  ghvsses  from  time  to  time. 
Jets  and  batwings  have,  consequently,  almost  sup- 
planted it.  These  burners  are  now  made  by 
machinery  at  very  low  prices,  so  that  to  change  them 
when  out  of  order  costs  little,  and  is  easily  done. 
They  arc  also  very  easily  cleaned.  Jets  are  of  two 
kinds — cockspurs  and  union-jets.  The  cockspiu^  are 
pierced  with  oue  or  more  straight  holes  ;  the  union- 
jets  arc  pierced  ■with  two  holes  at  an  angle  to  each 
other,  so  that  the  streams  of  gas  issuing  from  them 
impinge  on  each  othei-,  and  produce  a  Hat  tiame. 
Batwings  are  made  with  a  clean  slit  across  the  head 
of  the  burner.  Gas  containing  a  great  quantity  of 
carbon  requires  biu-ners  with  smaller  apertures  than 
gas  containing  little  carbon,  because  when  emitted 
too  freely,  the  carbon  docs  not  come  into  contact 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxj-gen,  and  the  flame 
smokes  :  again,  when  the  gas  is  emitted  in  too  small 
a  quantity,  the  flame  becomes  blue,  and  its  illimii- 
nating    power  is   diminished,   because    the   carbon 


comes  too  rai)idly  into  contact  with  oxygen.  Tlie 
light  is  emitted  by  the  carbon  when  suspended  for 
an  instant  in  the  flame  in  an  incandescent  state,  and 
the  flame  which  is  capable  of  suspending  the  largest 
pro|)ortion  of  carbon  in  a  state  of  incandescence, 
ultimately  consuming  the  whole  of  it,  will  give  the 
most  powerful  light  from  the  smallest  quantity  of 
gas.  Accordingly,  an  opaque  yelloirish  flame,  which 
IS  just  at  the  smoking  ])oint,  is  more  economical 
than  a  bluish-white  flame  for  lighting  purposes. 

There  are  many  contrivances  for  improved  burners 
and  improved  modes  of  using  gas.  Of  these  it  is 
enough  to  mention  the  sun-lights  introduced  by  Mr 
King  of  Liverpool.  These  consist  of  a  ring  of  union- 
jets,  placed  horizontally  and  set  on  the  base  of  a 
cone  which  is  passed  through  the  cciUng,  and  con- 
veys away  the  products  of  combustion  through  a 
flue,  thus  seriTng  both  for  lighting  and  ventilating 
the  apartments  in  which  they  are  used. 

Re/jidalors. — The  object  of  these  instruments  is  to 
restrict  the  supply  of  gas  «'hen  sujierabundant,  and 
it  should  be  noticed  that  the  sui>i>ly  rc(iuircs  to  be 
so  before  any  advantage  can  result  from  the  use  of 
them.  A  conical  valve,  operating  by  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  governor  at 
the  gas-works,  is  in  general  the  acting  part  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  impurities  which  should  be  removed  in  the 
manufacture  of  coal-gas  are  sulphuretted  hyilrogen, 
ammonia,  aud  carbonic  acid.  The  i)resence  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  is  detected  by  alhnring  a  stream 
of  the  gas  to  play  on  a  paper  wetted  with  a  solution 
of  acetate  of  lead,  the  test-paper  is  blackened  if  the 
deleterious  gas  be  present.  Ammonia  is  detected 
by  allowing  the  gas  to  play  on  pajKr  stained  yellow 
M"ith  turmeric.  Ammonia  changes  the  yellow  to 
browni.  The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  causing  the  gas  to  bubble  through  lime- 
water.  Lf  carbomc  acid  be  present,  it  combines  with 
the  lime,  and  the  water  becomes  milky. 

The  value  of  gas  for  lighting  depends  on  its  ilhmii- 
nating  power,  which  again  mainly  depends  on  the 
proportion  of  defiant  gas  and  heavy  hydrocarbons 
contained  in  the  mixture.  -  The  speciflc  gravity  of 
the  gas  would  be  a  complete  test  of  the  illuminating 
power,  were  it  first  ascertained  that  no  deleterious 
gases  were  contained  in  the  mixture.  Tlie  chlorine 
and  bromine  tests,  which  are  applied  by  bringing 
the  gas  into  contact  with  either  of  these  substances 
in  a  graduated  tube,  also  require  that  the  absence 
of  deleterious  gases  be  ascertained.  Chlorine  and 
bromine  condense  the  olefiaut  gas  and  heavy  hydro- 
carbons, and  the  proportion  of  them  present  ia 
ascertained  by  the  proportion  of  the  gas  which  is 
condensed. 


CAS -BURNER  t  MtTlt 


Gas-photometer, 


The  most  practical  mode  of  determining  the  i  pool.  At  one  end  of  a  straight  bar  of  wood,  a  gas- 
illimunatin"  Tiower  is  by  the  use  of  the  Bunsen  burner  is  mounted ;  on  the  other  end,  a  cauiUestick. 
photometer"  introduced  into  this  country  by  Dr  These  are  so  jdaced,  that  when  lighted,  tlieie  are 
I  yon  riayfair  and  adapted  by  Mr  King  of  Liver-  '  exactly  100  inches  between  the  centres  of  the  lights. 


GAS— GASCOIGNE. 


The  bar  U  correctly  graduated  to  shew  how  many 
times  the  one  lifiht  exceeds  the  other.  A  circular 
disc  of  pajier  made  seiiiitraiisparcnt,  excepting  a 
sjKit  in  the  centre,  wliick  is  kft  ojiaoue,  is  placed  at 
right  angles  across  tlie  graduated  bar  ou  a  stand 
which  slides  along  the  bar.  When  the  disc  is  moved 
into  a  jiosition  where  the  opaijuc  spot  is  invisible, 
the  lights  are  equal— the  disa]ipe,arance  of  the  s]Kit 
being  caused  by  the  light  transmitted  by  the  senii- 
transj>arent  part  of  the  disc  bciu;;  eipial  to  that 
reflected  by  the  ojiaque  part.  The  figures  imme- 
diately below  the  disc  indicate  the  power  of  the 
light.  It  is  usual  to  compare  a  biu-ner  consuming 
five  feet  per  hour  with  a  sjierm  candle  consuming 
120  grains  per  hour,  and  when  the  quantities  con- 
sumed during  an  e.vporimcnt  arc  not  exactly  in  these 
projiortions,  the  results  are  rectified  by  calculation. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  illuminating  power  of 
coal-gas  may  vary  from  ten  sperm  candles  uj)  to 
nc-uly  forty,  though  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
either  extreme  is  unknown  to  consimiers ;  the  cost 
of  protluction,  however,  docs  not  vary  in  the  same 
ratio  with  the  v.alue  of  the  gas,  it  being  affected  by 
totally  indepenilcnt  causes,  and  these  causes  arc  so 
various,  that  the  cost  can  hardly  be  the  same  in 
any  two  jilaccs.  Another  dillicidty  in  contrasting 
the  price  of  gas  in  lUtVereut  places,  arises  from  the 
imavoidable  variation  iu  the  quantity  accounted  for, 
the  loss  sustained  under  the  head  of  condensation, 
leakage,  bad  debts,  and  waste,  varies  from  10  up  to 
30  per  cent  on  the  whole  quantity  matle ;  and 
though  when  this  loss  is  excessive,  the  remedy  should, 
to  a  certain  extent,  be  in  the  power  of  the  manufac- 
turer, yet  there  is  a  ccusiderable  range  within  which 
the  loss  may  vary  owing  to  local  and  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances which  the  manufacturer  cannot  control. 
The  price  of  gas  being  deipeiulcnt  on  the  cost  of 
))roduction  and  distribution,  rather  than  on  the 
illiuuinating  power,  and  the  changes  in  the  former 
being  less  than  the  variations  in  the  latter,  gases  of 
high  illuminating  power  are  more  economical  than 
gases  of  low  ilhmiinatiug  power. 

The  economy  of  gas  for  lighting  purposes  will  be 
apparent  when  it  is  considered  that  50  feet  of  gas, 
consumed  in  a  burner  at  5  feet  per  hour,  will  last  10 
hours  ;  while  a  spenu  candle  of  six  to  the  pound, 
and  burning  120  grains  per  hour,  will  only  last 
9'722  horn's.  Assuming,  however,  that  Ijotli  will 
last  10  hours — a  ^■iew  which  is  in  favour  of  the 
candle — 1000  cubic  feet  will  last  as  long  as  20 
candles  ;  therefore,  with  an  illuminating  jiower  of 
15  candles,  it  will  give  an  amount  of  light  equal  to 
300  candles,  or  50  lbs.,  which  at  2.s\  per  pound  woiUd 
cost  £5 ;  at  20  candles  it  would  equal  400,  or 
66j  lbs.,  costing  £C,  ISs.  4</. ;  at  25  candles  it  would 
equal  500,  or  S.SJ  lbs.,  costing  iS,  fo.  Sd. ;  at  30 
candles,  it  would  equal  GOO,  or  100  lbs.,  costing  £10. 

Mr  Rutter,  author  of  a  usefid  pamphlet  titled 
Advantages  of  Gas  In  Privnte  Houses  (Parker  and 
Son,  West  Strand),  gives  the  following  table,  the 
experiments  from  which  it  is  deduced  having  apj>a- 
reiitly  been  made  with  12  or  14  candle-gas  at  6*. 
per  1000  feet. 

COMPABATrvB  COST  OF  LfOUT  FROM  CANDLES,   LAUPS,  AKD  GAS. 


Tallow  Candles  {ilijis), 

(moulds). 
Composite  Candles,      .    . 
■Wax               "          .    . 
Common  Lamp  Oil,      .     , 
Sperm  Oil 


QuBnliti.-s  and 

Price*  of  Cniidlci 

And  OU. 


lib. 
lib. 
lib. 
1  lb. 
1  Ball. 
1  gall. 


0  7 
0  9 
0  10 
2  4 
.5  6 
10    0 


Cub.  feel.  Cs.pcrloo0. 


31 
21 
2.i 
25 
175 
217 


It  must  be  remarked,  that  the  above  prices  are 
610 


for  equal  quantities  of  light,  which,  however,  is  not 
the  measure  of  economy,  just  because  no  one  is  con- 
tintcd  to  take  no  more  light  from  gas  than  frmn 
other  modes  of  lighting ;  and  scconil,  because  tlie 
gas-lights  being  fixed,  more  light  is  re<iuisitc  in  oitler 
t*>  compensate  the  loss  tif  the  convenience  afforded 
by  a  movable  light.  Five  feet  per  hour  of  15 
caiidle-g.is  will  fully  siqiply  the  place  of  a  l>air  of 
sperm  caniUes,  costing  Sd.  fur  10  hours'  light;  while 
the  g.is  at  5s.  jier  KMK)  feet  wciuld  only  cost  3d.  for 
the  s.iuic  time,  and  would  yield  a  light  7i  times  a3 
great. 

The  use  of  gas  for  heating  and  cooking  is  becom- 
ing extensive.  Its  great  recommendations  are 
facility  of  rcgidation,  readiness  of  application,  and 
perfect  cleanliness.  In  roasting  by  g.is,  the  juic-s 
arc  retained  in  the  meat  to  a  greater  extent  than  by 
the  ordinary  process ;  while  in  all  the  operations, 
the  heat  can  be  regulated  with  so  much  nicety,  .is 
greatly  to  aid  the  cook  in  ]uescnting  the  foo<l  in  the 
most  wholesome  and  agreeable  condition. 

Besides  brilliancy  of  light,  safety  and  cleanliness 
attend  the  use  of  gas.  Explosions  under  ordinary 
circumstances  arc  hardly  possible — the  escape  of  gas 
is  quite  disagreeably  perceptible  by  the  smell  when 
there  is  one  three-thousandth  part  present  in  the 
atmosphere ;  and  there  can  be  no  explosion  unless 
with,  at  the  least,  200  times  that  quantity,  or  1  part 
in  1,5.  Such  accumulations  will,  and  do  iindoubt- 
eiUy,  take  place  in  conlined  situations,  but  ordinary 
precaution  iu  avoiding  the  use  of  a  light  will  avert 
the  risk  of  accident.  Gas,  having  a  tendency  to 
ascend,  escapes  near  the  ceiling  of  an  ajiartment  arc 
more  likely  to  form  an  explosive  mixture  than 
escapes  occurring  low  down.  i;cpcated  accidents 
h.ave  happened  through  forgetfuliicss  of  this.  It 
shoiUd  be  remembered  that  the  situation  must  be 
considered  a  confined  one  when  the  g.as  is  prevented 
from  ascending  freely.  The  standard  work  on  gas- 
lighting  is  that  by  the  late  Samuel  Clegg,  Jan., 
son  of  the  inventor  of  the  gasmeter,  published 
by  John  Wcale,  London.  There  is  also  a  smaller 
work  by  the  same  publisher,  written  by  Samuel 
Hughes,  C.E. 

GASCOIGXE,  Sir  Williaii,  an  eminent  English 
judge,  belonging  to  a  noble  Xoi'man  f.amily,  w.as 
born  at  Gaj-thorjie,  Yorkshire,  in  1350.  After 
studying  for  the  bar,  he  acquired  considerable 
rejiutation  as  a  ])leader,  and  in  1398  was  made 
serjeant-at-law.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  IV. 
in  1390,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  justices  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas ;  and  in  1401,  was 
promoted  to  be  chief-justice  of  the  King's  Bench. 
In  this  high  office  he  distinguished  himself  lioth 
by  integrity  and  ability,  and  in  the  older  English 
law  reports  are  many  abstracts  of  his  opinions, 
aiguments,  and  decisions.  In  July  1403,  he  w.as 
joined  with  the  Earl  of  Westmoreland  in  a  com- 
mission for  lc\'ying  forces  against  the  insurrection 
of  Henry  Percy,  the  celebrated  Hotspur.  He  w.is 
also  nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat 
with  the  rebels.  On  this  and  another  memorable 
occasion,  he  acted  with  a  courage  and  rectitude 
which  evinced  that  he  was  guided  by  the  true  spirit 
of  judicial  independence.  On  the  ajtprchension  of 
Scroop,  archbishop  of  York,  he  refused,  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  king,  to  sentence  that  ]irelato  to  death 
as  a  traitor,  because  the  law  gave  him  no  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  life  of  an  ecclesiastic.  Henry  respectecl 
his  uprightness,  and  knighted  him  the  same  year. 
When  one  of  the  dissolute  .i^sociates  of  the  Priuce 
of  W,alcs  was  arraigned  before  him  for  felony,  the 
jmuce  imperiously  demanded  his  release,  and  ou 
being  ordered  to  leave  the  court,  he  rushed  furiously 
ui>  to  the  bench,  and,  it  is  reconled,  struck  the 
chief- justice  on  the  judgment- seat.     G.  immediately 


GASCON— GASES. 


committed  him  to  prison,  when  the  prince,  sensible 
of  his  misconduct,  at  unci'  sulmiittcd.  On  being 
informed  of  the  circumstance,  the  king  thanked 
God  for  having  given  liim  '  both  a  judge  who  knew 
how  to  administer  the  laws,  and  a  son  who  respected 
their  authority.'  G.  was  called  to  the  first  par- 
liament of  Henry  V.,  l)ut  died  the  same  year, 
iJeccmber  17,  14i.S.  He  was  twice  married,  and 
left  numerous  descendants  by  both  his  wives. 

GASCON,  GASCON  NADK.  The  term  Gasco/t  is 
now  employed,  in  the  French  langu.age,  to  denote  a  , 
boaster  or  bragg.art,  and  Oasronnade  to  signify  any  : 
extravagant   or   absurd   vaunting— the   inhabitants  \ 
of  the  district  once  kno\ni  as  (tascnny  having  long  \ 
been   notorious  in  this  res])ect.     An   example  may 
be    given :    a    Gascon,  on    a    Wsit    to    I'aiis,   w.is  I 
asked   by  his   city-friend  wli.at  ho  thought  of  the 
colonnade  of  the    Louvre.      His  reply  was:    'Ah, 
it 's  not  bad  ;  it  resembles  pretty  closely  the  back 
I>art  of  the  stables  at  my  father's  castle!'    Tliere 
are    in    French,   volumes   filled   ^\■ith   the    original 
sallies  of  these  humorous  boasters. 

GA'.SCONADE,  a  river  of  North  America,  rises 
in  the  south  of  the  state  of  Missouri,  and,  after 
flowing  north-east  for  250  miles,  joins  the  river 
Missouri  about  40  miles  below  JefJ'erson  City.  It 
flows  through  a  hilly  country,  covered  with  forests 
of  pine  and  other  timber,  and  rich  in  picturesque 
scenery.  Great  rafts  of  yellow  pine  lumber  are 
floated  down  the  river  annually. 

GA'SCONY  (Lat.  I'«.sro«ia),formerly  a  district  in 
the  south-west  of  France,  was  situated  between  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Eiver  Garonne,  and  the  Western 
PjTenecs,  and  is  now  included  in  the  departments 
of  Landes,  Gers,  Hautcs  Pyrenees,  and  the  southern 
portions  of  Haute  (Jaronne,  Tarn-etCiaronne,  and 
Lot-et-Garonne.  It  derived  its  n.ame  from  the 
Basques  or  Vasques,  who,  driven  by  the  Visigoths 
from  their  own  territories  on  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Western  Pyrene-es,  crossed  to  the  northern 
side  of  that  mountain-range  in  the  middle  of  the 
Cth  c,  and  settled  in  the  former  Koman  district 
of  Novempo])ulana.  In  6l)'2,  after  an  obstinate 
resistance,  the  V.isques  were  forced  to  submit  to 
the  Franks.  They  uow  p.assed  imder  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Dukes  of  Aquitania,  who  for  a  time 
were  independent  of  the  crown,  but  were  afterwards 
conquered  by  King  Pepin,  and  later  by  Charle- 
magne. Subsequently  it  became  incori)orated  with 
Aquitania  (q.  v.). 

GASES,  General  Peopeuties  of.  The  tenn 
gas— which  is  jirobably  derived  from  the  German 
word  Geist,  spirit — was  employed  by  the  older 
chemists  to  designate  any  kiucl  of  air  or  v.apour. 
JIacquer  (q.  v.)  was  the  first  chemist  who  limited 
the  term  gas  to  such  elastic  fluids  as  had  not  been 
rendered  liquid  or  solid  by  a  reduction  of  tem- 
perature. The  only  substances  that  gases  are 
liable  to  be  confounded  with  are  vapours ;  but 
there  is  this  essential  ditrerenco  between  them, 
that  the  former  are  invarial)ly  aeriform  at  ordinary 
temperatures  and  atmosjiheric  pressures,  while  the 
latter  under  these  conditions  arc  solid  or  liquid, 
.ind  only  .as.sume  a  vaporous  or  apparently  gaseous 
form  at  relatively  high  tom])eratures.  Thus  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  &c.,  are  true 
qases  ;  while  water,  sulphur,  iodine,  &c.,  when 
heated  to  certain  detiuitc  points,  become  trans- 
formed into  vapours. 

Their  ]ierfect  elasticity  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant physical  peculiarities  of  g.-uses.  Within  the 
limits  of  all  ordinary  experinu>uts  it  is  generally  true 
that  '  tlie  volume  of  a  gaseous  body  is  inversely  as 
tlie  compressing  force.'     See  Mariotte's  Law. 

in  consequence  of  their  extreme  elasticity,  gases 

l')7 


exhibit  an  entire  absence  of  cohesion  among  their 
particles,  and  in  this  respect  they  differ  essentially 
from  liquids.  A  vessel  may  be  filled  cither  partially 
or  completely  with  a  liquid,  and  this  liquid  wiil 
have  a  definite  level  surface  or  limit.  With  gases, 
it  is  otherwise  ;  they  always  perfectly  fill  the  vessel 
that  contains  them,  however  irregular  its  form. 
Instead  of  cohesion,  there  is  a  mutual  repulsion 
among  their  particles,  which  have  a  continual  ten- 
dency to  recede  further  from  each  other,  and  thus 
exert  a  ]>ressure  in  an  outward  direction  \i])on  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  gas  is  enclosed. 
This  outward  jjressure  is  greater  or  less  according 
as  the  ehistieity  of  the  gas  is  increased  or  dimin- 
ished. Experimental  proofs  of  the  facts  mentioned 
in  this  and  the  preceding  paragraph  may  be  found 
in  Miller's  Chemical  P/tijsics,  in  the  first  volume  of 
Jamin's  Cours  de  P/iystiitte,  or  in  any  standard  work 
on  Physics. 

Dalton  long  ago  remarked  th.at 'there  can  scarcely 
be  a  doubt  entertained  respecting  the  reducihility  of 
all  elastic  fluids,  of  whatever  kind,  into  liquids  ; 
and  we  ought  not  to  despair  of  effecting  it  at  low 
temperatures  and  by  strong  pressure  exerted  upon 
the  unmixed  gases.'  Various  chemists,  amongst 
whom  we  must  especially  mention  Faraday,  have 
accomplished  all  that  Dalton  foretold,  and  various 
gases  can  now  be  exhibited  not  only  in  the  liquid 
but  in  the  solid  form.  It  occurred  to  Farad.ay,  who 
has  led  the  van  in  these  investigations,  that  the 
most  probable  mode  of  obtaining  gases  (or  rather 
what,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  would  be  gases) 
in  the  liquid  state,  would  be  to  generate  them  under 
strong  pressure.  When  thus  produced  in  strong 
bent  glass  tubes,  they  continued  liquid  at  low 
temperatures  while  the  pressure  was  maintained  ; 
but  on  removing  the  pressure  (breaking  the  tube), 
they  instantly  i>assed  into  the  gaseous  state.  In  his 
Memoir,  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transacdotu! 
for  1S2.'?,  he  anuouuces  that  he  has  succeeded  iu 
liquefying  chlorine,  euchlorine  (a  yellow  explosive 
gas  discovered  by  Davy,  and  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  ehloro-chloric  acid),  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  nitrous  oxide,  cyanogen,  ammonia,  and 
hydrochloric,  sulphurous  and  carbonic  acids.  Since 
that  time,  by  the  joint  action  of  powerful  mechanical 
pressure  (sometimes  upwards  of  r>i)  atnir>spiieres),  autl 
extreme  cold,  the  number  of  liquefiable  gases  has 
been  so  far  extended  as  to  include  allexceiit  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  nitric  oxide,  and  coal-gas ;  and 
the  following  gases  have  been  obtained  in  a  solid 
form — hy<U'iodic  acid,  hydrobromic  acid,  sulj>huroU3 
acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  cyan- 
ogen, .ammonia,  euchlorine,  lluoride  of  silicon.  The 
ammonia  and  suljilmretted  hydrogen,  when  soli- 
dified, each  furnished  a  white  translucent  mass,  like 
fused  nitrate  of  ammonia  ;  euchlorine  gave  a  trans- 
p.arent  orange-coloiu:«d  crystalhne  solid  ;  while  the 
other  liquefied  gases  that  were  susceptible  of  sohdi- 
fie.ation  by  the  application  of  intense  cold,  furnished 
colourless  transparent  crystalline  masses  like  ice. 

'  0.\ygen  remained  gaseous  under  a  jiressure  of  27 
atmospheres  at  a  temperature  of  -  1GG°,  and  a  pressure 
of  5So  atmos]iheres  at  — 140° was  equally  ineffeetual 
in  producing  its  liipiefaction.  Nitrogen  and  binoxide 
of  nitrogen  resisted  a  pressure  of  50  .atmospheres ; 
with  carbonic  oxide,  a  jiressure  equivalent  to  that 
of  40  atmospheres,  with  coal-g.is,  one  of  32,  and 
with  hydrogen,  one  of  27  atmospheres  was  applied 
without  effecting  the  licjuefaction.  In  all  these 
exiierinients,  the  temperature  w.ts  maintained  at 
-  166°.  Owing  to  the  sujjcrior  diffusiveness  of  the 
lighter  g.ases,  such  as  hydrogen,  the  apjiaratus  began 
to  leak  at  com]iaratively  low  pressures,  and  thus  a 
limit  was  placed  to  the  amount  of  pressure  that 
could  be  applied  to  them.' 

Gil 


GASES. 


As  a  i>oint  of  liistoric.M  interest,  wc  m.-iy  mention 
that  many  years  before  the  implication  of  Faraday's 
earliest  researches  on  tliis  subject,  suli)hurou3  acid 
[pis  liatl  lieen  liquelied  by  Monge  anil  Clouet,  am- 
nioniabyOuyton  Morveau,  and  :u-seniuretted  hydro- 
pen  by  Strouieyer,  by  tlie  simple  application  of  cold, 
Without  any  incrcaseil  pressure. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  pases  by  changes 
of  tera|ierature  is  treated  of  under  Heat. 

The  process  of  intermixture  in  gases,  and  the 
movements  of  these  SHl>st;incc3  "enerally,  have 
been  very  c.irefuUy  studied  by  Faraday,  Diibereiner, 
Mitchell,  Bunsen,  and  csjiecially  Graham.  These 
movements  arc  usu.ally  considered  under  four  hcvls, 
viz.  :  1.  DijTKsion,  or  the  intermi.xture  of  one  gas 
with  another  ;  2.  Kjnisum,  or  the  escape  of  a  g;vs 
thi-ough  a  minute  aperture  iu  a  thin  plate  into 
a  v.acuum ;  3.  Trampiralion,  or  the  ]iassage  of 
ilifferent  gases  tlirough  long  capillary  tubes  into 
a  rarefied  atmosphere  ;  4.  Osmosis,  or  the  i>ass.ige 
of  gases  through  diaphragms. 

in  the  article  Difttsioii  (q.  v.),  the  general 
princi|>les  of  this  kind  of  movement  iu  gases  are 
sufficiently  explained,  and  we  shall  merely  make 
one  or  two  supplementary  remarks,  chietly  with  the 
view  of  renderiug  the  following  table  more  intel- 


ligible. Graham's  ex]>erimcntis  with  the  simple 
ditfiision-tube  shew  (see  Graham's  Memoirs  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  lloi/al  Societies  of  London  and 
J-Jilinlmrijh,  or  Miller's  Chemical  Phi/sics)  that  tho 
ditVnsiveness  or  tlijTiision  volume  of  a  gas  is  iu  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  square  root  of  its  density  ;  con- 
sequently, the  squares  of  the  times  of  equal  diffu- 
sion of  the  dilTcrent  gases  are  in  the  ratio  of  their 
specific  gravities.  Thus,  the  density  of  air  being 
biken  as  the  standard  of  com])arison  at  I,  the  square 
root  of  that  density  is  1,  and  its  diffusion  volume  • 
is  also  1  ;  the  density  of  hjdrogen  is  OOGDi,  tlio 
square  root  of  that  density  isO  :!G3"2,  and  its  diffusion 
volume  is  uyj-ju,  or  .'i'TSO-t;  or,  as  actual  experi- 
ment shews,  3S.') — that  is  to  say,  if  liydi-ogen  and 
common  air  be  placed  under  circumstances  favouring 
their  mutual  diffusion,  383  volumes  of  hydrogen 
will  change  place  with  100  of  air.  The  following 
table  gives  :  1.  The  density  ;  2.  The  square  root  of 
the  density  ;  3.  The  calculated,  and  4.  The  obser\-ed 
velocity  of  diffusion  or  diffusiveness  of  several 
important  gases  ;  the  numbers  in  the  last  column, 
headed  '  Hate  of  Effusion,'  being  the  results  obtained 
by  experiment  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
different  gases  escape  into  a  vacuum  through  a 
minute  aperture  about  jij  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Gu. 

DemltJ. 

Sqnnrf  Root  of 
Density. 

Calculated  Velocity 
or  Diffusion. 

Ob»erre.l  Velocltj 

of  Diffusion. 

Air  =  1. 

1 
Rate  of  EHukloQ. 

Ilvdrogcn 

ooessu 

02632 

3-7994 

3-83 

3-G13 

LiglU  Carburetted  ITydrogen, 

0559 

0-7<76 

13375 

1-344 

1  322 

Carbonic  Oxide, 

00C78 

09837 

1  0165 

10149 

1-0123 

Kitroijen 

0-9713 

0-9839 

1-0147 

1-0143 

1  0164 

defiant  Gas, 

0-978 

09B«9 

101  IS 

10191 

1-0128 

Binoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

1  1139 

111196 

0-9808 

Oxygen 

1I0S6 

1  0515 

0-9510 

0  9487 

0-930 

Sul|.hurett€d  Ilvdrogcn, 

1-1912 

1-09U 

09162 

095 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

1-337 

1 -23.17 

081192 

082 

0  834 

Carbonic  .\cid,      . 

152!K)1 

1-2.165 

0-81187 

0812 

0B21 

Sulphurous  Acid,      . 

2-S47 

1-4991 

06671 

0-68 

'  The  process  of  diffusion,'  says  Professor  Miller, 
'  is  one  which  is  continually  performing  an  important 
part  in  the  atmosphere  aroimd  us.  Accumulations 
of  gases  which  are  unlit  for  the  support  of  animal 
and  vegetable  life  are  by  its  means  silently  and 
speedily  dispersed,  and  this  process  thereby  contri- 
butes largely  to  maintain  that  uniformity  in  the 
composition  of  the  aerial  ocean  which  is  so  essential 
to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  animal  creation. 
Ees]iir.ition  itself,  but  for  the  process  of  diffusion, 
woidd  fail  of  its  appointed  end,  in  rapidly  rencM-ing 
to  the  lungs  a  fresh  supply  of  air,  in  place  of  that 
which  has^  been  rendered  unfit  for  the  sujijiort  of 
life  by  the  chemical  changes  which  it  has  under- 
gone.' 

A  reference  to  the  last  two  columns  of  the  above 
table  shews  that,  within  the  limits  of  experimental 
errors,  the  rate  of  effusion  of  each  gas  coincides  with 
its  rate  of  diffusion. 

Graham's  experiments  shew  that  the  velocity  of 
transpiration  (the  term  which  that  chemist  apphed 
to  the  pass.age  of  gas  through  long  cajiillary  tubes) 
is  entirely  independent  of  the  rate  of  diffusion,  or 
of  any  other  known  property.  It  varies  with  the 
chemical  nature  of  the  gas,  and  is  most  probably 
'  the  resultant  of  a  kind  of  elasticity  depending  upon 
the  absolute  quantity  of  heat,  latent  as  well  as 
sensible,  which  different  gases  contain  under  the 
same  volume ;  and  therefore  will  be  found  to  be 
connected  more  immediately  with  the  specific  he.-it 
than  with  any  other  property  of  gases.'  Oxygen  is 
found  to  have  the  lowest  rate  of  transpiration. 
Taking  its  transjiiration  velocity  at  1,  that  of 
air  is  1-107-1;  of  nitrogen,  1-141;  of  carbonic  acid, 


1-.369  ;  of  siUjihuretted  hj-drogen,  1-G14 ;  of  ammoni.-i, 
1-935  ;  of  oletiantgas,  1-980  ;  and  of  hydrogen,  2-288. 

In  the  passage  of  gases  through  diaphragms,  the 
law  of  the  lUffusion  of  gases  is  more  or  less  disturbed 
or  modified  according  to  the  force  of  atlhesion  in 
the  material  of  which  the  diaphi-agm  is  comjiosed ; 
the  distm-bance  being  greatest  in  the  case  of 
soluble  gases  and  a  moist  thin  iliaphragm,  such  as 
a  bladder  or  a  rabbit's  stomach.  For  details  on 
this  subject  we  must,  however,  refer  to  the  article 
Osmosis. 

All  gases  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  water  and 
other  liquids.  Some  gases,  as,  for  example,  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  ammonia,  are  absorbed  by  water 
very  rapidly,  and  to  a  great  extent,  the  liquid  taking 
up  400  or  600  times  its  bidk  of  the  gas ;  in  other  coses, 
as  carbonic  acid,  water  takes  up  its  o-n-n  volume 
of  the  gas  ;  whilst  in  the  case  of  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
and  hydi-ogen,  it  does  not  take  up  more  than  from 
^ij  to  -jlj  of  its  bulk.  '  As  the  el.-isticity  of  the  gas,' 
says  Professor  MUler,  'is  the  jiower  which  is  here 
opjiosed  to  adhesion,  and  which  at  length  limits  the 
quantity  dissolved,  it  is  found  that  the  solubility 
of  each  gas  is  greater,  the  lower  the  temperature, 
and  the  greater  the  pressure  exerted  upon  tho 
surface  of  the  liquid.  Dr  Henry  found  that  at 
any  given  temperature  the  volume  of  any  gas  which 
was  absorbed  was  uniform,  whatever  might  be  the 
pressure  ;  consequently,  th.-it  the  weir/ht  of  any  given 
gas  absorbed  by  a  given  volume  of  any  liquid  at  a 
fixed  temperature,  increased  directly  with  the  pres- 
sure. If  the  pressure  be  uniform,  the  quantity  of 
any  given  gas  absorbed  by  a  given  liquid  is  also 
umform  for  each  temperature;  and  the  numerical 


GASES. 


expression  of  the  solubility  of  each  gas  in  such 
liquids,  is  termed  its  eofjKcient  of  absorption  or  of 
solubilili/,  at  the  particular  temperature  and  pressure, 
the  volume  of  the  ^  absorbed  being  in  all  cases 
calculated  for  32'  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  29-92 
inches  of  mercur5'.  Thus,  1  volume  of  water  at  32', 
and  under  a  pressure  of  29-92  inches  of  the  barometer, 
dissolves  0-04114  of  its  volume  of  oxygen  ;  and  this 
fraction  represents  the  coefficient  of  alisorption  of 
oxygen  at  that  temperature  and  pressure.  Simi- 
larly, the  coefficient  of  absorption  of  common  air 
is  002471.  In  consequence  of  this  solubility  of  the 
air,  all  water  contains  a  certain  smaU  jiroportion  of 
it  in  soliitiiiu ;  and  if  placed  in  a  vessel  under  the 
air-pumii,  so  as  to  remove  the  atmospheric  pressure 
from  its  surface,  the  dissolved  gases  rise  in  minute 


bubbles.  Small  as  is  the  quantit)'  of  oxygen  thus 
taken  up  by  water  from  the  atmosphere,  it  is  the 
means  of  maintaining  the  life  of  all  aquatic  animals. 
If  the  air  be  expelled  from  water  by  boiling,  and  it 
be  covered  with  a  layer  of  oil,  to  prevent  it  from 
again  absorbing  air,  lish  or  .iny  aquatic  animals 
placed  in  such  water  quickly  perish.  Even  the  life 
of  the  superior  animals  is  dependent  upon  the 
solubility  of  oxygen  in  the  fluid  which  moistens  the 
air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  in  consequence  of  which  this 
gas  is  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  the  blood,  and 
circulates  through  the  pulmonary  vessels.' 

The  foUow-ing  table,  drawn  up  from  the  researches 
of  Bunsen  and  C'arius,  shews  the  solubility  of  some 
of  the  most  important  gases,  both  in  water  and 
alcohol : 


Volume  or««rh  Gu  f1iiif<lTcd  in 

Volume  of  eacli 

1  \  «lumo  of  U  Kier. 

1  V(.Ium«  of  AlcolioL               1 

Ca>. 

At  32  Dtgnn  F. 

At  M  Dreroti  F. 

At  «2  Desreei  F. 

At  m  Dceroe«  F. 

Ammonia,      .... 

lOW-BO 

727-2 

Hvdrocliloric  Acid,  , 

6t'5-9 

4580 

Sulphurous  Acid,  . 

08-fiOl 

43-564 

328  02 

144  5.5 

Sulphuretted  llvdrogcn,  . 

43706 

3-232C 

17181 

9639 

Chlorine 

Solid 

2-3CS 

Carbonic  Acid 

1  -967 

10U2 

4-3295 

3  1993 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen,  . 

13052 

0  0778 

4  1780 

8-2078 

OlofiantOna 

0  2563 

0:615 

3.5050 

2S825 

Binoxide  of  Nitrogen,    . 

0-3IC06 

0-27478 

Slarsh  Ga-i 

0  0,5449 

0-03909 

052309 

04S280 

Carbonic  Oxide,     . 

0-0.-!-2S7 

00^432 

0  20443 

0-20443 

OxTgen,      . 

004114 

0  0-.'9R9 

0-28397 

0-28397 

Nitrogen, 

0  0-.>(i35 

0  01478 

012634 

012142 

Air,    .                  .... 

0  0-2471 

0-01795 

Hydrogen,      ,        .        .        , 

001930 

0  01930 

0-0C925 

0-06725 

' 

1 

All  these  gases,  -with  the  exception  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  may  be  expelled  from  the  water  by  long- 
continued  boiling. 

Gases  are  not  absorbed  by  all  liquids  in  the  same 
order ;  for  example,  naphtha  absorbs  most  olctiant 
gas,  oil  of  lavender  most  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  olive 
oil  most  carbonic  acid,  and  solution  of  chloride  of 
potassium  most  carbonic  oxide. 

If  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  gases  be  agitated 
with  water,  or  probably  anj-  other  liquid,  a  portion 
of  each  gas  will  be  absorbed,  and  the  amount  of  each 
so  absorbed  or  dissolved  will  be  projKU-tional  to  the 
relative  vohime  of  each  gas  miiltiiilied  with  its 
coellicient  of  solubility  at  the  observed  temper- 
ature and  pressure.  As  all  ortUuary  liquids  exert 
a  greater  or  less  solvent  action  on  gases,  a  gas 
that  we  wish  to  examine  quantitatively  should  be 
collected  over  mercury. 

The  adhesion  of  gases  to  solids  next  rcquii'es 
notice,  llhistratious  of  this  phenomenon  [leriK'tually 
occur.  Thus,  wood  and  utlier  solid  sul)stanccs 
immersed  in  water  or  other  liquids  appear  covered 
with  air-bubbles.  It  is  this  ailhesion  of  air  to  the 
surface  of  glass  tubes  w-hich  causes  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  barometers  and  thermometers  completely 
free  from  air.  It  is  in  consequence  of  the  adhesion 
of  air  to  their  surfaces  that  many  small  insects  are 
enabled  to  skim  lightly  over  the  surface  of  water 
which  does  not  wet  them.  A  simple  method  of 
illustrating  this  phenomenon  is  by  gently  dusting 
iron  tilings  over  the  surface  of  a  ressel  of  water  ;  if 
we  jiroceed  carefully,  a  considerable  mass  of  the  iron 
may  accumulate  upon  the  surface ;  till,  at  last,  it 
falls  in  large  Hakes,  carrying  down  with  it  numerous 
bubb'es  of  air.  As  the  particles  of  iron  are  nearly 
eight  times  as  heavy  as  water,  it  was  only  the 
adherent  air  that  enabled  them  to  Uuat  upon  the 
surface.  Closely  allied  to  this  adhesion  is  the  remark- 
able property  of  condensation  which  porous  bodies, 


and  especially  charcoal,  exert  on  gases.  Owing  to 
this  property  of  charcoal — especially  freshly  burned 
vegetable  charcoal — various  gases  may  be  separated 
from  their  -watery  solution  by  titration  of  the  latter 
through  it  ;  for  example,  sulphuretted  liydrogen 
may  be  removed  from  water  so  comjiletely  that 
it  cannot  be  detected  either  by  its  Well-known 
odour  or  by  the  ordinary  tests.  Satxssure  found 
that  1  volume  of  freshly  burned  box-w^ooil  charcoal 
absorbed  90  voltmics  of  ammonia,  So  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  Co  of  sulphurous  acid,  55  of  suliihtiretted 
hydrogen,  40  of  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  35  of  car- 
bonic acid,  .35  of  bi-carburettcd  hydrogen,  9-4  of 
carbonic  oxide,  9-2  of  oxygen,  7-5  of  nitrogen,  5-0 
of  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  l?  of  hydrogen. 
These  resiUts  follow  an  order  very  neai-ly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  solubility  of  the  gases  in  water. 

Stenhouse  has  investigated  the  ditierences  in  the 
absorbent  power  of  diflerent  kinds  of  charcoal ;  the 
following  are  his  most  im|iortant  results  :  O'S  of  a 
gramme  of  each  kind  of  charcoal  being  employed, 
and  the  numbers  in  the  table  indicating  in  cubic 
centimetres  the  quantity  of  absorbed  gas. 


Kind  of  Chuvotl  emplojod. 

Cu  U>e<L 

WooiL 

Pnt. 

ADlmaL 

Ammonia.  ..... 

98-5 

96-0 

43-5 

Hydrochloric  .\cid. 

4.5-0 

60-0 

Sulphurous  Acid, 

325 

27-5 

17-5 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen,  . 

30  0 

285 

9-U 

Carbonic  Acid 

14-0 

100 

SO 

Oxjgen, 

0-8 

0-6 

0-5 

So  rapid  is  this  action  of  charcoal,  that  Stenhouse 
has  proposed  to  use  a  respirator  filled  with  it  to 
protect  the  mouth  and  nostrils  in  an  infected  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  the  employment  of  trays  of  powdereil 
-n'ood-charcoal  in  dissecting-rooms,  in  the  wards  of 

643 


GASKELL— GASSENDL 


ho$i>iUils,  ami  in  situations  \vhere  putrescent  animal 
matter  is  present,  is  foiuitl  to  act  very  beneficially 
in  purifying  the  air  by  absorbing  the  offensive  gases. 
Its  use  ill  reference  to  the  filtration  of  water  has 
been  already  alliitlej  to. 

The  determination  of  the  exact  specific  gravity  of 
the  different  gases  is  of  great  importance  in  calculat- 
ing the  i)roportions  of  tlie  different  ingredients  of 
compounds  into  which  they  enter ;  and  the  whole 
series  of  numbers  exjiressing  the  chemical  equiva- 
lents or  atomic  weights  of  bodies  de)>end  u]iiin 
the  accuracy  of  the  determination  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  specific  gravity  and 
the  weight  of  100  cubic  inches  of  some  of  the  most 
imjwrtant  gases  at  a  barometric  pressure  of  30 
inches,  and  at  a  temperature  of  C0°,  together  with 
the  name  of  the  observer : 


Caa. 

Sp»lflc 
Crafiiy. 
ACT -I. 

Wrinhi  of 
100  Cubic 
Incht-i  ia 
Gmini. 

Obicrrcr. 

Air, 

I  0000 

30  935 

negn;mlt. 

DiTfrcn, 

1  1056 

34  203 

I'iitioi^en, 

0-9713 

30  119 

,, 

Ilydrogeti,    . 

0  OGHi 

2143 

,1 

Carbonic  Acid, 

15i90 

47  303 

„ 

Clilorine,     . 

2  5000 

70  2.50 

Ammonin, 

0  5902 

18  003 

Carburettcd  Hydrogen, 

0  5655 

10  944 

Olelinnt  Gap,    . 

0  9722 

29  652 

,J 

Arsrniurctlcd  Ilvdrnpon, 

0  5290 

16  130 

Tromsdorff. 

•Sulphuretted  Hydrogen, 

1IS05 

30  007 

Cyanogen, 

18055 

55009 

Guv  Lus9;ic. 

Jlvdrociiloric  Acid, 

1 -2,147 

39  183 

Thomson. 

Sulpliurou^t  Acid,    . 

2*2222 

67-777 

II 

The  methods  employed  for  determining  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  gas,  both  by  direct  observation  ami  by 
calculation,  will  be  noticed  in  the  article  SrEcmc 
Gravity. 

As  to  the  chemical  properties  of  gases,  most  of 
the  different  gases,  when  pure,  can  be  readily 
distinguished  by  some  well-marked  physical  or 
chemical  projjcrty.  Some  are  distinguished  by 
their  colour,  others  by  their  ])eciiliar  odour  ;  but 
several  of  the  most  important  ones— ^■^z.,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide, 
light  carburetted  hydrogen,  ololiant  gas,  and  pro- 
toxide of  nitrogen — re(|uire  other  means  for  their 
<liscrimination.  The  distinctive  characters  of  the 
most  important  gases  are  noticed  in  the  articles 
O.XVGE.N-,  Hydrogen,  Chlorine,  &c.,  and  the  out- 
lines of  the  general  method  of  analysing  a  gaseous 
mixture  are  given  in  a  separate  article.  For  further 
details  on  the  jihysical  and  chemical  characters  of 
the  gases,  we  must  refer  to  Miller's  Elements  of 
Che.mistnj,  and  especially  to  the  volume  on  Chemical 
Physics,  from  which  we  have  borrowed  freely  ;  to 
Kekule's  Lehrhuch  tier  Orgaimclien  Chemie,  1859  ; 
and  to  Roscoe's  translation  of  Bunsen's  Gasometry. 

GA.SKELL,  Mils  Elizabeth  C,  an  English 
atitlioress,  was  born  about  the  year  1 8:20,  and  was  the 
wife  of  a  Unitarian  clergyman  in  Manchester.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Stevenson.  Her  novels,  of  which 
Mary  Barton  (1S48)  and  FaUh  (1853)  are  perhajis  tlie 
best  examples,  are  chiefly  descriptive  of  the  habits, 
thoughts,  privations,  and"  struggles  of  the  industrial 
poor,  as  these  are  to  be  found  in  such  a  social  bee- 
hive as  the  city  in  which  the  authoress  resides. 
Some  of  her  characters  are  drawn  with  remarkable 
di-amatic  power,  and  many  of  her  descriptive  pas- 
sages are  very  graphic.  Among  her  other  works 
may  be  mentioneil  The  Moorland  Cottage  (1850),  a 
Christmas  story ;  North  and  South  (1855) ;  Cranford  : 
and  Li-tie  ieiV/A— the  last  three  of  which  originally 
appeared  in  Household  Words.  Mrs  (i.  also  edited 
a  very  interesting  life  of  Charlotte  Bronte  (q.  v.), 
Cl4 


185".     Among  her  later  works  were  ,'iyh-ia's  Lurtrs 
and  Cousin  Phyllis.     She  died  November  ISGo. 
GASOMETER.     See  Gas. 

GASPE,  the  most  easterly  district  of  Lower 
Canada,  consisting  of  the  counties  of  Gaspe  and 
Bonaventure,  is  chieUy  a  peninsula  ])rojectilig  into 
the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  between  the  estuary  of  the 
same  name  on  the  north  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleur  on 
the  south.  It  stretdies  in  N.  hit.  between  48"  and 
4!F  20',  and  in  \\'.  long,  between  G4°  15'  and  CT" 
.")()',  containing  7500  square  miles,  ami  about  12,000 
inhabitants,  the  greater  number  being  of  French 
descent.  Cod  and  whale  fisheries  fonu  the  stajile 
business  of  the  cotmtry.  The  district  is  terminated 
towards  the  east  by  a  cape  of  its  own  name,  and 
this  headland  is  the  northern  extremity  of  a  bay 
also  of  the  same  name,  which  presents  a  safe  and 
capacious  harbour. 

GA.SSENDI,  or  GASSKND,  Pierre,  an  eminent 
French  philosopher  and    mathematician,  was  born 
22d  January  1592,  at  Cliamjitercier,  a  Uttle  village 
of    Provence,    in    the    de])artment    of    the    Lower 
Alps.     His  unusual  powers  of  mind  shewed  them- 
selves at  an  early   age  ;   and   in    1616  he  became 
jirofessor   of  theology   at   Aix.      About   this   time, 
he  drew  upon  himself  the  regards  of  Picresc,  whom 
Bayle    calls    the    procureur-ijeneral    of     literatur(>, 
and    of    Joseph    Gautier,  prior   of   La    Valette,    a 
distinguished  m.-vthematician,  both  of  whom  liber- 
ally   gave   him   the    benefit    of    their    instructions 
and  ad\-ice.      With  the  first,  he  studied  anatomy; 
from   the   second,  he   derived  his  taste  for  astron- 
omical   observations.       After   six    years'    study,    he 
became  disgusted  with   the    scholastic   pliilosojihy, 
and  undertook  to  maintain  certain  theses  against 
the  Aristotelians.    His  polemic  ap|)eared  at  Grenoble 
in  1624,  and  was  entitled  Exereitationes  paradoxicte 
adrersus  Aristoteleos.      It  was  accompanied  by  an 
expression   of  his  belief  in   the  elnirch,  for   whose 
lionour   and   glory    ho    declared    himself  'ready    to 
shed   the  last  dro]>  of  his  blood.'     He  drew  a  dis- 
tinction for  the  first  time  between  the  church  and 
the  scholastic  philosophy,  denying  that  the  former 
must  stand  or  fall   by  the  latter.'     G.   now  visited 
Paris,    where   he   made    several    influential   friends. 
In  the  same  year  in  wliich  he  published  his  E.rerr!- 
tatiunes,  he  was   appointed  prernt  of  the  cathedral 
at  Digue,  an  office  which  enabled  him  to   pursue 
without    distraction    his    astronomical    and    philo- 
sojihical  studies.     In  1628  he  travelled  in  Holland, 
and    got    involved    in    a   controversy    with    Robert 
Fltidd,   an  Englisli  mystic,  relative  to  the  Mosaic 
cosmogony,  in  wliich  he  is  admitted  to  have  had 
greatly  the  advantage  of  his  incoherent  opponent. 
At  tlie  recommendation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lj'on, 
a  brother  of  Cardinal  KieheUeu,  G.  was  appointed 
professor   of    matliematics    in    the    College    Royal 
de  IVanee,  at  Paris,  where  he  died,   14th   October 
1655.       As    a    philosopher,    G.    maintained,    with 
great   learning    and    ingenuity,   most,   though    not 
all,    of    the    doctrines    of     Ejiicnrus,    these    being 
most  casilj'  brought    into    harninny  with  his   own 
scientific  acquirements  and  modes  of  thought.     His 
philosophy   was    in   such   repute,   that   the   savans 
of   that   time   were    divided    into    Cartesians    and 
Gasseiulists.      The   two   chiefs   themselves   always 
entertained  the  highest  rcsjicct  for  each  other,  and 
were  at  one  time   on  the  friendliest  terms.      The 
agreeableness  of  their  intercourse,  however,  was  for 
a  while  interrupted  by  the  jmblication  of  a  work  of 
C.'s.  entitled  Duhitationes  ad  Meditationcs  Cartesil, 
in  which  he  expressed  himself  dissatisfied  with  the 
tendencies  of  the  new  system  of  philosophy  intro- 
duced by  Descartes,  for  (i.  was  averse  to  novelty 
in  the  sphere   of   mental  speculation,  although  he 


GASSNER^GASTEROPODA. 


warmly  espoused  the  side  of  jjrogress  in  physical 
science,  and  made  himself  many  enemies  among 
his  Ijii^oted  ecclesiastical  Itretliren  for  the  love  he 
bore  it.  He  ranlied  Kepler  and  Galileo  among  his 
friends,  and  was  himself  the  instructor  of  MoU^re, 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  De.  vita,  viorVfUs  etyloc- 
trina  Epiruri  (Lyon,  1G47),  to  which  the  S'lnlagma 
Pliilusophup.  Epicurece  (IG49)  belongs.  It  contains 
a  complete  view  of  the  system  of  Epicurus.  His 
Jiislihitio  Astronomica  (164.5)  is  a  clear  and  con- 
nected representation  of  the  state  of  the  science  in 
his  own  day;  in  his  Tychonis  Jiraluci,  Nkolai 
Copt-'rnici,  Georgii  Peur  hachii  et  Joannia  lifijeornoji- 
laiii  Adronomortim  C'ekbrium  Vilie  (Par.  1654),  he  not 
only  gives  a  masterly  account  of  the  lives  of  these 
men,  but  likewise  a  complete  history  of  astronomy 
down  to  his  own  time.  G.  was  pronounced  liy 
Bayle  the  greatest  philosopher  among  scholars,  an<l 
the  greatest  scholar  among  philosopliers.  His  works 
were  collected  and  published  by  Montmor  and 
Sorbit^re  (Lyon,  6  vols.  1658). 

OASSNER,  JoHASN  Jo-SEPH,  a  man  who  made  a 
noise  as  an  exorcist  in  the  18th  c.,  w'as  liorn  28th 
August  1727,  at  Bratz,  near  Pludenz,  in  the  Tyrol, 
and  became  Catholic  priest  at  Klosterle,  in  the 
diocese  of  C'oire.  While  in  that  office,  the  accounts 
of  demoniacs  in  the  New  Testament,  combined  with 
the  writings  of  celebrated  magicians,  brought  him 
to  the  conviction  that  most  diseases  are  attributable 
to  evil  sjjirits,  whose  power  can  be  destroyed  only 
by  conjuration  and  prayer.  He  began  to  carry 
out  his  conviction  by  practising  on  some  of  his 
parishioners,  and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  attract 
notice  at  least.  The  Bishop  of  Constance  called  him 
to  his  residence,  but  having  come  very  soon  to  the 
conviction  that  he  was  a  charlatan,  advised  him  to 
return  to  his  parsonage.  G.  betook  himself,  how- 
ever, to  other  prelates  of  the  empire,  some  of  whom 
believed  that  his  cures  were  miraculous.  In  1774, 
he  even  received  a  call  from  the  bishop  at  Katisbon, 
to  Ellwaugen,  where,  by  the  mere  word  of  com- 
mand, Cesset  (Give  over),  he  cured  persons  who  pre- 
tended to  be  lame  or  blind,  but  especially  those 
afflicted  with  convulsions  and  epilepsy,  who  were 
all  supposed  to  be  ])0i-scssed  by  the  devil.  .lUthough 
an  otiicial  person  kept  a  continued  record  of  Ids 
cures,  in  which  the  most  extraordinary  thuigs  were 
testified,  yet  it  was  foimd  only  too  soon  that  G. 
very  often  made  persons  in  health  play  the  part  of 
those  in  sickness,  and  that  his  cures  of  real  sufferers 
were  successful  only  so  long  as  their  imagination 
remained  heated  by  the  persuasions  of  the  conjuror. 
Intelligent  men  laised  their  voice  against  him, 
and  he  lost  all  respect  before  his  death.  lie  died, 
ilarch  1779,  in  possession  of  the  wealthy  deanery 
of  Beundorf. 

GAS-TAR,  or  COAL-TAR,  a  thick,  black, 
opaque  liquid,  which  comes  over  and  condenses  in 
the  pipes  when  gas  is  distilled  from  coal.  It  is 
slightly  heax'ier  than  water,  and  has  a  strong,  dis- 
agi-eealde  odour.  Coal-tar  is  a  mixture  of  many 
distinct  liquid  and  solid  substances,  and  the 
separation  of  the  more  useful  of  these  constitutes 
an  ijnportant  branch  of  manufacturing  chemistry. 
The  tar  is  first  distilled  in  large  malleable  iron 
stills,  when  water  and  cnule  naphtha  iirst  come 
over ;  and  afterwards,  when  the  temperature  rises, 
a  heavy,  fetid-smelling  oil,  called  dead-oil,  which 
sinks  in  water.  There  remains  in  the  still  a  large 
residrc  of  j"^*^^''  which  is  again  distilled  in  brick 
ovens,  giving  off  an  oil  called  col:e-oU,  and  leaving 
a  large  qu.aiitity  oi  pilch-ml-e.  The  crude  naphtha 
is  purified  by  sulphuric  acid  and  quicklime,  and 
re-distilled,  when  it  is  nearly  as  colourless  as  water. 
This,  then,  forms  the  refined  coal-tar  naphtha  of 


commerce.  It  is  largely  used  for  burning  in 
lam])s,  as  a  solvent  for  india-rubber  and  gutta- 
percha, to  preserve  animal  substances  from  moth, 
and  it  is  also  burned  to  produce  a  fine  carbon  for 
the  manufacture  of  jjrinting-ink.  It  is  from  the 
lighter  portion  of  naphttia,  called  benzule,  that  the 
beautiful  mauve  and  magenta  colours  are  manu- 
factured. See  Benzole  and  Dve-stvffs.  Benzole 
is  likewise  used  for  removing  st^iins  of  fat  or  oil 
from  cloth.  Tlic  dc.ad-oil  or  pitch-oil  is  sometimes 
used,  in  its  cnule  state,  as  a  cheap  matei-ial  for 
affording  light  in  lamps  bumeil  in  the  ojjen  air. 
It  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  creasote, 
and  forms  the  best  preservative  for  wood  in  damp 
situations.  The  coke-oil  is  not  of  much  counnerci;il 
importance,  but  it  can  \>e  burned  in  lamps,  and  this, 
with  tlie  dead-oil,  when  consumed  in  a  confined 
atmosphere,  gives  a  smoky  llame,  the  soot  from 
which  constitutes  lampbl.ack.  The  pitch-coke  is 
valuable  as  a  fuel  for  melting  iron,  being  free  from 
ini]iurities.  Pitch  itself  is  used  for  makiug  asjihalt 
pavi'nient,  and  also  for  roofing-felt. 

From  the  last  portion  of  the  distillation  of  the 
crude  naphtlia,  and  the  first  of  tlio  dead-oil,  a 
beautiful  white  crj-staUlne  solid,  called  najilitlialine, 
is  obtained.  It  has  been  long  known  without  being 
applied  to  any  useful  purpose,  but  is  now  beginning 
to  be  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  colours,  in 
a  similar  way  to  the  benzole.  The  dead-oil  also 
contains  considerable  quantities  of  a  yellow  solid 
termed  parauaphthaline,  which  is  a  mere  chemical 
citriosity. 

The  creasote  is  extracted  from  the  dead-oil  by 
Stirling  it  with  soda,  in  which  the  creasote  lUs- 
solves.  When  this  soda  solution  is  boiled  for  some 
hours,  and  then  has  an  acid  adiled  to  it,  the 
creasote  separates  as  an  oil  on  the  surface  of 
tlie  fliud,  and,  when  distilled,  is  nearly  pure.  This 
treatment  requires  to  be  repeated  several  times 
to  get  it  quite  pure,  and  to  keep  its  colour.  Most 
of  the  creasote  used  by  ilruggists  is  iiLKle  from 
coal-tar.  The  creasote  from  wood  is  a  similar  but 
quite  distinct  body. 

Sulphuric  acid  extracts  both  from  the  dead-oil 
and  the  crude  naphtha  several  volatile  basic  oils 
besides  benzole— namely,  toluole,  xylole,  cumole, 
and  cymole,  which  are  almost  unknown  in  the  arts, 
although  they  m.ay  yet  come  to  be  of  great  sen^ice. 
Among  them  is  anihne,  but  not  in  sufficient 
(piantity  to  pay  for  its  extraction.  Tliere  also 
occui-3  a  ciu-ious  body  named  j)yrrol,  the  vapour 
of  which  gives  to  fir-wood,  dipped  in  muriatic  acid, 
a  splenilid  violet  colour.  Beautiful  blue  colours 
have  been  made  from  these  basic  oils,  but  only 
by  elaborate  and  expensive  processes. 

GASTERO'POUA  (Gr.  beUy-footcd),  or  GAS- 
TROPODS, a  class  of  molluscs,  inferior  in  organisa- 
tion to  cephalopods,  but  far  superior  to  almost  all 
other  molluscs,  and  containing  a  multitude  of  species, 
the  greater  uuml)er  of  which  are  marine,  but  some 
are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water,  and  some  are  terres- 
trial. Snails,  whelks,  periwinkles,  limpets,  cowries, 
and  the  greater  nmulier  of  molluscs  with  univalve 
shells;  belong  to  this  class,  and  iiniv.alvc  molluscs 
constitute  tlie  gi-cater  part  of  it;  but  it  contains 
also  some  molluscs  with  multivalve  shells,  as 
chitons,  and  some,  as  slugs,  which  h.ave  cither  only 
a  rudimental  internal  shell,  or  no  shell  at  all.  Some 
aquatic  kinds  are  destitute  of  shell  in  the  adult 
state,  but  they  are  protected  by  a  nidimentary  shell 
on  first  issuing  from  the  egg.  No  known  gastropod 
has  a  bivalve  shell,  unless  the  operculum,  which 
closed  the  mouth  of  the  shell  iu  many  species,  be 
regarded  as  a  second  valve. 

Gastropods  have  a  head,  more  or  less  fidly 
developed,   in   which  is   situated   the   mouth,   and 


GASTEROPODA. 


wbich  generally  carries  'fleshy,  retractile  tentaciila, 
varying  from  two  to  six  in  mimber.  The  teuta- 
cula  do  not  encircle  the  mouth;   they  seem  to  be 


Fig.  shewing  the  soft  parts  of  a  Gastcropod  (Dolium 
GaUa) : 
a,  head ;  d,  d,  foot. 

special  and  exquisitely  sensitive  organs  of  touch, 
a  sense  which  the  gcnenil  surface  of  the  body 
docs  not  seem  to  possess  in  a  high  degree;  and  in 
some   G.,  as   snails,    they  carry  the   eyes  at  their 


iVnatomy  of  tlic  Wlic'l;  (copied  from  Jones'  Gen.  .Sirwc. 
of  An.  Kiugd.) : 

ab,  vein  of  proboscis  and  its  branches:  c,  c,  nervous  branches 
proceeding  from  tlie  brain  to  tlie  extremity  of  the  proboscis  ; 
d,  brain,  situated  above  the  oeaopiiaijiit  or  f,'iinet ;  f,  nervous 
brandies  connecting  the  brain  witll  the  preiit  pangHon  or 
nervous  niaKS  beneath  tlie  (psopliagus ;  /,  tentaeuhi ;  j7,  penis; 
A,  liver;  i.  a  large  nervous  mass  beneath  the  trsophatjus ; 
k,  1,  gant;lia  ;  ni,  one  of  the  two  principal  trunks  of  the 
aorta,  supplying  the  foot  and  anterior  part  of  the  body: 
«,  0,  nervous  branches  connecting  ganglia  ;  7),  orifico  of 
respiratory  cavity  ;  g,  branchial  vein  ;  is.  heart  (r,  ven- 
tricle ;  *,  auriclel;  t.  one  of  the  two  principal  trunlis  of 
the  aorta,  winding  among  the  mass  of  viscera  contained  in 
the  shell,  and  distributing  its  ramifications  to  them  :  «, 
branchial  fringes,  or  gills ;  te,  posterior  part  of  the  body,  or 
mass  of  viscera  contained  in  the  shell  ;  x,  roof  of  respiratory 
cavity  thrown  back. 

tips,  but  in  others  the  eyes — always  small — are 
sittiated  elsewhere  on  the  head,  and  a  few  are 
destitute  of  eyes.     They  are  believed  to  possess  the 

lAi 


senses  of  taste  and  smell,  and  at  least  some  of  them 
that  also  of  hearing,  as  they  not  only  have  a  nervous 
centre  analogous  to  the  acoustic  division  of  the 
brain  in  vertebrate  animals,  but  a  little  sac  on  each 
side,  apparently  an  organ  of  this  sense.  Their 
nervous  system  is  more  complex  and  concentrated 
than  that  of  the  heaiUess  (ace///ialoiis)  molluscs ;  the 
princijial  nervous  masses  surround  the  gxUlet.  lu 
the  highest  G.,  such  as  snails,  there  are  only  two 
jirincijial  nervous  m.tsses,  one  of  which,  supplying 
the  nerves  connected  with  sensation,  is  called  the 
brain. — The  blood  of  G.  is  often  ojialescent,  with  a 
few  colourless  corpuscles.  The  heart  is  always 
systemic  only,  and  in  almost  all  consists  of  one 
auricle  and  one  ventricle,  although  a  few  G.  have 
two  auricles,  one  for  each  set  of  gills.  Near  the 
commencement  of  the  aorta,  there  is  often  a 
contractile  musctilar  swelling  {btilbus  arteriosus), 
as  in  lishes.  Respiration  takes  place  generally  by 
gills,  wliich  are  very  vaiiously  situated,  sometimes 
externally,  sometimes  in  a  sjiccial  cavity,  and 
exhibit  an  equally  great  variety  of  form  antl  struc- 
ture; but  some  G.,  as  snails  and  slugs,  have,  instead 
of  gills,  a  pulmonary  sac  or  cavity,  lined  with  a 
vascular  net-work,  these  being  cither  inhabitants  of 
the  land,  or,  if  of  the  water,  obliged  to  come  occa- 
sionally to  the  surf.ace  for  the  puri>ose  of  breathing. 
A  few  of  the  lowest  G.,  doubtfully  placed  in  this 
class,  are  destitute  of  distinct  respiratory  organs. 
The  digestive  ajijiaratus  also  exhibits  much  diversity. 
Some  of  the  G.  feed  on  vegetable,  some  on  animal 
substances,  and  some  of  them  ou  animals  which 
they  themselves  kill.  Thus,  wliilst  snails  cat  leaves 
and  other  soft  parts  of  vegetables,  whelks  {Bucciimm) 
prey  on  other  molluscs,  ami  are  provicled  with  a 
remarkable  apparatus  .at  the  end  of  a  probosci.s 
into  which  the  mouth  is  elongated,  for  filin>'  a  hole 
— as  nice  as  could  be  made  by  the  drill  of  a 
mechanic — through  the  hardest  shell.  The  mouth 
of  the  snail  is,  in  like  manner,  admirably  adapted  to 
the  cutting  of  leaves  or  similar  substances  by  the 
action  of  the  lips  against  .a  shar]»  horny  plate.  Other 
G.  have  the  mouth  funiisheil  with  two  cutting 
blades,  wrought  bj"  powerful  imiscles.  The  tongue 
of  some  is  covereti  with  minute  recmred  hooks,  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  anything  escaping  from 
the  mouth ;  and  the  stomach  of  some  is  a  musciUar 
gizzard,  provided  with  cartilaginous  or  sometimes 
calcareous  projections,  or  stomachic  teeth,  to  aid 
in  the  comminution  of  the  food.  The  intestine  is 
generally  bent  back,  so  that  the  amis  is  not  far 
from  the  head.  The  liver  is  l.irge,  as  are  also  the 
salivarj'  glands  of  many  gastropods.  Very  great 
diversities  are  found  in  the  reproductive  system. 
In  some  G.,  the  sexes  are  distinct  (G.  DifficiA)  ; 
others  are  hermaphroilito  (G.  Mon(ECia)  ;  and  whilst 
self-impregnation  takes  jilace  in  some  of  these, 
others — as  snails — mutually  impregnate  each  other 
by  copulation.  In  general,  the  reproductive  organs 
are  very  largely  developed,  ami  are  of  complex 
and  remarkable  structure.  The  G.  are  in  general 
oviparous  ;  a  few  are  ovo\'i\nparous.  The  young  of 
aquatic  G.  at  first  swim  about  actively  by  means  of 
ciliated  fins  attached  to  the  head.  G.  are  generally 
unsynimetrical,  one  sitle  of  the  body  being  develojied 
without  the  other,  some  of  the  principal  organs  of 
which — the  gills  and  nerves — are  atrophieil;  and 
thus  the  shell  with  which  most  of  them  are  covered 
becomes,  in  the  greater  number,  spiral,  the  spire 
turning  towards  the  unatrophieil  side,  which  is 
generally  the  right  side,  although  in  some  {reivrseil 
or  siiii.strorsal  shells)  it  is  the  left.  The  head  and 
the  organ  of  locomotion  are  capable  of  being  with- 
drawn into  the  last  whorl  of  the  shell,  ami  in 
afpiatio  species  gener.ally,  the  mouth  of  the  shell 
can  be  closed  by  an  operculum  (q.  v.),  exactly  fitting 


GASTOX  DE  FOIX— GATESHEAD. 


it,  and  attached  to  the  foot,  but  in  which  many 
varieties  of  beautiful  stinicture  are  exhibited,  and 
which  is  generally  horny,  sometimes  calcareous. 
Some  shells  are  simply  conical,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous diversities  of  form.  The  shell  is  secreted  by  the 
mantle.  See  Molluscs,  Shells,  and  Uh'ivALVE.s. 
The  Wscera  are  contained  in  a  thin  sac — part  of  the 
mantle — which  fills  the  npi)er  part  of  the  shell. 
The  organ  of  locomotion,  called  the /uo(,  is  in  general 
a  musciUar  disc,  developed  from  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  body;  sometimes,  as  in  lim])ets,  capable  of 
acting  as  a  sucker,  and  exhiliiting  other  even  more 
remarkable  modilications,  so  that  in  some  it  becomes 
an  organ  for  swimming.  G.  generally  creep  by 
means  of  this  disc  adliering  to  surfaces,  and  con- 
tracting in  transverse  wrinkles  or  undulations, 
which  begin  from  behind.  The  G.  generally  secrete 
a  jieculiar  kind  of  slime.  Some  of  them  also  pro- 
duce other  peculiar  secretions,  of  which  the  Tyrian 
purple  afibrds  an  example,  (i.  have  a  great  power 
of  renewing  lost  parts ;  tentacles  are  thus  restored, 
and  even  the  eyes  which  they  bear  at  their  tips, 
the  mouth  with  all  its  apparatus,  or  the  head  itself. 

GASTON  DE  FOIX.     See  Foix. 

GASTRA'LGIA,    or    GASTRODY'NIA.       See 

CARDLiXGIA. 

GASTRIC   JUICE.      See  Digestion,  Organs 

A>L>  PKOCE.SS  OF. 

GASTRITIS  AND  GASTRO-ENTERITIS  (in- 
flammation o£  the  stomach,  &c.).     See  Stomach, 

DlSELVSES  OF,  also  EXTERITIS- 

GASTROCHiE'NA,  a  geuiLS  of  lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  having  a  deUcate  shell  of  two  equal  valves, 
gaping  very  much  in  front ;  the  animal  sometimes 
taking  possession  of  an  already  existing  cavity, 
whicli  it  often  lines  with  a  calcareous  lining,  so  as 
to  form  a  tube,  to  which  the  valves  of  its  shell  are 
cemented ;  sometimes  burrowing  for  itself  iii  sand, 
mailrepores,  or  calcareous  rocks,  and  lining  its  hole 
with  a  shelly  layer.     G.  modiolma,  a  rare  British 


GastrocUiuna  ModioUna  : 
u,  one  of  the  tubes  broken  open,  shewing  the  valves. 

mollusc,  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  perforates 
shells  and  limestone,  making  holes  about  two  inches 
deep  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  sometuncs 
bores  ri^ht  through  an  oyster  into  the  ground  below, 
and  makes  for  itself  a  flask-shaped  case,  with  its 
neck  fixed  in  the  oyster-shell.  The  tubes  of  some 
of  the  tropicid  species  which  live  in  sand  arc  very 

curious. To  the  family  Gastrocltwnidx  are  referred 

Anperffillum  and  Clacatjella. 

GASTROCNEMIUS  MUSCLE,  The,  is  the 
muscle  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  calf  of  the 
leg.  It  arises  by  two  heads  from  the  two  condyles 
of"  the  thigh-bone,  and  is  inserted  by  the  Tenuo 
AcHiLUS  (see  the  diagram  in  the  article  Foot)  at 
the  posterior  part  of  the  heel-bone.  In  man,  these 
muscles  possess  great  power,  and  are  constantly 
called  in  use  in  standing,  walking,  leaping,  &c.  In 
walking,  they  raise  the  heel,  and,  with  it,  the  entire 
body  from  the  ground ;   and  the  body  being  thus 


supported  on  the  raised  foot,  the  other  leg  is  carried 
forward.  From  their  close  association  with  the 
erect  position,  they  arc  much  less  dcveloijcd  in  other 
mauunals  than  in  the  human  subject 

GASTRO'DIA,  a  genus  of  orchids.  G.sesammdes 
is  a  native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  the  roots  of  which 
form  large  coral-like  masses,  and  are  sometimes 
calleil  Mdive  potatoes,  being  edible ;  but  they  are 
watery  and  insii)id. 

GASTRO'STOMY  (Gr.  gaiter,  the  beUy  or 
stomach,  and  stoma,  mouth),  an  operation  which 
has  been  two  or  three  times  performed  for  the  relief 
of  stricttire  of  tlie  gullet,  to  relieve  the  jiatient  from 
the  imminent  risk  of  starvation,  by  introilucing  food 
directly  into  the  stomach  through  an  external  open- 
ing. The  well-known  case  of  Alexis  St  Martin, 
and  numerous  experiments  on  the  lower  animals, 
have  led  to  this  attcmi>t,  not  unreasonaljly,  to  save 
Life  ;  it  has  not  as  yet,  however,  been  successful. 

GASTRO'TOMY(Gr.3a«fcj- and  tome,  an  incision), 
an  incision  into  the  cavity  of  the  Abdomen  (q.  v.) 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  some  diseased  texture 
or  foreign  body.  The  term  has  also  been  apX)Ued  to 
CiBsarean  Section  (q.  v.). 

GATES,  Horatio,  a  general  in  the  American 
army  in  the  war  of  independence,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land in  172S.  He  served  tmder  General  Braddock, 
.^nd  was  severely  wounded  near  Pittsburg  in  the 
disastrous  campaign  of  1755,  in  which  Braddock 
lost  his  life.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution, 
G.  espoused  the  popiUar  cause.  His  military  expe- 
rience and  skill  jirocured  his  rapid  promotion,  and 
in  1776  he  was  appointed  major-general.  In  August 
1777,  he  took  the  chief  command  of  the  American 
forces  north  of  Albany,  then  amounting  to  about 
6000  men,  besides  some  detached  bodies  of  militia. 
Ha\-ing  been  reinforced  by  the  troops  under  General 
Lincoln,  he  defeated  Burgojme  (October  7  and  8), 
and  soon  after  compelled"that  general  to  sm-reuder 
with  all  his  army,  consisting  of  aljout  5600  men. 
This  success,  by  far  the  most  important  that  had 
been  gained  by  the  Americans  diu-ing  the  war,  pro- 
cured G.  the  reputation  of  a  consummate  general, 
and  some  were  even  desirous  to  make  him  com- 
mander-in-chief in  the  place  of  Wasliiiigton. 

In  1780,  G.  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
southern  army,  which,  though  amounting  to  near 
6000  men,  was  composed  chiefly  of  militia.  He  was 
totally  defeated  near  Camden,  South  Carolina,  by 
Lord  Cornwallis  (whose  force  was  greatly  inferior  in 
numbers  to  that  of  G.),  with  the  loss  of  900  men 
kiUed,  and  as  many  more  taken  prisoners.  Congress 
ordered,  soon  after,  an  inquiry  mto  the  conduct  of 
G.,  who  was,  after  a  protracted  trial,  honourably 
acquitted,  and  reinstated  in  his  command.  He  died 
in  1806.  '  His  experience,'  says  Bancroft,  '  adapted 
him  for  good  service  in  bringing  the  army  into 
onler,  but  he  was  shallow  in  his  natural  endow- 
ments and  in  his  military  culture.' 

GA'TESHEAD,  a  town  of  Englaud,  in  the 
county  of  Durham,  and  an  ancient  borough  under 
the  Episcopal  palatines  of  that  county,  was  for- 
merly governed  by  a  bailiff  and  burgesses,  and 
became  a  parliamentary  and  mimicipal  borough 
under  the  Keform  Act  of  1832,  and  the  Municipal 
Cori)orations  Reform  Act  of  1835.  It  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  directly  opi)osite 
Newcastle,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  two  bridges, 
and  with  which  it  is  otherwise  so  closely  con- 
nected as  virtually  to  form  one  town  with  it. 
Tlie  older  portions  of  the  town  are  poorly  built, 
but  great  extensions  have  been  made  westward 
and  southward,  in  which  directions  much  ground 
has  been  laid  out  in  new  streets  and  detached 
villas.    There  are  numerous  dissenting  as  well  as 


GATEWAY— GAULT. 


established  churches,  a  fn^iininar-school  fnunikvl  in 
17(10,  .1  mcch.iiiics'  institute,  and  an  hospital  (Kin^^ 
James's),  consistini;  of  the  master  (who  is  the  rector 
of  Gateshead  for  the  time  being)  and  three  brethren 
who  have  residences,  .ind  twelve  others  who  receive 
allowances  without  residence.  It  has  also  an  excel- 
lent ilispensary,  which  was  established  after  a 
dreadful  visitation  of  cholera  in  1831  — 1S,'?2,  which 
canied  off  lOl'S  of  the  iiopulation.  The  numerous 
coalmines  in  the  neighbourhood,  iron-works  and 
foundries,  glass-works,  brick,  tile,  and  soap  works, 
shipbuilding,  chemical-works,  &c.,  furnish  employ- 
ment to  the  inhabitants.  There  .are  also  extensive 
manuf.actures  of  anchors,  m,achincry,  chain-cables, 
iron-wire  and  other  ropes.  At  Gateshead  Fell  are 
quarries  from  which  the  famous  grindstones  erron- 
eously called,  but  proverbially  kno^vn  as  *  Newcastle 
grindstones,'  are  obtaineil,  and  exported  to  all  parts 
of  the  worKL  In  October  1854,  a  large  portion  of 
the  lower  part  of  G.,  as  well  as  considerable  property 
in  Newcastle  immediately  opposite,  was  destroyed 
by  an  awful  explosion  and  lire,  which  also  caused 
the  death  of  upwards  of  50  persons.  G.  sends  one 
member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Poji.  in  1851, 
25,568;  in  1861,  3.3,589.  G.  is  supposed  to  have 
been  at  one  time  a  Roman  station,  or  outwork  to 
the  Roman  station  at  Newcastle,  several  coins  and 
other  relics  having  been  found  from  time  to  time. 
The  derivation  of  the  name  has  been  long  matter  of 
dispute,  but  the  probability  is,  that  it  simply  means 
the  head  of  the  gate  or  road  with  which  the  Romans 
connected  Newcastle  with  the  southern  military 
divisions  and  defences.     (1871 — pop.  48,592.) 

GATEWAY,  the  passage  or  opening  in  which  a 
gate  or  large  door  is  hung.  This  may  be  either  an 
open  way  \rith  side  pillars  or  a  covered  way  vaulted 
or  roofed  over.  The  gateway  being  a  most  import- 
ant point  in  all  fortified  places,  is  usually  jirotected 
by  various  de\nce3.  It  is  flanked  by  towers  with 
loopholes,  from  which  assailants  m.ay  be  attacked, 
and  is  frequently  orerhimg  by  a  maehicolatcd 
b.attlement,  from  which  missiles  of  every  descrip- 
tion were  jwured  upon  the  besiegers.  City  gates, 
and  gates  of  large  castles,  have  in  all  ages  been  the 
subjects  of  gre.at  care  in  construction ;  and  when 
from  some  cause,  such  as  the  cessation  of  constant 
fighting,  or  a  change  in  the  mode  of  warfare,  gate- 
waj'3  have  lost  their  importance  in  a  military  point 
of  view,  they  have  maintained  their  position  as 
im])ortant  architectural  works,  and  where  no  longer 
useful,  have  become  ornamental.  In  very  ancient 
times,  we  read  of  the  '  gate '  as  the  most  prominent 
part  of  a  city,  where  proclamations  were  made, 
and  where  the  kings  administered  justice.  The 
Greek  and  Roman  gates  were  frequently  of  great 
magnificence.  The  propyl.-ea  at  Athens  is  a  beautiful 
example,  and  the  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans 
are  the  ornamental  offspring  of  their  city  gates. 
Most  of  the  towns  in  this  country  have  lost  their 
walls  and  city  gates ;  but  a  few,  such  as  York 
and  Chester,  still  retain  them,  and  give  us  an 
idea  of  the  buildings  which  formerly  existed,  but 
which  now  remain  only  in  the  name  of  the 
streets  where  they  once  stood.  Our  castles  retain 
more  of  their  ancient  gateways,  and  from  these  we 
may  imagine  the  frowning  aspect  every  to\\Ti  pre- 
sented during  the  middle  ages.  Abbeys,  colleges, 
and  every  class  of  buildings  were  shut  in  and 
defended  by  similar  barriers';  many  of  these  stiU 
exist  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  the  abbey 
gates  of  Canterbury  and  Bury  St  Edmund's  are 
well-known  specimens  of  monastic  gateways.  The 
feeling  of  personal  freedom,  which  is  so  strong  in 
this  country,  must  no  doubt  have  tended  greatly  to 
hasten  the  demolition  of  these  marks  of  feudalism ; 
'mt  on   the  continent,  where  every  man  has  to 


present  a  passjiort  at  the  gate  of  the  city  before 
entering  it,  we  still  find  these  barriers  kept  up. 

GATH  (m  Heb.  a '  wine-press'),  one  of  the  five  chief 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  was  situated  on  the  frontieis 
of  Judah,  and  was  in  consequence  a  place  of  much 
importance  in  the  wars  between  the  Philistines  ami 
the  Israelites.  It  formed,  in  f.act,  the  key  of  both 
countries,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  The  famous 
Goliath,  whose  gigantic  height  and  swaggering  air 
so  frightened  the  troops  of  King  Saul,  and  who  was 
slain  by  the  stripling  David  with  pebbles  from  the 
brook,  was  a  native  of  this  place.  Jerome  describes 
it  in  his  time  as  a  '  very  large  vilLige.'  The  site  of 
ancient  Gath  is  probably  the  little  eminence,  about 
200  feet  liigh,  now  known  .as  Tell-es-S.^fret,  at  the 
foot  of  what  were  once  called  the  Mountains  o£ 
Judah. 

GATINEAU,  a  large  river  of  North  America  in 
Canada  East,  has  its  origin  in  a  connected  chain 
of  large  lakes  lying  immediately  north  of  the 
4Sth  p,arallel  of  latitude.  It  flows  in  an  almost 
undeWating  course  south-south-west,  and  falls  into 
the  Ottawa,  in  lat.  45°  24'  N.,  long.  75°  4.3'  W.,  12 
miles  below  the  town  of  Aylmer.  The  length  of 
this  river  has  not  been  definitely  ascertained,  but  it 
is  said  that  canoes  haA-e  na\-igated  it  for  upwards 
of  300  miles.  Steamers  have  ascended  it  for  four 
miles. 

GATSCHI'NA,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Petersburg,  and  about  30  miles  south-south- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name,  is  charmingly 
situated  on  a  small  lake  formed  by  the  Ishora. 
It  is  regularly  built,  has  an  educational  institution 
for  foundlings,  a  horticiUtural  school,  and  some 
manufactures  of  porcelain  ;  but  is  esiiecially  worthy 
of  mention  for  its  royal  palace,  a  structure  at  once 
simple  in  its  style  and  imposing  in  its  effect.  This 
palace,  which  contains  600  apartments,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  one  of  the  finest  pleasure-gardens  in 
Europe,  was  the  favourite  seat  of  the  Emperor  Paul 
I.,  who  bestowed  municipal  rights  upon  the  town 
of  G.  in  1797-  Pop.  variously  stated  at  from 
4500  to  7000. 

GAU  (of  doubtfid  origin,  possibly  allied  to  Gr.  ge, 
land),  a  German  word  meaning,  in  a  general  way, 
country  (as  opposed  to  the  to«Ti),  district ;  but 
applied  specially  to  a  political  division  of  ancient 
Germany,  having  relation  to  the  arrangements  for 
war  and  the  ailministration  of  justice.  A  gau 
embraced  several  commimities  or  villages,  and  had 
one  or  more  grafs  (q.  v.)  and  judges  over  it.  As  the 
grafdoms  became  more  and  more  hereditary,  the 
gau,  as  a  political  dirision,  fell  into  tlisuse  (about 
the  12th  c.),  and  only  in  the  names  of  some  places 
do  the  traces  of  it  remain.  The  Abbot  Bessel  gave 
a  complete  accoimt  of  the  geography  of  the  German 
gaus  in  his  Chronkon  GoUwicense ;  and  Spruner's 
Historical  Atlas  contains  a  map  of  them.  The 
nature  of  the  g.iu  system  is  fully  discussed  in  the 
works  of  Eichhorn,  Waitz,  and  Bcthmann-Hollweg. 
See  HnsDRED. 

GAUGE.    See  Gage. 

GAXJGER,  an  officer  of  Excise,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  gauge  or  measure  casks  containing  exciseable 
liquors  or  other  commodities.  Such  persons  are 
precluded  from  dealing  in  exciseable  commodities 
under  the  penalty  of  forfcitiu'c  of  office,  and  inca- 
pacity to  till  any  other  in  connection  with  tlie 
excise  ;  and  the  ci-ime  of  accepting  a  bribe  is  punish- 
able with  the  penalty  of  £500,  and  incapacity  for 
any  government  office. 

GAUL.     See  France. 

GAULT,  a  member  of  the  Cretaceous  Formation 
(q.  v.),  separating  the  Lower  from  the  Upx^r  Green- 


GAULTHERIA-GAUSS. 


eanil.  It  consists  of  an  upper  part,  haril  and  sandy, 
and  containing  green  particles  scattered  through  it ; 
and  of  a  lower  portion,  a  stiff  dark  gray,  bhie,  or 
brown  clay,  smooth  and  uniform  in  texture,  and 
very  jilastic,  which  is  manufactured  into  tiles,  bricks, 
and  even  common  pottery.  Concretions  of  iron 
pyrites  and  other  nodules  are  not  uncommon  in  the 
Gault.  The  contained  fossils  are  for  the  most  part 
beautifidly  prestrvcd,  having  1)een  protected  from 
decay  by  being  bui-ied  in  the  tenacioiis  and  compact 
mud  which  forms  the  Gault  beds.  The  most  abun- 
dant remains  are  those  of  cephalopodous  molluscs, 
as  ammonites,  scaphites,  and  turrilites. 

The  Gault  occurs  at  Folkstonc,  and  stretches 
west  through  Kent  and  Surrey  into  Hampshire,  and 
then,  turning  eastwards  throu"li  Sussex,  it  is  seen 
on  the  coast  near  Beechy  Head.  It  also  stretches 
iu  a  narrow  line  from  Dorsetshire,  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  through  the  centre  of  England, 
tiU  it  reaches  the  coast  at  llinstauton,  in  Norfolk. 
Its  maximum  thickness  is  150  feet.  In  Surrey,  the 
Gault  supplies  considerable  quantities  of  phosphatic 
noilules,  largely  used  by  agriculturists  for  fertilising 
soils. 

The  Blackdown  beds  in  Dorsetshire  are  probably 
contemporaneous  with  the  Gault,  the  one  having 
been  deposited  near  the  shore,  whUe  the  fine  mud 
of  the  Gaidt  was  carried  out  to  sea.  The  Black- 
down  beds,  however,  contain  Greensand  fossils 
mixed  with  those  of  the  Gault,  so  that  the  exact 
age  of  the  deposit  is  still  doubtfid. 

GAULTHE'RIA,  a  genus  of  small  jirooumbent 
or  nearly  procumbent  evergreen  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  Erlcecc,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a 
5-valved  capside,  covered  with  the  enlarged  and 
tlesliy  tnbe  of  the  calyx.  They  are  natives  of 
temiier.ate  regions.      O.  procumbcns  is  a    common 


Procmnbcnt  Gaultheria  [GauUhcria  procumbcns) : 
o,  fruit;  6,  flower. 

plant  in  Xorth  .>\jiierica  as  far  south  as  Yirginia, 
and  beara  the  names  of  Partridge  Berry,  Deer 
Berry,  Winter  Greek,  and  MoaNTAix  Tea.  It 
is  about  t<mr  or  five  inches  in  height,  with  small 
whitish  llowers  and  red  'berries,'  which  are  cat- 
able,  but  not  safe  in  any  considerable  quantity, 
because  of  the  pungent  volatile  oil  which  they  con- 
tain. Brandy  iu  wliich  they  have  been  steeped  is 
used  as  a  toiii;.  The  whole  plant  has  an  agree- 
able aromatic  odour  and  taste,  owing  to  the  pre- 
sence of  volatUo  oil,  which,  when  extracteil,  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant,  also  by  druggists 
for  flavouring  sirups,  and  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  jierfumery,  uuder  the  name  of  Oil  of  \yinter 
Grci'ii.  The  leaves  arc  used  both  as  an  astringent 
and  as  a  stimulant ;  and  an  infusion  of  them  is 
used  as  tea  in  iVmcrica,  for  which  purpose  those  of 
another  species  are  also  employed  in  Nepal. — The 


SnALLOX  ((?.  shallon)  is  a  comparatively  large  species, 
two  or  three  feet  high,  with  purple  berries,  which 
are  agreeable  to  the  palate,  and  form  a  considerable 
part  of  the  food  of  Indians  in  the  north-west  of 
America,  of  which  the  plant  is  a  native.  It  grows 
well  under  the  shade  of  woods,  and  has  of  late  been 
planted  in  many  jplaces  in  Britain,  to  afford  food  for 
pheasants  and  other  kinds  of  game.— C.  Mspida  is  a 
native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  bearing  snow-white 
berries,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Wax-cluster. 
The  berries  are  eaten.— Other  species,  some  ofwhich 
are  fragrant,  some  produce  edible  berries,  and  all 
are  beautiful  httle  shrubs,  are  found  in  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains,  the  mountains  of  South  America, 
Australia,  &c.  The  Australian  O.  anlipoda  is  said 
to  be  a  finer  fruit  than  G.  hupida. 

GAUU,  or  GOUR  (Bos  Gaurus),  a  species  of  ox, 
inhabiting  some  of  the  mountain  jimgles  of  India. 
It  is  of  very  large  size,  although  apparently  inferior 
to  the  Arnec  (q.v.).  It  bears  a  considerab'le  resem- 
blance to  the  Gaj-al  (q.  v.),  but  differs  from  it  in  the 
form  of  its  head,  and  in  the  total  want  of  a  dewlap, 
in  which  it  more  nearly  agrees  with  the  Banteug 
of  the  Eastern  ArchipeLago,  although  distinguisheS 
from  it  by  important  anatomical  peculiarities.  See 
Bantexg.     The  back  is  strongly  arched,  having  a 


Gr.ur  [Hos  C«!I)-us).— From  Eoutlcdgc's  Natural 
History. 

remarkable  ridge  of  no  great  thickness,  which  rises 
above  its  general  line,  o\\-mg  to  an  unusual  elongation 
of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebra?.  The  hair 
is  remarkably  short  and  sleek.  The  G.  is  formid- 
able even  to  the  tiger,  and  safe  from  his  attacks. 
It  is  usually  found  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  twenty. 
It  is  extremely  abimdant  in  the  high  insulated  table- 
land of  Mj-n  Pat,  in  South  Eahar,  and  in  the  adjoin- 
ing steep  and  narrow  v.alleys.  It  is  supposed  to  bo 
incapable  of  domestication ;  freipicnt  atteini>ts  for 
this  piu^>ose  are  said  to  have  bceu  made  in  Nepal. 

GAU'RITZ,  a  river  of  the  south  coast  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  in  South  .Africa,  forms  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  ilistrict  of  Zwellcndam,  entering  the  sea  a 
little  to  the  west  of  Mossel  Bay.  Like  nearly  all 
the  streams  of  this  region,  it  is  r.apid,  and  almost 
useless  for  the  purposes  of  navigation. 

G.4.USS,  Karl  Friedrich,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious mathematicians  of  modern  times,  was  bom  at 
Bnmswick  on  the  ."JOth  of  April  1777.     In  1795,  he 

went  to  the  university  of  Gottingcn,  where,  at  this 
early  age,  ho  made  a  number  of  important  discoveries, 
one  of  which  may  be  mentioned,  as  it  had  occui>ied 
the  attention  of  geometers  from  the  time  of  EucUd, 
viz.,  the  division  of  the  circle  into  17  equal  parts. 


GAUZEi-GAVELKIND. 


He  soon  afterwanU  returnoj  to  Brunswick,  and 
there,  in  ISOl,  publishcJ  his  Z)i.«/«i«i<ioh«s  Matke- 
nuilitte,  a  work  treating  of  indetenuiuate  analysis 
or  transcendental  arithmetic,  wliich  contains,  besides 
other  important  theorems,  a  new  demonstration  of 
that  of  I'ermat  concerning  triangular  numbers. 
WhUe  0.  w;is  at  work  on  tliese  speculations,  he  w;is 
in  great  measure  ignorant  of  what  had  been  done 
in  the  same  subject  by  previous  mathematicians, 
which  accounts  for  the  presence  in  his  work  of  a 
number  of  old  theorems.  But  the  discovery  of  the 
planet  Ceres  on  the  first  day  of  the  1 9th  c.  guided 
the  energies  of  G.  into  a  new  lield  of  researcli.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  calculate  the  elements  of  its 
orbit,  according  to  methods  of  liis  own  invention, 
and  his  assiduous  application,  and  the  accuracy  of 
his  res\dts,  excited  general  admiration.  On  the  lUs- 
covcry  of  Pallas  by  Olbers  in  1SI)2,  G.  set  himself 
to  calculate  its  orbit ;  and  his  residts,  valuable  .at 
the  time,  are  even  now  models  of  ingenuity  and 
researcli.  For  these  labours,  he  received,  in  ISIO, 
from  the  French  Institute,  the  medal  founded  by 
Lalande.  In  1807,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Observatory  at  Gottingeu,  an  office  peculiarly  suited 
to  his  t.oste.s,  and  about  this  time  commenced  to 
prepare  for  publication  his  celebrated  work,  Tlworia 
Motus  Corporum  C(ele-stiuin  in  Seclionihus  ConkU 
AmliKnlium,  which  appeared  in  1809.  In  this  work, 
G.  has  developed  a  method  of  calcidating,  in  the 
most  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  most  e.xact 
manner,  the  orbits  of  the  bodies  in  the  solar  system. 
It  is  also  to  him  that  the  credit  is  chiefly  due  of 
discovering  the  great  comet  of  1811,  the  elements 
of  whose  orbit  he  calculated  with  the  most  sm-- 
prising  accuracy. 

In  1821,  G.  was  charged  by  the  Hanoverian  govern- 
ment with  the  triangidation  of  the  kingilom  of 
Hanover,  and  the  me;isurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian.  In  executing  this  work,  G.  found  that  the 
apiiliauces  then  in  use  did  not  allow  of  the  vertices 
of  the  tri.angles  being  seen  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance with  sufficient  distinctness,  and  to  remedy 
this  defect,  he  invented  the  Heliotrope  (q.  v.).  About 
18.31,  Wilhelm  Edward  Weber  arrived  at  Giittingen, 
and  communicated  to  G.  a  part  of  his  own  enthu- 
eiasm  for  magnetic  researches.  It  woidd  take  up 
too  much  space  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  many 
discoveries  he  made  in  this  new  branch  of  study ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  he  has  invented  a  'm.agnet- 
ometer'  which  measures  the  'magnetic  intensity' 
with  great  accuracy,  and  that  he  has  jirobably  con- 
tributed more  to  the  advancement  of  this  branch  of 
science  than  any  one  before  him.  G.  was  })ronounced 
by  La  Place  to  be  the  greatest  mathematician  of 
Europe.  He  died  at  Giittingen  on  the  2,'id  of 
February  lS"i5.  Among  his  most  celebrated  works, 
besides  the  two  above  mentioned,  are  the  Dii'/uisitio 
de  Elanentl-i  Kll'ipticis  Palladis  ex  Opposliionibus 
Annomm  1803—1809  (1810) ;  Thcoria  Combina- 
tionis  Obacrvalionuiii  Errorihus  Minhnh  Obnoxltr. 
(Gottingen,  1823),  containing  a  full  explanation  of 
his  pecidiar  method  above  mentioned ;  Iiitensitas 
via  Magnelic(B  Terreslris  ad  Mensuram  Absolutam 
Jievomta  (1832),  &c. 

GAUZE,  a  light  transparent  silken  fabric,  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  its  name  from  having  first 
been  manufactured  in  Gaza,  a  city  of  Palestine. 
France  and  Switzerland  produce  consideraljle  quan- 
tities of  gauze.  The  chief  seats  of  the  manufacture 
in  Great  Britain  are  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  and  the 
Bun-ounding  districts.  The  openness  of  texture  is 
obtained  by  crossing  the  warp  threads  between  each 
thread  of  the  weft,  so  that  the  weft  passes  through 
a  s\iccession  of  loops  in  tlie  warp,  and  the  threads 
are  thus  kept  apart,  \vithout  the  liability  to  sliding 
from  their  places,  which  would  take  place  if  simple 


weaving  were  left  so  loose  and  open.  Inferior 
qualities  of  gauze  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  silk  and 
cotton. 

G.'VVA'ZZI,  Al.E.«s.4Ni)R0,  a  popular  Italian 
preacher  and  reformer,  distinguished  by  his 
patriotic  zeal  in  promoting  the  civil  and  religious 
]>rogress  of  his  country,  was  born  at  Bologna  in 
1809.  At  the  early  aje  of  IG,  he  became  a  monk 
of  the  Barnabite  order,  and  subsequently  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  at  IVaples,  where 
he  speedily  acquired  great  reputation  as  an  orator. 
By  his  uncompromising  advocacy  of  church  and 
state  reformation,  he  earned  at  once  the  enthu- 
siastic admir.ation  of  the  progressive  party  among 
his  countrjTiien,  and  the  bitter  enmity  of  the 
priestly  and  ruling  powers. 

On  the  accession  of  Pius  IX.  to  the  papal  chair, 
G.  was  one  of  the  foremost  supiwrters  of  the  liberal 
policy  that  inaugurated  that  pontiff's  reign  ;  and 
having  repaired  to  Rome,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  ditTusion  of  political  enlightenment  and  patri- 
otic aspirations  among  the  masses  of  the  Roman 
population.  The  pope  sanctioned  his  political 
labom-s,  and  apj^ointed  him  abnoner  of  a  body  of 
10,000  Roman  troops,  who  volunteered  for  the 
campaign  of  Lombardy  in  1848,  and  quitted  Rome 
to  proceed  to  Vicenza.  To  G.'s  fervid  and  patriotic 
oratory  may  be  attributed,  in  no  slight  degree,  the 
universal  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  evoked  throughout 
Italy  during  this  period  of  her  history.  He  was 
called  the  Pietro  Eremita^  or  Peter  the  Hermit  of 
the  n.ationol  crusade.  The  Roman  legion  having 
been  recalled  by  the  pope,  G.  continued  in  Florence, 
Genoa,  and  Bologna,  to  agitate  in  f.avour  of  the 
national  movement.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
republic  at  Rome,  he  was  apjioiuted  almoner-in- 
chief  to  the  national  army.  Under  his  superin- 
tendence, efficient  mihtary  hosjiitals  were  organised 
and  attended  bj'  a  band  of  Roman  Ladies,  who 
volunteered  their  seriuces  and  co-oj)eration  in  tha 
care  of  the  wounded.  Rome  having  fallen,  G. 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  delivered  numerous 
addresses  and  lectures,  illustrative  of  the  ])olitical 
and  religious  aims  of  his  country.  Recent  events 
have  enabled  him  to  return  again  to  Italy,  and  he  is 
once  more  tlie  foremost  of  his  fellow-countrymen  in 
the  advocacy  of  the  ciril  and  religious  progress  of 
his  native  land.  He  has  for  some  time  completely 
broken  with  the  papacy,  not  only  in  its  temporal, 
but  in  its  religions  aspect ;  yet  he  is  not,  and  does 
not  wish  to  be  considered  as  exactly  a  Protest.ant. 
He  proclaims  the  necessity  of  a  return  to  primitive 
and  apostolic  Christianity,  but  is  n*t  disposed  to 
accept  for  Italy  any  ready-made  theological  system 
from  abroad.  His  leading  doctrine,  however, 
'  Justification  by  Faith,'  is  apparently  the  same,  at 
least  in  form,  as  that  held  by  the  reformers  of  the 
IGth  century. 

GA'VELKIND.  Lappenberg,  who,  though  a 
foreigner,  when  endorsed  by  Ids  translator  Thorpe, 
may  be  considered  as  the  very  highest  authority  on 
the  subject  of  English  social  antiquities,  thus  speaks 
of  the  custom  of  gavelkind :  '  A  fact  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  existence  do'wn  to  recent  times  of  the 
old  British  law  of  succession  in  Wales,  Kent,  and 
some  parts  of  Northumberland,  called  gavelkind. 
As  far  as  we  are  enabled  to  understand  it,  in  its 
mixture  with  Anglo-Saxon  law,  all  the  sons  of 
the  father  inherited,  but  the  youngest  possessed 
the  homestead ;  the  eldest,  or  the  next  following 
capable  of  bearing  arms,  had  the  heriot— that  is, 
the  arms  offensive  and  defensive  of  his  father,  and 
his  horse.  Even  the  sou  of  an  outlaw  could  not  be 
deprived  of  the  entire  succession,  but  of  the  half 
only '  (vol.  i.  p.  39).     Though  a  Celtic  origin  is  here, 


GAVIAI^GAY. 


:i3   by  Blackstone  (Stephen,  iv.   p.  548),   probably 
with  reason,  ascribed  to  this  tenure,  it  seems  to  be 
the    general    opinion    of   legal    antiquaries    {Selden, 
Atialtcl.   1.   2,  c.  7;   Stephen,  vol.   i.   213)   that   it 
prevailed  over  the  whole  kingdom  in  Anglo-Saxon  ' 
times,   and  that   in   Kent   and    elsewhere    it   was  ■ 
anion"  the  'liberties'  which  the  people  were  per-  j 
mitteJ  to  retain   at   the   Conquest.      Most  of  the  ; 
many  derivations  which  have  been   suggested  for  ] 
the    word    are,    moreover,    Teutonic — </{/'  eal  cyn, 
ccjuivalent  to   Lord  Coke's  gnre   all  khule,  or  the 
custom  which  gives  to  all  children  alike,  being  the 
most  probable.     In  Wales,  gavelkind  obtained  uni- 
versally till   the  time  of   Henry  VIII.  (34  and  3.5 
Henry  VIII.  c.  26),  and  in  some  parts  of  England 
it  is   not   yet   abolished.     In   Kent,  all  lands  that 
have  not   been   disga veiled   by   act  of   parliament, 
are  held   to  l>e  gavelkind — a  fact  which  ought  to 
be  borne  in  mind  in  all  trans.-xctions  with  Kentish 
jiroperty.       In   addition   to    the   characteristics  of 
this   teniire   already  noticed,  Blackstone   mentions 
the  following :    '  I.  The  tenant  is  of  age  sutiicicnt 
to   aUeu   his   estate    by   feoffment    at   the    age   of 
15.     2.    The   estate   does    not    escheat   in   case   of  j 
an  attainder  for  felony  ;    their  maxim  being,  "  the  | 
father  to  the  bough,  the  son  to  the  plough."     3.  In 
most  places,  the  tenant  had  a   power  of  devising 
lands   by  wiU  before   the   statute   authorising  the  j 
devise  of  lands  generally  was  made.' 

GAA'IjVIj  (Garialis),  a  genus  of  reptiles  of  the  1 
Crocodile     (q.  v.)    family,     conspicuously    differing  | 
from   true   crocotliles   and   from    aliigatore   in    the 
gre.it     length     and     slendemess     of     the    muzzle. 
Another  peculiar  character  is  a  large  cartilaginous 
swelling  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  in  the  males,  j 
aroimd  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils.      The  teeth  are 
very  numerous,  about  120 ;  they  are  more  equal  in 
size  than  those  of  the  other  animals  of  this  family, 
although  some  of  the  first  are  rather  larger  than 
the  rest,  the  longest  of  the  lower  jaw  being  received  j 
into  notches  in  the  upper,  as  in  the  true  crocodiles.  ' 
The  head  is  very  broad,  the  narrow  muzzle  begins  ; 
abrujitly,  and  in  it  the  branches  of  the  bone  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  united  and  prolonged  as  one.     There 
are  two  great  perforations  in  the  bones  of  the  skidl 
behind  the  eyes,  externally  marked  by  depressions. 


of  the  recent  Crocodilida,  frequently  attaining  the 
length  of  25  feet ;  but  owing  to  the  slendemess 
of  its  muzzle,  it  is  esteemed  less  dangerous  than  a 
true  crocodile  of  smaller  size.  The  form  of  the 
muzzle  seems  particularly  to  adajit  it  for  ])reying  on 
fish.  The  cartilaginous  swelling  at  the  extremity  of 
the  muzzle  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  .Lilian's 
statement,  that  the  crocodile  of  the  Ganges  ha<l  a 
horn  at  the  ti]>  of  its  snout.  Fossil  ga\ials,  different 
from  the  existing  species,  have  been  found  in  Eocene 
deposits,  as  at  Bracklesham,  in  England. 

GAVINAN A,  or  CAVtXANA,  a  vUlage  of  622 
inhabitants,  picturesquely  situated  amiil  the  Tuscan 
Apennines,  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lima,  owes 
its  interest  to  the  memorable  battle  fought  around 
its  walls  in  1530,  between  the  republican  forces 
of  Florence,  led  by  their  great  cajitain.  Ferruccio, 
and  the  Imperialists  he.-uled  by  I'hilibcrt,  Prince 
of  Orange.  The  Florentines  were  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  their  commander ;  and  the  death  of 
Ferruccio,  whose  name  in  Tuscany  has  become 
synonjTBOus  with  chivalry  and  patriotism,  gave  the 
final  blow  to  the  hberties  of  the  republic. 

GAVOTTE,  a  piece  of  music  of  a  lively  charac- 
ter, peculiarly  suitable  for  dancing,  but  more  adapted 
for  the  stage  than  for  private  performance.  It 
consists  of  two  repetitions  of  eight  bars  each,  begin- 
ning with  an  up-beat,  and  is  in  alla-brcve  time. 
The  fundamental  rhj-thm  of  the  gavotte  is  therefore 


Ga^ial  {GavlalU  Oungcticu^l. 

The  plates  which  cover  the  back  and  the  nape  of 
the  neck  are  united.  The  crest  of  the  tail  is  much 
elevated ;  the  feet  are  webbed  to  the  extremity  of 
the  toes ;  the  whole  habits  as  aquatic  as  those  of 
the  crocodile  of  the  Nile.  The  only  perfectly 
ascertained  species,  O.  Gaitgeticus,  inhabits  the 
Ganges.     It  attains  a  greater  size  than  any  other 


by  which  the  second  bar  has  a  remarkable  c^sura. 
Formerly,  the  gavotte  was  often  introduced  into 
sonatas  and  other  pieces,  where  its  form  was  not  so 
strictly  adhered  to  ;  stiU  the  eight-bar  repetition 
was  always  considered  necessary. 

GAY,  John,  was  bom  at  Barnstaple,  in  Devon- 
shire, in  16S8.  Although  of  an  ancient  family,  his 
father  was  in  reduced  circumstances,  and  G.  was 
apprenticed  to  a  London  silk-mercer ;  but  disliking 
his  occupation,  he  was  finally  released  from  it  by  his 
master.  In  1711,  he  pubhshed  a  descriptive  poem, 
dedicated  to  Pope.  The  year  after,  he  was  ajipointed 
secretary  to  the  Duchess  of  Monmouth.  His  next 
work  was  The  Shej>lter(rs  Week;  in  Six  PaeloraU, 
which  gained  considerable  applause.  About  the 
same  time  he  produced  Trivia  and  Tlie  Fan,  full 
of  descriptions  of  low  city-life,  a  good  deal  in 
Swiff  3  style — indeed,  he  was  assisted  by  Swift  in 
the  former  work.  In  1713,  appeared  his  comedy. 
The  Wife  of  Bath,  which  did  not  succeed.  Next 
year,  he  relinquished  his  situation  in  the  family  of 
the  Duchess  of  Monmouth,  and  accompanied  Lord 
Clarendon,  then  envoy-extraordinary  to  Hanover,  as 
his  secretary.  Within  two  months,  he  was  again  in 
London,  where,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope,  he  wrote 
a  poem  on  the  Royal  Family,  and  shortly  afterwards 
produced  his  play.  What  d'l/e  C'nU  It  ?  Encouraged 
by  its  success,  he  brought  out  .inother  play  entitled 
Three  Hours  after  Marriaije,  which  faded  signally. 
In  1720,  he  puljlished  his  poems  by  subscription,  and 
is  said  to  have  realised  £1000  thereby.  He  at  the 
same  time  received  a  present  of  South  Sea  stock, 
and  was  considered  a  rich  man,  when  all  his  sudden 
fortune  was  lost  in  the  collapse  of  that  famous 
bubble.  In  1724,  he  produced  his  play  of  The  Cap- 
tives, and  wrote  a  volume  of  Fables  in  1726.  When 
Swift  came  to  live  with  Pope  at  Twickenham  in 
1726,  he  talked  to  G.  of  a  Newgate  pastoral,  and 
Tlie  Beggars'  Opera  was  the  result.  The  success 
of  this  piece  was  immense ;  it  had  a  run  of  sixty- 
three  nights,  and  took  captive  town  and  countrj-. 
G.   afterwards  wrote  a  sequel,  entitled  Polh),  but 


G  A  YAH— G  A  Y-LUSSAC. 


owing  to  some  misuudi-rstauiling  \%ith  the  lortl 
cliamlxTlaiii,  its  rcprcsoutatiou  was  ])roliibiteiL  Uu 
its  piiMicatiou,  it  brought  the  author  iI200.  About 
thin  time,  he  went  to  live  with  the  Puke  of 
yuccusberry,  and  remained  witli  him  during  tlie 
rest  of  his'hfe.  He  was  seized  with  an  intlamuia- 
tory  fever,  and  died  after  an  iUness  of  three  days. 
His  death  took  place  on  the  4th  December  1732, 
and  he  w;is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Although  more  than  a  century  has  elapsed,  and 
the  satire  and  the  allusions  are  obsolete,  The  Beg- 
gars'  Opera  is  still  oceaaion.-dly  represented.  It 
exists,  however,  mainly  in  virtue  of  its  songs  and 
music.  G.  had  a  happy  lyrical  vein,  and  could  turn 
a  stanza  on  the  beauty  of  woman,  and  the  f.asci- 
nations  of  the  wineeup,  and  the  fleeting  of  youth, 
with  considerable  grace.  His  fahle.%  and  his  serious 
and  comic  poems,  are  only  now  to  be  found  in 
libraries.  The  wit  and  the  sentiment  are  alike 
dust.  Of  all  he  has  done,  his  ballad  of  JJlark-ei/ed 
Susan  possesses  the  strongest  vitality,  and  thrills 
now  and  then  our  theatres  and  concert-rooms. 

GAY'AH,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Bahar, 
in  the  sub- presidency  of  Bengal,  stands  on  the 
Phalga,  an  affluent  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  2-4°  4S' 
N.,  and  long.  85°  4'  E.  It  contains  .about  4.5,000 
inhabitants  ;  but  as  it  is  a  place  of  great  sanctity,  it 
is  annually  visited  by  at  least  100,000  pilgrims.  It 
consists  of  two  towns — the  older  Ijeing  reserved  for 
the  Bi'ahmins  and  their  immediate  dependents, 
and  the  newer  being  occupied  by  the  popul.ation 
at  large — and  on  an  intermetliate  area  stand  the 
public  cst.ablisliments.  The  people  rely  chiedy  on 
the  expenditure  of  the  superstitious  visitors,  some 
of  whom  have  been  known  to  leave  behind  them 
i-5000  each. 

GAYAL  (Bos  Gavmia),  a  species  of  ox,  found 
wild  in  the  mountains  of  Araeau,  Chittamng, 
Tipura,  and  Sylhet,  and  which  has  long  been 
domesticated  in  these  countries  and  in  the  eastern 
parts  of  Bengal.  It  is  about  etmal  in  size  to  the 
Indian  buffalo  ;  and,  like  the  buffalo,  it  cari-ies  the 
head  with  the  niuzzlc  projecting  forward.  The 
head  is  very  broad  and  Hat  at  the  upper  part, 
suddenly  contracted  towards  the  nose ;  mth  short 


Cayal  Cow  {Bos  Oava:us[ 


horns,  a  little  curved,  projecting  nearly  in  the  plane 
of  the  forehead,  aiul  a  very  wide  space  between  them 
at  the  b,ase.  There  is  no  proiicr  hump,  but  a  sharp 
ridge  on  the  shoulders  and  fore-part  of  the  back. 
The  prevailln"  colour  is  brown,  generally  dark. 
The  Kookics  keep  herds  of  gay.als,  wliich  they  jier- 
mit  to  roam  at  large  during  the  day  in  the  forests, 
but  which  return  home  at  night  of  their  own  accord : 

052 


to  seciue  whicli  the  anim.als  arc  occasionally  supplied 
with  a  little  salt,  which  lias  the  greatest  attractions 
for  them.  Their  milk  is  extremely  rich,  but  not 
abundant ;  the  Kookies,  however,  do  not  use  the 
milk,  but  rear  them  entirely  for  their  flesh  and 
skins. 

GAY-LtTSSAC,  Lons  ,Toi!Krii,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  chemists  and  jihysicists  of  recent 
times,  was  born  on  the  Gth  of  December  1778,  at  St 
Leonard  (Haute-Vienne).  In  17'J5,  he  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  jirepare  for  the  examinations  requisite  for 
admittance  into  the  Polytechnic  School  ;  and  his 
admission  to  that  institution  took  place  on  the 
27th  December  1707.  After  three  years'  study, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  department  I>fs  Pouts  et 
Chaussfes.  BerthoUet,  who  was  then  I'rofessor  of 
Chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  having  recog- 
nised Ids  zeal  aud  talents  for  original  research, 
selected  him  as  his  assistant  at  Arcucil,  where  tho 
government  chemical  works  were  situated.  The 
study  of  Dalton's  Kxprrimtntid  Essays,  published  ill 
1801,  directed  the  attention  of  the  yoimg  chemist 
to  the  do])artment  of  chemical  ])hysics.  In  that 
year  he  imblished  his  first  Jlemoir,  which  treated 
of  '  the  dilatation  of  gases  and  vapours,'  and  which 
was  speedily  followed  by  others  on  'the  improve- 
ment of  thermometers  and  barometers  ; '  on  '  the 
tension  of  vapoiirs,  their  mixture  with  gases,  aud 
the  determination  of  their  density,  &c. ; '  and  on 
'  capillary  action.'  In  conseipience  of  the  reput.ation 
which  ho  acquired  from  these  researches,  he  was 
commissioned,  in  associ.ation  with  Biot,  by  the 
Institute  of  France,  to  make  a  Ixdloon  ascent,  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  whether  the  m.agnetic 
force  existed  at  considerable  heights  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  only  on  the  surface,  as  had 
been  asserted  bj-  some  physicists.  A  notice  of  this 
ascent,  and  of  another  ascent  which  he  made  alone, 
is  given  in  the  article  Balloon.  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  investigated  with  him  the  projierties 
of  air  brought  down  from  .a  height  of  more  than 
23,000  feet,  aud  their  joint  Memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  (read  on  the  1st  of  October  1804)  con- 
tained the  first  announcement  of  the  fact,  that  oxygen 
and  hyib-ogeu  imite  to  form  water  in  the  sim}>le  pro- 
portion of  100  parts  by  bulk  (volumes)  of  the  former 
to  200  parts  of  the  latter.  The  simplicity  of  the  ratio 
in  which  these  gases  stood  to  each  other  in  their 
combining  proportions,  induced  him  to  study  the 
combining  volumes  of  other  gases,  and  thus  led  him 
to  the  important  discovery  of  the  laiu  of  volumes, 
which  was  annoimoed  in  1808,  and  is  one  of  tho 
most  general  aud  important  laws  in  the  whole 
domain  of  chemistry.  Davy's  discoveries  of  potas- 
sium and  sodium,  by  the  decomposing  action  of 
the  voltaic  pile,  having  excited  much  .attentiou  in 
France,  Napoleon  directed  G.  and  Thenard  to 
pursue  this  class  of  researches.  The  results  of  these 
investigations  appeared  in  their  JfccJierc/ies  Physico* 
clihmques,  in  two  volumes,  published  in  1811. 
Amongst  the  most  important  of  the  discoveries 
announced  in  these  volumes,  are  a  new  chemical 
process  which  yields  potassium  and  sodium  much 
more  abundantly  than  the  voltaic  pile,  the  determi- 
nation of  the  composition  of  boracic  acid  both 
an.alj^ic.allyand  synthetically,  and  new  and  improved 
methods  of  analysing  organic  eomjiounds.  (Boron 
wag,  however,  simultaneously  discovered  in  Eng- 
land liy  D.avy.)  Although  the  discovery  of  iodine 
(in  1811)  is  due  to  Courtois,  it  was  G.  who  (in 
181."?)  first  described  its  distinctive  properties,  gave 
it  the  name  which  it  now  bears,  and  jiroved  tliat  it 
is  an  elementary  body;  he  w.is  also  the  first  to 
form  synthetically  the  compounds  of  iodine  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  kno\vn  as  hydriodic  and 
iodic  acids.    In  1815,  he  announced  the  discovery 


GAZA— GAZETTE. 


of  cyanogen,  which  presented  the  first  known 
exaini)le  of  a  compound  body  {C,,N)  exhibiting 
many  jiropcrties  which  were  previously  beUeved  to 
pertain  specially  to  simple  or  elementary  bodies. 
His  Memoir  on  this  compound,  in  the  95th  volume 
of  the  Annalfs  de  Cliiiiiif^  is  a  model  of  what  a  com- 
plete and  exhaustive  chemical  investigation  should 
i)e.  Our  space  will  not  allow  of  more  than  a  passing 
allusion  to  his  subsequent  investigations  regarding 
the  falirication  of  hydrated  sulphuric  acid,  his 
essays  on  the  bleaching  chlorides,  on  the  alcohols, 
and  on  the  alkalies  employed  in  commerce.  In  1S05, 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  jVrts  | 
and  Manufactures,  established  by  the  Jlinistcr  of  i 
C'oiumerce.  In  1S18,  he  was  appointed  to  superintend 
the  government  manufactory  of  gunpowder  and  salt- 
petre ;  and  in  1829,  he  received  the  lucrative  office 
of  chief  assayer  to  the  mint,  where  he  introduced 
several  important  chemical  changes.  In  1831,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ; 
and  in  1839,  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He 
never,  however,  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  and 
was  diligently  engaged  in  scientific  research  imtil  his 
last  illness.  For  many  years,  he  was  the  editor,  in 
association  with  Arago,  of  the  Annaies  de  Cliimie 
et  de  Phyxique.  He  died  at  Paris,  9th  May  1S50, 
from  atrophy  of  the  heart. 

GAZA,  Theodokc'S,  a  successor  of  Emanuel 
Chrysoloras  as  teacher  of  the  Greek  language 
and  literature  in  the  West.  When  his  native  city, 
Thessaloniea,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  in 
1430,  he  fled  to  Italy,  where  he  studied  the  Latin 
language,  under  Yictorinus  of  Feltre,  at  Mantua ; 
after  1-141,  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  newly  j 
cst.ablished  gymnasium,  or  high  school,  of  Ferrara, ; 
and  ])rofessor  of  Greek.  He  was  invited  by  Po]>e 
Nicholas  v.,  along  with  other  learned  Greeks,  to, 
liome,  and  was  emi)lo}"ed  in  making  Latin  versions 
of  Greek  authors.  After  the  death  of  Nicholas, 
King  Alfonso  invited  him  to  Naples  in  1456 ;  but 
two  years  after,  the  death  of  this  monarch  also 
necessitated  his  return  to  Rome,  where  he  found  a 
patron  in  Cardin.al  Bessarion,  who  obtained  for  him 
a  small  benefice  in  the  south  of  Italy,  either  in 
Ajpulia  or  Calabria.  Here  he  died  in  1478,  at  an 
advanced  age. 

G.  has  been  warmly  praised  by  subsequent  scholars, 
such  as  Politian,  Erasmus,  Scaliger,  and  Mclanc- 
thon.  His  principal  writings  are  his  I ntrodurtivir. 
Gmmmalices,  libri  iv.  (a  work  on  the  elements  of 
Greek  grammar,  first  published  by  Aldus  Manutius 
at  Venice,  1495  a.d  ,  and  long  held  in  high  repute),  a 
number  of  epistles  to  different  persons  on  different 
literary  subjects,  and  a  variety  of  important  trans- 
lations into  Latin  of  portions  of  Ai-istotle,  Thco- 
jihrastus,  St  Chrysostom,  Hippocrates,  and  other 
Greek  writers. 

G.VZA  (Hcb.  signifies  'strong'),  (now  called 
GrzzEH),  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  Palestine,  is 
situated  about  three  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the 
borders  of  the  desert  which  separates  Palestine 
from  Egj-pt.  It  originally  belonged  to  the  Philis- 
tines, and  was  a  place  of  Importance  at  the  period 
of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites.  It 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Samson  ; 
anil  after  many  vicissitudes  in  the  wars  between 
the  Israelites  and  the  Philistines,  it  was  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  .Tudah,  in  whose  possession  it  finally 
remained.  In  the  year  333  B.C.,  G.  was  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great ;  and  from  that  period  down 
to  1709,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  French  under 
Kleber,  it  has  been  the  scene  of  many  battles  and 
sieges.  Const.antiue  the  Great,  who  rebuilt  the 
town,  made  it  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  modern  G. 
has  the  api>earance  of  being  a  collection  of  mere 


villages.  It  has  no  gates,  no  fortifications  or  defences 
of  any  kind.  The  only  building  of  interest  is  the 
great  mosque,  with  its  tall  oct.agonal  minaret  and 
peaked  roof.  G.  has  manufactures  of  soap  and 
cotton  stufTs  ;  and,  owing  to  its  situation  near  the 
Mediteri'anean  an<l  on  the  caravan  route  to  Egypt, 
it  has  a  good  trade  both  by  sea  and  land.  Pop. 
upwards  of  15,000,  from  200  to  300  of  whom  are 
Christians,  and  the  rest  Mohammedans. 

GAZE,  in  Heraldry.  When  a  beast  of  the  chase, 
.a.s  a  hart  or  stag,  is  rej)resented  as  uffronKe,  or 
full-faced,  it  is  said  to  be  at  gaze. 

GAZE'LLE  (Antilope  Dorcas  or  Oazella  Dorcan), 
a  species  of  antelope,  about  the  size  of  a  roebuck,  but 
of  lighter  .and  more  graceful  form,  with  longer  and 
more  slender  limbs,  in  these  respects  exhibiting  the 
typical  characters  of  the  antelopes  in  their  highest 
perfection.  It  is  of  a  light  tawny  colour,  the  under 
parts  white  ;  a  broad  brown  band  along  each  flank  ; 
the  hair  short  and  smooth.  The  face  is  reddish 
fawn-colour,  with  white  and  dark  stripes.  The  horns 
of  the  old  males  are  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  bend- 
ing outward  and  then  inward,  Uke  the  sides  of  a 
lyre,  also  backward  at  the  base,  and  forward  at  the 
tips,  tapering  to  a  point,  surrounded  by  thirteen  or 
fourteen  permanent  rings,  the  rings  near  the  base 
being  closest  together  and  most  perfect.  The  horns 
of  the  fem.ale  are  sm.aller  and  obscurely  ringed. 
The  ears  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed  ;  the  eyes 
very  large,  soft,  and  black ;  there  is  a  tuft  of  hair 
on  each  knee  ;  the  tail  is  short,  with  black  hairs  on 
its  upper  surface  only,  and  at  its  tip.  The  G.  is  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Africa,  and  of  Syria,  Arabi.a, 
and  Persia.  Great  herds  of  gazelles  frequent  the 
northern  borders  of  the  Sahara  ;  and  notwithstand- 
ing their  great  powers  of  flight,  and  the  resistance 
which  they  are  capable  of  making  when  compelled 
to  stand  at  bay — the  herd  closing  together  with 
the  females  and  young  in  the  centre,  and  the  males 
presenting  their  horns  all  around— lions  and  pan- 
thers destroy  them  in  great  numbers.  The  speed 
of  the  G.  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  successfidly 
hunted  by  any  kind  of  dog,  but  in  some  parts  of 
the  East  it  is  taken  by  the  assistance  of  falcons, 
of  a  small  sjiecies,  which  fasten  on  its  head,  and 
by  the  flapping  of  their  ■wings  blind  and  confuse 
it,  so  that  it  soon  f.all3  a  prey  to  the  hunter.  It  is 
also  captured  in  enclosures  made  ne.ar  its  drinking- 
places.  Although  naturally  very  wild  and  timid, 
it  is  easily  domesticated,  and,  when  t.aken  young, 
becomes  extremely  familiar.  Tame  gazelles  are 
very  common  in  the  Asiatic  countries  of  which 
the  species  is  a  native  ;  and  the  poetry  of  these 
countries  abounds  in  allusions  both  to  the  beauty 
and  the  gentleness  of  the  gazelle.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  gazelles  of  Asia  may  be  of  different 
species  from  the  African,  but  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  they  are  the  same.  The  Ariel  G.  (.4. 
Arabica)  perhaps  differs  rather  as  a  variety  than 
as  a  species,  and  is  even  more  symmetrical  and 
graceful  than  the  common  kind.  There  are  several 
species  very  nearly  alhed  to  the  G.,  among  which 
is  Antilope  (or  Gazella)  Soemmerinrfii,  a  native  of 
Abyssinia,  with  the  curvatures  of  the  horns  very 
marked  and  sudden. — Some  confusion  has  arisen 
among  naturalists  as  to  the  aiiplication  of  the 
name  G.,  originally  Arabic  ;  and  it  has  not  only 
been  given  to  the  leucoryx  of  the  ancients,  a  very 
(Ufferent  species,  but  even  to  the  gemshnc  of  South 
Africa.  The  true  G.  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  is  accurately  described  by  .(ilian  under  the 
name  dorcas,  which  was  also  given  to  the  roe. 

GAZE'TTE.  A  gazette  was  a  Venetian  coin 
worth  somewhat  less  than  a  farthing  ;  and  the  name 
was  hence  applied  to  a  sort  of  gossiping  sheet,  or 

e63 


GAZETTEEB^GECKO. 


primitive  iiewsiiaiior,  tli.-it  was  sold  for  tliat  sum  !vt 
Venioo.  See  Nicwspapkr.  In  its  English  aceei>ta- 
tion,  it  means  the  official  newspaper,  iu  which  j)ro- 
clamatioiis,  notices  of  ap]>oiutmeiits,  ami  the  Hkc,  are 
published  by  the  povernnicnt.  The  Oazette  is  said 
to  have  beou  published  for  the  first  time  at  Oxford 
in  KiO'i.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Loudon, 
tlic  title  was  changed  to  the  London  Gazelle.  It 
is  now  jmblished  ou  Tuesdays  and  Fridays.  Pro- 
clamations printed  in  the  Gazette  are  probative, 
witliout  production.  But  the  rule  is  different  as  to 
presentations  or  gi-ants  to  private  persons.  Publica- 
tion of  a  dissolution  of  partnership  in  the  Gazette  is 
not  a  sulficient  notice  to  jicrsous  who  were  formerly 
in  the  habit  of  dealing  with  the  company.  Even  as 
regards  ]iarties  dealing  for  the  tirst  time,  the  ten- 
dency in  England  is  to  doubt  the  sulBciency  of  such 
notice  in  all  cases  ;  whereas,  in  Scotland,  the  oppo- 
site tendency  prevails,  and  it  is  held  that  persons 
contracting  with  a  company  for  the  first  time  are 
bound  to  ^inquire  into  its  existing  condition,  and 
consequently  that  notice  even  iu  a  provincial  news- 
paper may  suffice.  In  practice,  all  reasonable  means 
ought  to  be  resorted  to.  Under  the  Bankrupt  .\ct 
and  other  statutes,  certain  notices  are  directed  to 
be  given  in  the  Gazette. 

GAZETTEER.     See  Dictiox.vky  and  E.ncvclo- 

TMDIA. 

GAZOGENE.     See  Aerated  W.iter. 

GAZONS,  in  Fortification,  are  sods  laid  over 
newly  made  earthworks,  to  consolidate  them,  and 
prevent  the  soil  from  rolling  do\vn. 

GEARING,  a  term  apjjlied  to  the  parts  of 
machinery  by  which  motion  in  one  part  of  a 
machine  is  commmiicatcd  to  another  ;  gearing  con- 
sists in  general  of  toothud-wheels,  friction-wheels, 
endless  bauds,  screws,  &c.,  or  of  a  combination  of 
these.  When  the  communication  between  the  two 
parts  of  the  machine  is  interrupted,  the  machine 
is  said  to  bo  out  of  gear;  and  when  the  com- 
munication is  restored,  it  is  said  to  be  in  gear. 
In  the  case  of  a  thrashing-mill,  e.  g.,  tlriveu  by 
a  steam-engine,  the  gearing  usually  consists  of  an 
endless  band  which  communicates  motion  from 
the  axle  of  the  fly-wheel  to  that  of  the  drum. 
If  the  band  were  slipped  ofT  from  one  wheel,  or 
slackened  so  that  niotion  could  not  be  communicated 
by  means  of  it,  then  the  machine  woidd  be  out  of 
gear.  Gearing  which  can  be  put  in  and  out  of  gear  is 
called  movable  gearing  ;  that  which  cannot,  as,  for 
instance,  the  wheel-work  of  a  watch,  is  caWeA  fixed 
gearing.  Gearing  which  consists  of  wheel-work  or 
endless  Screws  (q.  v.)  is  \mt  out  of  gear  either  by 
means  of  one  of  the  wheels  sliding  along  its  axis, 
or  being  moved  out  of  its  i)lace  horizontally  or 
vertically  by  means  of  a  lever.  Straight  gearing 
is  used  when  the  planes  of  motion  are  parallel  to 
each  other ;  levelled  gearing,  when  the  direction  of 
the  ])lane  of  motion  is  changed.  See  Wueel-s, 
TooTUED.  Gearing  has  also  for  its  object  the 
increasing  or  diminishing  of  the  original  velocity, 
and  in  reference  to  this,  is  distinguished  by  the 
term    'multiplying'    or  'retarding.'    See  Wheels, 

ToOTUED. 


GEBA  RIVER.     See  Seneg.oibia. 
GEBANG   PALM    {Oort/plia    Gehanga), 


fan- 


leaved  i)alm,  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  one  of 
the  most  useful  jialms  of  that  ])art  of  the  world. 
Its  stem  yields  a  kind  of  sago  ;  its  root  is  medicinal, 
being  Ijoth  emollient  and  slightly  astringent,  so  as 
to  be  particidarly  adapted  to  many  cases  of  diar- 
rhcea ;  its  leaves  are  used  for  thatch,  for  making 
broad-brimmed  hats,  and  for  various  economical 
purjjoses ;  its  young  leaves  are  plaited  into  baskets 
CM 


and  bags,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  many  of  the 
people  of  Java  lind  much  employment ;  the  fibres  uf 
its  leaf-stalks  are  made  into  rojics,  baskets,  mts, 
cloth,  i&c. — To  the  genus  Cort/pha  belongs  also  tho 
TA.LIPAT  Palm  (q.  v.). — The  fruit  of  C.  Pumo.«,  a 
Mexican  species,  is  eatable,  and  has  a  sweet  taste. 

GEBIR,  Ann-ML-.ssAii-JAAFER  Al  Sofi,  the 
founder  of  the  Arabian  school  of  chcmistrj',  flour- 
ished towards  the  end  of  the  8th,  or  the  commence- 
ment of  the  9th  century.  The  )ilace  of  his  bii-th  is 
luicertain.  According  to  the  majority  of  authorities, 
he  w.os  born  at  TCls,  in  Khorassan,  but  Abulfcd.i 
su]>ports  the  claims  of  Harran  in  Mesopotamia.  He 
was  greatly  esteemed  in  the  East,  and  subsequently 
in  Europe,  where  the  chemists,  down  to  the  time  of 
Van  Helmont,  did  nothing  more  than  repeat  his 
ex]ieriments.  Cardan  reckons  G.  one  of  the  twelve 
subtlest  geniuses  of  the  world,  while  Koger  Bacon 
bestows  upon  him  the  e]>ithet  'magister  magis- 
trorum.'  He  wTote  an  iimnense  number  of  treatises 
on  alchemy,  of  which  a  considerable  number  are 
extant  in  the  form  of  Latin  versions.  The  liljrary 
of  Leyden  contains  many  manuscrijits  of  G.'s  woi-ks 
wliich  have  never  liccu  jmblishcd.  In  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Paris  there  are  manuscripts  of  his  two 
celebrated  works,  the  /S'iim77ia  Collcetionus  Comple- 
menti  Secretorum  Xatura:,  and  the  Summa  Perfec- 
tionis — also  of  a  work  on  Astronomy,  and  a  treatise 
on  Spherical  Triangles.  The  principle  laid  down  by 
G.  at  the  commencement  of  his  works  is,  that  art 
cannot  imitate  nature  in  all  things,  but  that  it  can 
and  ought  to  imitate  her  as  far  as  its  limits  allow. 
An  edition  of  his  works  in  Latin  was  published  at 
Dantzic  in  16S2,  and  another  in  English  by  Russell 
(London,  1678).  For  information  respecting  G.'s 
opinions  with  regard  to  alchemy,  see  Alchemy. 

GECKO  (ffecio),  a  genus  of  Saurian  reptiles, 
constituting  a  f.amily,  GedMtida,  which  some  recent 
naturalists  have  di\-ided  into  many  genera.  The 
geckos  are  of  small  size,  and  generally  of  rejiulsive 
iispect ;  the  colours  of  most  of  them  are  dull,  ami 


Gecko  {riatydactylus  homalocephalus) : 
1.  Foot  of  r.  Ccpcdianus  ;  2.  i'oot  of  I*.  IInF!«c1nui.stii;  3.  Foot 
of  P.   Leachianns;    4.   Claw  of   fiymnn<i:ictylus  pulchrllus ; 
5.  Foot  of  Tbecadactylus  theconyx  ;'  6.  Foot  of  Gymnodactylua 
Bcabcr. 

the  small  granular  scales  with  which  they  are 
covered  are  m  general  mingled  with  tubercles.  The 
legs  are  short,  the  gait  usually  slow,  measm-cd,  and 
stealthy,  although  geckos  can  also  run  very  nimbly 
when  danger  jiresses,  and  often  disapjiear  very 
suddenly  when  they  seem  almost  to  be  struck  or 


GEDDES. 


cau<;ht.  The  feut  are  remarkable,  being  adapted  for 
ailhiering  to  smooth  surfaces,  so  that  geckos  reatlily 
cUmb  the  smoothest  trees  or  walls,  or  creep  inverted 
on  ceilings,  or  hang  on  the  lower  side  of  the  large 
leaves  in  which  tropical  vegetation  aboimds.  The 
body  and  tail  are  never  crested,  but  are  sometimes 
furnished  with  lateral  membranes,  variously  fes- 
tooned or  fringed.  The  lateral  membrane  is  some- 
times even  so  large  as  to  be  of  use  to  arboreal 
."-prcies  in  enabling  them  to  take  long  leaps  from 
Ijranoh  to  branch.  The  geckos  feed  chiefly  on 
insects.  They  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  They  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  and  are 
very  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Two  species 
are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  both  of  which 
frequently  enter  houses,  as  do  the  geckos  of  Egyj)t, 
India,  and  other  warm  countries.  The  name  G.  is 
derived  from  a  peculiar  cry  often  uttered  by  some 
of  the  species,  and  which  in  some  of  them  resembles 
syllal)le3  distinctly  pronounced,  whilst  others  are 
descril)ed  as  enlivening  the  night  in  tropical  forests 
by  a  harsh  cackle.  The  geckos  have,  iu  almost 
all  parts  of  the  world  where  they  are  found,  a  bad 
reputation  as  venomous,  and  as  imparting  injurious 
qualities  to  food  which  they  touch,  but  there  is  no 
gootl  eWdence  in  support  of  any  such  opinion,  in 
accordance  with  which,  however,  an  Egj^itian  G. 
is  even  known  as  thefaOier  of  leprosy. 

GEDDES,  Alexantjer,  LL.C,  a  biblical  critic, 
translator,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at 
Arradowl,  in  the  parish  of  Ruthvcn,  Banffshire,  in 
1737.  His  parents  were  Roman  Catholics,  and 
young  G.  was  educated  for  a  priest,  first  at  Sculan, 
a  monastic  seminary  in  the  Highlands,  and  subse- 
quently at  the  Scots  College,  Paris,  where  he 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Italian, 
French,  Si>anish,  German,  and  Low  Dutch.  In 
1764,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  he  was  appointed  officiating  priest  to  the 
Roman  CathoUcs  of  Angus,  but  after  a  short  time 
went  to  reside  with  the  Earl  of  Traquair.  In  1769, 
he  undertook  the  charge  of  a  Roman  Cathohc  con- 
gregation at  Auchinhalrig,  in  Banffshire,  where  he 
remained  for  ten  years,  making  himself  during  that 
period  honourably  conspicuous  by  his  charities  and 
extraordinar)'  liberality  of  sentiment.  He  was  at 
length  deposed  from  all  his  ecclesiastical  functions, 
on  account  of  his  occasional  attendance  at  the 
parish  church  of  Cullen,  between  the  minister  of 
which  and  himself  there  existed  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance. G.  now  resolved  to  betake  himself  to  litera- 
ture, and  proceeded  to  London  in  17S0.  He  had 
long  planned  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  EngUsh 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  he  was  now, 
through  the  munilicence  of  Lord  Pttre,  enabled  to 
devote  himself  to  the  work.  After  various  pre- 
liminary publications  intended  to  pave  the  way  for 
an  impartial  or  favourable  consideration  of  his  mag- 
mim  opus,  there  appeared  in  1792  The  First  Volume 
of  Oie  Holy  Bible,  or  the  Books  accounted  Sacred  by 
Jews  and  CJiristians,  otherwise  calUd  the  Boobs  of  tlie 
Old  and  New  Covenants,  faithfully  translated  from 
Corrected  Texts  of  tlie  Originals,  with  Various  Head- 
ings, Explanatory  Notes,  and  Critical  Remarks.  In 
1793,  the  second  vohmie  was  published,  carrying 
the  translation  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  historical 
books;  and  in  ISOO,  a  third  volume  was  issued - 
containing  his  Critical  Bemarks  on  tlie  Hebreio  Scrip- 
tures. The  opinions  enimciated  in  these  volumes, 
especially  in  the  last,  are  startUngly  heretical,  more 
especially  when  the  training  of  their  author  is  con- 
sidered, and  were  calculated,  at  the  time  of  their 
appearance,  to  offend  both  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants. They  exhibit  as  thorough-going  Rationalism 
as  is  to  be  found  in  Eichhom  or  Paulus.  Moses  is 
Baid  to  be  inspired  in  the  same  sense  as  other  good 


men ;  and  in  regard  to  his  purpose,  it  is  aflBnued  that 
'  he  only  did  what  all  other  ancient  legislators  had 
done — required  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  implicit 
obedience  to  their  respective  laws,  and  for  that 
pur])ose  feigned  an  intercourse  with  the  Deity,  to 
make  that  obedience  more  palatable  to  the  crcdiUous 
multitude.'  Miracles  are  exjjlained  away  ;  and  tho 
account  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  is  described  as 
'a  most  beautifid  mj-thos  or  philosophical  fiction, 
contrived  with  great  wisdom,  and  dressed  up  in 
the  garb  of  real  nistory.'  These  o))inions  naturally 
enoiigh  exposed  him  to  the  charge  of  infidelity,  and 
his  criticisms  were  described  as  '  less  scurrilous, 
perhaps,  but  not  less  impious  than  those  of  Thomas 
Paine.'  All  sorts  of  ecclesiastics  imited  in  thcii- 
condemnation,  and  the  imdoubted  effect  of  their 
hostility  was  to  crush  whatever  hopes  of  literary 
fame  G.  may  have  entertained.  He  died  at  London, 
26th  February  1802.  It  is  now  generally  a<lniitted, 
even  by  those  who  have  no  sympathy  with  his 
views,  that  G.'s  translation  is  in  the  main  excellent, 
and  that  his  remarks  arc  often  valuable.  His 
labours  have  unquestionably  advanced  the  science 
of  Biblical  Criticism.  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  mentioned  a  poem  on  the  Confessional ;  tlie 
Battle  of  B — ng — r,  or  the  Churcli's  Triumph,  a 
comic-lieroic  poem  in  nine  cantos;  and  Bardomachia, 
or  the  Battle  of  the  Bards. 

GEDDES,  Jaxet,  known  in  Scottish  ecclesias- 
tical history  as  '  Jenny  Geddes,'  has  had  her  name 
transmitted  as  the  person  who  took  a  prominent 
part  in  resisting  the  introduction  of  the  Liturgy 
or  Service-book  into  the  Church  of  Scotland  in 
16.37.  The  circumstances  were  these.  Sunday, 
2.3d  July  1637,  was  the  day  fixed  for  this  innova- 
tion, so  obnoxious  to  the  Scottish  Presbyterians, 
and  an  immense  crowd  filled  the  High  Church  of 
St  Giles's,  Edinburgh,  on  the  occasion.  On  the 
Dean  of  Edinburgh  beginning  to  read,  his  voice  was 
lost  in  a  tumidtuous  shout,  and  an  old  woman, 
said  to  have  been  one  Jenny  G.,  who  kept  a  green- 
stall  in  the  High  Street,  bawling  out :  '  Villain  ! 
dost  thou  say  ^lass  at  my  lug?'  (that  is,  ear), 
launched  her  stool  at  the  dean's  head.  Universal 
confusion  ensued,  and  the  dean,  throwing  off  his 
surplice,  fled,  to  save  his  Ufe.  The  Bishop  of 
Edinburgh,  on  attempting  to  appease  the  storm, 
was  assailed  by  a  volley  of  sticks,  stones,  and  other 
missiles,  accompanied  by  cries  and  threats  that 
effectually  silenced  him.  This  tumult  proved  the 
dcathlilow  of  the  Uturgy  in  Scotland.  It  has  been 
doubted,  however,  if  there  ever  was  such  a  person 
as  Jenny  Geddes.  In  1756,  a  citizen  of  Edinburgh, 
of  the  name  of  Robert  Mein  (who  died  in  1776), 
known  for  his  exertions  for  the  improvement  of 
his  native  city,  published  a  tract  called  Tlie  Cross 
Removed,  Prelacy  and  Patronage  Disproved,  kc,  in 
which  he  claims  the  exploit  of  Jermy  G.  for  his 
great-grandmother,  '  the  worthy  Barbara  Hamilton, 
spouse  to  John  Mein,  merchant  and  postmaster  in 
Edinburgh,  who,  in  the  year  1637,  spoke  openly 
in  the  church  at  Edinburgh  against  Archbishop 
Laiul's  new  Service-book,  at  its  first  reading  there, 
which  stopped  their  proceedings,  and  dismissed 
their  meetmg,  so  that  it  never  obtained  in  our 
church  to  this  day.'  In  the  obitiiary  notice  of 
Robert  Mein,  Weekly  Magazine,  vol.  xxxix.,  and 
Scots  Magazine,  vol.  xxxvi.  (1776),  this  Barbara 
Hamilton  is  said  to  have  been  descended  from  the 
HamUtons  of  Bardowie,  '  but  was  better  known  in 
our  history  by  the  name  of  Jenny  Geddes,  though 
called  so  erroneously.'  Jenny  G.'s  famous  stool  is 
said  to  have  l)een  burned  by  herself  in  the  bonfires 
at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh  at  the  Restoration,  and 
what  has  been  called  hers  in  the  Museum  of  tho 
!  Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Edinburgh,  has  no  claim 
'  665 


GEEFS— GEHENNA. 


to  that  name  beyond  gratuitous  conjecture.  See 
Procfcdimis  of  the  Soriety  of  Antiijuarits  of  Scotland, 
ToL  iii.  p.-i'rt  2,  pp.  179,  180. 

GEEFS,  GfiLLAUME.  a  Belgian  sculptor,  was 
l)om  at  Antwerp,  on  the  10th  of  September  180G. 
After  studying  there  for  some  time,  lie  went  to 
Paris,  where  lie  worked  in  the  stuiUo  of  M.  Kamey. 
During  the  revohition  of  IS-SO,  he  quitted  Paris,  and 
returned  to  Belgium,  and  soon  after  executed  at 
Brussels  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  victims 
of  tlie  revolution  of  1830.  The  most  imimrtant  of 
liis  other  works  .are  a  '  Colossal  Marble  Statue  of 
King  Leopold ; '  '  Monument  to  Count  Frederic  do 
Merode,'  now  in  the  cathedral  of  Brussels  ;  and 
'  Statue  of  General  Belliard,'  both  of  whom  fell  in 
the  revolution.  He  also  executed  a  grou]i  entitled 
'  Le  Lion  Aninureux,'  which  was  shewn  at  the 
Great  Exhibition  in  Paris  (I855).~Geef.s,  .losF.rn, 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  born  in  1808, 
has  also  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  sculjitor.  He 
has  executed  a  number  of  statues,  of  which  two, 
'  Metabus  '  and  '  Thierry  Maertens,'  were  shewn 
at  the  Exhibition  in  1855.  In  general  character, 
his  works  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those 
of  his  brother. — Geefs,  Aloys,  youngest  brother  of 
the  preceding,  is  also  known  as  a  sculptor  by 
means  of  his'Epaminondas  Dying,'  'Beatrix,'  and 
the  b.as-rehefs  for  the  'Paibens'  of  liis  eldest  brother. 
He  died  in  1841. 

GEEL,  J.\KOE,  a  distinguished  Dutch  scholar, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1789,  and  educated  at 
the  Athenanim  of  that  city,  principally  under  Van 
Lennep.  After  living  at  the  Hague  from  the  year 
1811  as  a  family  tutor,  he  became  second  librarian 
at  Leyden  in  182.3,  and  in  1833  hcad-lilirarian 
and  honorary  professor.  He  had  made  himself 
meanwhile  known  as  a  i)hilologist  by  editions  of 
Theocritus,  with  the  Scholia  (1820),  of  the  Anecdota 
Memsterliusiana  (1826),  of  the  SclioUa  in  Suetonium 
of  Ruhnken  (1828),  of  the  Excerpla  Vaticana  of  Poly- 
bius  (1829) ;  and  his  Mixloria  Critica  Sophistanun 
Grcecoruvi  (1823)  had  called  forth  several  treatises 
on  the  same  suliject  from  German  philologists. 
In  1840,  appeared  his  edition  of  the  Olyvipiciis  of 
Dio  Chrysostom,  accompanied  by  a  Commenlcrhis 
de  Beli'iuis  Dionis  Orutionihus ;  and  in  1846  lie 
issued  the  Plimtilssiv  of  Eiu-ipides,  with  a  commen- 
tary, in  opposition  to  Hermann.  All  these  works, 
which  are  written  in  pure  and  pleasing  Latin,  are 
models  of  thorough  scholarship,  as  well  as  of  taste 
and  method.  G.  contributed  further  to  the  re\'ival 
of  classical  learning  in  the  Netherlands  by  the 
establishment,  along  with  Bak,  Pecrlkamp,  and 
Hamaker,  of  the  Biblwthrca  Critica  J<'o>-a,  in  1825. 
The  national  literature  is  also  indebted  to  him  not 
only  for  the  translation  of  German  and  English 
works  into  Dutch,  but  also  for  original  treatises 
on  various  a'sthetical  subjects.  He  has,  moreover, 
won  the  gratitude  of  the  learned  throughout  Euro])o 
by  his  lilierality  as  a  librarian,  and  especially  by 
his  valuable  Catalo'/us  Codicum  Jfanuscrq^lonnn, 
qui  imle  ah  Anno  1741  Bibliothecai  Lugduni  Bala- 
voriim  acce.sserunl  (1852). 

GEELO'NG,  the  second  city  of  Victoria,  in 
Australia,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  westerly  arm 
of  I'ort  I'hillip.  It  is  about  40  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Melbourne,  the  capital  of  the  colony,  with 
which  it  has,  since  1855,  been  connected  by  a  rail- 
way, the  intermediate  space  being  said  to  be  one  of 
the  finest  levels  for  the  purpose  in  the  world.  Tele- 
graphic communication  has  also  been  established 
with  Melbourne,  Ballarat,  and,  since  1857,  with 
the  other  gold-fields.  Though  the  town  is  built 
on  the  harbour  of  Corio,  yet  the  cargoes  of  large 
ships  are  discharged  into  lighters  at  a  distance  of 


six  miles.  In  1851,  were  discovered  the  gold-fields 
of  the  neighbourhood.  Even  before  this,  (',.  had 
become  a  nourishing  jilace,  as  one  of  the  princip.ol 
seats  of  the  wool  trade.  Between  1846  and  1851, 
the  houses  had  increased  from  257  to  1593,  being 
more  than  sixfold  in  five  years  ;  while  the  inhabit- 
ants, multiplying  in  about  the  same  proportion, 
gave  the  corresponding  results  of  1370  and  8291. 
Again,  between  1851  and  the  beginning  of  1854, 
the  jiopidation  had  gro\ni  from  8291  to  20,115. 
Nor  had  the  gold  caused  the  wool  to  be  neglected, 
of  which,  in  1853,  the  exjiortation  amounted  to 
7,019,900  lbs.,  as  against  9,870,731  sent  from  Mel- 
bourne itself.  Before  the  close  of  186((,  the  annual 
value  of  the  rateable  property  w.as  £130,074,  yield- 
ing an  assessment  of  £17,507,  O.s.  id.,  or  about 
2.S'.  S'/.  in  the  pound.  During  the  year  host  men- 
tioned, the  shipping  inwards  comprised  179  vessels, 
and  31,285  tons;  while, -n-ith  respect  to  the  shipping 
outwards,  the  corresponding  returns  were  174  and 
32,939. 

GE'FLE,  an  important  town  of  Sweden,  chief 
town  of  the  la*n  of  the  same  n.aine,  is  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Geile,  on  an  iidet  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  about  100  miles  north-north-west  of 
Stockholm.  The  stream  upon  which  it  stands  is 
divided  into  three  br.anches,  forming  two  islands, 
wliich  arc  united  by  bridges  with  the  right  and  left 
banks  of  the  river,  and  form  portions  of  the  town. 
G.  ranks  third  among  the  commercial  towns  of 
Sweden ;  Stockholm  and  Giiteborg  alone  possessing 
a  more  extensive  trade.  The  chief  buildings  are  a 
gj'mnasium ;  a  castle,  imposingly  situated ;  a  coiu-t- 
house,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in 
Sweden ;  a  good  public  library,  and  an  excellent 
harbour.  G.  carries  on  ship-building  to  some  extent, 
and  has  manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  linen,  leather, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  Its  exports  are  iron,  timber, 
tar,  flax,  and  Unen ;  and  its  imports  chiefl3'  eoni 
and  salt.     Pop.  (1855)  9587. 

GEHE'NNA  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Gc-hinnom  ('  Valley  of  Hinnom '),  or  Ge-ben-Hinnom 
('  Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hinnom ').  This  valley,  or 
rather  gorge — for  it  is  described  as  very  narrow, 
with  steep  and  rocky  sides — lies  south  and  west  of 
the  city  of  .Jerusalem.  Here  Solomon  budt  a  high 
place  for  Molech  (1  Kings  xi.  7),  and,  in  fact,  G. 
would  appear  to  have  become  a  favourite  s])ot 
with  the  later  Jewish  kings  for  the  celebration 
of  idolatrous  rites.  It  was  here  that  Ahaz  and 
Mauasseh  made  their  children  jiass  through  the 
fire,  '  according  to  the  .abomination  of  the  heathen ; ' 
and  at  its  south-east  extremity,  sjiecifically  desig- 
nated Tophet  ('  place  of  burning '),  the  hiileous 
practice  of  infant  sacrifice  to  the  fire-gods  w.as  not 
unknown  (Jeremiah  \\\.  31).  AMieu  King  .Tosiah 
came  forward  as  the  restorer  of  the  old  and  i)ure 
national  faith,  he  '  defiled '  the  V.alley  of  Hinnom  by 
covering  it  'with  human  bones,  and  after  this  it 
appears  to  have  become  *  the  common  cesspool  of 
the  city,  into  which  its  sewage  was  conducted,  to  be 
carried  off"  by  the  waters  of  the  Kidron,  as  well  as 
a  laystall,  where  all  its  solid  filth  was  colleotecL 
Hence,  it  became  a  huge  nest  of  insects,  whose 
larvio  or  "worms"  fattened  on  the  corrujition.'  It  is 
also  said  that  fires  were  kept  constantly  burning 
here,  to  consume  the  bodies  of  criminals,  the  car- 
casses of  animals,  and  wh.atever  other  offal  might 
be  combustible.  Ajnong  th(?'  later  ,lews,  G.  and 
Tophet  came  to  be  regarded  as  symbols  of  hell 
and  torment,  and  in  this  sense  the  former  word  is 
frequently  employed  by  our  Saviour  in  the  New 
Testament.  For  examjilc,  in  Mark  ix.  47,  48,  he 
says  :  '  It  is  better  for  thee  to  enter  into  the  king- 
dom of  God  with  one  eye,  than  having  two  eyes,  to 


GEIBEL— GEJER. 


be  cast  into  hell-fire  [Gehenna] ;  where  their  worm 
dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.' 

GEIBEL,  Emanuel,  one  of  the  most  popidar  of 
the  ln-ing  poefc*  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Liibeck, 
on  the  18th  October  1815.  After  receiving  the 
rudiments  of  education  at  the  high  school  of  his 
native  town,  he  cotnplctcd  his  studies  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Bonn.  In  18;JG,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  Chamisso,  Gaudy,  and 
Kugler.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  obtained  a  tutor- 
ship in  the  family  of  the  Prussian  ambassador  at 
Athens,  where  he  continued  to  prosecute  his  .scien- 
tific and  jioetical  studies.  On  his  retiun  to  Liibeck 
in  1840,  he  worked  up  the  material  he  had  collected 
in  Greece,  and  became,  in  addition,  a  diligent  student 
of  Italian  and  Spanish  literature.  8o'ou  after  the 
publication  of  his  first  poems,  a  pension  of  .'iOO 
thalers  a  year  was  bestowed  ujiiiu  him  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  G.  now  resided  alternately  at  St 
Goar  on  the  llhine  with  FreiUgrath,  at  Stuttgart, 
Hanover,  BcrUn,  and  Liibeck ;  till,  in  the  spring  of 
1852,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  a;sthetics  in  the 
university  of  Munich  by  the  king  of  Bavaria.  In 
conjunctitm  ^vith  Curtius,  ho  published  his  Classisclie 
Sludieii  (Bonn,  1840),  containing  translations  from 
the  Greek  poets.  These  were  followed  in  the  same 
year  by  his  Gedkhte.  (Berlin,  1840,  28th  edit.  1852), 
the  melody,  artistic  beauty,  and  decidedly  religious 
tone  of  which,  made  them  at  once  great  favourites 
with  the  German.s.  The  results  of  his  Spanish 
studies  were  the  Spaniacheii  Volkdieder  luid  Roman- 
cell  (Berlin,  1843),  which  were  followed  by  the 
Spanisclie  Liederbuch  (Berlin,  1852),  published  in 
conjimctiou  ^vith  Paul  Heyse.  In  1857  appeared 
his  tragedy  of  Brunehildi'.  His  poems  are  distin- 
guished by  fervom-  and  truth  of  feeling,  richness  of 
fancy,  and  a  certain  pensive  melancholy,  and  have 
procured  him  a  popularity — especially  among  culti- 
vated women — such  as  no  poet  of  (iermany  has 
enjoyed  since  the  days  of  Uhland. 

GEIGER,  Abraham,  rabbi  in  Breslau,  was  born 
at  Frankfurt-on-the- JIaine,  May  24, 1810.  According 
to  old  rabbinical  practice,  his  teachers  were  his 
father  and  elder  brother,  till  he  reached  the  age  of 
eleven.  After  that,  having  received  a  more  regidar 
education  for  some  years,  he  went,  iu  1829,  to  the 
university  of  Heidelberg,  and  shortly  afterwards  to 
that  of  Boim.  While  engaged  there  in  the  study  of 
philosophy  and  of  the  Oriental  languages,  he  gained 
a  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  Jewish  sources  of  the 
Koran,  which  at  a  later  period  appeared  in  print 
under  the  title,  Was  hat  Mohammed  aus  dem  Judeii- 
thum  aufgenommin ?  (Bonn,  18.'J3).  In  November 
1832,  he  was  called  as  rabbi  to  Wiesbaden,  and 
there,  under  the  impulse  to  the  scientific  study  of 
Judaism  wliich  proceeded  from  Berlin,  he  devoted 
himself  zealously  to  Jewish  theology,  especially  iu 
its  relation  to  practical  life.  In  1835,  he  joined  ^Wth 
several  able  men  in  editing  the  Zntschrijl  J'iir 
Jiid'uiche  Theoloijie.  The  spirit  of  inquiry,  however, 
\Wth  which  he  discussed  prevalent  <ii)iuioDs  and 
usages,  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  con- 
servative Jews,  especially  after  1838,  when  he 
became  assessor  of  the  rabbinate  at  Breslau;  but 
the  great  majority  of  educated  men  in  the  sect  con- 
tinued attached  to  him.  It  was  he  who  gave  lue 
first  impulse  to  the  celebrated  assemblies  of  the 
rabbis,  three  of  which  have  been  held  since  1844  at 
Brunswick,  Frank furt-on-thc-Maine,  and  Breslau. 
At  the  second  of  these  he  was  vice-president,  and 
president  at  the  third.  Though  G.  thus  took  an 
active  paxt  in  the  refoi-m  movement,  he  could  not 
abandon  his  historical  point  of  \'iew,  which  made 
him  unwilling  to  break  entirely  with  the  past ;  and 
theivfore  he  refused  a  call  to  be  preacher  to  the 
198 


Berlin  Reform  Society.  Besides  sermons,  pamphlets, 
and  numerous  contributions  to  the  above-mentioned 
periodical,  G.  published  some  historical  monographs, 
which  are  distinguished  by  thoroughness  of  investi- 
gation and  many-sided  learning.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  Mdo  C/io/najim  (Berhu,  1840),  on 
Jose|ih  Salomo  del  Medigo,  and  the  JJile  Haamanim 
(Berhn,  1847),  on  the  exegetical  school  of  Northern 
France.  His  Lehr-  und  LestbiuJi  zur  Spradte  der 
MUchna  (1845)  also  is  of  great  value  to  the  Oriental 
philologist.  In  1850  appeared  the  first  number 
of  Studkn  on  Moses- Ben-Maimon ;  and  in  1851, 
a  translation  of  the  Divan  of  the  CastUian  Ahu'l- 
Jfa-smn  Juda  Im-Levi,  accompanied  by  a  biography 
of  the  poet  and  explanatory  remarks.  Besides 
some  Ei)ecimcns  of  Jewish  medieval  apologetics, 
contributed  to  Breslauer's  Jalirbuch  in  1S51 — 1852, 
G.  has  more  recently  published  a  work  on  the 
original  text,  and  the  translations  of  the  Bible  in 
their  dependence  on  the  development  of  Judaism 
(Urschrij't  mul  L'ebersetzungm  der  Bibel  in  ihrer 
Abhdiifiif/kelt  von  der  inncren,  Entwickelung  dea 
Judenthuvis,  Breslau,  1857). 

GEILER  VON  KAISERSBERG,  Johamt,  a 
famous  ])ulpit-orator  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Scliaffhausen,  IGth  March  1455;  studied  at  Freiburg 
and  Basel,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of  D.D.; 
and  in  1478  became  ]>reacher  in  the  cathedral  of 
Strasburg,  where  he  died,  lOth  March  1510.  G. 
ranks  among  the  most  learned  and  original  men  of 
his  age.  His  sermons,  usually  composed  in  Latin 
and  deUvered  in  German,  are  marked  by  great 
eloquence  and  earnestness  ;  nor  do  they  disdain  the 
aids  of  wit,  sarcasm,  and  ridicule.  Vivid  pictures 
of  life,  warmth  of  feehng,  and  a  bold,  even  rough 
moraUty,  are  their  leading  characteristics.  In  fact, 
G.'s  ethical  zeal  often  urged  him  to  a  pungency  of 
satire  hartUy  in  keeping  with  modern  views  of  the 
dignity  of  the  pulpit,  but  quite  congruous  vnth. 
the  taste  of  his  own  age.  His  style  is  vigorous, 
free,  and  Uvely,  and  in  many  respects  he  may  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  predecessor  of  Abraham  a 
Sancta-Clara.  Of  his  writings,  which  have  now 
become  very  rare,  may  be  mentioned  Narrenxchijff 
(Lat.,  Strasb.  1511 ;  Ger.  bj'Paidi,  1520),  comprising 
412  sennons  on  Sebastian  Brandt's  (q.  v.)  Xai-ren- 
schiff;  Das  Jn-iij  Schaf  (Strasb.  1510)  ;  Der  Seelen 
Paradiess  (StrasI).  1510) ;  Dns  Schiff  der  POnitenz 
und  Bussivirkunri  {Awgsh.  1511);  Das  Budi  Oran- 
atapfel  (Strasb.  1511);  CItristliclie  Pitqerschafl  zum 
Ewigen  Valfrland  (Basel,  1512);  Das  Evanrjelienbuch 
(Strasb.  1515) ;  and  Das  Buck  Von  Siindm  det 
Mundes  (Strasb.  1518).  Compare  Ammon's  G.  Von 
Kaisersberg's  Lehcn,  Lehren  und  Predigten  (Erl. 
1826),  and  Meick's  Joh.  G.  Von  Kaisersberg.  Sein 
Lehen  und.  Seine  ScJiriften  in  einer  AuswaJd  (3  vols., 
Fkf.  1829). 

GEJER,  Eric  Gustaf,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished historians  of  Sweden,  was  born  at  Kansiitter, 
iu  the  Swedish  Ian  of  Wemdand,  iu  1783.  He 
was  sent,  at  the  age  of  16,  to  the  imiversity  of 
Upsala ;  and  in  1803  he  comjjeted  successfully  for 
the  prize  which  was  that  year  awarded  by  the 
Academy  of  Stockholm  for  the  best  essay  on  the 
life  and  character  of  the  great  Swedish  admini- 
strator, Sten  Sture.  Tins  was  the  turning-point  of 
his  hie,  for  from  this  period  he  began  to  devote 
himself  with  zealous  industry  to  the  study  of  the 
history  of  his  native  country.  His  assiduity  was 
rewarded  by  his  speedy  nomination  to  a  post  in 
the  Chamber  of  the  National  Archives,  and  in  1810 
he  was  elected  assistant  to  Fant,  the  professor  of 
history  in  the  university  of  Upsala,  and  in  1817,  on 
the  death  of  the  latter,  ho  succeeded  to  his  chair. 
G.'s    early    lectures    were   listened    to    with    the 

Co7 


GELA— GELATIGENOUS  TISSUES  AND  GELATINE. 


profouniicst  interest,  both  by  his  students  and  the 
public  at  large,  who  crowded  to  his  lecture-room  ; 
but  at  a  subsequent  period  of  his  teaching,  his 
popularity  diminished  iu  proportion  to  the  increased 
profundity  of  his  views  ;  while  the  suspicion  that 
he  harbo'ured  sceptical  notions  in  regard  to  the 
Trinity,  brought  him  into  disfavour  with  a  certain 
portion  of  the  community.  These  suspicions  led  to 
his  denmiciation  to  the  university  authorities ;  but 
the  examination  to  which  the  charges  against  him 
gave  rise  terminated  in  his  acquittal,  and  were 
even  followed  by  the  offer  of  a  bishopric,  which, 
however,  he  declined.  G.  exercised  a  marked 
influence  on  the  poetic  no  less  than  the  historical 
literature  of  Sweden,  and  according  to  the  testimony 
of  his  countrymen,  his  Sisia  Skalden,  Vihiiigen, 
Odalbonden,  and  other  heroic  pieces,  place  him  in 
the  foremost  rank  of  Swedish  poets.  He  and  liis 
friends  Adlerbeth,  Te>jner,  and  Nikander,  adhered 
to  the  '  Gothic '  school  of  poetry,  which  owed  its 
origin  to  '  the  Society  of  the  Goths,'  wliich  they  and 
several  of  their  friends  established  as  early  .as  181U, 
when  they  brought  out  in  connection  mth  it  a 
magazine  entitled  the  Iduna,  in  which  first  appeared 
several  of  G.'s  best  poems,  and  among  other  jiroduc- 
tions  of  merit,  the  early  cantos  of  Tegner's  FriOdof. 
Great  as  is  the  value  of  G.'s  historical  works,  he 
unfortunately  did  not  complete  any  one  of  the  vast 
imdertakings  which  he  planned.  Thus,  for  instance, 
of  the  Svea  Hike's  Hiifder,  or  Records  of  Sweden, 
which  were  to  have  embraced  the  history  of  his 
native  country  from  mji;liical  ages  to  the  present 
time,  he  finished  only  the  introductory  volume. 
His  next  great  work,  tScenska  Folkels  Hislon'a,  which 
was  intended  to  form  one  of  the  series  of  European 
histories,  edited  by  Leo  and  XJckert,  was  not  carrieil 
beyond  the  death  of  Queen  Christina ;  yet  incom- 
plete as  they  are,  these  works  rank  among  the 
most  valuable  contributions  to  Swedish  history.  To 
G.  was  intrusted  the  task  of  examining  and  editing 
the  papers  which  Gu.sta^^^s  III.  had  bequeathoil 
to  the  university  of  UpsaLi,  with  the  stipulation 
that  they  were  not  to  be  opened  for  fifty  years 
after  his  death.  In  fulfilment  of  his  charge,  G. 
arranged  these  papers  in  a  work,  which  appeared  in 
1843  imder  the  title  of  Oustaf  III.'s  eJUrlemnada 
Papper,  and  which,  from  the  worthless  nature  of 
the  contents,  disappointed  the  expectations  of  the 
nation,  who  had  been  led  to  hope  that  their  pub- 
lication woiUd  reveal  state  secrets  of  importance. 
During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  G.  took  an 
active  part  in  politics ;  but  although  his  political 
WTitings  possess  great  merit,  the  very  versatdity 
of  his  powers  diverted  him  from  applying  them 
methodically  to  the  complete  elaboration  of  any 
one  great  object.  G.  was  known  to  his  countrymen 
as  a  musician  and  composer  of  no  mean  order.  He 
lived  on  terms  of  friendly  intercourse  with  Ber- 
nadotte,  and  his  numerous  letters  to  the  king  form 
p.irt  of  the  Samlade  Skrifier,  or  collective  works, 
w'hich  have  been  published  since  liis  death  by  his 
son,  who  has  appended  to  this  edition,  which  was 
completed  in  1853,  an  interesting  biographical  sketch 
of  his  distinguished  father.     G.  died  in  1847. 

GELA  in  ancient  times,  a  very  important  town, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  It  was  founded  by  a  Rhodian  and 
C'retam  colony,  690  B.  c.  Its  rapid  prosjierity  may 
be  infeiTed  from  the  circmnstance,  that  as  early  as 
the  year  582  v..  c,  Agrigentum  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Gela.  After  Oleander  had  made  himself 
tyrant  iu  the  year  505  B.  c,  the  colony  reached  its 
highest  ]iitch  of  power  under  his  brother  Hip])ocr.ates, 
who  subdued  almost  the  whole  of  Sicily,  with  the 
exception  of  Syracuse.  Gelon,  the  successor  of  Hip- 
pocrates, pui-sued  the  same  career  of  conquest,  and 
6J8 


Syracuse  itself  fell  into  his  hands,  and  was  even  made 
his  princip.al  residence,  G.  being  conmiitted  to  the 
government  of  his  brotlier  Hiero.  After  many  vicis- 
situdes during  the  Carthaginian  wara  in  Sicily,  it 
ultimately  fell  into  decay.  Its  ruin  was  completed 
by  Phintias,  tyr.ant  of  Agrigentimi,  who,  a  little 
before  280  B.C.,  removed  the  inhabitants  to  a  town 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  he  h.ad  founded,  and  to 
which  he  gave  his  own  name.  Its  site  is  generally 
believed  to  be  occupied  by  Terra  Nova,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  now  known  as  Fiume  di  Terranova. 

GELATI'GENOUS  TISSUES  and  GE'LA- 
TINE.  The  gel.atigenous  tissues  are  substances 
resembling  the  proteine-bodies  (albumen,  fibrine,  and 
caseine)  iu  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
oxygen,  and  sulphur ;  Vmt  differing  from  them  in 
containing  more  nitrogen  and  less  carbon  and 
sulphur.  They  consist  of  two  principal  varieties, 
viz.,  those  which  yield  gluten  (or  ordinary  ijelatine) 
and  those  which  yield  chondrine. 

Gluten  is  obfciined  by  more  or  less  prolonged 
boiling  with  water,  from  the  organic  matter  of  bone 
(the  osseine  of  Fremy),  from  tendons,  skin,  cellular 
tissue,  white  fibrous  tissue,  the  air-bladder  and 
scales  of  fishes,  calves'  feet,  hartshorn,  &c. ;  while 
chondrine  is  similarly  obtained  from  the  permanent 
cartilages,  from  bone-cartilage  before  ossification, 
from  euchondromatous  tumours,  &c. 

Neither  gluten  nor  chondrine  appears  to  exist  as 
such  in  the  animal  body,  but  is  in  all  cases  the  result 
of  the  prolonged  action  of  boiling  water  on  the 
above-named  tissues.  Fremy's  analyses  (see  his 
Redierches  Chimiques  sur  les  Os,  in  the  Ann.  de  Chini, 
et  de  Plii/s.,  1855,  vol.  xliii.,p.  51)  shew  that  osseine 
is  isomeric  with  the  gluten  which  it  yields,  and 
further,  that  the  amount  of  gluten  is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  of  the  osseine  which  yields  it. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  composition  of 
osseine  and  the  gluten  yielded  by  it  as  detennined 
by  Frfimy,  and  tuat  of  chondrine  as  determined  by 
Mulder : 

0tsein«. 

Carbon,            .            .            .  49-21 

Hydrogen, .            .            .  6'50 

Nitrogen,           .            .             .  17'86 

Oxygen  with  a  little  Sulphur,  25-14 

Gluten,  when  perfectly  pure  and  dry,  is  a  tough, 
translucent,  nearly  colourless  substance,  devoid  of 
odour  and  taste.  It  swells  when  placed  in  coltl  water, 
and  loses  its  transluceucy ;  but  iu  boiling  w.ater  it 
dissolves,  and  forms  a  viscid  fluid,  which  on  cooling 
forms  a  jelly.  A  watery  solution  containing  only 
1  per  cent,  of  gluten,  gelatinises  on  cooling.  This 
property  is  destroyed  both  by  very  prolonged  boiling 
and  by  the  action  of  concentrated  acetic  acid. 
Gluten  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether. 

A  solution  of  gluten  is  abmidantly  jirecipitated  by 
solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  of  bichloride  of 
platinum,  as  well  as  by  infusion  of  gaUs,  of  which 
the  active  principle  is  tannin  or  tannic  acid  (the 
terms  being  synonymous).  Tannic  acid  produces, 
even  in  very  dilute  solutions,  a  copious  yellow  or 
buff-coloured  precipitate  of  tann.ate  of  gluten.  The 
gelatigenous  tissues  unite  in  a  similar  manner  ^^^th 
tannin  ;  they  extract  it  from  its  watery  solutions, 
and  form  compomids  with  it  which  resist  the  action 
of  putrefaction.  It  is  thus  th.at  hides  are  converted 
into  Leather  (q.  v.).  The  tests  which  we  have  men- 
tioned also  ])rccipitate  albumen,  but  gluten  may  be 
distinguished  from  albumen  by  its  not  being  thrown 
down  (as  is  the  case  with  albumen)  by  the  addition 
of  ferro-cyanide  of  potjissium  together  with  a  little 
acetic  acid.  The  gelatinising  property  also  serves 
to  distinguish  gluten  when  it  amounts  to  1  per  ceut. 
or  more  of  the  solution. 

On  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  gluten  becomes 


niiiten.  Chondrine. 

5II-II)  4:i-97 

eSO  0(i.1 

17-50  14  14 

2000  2S-a7 


GELATIGEXOUS  TISSUES— GELATIKE. 


more  rapidly  piitrid  tlian  almost  any  other  animal 
substance.  Under  the  influence  of  oxydising  agents, 
it  yields  the  same  products  as  the  proteine-bodies ; 
treated  with  the  mineral  acids  or  with  alkaUes,  it 
yields  Glycocine  (q.  v.) — known  also  as  glycine, 
glycocoll,  and  sugar  of  gelatine — Leucine  (tj.  v.),  and 
other  products. 

Isinglass,  which  is  prepared  from  the  air-bladder 
of  the  sturgeon,  &c.,  when  boiled  with  water,  fur- 
nishes gluten  in  a  nearly  pure  state.  Glue  and 
size  are  two  well  known  forms  of  impure  gluten  or 
gelatine. 

Chondrine  resembles  gluten  in  its  physical  pro- 
perties, and  especially  in  its  property  of  gelatinising. 
It  differs,  however,  slightly  from  it  m  chemical 
composition  (see  the  above  table),  and  in  its  behaviour 
towards  reagents.  For  instance,  acetic  acid,  alum, 
and  the  ordinary  metallic  salts  of  silver,  copper, 
lead,  &c.,  which  produce  no  apparent  effect  on  a 
solution  of  gluten,  throw  domi  a  precipitate  from  a 
solution  of  chondrine ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
corrosive  sublimate,  which  preci]iitates  gluten  freely, 
merely  induces  a  turbidity  in  a  solution  of  chondrine. 

We  do  not  know  much  regarding  the  physiological 
rel.ations  of  these  substances.  Gluten  (according  to 
iScherer)  usually  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  spleen, 
but  in  no  other  part  of  the  healthy  animal  body ;  it 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  blood  in  cases  of  leucocy- 
thffimia,  in  pus,  and  in  the  exjiressed  juice  of  can- 
cerous tumours.  Chondrine  has  been  found  in  pus. 
Tlie  gelatigenous  tissues  rank  low  in  the  scale  of 
organisation,  and  their  uses  are  almost  entirely  of  a 
physical  character.  Thus  they  form  strong  points 
of  connection  for  muscles  (the  tendons),  they  mode- 
rate shocks  by  theu-  elasticity  (the  cartilages),  they 
protect  the  body  from  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture by  their  bad  conducting  power  (the  skin),  and 
they  are  of  service  through  their  transparency  (the 
cornea). 

GELATINE,  in  Technology.  This  term,  althou»h 
usually  applied  to  only  one  variety  of  the  sub- 
stance, obtained  by  dissolving  the  soluble  portion 
of  the  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  nevertheless 
properly  belongs  also  to  IsmoLvss  and  Glue,  which 
are  modifications  of  the  same  material.  Vegetable 
jelly  is  also  analogous,  and  will  be  mentioned  imder 
this  head. 

Gelatine  and  glue  signify  the  more  or  less  pure 
and  carefully  prepared  jelly  of  mammalian  animals, 
but  the  term  isinglass  is  only  applied  to  certain 
gelatinous  parts  of  fishes,  which  from  their  exceeding 
richness  in  gelatine,  are  usually  merely  dried  and 
used  without  any  other  preparation  than  that  of 
minute  division  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  their 
action. 

GelatdvE  (proper)  is  prepared  for  commercial 
purposes  from  a  variety  of  animal  substances,  but 
chiefly  from  the  softer  parts  of  the  hides  of  oxen 
and  calve?  and  the  skins  of  sheep,  such  as  the  thin 
portion  which  covers  the  beUy,  the  ears,  &c. ;  also 
from  bones  and  other  parts  of  animals. 

One  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  of  the  varieties 
of  gelatine  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  is  that 
made  by  Messrs  Cox  of  Gorgie,  near  Edinburgh, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  great  purity  and 
strength,  or  gelatinising  power  ;  they  call  it '  spark- 
lin"'  gelatine  from  its  beautiful  bright  transparency, 
anS  its  purification  is  effected  by  certain  processes 
which  they  have  patented.  The  materials  they  use 
are  carefully  selected  portions  of  ox  and  calf  hides. 
yVnother  preparation,  made  by  Mr  Mackay  of  Edin- 
burgh (pharmaceutical  chemist),  is  deserving  of 
special  mention,  as  it  is  prepared  with  the  greatest 
care  from  calves'-feet,  and  is  especially  adapted  for 
invalids.  It  is  made  on  a  limited  scale,  and  only  for 
a  few  leading  chemists. 


The  general  method  adopted  with  skin-parings  or 
hide-cUppings,  is  first  to  w;ish  the  pieces  very  care- 
fiUly ;  they  are  then  cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed 
in  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda  for  a  week  or 
ten  days,  the  solution  being  kept  moderately  warm 
by  means  of  steam-pipes.  \Vhen  this  process  of 
digestion  has  been  sufficiently  carried  on,  the  pieces 
of  skin  are  then  removed  into  an  air-tight  chamber 
lined  vnth.  cement,  and  here  they  are  kept  for  a 
time,  determined  according  to  the  skill  of  the  manu- 
facturer and  the  kind  of  material  employed,  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  F.  They  are  next  transferred 
to  revolving  cylinders  supphed  with  an  abundance 
of  clean  cold  water,  and  afterwards  are  placed  stUI 
wet  in  another  chamber  lined  vnth  wood,  in  which 
they  are  bleached  and  purified  by  exposure  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur ;  they  next  receive  their 
final  washing  with  cold  water,  which  removes  the 
sulphurous  acid  The  next  operation  is  to  squeeze 
them  as  dry  as  possible,  and  transfer  them  to  the 
gelatinising  pots,  which  are  large  earthen  vessels, 
enclosed  in  wooden  cases,  made  steam-tight.  Water 
is  poured  in  with  the  pieces,  and  kept  at  a  high 
temperature  by  means  of  the  steam  in  the  cases 
surrounding  the  pots. 

By  this  means  the  gelatine  is  quite  dissolved  out 
of  the  skin,  and  is  strained  ofi'  whilst  still  hot ;  it  is 
poured  out  in  thin  layers,  which  as  soon  as  they 
are  sufficiently  cooled  and  consohdated,  are  cut 
into  small  plates,  usuaUy  oblong,  and  laid  on  nets, 
stretched  horizontally,  to  dry.  The  cross-markings 
observable  on  the  plates  of  gelatine,  in  the  shops, 
are  the  marks  left  by  the  meshes  of  the  nets. 

Another  process,  introduced  by  Mr  Swineburne, 
consists  in  treating  pieces  of  calf-skin  by  water 
alone,  without  the  soda  and  sulphur  processes ;  the 
pieces,  after  simple  washing,  being  transferred  at 
once  to  the  pots  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  steam ; 
undoubtedly,  this  is  the  purest,  but  the  expense  of 
preparing  it  prevents  its  general  use.  Inferior 
gelatine  is  made  from  bones  and  other  parts  of 
animals,  and  it  was  stated  by  an  eminent  authority, 
that  in  Paris  the  enormous  number  of  rats  which 
are  occasionally  killed  in  the  sewers  and  abattoirs, 
after  being  deprived  of  theii'  skins,  which  are 
reserved  for  other  purposes,  are  all  used  by  the 
gelatine-makers.  These  materials  are  placed  in 
cages  of  wire,  which  are  placed  in  steam-tight  boxes, 
where  they  are  submitted  to  the  direct  action  of 
steam  of  22,S°  F.,  but  at  a  low  pressure  ;  and  cold 
water,  supplied  by  another  pipe  through  the  upper 
part  of  the  box,  is  allowed  to  flow  slowly  and 
percolate  through  the  contents  of  the  cage,  the 
water  and  condensed  steam  descend  to  the  bottom 
charged  vnth.  gelatine,  and  are  drawn  off  by  a  stop- 
cock placed  there  for  the  purjiose. 

The  French  manufacturers  succeed  better  than 
any  others  in  clarifying  these  inferior  gelatines,  and 
they  rarely  make  any  others  ;  they  run  their  jilatcs 
out  very  thin,  which  gives  them  greater  trans- 
parency and  apparent  freedom  from  colour ;  and 
they  coloiu'  them  with  most  briUiant  colours,  and 
form  very  fine-rolled  sheets,  tempting  the  eye 
with  an  appearance  of  great  delicacy  and  purity, 
which  would  at  once  disappear  if  the  material  were 
made  up  into  the  thicker  plates  of  the  British 
manufacturers. 

The  purity  of  gelatine  may  be  very  easily  teste<l ; 
thus :  pour  upon  dry  gelatine  a  small  quantity  of 
boilin"  water,  if  pure  it  will  form  a  thickish  gluey 
colourless  solution,  free  from  smell ;  but  if  made  of 
impure  materials,  it  ■will  give  off  a  very  offensive 
odour,  and  have  a  yellow  gluey  consistency.  No 
article  manufactured  requires  such  carefid  selection 
of  material  and  such  nice  and  cleanly  manipulation 
to  insure  a  good  marketable  character;  and  those 


GELATINE. 


anxious  for  purity  should  avoid  all  artificially 
coloured  varieties,  however  tcmiitingly  got  up, 
unless  they  arc  rec^uired  for  merely  decorative 
purjwses  and  not  for  lood.  For  the  value  of  gelatine 
as  food,  see  Diet. 

Isinglass  (supposed  to  he  deiived  from  the 
nerman  JIaiiieiit>la.se,  bladder  of  the  sturgeon), 
the  IMiijocoUa  (khthux,  a  lish ;  IcoUa,  glue)  of 
the  chissical  and  scientific  ^^Tite^s,  was  formerly 
obtained  only  from  the  common  sturgeon  (accipenser 
sturio),  and  consisted  of  the  dried  air-bladder  of 
the  anim.'d.  The  necessities  of  modern  commerce 
have,  however,  led  to  the  discovery,  that  the  same 
part  in  many  other  fishes  forms  good  isinglass ; 
and  instead  of  Kussia,  as  formerly,  being  almost 
the  only  producing  comitry,  we  have  now  large 
quantities  from  South  America,  chietly  imported 
from  Maranham,  some  from  the  East  Indies,  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territorj-,  New  York,  and,  owing 
to  Professor  Owen  calUug  the  attention  of  the 
Canadian  Commissioners  of  the  E.xhibition  of  1S51 
to  the  subject,  it  is  now  brought  in  considerable 
quantities  and  of  excellent  qviality  from  Canada, 
where  it  is  likely  to  prove  a  somce  of  profitable 
imlustrj-. 

Tlie  commercial  varii'ties  of  this  material  are 
numerous,  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can 
only  be  obtained  by  considerable  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  them ;  therefore,  their  names  only  are 
given,  with  those  of  the  producing  animals  : 


Russia— 
Long  Staple  Ural,' 


1st  quality. 
2d        „ 


Short  Staple  Patriarch. 

Bool£  Patriarcli,          )st  m 

,.                  2d  .. 

Ttiin  leaf  Patriarch,  Ist  » 

„           ,p           2d  „ 

Belugo,           .           1st  n 

„           .            .       2d  u 

The  hrown    Ftiilfd  and  ragged 

ends  called  J*ickhigs. 

Sisanc,  leaf,            .  .    ! 
Kro.<ki,  or  Krosky, 
Sumovey,  leaf,     "  . 


Accipcnser  Guldenstadtii. 


}  Accipenser  Huso. 


•I        staple, 
I,        hook, 

Siberian,  Purse, 
South  America — 
Brazilian,  Pipe,  . 


1st  quality, 
2d        I, 

1st        1, 
2d 


[■Silurus  Glani8(?) 


Accipenser  Sturio  (!) 


f  Probably  a 
"l  Pimelodus. 
j  Probably  a 
\     Silurus, 

t  Probably  a 
\      Polynemus. 


species     of 
fpecies    of 

species    of 


<i         Lamp, 

T,         Honey-comb, 

East  Indies  — 
r.ast  Indian,  Purse,  . 
II        M        Leaf, 

North  America— 

Hudson's  Bay,  Purse,  .  Accipenser. 

Is'^w  York,  Ribbon,  .     Gudus  Merhiccius. 

Canadian,  leaf,  .  Accipenser  Sturio. 

Besides  these  now  well-known  commercial  varieties, 
others  are  occasionally  met  with,  as  the  Manilla,  in 
thin  cakes ;  the  Para,  which  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  all,  resembling  grapes  of  a  reddish-bro^vn 
colour,  growing  from  a  straight  thick  stem ;  these 
arc  the  dried  ova  of  the  Sucll.i  gigas,  a  large  fish 
common  in  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon.  An  inferior 
kind  is  also  made  of  cod-souuds  and  sole-skins, 
sufhciently  good,  however,  to  be  used  in  fining  beer 
and  other  liquids. 

One  of  the  qualities  of  gelatine  is  its  power  to 
form  chemical  combinations  with  certain  organic 
niatturs ;  Iwnce,  M'heii  it  is  mixed  and  ditisulvcd 
in  a  fluid  containing  such  matters,  it  combines, 
and  the  compound  is  precipitated.     It  would  appear 

*  So  called  from  the  bladder  being  purposely  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  staple  in  drying. 

ceo 


that  this  combination,  however,  is  threadlike  in 
its  arrangement,  and  that  the  crossing  threads  form 
a  fine  net-work  through  the  fluid,  which,  in  fall- 
ing, carries  down  all  floating  s>d)stanccs,  which,  by 
their  presence,  render  the  liquid  cloudy ;  hence 
its  great  value  in  clarifying  beer  and  other  liquids. 
For  this  reason  isinghiss,  which  has  been  found 
the  best  gelatine  for  the  purpose,  is  very  largely 
consumed  by  brewers. 

Isinglass,  strictly  sjieaking,  is  not  gelatine,  but  its 
only  value  is  from  the  excessive  proportion  of  gela- 
tine held  in  the  tissues  of  the  organ  which  yields 
it,  greatly  enhanced  by  the  case  with  which  it  is 
abstracted  from  the  membrane  when  compared  with 
the  complicated  process  necess.ary  for  separating 
and  purity ing  the  gelatine  from  the  skins,  &c.,  of 
other  animals.  When  separated,  however,  the 
substances  are  identical  in  composition,  and,  if  pure, 
are  tindistinguishable  from  each  other. 

Besides  the  substances  mentioned  as  yielding 
gelatine,  formerly  hartshorn  shavings  were  used, 
and  ivoiy  turnings  and  saw-dust  are  still  em- 
ployed, both,  however,  chiefly  for  dietetic  j)urposes 
for  invalids ;  and  various  kinds  of  animal  food 
are  valued  for  the  abundance  of  gelatine  they 
contain,  as  the  Trejiang  and  Beche  de  Mer  (species 
of  Holothuria),  sharks'  fins,  fish-maws,  ray-skins, 
elephant  hide,  rhinoceros  hide,  and  the  softer 
parts,  all  of  which  are  luxuries  amongst  the  Chinese, 
Japanese,  Siamese,  Malays,  &c.  Turtle-shells,  or 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  shield  (carapace 
and  plastron),  constitute  the  callijiash  and  callipee 
of  the  epicure,  and  form,  in  the  hands  of  the  expe- 
rienced cook,  a  rich  gelatinous  soup.  The  fleshy 
parts  of  the  turtle,  calves'  head  and  feet,  and  many 
other  tilings,  might  be  emmierated  as  vahiable, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  their  richness  in  this 
material. 

Glue  differs  only  from  gelatine  in  the  care  taken 
in  its  manufacture,  and  in  the  selection  of  the  mate- 
rials from  which  it  is  made ;  almost  every  .animal 
substance  will  yield  it,  hence  all  kinds  of  animal 
refuse  finds  their  way  to  the  glue-makers'  boilers. 
Nevertheless,  the  impossibility  of  jircscn'ing,  for 
any  length  of  time,  the  m.aterials  required  for  this 
mantifactiu'e,  renders  it  necessary  to  ado])t  some 
system  in  choosing  aud  preserving  them,  until 
suflicient  quantities  are  collected,  without  fermen- 
tation or  decomposition.  Hence  the  refuse  of  tan- 
neries, consisting  of  the  clippings  of  hides,  hoofs, 
ear  and  tail  pieces  of  ox,  calf,  and  sheep  are 
]ireferred,  because  they  can  be  dressed  with  lime, 
which  removes  the  hair,  and  acts  as  an  antisejitic. 
For  this  purpose,  they  are  placed  in  tanks  with 
quicklime  and  water  for  two  or  three  weeks,  during 
which  the  lime  is  several  times  renewed,  aud  the 
pieces  frequently  turned  over.  They  are  afterwards 
washed  aud  dried,  aud  are  ready  for  use  by  the 
glue-maker,  who  usually  gives  them  another  slight 
lime-dressing,  and  subsequently  washes  them  ;  they 
are  afterwards  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
for  a  time,  to  neutralise  the  caustic  lime.  When 
well-drained,  the  pieces  are  placed  in  fl.at-bottomed 
copper-boilers,  which  have  a  perforated  false  bottom 
placed  a  little  distance  above  the  true  one,  to  i)re- 
vent  the  burning  of  the  materials,  and  which  have 
been  supjilied  with  rain  or  other  soft  water  up  to 
two-thirds  the  dejith  of  tlie  boiler,  the  ])ieces  being 
piled  up  to  some  height  aliove  the  toji  of  the  oi)en 
boiler.  The  whole  is  kejit  at  a  gentle  boiling  lie.at 
imtil  .all  the  gelatinous  part  has  dissolved  out,  and 
the  mass  of  material  has  sunk  down  into  the  fluid. 
The  boiling  is  sustained  until,  by  repeated  trials 
of  small  quantities,  the  operator  knows  the  fluid 
is  of  the  right  consistency,  when  it  is  drawn  otT 
carefiUly   into    the    congealing    boxes,    and    fresh 


GELDERLAND— GELLERT. 


materials  are   added  to  tlie   residue  le£t  beliind  iu 
tUe  boiler,  and  tlie  process  is  repeated. 

Tlie  congealing  boxes  are  of  wood,  and  are  nearly- 
square,  being  slightly  narrower  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top  ;  they  are  filled  to  the  brim,  and  when  their 
contents  are  sufficiently  solidified,  the  glue,  with  a 
little  management,  turns  out  in  the  form  of  a  cube, 
which  is  cut  into  thin  slices  by  a  wire  in  the  same 
manner  as  soap ;  and  these  largel'  slices  are  sub- 
divided into  smaller  cakes  by  a  wet  knife.  Frames, 
witli  nets  stretched  upon  them,  are  proWded  for 
drying  the  cakes  njiou ;  and  these  frames,  when 
covered  with  the  cakes  of  glue,  are  adjusted  one 
over  another  at  a  little  distance  apart,  supported 
between  four  uprights,  and  if  iu  the  open  air, 
covered  over  with  httle  wooden  roofs,  the  whole 
being  arranged  so  that  the  air  can  have  free  access 
to  facilitate  drying.  This  process  is  an  an.xious  one 
to  the  manufacturer,  as  the  changes  of  the  weather 
have  great  and  often  completely  destructive  effects 
upon  glue  in  this  state  ;  and  in  this  country  only 
the  spring  and  the  autumn  can  be  rehed  upon  with 
any  satisfaction.  GeneraUy,  after  the  open  air 
drying,  the  glue  is  taken  to  drying-rooms  heated 
tlightly,  where  it  hardens  effectually ;  but  it  is 
not  yet  finished ;  the  cakes  at  this  stage  have  a 
dull,  unsightly  look,  to  remedy  which  they  are 
dipped  into  cold  water,  or  arc  wetted  with  a  brush 
dipped  in  hot  water,  and  rc-tU-ied,  this  wetting 
giving  the  cakes  a  bright  varnished  appearance. 
Great  Britain  does  not  excel  in  the  manufactiire  of 
glue,  and  British  workmen  usually  i)refer  the  dark 
variety.  Very  superior  glue  is  made  by  the  Dutch 
and  German.s,  by  whom  the  light  and  more  care- 
fully made  varieties  are  most  prized,  the  adhesive 
qualities  being  lessened  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  impurities  present  in  the  material. 

Besides  its  use  in  joinery,  cabinet-making,  and 
similar  operations,  glue  is  used  by  paper-makers 
and  in  dressing  silks ;  and  for  these  last  two 
])urpose3  fine  Ught-coloured  kinds  in  thin  cakes 
are  made.  Large  quantities  are  employed  also  by 
paper-hangers  and  others  for  sizing  walls  in  the 
st.ate  called  size,  which  is  the  glue  simply  gela- 
tinised after  boiling  in  the  first  process.  A  very 
line  and  pure  white  size  is  made  by  the  bonnet- 
makers  of  Bedfordshire  and  other  places  of  the 
skins  of  calves'  head,  ears,  and  the  under  part  of 
the  neck  and  belly  :  this  is  used  for  stiffening 
straw,  cotton,  horse-hair,  and  other  plaits  for 
making  bonnets  and  hats. 

Vegetable  Jelly,  which  is  an.alogous  to  animal 
gelatine,  is  obtained  largely  from  some  fruits,  but 
never  iu  a  pure  state ;  it  is  only  of  value  in  pre- 
scr\-ing  such  parts  of  the  fruit  for  cidinary  piu'- 
poses ;  but  several  of  the  sea-weeds  yiehl  a  large 
quantity  of  very  pure  jelly,  which,  in  some  instances, 
is  applied  to  important  j)uri)oses :  thus,  the  jelly 
of  j'ucus  spinosus,  the  agar-agar,  or  agal-agal, 
abundant  on  the  shores  of  the  eastern  seas,  is 
used  by  the  East  Indians,  Cingalese,  and  Cliinese  for 
dressing  their  silks  ;  the  Chinese  also  ingeniously 
form  tliin  films  of  the  jelly  over  a  framework  of 
bamboo,  and  thus  make  small  windows  for  their 
houses.  This,  and  another,  GraciUaria  iicheiiiiides, 
are  formed  into  a  thick  jelly,  with  sugar  and  other 
materials,  and  eaten  as  a  delicacy ;  and  both  are 
supposed  to  supply  the  material  for  those  wonder- 
ful birds'-nests,  which  constitute  the  most  costly 
luxury  known  to  the  art  of  cooking.  Another 
jelly-yielding  sea-weed  is  found  on  our  own  shores, 
called  the  Irish  Moss  or  Carrigcen  {C/iondnis 
Crisptis),  which  is  often  made  into  jellies  for  invalids, 
and  the  plant  itself,  on  account  of  its  richness  in 
this  material,  is  very  extensively  employed  in  feeding 
cattle,  especially  in  England. 


GE'LDERLAND,  a  province  of  Holland,  is 
situated  between  the  Zuider  Zee  on  the  north- 
west, and  the  Prussian  dominions  on  the  suuth- 
east.  It  h;i3  an  area  of  1948  square  miles,  and 
in  18G0  a  jiopidation  of  4()."),490.  It  is  watered 
chiefly  by  the  Yssel,  the  Rhine,  the  Waal,  and  the 
Maas.  The  surface  is  in  general  flat,  but  north- 
ward from  Aniheim,  the  capital,  and  over  the 
whole  of  the  north-west  portion  of  the  province, 
stretch  sandy  hills,  frequently  covered  with  bushes. 
The  cUmate  is  healthy,  ami  the  soil,  on  the  whole, 
good,  though  much  of  it  is  still  in  heath  anil 
marsh.  Along  the  river  valleys  a  rich  loamy  soil 
is  found.  Agriculture  is  jirosecuted  with  great 
success.  Wheat,  rye,  buckwheat,  tobacco,  &c.,  are 
abundantly  produced.  Among  the  manufactures, 
paper  and  leather  are  the  jirincipal.  Chief  to\^^ls, 
Arnheim,  Nimeguen,  and  Zutphen. 

GELI'DIUM,  a  genus  of  Algcf:  (sea-weeds),  of 
the  sub-order  Ceramiacne,  some  of  the  species  of 
which  are  believed  to  afford  the  material  used  by 
certain  species  of  swallow  in  building  the  edible 
nests  so  much  prized  by  the  Chinese.  See  Nests, 
Edible.  Several  species  of  gelidium  are  used  as 
food  in  the  east.  Like  many  other  sea-weeds  of 
this  order,  they  arc  almost  entirely  gelatinous,  and 
when  boiled  with  condiments  to  give  pungency 
and  flavour,  form  a  very  wholesome  and  agreeable 
food. 

GELL,  Sir  Willi.^m,  knight,  an  eminent  anti- 
quarian and  classical  scholar,  the  younger  son  of 
Philip  Gell,  Esq.  of  Hopton,  Derbyshire,  was  born  in 
1777.  He  was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  B.A.  in  179S,  and  M.A.  in  1804, 
and  was  for  sometime  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College 
in  that  university.  He  devoted  his  tune  principally 
to  antiquarian  research  and  geogi-aphical  studies, 
and  published  the  following  learned  and  valuable 
works  :  TIte  Toporiraphy  of  Trotj  (1804,  folio) ;  The 
Geography  and  Antiquities  of  Ithaca  (1808,  4to) ; 
The  Itiiierar)/  of  Greece  (1810,  4to) ;  The  Itinerary 
of  the  i1/o)-ra  "(1817,  Svo) ;  Altica  (1817,  folio); 
Pompeiiana^  or  Observations  ujyon  the  Topography^ 
Edifices,  and  Ornaments  of  Pompeii — in  conjunction 
with  J.  P.  Gaudy,  Esq.,  an  interestiug  and  beautiful 
work,  which  first  brought  his  name  into  notice 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1817—1819;  second  scries,  2  vols. 
8vo,  1832)  ;  Sarratire  of  a  Journey  in  the  Morea 
(182,3,  Svo)  ;  The  Tojmijrapliy  of  Home  and  its 
Vicinity  (1834,  Svo)  ;  Pome  and  its  Environs  (Map, 
1834).  In  Augjist  1814,  on  the  departure  to  the 
continent  of  Caroline,  Princess  of  Wales,  consort 
of  George  IV.,  she  appointed  him  as  one  of  her 
chamberlains.  In  that  capacity  he  attended  her 
in  various  ji.arts  of  Italy,  but  being  attacked  with 
the  gout,  was  soon  obliged  to  resign  his  situation. 
In  1820,  he  was  exauuned  as  a  witness  at  the 
bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  during  the  proceed- 
ings against  her  majesty  after  she  became  queen, 
and  had  returned  to  England.  Subsequently,  he 
resided  in  Italy,  principally  at  Najiles!,  having  a 
house  also  at  Rome,  where  he  occasionally  took  up 
his  abode.  He  died  at  Naples,  Fel iruarj'  4,  1830, 
and  was  interred  iu  the  English  buri.al-ground  of 
that  citj'. 

GE'LLERT,  Chkistiax  F&rchtegott,  a  German 
poet  and  moralist,  was  born  July  4,  1715,  at  Hay- 
nichcn,  in  the  Erzgebii-ge,  in  Saxony,  entered 
the  university  of  Leipsic  in  1734,  where  he  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  the  study  of  theology.  After 
some  years  sjient  as  a  tutor,  and  as  a  teacher  in  a 
jniblic  academy,  he  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
same  university  in  1751.  His  lectures  on  poetry, 
rhetoric,  and  morals  wore  niunerou.sly  attended, 
and  were  greatly  adnrired.     He  died  13th  December 

CCl 


GELLITJS— GEMISTUS. 


17C9.  G.  was  a  man  of  spotless  virtue,  but  ratber 
cffomiQatc  iu  mind  and  character.  He  ^^TOto  fables, 
stories,  didactic  poems,  spiritual  odes  and  songs. 
His  most  popidar  writings  were  his  fables  and 
stories.  They  are  marked  by  case  and  naturalness 
of  manner.  His  spiritual  odes  owe  their  continued 
popidarity  to  their  deep  piety,  and  to  a  certain 
Wgour  and  loftiness  of  flight  not  to  be  found  in 
his  other  poems.  G.  is  to  be  considered  one  of 
the  pioneers  of  modern  German  literature.  He 
marks,  along  with  others,  the  transition  from  the 
dulness  and  pedantry  of  the  previous  generation 
of  authors,  to  that  rich  and  superabundant  life 
which  Goethe  and  Schiller  poured  mto  the  national 
hterature.  G.'s  collective  works  {Siimmlliche  Werke) 
first  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  10  vols.  (17G9 — 1774), 
and  have  passed  through  various  editions  ;  the  most 
recent  is  that  published  iu  the  same  city  (G  vols., 
1840—1841).  Compare  Gellert's  Leben,  by  J.  A. 
Cramer  (Leip.  1774),  and  by  Diiriiig  (2  vols.,  Leip. 
1833). 

GE'LLIUS,  Arxrs,  a  Latin  author,  who  seems 
to  have  lived  about  117 — ISO  a.d.  The  exact  date, 
either  of  his  birth  or  death,  is  uot  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Kome,  where,  at 
all  events,  he  studied  rhetoric.  Subsequently,  he 
proceeded  to  Athens  to  undergo  a  discipline  in 
philosophy.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  entered  upon 
a  legal  career,  without,  however,  abandoning  hia 
literary  pursuits.  G.'s  well-known  work,  the  Attic 
Nights  (Nodes  Atticce),  begun  during  the  long 
nights  of  winter  in  a  country-house  near  Athens, 
and  completed  during  the  latter  j-ears  of  his  life, 
is  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  matter  on  language, 
antiquities,  history,  and  literature,  in  20  books,  of 
which  the  8th  is  wanting.  It  contains  many 
extracts  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors  no  longer 
extant.  The  work  is  destitute  of  any  plan  or 
arrangement,  is  disfigured  by  archaisms,  and  derives 
its  value  mainly  from  being  a  repertory  of  curious 
knowledge.  The  Editio  Princeps  ajipeared  at  Rome 
in  1469  ;  the  most  critical  edition  is  that  of  Jak. 
Gronovius  (Lug.  Bat.  1706) :  a  more  recent  but 
much  less  valuable  one  is  that  of  Lion  (2  vols., 
Gottingen,  1824—1825).  G.  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Beloe  (Lond.  1795) ;  into  French  by 
the  Abbe  de  VerteuU  (Paris,  1776)  ;  and  (in  part) 
into  German  by  Von  Walterstern  (Lemgo,  1785). 

GELON,  'tyrant'  of  Gela  and  SjTacuse,  was  the 
son  of  Deinomenes,  and  was  a  native  of  the  former 
city.  His  family  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
distinguished  in  the  place.  G.  himself  first  figures 
in  history  as  one  of  the  body-guards  iu  the  serWce 
of  Hippocrates,  tyrant  of  Gela.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter,  he  contrived  to  obtain  the  supreme  power 
(491  B.C.),  and  about  485  B.C.,  he  made  himself 
master  of  Syracuse  also,  which  then  became  the 
seat  of  his  government,  and  to  which  he  transferred 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gela.  His  influ- 
ence soon  extended  itself  over  the  half  of  Sicily.  G. 
refused  to  aid  the  Greeks  against  Xerxes,  as  they 
declined  to  comply  -n-ith  his  demand  that  he  should 
be  appomted  commander-in-chief.  About  the  same 
time,  Terillus,  ruler  of  Himera,  in  Sicily,  invoked 
the  aid  of  the  Carthaginians  against  Thcron  of 
Agrigentum,  who  had  dispossessed  him  of  his  state. 
G.,  who  was  in  alliance  with  Theron,  hastened  to 
the  assistance  of  the  latter,  and  on  the  same  d.ay 
(according  to  tradition)  on  which  the  Greeks  won 
the  battle  of  Salamis,  he  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  invaders  at  Himera.  The  consequence  was 
an  immediate  treaty  of  peace  between  him  and  the 
Carthaginians,  who  were  compelled  to  pay  all  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  His  clemency  and  the  wisdom 
of  his  measures  rendered  him  so  generally  beloved, 


that  when  he  appeared  unarmed  in  an  assembly  of 
the  people,  and  declared  himself  ready  to  resign  his 
power,  lie  was  unanimously  hailed  as  the  deliverer 
and  sovereign  of  SjTacuse.  The  story  current  in 
later  times,  that  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  he 
granted  peace  to  the  Carthaginians  was,  that  their 
human  sacrifices  should  bo  abolished,  has  jirobably 
no  historical  foundation,  but  it  illustrates  the 
general  belief  in  the  humanity  of  his  char.acter. 
G.  died  478  B.  c.  The  people,  who,  contrary  to  his 
desire,  had  erected  a  splendid  monument  to  his 
memory,  paid  him  honours  as  a  hero,  and  at  a  later 
jjcriod,  when  all  the  brazen  statues  were  sold  luider 
Timoleon,  his  statue  was  made  an  exce])tion  to  the 
general  nUe.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Hiero. 

GEM,  a  term  often  used  to  signify  a  precious 
stone  of  small  size,  such  as  may  be  used  for  setting 
in  a  ring,  or  for  any  similar  jnirpose  of  ornament ; 
but  sometimes  by  mineralogists  in  a  sense  which 
they  have  themselves  arbitrarily  affixed  to  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  scientific  classification,  as  the  desig- 
nation of  an  order  or  family  of  minerals,  generally 
hard  enough  to  scratch  quartz,  insoluble  m  acids, 
infusible  before  the  blow-jiipe,  without  metallic 
lustre,  but  mostly  brilliant  and  beautifiJ.  Among 
them  are  included  some  of  the  minerals,  which,  in 
popular  language,  are  most  generally  known  as  gems 
— ruby,  sapphire,  spinel,  topaz,  beryl,  emerald, 
tourmaline,  hyacinth,  zu'con,  &c. — and  some  other 
rarer  minerals  of  similar  character ;  but  along  with 
these  are  ranked  minerals,  often  coarser  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  which  are  not  gems  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  as  emery  and  common 
corundum,  whilst  diamond  and  some  other  precious 
stones,  much  used  as  gems,  are  excluded.  See 
Gems. 

GEMA'RA  (Ghemdra,  a  Qialdee  word,  signifying 
complement)  is  that  portion  of  the  two  Talmuds 
which  contains  the  annotations,  discussions,  and 
amplifications  of  the  Mishnah  by  the  academics  of 
Palestine  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  Babylon 
on  the  other.  The  Babylonian  Gemara,  more 
complete  as  well  as  more  lucid  than  the  Pales- 
tincnsian,  possesses  a  much  more  highly  valued 
authority.  The  final  redaction  of  this  latter  falls 
in  the  middle  of  the  4th  c.  A.D.,  while  the  former 
was  not  completed  till  500  a.d.  See  MisnNAn  and 
Tauiud. 

GE'MINI  (the  Twins),  the  third  constellation  in 
the  zodiac,  named  from  its  two  brightest  stains. 
Castor,  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  Pollux,  of  the 
second. 

GEMI'STTJS,  GiORGios,  called  GiOROics  Ple- 
THON,  and  more  commonly  GEsnsTDS  Plethox, 
was  the  last  of  the  Byzantine  WTiters.  The  exact 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  imcertain,  but  he 
is  known  to  have  Uved  between  1.350  and  1450. 
He  was  probably  bom  at  Constantinople,  but  the 
greater  jiart  of  his  life  was  {lassed  in  the  Pelo- 
jionncsus.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  by  the 
Greek  church  to  the  council  which  was  held  at 
Florence  in  143S,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  a 
imion  between  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  The 
council,  however,  entirely  failed  in  its  purpose.  G. 
was  more  celebrated  as  a  pliilosopher  than  as  a 
theologian.  In  his  time,  the  jVristotelian  philosophy 
reigned  supreme,  but  it  had  degenerated  into  a 
mere  science  of  words,  from  the  study  of  which  G. 
turned  away  disgusted,  and  applied  himself  to  Plato. 
Plato's  philosophy  so  charmed  him,  that  thence- 
forward he  devoted  himself  to  its  propagation ;  and 
iu  furtherance  of  this  view,  G.,  when  in  Italy, 
induced  Cosmo  de  Medici  to  embrace  it.  Cosmo's 
example  was  followed  by  others  in  Florence,  and 


GEMMATION— GEMS. 


thus  a  Platonic  school  was  founded  in  the  west 
which  flourished  for  nearly  100  years  afterwards. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  G.  was  engaged 
iu  bitter  conflict  with  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Aristotelians,  among  whom  George  of  Trebizond 
held  a  high  position,  and  between  him  and  G.  the 
discussion  was  carried  on  with  most  imseenily 
N-ioleuee.  G.  is  last  heard  of  in  history  in  1441, 
when  we  find  him  in  the  Peloponnesus  in  an  ofiicial 
capacity.  G.  'WTote  a  great  number  of  works  in 
history,  philosophy,  theology,  &c. 

GEMMA'TION,  or  GEMin'PAKOUS  GENER- 
ATION.   See  Reproduction. 

GEMO'TE.  Besides  the  great  council  of  the 
nation — the  Witena-gemol,  or,  as  we  more  usually 
spell  it,  WitenagemSte  (q.  v.) — which  corresponded 
to  the  Roichstage  of  the  Franks,  and  which,  though 
it  took  the  place  of  the  still  more  ancient  meetings 
of  the  whole  nation,  to  which  Tacitus  refers  as 
characteristic  institutions  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  in 
his  day,  was  a  representative,  though  not  perhaps 
an  elective  body  (Kemble's  Saxons  in  JCiujland, 
ii.  p.  194),  there  were  amongst  the  Anglo-Saxons 
various  minor  motes  or  moots,  which  did  not  partake 
of  the  representative  character.  The  existence  of 
these  is  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
spirit  of  localisation  has  always  maintained  its 
ground,  and  balanced  that  of  centralisation  amongst 
the  Germanic  nations,  and  more  particularly  iu 
England.  There  was  the  shire-gemot,  or  county 
court,  which  met  twice  a  year;  and  the  hurg-gemot, 
which  met  thrice ;  the  hundred-genwl  (see  Hdndred), 
which  met  every  month,  and  an  extraordinary  meet- 
ing of  which  was  held  twice  a  year;  the  halle- 
gemote,  or  court-huron.  These  institutions  excluded 
not  only  central  despotism,  but  local  tyranny  in 
the  shape  of  individual  caprice.  The  ealdorman 
decided  only  with  the  assent  of  the  shire-gcmote, 
just  as  the  king  was  dependent  upon  that  of  the 
Witan.     Lappeuberg  by  Thorpe,  ii.  p.  322. 

GESIS,  Ancif.n't.  The  term  gem,  which  is  applied 
to  jewels  and  other  valuable  and  precious  stones, 
mc.ins  in  archaeology  engraved  stones  of  the  precious 
kinds,  and  even  smaU  engraved  portions  of  hard  and 
jirimitive  rocks  which  have  been  set  or  worn  as 
jewels  by  the  .ancients.  Before  entering,  however, 
u])on  the  subject  of  engraved  stones,  it  will  bo 
necessary  to  mention  the  principal  kinds  which 
.are  mentioned  by  ancient  authors,  or  have  been 
found  by  modem  researches  to  have  been  used  for 
engraving. 

Although  the  principal  varieties  of  precious  stones 
were  kno\vn  to  the  ancients,  yet  owing  to  the 
absence  of  scientific  and  chemical  analysis,  they 
appear  to  have  distinguished  precious,  and  other 
stones,  only  by  colour,  specific  gravity,  and  density. 
The  different  nomenclature,  too,  used  by  different 
authors,  multiplied  synonyms,  and  caused  confu- 
sion ;  so  that  it  has  become  impossible  to  identify 
all  the  stones  mentioned  by  Theophr.ostus,  Pliny, 
and  others.  As  a  general  nde,  the  ancients  did 
not  engrave  such  precious  stones  as  the  diamond, 
rii1)y,  and  sapphire,  being  content  with  those  of 
less  hardness  and  value.  The  principal  stones 
used  by  engravers  were:  (1)  The  camolian,  and 
its  more  transparent  variety  the  sard,  sardwn,  in 
common  use  iu  the  days  of  Plato  (so  called  from 
Sardes  in  Lydia,  but  chiefly  obtamed  from  India 
and  Babylonia) :  (2)  The  chalcedony,  supposed  to 
be  the  ancient  calchedonion,  used  for  seals  and 
reliefs,  of  which  two  kinds  have  been  found  :  (3) 
The  onyx  or  nail-stone,  variously  described  by  Pliny 
and  his  predecessors,  but  distinguished  by  a  white 
layer  resembhng  the  nail :  (4)  The  nicolo  or  Jignp- 
tilla,  obtained  from  the  onyx,  a  blue  spot  with  a 


black  zone  encircling  it :    (5)  The  sardonyx,  which 
was  a  variety  of  the  onyx,  having  black,  blue,  white, 
and  red  colours,  and  particularly  used  for  cameos 
and  v.ases,  by  cutting  down  the    lighter  coloured 
layers    to    the    darkest  for   a  background   to   the 
figures,  a  stone  much  prized  by  the  ancients ;  the 
signet  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  Elder  being  of  this 
material,  and  the  Emperor  Claudius   esteeming  it 
and  the  emerald  above   all   other  gems:    (G)    The 
agate  or  achates,   so   named  from  a,  Sicilian  river, 
embraced  many  varieties,  as  the  jaspachates,  den- 
dryachates,  but  confounded   with  the  jasper,  con- 
sidered a  charm  against  scorpions  and  spiders,  used 
for  whetstones,  and  a  talisman  by  athletes  ;  it  was 
obtained  from  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Asia  :  (7)  Plasma 
or  the  ProMwt,  root  of  emerald,  much  used  under 
the  lower  empire ;  its  varieties  were  the  Moloc/iates 
.and  Amnion :    (8)  Numerous  varieties  of  the  jasper, 
iaspitt,  green,  blood-red,   yellow,  black,  mottled  or 
porcelain,  and  even  blue,  were  emjjloyed  for  signets 
at  the   Roman   period,   and   procured   from   Iiidia, 
Pei-sia,  and  Cappadocia.     Pliny  mentions  a  remark- 
able statuette  of  Nero,  weighing  15  ounces  in  this 
materi.al :  (9)  Garnets,  the  granalici  or  red  hyacinths 
of  antiquity,  which  were  principally  in  use  at  the 
latter  days  of  the  Roman  empire,  ami  amongst  the 
Oriental  nations — with  which  m.ay  be  classed:  (10) 
The  carbunculus,  supposed,  however,  by  some  to  be 
the  n.ame  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  ruby,  was 
brought  from  Indi.a,   Garamantia,  Carchedou,   and 
Antliemusia :    (11)    The   hijaclnlhus    or    jacinth,    a 
yellow  variety  of  the  g.arnet,  which  was  used  for 
signets,  and  came  from  Ethiopia  and  Ar.abia:  (12) 
The  Lyncunum,  or  Lychnis,  wliich  is  the  ancient 
name   of    the  true    modem  jacinth:    (13)    Several 
varieties  of  the  emerald  or  smaragdus  are  cited  by 
the  ancients,  as  the  Bactrian  or  Scythian,  supposed 
to  be  a  green  ruby,  principally  derived  from  the 
emerald  mines  at  Zabora,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Coptos,   worked   by   conscripts,  and   described   by 
Agatharcides.     Many  remarkable  stories  are  told  of 
this  gem,  which  has  only  been  found  with  engravings 
of  a  later  period  ;  one  sent  by  a  king  of  Babylon  to 
a  king  of  Egypt  was  4  cubits  long  .and  3  in  width  ; 
an  obelisk  iii  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  40  cubits  high, 
is  said  to  have  been  made  out  of  four  emeralds  ; 
and  Theophrastus  mentions  an  emer.ald  column  of 
great  size  in  the  temple  of  Hercules  at  Tyre.     In 
the  Egy])tian  labjrrinths,  according  to  Apion,  was 
a  colossal  Serapis  of  great  height,  made  of  emerald. 
This  stone  was  used  by  gem-engr.avers  to  '  refresh ' 
the  sight,  or   inlaid   in  the  eyes  of  statues,  as   in 
the   Lion   .at  Cji)rus,  erected  to  Hermias ;   it  was 
set  in  the  ring  of  Polycrates  ;  and  used  as  a  lens 
by  Nero  to  behold  the   fights  of  the  gladiators  in 
the   circus:   (14)   The   Berjd  or  Benjllus,  obtained 
from  India,  cut  in  shape  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid, 
was  used  at  an  early  period  for  engraving:    (15) 
The   amethyst,   brought  from  Arabia  Petra?a   and 
Armenia  Minor,  is   found   used   for   intagli   at  .aU 
periods :  (16)  The  aapphims  of  the  ancients,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  lajtis  lazuli,  came  from  Media, 
and  appears  in  use  amongst  the  Egyptians  and  Per- 
sians :  (17)  The  anthrax,  supposed  to  be  the  ruby, 
was  not  engraved;   the   hyacinthus  has  also  been 
cnnjecturcd'to  be  the  blue  sapphire:  (18)  The  topaz, 
topaznn,  applied  by  the  ancients  to  a  green  stone 
found  by  the  Troglodj-tes  in  the  island  of  Cytis,  in 
the  Aral)ian  Gulf,  and  first  sent  by  Philemon  to 
Berenice,  out  of  which  also  a  statue  of  Arsinoe  was 
m.ade  .and  pl.aced  in  the  so-called  'golden temple'  by 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus :  (19)  The  ChrysoUOim :  (20) 
Chrysoprase,  turquoise  callais:  (21)  The  magnes  or 
loadstone,  were  used  for  cylinders  and  gems  of  a 
l.ate  period  :   (22)  The  green  tourmaline,  or  avan- 
turine,  sandarems:  (23)  The  obsidian,  obsidianus, 

663 


GEMS. 


80-caIl«l  after  its  founder  Obsiclius,  four  elephants 
maiU'  of  which  were  ilciUcati-d  l>y  Augustus  in  the 
tein|ilu  of  Concord  were  also  known  ;  and  a  sfcitue  of 
Menelaus,  made  of  the  same  material,  was  returned 
to  the  Hcliopolitans  by  Tiberius:  (S-l)  The  opal 
opaliles,  or  jxrderos,  obtained  from  India,  the  largest 
of  which  then  known,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
belonging  to  the  senator  Nonius,  was  valued  at 
about  iiOOO,  which  he  would  not  j-ield  to  >I. 
Antony ;  this  stone  was  sometimes  engraved :  (25) 
The  adamas,  of  which  seven  varieties  were  known  to 
the  ancients,  was  only  use<l  for  cutting  other  gems, 
ov  worn  rough,  but  was  not  engraved,  or  even  faced, 
the  art  of  polishing  it  having  been  discovered  by 
Louis  dc  Bcrghem  in  the  loth  centurj*.  The  list  of 
Pliny,  indeed,  contains  many  other  stones,  which 
have  been  either  coufouHded  with  those  already 
described — their  names  having  been  derived  from 
different  sources — or  else  they  are  species  of  the 
same.  Many  of  these  had  fanciful  names,  as  (26) 
the  Aromalites  of  Arabia  and  Egypt,  so-called  from 
its  fragrance:  (27)  The  aleclorius,  worn  by  the 
^vrestler  Milo,  so-caUed  from  being  t.aken  out  of  the 
gizz.ird  of  a  fowl :  (2S)  Tlie  aspilates,  a  iiery  stone, 
said  by  Democritiis  to  be  found  in  the  nestof  Arabian 
birds.  In  the  selection  of  stones  for  engra«ng,  the 
gem-cngi-avers  adapted  the  material  to  the  subject 
— Bacchanalian  subjects  were  often  engr.avcd  on 
amethysts  ;  marine,  on  ber)'ls ;  martial,  on  carue- 
hans,  sards,  and  red  jaspers ;  rural,  on  green  jasper  ; 
celestial,  on  chalcedonies.  Superstitious  virtues 
were  also  attributed  to  the  diti'erent  varieties  of 
gems — thus  the  amethyst  was  supposed  to  protect 
from  the  influence  of  wine ;  and  according  to  Dios- 
corides,  the  jasper  was  p.articiilai'ly  adajited  for 
amxdcts  ;  and  Alex.ander  of  Tralles  recommends  the 
subject  of  Hercules  engi-aved  on  a  Median  stone, 
to  be  worn  on  the  finger  as  a  remedy  against  the 
cholic. 

The  art  of  engr.aving  precious  stones  at  the  earlier 
periods  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  was  compara- 
tively imkuown,  although  these  jieople  made  beads 
of  carneli.an,  felspar,  root  of  emerald,  jaspers,  lajiis 
lazidi,  amethyst,  and  other  hard  stones.  For  the 
purposes  of  seals,  however,  and  for  intagli,  steatite 
scarabsei  were  generally  used,  and  engraved  gems 
are  either  of  the  greatest  rarity  or  suspected,  till 
the  time  of  the  Ptolemies.  A  remarkable  excep- 
tion to  this  nde  is  a  square  signet  of  yellow  jasper, 
engraved  with  the  name  and 
titles  of  Amenophis  II.  (about 
1450  B.C.)  and  his  horse,  in 
the  British  Museum.  Under 
the  Ptolemies  and  Eomans, 
the  Gnostic  gems,  called 
Abraxas,  generally  of  lapis 
lazuli,  blood-stone,  and  jasper, 
begin  to  appear,  but  these  are 
made  by  the  same  process 
as  the  Greek,  from  which 
they  were  derived.  The 
Ethiopians,  according  to 
Herodotus,  engraved  signets. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
neighbouring  Phcenicia,  which  either  imitated  the 
cylinders  of  the  Babylonians,  or  the  scarabaii  of 
the  Etruscans.  In  Assj'ria,  the  oldest  gems  are  of 
cylindrical  shape,  from  one  to  two  inches  long,  and 
half  an  inch  thick,  pierced  tlirough  their  long  a.xis  for 
a  cord  to  attach  roimd  the  wrist.  The  earlier  ones 
are  of  serpentine,  the  later  of  the  time  of  Sargon  or 
Shalmancser,  of  agate,  jasper,  quartz,  and  syenite, 
engraved  with  figures  of  the  gods,  and  the  names 
of  their  possessors  in  cuneifoi-m.  The  inscri])tions, 
indeed,  are  often  difficult  to  read,  but  names  similar 
to  those  of  AssjTian  and  B;vbylouian  mouarchs  occur, 
.  C04 


Green  Jasper  Abraxas, 
with  fiijure  of  lao. 


one  cylinder  h.aving  a  name  like  that  of  Nebuehad- 
nezz.ar.  The  Kabj-lonian  are  of  the  same  type,  and 
chiefly  of  hiematitc,  loadstone,  steatite,  and  jas]icr; 
have  also  ligurcs  of  deities,  and  tlic  names  of  deities 
or  the  possessors,  generally  executetl  in  a  coarse 
rude  style  by  the  graver.  Oval  gems,  indeed, 
appear,  from  the  imjircssions  on  the  clay  tablets, 
to  have  been  in  use  at  the  same  time  ;  that  of 
cylinders  piissed  to  the  Persians,  under  whom  the 
:vrt  became  much  better,  and  chance  has  preserved 
the  cyUndcr  signet  of  Darius  I.,  found  in  Egi'pL 


Chalcedony  Cj-Undcr :  Signet  of  Darius  I. 

These  cylinders  were  abandoned  for  conical  gems, 
]irinci]ially  of  chalcedony,  engraved  on  the  base 
with  figures  of  deities,  in  use  jirior  to  tlic  con- 
quest of  Alexander,  and  were  at  a  later  period, 
commencing  in  the  ."Sd  c.  a.d.,  followed  by  hemi- 
spherical agiite  gems,  with  heads,  animals,  and 
Pchlevi  inscriptions,  genenally  of  a  rude  and  debased 
style  of  art.  These,  again,  at  a  later  jieriod,  were 
succeeded  by  convex  stones  en  eahochon,  often 
garnets,  sards,  carbuncles,  engraved  on  the  upper 
surface,  with  rude  figures  of  animals,  heads  .and  other 
de\"ices  also,  accompanied  with  Pehlcri  inscriptions, 
and  these  probably  continued  tUl  the  rise  of  Moham- 
medanism in  the  East,  when  the  art  was  confined  to 
the  engra\-iug  of  cutic  legends  on  the  most  valuable 
of  oriental  stones,  often  with  a  gi-eat  degree  of 
dexterity.  In  ,Tudea,  the  use  of  signets  (see  Seals) 
prevailed,  and  the  most  important  known  instance 
is  the  Urini  and  Thummim,  or  breastplate  of  the 
high-priest,  consisting  of  twelve  precious  stones, 
engraved  \\\t\\  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes ; 
but  no  Hebrew  engraved  stones  earlier  than  the 
5th  or  6th  century  are  known.  Amongst  the  other 
oriental  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Bactrians  .and  early 
Hindus  seem  to  have  exercised  the  art  of  engraving 
on  stones,  although  no  works  of  great  merit  of  these 
nations  have  been  found,  and  those  of  a  later  age  are 
mere  seals  engraved  with  sentences  of  the  Koran, 
or  the  names  of  the  possessors,  and  when  smeared 
with  black  or  coloured  inks,  were  impressed  on 
documents  as  stamps.  Of  the  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  the  Chinese  only  have  had  seals  (see 
Seals)  of  crystal,  soapstone,  porcelain,  and  other 
substances,  ■with  dc\"ices  in  rchef  for  using  as 
st.amps,  the  subjects  being  mottoes  from  poetical 
and  other  works. 

The  Greeks,  at  the  earliest  period,  are  not  sup- 
posed to  have  employed  engraved  stones  for  their 
signets,  the  earliest  rings  being  of  solid  met,al,  such 
.OS  the  legendary  ring  of  Jlinos ;  but  at  a  Later  period, 
those  of  Helen,  Ulysses,  and  the  legendary  one  of 
Gygcs,  are  s.aid  to  have  had  engraved  stones.  Orestes, 
in  the  tragedies,  is  also  recognised  .as  the  son  of 
Agamemnon  by  his  engraved  ring ;  and  Mnesarchos, 
the  father  of  Pyth,agor.as,  who  lived  about  700  B.  r., 
was  an  engraver  of  gems.  The  earliest  instance 
of  .an  engraved  gem  is  the  emenald  ring  of  Poly- 
crates,    set   in  gold  or   engraved   by  Thcodonis  of 


GEilS. 


Greek  Sard,  with 
ludiaii  Bacchus. 


Samos  about  740  B.C. ;  while  the  laws  of  Solon 
against  counterfeiting  signets  shew  that  they  may 
have  been  in  early  use.  At  the  period  of  the 
Persian  war  they  were  by  no 
means  uncommon.  Later,  the 
writings  of  the  Platonists  and 
Stoics  constantly  allude  to  gems, 
and  the  llute- player  Ismeuias, 
437  B.C.,  purchased  an  emerald 
engraved  with  a  figure  of  Amy- 
mone.  Still  later,  the  poet  Eupolis 
instances  the  extravagant  jiriccs 
given  by  the  C'jTeuu'ans  for 
engraved  stones  in  rings.  Yet  it 
is  "doubtful  if  any  real  Greek 
intagli  earlier  than  the  war  of 
Peloponnesus  can  be  identified, 
those  hitherto  cited  in  low  relief,  enclosed  in  a 
giiillocho  or  engrailed  border,  and  of  a  hard  ami 
stiti'  style  of  art,  having  been  probably  cut  from 
the  Ixases  of  scaraba;i  of  Etruscan  work.  At  a  later 
period,  their  use  was  universal,  and  the  names 
of  celebrated  engravers,  such  as  PjTgoteles  and 
ApoUonides,  are  known,  the  first  named  having  the 
pririlege  of  cngra\-ing  the  portrait  of  the  monarch, 
Alexander  the  Great:  Ptolemy  V.,  presented  as  a 
most  precious  gift  his  portrait  engraved  on  an 
emerald  to  Lucullus ;  and  C'leop.atra  had  a  gem  with 
Bacchus.  The  style  of  engraving  of  this  age  is  fine 
and  noble,  the  hair  indicated  by  fine  wiry  lines; 
the  subjects  are  generally  heroic,  but  busts  aud 
portraits  of  di\-ine,  regal,  and  historical  personages 
appeal-.  Sards,  amethysts,  and  jacinths  were  in  use. 
Contemporaneous  with  the  Greek  school,  if 
not  earlier,  was  the  Etruscan,  consisting  of  scarabs 
entirely  carved  out  of 
sard,  carnclian,  agate, 
with  engi-aving  often 
of  exquisite  work, 
but  generally  harsh, 
and  sometimes  of 
severe  stj'le,  with 
subjects  derived  from 
the  earliest  Hellenic 
myths,  and  occasional 
inscriptions  in  the 
Etruscanlanguagc,  the 
Camelian  Etruscan  Searabajus :  names  of  the  per- 
Centaur  and  Deer.  sonages    represented, 

seldom  more  than  one 
li'iire  appearing  on  the  gem.  The  subject  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  guilloche  or  en.graded  border,  and 
the  scarabs  were  pierced  through  their  long  axis, 
to  set  as  rings  or  to  wear  as  other  objects  of 
attire.  Similar  scarabs,  but  of  green  jasper,  and 
of  Pha?nician  workmanship,  have  been  found  in 
Sardinia.  These  gems  probably  were  made  from 
the  beginning  to  "the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  B.C., 
when  Etruria  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Romans, 
who  derived  their  engraved  stones  from  the  Greek 
successors  of  Alexander,  as  engraved  rmgs,  with 
their  subjects,  are  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the 
republic,  the  device  of  Scipio  Africanus  being  a 
head  of  Sc)-phax ;  that  of  Sylla,  the  submission  of 
Jugurtha  ;  of  Pompey,  a  lion  carrying  a  sword  ;  and 
of  C;esar,  Venus  armed  mth  a  dart.  So  great  had 
the  passion  for  these  charming  little  works  of  an, 
increased,  that  Seaiu-us,  the  step-son  of  Sylla,  had 
even  a  collection  of  gems,  dactyliotkeca.  Pompey 
sent  the  collection  of  Mithridatcs  as  an  ofiering  to 
the  Capitol ;  and  Cresar,  to  outvie  his  great  compe- 
titor, presented  six  such  collections  to  the  shrme  of 
Venus  Genetrix ;  and  MarceUus  another  to  the  cella 
of  the  Palatine  ApoUo.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Emjiire,  the  portraits  follow  the  costume  and 
art  of  the  period ;  the  hair  is  exiiressed  by  broad 


strokes,  the  compositions  rarely  contain  more  than 
two  figures.  Artists  of  great  merit,  as  Dioscoridcs, 
ApoUonides,  and  Chronios  Uourished  at  this  age. 

The  n.ames  of  the  artists  who  engraved  the  gems, 
and  of  the  proprietors,  are  occasionally  found  upon 
them.  The  devices  were 
various :  Augustus  had  first 
a  sphinx,  then  his  portrait 
engraved  by  Dioscorides ; 
Nero,  Apollo  and  the 
Muses;  Galba  used  first  a 
dog,  subsequently  the  head 
of  Augustus.  After  the 
Antonines,  indeed,  the  art 
rajiidly  declined,  aud  por- 
traits after  Sevenis  are 
rare,  although  even  th.at  of 
Mauricius  is  said  to  occur.  Sard  Portrait  of  Caligula. 
.\t  the  middle  period  of  the 

Empire,  the  work  is  exceedingly  nide,  often  merely 
scratched  out  by  a  diamond  point  in  carnelians, 
jaspers,  and  garnets.  Some  works,  indeed,  of  the 
later  or  Byzantine  period  exist,  but  they  are  of 
poor  merit  and  execution,  and  the  subjects  are 
taken  from  Christian  subjects.  The  gems  of  this 
later  period  are  sometimes  square,  generally,  how- 
ever, the  long  or  convex  oval  The  camci,  or  gems 
in  relief,  the  .ancient  ecti/pa  eculptuni,  appear  at  the 
period  of  the  Roman  Empire.  This  term  came'i,  of 
uncertain  origin,  is  applied  to  engravings  on  stones 
of  two  or  more  layers,  such  as  the  onyx  or  sardonyx, 
and  niccolo,  and  is  different  from  the  relief-gems  cut 
out  of  stones  of  one  colour.  Ancient  camei,  indeed, 
are  of  the  greatest  raritj-,  and  are  not  older  than 
the  imperial  days  of  Rome.  The  smaller  ones  were 
used  for  rings ;  the  larger,  which  are  often  perforated, 
are  supjiosed  to  have  been  worn  in  the  armour  or 
dress,  p/ialera:.  They  were  worked  out  with  the 
diamond  point ;  chiseled,  so  to  say,  out  of  the  stone ; 
and  have,  when  examined,  a  rough  appear.ance.  The 
most  remarkable  ancient  camei  known  arc  those  of 
the  Vienna  collection,  supposed  to  represent  the  apo- 
theosis of  Augustus,  on  which  are  Augustus,  Juiiiter, 
.and  Rome  enthroned,  the  Earth,  Ocean,  Abundance, 
Germanicus,  Victory,  a  triumph.al  car,  Tiberius,  .and 
German  cajitives ;  another,  in  the  s.ame  collection, 
with  Ptolemy  II.  and  .-Vrsinoe,  the  great  cameo  in 
the  Bibliotheque  at  Paris,  representing  the  ajxitheosis 
of  Augustus  ;  another  in  the  collection  of  the  Nether- 
laiidst  a"'!  *  fourth  in  the  V.atican  ;  a  cameo  at  St 
Petersburg,  one  foot  loug,  and  another,  eight  and 
a  h.alf  inches  wide  by  six  inches  high,  in  the 
Marlborough  collection,  with  the  heads  of  Didius 
Julian  and'  Maidia  ScantiUa.  At  a  later  period,  the 
art  had  considerably  declined,  and  the  Christians 
of  the  later  d.ays  of"  the  Empire  were  content  with 
engraving  inscriptions  on  camei.  These  gems  were 
principaily  worn  as  objects  of  atture,  and  Helio- 
gabulus  is  said  to  have  phaced  even  intagli  in  his 
shoes.  The  names  of  artists  are  rarely  found  upon 
camei ;  a  celebrated  one  of  the  Mariborough  collec- 
tion, indeed,  has  the  n.ame  of  Tryphon,  but  there 
is  considerable  doubt  about  the  authenticity  of  the 
inscription. 

The  subjects  of  ancient  gems  embrace  the  whole 
circle  of  ancient  art,  and  follow  the  laws  of  its 
development,  animal  forms  being  succeeded  by 
those  of  deities  and  subjects  derived  from  the 
battles  of  Greeks  and  Amazons  and  Centaurs, 
the  exploits  of  Hercides,  and  other  heroes ;  then 
by  scenes  from  tragedians  and  later  mj'ths  ;  and, 
finally,  by  jiortraits,  historical  representations,  and 
allcgiiries.  ffhe  inscriptions  consist  of  the  names  of 
deities,  heroes,  and  subjects ;  dedications  to  deities ; 
the  names  of  artists,  sometimes  in  the  genitive 
case,  but  often  accompanied  with  the  verb  epoci, 
'  CCS 


GEMS. 


'  was  making '  (the  affected  imperfect  used  after  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great)  ;  addresses  to  indi- 
viduals ;  gnomic  or  other  sayings,  indicating  that 
the  gems  are  amiUets  against  demons,  thieves,  and 
various  erils  ;  or  cliarms  for  ])rocnring  love ;  the 
names  of  the  possessore,  and  sometimes  addresses, 
occasionally  even  distichs  of  poetry,  and  various 
mottoes.  These  inscriptions  were  often  added 
by  subsequent  possessors,  and  are  not  of  the  age 
of  the  gem  itself.  The  number  of  artists,  although 
very  considerable,  does  not  exceed  100  authentic 
names ;  and  the  true  names  are  supjiosed  to  be 
distinguished  from  false  ones  by  being  placed  at 
the  side  of  the  composition  in  very  small  letters 
terminating  in  dots  ;  but  even  these  have  been  snc- 
cessfidly  imitated  by  modem  artists,  and  the  greatest 
criticism  and  learning  have  been  displayed  to  detect 
real  ancient  names  by  their  orthograjihy  and  palieo- 
graphy.  The  number  of  false  antique  stones  pro- 
d\iced  by  eminent  engravers  since  the  reWval  of  the 
arts,  has  rendered  the  diagnosis  of  gems  so  difficult, 
that  no  branch  of  archaeology  requires  greater  judg- 
ment. All  gems  of  high  artistic  merit  and  great 
finish  are  suspected,  es2>eciaUy  those  •n-ith  groups  of 
many  figures,  regular  edges,  and  polished  faces,  or 
too  great  a  polish  in  the  deep  parts.  Coarser  imita- 
tions have  been  produced  by  backing  pastes  or 
coloured  glass  (see  Gois,  Imit.vtion)  with  stones, 
and  mounting  them  in  rings,  so  as  to  pass  for  a 
gem.  The  appearance  of  wear  and  friction  has  been 
produced  by  introducing  them  for  awhile  into  the 
gizzards  of  turkeys,  or  in  pierced  boxes  plunged  in 
the  beds  of  rivei-s.  The  judgment  \ipon  gems  can 
be,  however,  only  m,atured  by  a  careful  study 
and  familiarity  with  all  branches  of  ancient  art. 
The  coarser  imitations  of  pastes,  the  tongue,  the 
file,  and  the  graver  ^vill  detect ;  but  old  gems 
re-engraved,  or  new  compositions  invented,  require 
the  most  careful  survej'.  The  ])l.ace  or  circum- 
stance of  tliscovery  is  only  a  feeble  guarantee 
against  deception,  the  commerce  in  false  antiques 
being  suceessfidly  plied  upon  the  unwary  even  in 
the  far  East. 

The  chief  implement  used  by  the  ancient  en- 
gravers appears  to  have  been  made  by  splitting 
diamonds  into  splints  (adamantis  C7-iisla)  by  a  heavy 
h.ammer,  and  then  fi.xing  these  points  like  glaziers' 
iliamonds  into  iron  instruments,  with  wliich  the 
work  was  executed  by  the  hand  {/trra  reliisa).  The 
drill,  terebra,  was  also  extensively  used  for  hollowing 
out  the  deeper  and  larger  parts  of  the  work,  and 
emer}'  powder,  the  -^marh  or  Naxian  stone,  for 
polishing.  The  so-called  wheel,  a  minute  disk  of 
copper,  secured  to  the  end  of  a  spindle,  and  moist- 
ened with  emery  powder  or  diamond  dust,  and 
driven  by  a  lathe,  does  not  appear  to  h.ave  come 
into  use  till  the  Byzantine  epoch.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  the  artist  used  lenses  of  some  kind, 
or  globes  filled  with  water,  to  execute  his  minute 
work ;  but  the  ancient,  like  the  modern  engraver, 
rather  felt  than  saw  his  way.  All  these  processes 
were  not  emjjloyed  by  the  same  artist,  for  besides 
the  engraver  (scalptor  cavarius,  dactt/Uographtis), 
there  was  a  polisher  (;)o/i/oi'),  not  to  mention 
arrangers  {composilorc:s  gentmarum),  and  merchants 
((jemmarii,  vmnr/ones  r/eniinartim)  who  drove  a 
flourishing  trade  in  emeralds  and  pearls  and  engraved 
stones  in  the  days  of  Horace. 

The  general  fall  of  the  arts  at  the  period  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  seems  to  have  been  accompanied 
by  the  decline  of  the  art  of  engraving  on  gems  ; 
and  the  JleroNTngian  and  Carlo"\nngian  monarchs 
were  obliged  to  use  antique  gems,  instead  of  those 
engr.aved  by  the  artists  of  their  day.  Rock- 
erj'stals,  however,  were  engraved  in  a  Byzantine 
style  of  art,  with  sacred  subjects,  in  the  9th  c. ;  but 


the  art  was  all  but  lost  till  the  rise  of  Lorenzo  de 
Medici,  when  Giovanni  dello  Corniole  at  Florence, 
and  Domenico  dei  Camei  at  Milan,  worked  under 
his  patronage.  A  subsequent  school  of  gem- 
engravei-8  originated  with  Pietro  Maria  de  Pescia, 
who  worked  for  Leo  X. ;  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  school  are  Michelino,  Matteo  de  Benedctti, 
the  celebrated  ))aintors  Francia,  il.  A.  Moretti, 
Caradosso  of  Milan,  Severo  of  Ravenna,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  J.  Tagliacarne,  Bernardi  of  Castel  Bolog- 
nese,  who  died  1555,  celebrated  for  a  Tityus  coi)ied 
from  M.  Angelo.  These  were  succeeded  by  Matteo 
del  Nassaro  of  Veroua,  who  worked  for  Francis  L, 
and  produced  a  crucifixion  on  heliotrope,  so  that 
the  red  spots  seemed  lUops  of  blood  issuing  from 
the  wounds  of  Christ ;  Caraglio,  who  flourished  in 
Poland  in  1569;  Valcrio  dei  Belli,  who  chiefly 
employed  rock-crystal ;  ^Larmita,  Domenico  di 
Polo,  Nanni,  Anichini  of  Ferrara,  and  Alessandro 
Cesari,  eelebr.ated  for  a  c.ameo  head  of  Phocion ; 
Dei  Rossi,  a  Milanese,  engraved  the  largest  cameo 
of  modern  times  ;  Jacomo  da  Trezzo,  celebrated  for 
his  portrait,  is  said  to  have  beea  the  first  to  engrave 
on  the  iliamond  in  15G4 — an  honour  dis])uted,  iiow- 
ever,  by  Birago,  another  MUanese,  lioth  artists 
having  been  in  the  sennce  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  made  a  portrait  of  Don  Carlos  and  the  arms 
of  Spain  on  this  gem. 

The  art,  which  had  declined  at  the  close  of 
the  IGth  c.  in  Italy,  flourished  in  the  17th  c.  in 
Germany  under  Rudolph  II.,  for  whom  Lehmann 
engiavcd  at  Viemia  ;  and  in  France,  where  ColdorS 
worked  for  Henri  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.  In  the 
17th  c,  Sirletti,  who  died  at  Rome  in  1737,  excelled 
in  portraits,  and  copied  antique  statues  with  great 
excellence.  The  two  Cosfcinzi  are  celebrated  in 
1790,  one  for  the  head  of  Nero  on  a  diamond. 
Rega  of  Naples  is  s.aid  to  have  come  nearest  to  the 
antique.  Katter  of  Nuremberg,  who  died  in  17U;i, 
is  celebrated  for  his  intagU ;  Guay  and  Barier  were 
celebrated  in  the  French  school ;  and  the  English 
jiroduced  Reisen,  who  ilied  17"25 ;  Claus,  who  ilied 
17.S9 ;  Smart,  celebrated  for  the  rapidity  of  his 
works  ;  and  his  pupil  Seaton,  a  Scotchman,  who 
engraved  i)0i-traits  of  the  great  men  of  his  day.  The 
greatest  artist  of  the  age,  however,  was  Natter.  Of 
the  subsequent  Italian  school,  Ghinghi,  Girometti, 
Cerbara,  Bernini,  and  Putenati  are  much  praised. 
The  19th  c.  produced  many  good  English  engravers, 
as  Marchant,  Burch,  Wr.ay,  and  Tassie;  while  Pis- 
trucci,  celebrated  for  his  charming  cameo,  Weigall, 
and  Saulini,  who  made  intagU,  complete  the  list  of 
modern  gem-engravers. 

With  respect  to  ancient  gems  in  the  dark  and 
middle  ages,  they  were  preserved  in  shrines,  chisses, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  vessels  in  which  they  were 
set,  the  passion  for  collecting  them  as  works  of 
art  having  commenced  with  Lorenzo  de  Medici, 
who  formed  the  Florentine  collection,  and  had  his 
name  incised  on  his  gems.  The  large  camei  of  the 
European  collections,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
brought  by  the  Crusaders  from  the  East.  The 
Frerch  collection  dates  from  Charles  IX.,  and  w.as 
augmented  by  the  successive  kings  of  France  ;  it 
is  very  rich  in  gems  of  all  kinds;  that  of  Berlin 
containing  the  united  cabinets  of  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  and  the  Markgi-af  of  Anspach,  col- 
lected by  Stosch,  consists  of  nearly  5000  stones. 
The  Vienna  collection,  far  less  numerous,  is  remark- 
able for  its  large  camei.  In  England,  the  collection 
of  tlie  British  Museum,  collected  originally  by 
Townley,  Hamilton,  Payne,  Knight,  and  Cracherode, 
consists  of  about  500  stones,  some  of  great  beauty 
and  merit,  but  is  very  poor  in  camei.  The  private 
collection  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  formed  in  the 
last  half  century,  comprises  upwards  of  500  intagli 


GEMS. 


and  camei,  including  some  of  the  finest  known. 
The  Marlborough,  still  more  numerous,  comprises 
many  tine  camei  an<l  intagli,  and  nimierous  works 
of  the  renaissance.  The  Piilzky  collection,  now  in 
Ital}',  contains  many  rare  and  choice  intagli.  A 
celebr.ated  collection,  the  Poniatowsky,  formed  upon 
the  b.ase  of  the  old  collection  of  Stanislaus,  last  king 
of  Poland,  was  so  filled  with  forgeries  by  its  last 
possessor,  executed  by  Roman  artists  with  inscrip- 
tions by  Diez,  that  it  entirely  lost  its  value  on 
dispersion.  The  Hertz  collection,  tlie  host  great  one 
sold,  was  remarkably  rich  in  fine  Etruscan  scarabaji 
and  other  intagli.  There  are  probably  about  10,000 
gems  I'eputed  to  be  antique.  Yet  these  are  only 
a  mere  instalment  of  those  formerly  existing.  The 
immense  value  placed  by  the  ancients  on  their 
gems,  may  be  seen  by  the  scabbard  of  Mithridates, 
valued  at  400  talents,  or  i.'7572 ;  the  pearl  given 
by  Julius  Ca?sar  to  Serrilia,  worth  £4800 ;  that 
swallowed  by  Cleopatra,  vahicd  at  £5000 ;  and  the 
pearls  and  emeralds  worn  bv  LoUia  Paulina,  wife 
of  CaUgiJa,  valued  at  £320",000— all  the  spoils  of 
provinces  and  the  heirlooms  of  her  family.  These, 
indeed,  were  probably  not  engraved,  but  in  modem 
times  great  simis  h.ive  been  jiaid  to  celebrated 
engravers,  as  much  as  £800  for  one  cameo. 

Although  the  acquisition  of  gems  is  too  costly  for 
private  individuals,  impressions  in  glass,  called  p.istes 
(see  Glass),  in  siUphur,  gutta  percha,  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  can  be  easily  obtained,  and  they  answer 
almost  all  the  purposes  of  study.  Some  ancient 
impressions  in  terra  cotta,  indeed,  exist,  and  the 
poorer  classes  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  content 
with  glass  pastes.  The  value  of  antique  gems,  owing 
to  the  great  difficulty  of  discerning  those  really 
so,  has  considerably  declined  in  this  country,  and 
even  their  authority  is  very  cautiously  cited  by 
archaeologists.  The  principal  writers  of  antiquity 
who  treated  of  gems  are,  Onomacritns  or  the 
Pseudo-Orpheus,  Dionysius  Periegetes,  Theophrastus, 
and  Pliny,  whose  chapter  is  compiled  from  ante- 
cedent Greek  and  Roman  authors.  Isidoriis,  C.'iO 
.\.i>.,  gives  an  account  of  the  princip.al  stones ;  so 
do  Psellus  and  Marbodus  in  the  llth  c. ;  Mariette, 
PirrrM  Qravees  (4to,  Paris,  17.50) ;  R.ispe,  Catalogue 
lies  ICmjiruntes  des  Plcrrea  Gravecs  (4to,  Lend.  1757) ; 
Millin,  Introduction  A  VEtude  des  Pierres  Gravies 
(12mo,  P.aris,  1796) ;  Krause,  Pirrgoleles  (8vo,  Halle, 
1856) ;  Koehler,  Uehrr  die  Geschnitlene  Steine  (8vo, 
St  Petersb.  1851) ;  King,  Antique  Genu  (8vo,  Lend. 
1800). 

GEMS,  Aetificial.  Ever  since  the  chemical 
composition  of  our  most  valued  gems — the  diamond, 
ruby,  opal,  &c. — has  been  known,  attempts  have 
been  made,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  reconstruct 
them  in  the  laboratory  by  the  iutluence  of  intense 
heat,  electrical  action,  &c.  Amongst  the  most 
successful  workers  in  this  field,  we  may  mention 
Ebelmen,*  Despretz,  Sainte-Claire  DeviEe,  and 
Becquerel. 

There  are  at  present  no  reasons  for  believing  that 
diamonds  of  any  appreciable  size  will  be  formed 
artificially ;  Despretz  has,  however,  succeeded,  by 
intense  voltaic  action,  in  obtaining  minute,  dark- 
coloured  crystals  of  carbon. 

Boron,  which  was  discovered  simnltaneously  in 
1 807  by  Da^-y  in  England,  .and  by  Gay-Lussac  and 
ThCnard  in  France,  was  firet  exhibitecl  in  a' crystal- 
lised form  by  Wohler  and  Sainte-Claire  Deville. 
They  have  not,  however,  succeeded  in  obtaining 
perfectly  jiure  crj'stals.  The  difl'erent  tints  which 
they  exhibit  are  due  to  the  i)rcsence  o£  small  quan- 

*  Ebelmen's  memoirs  on  this  department  of  chemistry 
are  contained  in  the  first  volume  of  Salvetat's  Eecucil 
Ucs  Travaux  Scicniijiquea  de  M.  ElcUnen.    Paris,  1855. 


titles  of  carbon  in  a  crystalline  state  (the  same 
condition  in  which  it  occurs  in  the  diamond)  and  of 
aluminium.  It  is  not  impossible  that  in  the  dis- 
covery of  crystallised  boron,  we  may  have  advanced 
a  step  towards  the  artificial  production  of  the 
diamond.  The  boron  cryst.als  possess  a  brilliancy, 
hardness,  and  refractive  power  scarcely  inferior  to 
those  of  the  di.amond. 

Sainte-Claire  DCville  and  Caron  have  published  a 
very  important  Memoir  in  the  C'omptes  Jiendut 
(18.58,  vol.  xl\-i.),  in  which  they  describe  various  pro- 
cesses by  which  they  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
small  crystals  of  white  and  green  conindum,  rubies, 
sapphires,  &c.  By  the  action  of  the  vapours  of 
fiuoride  of  alumini)mi  and  boracic  acid  on  ono 
another,  they  obtained  crystallised  alumina  (conm- 
dum)  in  large,  but  thin  crj'stals,  some  of  which 
were  about  "4  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  which  in 
their  hardness,  and  in  all  their  optical  and  crystallo- 
graphic  properties,  resembled  natural  corundum. 
When  a  little  fluoride  of  chromium  was  added, 
a  similar  process  yielded  violet-red  rubies  of  a 
perfectly  n.atural  tint;  with  rather  more  fluoride 
of  chromiimi,  blue  sapphires  were  yielded;  and 
with  still  more  of  this  ingredient,  green  corundum 
w,is  obtained,  presenting  the  natural  tint  of  the 
variety  known  as  ouvaroffite.  A  mixture  of  equal 
equivalents  of  the  fluorides  of  ahmiinium  and 
glucinum,  when  similarly  acted  on  by  boracic  acid, 
jnelded  crystals  of  chrysoberyl  or  cynophane,  which, 
although  very  minute,  were  perfect  in  their  form, 
and  in  all  respects  resembled  the  natural  crystals. 
The  action  of  fiuoride  of  silicium  on  zirconia  yields 
small  crystals  of  zircon  or  hyacinth  (Zrj03,Si03) ; 
and  by  the  action  of  silicic  acid  on  a  mixture  of 
the  fluorides  of  alimiinium  and  glucinum,  hexagonal 
plates  of  extreme  hardness  were  obtained,  which  in 
some  respects  resembled  emerald  (which  they  were 
attempting  to  form),  but  were  not  identical  in 
composition  \vith  that  gem. 

The  latest  researches  on  this  subject  are  those  of 
Becquerel  in  the  Comptes  Eendus  (18G1,  vol.  liii. 
p.  1190).  After  having  for  many  years  tried  to 
obtain  gems  from  solutions  of  siUcates,  and  by  feeble 
electric  ciurents,  he  now  uses  intense  currents,  ■nith 
high  tension,  and  in  this  ■w.\y  has  succeeded  in 
obtaining  opals,  &c. 

GEMS,  Imitation-,  or  Pastes,  Pierres  Precieuses 
ArtiJlcieUes,  French  imitations  of  the  precious 
stones,  are  made  of  glass  specially  prepared.  It 
differs  from  ordinary  glass  in  its  greater  density ;  at 
the  same  time  it  is  made  with  the  greatest  jjossible 
amount  of  transparency  and  purity.  Its  composi- 
tion, generally,  may  be  said  to  be  silica  of  very  pure 
quality,  probably  quartz  crystals,  potash,  and  oxide 
of  lead ;  but  the  exact  projiortions  are  varied  almost 
by  every  maker,  and  each  has  a  secret  ingredient  or 
two  to  add. 

The  coloiu-3  employed  are  usu.aUy  the  same  as 
those  used  for  colouring  ordinary  orn.amenta!  gkiss, 
but  upon  their  careful  admixt>u-e,  and  upon  the 
skilfiU  cutting  to  represent  the  crystalline  form  of 
the  real  gem,  the  success  of  the  manufacture  chiefly 
depends.  By  some  persons,  the  cutting  is  carried 
to  such  a  marvellous  perfection,  th.at  their  work 
would  deceive  the  eye  of  most  ordinary  judges, 
when  well  set  and  foiled,  or  backed  with  silver  or 
tinfoil.    See  Foil. 

The  ghass  used  for  artificial  gems  is  very  generally 
called  strass,  from  the  name  of  a  German  who 
claimed  the  invention.  But  if  we  seek  the  real 
inventor  of  factitious  gems,  we  must  go  far  beyond 
the  tune  of  Strass,  for  we  find  PUny  describing, 
luider  the  name  of  rjemma:  vUrece,  certain  imitations 
of  precious  stones  which  were  known  in  his  time, 
some  of  which  were  certainly  made  of  coloured 


GEMS-BOC— GESDEH. 


cUu,  anil  others  by  inpeniously  cementing  together 
Liycrs  of  variously  colourfl  tranBpareut  utoncs. 
And  Seneca  (Ejiiiit.  ix.)  nuntinns  that  one  L»emo- 
chtus  luul  invented  a  process  for  imitating  emeralds 
by  pving  a  preen  colour  to  rock-crj'stal  Other 
allusions  arc  j)lentifully  scattered  throujih  the  works 
of  classical  authors ;  and  ancient  artificial  gems 
themselves  exist,  two  especially  famous  being 
imitations  of  a  chrj'solite  and  an  emerald,  amongst 
the  lUimau  antiquities  in  the  Museum  Victorium 
at  Home. 

The  manufacture  of  factitious  pems  is  cliicfly 
carried  on  in  .Switzerland,  and  like  the  pohahing  of 
diamonds  in  Holland,  is  engrossed  by  a  small  com- 
munity in  the  French  commune  of  Sejitmoncel,  on 
the  Jura  Alps,  IC  miles  from  Geneva.  Upwards  of 
a  hundred  artisans  are  there  em|Joyed  in  tuis  manu- 
facture, and  they  make  almost  enough  to  supply  the 
whole  world.  Much  common  coloured  glass  is  cut 
up  in  this  country  for  the  purf)0»e  of  making  the 
gilt-toy  jewellery,  but  the  writer  Ijelieves  that  a 
small  manufacturer  of  the  name  of  Weston,  in 
Birmingham,  is  the  only  ]ienifm  who  attempts  fine 
imitations  of  jirecioiu  stones  with  coloured  strass. 
The  following  are  a  few  known  formulas  for  imi- 
tating gems :  A  Truthysl — Strass,  50(J  parts  ;  oxide  of 
manganese,  3  parts ;  and  oxide  of  cobalt,  2  parts. 
fjiaiiioiid — Perfectly  pure  rock-crystal,  1600  jiarts; 
biloratc  of  soda,  oCO  parts;  very  jjure  carbonate  of 
lead,  3200  parts;  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part.  A 
glass,  consisting  only  of  the  oxide  of  tin,  fused.  Is 
used  for  the  so-called  Parisian  diamonds ;  they  are 
the  nearest  in  brilliancy  to  the  real  gem  when  newly 
made,  but  they  soon  lose  their  brilliancy.  JJinerald 
— Strass,  7000  parts ;  carlxinatc  of  copjK-r,  65  jiarts ; 
glass  of  antimony,  7  Jiarts.  Oarnel,  Ori^-nfo/— Strass, 
1200  parts ;  glass  of  antimony,  580  parts ;  Purple  of 
Cassius,  3  parts;  binoxidc  of  manganese,  3  jiarts. 
J(uiiy — .Strass,  45  parts;  binoxidc  of  manganese,  1 
part  .Sapjiltire — Strass,  3600  jarts ;  oxide  of  cobalt, 
50  Jiarts ;  oxide  of  manganese,  1 1  parts.  Topaz— 
Strass,  10.50  parts;  glass  of  antimony,  44  jiarts; 
Purjile  of  Cassius,  1  part. 

GEMS-BOC  {Aiiti/ofK  Onjx,  or  Onjx  Gaz^lla),  a 
Bjiecies  of  antelope,  described  by  some  naturalists  as 
tlic  Oryx,  but  which,  being  a  native  of  .South  Africa 
cnly,  cannot  be  the  Oryx  (q.  v.)  of  the  ancients, 


the  ridge  of  the  back;  large  jioiiited  ears;  and 
.•Uniost  jK'rfcctly  straight  horns,  fidly  two  feet 
long,  in  tlic  plane  of  the  fonhead,  little  diverging, 
and  obscurely  ringed  at  the  b.i.se.  The  colours 
.-ire  harshly  contraste<l,  <Lirk  rusty  gray  alxive,  and 
white  on  the  under  jiarts,  seiiarated  by  a  broad 
dark  brown  or  bl.ick  band;  the  head  white,  with 
black  transverse  bands ;  the  thighs  black,  and  the 
legs  white.  The  hoofs  are  remarkably  long,  adajited 
to  the  rocky  mountainous  districts  which  the  aniin.'U 
frequents.  The  G.-ii.  maki-s  such  use  of  its  horns  as 
sometimes  even  to  Ijeat  olF  the  lion.  It  inliabits 
districts  free  from  wofnl,  and  is  generally  found  in 
pairs  or  in  very  small  herds. 

GE'JISHORX,  a  well-known  organ-stop  in  Ger- 


Cenis-boc  [Ajttitope  Ort/x), 

although  it  is  certainly  a  nearly  allied  sjiecics.     It 
is  a  heavy,  stout  animal,  alx>ut  the  size  of  a  stag, 
with  rough  reversed  hair  on   the  neck  and  along 
COS    ^ 


I  man  organs,  the  jiijK-s  of  which  are  made  of  tin,  and 
are  conically  shaj>e<l,  being  much  narrower  .at  the 
ojien  end;  while  at  the  mouth,  at  the  broad  end, 
there  are  cars  on  each  to  regulate  the  tuning. 
It  has  a  iiecidLirly  pleasant  tone,  of  a  diiTerent 
character  from  cither  an  ojien  cylinder  piiic  or  a 
stopjKsl  pij«.  The  jiitch  of  the  gcmshom  is 
generally  8  feet  tone,  sometimes  it  is  4  feet,  and 
in  the  jiedal  organ  16  feet 

GENDARMES  (Men-.-it-.imis),  originally,  .ind 
up  to  the  time  of  the  first  French  revolution,  the 
most  distinguished  cavalry  corps  in  the  Ber%iee  of 
the  Bourlxiii  kings,  to  whom  they  fonned  a  sort 
of  body-guard.  Under  existing  arrangements,  the 
gcnilannes  constitute  a  military  police,  and  comjirise 
both  cavalry  and  infantry.  The  force  consists 
principally  of  soldiers  taken  from  the  armj',  gener- 
ally on  account  of  intelligence  and  good  conduct. 
The  men  receive  much  higher  jiay  than  the  rest  of 
the  army,  of  which,  however,  the  corjjs  is  a  jiart, 
and  they  are  liatile  in  cases  of  emergency  to  be  sent 
on  active  service.  The  gendarmes  now  amount 
to  .ilx)ut  2.5,000  men,  and  are  intrusted  with  the 
execution  of  many  of  the  most  delicate  details  of 
government. 

GENDER  (Fr.  ijaulri',  from  Lat.  domK,  rjenerit, 
race,  kind),  in  Grammar,  is  a  distinction  among 
words  depending  ujion  sex.  Names  apjilied  to  the 
male  sex  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender, 
as  man,  poet;  those  ajiplied  to  the  female  sex, 
ftminine,  as  woman,  poittM ;  words  that  are  neither 
masculine  nor  feminine  are,  as  it  was  cxpres-sed  in 
I.:itin,  7ieutnus  generU,  *  of  neither  gender ; '  and 
from  this  phrase  grammarians  have  come  to  siieak, 
somewhat  incorrectly,  of  this  class  of  words  as  Ijeing 
'of  the  neuter  gender,'  and  hence  to  reckon  three 
genders.  In  English,  the  distinction  of  gender  in 
nouns  is  chiefly  marked  in  the  jironouns  substituted 
for  them — he,  the,  it.  Gender,  strictly  sjieaking,  is 
apjilicalile  only  to  living  beings  distinguishable  .is 
male  and  female  ;  but  by  the  figure  of  speech  called 
Persfjuification  (q.  v.),  inanimate  objects  are  often 
sjKiken  of  as  lie  and  ilie.  In  the  infancy  of  langu.ige, 
however,  when  every  word  was  wliat  we  should 
now  c.iU  a  metaphor — when  every  thing  that  moved 
or  was  seen  to  produce  any  effect,  was  conceived  as 
•ictuated  by  a  conscious  will,  like  that  which  the 
s|>ectator  felt  within  himself — every  jirominent  or 
interesting  object  in  the  universe  would  be  invested 
with  one  or  the  other  sex,  acconling  to  the  analogy 
it  suggestecL  In  Latin,  accordingly,  gladlits,  a  sword, 
w.os  considered  masculine;  van'ji,  a  shiji.  as  femi- 
nine ;  afid  jfomuyn,  a  fruit  or  njijilc,  was  thought  of 
.-IS  without  sex.  .Similarly,  in  Sanscrit  and  Greek, 
the  greater  part  of  inanim-atc  objects  arc  cither 
masculine  or  feminine,  the  others  being  neuter.  In 
Hebrew,  everything  is  either  masculine  or  femi- 
nine, there  being  no  neuter  ;  and  this  is  the  case  in 
the  mixlem  languages  derived  from  the  I..atin,  v-iz., 
Italian,  French,  Sjiauish,  and  Portuguese — everything 


GENEALOGY-GENERAL. 


18  either  a  he  or  a  ahe.  German  resembles  the 
classic  languages  in  making  some  inanimate  objects 
mascnline,  some  feminine,  and  others  neuter.  Thus 
at  table,  a  man  must  sjieak  of  tlie  spoon  [dcr 
IqlTet)  .as  'he,'  of  the  fork  (die  ijaM)  as  'slie,'  ami 
of  the  knife  ((fas  me.iner)  na  'it.'  EnglLth- in 
this  more  rational  than  any  of  its  congeners — has 
banished  the  spurioiLS  distinctions  of  gender  that 
encumbered  the  Anglo-Saxon  like  the  other  Teu- 
tonic tongues,  and  attributes  sex  only  to  livin" 
beings.  " 

In  the  highly  inflected  languages,  there  are  certain 
tenninations  distinctive  of  the  dilferent  genders.  It 
is  jirobable,  indeed,  that  originally  every  noun,  sub- 
stantive, or  adjective,  h.ad  a  suflix  indicative  of  the 
sex,  real  or  imaginary,  of  the  object  designated, 
although,  like  other  Inflexions  (q.  v.),  these  suflixes 
of  gender  were  in  ])roccss  of  time  mutilate<I  beyond 
recognition,  or  in  many  cases  altogether  worn  off. 
The  terminations  most  characteristic  of  the  three 
genders  in  Latin  are  mas.  u»;  fcm.  a;  neut.  urn; 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  on,  r,  on.  In  a  great 
majonty  of  the  adjectives  in  both  those  languages, 
the  genders  are  thus  marked.  In  English,  the 
gender  of  a  noun  affects  only  the  personal  ])ronoun 
substituted  for  it ;  in  most  other  languages,  the 
adjectives  (including  the  articles)  have  different 
forms  for  the  sevenal  genders — a  useless  complication, 
in  the  case  of  modern  languages  at  least.  See 
Adjective. 

Of  the  terminations  distinctive  of  gender  observ- 
.able  in  modem  English,  some  are  purely  Latin, 
as  in  exeailor,  executrix ;  the  feminine  -«««,  as  in 
counle/M,  is  borrowed  from  the  French,  and  is  also 
of  classical  origin.  The  prevalent  feminine  termina- 
tion in  German  is  -inn,  .is  in  tiinzerinn,  a  female 
dancer  (Fr.  dartseiixe) ;  of  this  there  are  two  instances 
in  English,  in  the  jirovincial  rarlin,  the  fern,  of  carl, 
and  rixeii  =  ('<vr.  J'i'irlmnn,  a.  female  fox.  This  affix 
was  already  in  use  in  Latin,  .as  in  retina,  a  queen 
(reri[K),  a  king)  ;  and  in  this  form  it  is  used  in 
Eurojie  generally  to  femininise  proper  names ;  c.  g., 
Oeorijinn,  Wilkelmina,  Cnroliiie. 

In  such  pairs  as  son — dniir/litiT ;  nmn—maUl ;  home 
—  mare;  Cork — hen  ;  there  is  no  etymological  relation 
between  the  words ;  they  are  from  distinct  roots. 
Hut  with  regard  to  hen,  e.  g.,  the  Anglo-Saxon  h.ad 
the  two  forms,  han  for  the  male,  and  hen  for  the 
female;  and  mare  w.a3  originally  applicable  to  both 
sexes,  as  liorae  still  is  (I'V.  marfeha/,  originally  an 
oflicer  who  had  charge  of  the  horses).  The  oldest 
known  form  of  the  Teutonic  sjK'ech,  the  Gothic,  h.ad 
the  two  words,  maf/us,  son,  and  vHi'iathn,  daughter, 
l>oth  from  the  root  viarj,  to  beget,  or  to  make. 
Mn'jnihti  has  become  in  (ier.  mar/d,  in  Eng.  maid; 
innrjuji  has  been  lost  in  the  Teutonic  t^mgucs,  but 
it  is  represented  by  the  (^eltic  mac  (son),  evidently 
from  the  same  root.  Kimj,  (pieen,  were  in  Sans. 
ganika,  father,  and  ijoni,  mother,  both  from  the 
root  f/('w,  to  generate,  j>roduce.  The  masculine 
form  appears  in  Old  Ger.  as  rJiiini;i,  in  modern 
Ger.  kunig,  in  Eng.  king ;  the  feminine  liecame  the 
Greek  (f>/ne,  a  woman,  as  well  as  the  Saxon  cwen, 
Sw.  r/iiinna.  Old  Eng.  i/uene  or  quean,  ap[>Iied  to  a 
woman  generally,  and  the  modern,  tpieen,  the  chief 
woman  of  the  land. 

GENEA'LOGY  (Lat.  and  Gr.  genmlogta ;  from 
Gr.  genos,  race,  and  logos,  discourse)  is  the  n.ame 
applied  to  the  science  of  the  origin,  scfjuence,  and 
affinities  of  families.  Although  in  itself  it  is 
not  of  sufficient  imimrtanoe  to  rank  as  an  inde- 
licndent  science,  yet  in  so  far  .as  it  h.xs  to  do  with 
remarkable  and  influential  families,  it  forms  a  very 
important  part  of  history.  It  naturally  divides 
itaelf  into  two  parts,  theoreliml  and  praetical. 
The  former  embraces  the  principles  on  which  the 


science  of  genealogy  is  based,  while  the  latter 
is  occupied  with  tracing  the  course  of  i)articular 
families  themselves.  To  render  perceptible  to 
the  senses  the  descent  and  relationship  of  indi- 
viduals, genealogical  tables  are  made  use  of,  whoso 
arrangement  depends  on  the  special  puriiose  for 
which  they  are  constructed.  Usually,  however, 
such  tables  begin  with  the  earliest  ancestor  (Ger. 
stammmler)  of  a  family,  from  whom  all  the  known 
members  of  both  sexes  are  tr.iccd  in  the  order  of 
descent.  The  importance  of  this  branch  of  human 
knowledge,  however,  is  perhaps  less  obvious  in  a 
scientilic  than  in  a  legal  aspect,  where  it  is  con- 
cerned about  the  various  claims  or  pretensions  of 
persons  based  on  real  or  alleged  relationshij),  nioro 
especially  in  regard  to  rights  of  succession.  The 
earliest  traces  of  genealogy  are  to  bo  found  in  tho 
ancestral  catalogues  of  the  heroes  of  the  old  world. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  there  were  parties  specially 
ajipointed  to  draw  up  genealogical  tables.  Tho 
progress  of  civilisation  in  states,  and  in  particidar 
the  institution  of  corporations  and  guilds  in  the 
towns,  afforded  a  wider  scope  for  genealogy.  Kiit 
the  absence  of  criticism,  aii<l  the  desire  to  flatter 
the  great,  were  the  causes  of  introducing — especially 
aftir  the  14th  c. — the  most  ridiculous  fables  into 
giiiealogy.  Ancestors  were  fabricated  in  the  most 
impudently  f.alse  m.anner,  and  f.amilie8  carried 
back  in  an  unbroken  line,  not  only  to  the  ago  of 
Charlemagne,  but  even,  in  many  cases,  to  the  herm^s 
of  the  'J'rojan  war.  The  fact,  however,  is,  that 
scarcely  any  family,  however  distingiiisheil,  can 
tr.ace  its  ancestors  even  to  the  mid<lle  of  the  lltli  c. 
Among  the  earlier  works  on  genealogy  arc  lluxner's 
Tiirniirlmch  (.Simmerii,  l.'i'JT)  and  the  genealogical 
tables  of  Keusncr  and  Hennings,  .about  the  end 
of  the  Ifilh  c,  but  these  are  not  conceived  in  a 
historical  spirit.  A  more  luminous  treatment  of 
the  subject  w.as  initiated  in  France  by  Duchesne, 
St  Martlie,  Hozier,  ChillUt,  L-ancclot  le  IJIond, 
kc,  and  in  England  by  l-)ugdale.  Itittershusius 
of  Altdorf  (died  1G70)  and  Spener  of  Wittenberg 
(died  \~'M\)  were  the  lirst  in  (lemiany  to  b.ase  gene- 
alogy on  documentary  evidence.  The  jiath  entered 
on  by  them  li.as  been  prosecuted  by  Kiinig,  Von 
fiiihof,  and  cspeci.ally  by  llUbner  in  his  OmeahtgiH- 
ehen  Tai>ellen  (4  vols.,  Liip.  172.")  -IT-'i-'i  ;  new  edit., 
17.37 — 1700),  to  which  Lenz  .added  KrUiuterungen 
(Elucidations,  I.cip.  17o<>),  and  Sophia  <|ueeii  of 
Denmark,  Suppleme.nt-ltifdn  (Kopcnh.  182'2— 1S24). 
Gatterer,  in  his  Ahriss  drr  (Irnridogie  ((liitt.  17>SS), 
foundiil  the  scientilic  treatment  of  the  subject, 
in  which  he  w.as  followed  by  Putter  in  his  TahuUr. 
Oenealogic/F,  by  Koch  in  his  Tablea  Ofnialogi'iueii 
lies  Maimn-H  Souivraineji  iVEitrope  (Ger.  Berlin, 
1808),  and  by  Voigtcl  in  his  (Jenealogisclien  Tabelleii 
(1810). 

In  Great  Britain,  the  chief  printed  collections  of 
genealogical  information  are  the  Pierages,  Huron- 
ages,  liarimetagps,  and  (.'onnlg  Histories.  'Ilie 
cliief  inanu.script  sources  arc  the  public  records, 
heraldic  registers,  and  the  2>arish  registers  of  births, 
marriages,  and  deaths. 

GENEKAL  (of  religious  onler),  in  tho  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  supreme  head,  under  the  pope, 
of  the  nggreg.ated  communities  throughout  Chris- 
tendom belonging  t«  a  religious  orilcr.  The  govern- 
ing authorities  oi  the  monastic  orders  in  the  Uoinan 
Catholic  Church  may  be  arranged  in  three  classes  : 
(1.)  The  superiors  of  individual  convents  or  com- 
munities, called  in  dilferent  orders  by  the  various 
n.amcs  of  .abbot,  prior,  rector,  gu.ardian,  ftc  ;  ('J.)  Tho 
jirovineials,  who  have  authority  over  all  the  convents 
of  an  entire  province — the  ])roviiices,  in  tho  mon.astic 
sense  of  the  wonl,  I)cing  usually  coincident  as  to 
local  limits   with   the   several   kingdoms  in   which 

Mi 


GEXERAL  AGENT— GENERAL  OFFICER. 


the  order  is  cstablislied ;  (3.)  The  cencral  to  whom 
not  only  each  member  of  the  order,  but  all  the 
various  officials  of  every  rank,  are  absolutely  subject. 
The  general  is  usually  elected  commonly  by  the 
general  chapter  of  the  order,  which,  in  the  majority 
(■f  orders,  consists  projierly  of  the  proWncials  ;  with 
whom,  however,  are  commonly  associated  the  heads 
of  the  more  important  monasteries,  as  also  the 
superiors  of  certain  subdivisions  of  provinces.  The 
office  of  general  in  most  orders  is  held  for  three 
years.  In  that  of  the  Jesuits  it  is  for  life ;  but  in 
all,  the  election  of  the  general  chapter  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  pope.  In  most  orders,  too,  there  is 
assigned  to  the  general  a  consultor  [admonilor)  or 
associate  (socius),  who,  however,  is  only  entitled 
to  ad^Tse,  but  has  no  authority  to  control  the 
superior.  The  general  also  is  supposed  to  consult 
with  and  to  receis'e  reports  from  the  various  local 
superiors.  He  sends,  if  necessary,  a  visitor  to 
inquire  into  particular  abuses,  or  to  report  upon  such 
controversies  as  may  arise,  and  he  holds  a  general 
chapter  of  the  order  at  stated  times,  which  differ 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  several  orders.  The 
general  is  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  being 
subject  to  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  pope 
himself.  He  resides  in  Kome,  where  he  enjoys 
certain  privileges,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
the  right  to  sit  and  vote  with  the  bishops  in  a 
general  council  of  the  church. 

GENERAL  AGENT.  See  Agent,  Prixcipal 
AXD  Agent. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY.  See  Assemblt, 
General. 

GENERAL  COTTNCIL.    See  Privy  Council. 

GENERAL  DEMURRER,  in  EngUsh  pleading, 
was  a  Demurrer  (q.  v.)  without  shewing  special 
cause.  Where  the  objection  to  the  pleading  was  for 
want  of  form,  a  special  demurrer  was  necessarj- ; 
but  where  the  defect  was  in  substance,  a  general 
demurrer  was  sufficient.  By  the  Common  Law 
Procedure  Act  (1852),  special  demurrers  have  been 
abolished,  and  the  distinction  has  ceased  to  exist. 

GENERAL  ISSUE,  in  English  pleading,  is  the 
form  in  wtiich  the  defendant  traverses  or  meets  with 
a  simple  denial  the  whole  allegations,  or  the  prin- 
cipal fact  on  which  the  jilaintiff  reUes  in  his  declar- 
ation. Thus,  in  actions  fuimded  on  wrongs,  the 
general  issue  is  'Not  Guilty ;'  in  actions  of  debt, 
that  the  defendant  never  was  indebted ;  in  actions 
on  a  deed  or  bond,  non  e-it  factum,  i.  e.,  that  it  is  not 
the  deed  of  the  defendant.  Under  this  issue,  the 
defendant  may  prove  that  he  never  executed  the 
deed;  but  not  that  it  is  bad  in  point  of  law.  In 
criminal  jjroceedings,  the  general  issue  is  'Not  Guilty,' 
by  which  plea,  without  further  form,  every  person, 
not  having  the  privilege  of  peerage,  upon  being 
arraigned  upon  any  indictment  for  treason,  felony, 
or  piracy,  is  deemed  to  have  put  himself  upon  the 
country  for  trial  Where  a  prisoner  refuses  to 
plead,  a  plea  of  Not  Guilty  may  be  entered  for  him, 
7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28.  Under  the  plea  of  Not 
Guilty,  the  prisoner  is  entitled  to  give  in  evidence 
not  only  everything  which  negatives  the  charge, 
but  also  all  matter  of  excuse  or  justification. 

GENERAL  LIEN,  in  English  Law,  is  the  right 
which  a  party  has  to  retain  a  chattel  as  security  for 
the  payment,  not  only  of  the  particular  article,  but 
of  any  balance  that  may  be  due  on  general  account 
in  the  same  line  of  basiness.  General  liens  do  not 
exist  at  common  law,  but  depend  upon  agreement, 
either  express  or  implied,  or  upon  the  usage  of 
trade.  Thus,  attorneys  have  a  hen  for  the  balance 
of  their  accoimts  over  the  papers  of  their  clients. 
IJankcrs,  factors,  warehousemen,  and  others,  have 

670 


also  a  lien  for  the  amount   due   to   them   on  the 

gener.al  balance  of  their  accuimts.  But  it  has  been 
eld  that  fullers  are  not  entitled  to  this  pri\-ilege, 
Hose  r.  Hart,  S  Taimt.  499.  The  right  of  wharfingers 
also  is  not  clear  in  all  cases,  Holderuess  v.  Collinson, 
7  Baru.  and  Cres.  212.  In  regard  to  cai-riers,  there 
has  been  much  dispute  whether,  by  the  usage  of 
trade,  they  have  a  general  lien  over  goods  intrusted 
to  them ;  but  the  prevailing  opinion  appears  to  bo 
that  they  have.  The  master  of  a  sliip  has  no  lien 
on  the  vessel  or  her  freight  for  his  disbursements  on 
her  account ;  but  now  he  has  the  same  lien  for  his 
wages  as  a  seaman  has  ;  17  and  IS  Vict.  c.  104,  s. 
191.  By  C  Geo.  IV.  c.  94,  it  is  provided  that  any 
person  in  whose  name  goods  are  shipped  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  the  owner  so  far  .as  to  entitle  the 
consignee  to  a  hen  for  any  advances  made  for  the 
use  of  such  persons,  provided  the  consignees  had  no 
notice  when  the  advance  was  made  that  they  were 
not  the  true  owners.  As  a  lien  rests  upon  the  right 
to  retain  ])ossession,  it  is  lost  by  abandonment  of 
the  possession  of  the  goods. 

In  Scotland  a  similar  right  exists,  under  the  title 
of  Retention  (q.  v.).  See  also  Lien,  and  Hypothec. 
GENERAL  OFFICER  is  .an  officer  of  the 
general  stall"  of  an  army  to  whom  is  intrusted  the 
command  of  a  body  of  men,  not  less  in  strength  than 
a  Brigade  (q.  v.).  In  an  army  of  very  Large  jiropor- 
tions,  the  normal  sequence  of  command  would  be 
the  following :  the  general  commanding-in-chief, 
generaUssimo,  or  field-marshal,  would  command 
the  whole  force ;  the  generals  would  have  separate 
corps-iTarmie ;  the  heutenant-generals,  wings  of 
those  corps-d'armee ;  the  major-generals,  divisions 
in  the  wings  ;  and  brigadier-generals,  brigades  in  the 
divisions.  In  practice,  however,  an  army  is  r.arely 
large  enough  to  allow  of  this  exact  scheme  of  a 
mihtary  hierarchy  being  strictly  carried  out. 

In  the  British  8er\nce,  colonels  become  m.ajor- 
generals  (except  in  cases  of  selection  for  very  dis- 
tinguished service)  in  order  of  seniority,  provided 
each  has  seiTcd  on  full  p.ay  for  a  certain  number  of 
yeai-s ;  promotion  to  be  lieutenant-generals  and 
generals  follows  in  exact  order  of  seniority.  From 
the  last,  promotion  to  the  exceptional  rank  of  field- 
marshal  is  conferred  in  rare  instances  by  the  special 
favour  of  the  sovereign,  who  represents  in  person 
the  sole  command  and  possesses  the  patronage  of  ;ill 
the  land  forces.  In  addition  to  the  colonels  who 
become  effective  generals,  officers  who  have  retired 
on  half-p.ay  at  earlier  periods  of  their  careers  rise  by 
seniority  to  the  rank  of  general  officers ;  but  they 
continue,  notwithstanding,  to  receive  only  the  half- 
p.ay  of  the  rank  in  which  they  retired.  With  reg.ard 
to  remuneration,  general  officers  hold  164  honorary 
colonelcies  of  regiments,  worth,  with  few  exceptions, 
£1000  each  per  annum,  and  the  remainder  receive 
imaltached  pay  of  £600  a  year,  if  they  have  been  in 
the  guards ;  £1,  6«.  3rf.  a  day,  it  in  the  artillery  or 
engineers ;  and  £1,  5s.  a  day,  if  )>reviously  in  the 
line.  This  pay  is  received  diu-ing  non-iactirity, 
but  when  employed  actively  a  general  receives,  in 
adtlition,  £5,  13s.  9<f.  a  day ;  a  heutenant-general, 
A3,  15«.  Uid.;  and  a  major-general,  £1,  lis.  llrf., 
besides  various  allowances.  The  only  generals' 
commands  in  the  British  ser\'ice  .are,  during  peace, 
the  commands-in-chief  of  the  army  generally  and 
of  the  force  in  India,  According  to  the  estimates 
for  1862—1863,  there  are  8  lieutenant-gener.als,  29 
m.ajor-gener.als,  and  10  brigadier-generals  employed 
actively,  exclusive  of  the  numbers  ser\'ing  with  the 
army  in  India.  The  last-named  rank  is  only  a 
temporary  one  in  the  English  serWce,  conferred  very 
commonly  on  tlie  senior  regimental  officer  of  the 
corps  composing  the  brigade  :  during  duty  .as  briga- 
dier he  receives  £1,  8s.  Gd.  a  day  in  addition  to 


GENERAL  SHIP-GENERALISATION. 


rei(imental  or  other  pay.  Caplain-general  is  a  rank 
very  rarely  conferred  by  the  sovereign,  who  holds 
it  ex  oficio.  There  has  been  no  captain-general,  other 
than  the  sovereign,  dming  the  present  century. 

GENERAL  SHIl',  is  a    sliip  which   has   been 
advertised  by  the   owners    to  take   goods  from   a 
particidar  port  .at  a  particular  time,  and  which  is 
not  under  any  special  contract  to  particular  mer- 
chants.    The  owners,  in  this  case,  enrage  separ.ately 
mth  each  merchant  who  applies  to  them  to  convey 
his  goods  to  the  ship's  destination.     The  contract 
between  the  owners,  or  the  master  acting  m  their  | 
beh.alf,   and  the  proprietors  of  the  goods,   m.ay  in  . 
the  case  of  general  ship  be  estabUshed  by  parole 
eWdence,   .and,   indeed,   there  is   rarely  any   other 
■WTiting  on  the  subject  beyond  the  advertisement 
and  the  bUl  of  lading.     lu  general  ship  the  master 
bcinf  intrusted  by  the  owners  with  full  power  to 
contract  for  and  take  in  goods,  no  agreement  for 
freight  which  any  one  may  have    made  with  the 
owners,  independently  of  him,  \\-iU  be  effectual  to 
secure  room  in  the  vessel.      All  such  agreements 
must  be  intimated  to  the  master,  or  those  acting  for 
him  on  board,  before  he  has  engaged  freight  for  the 
whole  vessel     By  such  intimation,  a  ])reference  wU 
be  secured  over  the  merchant  who  brmgs  his  goods 
to  the  ship's  side  on  chance.     If  the  o\vners  ot  a 
general  ship  have  .advertised  her  as  bound,  for  a 
particidar  port,   they  must  give  specific  notice  to 
every  person  who  may  ship  goods  on  bo.ard,  of  .any 
alteration  in  her  destin,atiou,  and  they  will  be  liable 
for  the  consequences  of  neglecting  to  do  so.     BeU  s 
Com.  i.  433,  Shaw's  edition ;  Abbot   on  Shippin'j, 
p.  233. 

GENERAL  VERDICT.    See  Vekbict,  Jury. 
GENERALISA'TION.     Our  experience  of  the 
world  leads  us  to  recognise  not  only  great  vanety, 
but  also  numerous  instances  of   agreement  m  the 
midst  of  the  variety.'    We  do  not  call  the  continu- 
ance of  the  same  f.act  an  a.greement ;  it  is  only  when, 
amid   difference   of    accompaniment,    we    recogmse 
a  common  feature,  that  om-  attention  is  awakened, 
and  our  mmd  interested.     Sometimes  the  common 
feature  in  a  number  of  varying  objects  is  obvious 
and  universally  noticed  ;  as  when  we  identify  the 
round  foi-m  am'idst  .all  disparities  of  size  colour,  and 
substance.     At  other  times    the  resemblance  is  so 
obseui-ed  by  the  amoimt  of  tbfference,  that  it  has 
lauTor  age^s  nnperceived  ;  the  fall  of  a  stone  w.as 
never  suspected,  before  the  time  of  Ne«^on  to  have 
anythin.'  in  common  with  the  motions  ot  the  moon 
and  i.laSets.     When  we  see   the  same  property  or 
effect  repeated  under  great  variety  of  circumstances 
and  adjuncts,  and  when  we  indicate  by  a  n.ame  or 
otherwise  that  this  agreement  exists,  ^"^  ^'J^^^'jf  *« 
mark  out  a  qeneral  or  generalised  property,  or  tact , 
wiiile    the    indiridual"  instances    are      emed    the 
particulars,  on  which  the  other  is  roi'"*';'! ;         . 
^   To  understand  the  fidl  meamng  of  f  ^^^^ '^^^mn 
and  the   questions   therewith   connected,  we  must 
advert  to  the  distinction  between  two  modes  o    the 
operation.     In  the  one,  we  generalise  an  in'lj'd '^^ 
or  isolatedproperty-as  roundness,  whitenes,«ei,ght 

^.ttraction  iustiee-aud  assign  what  we  think  the 
^xact  nXlriof  the  common  feature  thus  smgle<l  out 
A  niunber  of  designations  have  been  ^ven  to  this 
tiroeess,  according  to  the  p.articulai  stage  m  the 
^^Su  most  si-ci.aUy  taken  into  view  s^hesear 
Classification,  General  Notion,  General  Term,  Uetin 
Ttion,  Abstraction,  Concept  or  V^-iT^'^^'^Wets 
They  aU  suppose  that  we  have  a  plurality  of  objects 
w  th  a^ree  n"  pn.pertieg,  and  that  .a.greement  h.as 
tafen  notice  of,  and  embodied  in  such  a  form 
that  the  mind  can  <le.al  with  it  to  the  neglect  of  the 
pt^ts  wherein  the  p.artieidar  things  difler  among 


themselves.  They  suppose,  further,  that  we  make 
no  affirmation  beyond  what  is  implied  m  the  identi- 
fying of  so  many  differmg  objects— namely,  th.at  they 
do  a"ree  in  the  point  in  question.  No  other  matter 
for  behef  or  disljeUef  is  presented  in  the  notion  of 
roundness  but  that  certain  thin^  have  been  com- 
iiared,  and  have  been  found  to  agree  m  possessing 
that  attribute.  To  attempt  to  form  a  general  notion, 
or  to  mark  a  property  not  attaching  to  anythmg  in 
nature  is  a  ])ure  irrelevance  and  .absurdity  ;  and 
although  by  a  Ijold  stretch  of  imagin.ation  we  might 
people  the  earth  with  chimerical  objects,  and  hnd 
agreements  among  them,  yet  such  generaUties  could 
i  not  be  introduced  into  any  process  of  reasoning ;  it 
is  presumed,  that  wherever  a  general  property  is 
specilied,  there  are  things  in  nature  having  this 
projierty  in  company  with  the  others  th.at  make  up 
the  total  characteristics  of  each. 

But  the  other  land  of  generalisation  mtroduces 
beUef  in  a  totaUy  different  shape.     When  instea^l  of 
identifying  a  property,  we  identify  a  umon  or  mn- 
ju7iction  of  distinct  properties,  it  h.as  to  be  seen  not 
merely  whether  the  common  features  are  correctly 
rendered   in   the   general   notion,   but  whether  the 
aUeged  coupUng  Sways  takes  place.     Thus    when 
we  compare  the  sea  coasts  all  over  the  globe,  we 
find,  with  some    exceptions,  that  twice  a  day  the 
sea  advances  and  recedes  on  the  shore  :  this  fact  we 
express  by  the  gener.al  name  the  tides.    When,  how- 
ever, we  go  further,  and  note  cverpvhere  the  CO «n- 
culence  between  the  tides  and  the  positions  of  the 
moon,  and  generalise  th.at  coincidence,  we  attam  to 
a  more  compUcated  result.    We  are  now  called  upon 
to  believe  not  merely  in  the  accurate  correspondence 
of  a  general  notion  with  the  particular  objects,  but 
in  the  constancy  of  the  cc.njuuctiuu  between  two 
distinct  properties,  so  that  the  occurrence  of   one 
sh.all  .always  count  as  evidence  of  the  other.      Ihe 
difiercut  aspects  of  this  higher  operation  have  given 
rise  to  .another  series  of   designations,   contrasting 
with  those  given  above  for  the  simpler  operation  ; 
these  are  lutluction.  Inductive  Gener.aUsation,  Con- 
i  oined  Properties,  AJiinnatiou,  Proposition,  J  udgmeut, 
Law,  Ordir  of  Natme.     These  aU  invo  ve  truth  or 
felsehood,  in.asmuch  as  they  all  pretend  to  give  us 
a  positive   assurance   that   wherever   we   hnd    one 
thin-   we  shaU  lind  some   other  thmg  present  or 
.absent,  and  be  enabled  thereby  to    anticipate  o,^ 
individual  experience  of  the  course  of  natin-e.     A 
aeneral  notion  can  often  be  expressed  in  a  smgle 
Tvord;  the  noun  is  the  part  of  speech  that  names 
both   particidar   objects    .and   ge»erul   notions.     A 
ceneral   proposition    is    a    comj.lete    thought,   and 
?eqnresl  s'entence  for  its  enunciation  ;,  it  involves 
the  verb  along  with  the  noun.     Ueat  is  a  notion, 
;„d  so  is  Light ;  but  when  we  nmte  the  two  m  the 
affirmation  that  heat  is  the  cause  of  light,  we  indicate 
something  th.at  is  true  or  f.alse  that  may  be  proved 
or  disnroved,  believed  or  denied.  .    ^      .    ■,     e 

T  us  higher  form  of  generaUs.ation  is  treated  of 
under  Lvbuction.  On  the  other  and  simpler  fom, 
a  few  further  explanations  are  added  '  "'•■■  \°  '^  ; 
openation  of  forming  a  general  no  ion,  the  first  step 
is  something  of  the  natiure  of  Class.hcation  A\  e 
mustTssomble  in  our  view  a  number  of  particular 
o  ects  beTng  moved  to  bring  them  together  by  the 
^t  ractive  bond  or  association  o  ^''md.arity  The 
objects  thus  assembled  are  a  class  In  Natural 
Hrtorv  for  example,  we  bring  together  in  the  mind 
fu  the  onadrnpeds  that  we  have  ever  had  any 
knowledge  of,  and  the  arr.ay  constitutes  a.  class, 
Grounded  on  the  peeidiarity  of  walking  on  all-fom;9. 
SiXr  class  is  made  up  of  the  animals  that  fly  m 
tte  .a  r  a  tliird,  of  those  that  live  in  the  sea^  By 
siieh  sue  essive  grouplugB  of  creatures  that  have  a 
S^Sied  nature  in  one' or  more  respects,  we  gradually 


GENERALISATION. 


include  tbc  wliolo  of  tlio  animal  kinsilnm  known 
to  us  in  a  scHl's  of  classifications,  whereby  method 
and  order  arc  introduced  into  the  otherwise  hetero- 
■■eneous  mass.  So  in  ]>lants  ami  minerals,  and  all 
throuLili  nature.  Accordini;  as  likenesses  have  been 
discerned  in  the  constituent  parts  of  the  universe  of 
thiu^s,  the  individuals  are  i)l.iced  with  those  related 
to  them,  and  a  preat  simplilication  of  view  and 
extension  of  knowledge  are  the  results.  For  it 
happens  very  frequently,  that  likeness  in  one  point 
is  accompanied  with  likeness  in  other  points,  so  that 
we  can  couple  several  peculiarities  together,  and 
rise  to  general  truths  as  well  as  general  notions. 
AVhcn  a  classilic.ition  has  been  arrived  at  th.it  leads 
to  this  consequence,  we  put  a  more  than  ordinaiy 
value  upon  it ;  we  consider  that  we  have  seized  upon 
some  fundamental  and  pi-egnant  jwiut  of  resem- 
blance, something  that  conveys  the  most  essential 
nature  of  the  objects  classified,  and  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  style  the  group  that  so  arises  a  natural 
or  a  pliilosupliiml  classiiication.  The  arranging  of 
animals  according  to  the  element  they  live  in,  as 
laud,  water,  air,  so  verj'  obvious  to  the  first  observers, 
has  given  place  to  one  founded  on  other  kinds  of 
likeness — namely,  the  structure  of  the  skeleton 
and  the  mode  of  bringing  forth  and  rearing  the 
young  ;  it  being  i)roved  that  .1  gi'eater  mmiber  of 
important  attriliutes  are  boimd  up  with  those 
characteristics  than  with  the  element  that  the 
animals  inhabit.     See  Mill's  Lofjlc,  book  iv.  chap.  7. 

The  forming  of  a  class  leads  to  the  adoption  of  a 
Class  Name,  in  other  words,  of  a  general  name^ 
which  is  a  name  ajiphcable  to  every  individual 
member  of  the  class,  in  consequence  of  being  under- 
stood to  exjiress  no  more  than  they  all  have  in 
common.  Thus  we  have  the  name  *  round'  to  express 
all  round  objects,  omitting  any  reference  to  other 
peculiarities  that  may  attach  to  them.  So  the 
names  *  bird,'  '  heath,'  *  salt,'  are  applicable  alike 
to  a  vast  numlier  of  indi«dual  things.  When  the 
general  name  has  been  devised,  we  can  by  means 
of  it  speak  of  all  the  particiUars  in  one  breath,  on 
condition  that  we  intend  only  to  refer  to  the  points 
of  community. 

The  i^rocess  called  Abstraction  is  further  imjiliecL 
MTien  we  bring  together,  or  constitute  a  class,  in 
virtue  of  a  jn-evailiug  resemblance,  we  are  said  to 
'  abstract '  from  the  indi\iduals  ever\-thing  else 
exce))t  the  points  of  agreement.  In  the  language  of 
Sir  W.  Hamilton,  we  attend  to  the  likeness  and 
abstriKt  the  differences.  The  notion  that  we  have 
of  the  common  quality  is  termed  by  the  same 
philosopher  the  Concept ;  but  it  has  been  usual  to 
employ  the  phrase  '  absti-action '  or  '  abstr.act  idea ' 
for  the  same  purpose,  although  a  perversion  of  the 
original  apphcation  of  that  word  The  common 
attribute  of  round  bodies,  the  round  figure,  or 
form,  is  the  concept,  or  the  abstract  idea  of  round- 
ness. The  precise  character  of  this  ment.il  element 
or  process  has  been  much  tUsputed  in  jihilosophy, 
there  being  three  difTcrent  sects  that  have  grown 
up  in  connection  with  it ;  the  Kealists,  Nominalists, 
and  Conceptualists.  The  Eealists  gave  an  actual 
independent  existence  to  the  ])rototypes  of  our 
general  notions,  maintaining  that  ajiart  from  all 
circular  bodies  there  existed  in  nature  a  circular 
/brm,  having  no  other  attribute  soever,  like  a  circle 
of  Euclid  bereft  of  the  actual  line  required  to  mark 
the  figure  to  the  eye.  The  Nominalists  considered 
that  the  only  genenJ  thing  was  the  common  name  ; 
the  Conceptualists  allowed  a  mental  existence  to 
the  generalised  attributes,  but  no  more.  (Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  MctaphysicK,  vol.  ii.  p.  29G.)  The  l,\st 
are,  no  doubt,  near  the  truth  ;  fur  although  we  can- 
not, with  Plato,  affirm  the  existence  in  nature  of 
'  generals '  that  have  no  embodiment  in  particulars 
672 


;  (which  would  be  to  contradict  the  very  essence  of 
generalisation,  namely,  likeness  amoiitf  tinlikene/ifirji)^ 
j  we  must  still  grant  to  the  mind  the  power  of  attenil- 
ing  in  thought  to  what  is  common,  neglecting  for 
the  time  the  disagreements.  We  can  think  of  all 
the  consequences  of  the  circular  ligure,  without 
specially  attending  to  the  other  peculiarities  of  any 
individtuil  circle.  This  abstractive  process  is  per- 
t  formed  in  dili'erent  ways,  according  to  the  n.ature  of 
the  subject.  In  geometry,  for  example,  we  can  draw 
di.agrams  that  are  little  other  than  naked  forms, 
although  we  must  make  them  of  a  deliuite  size  ; 
and  in  contemplating  these,  we  are  enabled  to  think 
of  form  without  substance.  We  cannot  use  this 
I  method  in  Natural  History  ;  we  cannot  form  a  con- 
cejition  of  a  bud  by  a  diagi-am  that  gives  nothing 
but  what  is  common  to  all  birils.  If  we  are  reason- 
ing upon  the  projierties  of  the  class,  we  may  first 
call  into  view  some  one  as  an  example,  say  a  pigeon ; 
from  considering  which,  we  can  go  so  far  as  to  uoto 
the  common  peculiarities  of  feathers,  wings,  bill,  &c.; 
and  when  we  have  completed  the  description,  we 
run  over  in  our  mind  a  number  of  other  birds,  to 
see  that  we  have  not  mentioned  points  sj)ecial  to 
;  the  pigeon.  In  fact,  we  must  have  vnthin  call  the 
whole  of  the  mendjcrs  of  the  class,  if  we  would 
reason  generally  respecting  it.  After  we  have  thus 
checked  and  corrected  our  generalised  description, 
we  can  embody  the  abstract  idea  in  a  form  of  very 
wide  occurrence  in  oiu-  general  reasonings,  namely, 
a  verbal  statement  of  the  common  attributes.  By 
means  of  this,  we  may  often  dispense  with  the 
reference  to  the  particulars,  except  to  know  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  language,  which  meaning  is 
still  some  sort  of  general  conception  of  the  objects. 
We  must  have  a  general  notion  of  feathers,  and 
of  the  stnicture  of  the  bill  in  birds,  upon  the  i>lau 
above  mentioned  of  holding  in  the  mind  some 
typical  instance  subject  to  correction  by  a  com- 
jiarison  of  all  the  instances  coming  under  the  genus. 
So  that,  in  point  of  fact,  no  general  reasoning  luvs 
ever  been  invented  to  sujMjrscde  totally  this  refer- 
ence to  the  particulars  ;  the  formal  reasonings  of 
mathematics  require  us  still  to  have  in  the  mind 
concrete  quantity,  or  one  thing  as  equal  to,  greater 
than,  or  less  than,  another. 

These  remarks  lead  us  to  the  nature  of  Definition, 
which  is  one  of  the  imjiortant  designations  growing 
out  of  the  operation  of  generalising.  To  define,  is 
to  hmit,  settle,  and  s[>ccify  the  exact  comp;i.ss  of  the 
properties  common  to  a  class.  Usually  this  is  doue 
by  means  of  language  ;  but  in  reality  it  is,  and  must 
be  done,  by  a  reference,  du-ect  or  remote,  to  the 
)iarticulars  themselves.  This  reference  frequently 
has  the  ayipearance  of  being  disjieused  T\-ith.  The 
reason  is  that  many  general  notions  are  compounded 
of  others,  and  we  can  xinderstand  the  comj)osite 
notion  from  its  components,  without  going  further ; 
that  is,  without  ])roducing  particulars.  Thus,  a 
cii-cle  in  the  abstract  might  be  made  intelligible  by 
pointing  to  a  number  of  concrete  circles,  such  as  are 
ilrawn  in  Euclid ;  we  should  then  have  to  impress 
on  our  minds  a  sufficient  number  of  these  to  prevent 
us  from  ever  associating  with  the  general  idea  any 
one  size,  or  any  one  colour  of  the  outline  (which 
must  be  drawn  in  black,  red,  blue,  or  some  other 
coloiu-).  No  one  circle  is  really  the  general  notion  ; 
this  nuist  be  nothing  less  than  a  multitude  of  actual 
circles,  which  the  mind  apprehends  by  turns,  so  ,as 
to  be  sure  of  never  athrmiug  any  attribute  as  com- 
mon that  is  in  fact  peculiar  to  one  or  a  few.  But 
the  concept,  circle,  can  be  got  at  in  another  way.  If 
we  determine  first  what  is  called  a  '  point '  in  space, 
and  a  'line'  proceeding  from  that  point,  and  made 
to  revolve  around  it,  the  other  extremity  of  tue 
revolving  line  will  mark  a  course  which  is  a  circle. 


GENEEATIOX. 


Here,  if  wo  possess  ourselves  of  the  simple  uotions 
or  concepts,  Point,  Line,  Revolution,  we  may  attain 
to  the  notion.  Circle,  without  examining  actual 
circles  in  the  concrete.  So  we  may  define  an  oval, 
or  ellipse,  and  many  other  figures.  This  practice  of 
referring  to  a  simpler  order  of  concepts  fur  the  con- 
stituents of  a  given  one.  is  the  main  function  of  the 
Defmition,  which  applies,  therefore,  to  complex 
notions,  and  not  to  such  as  are  idtimate,  or  simple 
in  the  extreme  degree.  To  define  in  the  la.st  resort, 
we  must  come  to  quoting  the  particulars.  \Vc  cannot 
define  a  line  by  anything  more  elementarj'.  To  say, 
with  Euclid,  that  it  is  length  without  breadth,  is  no 
assistance,  as  we  must  still  go  to  our  experience  for 
examples  of  length  ;  and  length  is  not  a  more  sim)>le 
idea  than  line,  being,  in  fact,  but  another  word  for 
the  same  thing.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  often 
supposed  that  there  are  general  notions  independent 
of  all  experience,  or  reference  to  particulars ;  the 
form  commonly  given  to  the  foundations  of  the 
science  of  mathematics  ha^Hng  favoured  this  view. 

The  name  '  genus '  is  also  connected  with  the 
jiresent  subject.  It  is  co-relative  with  another  word, 
'species,'  which,  however,  is  itself  to  some  extent 
a  generalisation  ;  for  every  species  is  considered  to 
have  individuals  under  it.  Thus,  in  Zoology,  fdis  is 
a  genus  of  animaU,  and  the  lion,  tiger,  cat,  &c,  are 
among  its  species ;  but  each  of  those  species  is  the 
generalisation  of  an  innumerable  number  of  indi- 
vidual lions,  tigers,  &c.,  differing  considerably  from 
one  another,  so  that  to  express  the  species  we  are 
still  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  operations  of 
comparison,  abstraction,  and  definition.  Genus  and 
species,  therefore,  introduce  to  us  the  existence  of 
successive  generalisations,  more  and  more  extensive 
in  their  range  of  application,  and  possessing,  in 
consequence,  a  smaller  amount  of  similarity  or 
community  of  feature  (see  Extension'). 

GENERA'TIOK'.     See  Eepkodcctiox. 

GENERATION.  A  term  in  use  in  Mathematics. 
One  geometrical  figure  is  said  to  be  generated  by 
another,  when  produced  or  formed  by  an  operation 
jierfonned  upon  the  other.  Thus  a  cone  is  generated 
by  making  a  right-angled  triangle  revolve  about  one 
of  its  sides  adjoining  the  right  angle  as  an  axis.  In 
arithmetic,  in  the  same  way,  a  nimiber  is  said  to  be 
generated  when  produced  by  an  operation  performed 
on  one  or  more  other  nimibers.  Thus,  3G  is  generated 
by  the  involution  of  (5  to  the  2d  power,  or  by  the 
multiplication  of  4  and  9. 

GENERATION,    Eteesal.      See    Trixity, 

DOCTRIXK  OF  THE. 

GENERATION,  Spontaneous.  From  the  earliest 
period  to  the  termination  of  the  middle  ages,  no  one 
called  in  question  the  doctrine  that,  under  certain 
favourable  conditions,  of  which  putrefaction  was  one 
of  the  most  important,  animals  might  be  produced 
without  parents.  Anaximander  and  Empedocles 
attributed  to  this  form  of  generation  all  the  bring 
beings  which  first  i>eopled  the  globe.  Aristotle, 
without  committing  himself  to  so  general  a  view, 
maintains  that  animals  are  sometimes  formed  in 
IHitrefjing  soil,  sometimes  in  plants,  and  sometimes 
in  the  fluids  of  other  animals,  and  Lays  down  the 
following  general  principle,  'that  every  dry  sub- 
stance which  becomes  moist,  and  every  moist  body 
which  is  dried,  produces  living  creatures,  provided 
it  is  fit  for  nourishing  them.'  The  \news  of  Lucretius 
on  this  subject  are  shewn  in  the  following  lines  : 

Njnne  vides  qua^cunque  mora,  fluidoque  liquore 
Corpora  tabuerint,  in  parva  aniuialia  verti  ? 

And  Pliny  maintains  that  '  quredam  gignuntur  ex 
non   genitis,  et  sine  ull.1  sinuli  origine.       Virgil's 
directions  for  the  production  of  bees  are  known  to 
199 


every  reader  of  the  Georgia,  and  an  expression 
in  the  Book  of  Judges  (xiv.  14)  probably  points 
to  a  similar  opinion. 

Passing  from  classical  times  to  the  later  period 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  two  succeeding  cen- 
turies, we  may  quote  amongst  the  advocates  of  this 
theory  Cardan — who,  in  his  treatise  De  Subtilitate 
(1542),  asserts  that  water  engenders  fishes,  and  that 
many  animals  s|>ring  from  fermentation — Aldro- 
vandus,  Licetus,  Gassendi,  Scaliger,  Van  Helmont, 
who  gives  8|)ccial  instructions  for  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  mice,  and  Kircher,  who  in  his  Mundus 
Suhlerraneus  (in  the  chapter  '  De  Panspermia 
Rerum')  describes,  and  actually  figures,  certain 
animals  which  were  produced  under  his  own  eyes 
by  the  transforming  influence  of  water  on  fragments 
of  the  stems  of  different  plants ! 

Kedi,  the  celebrated  Itahan  naturalist,  whose 
Experimenls  on  the  Generation  of  Insects  were  pub- 
lished in  1668,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  opponent 
th.it  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  encoun- 
tereiL  In  this  work,  he  proves  that  the  worms  and 
insects  which  appear  in  decaying  substances  are 
in  reaUty  developed  from  eggs,  deposited  in  those 
substances  by  the  parents.  Leuwenhoek,  Vallis- 
neri,  Swammerdam,  and  other  eminent  naturalists, 
soon  contributed  additional  facts  and  arguments 
in  favour  of  Kedi's  ricw ;  and  as  from  the  time  of 
Redi  to  the  present  day,  the  tide  of  opinion  has 
generally  turned  strongly  against  the  doctrine  in 
question,  it  is  unnecessary  to  carry  the  historical 
sketch  further. 

The  entozoa,  however,  continued  to  be  a  great 
stiunbling-block.  '  When,'  says  Professor  Owen, 
'the  entozoologist  contemplated  the  tccnia  fixed  to 
the  intestine,  with  its  uneinated  and  suctorious  hcatl 
buried  in  the  mucous  memljrane,  rooted  to  the  spot, 
and  imbibing  nourishment  like  a  plant — when  he 
saw  the  sluggish  distoma  (or  fluke)  adhering  by  its 
sucker  to  the  serous  membrane  of  a  closed  internal 
cavity,  he  naturally  asked  himself  how  they  got 
there;  and  finding  no  obWous  solution  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  transit  on  the  part  of  such  animals,  he 
was  driven  to  the  hypothesis  of  spontaneous  gener- 
ation to  solve  the  djiJBcidty.  It  is  no  wonder  that 
Kudolphi  (ISOS)  and  Breniser  (1824),  who  studied 
the  entozoa  rather  as  naturalists  than  physiologists, 
shoidd  have  been  led  to  appl)'  to  them  the  easy 
explanation  which  Aristotle  had  given  for  the 
coming  into  being  of  all  kinds  of  Vermes — s\z.,  that 
they  were  spontaneously  generated.  No  other 
expLination,  in  the  then  state  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  development  of  the  entozoa,  appeared  to  be 
adequate  to  account  for  the  fact  of  their  getting 
into  the  interior  carities  and  tissues  of  nigher 
animals.'  The  recent  investigations  of  Von  Siebold, 
Kuchenmeister,  Van  Beneden,  Phihppi,  &c.,  regard- 
ing the  development  and  metamorphoses  of  the 
entozoa,  have,  however,  tended  to  remove  nearly 
all  the  tlifficulties  which  this  subject  presented; 
and  the  advocates  of  spontaneous  generation  are 
fairly  driven  from  this,  one  of  the  last  of  their 
battle-fields. 

Tlie  only  jioint  at  present  in  dispute  is,  whether 
microscopic  organisms  (animals  or  plants)  may  be 
spontaneously  generated.  It  is  well  known  that  if 
we  examine  imder  the  microscope  a  drop  of  water 
in  wliich  almost  any  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances have  been  infused,  and  which  contains  the 
particles  of  such  substances  in  a  state  of  decay  or 
decomposition,  it  is  found  to  swarm  with  minute 
living  organisms.  The  question  at  issue  is  this  : 
Are  these  organisms  developed  in  the  water,  if  the 
necessary  precautions  have  been  taken  to  exclude 
every  animalcule  or  germ  capable  of  development 
both  from  the  water   and  from  the  air  that   lias 

C73 


GEXERATIOX— GEXERATIONS. 


access  to  it?  A  wcU-know-n  experiment,  devised  by 
Professor  Schuke  of  Berlin  (a  description  of  which 
may  be  found  in  Owen's  Lectures  on  the  Invertebrate 
Ammala,  2d  ed.  p.  44),  shews  that  with  due  pre- 
cautions in  reference  to  these  points,  no  aniinad  or 
vei;etable  organisms  are  produced.  This  experiment 
wiS  continued  iminterruptcdly  from  the  2Stu  of  May 
until  the  beginning  of  August,  'and  when,  at  last, 
the  professor  separated  the  difTercut  parts  of  the 
apparatus,  he  coidd  not  tind  in  the  whole  liquid 
the  slightest  trace  of  infusoria  or  confen-a?,  or 
of  moiQd;  but  all  three  presented  themselves  in 
great  abundance  a  few  days  after  he  had  left 
the  flask  standing  open.'  A  vessel  with  a  similar 
infusion,  which  he  jilaced  near  the  apparatus,  con- 
tained -libriones  and  monads  on  the  second  day  of 
the  experiment,  to  which  were  soon  added  larger 
polygastric  infusoria. 

A  few  years  ago,  JI.  Pouchet  announced  that  he 
had  repeated  Schulze's  experiment  with  every 
precaution,  but  that  animalcules  and  plants  were 
invariably  developed  in  the  infusion  on  which  he 
operated.  To  prove  that  the  atmospheric  air  con- 
tained no  germs,  he  substituted  artificial  air — that 
is  to  saj',  a  mixture  of  21  parts  of  oxygen  gas  with 
79  of  nitrogen.  The  air  was  introduced  into  a  flask 
containing  an  infusion  of  hay,  prepared  \vith  distilled 
water  and  hay  that  had  been  exposed  for  twenty 
minutes  to  a  temperature  of  212°.  He  thus  appa- 
rently guarded  against  the  presence  of  any  germs 
or  animalcides  in  the  infusion  or  in  the  air.  The 
whole  was  then  hermetically  sealed,  so  that  no 
other  air  could  gain  access ;  yet  after  all  these 
precautions,  minute  animal  and  vegetable  organisms 
appeared  in  the  infusion.  He  repeated  the  experi- 
ment with  pure  oxygen  gas  instead  of  air,  and 
obtained  similar  results.  These  experiments  are 
described  by  Pouchet  in  the  Annates  des  Sciences 
Naturelles  (185S,  4th  series,  vol.  ix.  p.  372),  and  the 
same  volume  contains  important  articles  by  MUne 
Edwards,  and  by  De  Quatrefages,  in  opposition  to 
Pouchet's  ■N'iews. 

A  very  large  majority  of  our  physiologists  of 
the  present  day  reject  the  doctrine  ;  most  of  the 
apparently  exceptional  cases,  as,  for  example,  the 
mysterious  presence  of  the  entozoa,  have  been  foimd 
to  admit  of  ready  explanation;  and  if  we  do  not 
positively  deny  the  possibility  that  animalcides  may 
be  generated  spontaneously,  we  may  at  aU  events 
assert  that  such  a  mode  of  generation  is  not 
probable,  and  has  certainly  not  been  proved  to 
exist.  Those  who  wish  to  know  more  fidly  the 
arguments  that  may  be  adduced  in  favour  of, 
and  in  opposition  to,  the  doctrine,  are  referred,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  Pouchet's  Iliteroginie,  on  Traite 
de  la  Generation  Spontance,  base  sur  de  Notwelles 
Experiences  (1859)  ;  and,  on  the  other,  to  Pasteur's 
Mcmoire  sur  les  Corpusades  Organises  qui  existent 
dans  I' Atmosphere ;  Examen  de  la  Doctrine  des 
Generations  Sponlatiies,  in  the  Annates  de  Chimie  et 
de  Pliysique.  (3d  ser.  1862,  vol.  Ixiv.  pp.  1— HO). 
(The  subject  was  discussed  by  Prof.  Huxley  in  his 
address  to  the  British  Association  in  1S70.) 

GENERATIONS,  Axteknation  of,  a  phrase 
devised  by  Steenstrup,  a  Danish  naturalist,  about 
twenty  years  ago,  to  signify  '  the  remarkable  and 
tiU  now  inex])hcable  natural  phenomenon  of  an 
animal  producing  an  oSsprin",  which  at  no  time 
resembles  its  parent,  but  which,  on  the  other  hand, 
itself  brings  forth  a  progeny  which  retiu-ns  in  its 
form  and  nature  to  the  parent  animal,  so  th.it  the 
maternal  animal  does  not  meet  mth  its  resemblance 
in  its  own  brood,  but  in  its  descendants  in  the 
second,  third,  or  fourth  degree  or  generation  ;  this 
always  taking  place  in  the  different  animals  which 
exliibit  the  phenomenon  in  a  determinate  generation, 
674 


or  with  the  intervention  of  a  determinate  number  of 
generations.' 

The  phenomenon  has  been  obser\'ed  in  many  of 
the  liijarozoa,  in  various  entozoa,  in  annelids,  in 
moUuscoids  (satpce),  and  in  insects  (aphides) ;  and 
its  nature  will  be  best  understood  by  our  giving  one 
or  two  illustrations. 

We  commence  with  the  development  of  the 
ineduscc  or  jelhj  fishes,  which  belong  to  the  class 
hjdrozoa.  The  medusa  discharges  living  young, 
which,  after  having  burst  the  covering  of  the  egg, 
swim  about  freely  for  some  time  in  the  body  of  the 
mother.  \\Tien  first  discharged  or  born,  they  have 
no  resemblance  wh.atever  to  the  jxjrfect  medusa?, 
but  are  little  cylindrical  bodies  (fig.  1,  a),  covered 


^&% 


Kg.  1. 

mth  cilia,  moving  with  considerable  rapidity,  and 
resembling  infusoria.  After  moring  freely  in  the 
water  for  some  days,  each  little  animal  fixes  itself 
to  some  object  by  one  extremity  (e),  while  at  the 
opposite  extremity  a  depression  is  gradually  formed, 
the  four  corners  (b,f)  becoming  elongated,  and 
gradually  transformed  into  tentacles  (c).  These 
tentacles  increase  in  number  till  the  whole  of  the 
upper  margin  is  covered  with  them  (g).  Transverse 
wrinkles  are  then  seen  on  the  body  at  regular 
intervals,  appearing  first  above,  and  then  extending 
downwards.  As  these  ■wrinkles  grow  deeper,  the 
edge  of  each  segment  presents  a  toothed  appearance, 
so  that  the  organism  resembles  an  artichoke  or  pine- 
cone,  surmoimted  by  a  tuit  of  tentacles  {h).  The 
segments  gradually  become  more  separated,  until 
they  are  united  by  only  a  very  slender  axis,  when 
they  resemble  a  ])ile  of  shallow  cups  placed  within 
each  other  (i).  At  length  the  upper  segment  dis- 
engages itself,  and  then  the  others  in  succession. 
Eacli^  segment  (d)  continues  to  develop  itself  untd 
it  becomes  a  complete  medusa  (ij  ;  while  the  basis 
or  stalk  remains,  and  produces  a  new  colony.  Here, 
then,  we  have  the  egg  of  the  medusa  gradually 
developed  into  the  polypoid  organism  (A),  to  which 
the  term  strobila  (from  strobilos,  a  pine-cone)  has 
been  given.  This  polype,  by  gemmation  and  fission, 
yields  medusae  with  reproductive  organs. 

The  phenomenon  of  alternation  of  generations  in 
the  Cestoid  Worms  (q.  v.),  and  ia  certain  Trematoid 
Worms  (see  Fluke),  has  already  been  noticed, 
and  will  be  further  discussed  in  the  article  Tape- 
worms. The  fission  of  certain  annelids  (Syllis 
and  Wyrianida),  (see  Eepeoduction),  presents  an 
example,  although  at  first  sight  a  less  obvious  one, 
of  alternation  of  generations,  the  non-sexual  parent 
worm  yielding  by  fissure  promny  containing  sper- 
matozoa and  ova,  from  wnich  again  a  non-sexual 
generation  is  produced. 

The  SalpcB  {moltusca  or  moUuscoids  belonging  to 
the  family  Tunicata)  are  usually  regarded  as 
afl'ording  a  good  illustration  of  the  phenomenon 
under  consideration.  It  was  in  tliese  animals  that 
it  was  origuially  noticed  by  Chamisso,  who  accom- 
panied Kotzebue  in  his  voyage  round  the  world 
(1815—1818).     The  Salpaj  (from  twenty  to  forty  in 


GENESEE— GENESIS. 


number)  are  united  together  by  special  organs  of 
attachment,  so  as  to  form  lonj;  chains,  which  float 
in  the  sea,  the  mouth  (?«),  however,  being  free  in 


(^' 


each.  The  individuals  thus  .joined  in  chains  (fig.  2, 
A)  ]iroduce  cags  ;  one  egg  being  generally  developed 
in  the  body  of  each  animal.  This  egg,  when  hatched, 
produces  a  little  mollusc  (fig.  2,  B),  which  remains 

solitary,    differs     in     many 
— —  respects    from    the   parent, 

"  does    not    produce   an   egg, 

\    but  propagates   by   a   kind 

^~^ — <^^  .'    of       internal      gcnunation, 

which  gives   rise  to  chains 
Fig.  ■-',  i;.  already    seen     within    the 

body  of  the  parent,  which 
finally  bursts  and  liberates  them.  These  chains, 
again,  bring  forth  solitary  indiriduals. 

The  only  instance  in  which  this  plienomenon 
occurs  in  animals  so  liighly  organised  as  insects  is 
in  the  Aphides,  or  Plant-lice.  In  many  species  of 
the  genus  aphis,  which  in  the  jicrfect  state  possess 
wings,  a  large  proportion  of  the  individuals  never 
acquire  these  organs,  but  remain  in  the  condition  of 
larva;.  These  ■\vithout  any  se.xual  union  (none  of 
tboni,  indeed,  being  males)  bring  forth  diuing  the 
sununer  living  young  ones  resembling  themselves ; 
and  these  young  ones  repeat  the  process,  till  ten  or 
eleven  successive  broods  are  thus  produced ;  the  last 
progeny,  towards  the  end  of  the  summer,  being 
winged  males  and  females,  which  produce  fnutful 
eggs  that  retain  their  vitality  during  the  winter, 
and  give  birth  to  a  new  generation  in  the  spring, 
long  after  their  parents  have  perished.  Other 
])eculiarities  of  insect-generation  will  be  noticed  in 
the  article  PARTHE.N'OGENr,.sis. 

Several  high  physiological  authorities,  amongst 
whom  we  may  especially  mention  Hiuxley  ('  On  the 
An.atomy  of  Salpi-e,'  in  Phil.  Trans,  for  18.51,  and 
'  On  Animal  Indi\-iduality,'  in  Ann.  of  Kat.  Hist.,  2d 
ser.,  vol.  ix.  p.  505),  and  Caqienter  (Principles  of 
Comparative  Physiolorfi/,  1854),  object  to  the  term 
'  alternation  of  generations.'  The  detached  portions 
of  the  stock  originating  in  a  single  generative  act 
are  termed  Ziioida  by  these  writers,  whilst  by  the 
term  animal  or  entire  animal  (the  equivalent  of 
Zijon)  they  understand  in  the  lower  tribes,  as  in 
the  higher,  the  collective  jnoduct  of  a  sinr/le  generative 
act.  Here  they  include  under  the  title  of  one 
generation  all  that  intervenes  between  one  gener- 
ative act  and  the  next.  '  If,'  says  Dr  Caqjenter, 
'  the  phenomena  be  i-iewed  under  this  aspect,  it 
will  be  obvious  that  the  so-called  "alternation  of 
generations  "  has  no  real  existence ;  since  in  every 
case  the  whole  series  of  forms  which  is  evolved  by 
continuous  development  from  one  generative  act 
repeats  itself  precisely  in  the  products  of  the  next 
generative  act.  The  alternation,  which  is  very 
frequently  presented  in  the  forms  of  the  lower 
animals,  is  between  the  products  of  the  ijenerative 
act  and  the  products  of  gemmation,  and  the  most 
important  dilTerence  between  them  usually  consists 
in  this — that  the  former  do  not  contain  the  gener- 
ative apparatus  which  is  evolved  in  the  latter  alone. 
The  generating  ziioid  may  be  merely  a  segment  cast 
off  from  the  body  at  large,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Tape-uorms  (q.  v.),  or  it  may  contain  a  combination 
of   generative   and   locomotive  organs,   as    in   the 


self-dividing  .4  nne^i't/e.  It  may  possess,  however,  not 
merely  locomotive  organs,  but  a  complete  nutritive 
apparatus  of  its  own,  which  is  the  case  in  all  those 
instances  in  which  the  ziioid  is  cast  off  in  an  early 
stage  of  its  development,  and  has  to  attain  an 
increased  size,  and  frequently  also  to  evolve  the 
generative  organs,  subsequently  to  its  detachment ; 
of  this  we  have  examples  in  the  Medmw  budded  off 
from  Hydroid  Polypes,  and  in  the  aggregate  Salpa.' 
—  Principles  of  Comjiarative  Physiology,  p.  529. 

GENESEE',  a  remarkable  river  of  North  America, 
rises  about  10  miles  south  of  the  boundary  between 
the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  Hows 
north  through  the  western  portion  of  the  latter 
state,  and  after  a  course  of  145  miles  falls  into 
Lake  Ontario,  7  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Kochester. 
The  G.  is  not  only  notable  for  the  varied  and 
romantic  character  of  its  soener)-,  but  is  also  famous 
for  its  extraordinary  falls.  Of  these  falls,  which 
are  five  in  mmiber,  three,  occm-ring  within  a  dis- 
tance of  two  miles,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of 
Portage,  about  90  mdes  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  are  respectively  CO,  90,  and  110  feet  high. 
The  other  two,  the  one  occurring  immediately  above 
Piochester,  and  the  other  about  3  miles  below  that 
city,  are  both  of  about  100  feet. 

GE'NESIS,  or  more  fiUly  GENESIS  KOSMOII 
(Origin,  Generation  of  the  VVorld),  is  the  name  first 
given  by  the  Septuagint  to  the  opening  book  of 
the  Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  canon  it  is  called 
Bere.-ihith  (In  the  Beginning),  from  the  initial  word  ; 
in  the  Talmud,  it  is  sometimes  refen-ed  to  as 
'  The  Book  of  Creation,'  or  '  The  Book  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob.'  Its  Masoretic  di\-ision  into  fifty 
chapters,  followed  in  the  English  Bible,  or  into  12 
large  and  4.3  small  encyclical  sections  {Sedarim, 
Parshioth),  has  been  grounded  rather  on  conve- 
nience than  on  any  corresponding  diWsion  of  the 
subject-matter.  The  book  seems  of  itself  to  fall 
most  naturally  into  two  totally  distinct  parts :  the 
first  of  which  would  extend  from  the  beginning  to 
the  call  of  Abraham  (c.  i. — xii.),  and  embrace  t)io 
account  of  the  creation,  paradise,  fall,  the  gener- 
ations between  Adam  and  Noah,  together  with 
their  religion,  arts,  settlements,  and  genealogy,  the 
deluge,  the  repeopling  of  the  earth,  the  tower  of 
Babel,  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race,  and  the 
generations  between  Noah  and  Abraham :  thus 
forming  an  introduction  to  the  second  part  (c.  xii. — 1.), 
or  the  history  of  the  patriarchs  (Abraham,  Lot, 
Ishmael,  Is,a.ac,  .laeob,  Esau,  and  .Joseph) ;  the  whole 
concluding  with  the  settlement  of  Jacob's  family  in 
I^SJT*-  Another  division  seems  indicated  by  the 
inscription  Toledoth  (Origin,  Generation),  which 
occurs  ten  times  in  the  course  of  the  book,  intro- 
ducing at  each  repetition  a  new  cycle  of  the 
narrative,  and  which  would  thus  split  the  whole 
(from  c.  ii.  4)  into  ten  distinct  sections  of  dispro- 
portionate length. 

The  period  of  tune  over  which  the  Book  of  Genesis 
extends  has  been  variously  computed ;  the  number 
of  years  commonly  assigned  to  it  is  about  2300; 
the  variations  in  ealoulatioa  seldom  exceeding  units 
or  tens  of  years  ;  Bishop  Hales  alone,  foUowing  the 
Septuagint,  reckons  30 19  yeai's. 

Being  a  portion,  and  the  introductory  portion  of 
the  Pentateuch — at  the  same  time  that  it  forms  a 
complete  whole  in  itself — it  cannot  but  be  con- 
sidered as  laj-ing  down  the  basis  for  th.at  theocracy 
of  which  the  development  is  recorded  in  the  suc- 
ceeding books,  ^\'^lile  the  design  and  plan  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  thus  also  th.at  of  Genesis,  the  latter, 
however  discordant  its  constituent  parts  may  seem, 
does  not  lack  the  necessary  unity.  Beginning 
with  the  cosmogony,  or   rather  geogony,  i.  e.,  the 

G75 


GENESIS. 


generation  of  the  earth  with  its  animate  anil  inaui- 
niato  ]ii-0(lucts,  and  all  ercatoil  things  wliich  bear 
npon  and  influence  it  visibly,  the  record  gradually 
narrows  into  tlie  history  of  man,  and  with  the 
distinct  aim  of  tracing  the  fate  of  the  one  chosen 
family  and  people,  itsingles  out  Noah,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob.  The  narrative  dwells  with  carefid 
minuteness  upon  their  fortunes,  laying  especial 
stress  on  their  iutim.atc  communion  with  Cfod,  and, 
with  the  three  last,  ou  the  reiterated  promises  of  the 
land  which  they  should  inherit :  '  they  and  their 
seed  after  thcni.'  The  remainder  of  the  human 
race  is  summarily  treated  of ;  the  various  founders 
of  tribes  and  peoples  that  represent  it  being  gener- 
ally but  briefly  named.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of 
brothers,  or  very  near  relations  of  the  elect,  that 
certain  incidents  of  their  lives  are  more  fully 
recorded  ;  plainly  ■\rith  the  intention  of  ]iroving  the 
inferiority  of  their  claims  to  divine  consideration,  or 
even  of  representing  them  a.s  meet  objects  of  the 
displeasure  of  the  Almighty  ;— Ham,  Ishmael,  Esau. 
From  c.  xxxvii.  to  the  eml  of  the  book,  we  have 
exclusively  the  one  chosen  family  of  Jacob  and  his 
cliildren  before  our  eyes;  and  the  strictly  national 
character,  which  the  narrative  now  assumes, 
excludes  everjrthing  but  the  fortunes  of  tliis  par- 
ticular house.  Here,  also,  an  unbroken,  flowing 
style  takes  the  place  of  the  former  apparently 
sketchy  and  sometimes  abrupt  manner.  With 
the  occupation  by  Jacob's  ra)jidly  developing  tribe 
of  the  land  of  Goshen,  this  tirst  great  patriarchal 
period  is  brought  to  a  fitting  close,  and  the 
second  ushered  in,  when  the  tribe  reappears  after 
a  lapse  of  time  as  a  people.  The  JIaker  of  all  things, 
ha\'ing  by  the  creation  of  one  man  and  one  woman 
placed  all  mankind  ou  an  eijual  footing,  by  his 
sovereign  "will  subsequently  elected  one  righteous 
from  out  the  mass  of  human  corruption,  and  through 
this  man's  progeny — whose  history  is  told  at  length 
— mankind  is  in  the  end  to  be  reclaimed : — this 
seems  the  pith  of  the  book,  considered  as  a  religious 
history  of  man. 

A  certain  app.arent  difference  of  style  and  lan- 
guage ;  the  occurrence  of  what  seemed  gaps  on  the  one, 
and  repetitions  and  contratlictions  on  the  other  hand ; 
the  si)ecial  headings  {Toledotli)  above  mentioned; 
and,  lastly,  the  diflerent  use  of  the  term  for  the  divine 
name,  led  very  early  to  the  question  of  the  integrity 
of  Genesis.  Celsus,  Isaac,  C.  Jasos,  Aben  Esra, 
Karlsstadt,  Spinoza,  aU  assumed  smaller  or  larger 
interpolations  ;  that  is,  pieces  evidently  not  written 
by  the  author  of  the  book  himself,  but  adiled  after- 
wards. It  was  not  before  1753  that  the  '  Hypothesis 
of  Documents,'  based  on  the  alternate  use  of  the 
word  Jehova  (Everlasting)  and  Elohim  (.Vlmighty) 
was  first  broached.  While  the  Talmud.  Tei-tullian, 
St  Augustine,  Chrysostom,  Jehudah  Halle^^,  &c., 
had  all  endeavoured  to  explain  how  the  individual 
word  was  always  necessary  in  the  special  passage 
where  it  occurred,  Astme,  a  Belgian  physician, 
])ublishcd  in  th.at  year  his  Conjectures  sur  les 
^MciHoirea  origliiaiix  doiit  it  paroit  que.  Moyse  sest 
servi  pour  compotier  ie  livre  de  Genese,  iu  which  he 
endeavoiu-ed  to  shew  that  this  writer,  or  rather 
editor  of  the  book,  had  made  use  of  two  large  and 
ten  small — respectively  'Elohistic'  and  'Jehovistic' 
• — dociunents  for  his  composition.  This  theory  was  at 
first  received  with  sUent  contempt  in  the  ^Titer's 
ovrt\  country.  The  only  man  who  took  any  notice 
of  it  w.os  Charban,  who  at  the  same  time  excused 
himself  for  refuting  this  '  absurd  but  dangerous ' 
theory.  It  soon,  however,  found  its  way  to  Germany, 
where  it  was  warmly  advocated  and  developed  by 
Eichhorn  (Eeperl.  and  Introd.),  Ilgeu,  and  Ciramberg. 
A  f iui.lier  step  was  taken  by  Vater  and  Hartmann,  to 
whom  belongs  the  '  Hjiiothesia  of  Fragments,'  or  of 


the  whole  IVntateuch  being  a  Mosaic  of  fragments 
by  various  authors.  Both  these  notions  have  now 
been  jiretty  generally  rejected,  chiefly  on  account 
of  their  incompatibility  with  the  a]>parent  unity  oi 
the  whole  work  and  its  single  parts.  Tlie  theory 
atlopted  by  the  majority  of  biblical  critics  of  our  d.ay, 
among  whom  m.ay  be  mentioned  Wette,  Lengerke, 
Knobel,  Stahelin,  Bleek,  Tuch,  Delitzsch,  and  Bun- 
sen,  is  the  '  Complementary,'  aeeoriling  to  which 
the  author  of  the  rentateuch— the  Jehovist — had 
worked  u])on  an  old  Elohistic  fundamental  record 
which  embraced  the  time  from  the  creation  to  the 
death  of  Joshua,  altering,  enlarging,  and  com- 
pletely re^n•iting  it.  Ewald  and  liupfeld,  however, 
assume  four  writers ;  the  former  two  Elohists 
and  two  Jehovists,  the  latter  three  Elohists  and 
one  Jehovist ;  ■while  the  apologetic  school  of  Heng- 
stenberg,  Hiiverniek,  Keil,  attempts  to  uphold 
the  primitive  theory  of  one  single  author. 

Considered  from  the  remotest  time  as  a  book 
written  under  the  infl\ience  of  tUvinc  inspiration 
— a  term  very  difl'erently  understood — and  thus 
raised  above  all  doubt  as  to  its  truthfulness, 
various  efforts  were  made,  from  the  days  of  the 
earliest  interpreters  to  our  own,  to  explain,  by 
allegory  and  symbiil,  such  of  its  statements  as 
iu  their  jilain  sense  seemed  incompreliensible  to 
himian  imderstauding.  Philo  aud  the  Alexandrines 
generally,  Papias,  Irenaeus,  Jiistin  Martyr,  and 
others,  iu  aU  seriousness  spiritualised  into  divine 
parable  that  which  was  given  as  history ;  so  much 
so,  that  St  Augustine — exemplifying  the  spirit  of 
the  times — shortly  after  his  conversion,  explains 
paradise  to  represent  nothing  more  than  the  happi- 
ness of  mankind,  the  four  rivers  the  four  virtues, 
the  serpent  the  devil,  the  coats  of  skin  immortality, 
&c.  In  more  recent  times,  however,  after  Luther 
had  restored  the  belief  in  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
text,  some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  refer  all  that  is 
not  within  the  grasp  of  hiuuau  reason  to  the  rcLn  u 
of  myth,  and  to  point  to  the  oln-ious  simil.u.ty 
between  the  biblical  narrative  of  the  paradise,  :to 
four  rivers,  the  scrpeut,  the  a])ple,  the  fall,  &e. ; 
and  certain  legends,  common  to  most  eastern  nations 
in  the  remotest  times,  as  a  proof  that  they  were  all 
derived  from  one  and  the  same  m\*thical  source. 
Since  the  rcNival  of  science  in  the  IGth  c,  another 
and  much  graver  difliculty,  however,  has  arisen — 
viz.,  how  certain  distinct  aud  explicit  statements  of 
the  Scrii>ture,  allowing  of  but  one  translation,  were 
to  be  reconciled  with  certain  imdeniable  physical 
facts.  It  is  more  especially  the  Mosaic  cosmogony, 
as  contained  in  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis, 
which  has  given  rise  to  violent  controversies.  The 
age  of  the  world,  which,  according  to  the  Bible, 
woidd  be  60UO,  or  at  most,  between  7000  and  SUOO 
years ;  its  creation  and  the  formation  of  the  whole 
system  of  the  universe  in  six  days;  have  been 
declared  by  astronomers  and  geologists,  who  reckon 
the  period  of  the  existence  of  the  earth  by  millions, 
of  the  universe  by  millions  upon  millions,  to  be 
subjects  on  which  information  must  be  sought  else- 
where than  in  the  Bible.  Jlost  of  the  apologists 
have  to  a  certain  degi'ee  granted  this,  aud  they  only 
difl'er  among  themselves  as  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  Bible,  a  book  intended  for  religious  instruction 
exclusively,  has  reserved  such  knowledge  as  has 
been  or  may  be  acquired  liy  scientific  iaivestigation. 
The  words  of  the  biblical  record  themselves,  so  far 
from  being  iu  contradiction  to  the  results  of  human 
knowledge,  are  said  to  convej',  if  not  directly,  yet 
by  implication  all  that  science  more  ])lainly  teaches. 
The  two  principal  methods  of  reeoncihation  advanced 
in  this  country  are  those  of  Dr  Buckland  and 
Hugh  Miller  (aud  their  followers)  respectively,  the 
first  of  whom  adopts  aud  amjilifies  the  Chalmcrian 


GEXET— 9  EXE  VA. 


interjwlation  of  the  fjeologicil  ages  before  the  first  day 
(an  opinion  strangely  enough  to  be  found  alreafly 
in  the  llidrash  (q.  v.) :  '  Before  our  present  wodd, 
the  Almighty  had  created  workis  upon  worUls,  and 
destroyed  them  again'),  the  latter  the  Cuvierian 
expansion  of  the  six  days  into  geological  ages.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  both  by  those  who 
hold  that  the  Bible  is  entirely  the  work  of  man, 
and  by  those  who  take  it  as  a  mixture  of  the 
divine  and  the  human  element,  that  the  bibUcal 
notion  of  the  cosmogony,  as  well  as  of  all  the 
other  physical  phenomena,  are  simply  in  accordance 
with  the  state  of  science  in  the  days  when  the  book 
was  compiled. 

The  aijologists  adduce,  as  a  further  proof  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  Bible,  the  surpassing  sublimity 
and  moral  superiority  of  its  cosmogony  as  compared 
with  all  others.  The  dualism  of  God  and  matter, 
which,  according  to  the  different  pagan  systems,  are 
either  eternally  co-existent  or  fused  into  each  other, 
is  exchanged  for  the  awful  and  moving  idea  of  a 
one  personal  God,  who  first  created,  then  moulded, 
and  everlastingly  sustains  the  universe,  lavishing 
his  highest  gifts  on  man,  made  in  his  own  image, 
and  standing  towards  him  in  the  Uving  relation 
of  a  son  to  a  father.  The  occurrence  of  similar 
traditions  in  the  religious  records  of  other  primeval 
nations  is  taken  as  a  corroborating  proof  of  the 
historical  truth  of  the  biblical  account.  Kccent 
investigations  have  likewise  affirmed  the  division 
of  mankind  into  three  principal  races,  corresponding 
to  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet,  to  be  substantially 
correct,  as  far  as  language  is  concerned. 

The  question  whether  Moses  really  wxs  the  author 
or  compiler  of  Genesis  has  been  negatived  by  some, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  that  certain  apparently  obso- 
lete names  mentioned  are  explained  by  others  which 
first  came  into  use  at  a  much  later  time,  and  that 
there  are  allusions  made  to  events  which  happened 
centimes  after  Moses.  Graves,  Faber,  Rosenmilller, 
and  others,  consider  such  passages  to  be  late  addi- 
tions. The  further  question  whether  Moses  wrote 
it  while  at  Jlidian,  or  during  the  forty  days  on 
Mount  Sinai,  or  during  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
desert,  vcill  be  considered  in  the  article  Pentateuch, 
where  also  some  other  points  in  connection  nith  the 
composition  of  this  book  will  be  glanced  at.  Of 
opinions  on  the  other  side,  «e  will  briefly  mention 
that  of  Liengerke,  who  holds  the  Elohist  to  have 
written  imder  Solomon,  and  the  JehoWst  under 
Hezekiah  ;  of  Tueh,  who  places  the  former  in  the 
time  of  Said,  the  latter  in  that  of  Solomon  ;  and  of 
Bleek,  who  assigns  to  the  Elohist  the  time  of  Saul 
or  the  Judges,  and  to  the  JehoWst  the  beginning  of 
David's  reign. 

Of  the  infinite  number  of  ancient  and  modem 
writers  who  have  commented  on  Genesis,  we  will 
mention  CyrU  of  Alexandria,  Ephracm  Syrus,  Theo- 
doret,  Procopius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
Jitzchaki  (commonly,  but  wrongly,  called  Jarclii), 
Aben-Ezra,  Levi  1).  Gershom,  Abrabanel,  Men- 
delssohn, Michaelis,  Vater,  Bohlen,  RosenmUller, 
Eichhom.  Augusti,  Faber,  Graves,  Schumann,  Tuch, 
Knobel,  Herder,  Hamann,  Baumgarten,  Delitzsch, 
Hengstenberg,  Keil,  Kahsch,  Kurtz,  &c.  See  also 
Turner's  and  Hitvemick's /n(;-(xiHc/ion«  to  Genesli  ; 
Hugh  Miller's  Testimony  of  the  Uork.i  ;  Pye 
Smith's  ndatlon  hettceen  Scripture  and  firience;  Dr 
W'hewiM's  Br'uigewater  Treatise;  Goodwin's  Mosaic 
Cosmogoniiy  &c. 

GE'NET  {Genetla),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
f.imily  ViverridKr,  nearly  allied  to  the  Civets  (q.  v.), 
but  liaving  only  a  rudimentary  odoriferous  pouch, 
and  claws  perfectly  retractile,  as  in  the  ^elidii: 
The  approximation  to  that  family  also  appears  m 
the   vertical  contraction  of  the  pupil  of   the   eye. 


The  species  are  numerous;  smaller  and  more  slender 
animals  than  the  civets,  mostly  natives  of  Africa 
and  the  warmer  p.irts  of  Asia.  One,  the  common 
G.  (6'.  vulgaris},  is  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  as 


Genet  {Genetla  ruloarit). 

well  as  throughout  Africa.  It  is  gray,  with  small 
round  or  oblong  black  or  brown  spots;  the  tail, 
which  is  as  long  as  the  liody,  ringed  with  black  and 
white.  It  frequents  the  banks  of  brooks.  Its  fur 
is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  It  is  easily 
domesticated,  and  is  kept  in  houses  in  Constan- 
tinople to  catch  mice. 

The  Genet  is  sometimes  met  vdth  in  Heraldry'. 
There  was  an  order  of  knighthood  in  France,  foimded 
by  Charles  Martcl,  called  the  order  of  the  G.,  but 
it  has  long  ceased  to  exist. 

GENE'VA  (Fr.  Geni-re,  Ger.  Geiif,  Ital.  Ginevra), 
the  most  populous  and  flourishing  to«Ti  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  the  8.ime  name,  is 
situated  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  70  miles  north-cpst  from  Lyon,  in  France. 
At  the  time  of  the  contests  between  the  Helvetii 
and  the  Komans,  G.  belonged  to  the  countrj'  of  the 
AllobrOges.  It  was  afterwards  included  in  the  Roman 
Promncia  Maxima  Sequnnorum,  and  was  a  place  of 
some  importance  under  the  Burgimdian  kings.  On 
the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundj',  G. 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ostrogoths ;  in  the 
year  536,  under  that  of  the  Franks;  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  9th  c,  under  the  new  kingdom  of 
Burgundy.  It  had  been  made  a  bishop's  seat  in 
the  5th  c,  and  from  the  12th  e.  continual  feuds 
arose  between  the  bishops  and  the  Coimts  of 
Savoy  with  regard  to  the  supremacy.  The  citizens 
took  advantage  of  these  dissensions  to  obtain  fresh 
liberties  and  privileges  for  themselves.  In  1518, 
the  Genevese  concluded  an  alliance  with  Freiburg, 
and  shortly  after  with  Bern,  and  thus  G.  became  a 
member  of  the  Swiss  confederation. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Reform.-ition,  Ijoldly  and 
enthusiastically  preached  by  Willi.im  Farel,  met 
with  general  acce|itance  in  Gencv.i.  In  conjimction 
with  Bern,  the  citizens  expelled  the  adherents  of 
the    Dukes    of   Savoy — the    so-called    Mamelukes 

from    the    town,    and    declared     the     bishopric 

vacant.  In  August  lo.S5,  the  Reformed  rehgion 
was  establishetl  by  law  ;  and  in  1541,  Cal\-in  was 
in\-ited  to  take  up  his  residence  permanently  in  G., 
as  pubUc  teacher  of  theologj'.  It  was  he  who 
chiefly  impressed  the  stamp  of  rigid  morahty,  not 
imalloyed  with  pedantrj',  on  the  minds  of  the 
citizens  of  G.,  and  .awakened  a  taste  for  the  exact 
sciences.  The  town,  which  had  hitherto  been 
merely  a  place  of  trade,  thus  acquired  an  imjwrtant 
influence  over  the  spiritual  life  of  Europe,  and 
became  the  centre  of  education  for  the  Protestant 
youth  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and 
■'  (i;7 


GENEVA. 


Spain.  In  1602,  the  last  attempt  of  the  Bnkcs  of 
Savoy  to  recover  the  town  was  frustrated  by  the 
cner^v  an<l  resohition  of  the  citizens. 

Durins;  the  ISth  c.,  G.  w.is  distracted  by  a  con- 
tinued feud  between  the  aristocratic  and  popular 
parties,  until  in  1782,  Bern,  Sardinia,  and,  in 
particiJar,  France,  interfered  in  favour  of  tlie 
aristocracy.  The  French  Ilevohition  led  to  a  new 
crisis ;  the  government  was  overthrown  in  July 
1711-4,  equality  in  the  eye  of  the  hiw  was  establisheil, 
a  national  convention  appointed,  and  a  reign  of 
tenor  commenced.  In  179S,  G.,  and  its  territory, 
was  annexed  to  France  under  the  name  of  the 
department  'Du  Lenian.'  After  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon,  G.  recovered  its  independence,  and 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  increased  its  territory 
considerably. 

The  situation  of  the  town  on  both  sides  of  the 
lake  where  it  is  narrowed  to  a  point  and  forms 
the  Rhone,  is  exceedingly  pleasant  and  advan- 
tageous for  traffic.  Formerly,  G.  was  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  consisted  of  clusters  of  narrow  and 
ill-drained  streets  ;  but  since  the  .iceession  of  the 
democratic  party  to  power  in  1S47  (see  next  article), 
a  most  extraoriUnary  change  has  been  effected,  .and 
chiefly  through  the  energy  and  enlightened  \-iew3 
of  M.  James  Fazy,  a  wealthy  native  proprietor. 
The  ancient  ranijiarts  have  been  removed,  streets 
widened  and  well  paved,  new  and  commodious 
quays  constructed  along  the  shores  of  the  lake 
and  river,  and  a  spirit  of  improvement  introduced 
which  points  to  a  great  extension  of  the  city. 
Among  the  latest  improvements  is  the  constniction 
of  a  breakwater,  within  which,  as  in  a  harboiir, 
ste.am-boats  are  received  and  lie  in  safety,  and 
from  which  they  depart  several  times  daily  to  the 
])rincipal  ports  on  both  sides  of  the  lake,  the  two 
divisions  of  the  to\vn  are  connected  by  several 
wooden  bridges,  and  at  present  (1862)  a  new  stone 
bridge  is  in  the  coiu-se  of  construction.  In  rushing 
through  the  town,  the  Rhone  parts  into  two 
branches,  forming  two  islands,  on  one  of  which 
still  exists  an  antique  and  picturesque  cluster  of 
buildings ;  on  the  other,  laid  out  as  a  public  i)leasm-e- 
grouud,  there  is  a  statue  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau, 
who  was  a  native  of  the  town.  Stretching  along  a 
part  of  the  new  qu.ay,  on  the  left  side  of  tlie  Rhone, 
there  is  now  a  public  promenade  laid  out  as  a 
Jardin  Anglaise.  As  forming  a  central  terminus  for 
French  and  Swiss  railways,  G.  is  a  favourite  resort 
of  travellers,  for  whose  accommodation  there  are 
several  large  and  splendid  hotels,  commanding  iine 
views  of  the  lake  and  mountain  scenery  in  the 
environs.  The  language  sjioken  is  French.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathetlral  church  of  St 
Pierre,  which  dates  from  1124;  the  town-h.all ; 
the  college,  founded  by  Calvin  in  1558,  and  con- 
taining a  library  of  40,000  volumes ;  the  JIusee 
Rath,  so  called  from  the  name  of  its  founder. 
General  Rath,  and  containing  good  pictures;  the 
observatory,  the  finest  iu  Switzerland;  and  the 
museiun  of  natural  history,  containing  De  Saus- 
sure's  geological  collection,  Haller's  herbarium,  the 
fossil  plants  of  Brogniart  and  Decandolle,  &e. 
The  university  (originally  established  in  1368,  and 
reorganised  by  Calvin  and  Beza  in  l.'jSO)  has  four 
f.aculties— theology,  law,  science,  and  belles-lettres. 
Among  the  many  handsome  new  public  buildings 
may  be  mentioned  the  Post-office,  a  Catholic  and  an 
English  chiu-ch,  this  last  accommod.ating  the  large 
number  of  English  residents  and  casu.al  visitors. 
The_  staple  manufactures  of  the  town  are  watches, 
musical-boxes,  and  jewellery  ;  and  for  the  sale  of 
these  and  other  fancy  articles,  there  are  many 
attractive  shops.  .fVltogether,  G.  is  to  be  considered 
as  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  improving 


towns  on  the  continent.     In  1860,  the  population  of 

the  city  and  suburbs  was  41,756.     (1870 40,783). 

GENEVA,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  in  the  south- 
west of  th.at  country,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  tlie 
canton  of  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  on  the 
S.,  E.,  and  W.,  by  the  territories  of  France.  It  has 
an  area  of  109  squ.are  miles,  and  in  ISGO  it  had 
8.'i,.'!!)5  inh.abitants,  of  whom  42,;i55  were  Catholics. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Rhone  and  the  Arne,  which 
unite  about  two  miles  from  the  south-west  extremity 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Tlie  surface  is  hilly,  and 
the  soil,  not  naturally  fertile,  has  been  rendered  so 
by  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants.  The  political 
affairs  of  the  canton  and  city  have  undergone 
various  changes,  the  last  of  these  being  a  revolution 
in  1847,  when  the  old  aristocratic  party  was  over- 
thrown, and  a  democratic  and  jirogressive  party 
attained  to  power.  Long  inert,  and  in  a  backward 
condition,  the  administration  is  now  most  active  in 
developing  the  resources  of  the  canton.  According 
to  the  constitution  of  1847,  all  male  citizens  of  21 
years  of  age  exercise  the  right  of  electing  repre- 
sentatives to  the  cantonal  council  ;  the  age  of 
members  of  which  must  be  at  least  25  years.  There 
is  a  representative  for  every  666  inhabitants.  The 
executive  is  confided  to  a  council  of  state  composed 
of  7  members,  nominated  for  10  years,  but  eligible 
for  re-election.  The  constitution  guarantees  'ci\-il 
and  religious  hberty,  all  forms  of  worship  being 
allowed  by  law ;  but  the  majority  of  the  citizens 
pertain  to  the  Reformed  Cahinistic  Church.  The 
chief  branches  of  industry  are  agriciUture,  and  the 
manufacture  of  articles  of  bijouterie  and  watches. 
About  100,000  watches  are  made  annually,  and 
exported  to  France,  England,  Italy,  and  elsewhere. 
Musical-boxes,  chronometers,  mathematical  instru- 
ments, &c.,  are  also  made.  The  chief  "town  is 
Geneva  (q.  v.).     (1870— pop.  9.3,239.) 

GENlilVA,  a  village  of  North  America,  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  is  delightfully  situated  at  the 
north-western  extremity  of  Seneca  Lake,  200  miles 
west  of  ^Vlbany,  and  50  miles  south-east  of  Rochester. 
It  is  handsomely  built,  and  commands  a  m.agiiifi- 
cent  \-iew  of  the  lake  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Its  principal  institutions  .are  the  Episcopal  church, 
a  Gothic  structure  in  stone;  the  Geneva  Medical 
College,  and  the  Hobart  Free  College.  This  insti- 
tution, called  the  Geneva  College  till  1852,  was 
cst.ablished  here  in  1824,  and  in  1858  it  had  five 
professors  besides  the  president  and  96  students. 
Pop.  (1855)  5057. 

GENEVA,  L.4KE  OF,  or  the  Leman  Lake  {Lncus 
Lemamis),  situ.ated  between  Switzerland,  to  which 
the  larger  portion  belongs,  and  the  recently  acquired 
territories  of  France.  It  lies  1150  feet  .ibove  the 
level  of  the  se.a,  and  extends  for  rather  more  than 
50  mQes  from  east  to  west,  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent.  Its  gi-eatest  bre.adth  is  eight  miles,  and 
its  depth  between  Evian  and  Ouchy  is  920  feet. 
This  lake  at  some  periods  of  the  j'ear  presents  a 
curious  jihenomenon,  wliich  has  never  been  suffi- 
ciently accounted  for,  the  surf.ace,  especially  near 
Geneva,  rising  and  faUiug  through  a  space  of  from 
two  to  five  feet  in  the  course  of  about  25  minutes. 
The  lake,  which  is  never  entirely  frozen  over, 
abounds  in  fish,  and  several  steamers  ply  upon  its 
waters.  The  shore  on  the  side  of  the  Pays  de  Vaud 
is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery ;  the 
southern  French  shore  rises  solemn  and  stem,  with 
the  mountains  of  Savoy  in  the  b.ackground.  From 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  "Mont  Blanc  is  \'isible,  and 
although  60  miles  distant,  is  often  reflected  in  its 
waters.  The  Rhone  enters  the  lake  at  the'u]iper 
end,  turbid  and  yellow,  and  leaves  it  at  the  town 
of   Geneva  as   clear  as  glass,  and  of  a  deep  blue 


J 


GEN:E\aEVE— GENGHIS. 


tint.  The  lake  receives  about  20  streams  from 
its  northern  shore,  none  of  which,  however,  are 
important. 

GENEVIEVE,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  subject  of  many  popular  and  highly 
])oetical  legends,  and  regarded  with  special  venera- 
tion in  France  and  particularly  in  Paris,  of  which 
city  she  is  the  patroness.  'From  a  nearly  contem- 
porary Ufe  of  St  G.,  we  learn  that  she  was  born 
iu  422,  in  the  village  of  Nanterre,  near  Paris,  where, 
as  a  mere  child,  she  attracted  the  notice  of  Germanus 
of  Auxerre,  who  passed  a  night  at  Nanterre  on  his 
return  from  Britain  iu  429.  Germanus  is  said  to 
have  marked  her  out  as  specially  destined  to  a 
life  of  holiness  and  purity ;  and  the  chUd,  partly 
from  her  natural  tendency,  partly,  perhaps,  under 
the  influence  of  the  counsel  of  so  holy  a  bishop, 
devoted  herself  to  a  hfe  of  virginity  and  conventual 
seclusion.  On  the  death  of  her  parents,  she  was 
removed  to  Paris ;  and  her  active  charity,  and  the 
extraordinary  reputation  for  sanctity  which  she 
acquired  both  there  and  in  other  cities  of  France, 
which  she  visited  on  missions  of  Christian  benevo- 
lence, won  for  her  the  admiring  veneration,  not 
alone  of  her  own  people,  but  even  of  the  heathen  or 
half-converted  tribes,  which,  about  this  period,  after 
a    long  series   of    struggles,   had   begim    to    amal- 


hesitate  to  assume  the  reins  of  government,  though 
only  13  years  of  age.  Some  of  the  subject  tribes 
refused  to  obey  Lim,  and  chose  another  chief 
belonging  to  the  same  family.  A  war  of  several 
years'  duration  was  the  result,  at  the  termination  of 
which  he  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Karakorum, 
the  capital  of  Toghrul  Ungh  Khan,  monarch  of  the 
Keraeit,  and  place  himself  under  that  monarch's 
protection.  Dngh-Khan  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  and  appointed  him  to  the  command  of 
his  ai-my,  in  which  capacity  G.  gave  proof  of  gre.it 
military  talent,  conquering  the  Mekreit,  TanjClt, 
JeUleii,  and  other  neighbouring  tribes.  But  Ungh- 
Khan,  becoming  jealous  of  his  growing  reputation, 
and  urged  on  by  envious  courtiers,  ordered  G.  to 
be  assassinated.  The  latter,  ha\-ui^  taken  counsel 
with  his  relative  and  chief  councillor,  Karatchir 
Nuyan,  a  youth  of  his  own  age,  but  rcnomied  in 
Tartar  history  for  his  wisdom,  resolved  to  depart 
for  his  native  country,  which,  after  many  hair- 
breadth csca,pes,  he  reached  at  the  head  of  5000 
cav.-ilry.  Raising  an  army,  he  marched  against  his 
father-in-law ;  and  Toghrul,  vanquished  m  battle 
in  120.S,  sought  refuge  among  the  Naymans,  but 
was  slain  by  the  guards  stationed  on  the  frontiers. 
G.  immediately  seized  upon  Toghrul's  dominions. 
In  the  follo\ving  year,  a  number  of  Tartar  tribes, 
alarmed  at  his  increasing  power,  formed  a  powerfid 


gam.ate  with  the  ancient  population  of  the  Roman    i^^^^,,  acainst  him.     The  command  was  given  to 


province    of    Gaul.      During    the    Frank    „ 

imder  Childeric,  G.,  with  her  sisters  in  religion, 
set  out  on  an  expedition  for  the  rehef  of  the 
stanin"  city,  and  successfully  conveyed  to  Paris 
an  abundant  supply  of  provisions.  The  city,  when 
taken,  was  treated  with  special  leniency  through 
her  intercession  with  the  king,  and  many  captives 
obtained  their  liberty  at  her  prayer.  On  the  new 
alarm  for  the  safety  of  Paris,  created  by  the  news 
of  the  march  of  Attda  and  his  army  of  Huns,  it 
was  proposed  to  abandon  the  city ;  but  G.,  assem- 
liling  the  matrons  and  consecrated  \-irgins  in  one  of 
the  churches,  exhorted  them  to  avert,  by  prayer  and 
fasting,  the  threatened  calamity.  The  imexpected 
alteration  of  the  direction  of  Attila's  march  added 
still  more  to  her  reputation  and  to  her  influence ; 
and  it  is  agreed  that  her  personal  example,  and  that 
of  the  sisterhood  to  which  she  belonged,  appealed, 
with  no  inconsiderable  effect,  to  the  natural  sensi- 
biUties  of  the  rude  races  which  now  found  them- 
selves, for  the  first  time,  in  contact  with  the 
hiunanising  influences  of  the  Christian  rehgion.  St 
G.  enjoj'ed,  to  an  extreme  age,  the  reverence  and 
love  of  the  entire  people.  She  died  in  512  at  the 
age  of  89,  and  her  memory  is  stiU  affectionately 
described  as  the  type  of  .ill  that  is  purest  and  most 
elevating  in  the  conventual  life,  as  weU  as  of  all  that 
is  most"  admirable  in  the  works  of  charity  and 
benevolence,  \vith  which,  in  the  active  orders,  that 
life  is  habitually  associated.  Under  her  patronage, 
and  with  her  name,  a  religious  congregation  of 
priests  was  founded  m  the  12th  c,  which,  with  some 
vicissitudes,  continued  imtil  the  Revolution.  A 
religious  congregation  of  women,  under  the  name  of 
'Sisters  of  St  Genevieve,'  was  established  m  1636, 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  edu- 
cation of  young  females. 

GENGHIS  (.lengueiz,  Tchinggis,  or  Zlngia) 
KHAN,  originally  called  Temujin,  a  celebrated 
Mongol  con<iueror,  bom  25th  January  1155  A.  D. 
at  Deylun-Yeldak,  near  the  northern  bend  of  the 
Feraniiu-an  (Hoang-Ho),  was  the  son  of  Yesukai 
E.ahadClr,  a  Mongol  chief,  who  nded  over  some 
thirty  or  forty  families  or  clans,  called  the  tribe 
of  Neynin,  who  dwelt  between  the  Amur  and  the 
great  wall  of  China,  and  paid  tribute  to  the  khan  of 
East  Tartafy. 


Tai-Ungh-Khan,  chief  of  the  Naymans;   but  in  a 
battle  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  G.  utterly 
routed  his  enemies,  slew  their  leader,  and  became 
at  once  master  of  almost  all  Mongolia.     Grander 
views  of  conquest  seem  now  to  have  opened  before 
his    vision.      In    the   year   1206,    he    convoked    a 
kourUtai,  or  general  assembly,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Onan,  a  tributary  of  the   Amur,  flowing  tlirough 
his  native   land.     This    meeting  was   attended   by 
deputies  from  all  the  subjugated  hordes  of  Tartary, 
and  G.  contrived  to  obtain  a  reUgious  confirmation 
of  his   designs.     Up   to  this  period,  he  had  borne 
the   name  of  Temujin ;    but  a  reno\vned   magician 
or  priest,  sumamed  Bout-Tangri  ('Son  of  Heaven  ), 
venerated  by  aU  the  Mongols,  now  came  forward 
and  pronounced  him   Gengliis  Klian—i.  e.,  greatest 
of   khans,  or   khan    of    Idiaus,   declaring   that   he 
should  rule   over   the  whole   earth.     The  deimties 
were  diUv  impressed.     About  this  time  the  Eighurs, 
an  agriciiltural  and  civilised  people,  inhabitmj  the 
countrj-  at  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-Ho  and  \ang- 
tse-Kiang,  voluntarilv  submitted  to  his  sway.    Irom 
this  people,  who  professed  Buddhism,  the  Mongols 
would   appear  to   have   acquired   a    knowledge   of 
■nTitinc      They  adopted  the  Eighur  chanacters  but 
nreser?ed  their  o«-n  language,  and  G.  selected  one 
of  the  newly-submitted  tribe  to  instruct  his  chUdren. 
The  next  important  incident  in  his  career  was  the 
conquest  of  the  northern  portion  of  China,  called 
Khatai.     The  immediate  cause  of  the  war  between 
G    and   the   emperor  of   China,   Tchong-H6i,   was 
the  refusal  of   the   former  to  recognise   the  latter 
as  liis  suzerain,  or  liege-lord.     Most  of  the  Tartar 
tribes   which   G.    had   subdued  were   really  tribu- 
taries   of    the   Chinese    empire ;    and    Ichong-Uti, 
though   not   interfering  to   prevent  the   conquests 
of  the   Mongols,  now  wished   G.   to   acknowledge 
his  superiority  by  paying  tribute.     G.  immediately 
prepared  for  war,  scaled  the   great  waU   in   1.11, 
and  after  a  series  of  bloody  and  protracted  cam- 
paigns, Pekin  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  barbanana 
in  1215.     Meanwhile  G.  was  called  back  to  firtary 
to   quell   certain   insubordinate   tribes,   headed    by 
Gutchluk,  son  of  the  chief  of  the  ^a>•mans    who 
had  recovered    his    ancestral   donimions,  ai«}    a'^? 
quered  those  of  the  Gftr-Khln  of  Kara-Khatai. 


ina,  and  paid  tribute  to  tuc  Knan  oi    couquei^u   .,..^=v  «.  — :^,.,„;„,f„^  ;„  ,  crreat 

On  his  father's  death,  he  did  not   These  tribes  were  nearly  exterminated  in  a_great 


ci'.xoins-cENir. 


fielit  which  took  place  near  the  sources  of  the 
Yenissei.  Giitchliik,  however,  hail  some  time  lieforc 
taken  refuge  iu  Turkestfln,  a  vast  region  stretchinij; 
from  Lake  Lob,  in  the  mitUUe  of  Tartary,  westward 
to  the  Sea  of  Aral.  Here  he  succeeded  in  making 
himself  supreme  ruler,  but  only  to  be  swejjt  away 
by  the  rictorioHs  Mongols,  now  pressing  westward 
iu  an  irresistible  torrent  At  length  (J.  reached  the 
Sihoon,  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  emjiiro 
of  Kbaurezm  or  Kharism,  whose  ruler,  Ala-ed-din 
Mohammed,  was  one  of  the  most  powerfid  sovereigns 
in  Asia.  The  dynasty  to  which  he  belonged  had 
risen  into  power  through  the  weakness  of  the 
Seljuk  sultans ;  and  its  sway  now  extended  from 
the  borders  of  Syria  to  the  river  Indus,  and  from 
the  river  Sihon  to  the  Pei-sian  GiUf.  The  miu-der 
of  some  Mongol  merchants  at  Otrlr,  a  town  on 
the  Silion,  afforded  O.  a  pretext  for  invasion. 
He  imnieiliately  despatched  his  eldest  son,  Jftjy, 
at  the  head  (according  to  Eastern  chroniclers)  of 
700,(100  horse,  who  accordingly  burst  into  Khaurezni 
in  1'219;  and  after  ha^-ing  overthrown  the  Tartar 
allies  of  Sidtan  Mohammed,  and  fought  a  long 
and  bloody  battle  mth  the  sultan  himself  with  no 
decisive  result,  captured  .Samarkand,  Bokhara  (the 
valuable  libr.iry  of  which  he  destroyed),  and  all 
the  other  important  cities  of  the  country.  The 
^Mongols,  in  three  separate  divisions,  now  scoured 
and  ravaged  Khaurezra  in  all  directions.  In  the 
course  of  five  or  six  years,  they  overran  the 
whole  of  Persia,  subdued  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Caucasus,  crossed  into  Russia,  and  ]ilundered  the 
land  between  the  Wolga  and  the  Dnieper.  Nor 
were  they  less  successful  in  the  east ;  the  whole  of 
Southern  Asia,  .as  far  as  the  Sutlej,  experiencing  the 
miseries  of  their  devastations.  Sickness,  disease, 
and  exhaustion  at  length  enfeebled  the  Mongol 
hordes,  and  compelled  O.  to  return  to  K.arakorum,  in 
Tartary,  the  capital  of  his  empire,  in  \'22i.  During 
his  .absence,  his  generals  h.ad  been  prosecuting  the 
Chinese  war  with  the  greatest  success.  G.,  though 
well-advanced  in  years,  w.as  still  possessed  by  the 
old  thirst  of  conquest ;  and  having  recruited  his 
forces,  he  led  them  across  the  gre.at  desert  of  Gobi 
to  the  kingdom  of  Tanjout,  in  the  north-west  of 
China,  the  capital  of  which,  Nin-hia,  he  besieged. 
Disheartened  by  the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  his 
.arm}',  the  king  of  Tanjout  promised  to  capitid.ate  at 
the  end  of  a  month;  but  in  the  intervid  G.  died, 
the  24th  August  1227,  on  the  liill  Liou-pan,  worn 
out  with  years  and  toils.  G.  is  said  to  have  had 
five  hundred  \vives  and  concubines,  and  to  have 
left  a  great  number  of  children,  among  three  of 
whom  he  divided  his  enormous  possessions.  The 
third  son,  Oughtai,  was  appointed  'Grand  Khan,' 
and  received  for  his  sh.are  the  country  now  called 
Mongoli.a,  with  Khatai  or  Northern  China  as  f<ar 
north  as  the  month  of  the  Amftr.  The  second  son, 
Tcheghatai,  received  Tiu-kestilu  north  of  the  Amtt 
or  Jeyhlln,  and  was  committed  to  the  guardianship 
of  Kar.atchur  Nuy.an.  Jfljy,  for  his  share,  obtained 
Kejjtoh.'lk,  .and  all  the  country  west  and  north  of 
Turkestin,  an  immense  tract  extending  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  almost  to  the  Northern  Ocean. 

In  the  course  of  his  sanguinary  career,  G.  is 
said  to  have  destroyed,  by  w.ars  .and  massacres, 
no  fewer  than  five  or  si.K  millions  of  human 
beings.  His  conquests  were  generally  .accompanied 
with  .acts  of  appalling  b.arbarity,  yet  wc  seem  to 
tr.ace  through  the  dreadful  history  of  the  man 
some  indications  of  a  civilising  tendency.  Himself 
a  Monotheist,  a  stern  believer  in  God  after  the 
fashion  of  Mohammed,  he  nevertheless  tolerated  all 
religions  ;  exempted  from  taxes  and  milit.aiy  service 
jihysicians  and  priests ;  made  obligatory  the  prac- 
tice of  hospitality ;  established  severe  laws  against 


.adultery,  fornication,  theft,  homicide,  &c. ;  organised 
a  system  of  jiostal  conmiunication  throughout  his 
enormous  dominions  (mainly,  no  doubt,  for  military 
jjurijoses) ;  .and  so  thoroughly  organised  what  we 
may  call  the  police  or  civil  authority,  that  it  was 
said  one  might  trsivel  without  fear  or  danger  from 
one  cud  of  his  empire  to  the  other.  He  would  also 
appear  to  have  had  a  respect  for  men  of  learning 
and  virtue,  and  to  have  retaine<l  several  of  such 
.about  his  person.  The  imly  memorial  of  G.  now 
known  to  exist  is  a  granite  tablet,  with  a  Mongol 
inscription  (deci|iherod  by  SclHuidt  of  Petersburg), 
discovered  among  the  ruins  of  Nertschinsk.  This 
tablet  had  been  erected  by  G.  in  commemoration  of 
his  con(iuest  of  the  kingdom  of  Kara-Khat;ii. 

GE'NII.  According  to  the  behef  of  the  old 
Itiilian  races,  genii  were  protecting  spirits,  who 
accompanied  every  created  thing  from  its  origin 
to  its  final  decay,  like  a  second  spiritu.al  self. 
They  were  appropriated  not  only  to  men,  but  to  all 
things  animate  and  inanimate,  and  more  especially 
to  pl.aces.  They  were  regarded  as  eiUuences  of 
the  Dix-initj',  and  were  therefore  worshipped  Avith 
divine  honours  ;  sivcrifices  were  annually  nuide  to 
them  on  various  occasions,  especially  on  birtlulays, 
.and  during  the  period  of  hiarvest.  N.ay,  Jupiter 
himself  w.as  called  the  genius  of  men,  and  Juno  of 
women.  Not  only  had  every  indivadual  his  genius, 
but  likewise  the  whole  people.  The  st.atue  of  the 
national  genius  w.as  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Konian  fonmi,  and  is  often  seen  on  the  coins  of 
Haib-ian  and  Trajan.  The  genius  of  an  individual 
was  represented  by  the  Romans  as  a  figure  in  a 
toga,  haATUg  the  lie.ad  veiled,  and  the  cornucopia  or 
p.atera  in  the  h.auds  ;  while  local  genii  api)ear  under 
the  figure  of  seqients  eating  fruit  set  before  them. 
(Comjuare  Hartung  Die  Jieli;/.  der  liiim.  1.  p.  .S2,  &e., 
and  Schumann  De.  Diis  Manibxis,  Laribus,  et  Oetiiis, 
Greifswald,  1840.)— The  Genii  of  the  East  bear  no 
resemblance  to  the  old  Italian  genii.  Their  proper 
Arabic  name  is  Djinn  or  Jinn  ;  and  there  seems  to 
have  Ijcen  no  better  reason  for  translating  the  word 
by  the  L.atin  term  r;cniiis,  th.an  the  Ciisual  similarity 
of  the  soimds.  The  word  Djinu  is  from  .an  Arabic 
root,  signifying  to  'veil'  or  'conceal,'  .and  jiroperly 
denotes  an  'invisible  being.'  The  djiuns,  or  liistem 
genii,  are,  in  fact,  regarded  by  the  Arabs  and 
Persi.ans  as  an  intermediate  class  of  beings  betweeu 
.angels  .and  men,  and  inferior  iu  dignity  to  both. 
They  are  described  iu  poetry  as  the  subjects  of  a 
certain  Jiin  Ibn  Jan,  and  as  inhabiting  the  worlil 
before  the  present  race  of  human  beings ;  but 
they  having  excited  the  anger  of  God  by  their 
rebellion,  he  sent  his  favourite  angel,  Hhiiris,  or 
accoriUng  to  others,  Azazel,  to  punish  and  govern 
them.  Some  time  after,  Hhuris  himself  rebelled, 
whereupon  God  condemned  him  to  etcrn.al  ])unish- 
ment.  From  this  period,  on  account  of  his  despair 
or  his  apostasy,  he  w.as  called  Kblis  or  Il)lis.  The 
djinns  can  assume,  iu  an  instant,  any  form  they 
please,  whether  of  man,  brute,  or  monster,  the  Last 
— iu  accordance  with  the  popular  view  of  their 
wicked  character — being  the  one  most  frequently 
selected.  Such  .as  h.ave  read  IJie  Arnbian  Xiij/ilg 
wiU  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  hideous  and 
gig.antio  shapes  under  which  the  genii  are  wont  to 
manifest  themselves,  accompanied  at  times  with 
smoke  and  thunderings,  to  terror-stricken  mortals. 
They  .are  in  no  degree  whatever  i/iianlian  spirits 
like  the  genii  of  the  old  Italians ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  inimical  to  man's  happiness,  and  can  only 
lie  subdued  by  the  sjiells  of  jiowerful  nuvgicians. 
See  Familiar  Spieits.  The  better-informed 
E.asterns.  however,  do  hot  beUeve,  it  is  said,  in  tlie 
actual  existence  of  such  beings.  The  Mussulman 
doctors,  it  is  true,  affirm  the   existence  of  djinn-s 


GENIPAP— GENIUS. 


;is  an  invisible  race  of  supernahiral  beings,  who  of;  as  the  river'a  brink,  or  the  brink  of  the 
carry  out  the  jiurposea  of  Deity,  bnt  they  reject  ru'er.  From  the  frequency  with  which  the  form  ui 
altoLjethor  tlie  grotesque  and   rejiulsive  inventions 


of  the  Arab  and  Persian  romancers  and  poets. 

GE'NIPAP,  a  much  esteemed  fnut  of  the  West 
In<Iics  and  warm  parts  of  Soxith  America.  The  tree 
which  yiohls  it  is  tienipa  Americana,  of  the  natural 
order  Ciuchonacea.  It  is  a  2-ceUcd  berry,  contain- 
ing many  seeds  ;  about  as  large  as  an  orange,  of  a 
wliitish-green  colour,  with  a  dark  purjile  juice  of  an 
agreeable  vinous  taste. 

GEXI'STA,  a  genus  of  leguminous  plants,  of 
which  the  characters  are  noticed  in  the  article 
Br.ooM.  Some  of  the  species  are  popularly  kuomi 
by  the  name  Broom,  some  as  Greexweed-  (q.  v.). 
(J.  Aiirjlica,  a  much  branchetl,  very  spiny  shrub, 
not  above  a  foot  high,  is  called  Petty  Whin  and 
Needle  Fueze  in  England,  whore  it  is  regarded  as 
indicating  a  very  poor  sod.  The  Genieta  of  Virgil 
and  other  Roman  classics  is  supposed  to  be  (/. 
Il'uipaiiica,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Eurojie,  with 
branched  stitf  spines.  Gen  is  said  to  be  a  Celtic 
word,  signifying  a  shrub.  The  name  Plantagenet,  is 
from  Plania  Geniita;  but  what  plant  was  intended, 
and  whether  the  common  furze  or  a  species  of 
Geniski,  is  not  so  certain. 

GE'NITIVE,  the  name  of  one  of  the  'cases'  in 
grammar  (see  Declension).     In  such  an  exjiression 
as  (Lat.)  regis  filius,  (Eng.)  the  Icinrjs  son,  tlie  form 
rerjis  or  king's  is  called  the  genitive  case  ;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  explanation,  tliis  name  was  given  it, 
because  it  indicates  the  source  or  origin  of  the  thing 
joined  with  it.     A  much  more  satisfactory  account 
of  the  origin  of  the  name,  and  of  the  real  nature 
of  the  genitive  case,  is  that  given  by  Max  MUller 
{Science  of  Language).     The  terms  of  grammar  were 
originally  apphed,  not  to  the  parts  of  speech,  but  to 
the  elements  of  thought ;  they  were  logical  terms 
before   they  were   grammatical.      Long  before   the 
now  familiar  grammatical   distinctions  of  singidar 
and    plural,   of   gender,   case,  voice,   &c.  had  been 
thought    of,    the   Greek    writers   on    ilialectics,   in 
analysing  the  different  parts  of  an  expressed  thought, 
had  distinguished  the  princijial  notion — the  subject 
or  nominative  as   it  is  called — from  secondary  or 
dependant  notions  ;  the  dependency  of   the  latter 
they  expressed  by  the  word  ptosis  (Lat.  casus),  a  faU 
or  leaning  of  one  thing  upon  another  ;  and  in  sucli  a 
proposition  as, '  the  king's  son  is  dead,'  they  indicated 
the  exact  nature  of  the  dependence  by  calling  it  the 
genike  ptosis,  i.e.,  the  case  shewin"  the  genus,  kmd, 
or  class — the  generic  case ;  for  while  the  name  'son 
is  apphcable  to  every  man  having  parents,  '  king's 
son'  is  limited  to  the  class  of  sons  ha\-ing  kings  for 
their  fathers.     One  name  joined  to  another  in  this 
relation  has  thus  the  same  effect  as  an  Adjective 
(q.  V.)  in  limiting  its  application.     It  seems  probable, 
indeed,  that  the  termmation  of  what  we  now  call 
the  genitive  case,  was  originally  the  same  as  that  by 
which   adjectives  were   formed  from  nouns.      The 
names   thus   applied   to   ideas  were  by  the  Greek 
grammarians  of  Alexandria  transferred  to  the  words 
expressinf  them,  and   were   afterivards  translated 
into   their  Latin  equivalents  by  the  Greek  gram- 
marians who  taught  their  language  to  the  youth 
of  Rome.     But  by  this  time  the  terms  had  become 
strictly  technical,   and  their  original   signification 
little  thought  of;   and  this  may  account   for  the 
Greek   genike,  the   Latin   equivalent  for   which   is 
r/eneralis,  being  rendered    by  genitivus,   generating 
or  producing,  which  woidd  have  been  expressed  in 
Greek  by  gennetikc. 

In  English,  the  genitive  is  the  only  case  or  relation 
among  nouns  expressed  by  a  difference  of  termination, 
and  even  it  is  often  expressed  by  the  preposition 


'«  indicates  that  one  thing  belongs  to  another,  it  is 
often  called  the  possessive  case.  But  this  name  is 
little  ap[ilic.able  in  such  expressions  as  a  daif's 
journey  ;  still  less  in  many  cases  where  tlie  genitive 
is  used  in  tlie  .ancient  languages  ;  c.  g.,  fons  lactis,  .1 
fountain  of  raUk.  The  generic  case,  however,  mean- 
ing that  which  limits  the  other  noun  to  a  class  or 
kind,  will  be  foiinrl  to  express  the  real  relation  in 
every  concciv.alile  combination. 

■Tlie  termination  '«  has  been  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  be  a  contr.action  for  his,  as  if  'the  king's 
son '  = '  the  king  his  son.'  But  tliis  woul<l  not  account 
for  '  the  queen's  son,'  or  for  '  men's  sons.'  Besides 
his  itself  is  the  genitive  of  he,  and  formed  in  the 
s.ame  way  as  king's,  for  the  ajmstroplie  (')  is  a  mere 
artificial  expedient  of  >\-riting  to  distinguish  the 
])osscssive  from  the  plural,  and  does  ni^t  belong  to 
the  spoken  language.  The  English  genitive  iii  's 
is  a  genuine  reUc  of  the  Inflections  (q.  v.)  common 
at  an  early  stage  to  all  the  Arj-an  languages,  s  was 
the  prevalent  ending  of  the  genitive  singular  in  the 
Anglo-S.axon,  and  in  modern  English  it  has  been 
extended  liy  analoin,'  to  all  nouns  and  even  to  the 
plural.  Wiicn  the  plural  ends  in  .v,  the  .adibtional  .< 
of  the  genitive  is  omitted,  for  the  sake  of  the  sound, 
as  kings'  sons. 

OE'NIUS.  This  word,  which  conveys  the  mo.st 
lofty  eulogium  that  can  be  applied  to  intellectual 
cxcelleiice7  meant  originally  the  tutelary  god  or 
demon  th.at  was  anciently  supposetl  to  preside  over 
the  birth  and  destinies  of  every  individual  human 
being.  The  pecuUarities  attending  the  character 
and  "career  of  each  person  came  thus  to  be  attributed 
to  the  higher  or  lower  nature  of  their  attemlant 
genii.  Thus  arose  one  of  the  meanings  now  attiiehed 
to  the  word— namely,  the  special  bent,  aptitude,  or 
faculty,  which  any  one  possesses  ;  as  a  genius  for 
poetry,  for  music,  for  matliem.atics,  for  st.atesinaii- 
ship,  and  so  forth.  But  this  is  not  the  chief  or  most 
prominent  idea  implied  in  the  usual  apjilication  of 
the  term.  If  we  consult  usage,  we  shall  find  that 
genius  is  more  frequently  spoken  of  in  connection 
with  the  jioet,  painter,  architect,  &c.,  than  with  the 
man  of  science  or  of  practice ;  as  if  there  was 
something  in  the  regions  of  fine  .art  that  came  more 
directly  home  to  the  susceptibilities  of  men,  and 
evoked  their  exjiressions  of  admiration  and  pr.aise. 
And  such  is  really  the  case.  The  artist's  function 
is  to  touch  immediately  the  chords  of  human 
jileasure;  the  men  of  practical  life,  the  jjliysician, 
lawyer,  or  engineer,  have  more  to  do  with  the 
deliverance  from  pains  or  from  obstacles  to  pleasure, 
and  however  necess.ary  their  work  may  be,  it  is  apt 
to  be  associated  with  the  dark  and  gloomy  side  of 
our  human  life. 

X'ndoubtedly,  the  most  important  meaning  of  the 
term,  as  pointing  to  a  fimdamental  ]iccidiarity  in 
which  human  minds  chffer,  is  that  connecting  it 
with  origin.ality,  invention,  or  creative  power,  in 
any  department  of  inteUeetual  activity,  ai-tistic, 
scientific,  or  praeticah  Not  poetic  creativeness) 
alone,  but  every  effort  of  the  inventive  faculties 
of  man,  by  which  new  and  superior  combinations 
and  devices  are  introduced  into  the  world  with  a 
view  to  diminish  the  pains  and  add  to  the  i)le.-v!ure3 
of  mankind,  may  be  properly  designated  '  genius. 
Sufficient  authority  exists  for  this  more  extended 
use  of  the  word,  and  we  may  justify  it  also  by  the 
consideration,  that  there  is  a  common  fact  m  all 
these  different  modes  of  intellectual  superiority, 
while  it  is  further  possible  that  there  m.ay  be  a 
common  foundation  for  them  aU  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  mind.  We  mark  off  the  depart- 
ment of  original  power  from  other  departments  or 


G  EXLIS— G  EXXES  ARET. 


modes  of  the  intellect,  still  of  positive  value  and  of 
real  inii>ortance— namely,  the  jiowcrs  of  acquiring 
ami  rc|>r«<lucing  what  has  been  already  iiroduccil 
Amassed  learning,  extensive  acquisitions  in  science, 
educated  skill  in  the  conunon  arts  or  in  fine  art, 
may  exist  in  a  high  degree,  and  may  even  confer 
distinction  on  the  individual  and  serve  useful 
purposes  in  life,  without  the  accompaniment  of 
origmality.  The  jiraise  implied  in  the  name 
'  talent '  would  be  conceded  to  the  best  examples 
of  acquired  ))ower  short  of  the  aptitude  for  inven- 
tion. This  furnishes  the  most  respectable  contrast 
to  genius,  being  itself  something  admirable  and 
meritorious.  A  less  esteemed  contrast  is  furnished 
by  the  crowd  of  imitators  that  follow  in  the  wake 
of  any  great  and  original  mind,  who  aim  at  pro- 
ducing similar  effects  without  the  inward  sponta- 
neity of  the  master,  and  witli  only  the  resource  of 
copj-ing  his  external  form  and  peculiarities.  There 
is  a  kind  of  ability  amounting  to  talent  in  this 
power  of  imitation,  and  literature  always  contains 
both  good  and  indifferent  examples  of  it.  We  are 
accustomed  to  speak  of  poetasters,  plajTvrights,  and 
copjasts,  among  the  writers  of  everj'  literary  period. 
The  imitators  of  Homer  in  liis  own  time  have 
not  surWved  ;  but  he,  as  well  as  everj'  other  great 
genius,  may  be  tracked  in  subsequent  compositions. 
Spenser's  school  of  poetry  makes  the  largest  section 
of  the  published  poems  of  the  century  succeeding 
him.  Pope  impressed  his  style  upon  last  century ; 
and  Johnson's  balanced  prose  continued  to  be 
reproduced  long  after  his  death. 

The  meaning  of  genius  being  thus  imdorstood 
as  referring  to  original  creativeness,  or  inventive 
power,  it  has  been  considered  a  problem  of  interest 
to  trace  it  to  its  foundations  in  the  mind,  with  a 
view  to  determine  whether  it  be  a  distinct  faculty, 
or  only  a  superior  degree  of  other  recognised  powei's. 
Johnson's  definition  is  well  known  ;  '  large  general 
powers  turned  in  a  particular  direction.'  This 
negatives  the  idea  of  a  specific  endowment,  and 
would  seem  to  imply  that  the  man  of  genius  could 
be  anything  that  he  ]ilcascd  ;  that  Aristotle  might 
have  been  Pindar,  and  Homer  have  iliscovered  the 
forty-seventh  of  Euclid ;  an  assumption  in  the  last 
degree  imjirobable,  if  not  verging  on  absiu-dity. 
There  is  a  class  of  minds  noted  for  versatility,  but 
they  are  only  a  select  class.  Caisar  was  a  general, 
an  orator,  and  a  writer,  besides  being  a  politician  of 
mark,  w-hether  successful  or  unsuccessful.  But, 
according  to  the  most  enlightened  theories  of  the 
present  day,  it  is  usual  to  consider  hiunan  beings 
as  born  with  distinctive  endowments ;  and  although 
there  is  a  common  mental  organisation  at  the  basis, 
yet  this  is  supposed  to  have  a  plurality  of  distinct 
functions,  any  one  of  which  may  rise  in  degree 
\rithout  the  rest.  Tlius,  intellect  may  be  powerful 
on  the  whole,  without  involving  a  proi>ortionate 
intensity  of  the  feelings  or  the  volition  ;  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  car  may  be  acute,  and  that  of  the  ej'e 
only  average.  Now  it  would  be  fair  to  suppose  that 
genius  in  one  line — as,  for  example,  painting — would 
result  from  the  unusual  augmentation  of  the  suscep- 
tibilities and  powers  specially  exercised  in  the  art ; 
the  sense  of  colour  and  of  form,  skill  of  hand,  and 
a  good  recollection  of  those  objects  of  nature  and 
human  life,  that  are  the  fitting  material  of  a  painter's 
compositions.  So  a  poet  should  have  a  more  than 
common  ear  for  verse,  plenty  of  language,  taste  for 
the  appropriate  images  of  poetry,  and  so  on.  In 
this  way  we  might,  by  a  kinil  of  analysis,  detei-mine 
which  of  the  faculties  common  to  all  men  sliould  be 
exalted  to  a  superior  pitch,  in  order  to  furnish  a 
genius  in  each  separate  walk.  This  method  has 
been  pursued  by  the  ]ihrenologists  and  by  other 
speculators,  and  is  probably  now  the  received  mode 
682 


of  h.andling  the  subject.     Examples  may  be  seen  in 
Bain  on  the  ,'itudi/  of  Character. 

GEXLIS,  .SriirirANiE  F£ucit£,  Comtesse  de, 
w.Ts  liorn  at  Cliampi,'L'ri,  near  Autun,  in  Burgundy, 
2r)th  January  1746,  of  an  .ancient  but  reduced  family. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Ducrest.  At  the  age  of  15 
she  w.as  married  to  the  Comto  de  Genlis  ;  and  in 
1770,  through  the  influence  of  her  aunt,  Miulame  de 
Montesson  (who  had  been  privately  married  to  the 
Due  d'Orleans),  w.as  made  a.  lady-in-waiting  in  the 
household  of  the  Ducliesse  de  Chartres.  In  17S2, 
the  Due  de  Chartres,  afterivards  kno\™  as  EgalitC, 
appointed  her  'governor'  of  his  children.  This 
appointment  gave  rise  to  certain  scandalous  reports, 
the  truth  of  which  subsequent  circumstances  appear 
to  have  confirmed.  Madame  de  G.  WTote  a  variety 
of  works  for  her  pupils,  among  others,  TMdtn  A 
I'timae  (lex  jeunes  personnes,  ou  Thcdtre  (T Education 
(Paris.  1779— 17S0);  Adck  et  Tliiodore,  ou  Lettres 
sur  t Education  (1782);  and  Les  Veillies  du  Chdti.au, 
ou  Cours  de  Morale,  A  Cusarie  dea  Enfants.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  Madame  de  G. 
took  the  Uberal  side,  but  was  ultimately  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  in  Belgium.  iVftenvards  she  went 
to  Switzerland,  and  in  the  same  year  proceeded 
to  Altnna,  in  Germ.any,  where  she  WTote  a  romance, 
entitled  Leu  Chcralicrs  du  Ci/giie,  ou  la  Cour  de 
Charlemagne  :  and  also  Precis  de  la  Conduite  de 
Madame  de  OenVis  j>endant  la  Involution,  as  a  sort  of 
replj'  to  the  accusations  of  her  numerous  enemies. 
When  Bonaparte  became  consid,  she  returned  to 
Paris,  and  received  from  him  a  jiension.  From  this 
time  she  resided  const.antly  in  Paris,  jiubliishing  in 
rapid  succession  one  l)ook  after  another  till  her 
death  31st  December  ISSO.  Madame  de  G.'s  WTit- 
ings  .amount  to  .about  90  volumes.  They  are  chiefly 
descriptions  of  incidents  in  fashionable  society,  with 
which  she  was  thoroughly  acquainted,  .and  which 
she  painted  in  lively  colours.  As  she  .advanced  in 
life,  her  writings  l!ecame  more  and  more  polemical 
.and  ill-natured.  Her  Obserralions  Critiques  jmur 
servir  d  VHistoire  liUCraire  du  19'"^  sitcle  (2  vols. 
Paris,  1818) ;  and  her  Dictionnaire  Critique  el 
raLsonnS  rfas  Etiqxietles  de  la  Cour,  di^s  usageK  du 
Monde,  &c. ;  and  her  Diners  du  Baron  d'Holhach, 
subjected  her  to  severe  criticism.  The  last  of 
these  contains  a  gre.at  de.al  of  curious  but  mali- 
cious information  conceminf;  the  freethinkers  of 
the  18th  century.  Nevertheless,  her  writings  have 
been  very  popular,  and  have  passed  through  sever.al 
editions.  Her  voluminous  Meinoires  were  written 
after  she  had  reached  her  SOth  year. 

GENNE'SARET,  Sea  of,  caUcd  also  in  the 
New  Testament,  The  Sea  of  Oalilee,  and  The  Sea  of 
Tiberias  (from  the  city  of  Tiberias),  and  in  the 
Old  Testament  The  Sea  of  Chinnereth  or  Cinneroth, 
from  an  ancient  town  of  that  name  situated  on 
or  near  its  shores.  The  word  G.  itself  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  merely  a  corruption  of  Chinnereth ; 
but  others  derive  it  from  Gannah,  a  'garden,'  and 
S/ioron,  the  name  of  a  plain,  between  Mount  Tabor 
and  the  l.ake.  The  Sea,  or  rather,  Lake  of  (t.  is 
.aliout  13  miles  long  and  G  bread.  It  lies  in  the 
bottom  of  a  great  basin,  and  is  undoubtedly  of 
volcanic  oygin.  Although  the  Jordan  rims  into  it 
red  and  turbid  from  the  north,  and  many  wanu 
and  brackish  springs  also  find  their  way  thither, 
its  waters  are  cool,  clear,  and  sweet.  Its  shores 
.are  also  enlivened  with  sp.arkhng  pebbles.  Now, 
as  formerly,  it  .abounds  iu  tisli ;  but  the  fisheries 
are  almost  entirely  neglected.  The  surrounding 
scenery  is  not  very  beautiful,  but  its  associations 
are  among  the  most  sacred  in  Palestine.  '  Where'er 
we  tread,  'tis  haunted,  holy  groimii'  '  Like  Jeru- 
salem, the  Sea  of  Gennesaret  is  enshrined  in  the 


GENNESAHET— GENOA. 


heart  from  chiliUiood.  The  home  of  Christ—"  His 
own  city" — Capernaum,  lay  on  its  sliorcs ;  many 
of  His  miracles  were  performed  around  and  upon 
it;  He  taught  the  multitudes  that  followed  Him, 
on  the  !ieii,'lit9  over  it,  along  its  i)ebl)ly  beach,  and 
from  a  boat  on  its  surface  ;  most  of  the  apostles 
were  fishermen,  who  here  gained  their  daily  bread  ; 
and  one  of  Christ's  last  earthly  intorriews  with 
them,  after  the  crucifixion,  was  on  tli.at  occasion 
when,  driven  probably  by  necessity,  they  had 
temporarily  resumed  their  old  occupation,  and  liad 
toiled  a  long  night  without  success'  (Porter,  lland- 
bouk/ur  Hi/ria  and  Palestine,  Part  ii.  page  418).  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  region  round  about  was  the 
most  densely  popiilated  in  Galilee.  Nine  cities  and 
towns  stood  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  while  the 
neighbouring  jJains  and  eminences  were  dotted 
with  numerous  large  ■I'illages.  Of  the  nine  cities, 
seven  are  now  uninhabited  ruins  ;  h.alf-a-dozen 
mud-hovels  arc  sufficient  to  house  all  the  human 
life  at  Magdala,  and  only  Tiberias  continues  to 
exhibit  some  feeble  traces  of  its  former  prosperity. 

GE'NOA  (Ital.  C.enova;  Fr.  Oenes ;  anciently, 
Genua),  a  city  of  It.aly,  situated  on  the  Methter- 
ranean  Gulf  of  the  same  name,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Apennines,  7!)  miles  south-east  of  Turin,  is  the 
chief  commercial  seaport  of  the  Sardinian  pro- 
vinces. Lat.  of  light-house,  44°  '2-1'  IS'  N.,  long. 
8'  .54'  24'  E.  The  pop.  of  the  town  of  G.  is 
110,010;  th.at  of  the  province  of  wliich  it  is  the 
capital,  G43,.'580.     (1871— pop.  of  town.  i:i0.2G9.) 

From  the  sea  the  aspect  of  G.  is  a  splendid  pano- 
rama ;  the  slopes  of  the  liills  down  to  the  shore  are 
covered  with  jialaces,  churches,  hotels,  and  private 
dwellings,  relieved  by  terraced  gardens  and  groves 
of  orange  and  pomegranate  trees ;  while  the  bleak 
summits  of  the  loftier  ranges  are  capped  with  forts, 
batteries,  and  outworks,  which  constitute  a  Une  of 
fortification  of  great  strength  and  extensive  circuit. 

The  fine  harbour,  of  which  the  diameter  is 
rather  less  than  a  mile,  is  semicircular,  and  formed 
liy  two  piers,  at  the  extremity  of  one  of  which 
stands  a  light-house  tower,  300  feet  high.  Vessels 
of  the  largest  cl.ass  can  enter  inside  the  harbour, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  heavy  swells  occasioned 
by  south-west  winds,  the  harbour  is  remarkably 
safe.  As  yet,  however  (1SG2),  there  is  no  landing 
]iier  for  passengers,  all  of  whom,  at  considerable 
inconvenience,  are  carried  ashore  a  distance  of 
nearly  half  a  mile  in  row-boats.  Subject  to  this 
drawback,  the  harbour  is  %'isited  daily  by  French 
and  Italian  steamers  in  communication  with  other 
liorts  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  anticip.ated  that 
the  increase  of  p.assenger  traffic  consecpient  on  the 
opening  of  the  railway  to  Turin,  which  has  already 
given  rise  to  siuidiy  improvements,  will  cause  this 
defect  also  to  be  remedied. 

Several  important  establishments  are  grouped 
round  the  port; — viz.,  the  arsenal,  the  convict 
])rison,  the  custom-house,  and  the  Forto  Franco  or 
free-port  warehouses,  where  merchandise  may  be 
stored  previous  to  its  re-exportation  free  of  duty. 
G.  is  the  great  commercial  depot  of  a  wide  extent 
of  countr)',  of  which  the  chief  raw  exports  are 
olive  oil,  rice,  fruits,  cheese,  steel,  &e. ;  the  manu- 
factiu-ed  goods  exported  are  velvets,  silks,  damask, 
gloves,  flowers,  pajier,  soap,  jewellery  in  .silver 
and  coral,  in  all  of  which  industrial  branches  the 
excellence  of  the  Genoese  workmen  is  incontestable. 
The  imports  are  principally  cottons,  raw  cotton, 
woollens,  cochine.il,  indigo,  grain,  hides,  &c.  The 
annual  exports  of  G.  are  valued  at  £3,000,000, 
while  the  imports  are  returned  at  £2,000,000. 

While  strildnnly  grand  as  viewed  from  the  sea, 
and  so  far  worthy  of  being  entitled  La  Superha,  a 
closer  examiu.ition  of  G.  tends  materially  to  lower 


its  character  for  beauty  and  magnificence.  Hemmed 
within  walls,  and  built  awkwardly  on  irregidar 
rising  grounds,  it  has  never  been  opened  up  by  any 
comprehensive  plan  of  improvement,  and  remains 
very  much  a  labyrinth  of  narrow  and  intricate  lanes, 
accessible  only  to  foot-p.assengers,  or  to  the  pack- 
mules,  l>y  the  use  of  which  a  large  ])ortion  of  the 
intern.al  goods  traffic  is  conducted.  These  thorough- 
fares, into  which  the  light  of  day  imperfectly  jiene- 
trates,  are  lined  with  tall  buildings,  some  of  them 
of  marble  and  of  h.andsome  architecture,  but  they 
can  with  difficulty  be  seen  from  the  limiteduess  of 
the  space  in  front;  and  however  grand,  they  conse- 
quently fail  in  effect.  Many  of  them — once  the 
residence  of  merchant-princes — are  now  transformed 
into  hotels  or  business  establishments;  in  some  cases, 
the  superb  lobbies,  environed  by  marble  columns, 
being  occupied  by  petty  traders,  and  shabby  in  the 
extreme.  Only  a  few  streets  are  wide  enough  for 
carriages,  and  in  these  the  aspect  of  affairs  is  more 
like  that  of  modern  cities.  Fallen  from  their  high 
estate  generally,  several  palazzos  still  belong  to 
persons  of  distinction  who  have  the  means  of  main- 
taining them  in  their  original  splendour,  or  they  are 
approi)riated  as  public  buildings.  The  two  most 
famous  are  the  Palazzo  Ducale,  formerly  inhabited 
by  the  doges,  now  ajipropriated  to  the  meetings 
of  the  senate  ;  and  the  Palazzo  Doria,  presented, 
in  1522,  to  the  great  Genoese  citizen  Andrea  Uoria, 
whose  residence  it  was  during  his  presidency  of 
the  Kepublic.  The  palaces  Brignole  Sale,  Serra, 
lleale,  I'allavicini,  Spinola  Balbi,  Negi'oni,  and 
many  others,  possess  great  interest  both  on  account 
of  their  historical  fame  and  architectural  beauty. 
Many  of  them  contain  galleries  of  paintings,  which 
are  she^vn  for  a  fee.  Some  of  the  churches  are 
particidarly  fine :  the  most  noticeable  of  all  being 
the  cathedral  of  St  Lorenzo,  a  grand  old  pile  in  the 
It.alian  Gothic  style.  G.  contains  many  excellent 
]»ublic  institutions,  which  almost  all  date  from 
the  period  of  the  republic.  The  great  hosjtital,  aiul 
the  asylum  for  the  poor  {Albenjo  de'  Foveri),  are 
especially  worthy  of  mention.  The  latter  makes 
provision  for  IGOO  jjci'sons,  ori>hans  and  old  people. 
The  foi-mer  are  trained  u])  to  useful  emjiloy- 
mcuts,  and  such  girls  .as  marry  out  of  the  hospital 
receive  a  small  dowry.  The  deaf  and  dumb  insti- 
tution, and  the  hosi>it.al  for  the  ins.ane,  are  the 
first  in  Italy  in  j>oint  of  extent  and  regul.ation. 
There  are  numerous  e,xcellent  foundations  called 
conservator  <  I!,  devoted  to  various  i>hilanthroi)ic 
purjioses.  the  chief  of  which  is  called  the  Fieschine, 
and  is  an  asylum  for  fem.ale  orphans.  The  public 
hbrary  contains  .50,000  voliunes,  and  is  imrestrict- 
edly  open  to  the  public.  The  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  was  founded  by  the  Doria  family.  The 
theatres  of  G.  are  very  fine,  that  of  Carlo  Fchce 
ranks  among  the  best  in  Italy. 

The  Genoese  are  a  shrewd,  active.  Laborious  race, 
and  |)ossess  all  the  qualities  of  a  commercial  and 
maritime  community.  They  make  skilful  and  hardy 
seamen,  energetic  traders,  and  thrifty  husbandmen, 
and  are  still  remarkable  for  the  spirit  of  enterprise 
and  freedom  wliich  so  strongly  characterised  the 
period  of  the  repul)lic.  Claiming  Columbus  as  a 
native  of  their  city,  they  are  now  engaged  in  rear- 
ing a  public  monument  in  honour  of  that  distin- 
guished n.avigator.  WTiile  the  main  business  of  the 
town  is  eWdently  maritime,  there  is  also  an  extensive 
trade  carried  on  in  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  a 
jieculiar  kind  of  jewellery.  This  consists  of  remark- 
ably fine  filigree- work  in  silver  and  silver  gilt,  which 
resembles  that  of  India,  and  is  fully  as  jirecious  in 
point  of  intrinsic  value.  Few  of  the  many  tourists 
who  p.ass  through  G.  fail  to  purcha.se  one  or  more 
of  these  pretty  and  cheap  articles  of  bijouterie. 

mi 


GENOA-GENRE-rAINTINC. 


Hutonj. — The  early  Iiistory  of  G.  and  of  its 
nnoient  inhabitants  is  full  of  um-crtainty,  owiiij;  to 
the  falmlous  traditions  by  which  it  is  obscurol. 
The  Ligurian  tribes,  wlio  held  possession  of  G. 
]iri\-ious  to  its  incorporation  with  ancient  Komc,  are 
of  disputeil  origin.  By  some  historians,  they  are  { 
classed  with  the  Celtic  race,  while  others  hold  them 
to  be  of  Greek  extraction.  G.  is  first  mentioned  in 
history  during  the  Second  Pimic  AVar,  but  it  then 
appeai-s  to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  imiwrt-  ■ 
ance.  In  205  B.  c,  it  became  for  a  short  time  the 
he.id-quarters  of  ilago,  the  Carthaginian  general, 
who  destroyed  it  before  leaving  the  conntiy  ;  but 
in  203  B.C.,  the  Roman  iinetor,  Sp.  Lucretius,  was 
eommissi<uie(l  to  rebuild  it.  After  Liguria  was 
conquered  by  the  Komans  (109  B.C.),  (i.  does  iKjt 
figiu-e  much  in  ancient  history  ;  but  as  a  Koman 
vuinicipium,  it  obWously  prospered,  for  Strabo 
s]>eaks  of  it  as  a  '  flourishing  town,  and  the  chief 
emjiorium  of  the  Ligurians.'  Under  the  Romans, 
the  Genoese  retained  a  considerable  degree  of 
internal  independence,  and  were  distinguished  in 
the    Roman    legions    by    their    valour    and    great 

iihysieal  vigour.  On  the  dismembemient  of  the 
jatiu  empu'c,  G.,  in  common  with  the  chief 
divisions  of  Italy,  successively  fell  under  the  sway 
of  the  Lombards,  the  Franks,  and  the  Germans ; 
but  amid  all  these  vicissitudes,  jjreserved,  in  a 
singular  degree,  both  pri\'ileges  and  jirospcrity. 
Navigation  and  commerce  were  the  two  natural 
sources  opened  to  the  Genoese  by  the  maritime 
situation  of  their  country,  and  for  these  pursuits 
they  have  at  all  times  displayed  a  special  aptitude. 
Their  mercantile  interests  only  served  to  foster  the 
instinctive  valour  of  the  race.  The  rich  merchandise 
of  the  Genoese  galleys  offered  an  alluring  prize  to 
the  piratical  hordes  by  which  the  Jlediterranean 
was  universally  infested  ;  and,  consequently,  from 
the  rise  of  their  commercial  importance,  the  Genoese 
were  compelled  to  defend  with  the  sword  the 
])recious  freight  of  their  mercliantmen.  Unhappily, 
a  bitter  spirit  of  hostility  and  intolerance  of  all 
maritime  competition  was  a  leading  feature  of  early 
Genoese  ]>olicy,  in  regard  to  the  other  imj^ortaut 
Italian  states ;  and  to  this  source  may  be  traced 
the  tierce  and  prolonged  wars  sustained  by  G. 
against  the  rival  maritime  republics  of  Pisa  and 
\  enice.  The  frequent  incursions  of  the  Saracens, 
by  whom  G.  was  sacked  and  pillaged  about  9.3o, 
led  the  Genoese  to  fonn  an  alliance  with  Pisa, 
with  the  object  of  extu-patiug  these  barbarous 
aggressors  from  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
their  strongholds  in  the  Mediterranean.  This 
being  effected  (1016 — 1021),  the  Genoese  obtained, 
by  p.apal  arbitration,  the  grant  of  Corsica,  while 
Sardinia  was  assigned  to  the  Pisans,  a  distribution 
which  sowed  the  seeds  of  future  discord  between 
the  two  states.  At  the  close  of  the  11th  c,  G. 
commanded  large  land  and  naval  forces,  and  already 
ranked  as  a  powerful  maritime  st.ate,  governed  by 
annual  magistrates,  named  consuls.  The  Genoese 
vigorously  seconded  the  Crusades,  and  in  return 
for  their  effective  co-operation,  obtained  several 
important  maritime  possessions  and  comraerci.al 
privileges  in  the  Holy  Land  (1109).  The  chief 
events  of  the  three  following  centuries  are :  the 
capture  of  Minorca  (114G),  of  Almeria  (1147),  and 
Tortosa  (1148)  from  the  Moors ;  the  wars  with  Pisa 
and  Venice,  and  the  civil  tlissensions  by  which  G., 
in  common  with  aU  Italy,  became  distracted  by  tlie 
Guelph  and  OhiljcUinc  factions.  In  1284,  at  the 
great  n.ival  battle  of  Meloria,  the  Pisan  republic 
sustained  such  destructive  losses,  that  her  maritime 
influence  and  public  s])iint  never  revived.  The 
wars  with  Venice  origin.ated,  .about  1244,  in  mutual 
jealousies  respecting  the  commercial  supremacy  of 
est 


the  Levant,  and  continued,  with  various  vicissitudes, 
till  the  end  of  the  following  century,  when  the 
Genoese,  at  the  blockade  of  Cluozza,  were  comjiellcd 
to  submit  to  disadv.autageous  terms  by  the  peace 
of  Turin  (1381). 

Co-existent  with  these  suicidal  wars,  the  civil 
dissensions  of  G.  exhausted  and  demoralised  the 
state,  and  occasioned  an  infinity  of  changes  in 
the  primitive  fonn  of  government.  In  1100,  the 
consuls  were  superseded  by  a  magistracy  termed 
podeshi,  an  otlice  for  which  natives  of  G.  were 
declared  incligiljlc.  This  institution,  which  was 
foimde<l  in  the  hope  of  restraining  local  Genoese 
animosities  and  ambitiims,  lasted  till  1270,  when 
two  of  the  great  Guelph  leadci's  of  the  state 
resolved  to  subvert  the  popular  .authorities,  and, 
<indcr  the  title  of  'captains  of  liberty,'  assumed 
irresponsible  authority,  which,  for  21  years,  they 
contrived  to  retain.  During  theii-  sw.iy,  ci\nl  feiuls 
rageel  iuveteratcly,  not  alone  between  the  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline  factions,  but  .also  between  the  citizen 
ranks  of  ])atrieians  and  j>lebeians.  Various  other 
modifications  of  the  goveniment  preceded  the  elec- 
tion of  the  first  Genoese  doge  in  1330.  This  supreme 
magisterial  office,  from  which  .all  nobles  were 
exchuled,  continued  in  force  for  two  centuries,  its 
tenure  being  for  life. 

The  ambitious  contentions  of  four  leading  demo- 
cratical  families — \'iz.,  the  Adomi,  the  Fregosi,  the 
Cnuarci,  and  the  Jlontaldi — succeeded  those  of  the 
patrician  houses  of  Doria,  Spinola,  Grimaldi,  and 
Fieschi,  and  engendered  such  disastrous  civil  strife 
in  the  state  under  the  early  doges,  th,at,  in  139G,  the 
citizens,  in  despair,  invoked  the  ])rotection  of  the 
French  king,  Charles  VI.,  and  fin.ally  submitted  to 
the  rule  of  the  Visconte,  the  tjTaimic.al  and  ambi- 
tious lords  of  Milan  (14(34).  After  the  invasion  of 
Louis  XII.  in  1499,  G.  long  remained  subject  to 
the  French  ;  but  in  lo28,  the  genius  and  resolutiou 
of  a  great  citizen,  Andrea  Doria,  freed  his  country 
from  foreign  inv-adcrs,  and  restored  to  G.  her 
repubhcan  institutions.  The  last  important  exploit 
of  the  Genoese  was  the  expidsion,  in  1746,  of  the 
Austrians,  who  were  driven  from  G.  after  an 
occup.ation  of  three  months.  In  170S,  G.  ceded  to 
France  the  Island  of  Corsica  ;  and  in  1796  Bona- 
parte invaded  Italy,  and  conferred  on  G.  the 
name  of  the  Liguriaa  Bepuhlic,  which,  in  1802,  w.as 
aljolishcd,  and  Genoa  hi  Superha  became  the  chief 
town  of  a  department  of  France.  In  1815,  by  a 
decree  of  the  Congress  of  Vienn.a,  the  state  of  G. 
became  a  proWnce  of  Piedmont.  Following  the 
fortunes  of  th.it  state,  it  has  latterly  become  a 
portion  of  the  kmgdom  of  Italy,  ami  with  the 
enterprise  of  its  people  there  are  m.arked  indi- 
cations of  improvement.  Cauale's  Kuora  Storia 
(Icthi  Hepnlihlica  di  Oeiiova ;  Dineua's  Elvoluzioni 
(.V Italia  ;  Sismondi's  Italian  Repuhlics. 

GENOA,  Gulf  of,  a  Large  indentation  in  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  north  of 
Corsica,  may  be  said  to  have  the  sh.ajje  of  a  b.ay 
rather  than  that  of  a  gulf.  The  towns  of  Oueglia 
on  the  west,  and  Spezia  on  the  east,  seem  to 
indicate  the  points  at  which  the  entrance  of  the 
gulf  commences.  With  this  entrance  the  Gulf  of 
G.  woidd  extend  90  miles  across,  and  30  miles 
inland. 

GENOUILLKRE,  a  term  in  Fortification  (q.  v.) 
for  that  part  of  the  parapet  of  a  battery  which  lies 
imder  the  embrasiu'e.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Fr.  '/CHOK,  knee,  as  representing  the  ordinary  height 
of  the  genouillfere  above  the  platform  on  which 
the  gim  is  worked. 

^  GENRE-PAIXTIXG,  a  term  derived  from  the 
French  ijenre  C'kind,'   'sort"),  origin.ally  employed 


GENS-GEXSERIC. 


to  distinguish  any  special  branch  of  painting,  as 
(lenre  liistorkpie  (historic  painting),  fjenre  dii  pai/sage 
(landscape-painting),  &c.  In  a  more  detinite  sense 
it  is  used  to  describe  any  picture  containing  hiunan 
figures  not  included  in  the  so-caUed  historical 
class,  particularly  pictures  witli  figures  much  below 
the  size  of  life — cattle,  architectural  pieces,  flower- 
pieces,  and  representations  of  still  life.  I'nder 
the  term  genre-pictures  arc  comprehended  all  pic-  ( 
turos  Avith  figures  representing  individuals  only 
as  types  of  a  species  or  class,  in  contradistinction 
to  historical  compositions,  which  bring  before  us 
certain  individuals,  or,  as  it  were,  nomina  propria. 
The  mode  of  conception  and  style  of  execution  in 
genre-i)ainting  may  resemble  the  historical  style  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  historical  personages  may 
be  represented  merely  in  situations  of  everyday 
life.  The  term  liisloric-ijenre  is  employed  in  both 
cases.  The  French  likevvise  distinguish  the  rjenre- 
liiMorique  from  the  lower  genre,  strictly  so  called  ; 
they  also  occasionally  apply  the  tei-m  peintiire  da 
style  to  historical  (lainting.  Genre  jjictures  are 
usu.ally  of  Hmited  dimensions,  while  in  historical 
pictures  the  iigiu'cs  are  commonly  the  size  of 
life,  or  even  colossal.  In  cither  case,  however, 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  the  general  nUe, 
and  the  proper  designation  depends  rather  on  the 
style  of  subject  than  on  the  size.  A  species  of 
genre-painting  >vith  a  distinct  style  was  ]iractised 
even  in  ancient  times,  but  the  birthplace  of  the 
present  genre  picture  is  the  north,  .and  more  parti- 
cularly the  Netherlands.  The  ItaUans,  especially 
I'aul  Veronese,  had  previously  shewed  a  leaning 
to  the  genre  style  in  biblico-historical  pictures, 
by  making  the  principal  figures  and  the  action  ' 
subordinate  to  the  accessories  and  locality — as,  j 
for  example,  in  his  '  Marriage  at  Cana  ; '  and  Van 
Eyck's  school  in  the  Xetherland's  had  likewise 
introduced  the  same  element  into  the  delineation  j 
of  incidents  in  sacred  history.  Lucas  van  Lcyden 
and  Albert  Diirer  then  began  to  represent  actual ! 
scenes  from  the  everyday  life  of  the  people  in  i)aiut-  | 
ings  and  engravings.  Genre-painting  was  brought  i 
to  its  highest  perfection  in  the  Netherlands  by 
a  series  of  admirable  painters,  such  as  Terburg, 
Brower,  Ostade,  Kembriandt,  the  younger  Teniers, 
Metzu,  Gerard  Dow,  and  others.  Though  the 
ch.aracteristic  and  himiorous  conception  of  many 
of  the  works  of  these  masters  gives  them  a  jwculiar 
value,  it  was  found  in  other  cases  that  a  certain 
delicacy  of  imitation  and  skill  in  using  the  bru.sh 
was  capable  of  imparting  a  singiUar  charm  to  the 
most  onUnary  scenes  and  figures.  In  the  British 
school  this  style  of  art  is  generally  imderstood  to  j 
be  limited  to  pictures  with  figures,  and  many  works 
of  the  highest  excellence  have  been  produced  in 
it,  elev.ited  in  treatment  by  the  introduction  of  an 
important  element — viz.,  the  dramatic.  I 

GENS   (allied    to    L.at.   genm,    Eng.   kin;  from' 
the   root  gen-,  to   beget   or  produce).     This  L.atin 
word,   to  which   so   many  imi)ortant   i>olitieal  and , 
social    meanings    came    to    be    .attached,   sigmfies, 
proi>erly,   a   race    or  lineage.      From  it   oiu-  own  I 
words  (Jentleman  (q.  v.),  Gentility,  &c.,  have  come  i 
to  us  through  the  French  qentilhomme.  the  primary 
meaning   of    which   was,   one   who   belonged   to  a 
known   and  recognised   stock.     By  the  Kom.nns  it  j 
was   sometimes   used  to   design.ate   a   whole   com-  | 
munity,  the  members  of  which  were  not  necessarily 
connected   by   any   known   ties    of    blood,   though 
some  such  connection  was  probably  .always  taken 
for  granted.    In  tliis  sense  we  hear  of  the  gens  Latin- 
orum,  campanorum.  &c.      But   it  had  a  f.ar  more 
definite   meaning   than   this   in   the    constitution.al 
law  of  Kome.     According  to  Sc.a;vola,  the  Poutifex, 
those   alone   belougi'd   to   the   same   gens,  or  were  , 


'  Gentiles,'  who  .s,atisfied  the  four  following  conditions 
— viz.,  1.  Who  bore  the  same  name  ;  2.  Who  were 
born  of  freemen  ;  ."i.  Who  had  no  slave  amongst 
their  ancestors ;  and  4.  Who  had  suffered  no 
Capitis  Diminutio  (reduction  from  a  superior  to  an 
inferior  condition),  of  which  there  were  three  de- 
grees. Maxima,  Media,  Minima.  The  first  (Maxima 
Capitis  Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  reduction  cf 
a  free  man  to  the  condition  of  a  slave,  and  was 
vmdergone  by  those  who  refused  or  neglected  to 
be  registered  at  the  census,  who  h.ad  been  con- 
demned to  ignominious  inmishments,  who  refused 
to  perform  military  service,  or  who  had  been  taken 
prisoners  by  the  enemy,  though  those  of  the  ho-st 
class,  on  recovering  their  libertj',  could  be  reinstated 
in  their  rights  of  citizenship.  The  second  degree 
(Media  Capitis  Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  a  citizen  to  the  condition  of  an  alien  {Latinui 
or  peregriniis),  and  involved,  in  the  case  of  a 
Latinus,  the  loss  of  the  right  of  legal  marriage 
(eonmihium),  but  not  of  acquiring  property  (com- 
merciiim) ;  .and  in  the  case  of  the  peregrinux,  the 
loss  of  both.  The  third  degree  (Minima  Capitis 
Diminutio)  consisted  in  the  change  of  condition 
of  a  paterj'amilin.^  into  that  of  a  fiUus  famitiaa, 
either  by  adoption  {ailrogatio)  or  by  legitimation. 
In  the  identity  of  name,  some  sort  of  appro.ach 
to  a  common  origin  seems  to  be  here  implied. 
The  gens  thus  consisted  of  many  families,  but  all 
these  families  were  supposed  to  be  more  or  less 
nearly  allied  Ijy  blood — to  be,  as  we  shojdd  say, 
kindred.  A  Roman  geas  w.as  thus  something  very 
nearly  identical  with  a  Celtic  clan,  the  identity  or 
simiharity  of  name  being  .always  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  rel.ationship,  and  not  from  similarity  of 
occup.ation,  .as  in  the  case  of  the  .Smiths,  T.aylors, 
Lorimers,  &c.,  of  modern  Europe.  There  was  this 
j>eculi.arity,  however,  about  the  gens  which  did  not 
belong  to  the  clan — viz.,  that  it  was  possible  for  an 
individu.al  born  in  it  to  cease  to  belong  to  it  by 
cnpithi  diminutio,  or  by  adoption,  or  ailrogation 
as  it  was  called  when  the  person  adopted  was  Sui 
Juris  (q.  v.).  If  the  .adojition  w.as  by  a  f.amily  of 
the  s.ame  gens,  the  gentile  name,  of  course,  remained 
unchangei  In  the  case  of  a  person  dying  intestate, 
his  gentiles,  failing  nearer  rel.atives,  were  his  heirs, 
and  tliey  undertook  the  duties  of  guardianshij)  in 
the  like  circimistances.-  The  gens  was  further 
bound  together  by  certain  sacred  rites,  wliich  were 
imposed  on  the  whole  of  its  members,  and  for  the 
celebration  of  which  it  prob.ably  possesseil,  in  com- 
mon property,  a  saeeiluin  or  sacred  sjx)t  enclosed, 
and  conUiining  an  alt.ar  and  the  statue  of  the  god 
to  whom  it  was  dedicated.  Accoriling  to  the 
tratlitional  accounts  of  the  old  Roman  constitution, 
the  gentes  were  a  subdivision  of  the  curias  as  the 
curiiB  were  subdivisions  of  the  tribe.  lu  this  view 
of  the  m.atter,  the  original  idea  of  the  gens  becomes 
simply  that  of  the  smallest  political  division, 
without  any  rel.ation  to  kindred  or  other  ties. — • 
An  excellent  article  on  the  gens  liy  Mr  George 
Long,  in  which  references  to  the  princip.al  German 
authorities  on  the  subject  are  given,  will  be  found 
in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Itoman  Antiquities. 

GE  NSERIC,  king  of  the  Vand.als,  w.as  an  illegi- 
timate son  of  Gotligiselus,  v\-ho  led  the  Vandals  into 
Spain.  After  the  death  of  his  brother  Gouderic,  G. 
became  sole  ruler.  In  the  year  429,  he  invaded 
Africa  on  the  invitation  of  Count  Bouif.ace,  tho 
viceroy  of  Valentinian  III.,  Emperor  of  the  West, 
who  had  been  goaded  on  to  rebellion  through  the 
machinations  of  his  rival  Actius,  the  conqiu-ror 
of  Attil.a.  G.'s  army  .at  first  amounted  to  50,00() 
vvaniors,  full  of  barbarian  valour,  and  hungry 
for  conquest  and  plunder.  As  they  swept  .along 
through    Mauritania,    the     Kabyle     moimtaineers, 


GEMSERIC— GEXTLVN. 


and  the  Donatist  heretics,  maddened  by  perse- 
cution and  fanaticism,  swelled  the  terrible  horde, 
and  more  than  eiiualled  tlicir  savage  associates  in 
acts  of  cruelty  and  bloodtliirstiness.  The  friends 
of  Boniface,  astonished  that  the  hero  who  alone 
h:ul  maintained  the  cause  of  the  emperor  and  his 
mother  I'lacidia  during  their  exile  and  distress, 
should  have  been  guilty  of  such  a  crime,  attempted, 
with  ultimate  success,  to  bring  about  an  interview 
between  the  Count  of  Africa  and  an  agent  of  the 
empress.  Then,  when  too  late,  were  the  imaginary 
provocations  he  had  received  exjilained,  and  the 
fraud  of  Aetius  detected,  for  the  army  he  h.ad 
hurriedly  collected  to  opjKise  the  Vandals,  having 
been  twice  defeated  by  G.,  he  was  compelled  to 
retire  to  Italy,  where  he  was  soon  afterwards 
sl.ain  by  Aetius.  All  Africa  west  of  Carthage 
fell  into  the  hands  of  G.,  who  shortly  after  seized 
that  city  itself,  and  made  it  (430  a.  d.)  the  capital 
of  his  new  dominions.  Tart  of  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Corsica  was  likewise  taken  possession  of  by 
him.  In  the  year  451,  he  encouraged  Attila  to 
imdertake  his  great  but  fatal  expedition  against 
GaiU.  Tradition  states  that,  at  the  request  of 
Eudo.\ia,  the  widow  of  V,ilentinian,  who  was  eager 
for  revenge  upon  her  husband's  murderer  Maxi- 
mus,  G.,  in  the  year  455,  marched  against  Home, 
which  he  took,  and  abandoned  to  his  soldiers  for 
14  days.  On  leaving  the  city,  he  carried  with 
him  the  empress  and  her  two  daughters,  one  of 
whom  became  the  wife  of  his  son  Huneric.  The 
empire  twice  endeavoured  to  avenge  the  indig- 
nities it  had  sutiered,  but  without  success.  First 
the  Western  emperor,  Majorian,  titted  out  a  fleet 
against  the  Vandals  in  457,  which  was  destroyed  by 
G.  in  the  bay  of  Carthagena;  second,  the  Eastern 
em]>eror,  Leo,  sent  an  expedition  under  the  command 
of  Heraclius  and  others  in  4CS,  which  was  also 
destroyed  otf  the  city  of  Bona.  G.  died  in  477,  in 
the  possession  of  all  his  conquests,  leaving  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  of  the 
Vandal  kings.  His  appearance  w;is  not  imposing : 
according  to  Joniandes,  he  was  '  of  low  stature,  and 
lame  on  account  of  a  fall  from  his  horse,'  but  '  deep 
in  his  designs,  taciturn,  averse  to  pleasure,  capable 
of  being  transported  into  fury,  greedy  of  conquest, 
and  cunning  iu  sowing  the  seeds  of  discord  among 
nations,  and  exciting  them  against  each  other.' 
Strange  to  say,  a  rude,  even  a  savage  religiosity 
burned  in  the  heart  of  G.,  and,  it  may  be,  gi-imly 
sanctified,  in  his  own  eyes,  his  wide-spread  devasta- 
tions. He  seems  to  have  regarded  himself  as  a 
'  scourge  of  God.'  Once  when  leaving  the  harboiu- 
of  Carthage  on  an  expedition,  the  j)ilot  asked  him 
whither  he  was  going.  'Against  all  who  have 
incurred  the  wrath  of  God.'  Iu  creed,  G.  was  a 
fierce  Arian,  and  inflicted  the  severest  persecutions 
upon  the  orthodox  or  Catholic  party. 

GE'NTIAN  (Gentiana),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Gentianacece,  with  5-cleft — sometimes 
4-cleft — calj'x,  and  1 -celled  capsule.  The  species 
are  numerous,  natives  of  temperate  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  many  of  them  growing  in  high 
mountain  pastures  and  meadows,  which  they  adorn 
by  their  beautiful  blue  or  yellow  flowers. — The 
genus  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Gentius,  king 
of  lUyria,  who  was  vanquished  by  the  Eomaus 
al)Out  160  B.  c,  and  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  intro- 
duction into  use  of  the  species  still  chiefly  used  in 
medicine.  This  species,  Comiion  G.,  or  Yellow 
G.  (G.  lulea),  is  abundant  in  the  meadows  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  at  an  elevation  of  3000 — 6000 
feet.  It  has  a  stem  about  three  feet  high,  ovate- 
olilong  leaves,  and  numerous  whorls  of  yellow 
flowers.  The  part  employed  in  medicine  is  the 
root,  which  is  cylindrical,  ringed,  and  more  or 
CS6 


less  branched;  and  which  apjiears  in  commerce 
in  a  dried  state,  iu  pieces  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  and  from 
half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  thickness.  It  is 
collected  by  the  peasants  of  the  Alps.      Although 


Common  Gentian  : 

a,  capsule  ;  6,  capsule  cut  across  ;  c,  vertical  section  of  Ecctl, 

magnified. 

G.  root  has  been  examined  by  various  chemists, 
its  constituents  are  not  very  clearly  kno\vn;  it 
contains,  however  (1),  an  oil  in  small  quantity; 
(2),  a  pale  yeUow  crystalline  matter,  termed  gen- 
tisin  or  gentisic  acid ;  (3),  a  bitter  principle, 
gentianite,  on  which  its  medicinal  properties  mainly 
depend  ;  (4),  pectin  or  pectic  acid,  which  probably 
causes  the  gelatinisation  that  sometimes  occiu'S 
in  infusion  of  G.  ;  and  (5),  sugar,  in  consequence 
of  which  an  infusion  is  capable  of  imdergoing 
\-inous  fermentation,  .and  of  forming  the  '  bitter 
snaps'  or  ' engiangeist '  which  is  much  employed 
by  the  peasants  on  the  Swiss  Alps,  to  fortify  the 
system  against  fogs  and  damps.  (.\s  '  bitter  snajis ' 
contains  a  narcotic  principle,  due  probably  to  the 
oil  of  G.,  strangers  xmaccustomed  to  its  use  should 
take  it  with  caution.)  G.  is  a  highly  valued  medi- 
cine, a  simple  tonic  bitter  without  astringency,  and 
is  much  used  in  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs, 
and  sometimes  as  an  anthelmintic. 

G.  may  be  administered  iu  the  form  of  infusion, 
tincture,  or  extract.  The  Compound  Mixture  of 
G.  of  the  London  Pharmaeopceia,  consisting  of 
six  parts  of  compoimd  infusion  of  G.  (Ph.  L.), 
three  pai-ts  of  compoimd  infusion  of  senna  (popularly 
known  as  Black  Draught),  and  one  part  of  compound 
tiuctm'e  of  cardamoms,  forms,  in  doses  of  from  one 
to  two  ounces,  a  safe  and  moderately  agreeable 
tonic  and  purgative  medicine  in  cases  of  dyspepsia 
with  constipation.  An  imitation  of  the  Compound 
Tincture  of  G.,  knomi  as  Stoughton's  Elixir,  is 
very  much  used  in  the  West  Imlies  before  meals 
as  a  pleasant  bitter,  to  give  tone  to  the  languid 
stomach.  The  Extract  of  G.  is  very  conmionly 
used  .03  the  vehicle  for  the  exhibition  of  metallic 
substances  (such  as  salts  of  iron,  zinc,  &c.)  in  the 
form  of  pilL  Powdered  G.  is  one  of  the  chief 
constituents  of  an  empirical  medicine  kno^vn  as 
The  Duke  of  Portlands  Gout  Powder.  The  bitter 
principle  on  which  its  %nrtue  deijcntls  exists  also 
in  other  species  of  this  genus,  ])robably  in  all,  and 
appears  to  be  common  to  many  jilants  of  the  same 
order.      The  roots  of   G.  purpurea,   G.  punctata, 


GENTIANACE-^;— GENTLEMAN-COMMON^ER. 


and  G.  Pannonica,  are  often  mixed  with  the  gentian 
of  commerce.  They  are  deemed  inferior.  Several 
species  are  natives  of  Britain,  but  none  are  at  all 
common  except  G.campestris  and  O. amarella,\AaxAi 
of  a  few  inches  in  heiglit,  with  small  flowers,  both  of 
which  are  in  use  as  tonics,  although  only  in  domestic 
medicine. — G.  C'atesbtei,  a  North  American  species, 
is  extensively  used  in  its  native  country,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  Common  G.,  and  G.  Kurroo  is  employed  in 
the  same  way  in  the  Himalaya. — Several  species  of 
G.  are  common  ornaments  of  our  gardens,  particu- 
larly G.  acaulis,  a  small  species  with  large  blue 
flowers,  a  native  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and  of 
Siberia,  often  planted  as  an  edging  for  flower- 
borders.  Of  North  American  species,  O.  crinila  is 
particularly  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers, 
which  are  large,  blue,  and  fringed  on  the  margin. 
It  has  a  branched  stem,  and  grows  in  wet  ground. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  flowers  of  the  small  alpine 
sjiecios  has  led  to  many  attempts  to  cultivate  them, 
which  have  generally  proved  unsuccessfid,  appa- 
rently from  the  difficulty  of  imitating  the  climate 
and  seasons  of  their  native  heights. 

GENTIANA'CE^,  or  GENTIANE-^^,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  herba- 
ceous i)lants,  but  containiiig  also  a  few  small  shrubs. 
The  leaves  are  opposite,  rarely  alternate,  destitute 
of  sti])ules.  The  flowers  are  terminal  or  axill.ary, 
generally  regular.  The  calyx  is  divided  usually  into 
5,  sometimes  into  4,  G,  S,  or  10  lobes ;  the  corolla  is 
liJIiogynous  (q.  v.),  has  the  s.ame  number  of  divi- 
sions \vith  the  calyx,  and  a  plaited  or  imbricated 
twisted  .'estivation.  The  stamens  are  inserted  upon 
the  corolla,  alternate  with  its  segments,  and  equal 
to  them  in  number.  The  ovary  is  composed  of 
two  carpels,  1-celled  or  imperfectly  2-celled,  many- 
seeded.  The  fruit  is  a  capsiUe  or  berry. — The 
species  ai"e  numerous,  about  450  being  known. 
They  are  natives  both  of  warm  and  cold  climates, 
but  rather  of  elevated  regions  in  the  ton-id  and 
temperate  zones,  than  of  cold  regions  near  the  poles. 
Many  have  flowers  of  great  beauty,  both  of  colour 
and  form,  the  coroUa  beuig  often  most  delicately 
fringed.  Many  are  medicinal,  as  Gextiax,  Chieata, 
Fra-sera,  Buckbeax,  and  Centauky.  See  these 
headings. 

GENTIANE'LLA,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  small-flowered  or  autumn.al  Gentian  (Gcntiana 
Amardla),  the  beautiful  blue  flowers  of  which 
adorn  some  of  the  dry  pastures  of  Britain  ;  but 
more  commonly  to  the  species  of  Cicendia,  another 
genus  of  the  order  Gentianaceee,  of  which  one  (C. 
Jillformis,  formerly  Exacum  fdiforme)  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  growing  "in  sandy  peat-soils,  chiefly  in  the 
south-west  of  England— a  small,  slender,  and  gracc- 
fid  plant  with  yellow  flowers.  C  hyssopi/olium  is 
much  employed  as  a  stomachic  in  India. 

GENTILLY,  a  ])opidou3  village  of  France,  in 
the  metropolitan  department  of  Seine,  is  situated 
near  Paris,  towards  the  south  of  that  city.  The 
great  bastioned  wall  of  Paris  passes  through  the 
\'illage,  separating  it  into  two  portions,  called 
Great  and  Little  Gentilly.  Poj).  15,000,  who 
are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  in 
quarrying,  and  in  washing. 

GE'NTLEMAN.  This  word  is  an  example  of 
those  compromises  so  frequent  in  EngUsh  between 
the  language  introduced  by  the  Normans,  and  that 
in  possession  of  the  coimtry  at  the  pcrioil  of  the 
Conquest.  The  Norman  word  was,  as  the  French 
word  is  now,  rfcntUhomme.  The  first  syUjible  was 
retained,  whilst  the  second  was  abandoned  in  favour 
of  its  Saxon  equivalent,  man.  Though  commonly 
translated  into  Latin  by  GENEROSUS,  which  means  a 
generous,  liberal,  manly  person,  in  short,  a  gentle- 


man, the  word  gentleman  is  derived  from  gentUiK, 
and  /uimo,  or  man  ;  and  gentilia  in  Latin  did  not 
signify  gentle,  generous,  or  anything  equivalent,  but 
helon(jin'j  to  a  gens,  or  known  family  or  clan.  See 
Gens.  A  gentleman  was  thus  originally  a  person 
whose  kindred  was  known  and  acknowledged ;  which 
is  the  sense  in  which  it  is  still  employed  when  it  is 
not  intended  to  make  any  reference  to  the  moral  or 
social  qualities  of  the  particular  indiWduaL  One 
who  was  sine  gcnte,  on  the  other  hand,  was  one 
whom  no  gens  acknowledged,  and  who  might  thus 
be  said  to  be  ignobly  born. 

The  term  gentleman  is  continually  confounded  ■«-ith 
Esquire  (q.  v.),  even  by  such  learned  authorities  as 
Sir  Edward  Coke.    But  they  are  not  equivalent ;  and 
whilst  some  attempt  can  be  made  to  define  the  latter, 
the  former  seems  in  England,  from  a  very  early  time, 
to  have  been  a  mere  social  epithet.     *  OriUiiarilj', 
the  king,'  says  Sir  Thom:i3  Smith,  '  doth  only  make 
knights   and  create  barons,  or  higher  degrees ;  as 
for  gentlemen,  they  be   made    good  cheap   in   this 
kingdom ;  for  whosoever  studieth  the  laws  of  the 
realm,  who  studieth  in  the  universities,  who  pro- 
fesseth  the  Uberal  sciences,  and  (to  be  short)  who  can 
live  iiUy,  and  without  manual  labour,  and  will  bear 
the  port,  charge,  and  countenance  of  a  gentleman, 
he  shall  be  called  Master,  for  that  is  the  title  which 
meu  give  to  esquires  and  other  gentlemen,  and  shall 
be  taken  for  a  gentleman.' — Commomotalth  of  Eng- 
land, i.  c.  20.     But  though  such  was  the  real  state 
of  matters,  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  the 
word  was  still  held  to  have  a  stricter  meaning,  in 
which  it  was  more  nearly  synonymous  with    the 
French  gentilhomme,  for  in  the  same  chapter  the 
same   writer    remarks    that   '  gentlemen   be    those 
whom  their  blood  and  race  doth  make  noble  and 
known.'     Even  here,  however,  it  scarcely  seems  that 
he  considered  any  connection  with  a  titled  family 
to  be   necessary   to   confer   the   character,   for  he 
afterwards   sjieaks   of   it   as   corresponding  not   to 
nobility,  in  the  English  sense,  but  to  nolnlitas,  in 
the  Roman    sense,  and    as    resting  on  'old  riches 
or    powers   remaining   in    one   stock.'     There    can 
be  no  doubt  that,  in  stiU  earlier  times,  patents  of 
gentility  were   granted  by  the  kings   of   England. 
There  is  one  still  in  existence  by  Richard  IL  to 
John  de  Kingston,  and  another  by  Henry  VL  to 
Bernard  Angevin,  a  Bourdelois.     But  these  patents 
determine  very  little,  for  they  seem  to  have  carried 
the  rank  and  title  of  esquire  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  esquires,  and  all  persons  of  higher  rank,  were 
held  to  be   gentlemen,  on  the   principle   that  the 
greater  includes  the  less.     The  diSiculty  is  to  say 
whether  between   an    esquire,  who    certainly   was 
entitled  to  the  character,  and  a  yeoman,  who  was 
not,  there  was    an    intermediate   class  who   could 
claim  it  on  any  other  grounds  than  courtesy  and 
social  usage.      These  patents  corresponded  to  the 
modern  patents  of  arms  which  are  issued  by  the 
Her-olds'  Colleges  in  England  and  Ireland,  and  by 
the  Lyon  Office  in  Scotland,  and  were  probably  given 
on  the  very  same  grounds — viz.,  the  payment  of  fees. 
A  patent  of  arms  confers  the  rank  of  esqiiire,  and 
there    probably  is   no  other  legal  mode  by  which 
an   untitled   person   can   acqiiire  it,   unless   he  be 
the  holder  of  a  dignified  oflice.     In  present,  as  in 
former  times,  it  is  common  to  distinguish  between 
a   gentleman   by   birth   and   a  gentleman   by  pro- 
fession  and   social   recognition.      By   a  gentleman 
bom    is    usually   understood   either   the   son   of   a 
gentleman  by  birth,  or  the  grandson  of  a  gentle- 
man by  position ;  but  the  phrase  is  loosely  applied 
to  all  persona  who  have  not  themselves  '  risen  from 
the  ranks.' 

GENTLEMAN-COMMONER.      See    XJntver- 
siTY,  Oxford,  &c. 


G  EXTLEM  EN- AT-MJMS— G  EODESY. 


GESTLEMEN-AT-AU.MS  (formerly  callod  the 
GENTLEMEX-rKXSlONKits),  the  liody-guaril  of  the 
British  SDVcn'ipn,  ami.  with  the  exception  of  tlic 
ycouieu  of  the  jniard,  the  oldest  corps  in  the  British 
service.  It  was  instituted  iu  iMO  by  Henry  VIIL, 
anil  now  consists  of  1  cai>tain,  who  receives  A'KKK)  a 
year;  1  lieutenant,  £J(X) ;  1  standard-liearei-,  iVilO;  1 
clerk  of  the  cheiine.  A'l'JO;  and  4(1  j;entlemen,  each 
with  jCiO  a  year.  The  ]>ay  is  issneti  from  tlu'  ]mvy 
purse.  Until  18G1,  the  commissions  were  jiurchas- 
able,  .13  in  other  regiments ;  but  by  a  royal  eonmiaud 
of  that  year  purchase  has  been  abolished  in  the 
corps,  anil,  henceforth,  the  commissions  as  gentle- 
men-at-arms are  to  be  given  only  to  mihtary  officers 
of  serWce  and  distinction.  The  attendance  of  the 
gentlemen-at-arms  is  now  rarely  required,  except  on 
the  occasions  of  ilrawin^-rooms,  levees,  ei^ronations, 
and  similar  important  state  ceremonies.  The  appoint- 
ment, which  is  in  tlic  sole  gift  of  the  crown,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  commander-in-chief,  can 
be  hold  in  conjimction  with  h,alf-pay  or  retired  full- 
]iay,  but  not  siuudtaueously  with  any  aiipointment 
which  might  involve  absence  at  the  time  of  the 
officer's  sen-ices  being  required  by  the  sovereign. 

GENTOO'  (Portuguese,  Gentio,  'Gentile')  was 
the  tcnn  applied  by  old  English  writci'S  to  the 
natives  of  Hindustan;  it  is  now  entirely  obsolete, 
the  wonl  Hindoo,  or  jiroperly  Hindu,  having  been 

substituted. 

GENUFLE'XION.  the  .act  of  kneeling  or  bend- 
ing the  knees  in  worship.  As  an  act  of  adoration,  or 
reverence,  there  arc  frequent  allusions  to  genulicxion 
in  the  Old  and  in  the  New  Testament :  as  Gen.  xvii. 
3  and  17  ;  Nmubcrs  xvi.  22  ;  Luke  xxii.  41  ;  Acts 
vii.  00,  and  ix.  40  ;  I'hilip.  ii.  10.  That  the  use 
continued  among  the  early  Christians  is  plain  from 
the  Shepherd  of  Hennas,  from  Eusebius's  History, 
ii.  33,  and  from  nimiberless  other  authorities ; 
and  especially  from  the  solemn  proclamation  made 
by  the  deacon  to  the  ))eople  iu  aU  the  liturgies 
— '  Flectamus  genua'  (Let  us  bend  our  knees); 
whereupon  the  people  knelt,  till,  at  the  close  of 
the  prayer,  they  received  a  correapondiug  summons 
— '  Levate '  (Arise).  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how- 
ever, that  in  celebration  of  the  up-rising  (resuiTcc- 
tiou)  of  our  Lord,  the  practice  of  kneeling  down 
at  prayer,  so  early  as  the  age  of  Tertullian,  was 
discontinued  throughout  the  Easter-time,  and  on  all 
Sundays  tlirough  the  year.  The  kneehng  postiu-e 
was  especially  .assigned  as  the  attitude  of  penance, 
and  one  of  the  classes  of  public  penitents  iu 
the  early  church  took  their  name,  nenujlectentes, 
from  this  circimistance.  In  the  modem  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  act  of  genutlexion  belongs  to 
the  highest  form  of  worship,  and  is  frequently 
employed  during  the  mass,  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  consecrated  elements  when  reserved  for 
svibsequent  communion.  In  the  Anglican  Church, 
the  rubric  prescribes  the  kneeling  posture  in  many 
parts  of  the  service ;  and  this,  as  well  as  the  jiractice 
of  bowing  the  he.ad  at  the  name  of  .Tesus,  was  the 
subject  of  much  controversy  with  the  Puritans.  The 
same  controversy  was  recently  revived  iu  Germany. 

GE'XU.S  (Lat.  a  kind),  in  Natural  History,  a 
group  of  species  (q.  v.),  closely  connected  by  com- 
mon characters  or  natiu-al  affinity.  See  Gk.veral- 
ISATION'.  In  all  branches  of  zoology  and  botany, 
the  name  of  the  genus  forms  the  first  part  of  the 
scientitic  n.ame  of  each  species,  and  is  followed  by 
a  second  word — either  an  adjective  or  substantive — 
whicli  distinguishes  the  partiodar  species.  Thus, 
in  Solamim  luljerosum  (the  potato),  tiolaniim  is  the 
ffeiieric,  and  tuberosum  the  specific  (sometimes  styled 
the  trimni)  name.  This  method  was  introduced  by 
Liniueus,  and  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  the 
688 


progress  of  science,  simplifying  the  nomenclature, 
<md  making  names  sen'c,  in  some  measiu^,  for  the 
indication  of  affinities.  The  affinities  indicated 
by  the  generic  name  arc  often  recognised  even 
in  ]iopnlar  nomenclature— thus.  Elm  and  Ulmua 
are  ])erfcctly  synonymous;  but  there  ai'e  many 
instances  in  which  this  is  very  far  from  l>eing  the 
case,  as  that  of  the  genus  Solanum.  The  arrange- 
ment of  species  in  gi'ou]>s  called  genera  has  no  real 
relation  to  any  of  the  important  (juestious  concerning 
S|]ecie3. — Genera  are  arranged  in  larger  groui)s  called 
orders,  which  are  often  variously  subdivided  into 
sub-orders,  families,  Irihes,  &e. ;  and  arc  themselves 
grouped  together  iu  classes,  which  are  referred  to 
dirisions  of  one  or  other  of  the  kimidoms  of  nature. 
Some  genera  contain  hundred-^  of  species  ;  others  no 
more  th.an  one;  and  although  futiu'e  discoveries  may 
add  to  tlie  nmnber  in  many  of  the  smallest  genera, 
yet  it  cannot  be  doubted  th.it  a  very  great  difference 
exists  in  the  number  actually  belonging  to  groups 
equally  distinct  and  natur.al.  Some  of  the  larger 
genera  are,  by  some  authors,  ili\ided  into  sub-genera ; 
ami  too  many  naturalists  shew  an  extrijue  anxiety 
to  midti]jly  generic  divisions  and  nanu-s,  ])erha]>s 
forgetting  that  whilst  certain  affinities  m.ay  lie  thus 
indicated,  the  indication  of  others  is  necessarily  lost, 
wliilst  the  memory  of  every  student  of  science  is 
more  and  more  hea^-ily  burdened.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  to  a  certain  extent  the  Huctua- 
tious  of  nomenclatiu-e,  so  ofteu  felt  to  be  annoying, 
mark  the  progress  of  science  and  the  removal  of 
errors. 

In  Mineralogy,  the  generic  name  is  not  adopted  as 
the  primary  part  of  the  name  of  each  species.  Gein 
(q.  V.)  is  an  examjjle  of  a  mineralogical  genus. 

GEOCENTRIC  means,  having  the  earth  for 
centre  ;  thus  the  moon's  motions  .are  geocentric ; 
also,  though  no  other  of  the  heavenly  bodies  revolves 
rouud  the  earth,  yet  their  motions  are  spoken  of  .as 
geocentric  when  referred  to,  or  considered  as  they 
appear  from,  the  earth. 

The  geocentric  latitude  of  a  planet  is  the  inclina- 
tion to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  of  a  line  connecting 
it  and  the  earth  ;  the  geocentric  longitude  being  the 
distance  measured  ou  the  ecliptic  from  the  liret 
])oiut  of  Aries  of  the  point  in  the  ecliptic  to  which 
the  i)lauet  as  seen  from  the  earth  is  referred. 

GE'ODES  (Gr.  earth;/)  are  roimded  hollow  con- 
cretions, or  indurated  nodules,  either  cmjity  or  con- 
taining a  more  or  less  solid  and  free  nucleus,  and 
having  the  cavity  frequently  lined  with  crystals. 
They  are  sometimes  called  '  potato  stones,'  on 
account  of  their  size  and  shape.  The  name  i/eode 
seems  to  have  been  given  them  liecause  they  are 
occasionaUy  fomid  lilled  with  a  soft  earthy  oclu^e. 

GEO'DESY,  the  science  of  the  measurement  of 
the  earth's  siu-face,  and  of  great  portions  of  it.  The 
reader  will  lind  under  Eaktii  the  princijial  residts 
of  geodetical  measurements,  and  under  Tklvnoula- 
Tiox,  an  accoimt  of  some  of  the  methods  of  o!>taining 
them.  Geodesy  has  mauy  physical  ditticidties  to 
contend  against.  In  measuring  a  i»articular  length 
with  a  view  to  olitaining  a  base  line  for  calctdating 
other  lines  by  trigonometrical  observations,  there  is 
first  a  difficidty  arising  in  the  use  of  the  unit  of 
length,  whatever  it  may  be,  whether  rod  or  chain. 
In  the  use  of  rods,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  thcni  all  pre- 
cisely iu  the  same  direction,  and  to  prevent  error 
arising  from  inten'als  between  the  rods.  In  the  use 
of  chains,  again,  the  greatest  care  is  needed  to  keep 
all  the  links  stretched,  while  the  difficulty  of  avoid- 
ing error  through  not  j)rcserving  the  line  of  direction 
is  but  little  diminished.  Further,  in  all  cases,  the 
tendency  of  the  units  to  change  magnitude  with 
changes  of  temperature,  and  the  imevenuess  of  tha 


GEOFFKEY  OF  MONMOUTH-GEOFFEOY  SAINT-HILAm& 


cnrtli's  surface,  are  pregnant  sources  of  error.  After 
all  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome,  and  a 
sufficient  base  Uue  obtained,  a  new  class  of  diffi- 
culties are  encountered.  In  taking  trigonometrical 
observations  of  distant  objects,  it  is  found  that  the 
three  angles  of  any  triangle  which  we  may  form  are 
together  in  excess  of  two  right  angles ;  the  angles 
are,  in  fact,  more  of  the  nature  of  spherical  than 
plane  angles.  For  this,  in  using  the  angles  as  plane 
angles  (for  greater  simplicity),  a  correction  has  to  bo 
nia<le.  Further,  a  correction  is  required  for  the 
elFect  of  horizontal  refraction  on  the  results  of 
observations  on  distant  objects— a  most  fluctuating 
source  of  error— to  evade  which,  as  far  .is  possible,  it 
is  usual  to  make  observations  when  the  atmosphere 
has  been  for  some  time  undisturbed.  See  Puissant's 
work  on  Geodesy. 

GEOFFREY   OF    MONMOUTH,    caUed   also 
.Tkkfrky  ap  Aktiiub,  was  born  at  ilomnouth,  and 
in  ll.">-  w;is  consecrated  Bishop  of  St  As.aph.     He 
died  about  11.54.     His  chief  work,  the   Chronkon 
sire  Hinloria  Britonum,  seems  to   have  been  com- 
lileted  .about   1128.      It  is  a  tissue  of  the  wUdest 
fable.^,   interwoven  with    some  historic   traditions. 
'  In   later   times,'   says    Dr    Lappcnbcrg,   '  authors 
seem  to  h.ave  unanimously  .agi-eed  in  an  imqualilied 
rejection   of   the   entire  work,   and  have  therefore 
failed  to  observe   that  many  of  his  accounts  are 
supported   by   uarr.atives    to  be   found   in   -n-nters 
wholly    unconnected    with,    and    independent    of 
(ieort'rey.     He  professes  to  have  merely  translated 
hi.s  work  from  a  chronicle  in  the  British  tongue, 
i-alled  Brut  y  Brenhhted,  or  History  of  the  Kings  of 
lirit.aiu,  found  in  Brittany,  and  comuumicated  to 
him  by  Walter,  .Archdeacon  of  Oxford  [not,  .as  has 
been  supposed.  Walter  Mapes,  but  an  earlier  Walter 
C'alcniiis].      The   Brut  of   Tysilio   has,   with   some 
prob.ability,  been  regiirded  as  the  origin.al  of  G.'s 
work,  thouirh  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  m.ay  not 
itself  be  rather  an  extract   from  Geoffrey.      That 
the  whole  is  not  a  tr.anshation  appears  from  passages 
interpolated,   in    many   places    verbatim,  from   the 
e.-dstin,'  work  of  Gildus,  of  whom  he  cites  another 
work,  "Oe    Vita  Amhroxii,  no  longer  e.xtant.'     G.'s 
work  w.TS   first  i>rinted  by  Ascensius  at  P.aris  in 
1.^1  IS,  .and  li.as  been  reprinted  more  th.an  once.     An 
ICu'-lish  translation,  by  .\aron  Thompson,  appeared 
at  London  in  1718,  reprinted  by  Dr  Giles  in  1842, 
and  in  Buhn's  Antirpi-arian  Library,  1848.^   What- 
ever its  v.alue  as  a  historical  record,  the  Chronicle 
has  been  of  gi-eat  use  to  our  literature.     Versified  in 
the  Norman  dialect  by  Wace,  and  again  in  English 
by  Layamon,  we  are   indebted  to  it  for  the  story 
of  Lord  8.ack^'ille's  tragedy  of  Ferrex  and  Porrex, 
for  Shakspeare's  Kinrj  Lear,  for  some  of  the  finest 
episodes    in    Dr.aj'ton's    Pohjolhion,    and    for    the 
exquisite  fiction  of  Sabrina  in  Jlilton's  masque  of 
Comus.     A  metrical  Lift'  and  Prophccic.i  of  Maim 
first  iirinted  at  Fr.ankfurt  in   1603,  and  reprmted 
for  the  Roxburghc  Club  in  18.30,  has  been  attnbuted 
to   Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  but  without   sufficient 
grounds. 

GEOFFRIX,  JIaeie  TnCitfesF,  a  distinguished 
Frenchwoman,  born  at  Pari.s.  2d  June  IG'J'J.  She 
was  the  daughtfr  of  a  valet-de-cli.ambre  named 
Kodet,  a  native  of  Dauphinfi  ;  and  iii  her  hfteeuth 
year  w.as  m.arried  to  a  very  rich  uianufacturer  in 
the  Faubourg  St  Antoine,  who  died  not  long  after, 
le win"  her  an  immense  fortune.  Madame  G.,  though 
but  infperfectly  educated  herself,  h.ad  a  genuine  love 
of  le.arninf,  anil  her  house  soon  became  a  rendezvmis 
of  the  philosophers  and  lillirateurs  of  Pans  No 
illustrious  foreigner  visited  the  city  without  obtam- 
in.'  an  introduction  to  her  circle;  even  crowned 
heads  were  among  her  visitors.  Her  hberality  to 
200 


men'  of  letters,  and  especially  the  delicacy  -with 
which  she  conferred  her  benefits,  reflect  the  highest 
credit  on  her  character.  Among  those  who  fre- 
quented her  house  was  Poui.itowski,  afterwards 
king  of  Poland.  He  announced  to  her  his  elevation 
to  the  throne  in  these  words  :  '  Maman,  rotrefils  eat 
roi.'  In  1 706,  he  prevailed  on  her  to  visit  Warsaw, 
where  she  was  received  with  the  greatest  dis- 
tinction. Subsequently,  in  Vienna,  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa  and  her  son,  Joseph  II.,  honoured 
her  \vith  a  most  gracious  reception.  She  died  in 
October  1777,  leaving  legacies  to  most  of  her 
friends.  Tow.ards  the  pubhcation  of  the  Encydopldie 
she  contributed,  according  to  the  calculations  of  her 
daughter,  more  than  100,000  francs.  I>'Alembert, 
Thomas,  and  Morellet,  -HTote  61oges  upon  her,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Elopes  de  Madame  Geoff rin 
(Paris,  1812).  Morellet  likewise  published  her 
treatise  Sur  la  Conversation,  and  her  Lettres. 

GEOFFROY  SAIXT-HILAIRE,  Etif.n-xe,  a 
French  zoologist  and  physiologist,  w;is  Viorn  at  Etampes 
in  1772,  and  "died  at  Paris  in"lS44.  He  was  destined 
by  his  family  for  the  clerical  jirofession,  and  was 
sent  to  jirosecute  his  studies  .at  the  College  of 
Navarre,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Brisson, 
who  speedily  awakened  in  him  a  t.aste  for  the 
natural  sciences.  He  subsequently  became  a  pnpil 
of  Haiiy  (q.  v.)  and  of  Daubcuton;  and  the  relations 
which  were  soon  established  between  his  masters 
and  himself  were  attended  with  the  happiest  results 
to  science,  since  they  decided  the  future  prospects 
of  G.,  and  saved  the  life  of  Hauy,  who  had  been 
imprisoned  as  a  refractory  priest,  and  whom  G. 
rescued  from  prison  on  the  very  eve  of  the  massacres 
of  September  1792.  A  few  months  afterwards, 
Hauy  obtained  for  him  the  post  of  sub-keeper  and 
assistant-demonstrator  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  ; 
.and  m  Jmie  1703,  on  the  reorganisation  of  the 
institution,  he  was  nominated  professor  of  the 
zoology  of  vertebriited  animals.  At  first,  he  refused 
to  accept  the  chair,  on  the  ground  that  all  his 
studies  had  been  directed  to  mineralogy;  but  he 
finally  j'ielded  to  the  urgent  persiuasion  of  his  old 
m.aster  Daubenton,  and  at  once  set  resolutely  to 
work.     At  this  time,  he  was  only  21  years  of  age. 

Immediately  after  his  installation,  he  commenced 
the  foimdation  of  the  menagerie  at  the  Jardin  des 
Phautes,  its  beginning  being  three  itinerant  collec- 
tions of  animals  that  had  been  confiscated  by  the 
police,  and  were  conveyed  to  the  museum.  All  the 
departments  of  the  museum  over  which  he  h.ad 
charge  soon  exhibited  signs  of  his  vigorous  adminis- 
tration ;  and  the  zoological  collection  became  the 
richest  in  the  world. 

In  1705,  G.  having  heard  from  the  Abbe  Tessier 
that  he  had  found  "a  young  man  in  the  wilds  of 
Normandy  who  was  devoting  all  his  leisure  time  to 
natural  history,  and  ha\Tng  subsequently  received 
from  the  str.anger  a  communication  containing  some 
account  of  his  investigations,  wrote  thus  to  his 
unknown  correspondent :  '  Come  to  Paris  without 
delay ;  come  and  assume  the  place  o£  a  new 
LiiiiKijus,  and  become  another  founder  of  natur.al 
history.'  It  w;xs  thus  that  Georges  Cu\-ier  wiis  called 
to  Paris  by  the  prophetic  summons  of  Geott'roy.  An 
Ultimate  friendship  w.as  soon  established  between 
them,  which,  although  long  afterwards  broken  by  the 
a.sperity  of  scientific  discussion,  was  finally  revived 
with  ail  its  original  warmth  in  their  later  days. 

In  1798,  G.  formed  one  of  the  scientific  commis- 
sion that  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  and  he 
rem.ained  in  th.at  country  until  the  siurender  of 
Alex.andria  in  ISOl.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  to 
France  v.alu,able  collections  of  n.atural  history  speci- 
mens ;  anil  the  Memoirs  in  which  he  described 
thciu  led  to  his  election,  in  1807,  into  the  Academy 

6S9 


GEOFFltOY  SAlNT-IIIL.\IKB-GEOGr^U>HlCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  .\XI.MALS. 


of  Sciences.  In  1808,  ho  was  charged  with  a  scien- 
tific mission  to  Portugal,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  obtain  from  the  collections  in  that  kuii;ilom  all 
the  specimcus  which  were  w.-mtiiij;  in  those  of 
France.  On  his  return,  ho  was  apjwinted  to  the 
professorship  of  zoology  in  the  Faculty  of  Science 
at  I'aris,  ami  from  that  time  he  undertook  no  more 
cxi)edition3,  but  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  science.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  he  was 
stricken  with  total  blindness,  but  the  ])hysical 
repose  to  which  he  was  consequently  condenuied, 
seemed  to  increase  his  intellectual  activity ;  and 
to  tho  very  last  days  of  his  life,  ho  was  occupied 
with  those  abstruse  questions  of  biology  wliich  had 
influenced  his  whole  scientific  career.  Throughout 
almost  all  his  writings,  we  find  him  endeavouring  to 
establish  oue  great  jiroposition — namely,  tUo  unity 
of  the  organic  jJan  of  the  animal  kingdom.  This 
w.as  the  point  on  which  he  and  Cuvicr  mainly 
diiTered,  and  on  which  there  were  very  warm  dis- 
cussions between  these  two  eminent  naturalists  in 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1830.  In  adiUtion  to 
numerous  memoirs  in  various  scicntitic  periodicals, 
he  pul)lislied  various  works,  amongst  which  we  may 
mention  his  Philosojihie  Anatomique  (2  vols.  1S18 — 
1820),  which  contains  the  exposition  of  his  theory  ; 
Prindpes  de  la  PhilosojAie  Zoologique  (1830),  which 
gives  a  synopsis  of  his  discussions  'with  Cuvier ; 
Mudes  Progressives  (T iiii  Naturallste  (1835);  2\'^otlona 
de  P/tilosophie  Naturelle  (1S3S)  ;  and  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  Frederic  Cuvier),  llisloire  Naturelle  des 
Mammifires  (3  vols,  folio,  1820 — 1S42).  His  son  h.a3 
published  an  cxcelleut  history  of  his  life  and 
labours,  under  the  title,  Vie,  Travaux,  et  Doctrine 
ScientiJ!i/ue  d'E.  Gcojfroy  Suint-Uilaire  (1S4S),  to 
which,  as  well  as  to  L'Eloge  Jlistorir/ue  de  Geoffrey 
Saint-Ililaire  by  Fknu'ens,  we  are  indebted  for  many 
of  the  det.ails  contained  in  this  sketch.  We  may 
also  refer  to  a  very  able  sketch  of  the  life  and 
doctrines  of  this  great  natm-alist,  in  the  Appendix 
to  De  Qiuatref.ages's  Hcutibtes  of  a  H'aturalist,  vol.  i. 
pp.  312—324. 

GEOFFROY  SAINT -HILAIRE,  IsrooKE,  a 
French  phj'siologist  and  naturalist,  son  of  Etienne 
Geoffroy,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805,  and  died  in  that 
citj'  in  1861.  Educated  in  natnral  history  by  his 
father,  he  became  assistant  naturalist  at  the  museum 
when  only  lOyears  of  age,  and  in  18.30  he  delivered  the 
zoological  lectures  in  that  institution  as  his  father's 
substitute.  The  science  of  Teratology  (q.  v.),  or  of 
the  laws  which  regiUate  the  development  of  mon- 
strosities, wliich  had  occupied  nuich  of  his  f.ather's 
attention,  was  taken  up  with  gi'eat  zeal  by  the  son, 
and  in  1832  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
llistoire  Genirale  el  Partictdiere  des  Anomalies  de 
I'Orr/anisation  chez I'llonmie et  tes  Animaux,  ou  Traiti 
de  Teratologic,  the  third  and  concluding  volume  of 
wliich  did  not  appear  till  1837.  This  work  is  of 
extreme  value,  and  will  always  serve  as  the  starting- 
point  for  those  who  may  occupy  themselves  with 
this  important  branch  of  biological  investigation. 
Having  for  a  long  time  the  superintendence  of  the 
menagerie  of  the  museum,  he  was  led  to  study  the 
domestication  of  foreign  animals  in  France ;  and  the 
results  of  these  investigations  may  be  found  in  his 
domestication  et  i^^atvratisation  des  Anirnaitx  Utiles 
(1854),  and  especially  in  the  Hociete  pour  V Acclimala- 
lion,  dex  Animaux  Utiles,  of  which  he  was  the  fmmder. 
In  1852,  he  published  the  first  volume  of  a  great 
work  entitled,  llistoire  Ginende  des  Iidi/nes  Orga- 
jiiV/Hfs,  in  which  he  intended  to  develop  the  doc- 
trines handed  down  to  him  by  his  father,  but  which 
is  left  ill  an  unfinished  state  by  his  premahire  death. 
He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  use  of  horse-fiesh 
as  human  food,  and  published  his  Lettres  sur  les 
Substances  Alimentaircs,  el  2iarticuliercment  sur  ta 


Vtande  de  Oieval  (ISoC),  with  the  view  of  bringing 
his  views  ou  the  subject  before  the  general  public. 

GEO'GNOSY  (gc,  the  earth  ;  gnosis,  knowledg<0 
is  a  term  now  little  used  by  British  writers,  but  still 
employed  in  Germany  as  a  synonjTn  of  geology,  or, 
more  properly,  as  restricted  to  the  observed  facts  of 
geology,  anart  from  reasonings  or  theories  built  upon 
them.  The  gcoguost  examines  the  nature  and 
position  of  tho  rocks  of  a  coimtry,  without  group- 
ing them  together  in  the  order  of  succession.  Of 
necessity,  geognosy  preceded  geology  ;  it  was  indeed 
geology  iu  its  early  empirical  condition,  when  it 
consisted  merely  of  a  record  of  observed  facts  ;  but 
as  soon  as  these  .Tssumed  a  scientific  form,  ami  were 
arranged  into  a  system,  then  "eognosy  lUsappeared  ; 
for  even  in  the  examination  of  new  and  uucxplored 
territories,  the  data  supplied  by  tho  science  of 
geology  en.able  us  to  refer  the  strata  with  certainty 
to  their  true  chronological  position. 

Tho  word  lias  also  been  employed  to  designate 
that  de)),artment  of  geology  which  treats  of  the 
physical  characteristics  of  rocks  ;  that  is,  of  their 
chemical  composition,  internal  structure,  planes  of 
diWsion,  position  and  other  properties,  and  pecu- 
liarities belonging  to  them  simply  as  rocks. 

GEOGRA'PHICAL     DISTRIBUTION      OF 

ANIMALS.  Each  great  geographical  or  clim.at;J 
region  of  the  globe  is  occupied  by  some  species  of 
animals  not  found  elsewhere.  Thus,  the  oriiitho- 
rhynchus  belongs  exclusively  to  New  Holland  ;  tho 
sloth,  to  America ;  the  hippopotamus  and  camelo- 
pard,  to  Africa ;  and  the  reindeer  .and  w.alrus, 
to  the  arctic  regions ;  and  each  of  these  anim-als, 
when  left  in  its  natural  freedom,  dwells  within 
certain  limits,  to  which  it  always  tends  to  return,  if 
removed  by  accident  or  design.  A  group  of  animals 
inhabiting  any  particidar  region,  and  embracing  all 
its  species,  both  aquatic  and  terrestrial,  is  called 
its  Fauna  (q.  v.),  just  .as  the  collective  pl.ants  of  .a 
country  .oi-e  termed  its  Flora.  There  is  .a  close 
and  ob\nous  connection  between  the  fauna  of  any 
phace  and  its  temper.ature,  although  countries  with 
simil.ar  climates  are  not  alw.ays  inhabited  by  similar 
animals  ;  and  the  soil  and  vegetation  are  likewise 
important  factors  iu  determining  the  characters  of 
any  special  faima. 

The  intiuence  of  climate  is  well  seen  in  the  distri- 
bution of  anim.al3  in  the  arctic  regions.  The  same 
animals  inhabit  the  northern  polar  regions  of  Europe, 
Asi.a,  and  America.  Thus,  for  example,  the  jiolar 
bear,  wh.ales,  seals,  and  munerous  bii-ds,  are  common 
to  tlie  northern  regions  of  these  three  continents. 
In  the  temperate  regions,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
ty])es  remain  the  s.anie,  but  they  are  represented  by 
dilierent  species,  which  stiU,  however,  retain  tho 
same  general  features.  These  general  resemblances 
often  led  our  early  American  colonists  erroneously 
to  apjily  the  names  of  European  species  to  the 
sunUar,  but  not  identical  animals  of  the  Kew  World. 
Similar  differences  occur  in  tUstant  regions  of  the 
s.ame  continent,  within  the  s.ame  parallel  of  latitude. 
Thus,  as  Professor  Agassiz  has  remarked,  the 
animals  of  Oregon  and  of  C.aliforiii.a  are  not  the 
same  as  those  of  New  England  ;  and  the  dilTereuce, 
in  some  respects,  is  even  greater  than  between  the 
animals  of  New  England  and  Eurojie  ;  and  similarly, 
the  animals  of  temperate  Asia  differ  more  from 
those  of  Europe,  with  which  they  are  continuous, 
than  they  do  from  those  of  America,  from  wliich 
they  are  separated  by  a  large  surface  of  ocean. 

L'nder  the  torrid  zone,  we  not  only  find  animals 
different  from  those  occurring  iu  temjierate  regions- 
but  we  likewise  meet  with  a  fauna  which  presents 
the  greatest  variety  amongst  the  indi\-iduals  which 
constitute  it.     '  The  most  gracefully   proportioned 


GEOGKAPniCAL  BlSXraLUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 


forms,'  says  Agassiz, '  are  found  by  the  side  of  the 
most  grotesque,  decked  with  every  comhiuation  of 
brilliaut  colouriug.  At  the  same  time,  the  contrast 
betweea  the  animals  of  different  continents  is  more 
marked ;  and  in  many  respects,  the  animals  of 
tlie  differeut  trojiical  faunas  ilitTer  not  loss  from 
each  other  than  from  those  of  the  temperate  or 
frozen  zones  ;  thus,  the  fauna  of  Brazil  varies  as 
much  from  that  of  Central  Africa  as  from  that 
of  the  Southern  United  States.  This  diversity  in 
different  continents  cannot  depend  simply  upon  any 
inlliience  of  the  climate  of  the  tropics ;  if  it  were 
so,  uniformity  ought  to  be  restored  in  i)roportion  as 
we  recede  from  the  tropics  towards  the  antarctic 
temperate  region.  But  instead  of  tliis,  the  differ- 
ences continue  to  increase — so  much  so,  that  no 
faunas  are  more  in  contrast  than  those  of  Cape 
Horn,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  New  Holland. 
Hence,  other  influences  must  be  in  oi>eratioa  besides 
those  of  climate,  &c. — influences  of  a  higher  order, 
which  are  involved  in  a  general  plan,  and  intimately 
associated  with  the  development  of  life  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth.'  If  space  permitted,  we  might 
point  out  the  iuHucnce  of  the  natural  features  of 
the  earth's  surface  in  limiting  and  separating  faunas. 
A  moiintain  chain  or  a  desert  may  act  as  efl'ectually 
as  the  depths  of  ocean  in  separating  one  fauna  from 
another.  When  no  such  obstacles  exist,  one  fauna 
gradually  merges  into  another,  without  any  detiuite 
line  of  demarcation. 

The  powers  of  locomotion  possessed  by  different 
animals  have  not — as  we  might  have  supposed — 
any  apparent  influence  on  the  extent  of  country 
over  which  they  range.  On  the  contrary,  animals 
whose  locomotive  powers  are  extremely  small,  as, 
for  example,  the  common  oyster,  have  a  far  gi-eater 
range  than  some  of  our  fleet  animals,  such  as  the 
moose. 

'  The  nature  of  their  food  has  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  grouping  of  animals,  and  upon  the 
extent  of  their  distribution.  Carnivorous  animals 
are  generally  less  confined  in  their  range  than 
herbivorous  ones,  because  their  food  is  almost  every- 
where to  be  found.  The  herbivora,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  restricted  to  the  more  limited  regions 
con-esj)onding  to  the  different  zones  of  vegetation.' 
Siniilai-ly,  birds  of  prey,  like  the  eagle  and  vxdture, 
have  a  much  wider  range  than  the  granivorous  and 
gallmaceous  birds ;  but  even  the  birds  that  wander 
furthest,  have  their  definite  limits  ;  for  example, 
the  condor  of  the  Cortlilleras,  although,  from  the 
extreme  heights  at  which  he  is  often  seen,  he  can- 
not fear  a  low  temperature,  is  never  found  in  the 
temperate  region  of  the  United  States. 

A  very  influential  factor  is  the  ilistribution  of 
aquatic  animals  in  tha  depths  of  water.  The  late 
Professor  Forbes  distinctly  showed  that  we  may 
recognise  distinct  faunas  in  zones  of  difl'erent  depth, 
just  as  wo  mark  (bffercut  zones  of  anim.al  and 
vegetable  life  iu  .isceniUng  lofty  mountain.s.  The 
zoophytes,  molluscs,  and  even  fishes,  found  near  the 
shore  in  shallow  water,  usually  differ  very  materially 
from  those  living  at  the  depth  of  20  or  30  feet ;  and 
these,  .again,  are  different  from  those  which  are 
met  with  at  a  greater  depth.  The  extreme  depth  at 
which  animal  life,  iu  its  lower  forms,  ceases  to  exist, 
is  unknown ;  late  researches  of  Dr  Wallich  and 
Alphonse  Milne  Edwards  shew,  howcTCr,  from 
the  evidence  of  dce]i-se;v  soundings,  and  of  pieces 
of  telegraph  wire  raised  from  great  depths,  that 
the  region  of  animal  life  extends  hathymelricalbj 
(to  use  Professor  Forbes'a  word)  further  than  was 
auticipatecL 

Before  concluding  these  general  remarks,  we  must 
observe  that  occasionally  one  or  more  animals  are 
found  in  one  very  limited  spot,  and  nowlare  else ;  as, 


for  ex.imple,  the  chamois  and  the  ibex  upon  the  Alps. 
(On  this  point,  the  reader  shoiilil  considt  Darwin's 
Journal  0/  Jiesecirclieg,  &c.,  in  which  it  is  sliewn  that 
the  GaI:i]).ago3  Archi])elago,  consisting  of  a  small 
group  of  islands  situated  under  the  equator,  and 
between  500  and  GOO  miles  westward  of  the  coast  of 
America,  not  only  contain  numerous  animals  and 
plants  that  are  found  in  no  other  part  of  the 
world,  but  that  many  of  the  species  are  exclusively 
confined  to  a  single  island.) 

All  the  faimas  of  the  globe  may  be  divided  into 
three  great  groups,  corresponding  to  the  three  great 
clim.atal  divisions — viz.,  the  Arctic  or  Ghacial,  the 
Temperate,  and  the  Tropical  Faunas,  while  the  two 
last-named  faunas  may  be  again  divided  into 
several  zoological  pro^'inccs,  Each  of  these  primary 
divisions  demands  a  separate  notice. 

Arctic  Fauna. — The  limits  of  this  fauna  are  easily 
fixed,  as  we  include  within  them  all  animals  living 
beyond  the  line  where  forests  cease,  and  are  suc- 
j  ceeded  by  v.ast  arid  plains,  known  as  barren  lands, 
or  tundras.  Though  tlie  air-breathing  species  are 
not  niunerous  here,  the  large  number  of  imlividuals 
compensates  for  this  deficiency,  and  among  the 
marine  annuals  we  find  an  astonishing  jirofusion 
and  variety  of  forms.  The  larger  mammals  which 
inhabit  this  zone  are  the  white  bear,  the  walrus, 
numerous  species  of  seal,  the  reindeer,  the  musk-ox, 
the  narwal,  the  cachalot,  and  whales  in  abundance. 
Among  the  smaller  species,  T.'e  may  mention  the 
white  fox,  the  polar  hare,  and  the  lemming.  Some 
marine  eagles  and  a  few  wading  birds  are  found ; 
but  the  aquatic  birds  of  the  family  of  Palmipedes 
(the  web-footed  birds),  such  as  the  gannets,  cor- 
morants, penguins,  petrels,  ducks,  geese,  mergansers, 
and  gulls,  abound  in  almost  incredible  profusion. 
No  reptile  is  known  in  this  zone.  Fishes  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  rivers  especi.aUy  swarm  with  a 
variety  of  species  of  the  salmon  famUy.  The  Arti- 
culata  are  represented  by  nimierous  marine  worms, 
and  by  minute  crustaceans  of  the  orders  Isopoda 
and  Ampkijmda;  insects  are  rare,  and  of  inferior 
types  (only  six  species  of  insects  were  observed  in 
Melville  Island  during  Parry's  residence  of  eleven 
months  there).  Only  the  lowest  forms  of  mollnsca 
are  found,  viz.,  Tunicata  and  AcepJiala,  with  a  few 
Ga.'iteropoda,  and  still  fewer  C'f]'!mlupoda.  The 
Hadiata  are  represented  by  niunerous  jeUy-Cshes 
(especially  the  berue),  by  several  star-fishes  and 
echini,  and  by  veiy  few  poly|ies. 

With  this  fauna  is  associated  a  peculiar  race  of 
men,  Icnown  in  America  under  the  name  of  Esqui- 
maux (q.  v.),  and  in  the  Old  World  imder  the  names 
of  Laps,  Samoyedes,  and  Tchuktsches.  '  This  r.ace,' 
says  Agassiz,  'differs  alike  from  the  Indians  of 
North  America,  from  the  whites  of  Europe,  and 
the  Mongols  of  Asia,  to  whom  they  are  adjacent. 
The  uniformity  of  their  characters  .along  the  whole 
range  of  the  arctic  seas,  forms  one  of  the  most 
striking  resemblances  which  these  people  exhibit  to 
the  famia  with  which  they  are  so  closely  connected.' 

Tesiperate  Fao^as. — To  the  glacial  zone,  wliich 
encloses  a  single  faima,  succeeds  the  temperate  zone, 
included  between  the  isothermes  (or  lines  of  equal 
mean  temperature)  of  32°  and  74°,  characterised  by 
its  pine-forests,  its  maples,  its  walnuts,  and  its  fruit- 
trees,  and  inliabited  by  the  terrestri.al  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  fox,  the  weasel,  the  marten,  the  otter, 
the  lynx,  the  horse  and  ass,  the  boar,  niunerous 
genera  and  species  of  deer,  goats,  sheeji,  oxen,  hares, 
squirrels,  rats,  &c. ;  and  southwards  by  a  few 
representatives  of  the  tropical  zone.  Considering 
the  whole  range  of  the  temperate  zone  from  east 
to  west,  Agassiz  divides  it,  in  accordance  "with 
the  jTcvailing  physical  features,  into — 1st,  the 
Aski'ic  realm,  embracing  Mantchiiri.!,  JajMn,  Cliina, 


GEOOK.U'HK'AL  DISTKIBUTION  OF  AMMALS. 


Moncdift,  ami  passiiiK  tliroiij;li  Turkestan  into,  2il, 
the  JCiiro}Miiu  realm,  which  includes  Iran,  Asia  Minor, 
MesopotiiMiia,  Northern  Ar.iliia  ami  liarbary,  .is  well 
,ns  Europe  )irojierly  so  calleil ;  the  Mestern  parts 
of  Asia  aiul  the  northern  pjirts  of  Africa  being  inti- 
mately connected  by  their  geoloj^ic.al  structure  with 
the  southern  part  of  Europe  ;  and  3d,  the  North 
A  merican  realm,  which  extends  as  far  south  as  the 
table-land  of  Mexico. 

The  temperate  zone  is  not  characterised,  like  the 
arctic,  by  one  and  the  same  fauuiU  Not  only  .are  the 
animals  dilVereut  in  the  eastern  and  western  hemi- 
sjiheres,  but  there  aie  dili'erenocs  in  the  various 
reijions  of  the  same  hemisphere  :  iis  we  before 
remarked,  the  species  resemble,  but  are  not  identical 
with  one  another.  Thus,  in  Euro)ie,  we  have  the 
brown  bear;  in  North  America,  the  black  bear;  and 
in  Asia,  the  bear  of  Tibet ;  the  common  stag  or 
red  deer  of  Europe  is  rei>rescnted  iu  North  America 
by  the  Canadian  stag  or  wapiti  and  the  American 
deer,  and  in  Eastern  Asia  by  the  musk-deer ;  the 
North  American  buffalo  is  represented  in  Europe  by 
the  wild  aurochs  of  Lithuania,  and  iu  Mongolia  by 
the  yak ;  and  numerous  other  cvaiuples  might  reivdily 
be  given. 

The  m.irked  changes  of  temperature  between  the 
different  seasons  occasion  migrations  of  animals 
more  in  tliis  zone  than  any  other,  and  this  point 
must  not  be  overlooked  by  the  naturalist  in  deter- 
mining the  fauna  of  a  locality  witliin  it.  Many  of 
the  birds  of  Northern  Eurojic  ami  America,  iu  their 
instinctive  search  for  a  warmer  winter  climate, 
proceed  as  far  southward  as  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  See 
MiGit.VTioxs  OF  Anim.\ls. 

Amongst  the  most  characteristic  of  the  animals  of 
the  Ashitic  realm,  we  may  mention  the  bear  of  Tibet, 
the  nuisk-deer,  the  tzeiran  (Antilope  patlurosa),  the 
Mongolian  goat,  the  argali,  the  yak,  the  Bactrian  or 
double-hunclied  camel,  the  wild  horse,  the  wild  ass, 
and  another  equine  species,  the  dtschigetai  {E</iiiis 
ht;>iuomu<).  The  nations  of  men  iahaljiting  tliese 
realms  all  belong  to  the  so-called  Mongolian  race. 

That  the  European  is  a  distinct  zoological  realm, 
seems  to  be  established,  says  Agassiz,  '  by  the  range 
of  its  mammaUa,  and  by  the  limits  of  the  migrations 
of  its  birds,  as  well  as  by  the  physical  features  of  its 
whole  extent.  Thus  we  lind  its  deer  or  stag,  its 
bear,  its  hare,  its  squirrel,  its  wolf  and  wild  cat,  its 
fox  and  jackal,  its  otter,  its  weasel  and  marten,  its 
badger,  its  bear,  its  mole,  its  hedgehogs,  its  bats,  &c. 
Like  the  eastern  realm,  the  European  world  may  be 
subdivided  into  a  nimiber  of  distinct  faunas,  charac- 
terised each  by  a  variety  of  peculiar  animals.  Iu 
Western  Asia,  we  find,  for  instance,  the  common 
camel  instead  of  the  Bactrian  ;  whilst  Moimt  Sinai, 
Mounts  Taurus  and  Caucasus,  have  goats  and  wild 
sheei>  which  differ  as  much  from  those  of  Asia  as 
from  those  of  Greece,  the  Aljis,  the  Atlas,  or  of 
Egypt.'  There  is  no  reason  for  our  referring,  as  many 
writers  have  done,  our  chief  domesticated  animals 
to  an  Asiatic  origin.  A  wild  horse,  different  iu 
species  from  the  Asiatic  breeds,  once  inhabited 
.Spain  and  Germany,  and  a  wild  bull  existed  over 
the  whole  range  of  Central  Euro|ie.  The  domesti- 
cated cut,  whether  we  trace  it  to  FcVis  maniculula  of 
Egypt  or  to  Fdl-i  cuius  (the  wild  cat)  of  Centr.-il 
Europe,  belongs  to  this  realm;  and  whatever  theory 
lie  .adopted  regarding  the  origin  of  the  dog,  the 
European  realm  forms  its  natural  range.  The  merino 
sheep  is  still  represented  in  tlie  wild  state  by  the 
mouilon  of  .Sardinia,  and  formerly  ranged  over  all 
the  mountains  in  .Sp.ain.  The  hog  is  descended  from 
the  conunon  boar,  still  found  wild  over  most  of  the 
temperate  zone  of  the  Old  Worhl.  Ducks,  geese, 
and   jiigeons    have    their    wild    rejircsentatives    iu 


Euro]>e.  The  common  fowl  aiul  the  turkey  an~,  ou 
the  other  hand,  not  indigenous,  the  former  being  of 
liist  Asiatic,  ami  the  latter  of  American  origin.  The 
reader  will  observe  that  the  Eurojiean  zoologic;il 
realm  is  circum.scribeil  within  exactly  the  s.ame 
limits  as  the  so-calleil  white  r.acc  of  man. 

The  ..■Imericare  realm  contains  many  anim.als  not 
found  in  Europe  or  Asia,  amongst  which  we  may 
mention  the  opossum  ;  several  species  of  insec- 
tivoKi,  as,  for  examjile,  the  shrew-mole  {UMilu/it 
ai/u<iticus)  and  the  star-nosed  mole  {Coni/ylura 
cruliild),  sever.al  sjieeies  of  rodents  (especially  the 
nnisk-rat),  the  Camulian  elk,  &c.,  in  the  northern 
portion ;  and  the  prairie-wolf,  the  fox-S(inirrel,  &e., 
in  the  southern  jiortion  of  the  faun.a.  Amongst 
other  types  characteristic  of  this  zone  nmst  be 
reckoned  the  snappiug-tui'tle  among  the  tortoises; 
the  JlaiobmiicJiiiis  and  Minnpoma  among  the  sal.a- 
niaiidci-s  ;  and  the  rattlesnake  among  the  scr|ients ; 
and  the  Lejndvslcua  and  the  Am'ni,  import.ant  repre- 
sentatives of  two  almost  extinct  families,  among  the 
lishes. 

The  f.aunas  of  the  southern  temperate  region  differ 
from  one  another  more  than  those  of  the  corresjiond- 
ing  northern  region.  '  E.ach  of  the  three  continental 
lieniusnl.as  jutting  out  southerly  into  the  ocean 
represents,  in  some  sense,  a  separate  world.  The 
anim.als  of  South  America  beyond  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn  are  in  .all  respects  different  from  those  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  Africa.  The  hyenas, 
mid  bo.ars,  and  rhinoceroses  of  the  Cai)e  of  Good 
Ilupe  have  no  analogies  on  the  American  continent ; 
and  the  difi'erenee  is  equ.ally  great  between  the 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects,  and  molluscs.  New 
Holland,  with  its  marsupial  niamm.als,  with  wliich 
are  associated  insects  and  molluscs  no  less  singular, 
furnishes  a  f.auna  still  more  pcciJiar,  and  %\luch 
h.as  no  similarity  to  those  of  any  of  tlie  adjacent 
countries.  In  the  seas  of  that  continent,  we  find 
the  curious  sh.ark,  with  paved  teeth  and  spines  ou 
the  baeli  (Ceslradoii  Philip/iii),  the  only  living 
representative  of  a  family  so  uumcrons  in  former 
zoological  .ages.' 

Tkopicai.  r.\uxAS  arc  distinguished  in  all  the 
continents  by  the  immense  variety  of  animals  which 
they  contain,  and  in  many  cases  liy  the  liriUiancy  of 
their  colour.  Not  only  are  all  the  princiji.al  typrs 
of  animals  re])reseuted,  but  genera,  species,  and 
individuals  occur  iu  abundant  profusion.  Tlic 
tropical  is  the  region  of  the  apes  and  monkeys  (which 
seem  to  be  naturally  .associated  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  palms,  which  furnish  to  a  great  extent 
the  food  of  the  monkeys  on  both  continents),  of 
herljivorous  b.ats,  of  the  great  jKachydenns,  such  as 
the  elephant,  the  hippo])Ot.amus,  and  the  tapir,  and 
of  the  whole  family  of  edcntata.  Here,  too,  ai'C  the 
largest  of  the  eats,  the  lion  and  the  tiger.  Among 
birds,  the  parrots  and  toucans  .are  essentially 
tropical ;  amongst  the  reptiles,  the  largest  serpents, 
crocodiles,  and  tortoises  belong  to  this  zone,  as 
.also  do  the  most  gorgeous  insects.  The  marine 
fauna  is  also  sujierior  in  beauty,  size,  and  numlier 
to  those  of  other  regions.  The  trojiieal  fauna  of 
each  continent  furnishes  new  and  peculiar  forms. 
.Sometimes  whole  tyjies  are  restricted  to  one  con- 
tiuent,  ;is  the  sloths,  the  toucans,  and  the  hunnning- 
birds  to  America ;  the  gibbons,  the  red  (U-ang, 
the  royal  tiger,  and  nunu'rous  peeidiar  lairds  to 
Asi.a  ;  and  the  giraffe  and  hippojiotanius  to  Africa: 
witile  sometimes  animals  of  the  same  grou])  jircsent 
diU'erent  characteristics  on  different  continents. 
Thus,  for  example,  tlie  Amei-ican  monkeys  have  ll.at 
and  widely  separated  nostrils,  thu'ty-six  teeth,  and 
generally  a  huig  prehensile  tail ;  while  the  monkeys 
of  the  Old  World  have  their  nostrils  close  together, 
only  thii-ty-two  teeth,  and  non-prehensile  tails. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTPJBUTIOX  OF  TLAKTS. 


The  island  of  Madagascar  has  its  peculiar  fauna. 
A  large  number  of  species  of  qnadrumana,  cheir- 
optera, insectivora,  &c.,  are  fmind  only  in  this 
island;  and  of  112  species  of  birds  that  have  been 
deseril)ed.  Go,  or  more  than  half,  are  found  nowhere 
else.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  still  more 
exclusive  fauna  of  the  Gal.ipagos  Islands,  which  has 
been  specially  studied  by  Darwin. 

From  a  general  survey  of  such  facts  as  we  have 
piven  in  a  vciy  condensed  form  in  the  preceding 
columns,  Agassiz  draws  the  following  conclusions  : 

1.  Each  grand  di\'ision  of  the  globe  has  animals 
which  are  either  wholly  or  for  the  most  part  peculiar 
to  it. 

2.  Tlie  diversity  of  faunas  is  not  in  proportion  to 
the  distance  that  separates  them.  Very  similar 
faun.as  are  found  at  great  distances  apart,  while  very 
diU'erent  faunas  are  found  at  comparatively  short 
distances. 

3.  'riiore  is  a  direct  relation  between  the  richness 
of  a  fauna  and  the  climate,  an<l  likewise  between 
the  fauna  and  the  flora ;  the  limit  of  the  former 
being  oftentimes  determined,  so  far  as  terrestrial 
animals  are  eoneenied,  by  the  extent  of  the  latter. 

4.  The  distribution  of  anim.als  cannot  (any  more 
tlian  their  organisation)  be  the  effect  of  external 
inltuences,  but  is  the  realisation  of  a  wisely  designed 
l)Ian,  by  which  each  species  of  animal  was  originally 
created  al  the  place  and  for  the  jilace  wliich  it 
inhabits.  The  only  way  to  account  philosoj)hically 
for  the  distribution  of  animals  as  we  now  liud  them, 
is  to  regard  them  as  autorhthoiioi — that  is  to  say,  as 
origin.ating  on  the  soil  where  they  exist.  There  is 
not  a  single  fact  in  favour  of,  indeed,  all  scientific 
observations  are  in  direct  opposition  to  the  view, 
tliat  the  whole  animal  world  was  created  iu  one 
single  centre. 

For  further  details  on  tliis  subject,  we  may  refer 
to  the  various  works  of  Ag.ossiz,  of  which  we  have 
made  free  use  in  the  compilation  of  this  article  ;  to 
Vogt's  Zoolo'fische  Briefi,  vol.  ii. ;  Mrs  Somerv-ille's 
l^hy-iical  Georjrajihy,  vol.  ii. ;  JIaury's  La  Terre 
el  Cllomme;  Kluden's  Ilandhuch  der  Physischen 
Geoijrapltk ;  and  especially  to  Schmarda's  great 
work  on  the  suljject,  entitled  JJh  Geotjraphische 
VeFbreitunfj  der  Thiere. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
PLANTS,  also  called  Geographical  Bot.\:sv,  and 
PnvTOOEOGKApnY,  is  that  branch  of  botany  which 
treats  of  the  geograpliic  distribution  of  plants,  and 
connects  botany  with  physical  geography.  A  know- 
ledge of  facts  belonging  to  it  has  been  gradually 
accumuLiting  ever  since  the  science  of  botany 
began  to  be  stiulied,  liut  its  importance  was  little 
understood  until  very  recent  times.  Humboldt  may 
be  said  to  have  elevated  it  to  tlie  rank  which  it 
now  holds  as  a  distinct  branch  of  science.  It  was 
indeed  impossible  for  botany  to  be  studied  without 
attention  being  aiTestcd  by  the  great  diversity  of 
tlie  productions  of  different  countries,  and  even  of 
tliose  not  very  dissimilar  in  climate.  But  it  was 
long  ere  import.ant  generalisations  were  attempted ; 
ami  a  large  accumulation  of  particular  facts  was  in 
the  first  place  necessary.  Even  to  this  day,  the 
deficiency  of  information  concerning  the  botany  of 
wide  regions  is  painfuUy  felt. 

Every  climate  has  plants  particular!}'  adapted  to 
it.  The  plants  of  the  tropics  will  not  grow  in  frigid, 
nor  generally  even  in  temperate  regions  ;  as  little 
will  arctic  or  subarctic  i>lant3  endure  the  heat  of  the 
torrid  zoue.  And  as  tlie  climate  changes  with  the 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  mount.ains 
of  tropical  countries  have  a  flora  analogous  to  that 
of  the  temperate,  and  even  of  the  frigid  zones. 
The  vegetation  of  every  jilaee  bears  a  relation  to 
its   meau  annual  temperature.     But   owing  to   the 


pecidiarities  of  different  plants,  it  bears  also  im- 
portant relations  to  the  mean  teniiieratures  of  the 
summer  and  winter  months ;  and  thus  great  diver- 
sities are  found  not  only  iu  the  indigenous  vege- 
tation of  countries  very  similar  in  their  mean 
annual  temperature,  but  even  in  their  suitable- 
ness for  plants  which  may  be  introduced  into  them 
by  man.  Nor  is  temperature  the  only  thing  of 
im))ortaiice  in  the  n-lations  of  climate  to  vegeta- 
tion. Moisture  must  be  ranked  next  to  it.  Some 
plants  flourish  only  in  a  dry,  ,and  some  only  in  a 
humid  atmosjihere.  The  Hora  of  the  very  drj*  regions 
of  Africa  and  of  Australia  is  almost  as  notably 
different  from  that  fpf  moist  countries  iu  similar 
latitudes,  as  that  of  the  temperate  from  that  of  the 
torrid  zone.  Nor  is  the  difference  merely  in  the 
species  of  plants  produced,  but  in  the  whole  char- 
acter of  the  vegetation,  which  very  much  consists 
either  of  succulent  plants  with  thick  epidermis,  or 
of  ]ilant3  with  h.ard  and  dry  foliage. 

jiuch  depends  also  on  soil.  Sandy  soils  Iiave 
their  peculiar  vegetation  ;  peat  is  also  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  many  plants  which  are  seldom  or 
never  to  be  found  in  any  other  soil.  The  chemical 
constitution  of  soils  determines  to  some  extent  the 
character  of  their  flora  ;  and  therefore  certain  plants 
are  almost  exclusively  to  be  found  in  districts  where 
certain  rocks  jirevail,  and  a  rel.ation  is  established 
between  botany  and  geology.  Limestone  districts, 
for  example,  have  a  flora  differing  to  a  certain  extent 
from  other  disti'icts  even  of  the  same  \'icinity.  Some 
British  ])lants  are  almost  entirely  limited  to  the 
chalk  districts.  The  other  physical  qualities  of  the 
sod  are  not  unimportant.  Light  sods  are  suitable  to 
plants  with  flue  roots  di^nded  into  many  deUcate 
fibrils,  as  heaths,  which  will  scarcely  gi'ow  in  stiff 
clay. 

Some  groups  of  j'lants  .are  almost  entirely  limited 
to  peculiar  situations,  .as  the  Alyie  and  other  smaller 
groups  of  aquatic  plants.  Some  are  exclusively 
tropical ;  others  are  only  found  in  the  colder  parts 
of  the  world  ;  and  if  any  of  the  group  occur  within 
the  tropics,  it  is  on  moimtains  of  considerable  eleva- 
tion. But  besides  all  this,  and  apart  from  all  ob\'iou3 
differences  of  climate,  soil,  &c.,  some  groups  of 
plants,  and  these  often  containing  many  species,  ara 
only  or  chiefly  found  in  certain  jiarts  of  the  world. 
Thus  the  Cactac<:(e  are  e.xchisively  American  ;  wliilsfc 
of  the  numerous  species  of  Heath  (Erica),  not  one  ia 
indigenous  to  America,  although  many  other  plants 
of  the  Heath  family  {Encece}  are  so.  Sometimes 
the  pl.ants  which  chiefly  abound  in  one  p.art  of  the 
world  seem  to  be  replaced  by  other  but  similar 
species,  sometimes  by  those  of  another  group,  ia 
another  part  of  the  world,  with  similar  physical 
characteristics.  Thus  Mcsembryac^ce  and  Crussulaceie 
seem  in  some  countries  to  occupy  the  ]ilace  of  the 
American  Caiiacca,  whilst  the  black-fruited  Crow- 
berry  (Empctrum)  of  the  northern  jiarts  of  the  world 
finds  a  representative  in  a  red-fniited  species, 
extremely  simdar,  in  the  southern  jiarts  of  South 
America.  Of  many  groups  which  chiefly  belong  to 
certain  climates  or  certain  parts  of  the  world,  there 
are  yet  species  which  wander,  as  it  were,  into  very 
different  clim.ates  or  remote  parts  of  the  world ; 
these  species  being  often,  however,  unknown  where 
the  other  species  of  the  group  abound.  Thus  the 
common  periwinkle  is  a  northern  wanderer  of  a 
family  mostly  trojiical.  Some  groups  are  common  to 
parts  of  the  world  widely  remote,  and  their  ]>re- 
valence  is  characteristic  of  these  p.art3,  as  lilwdo- 
dendrons  and  Maijnoliacefx  of  North  America  and  of 
tlie  movuitainous  districts  of  the  East  I  ndies,  although 
the  American  and  the  Asiatic  sjiecies  are  not  the 
same.  Some  species  are  believed  to  exist  only 
within  a  very  narrow  range  ;  others  are  very  widely 

C9J 


GEOGn.VPHICAL  DISTllIBUTION  OF  I'LAXTS— GEOGUAPIIV. 


dilTused.  A  few  are  fonnil  in  the  colder  parts  both 
of  the  northern  ami  southern  lieniispheres,  and  also 
on  the  intervening  tro])ical  mountains.  Some  j,'roui)S 
also,  contaiziing  many  species,  are  confineil  to  par- 
ticular regions,  as  the  important  Cinchonce  to  a 
district  of  the  Andes,  and  the  Calceolarlm  to  higher 
])arts  of  the  same  mountain  chain. — Marine  vegeta- 
tion, like  terrestrial  vegetation,  has  species  and 
groups  that  are  very  generally  diffused,  and  others 
conliued  to  particular  regions. 

The  geographical  limits  of  species  have  no  doubt 
been  in  many  instances  unintentionally  modilled 
by  man,  and  the  extent  of  this  modilicatiou  it  is 
extremely  diiBcult  to  ascertain.  There  is  enough, 
however,  in  the  known  facts  of  botanical  geography, 
evidently  independent  of  such  agency,  to  afford 
foundation  for  interesting  and  important  specida- 
tions,  of  which  some  notice  will  be  taken  under  the 
head  Sl'ECIES. 

Many  of  the  principal  facts  of  botanical  geography 
■wiU  be  found  stated  in  the  articles  Europe, 
Asia,  America,  and  Australi.v,  and  in  articles 
on  natural  orders  and  genera  of  plants.  Schouw 
and  Meycn  are  among  the  chief  authorities  on  this 
subject ;  and  the  former  has  endeavoured  to  diWde 
the  earth  into  25  botanical  regions,  characterised 
by  the  prevalence  of  pai-ticular  forms  of  vegetation. 
The  reader  wiU  liud  much  information  on  botanical 
geography,  collected  in  a  very  accessible  form,  in 
the  Physical  A  Has  of  Johnston  and  Berghaus. — Hen- 
frey's  Vegetation  of  Europe  (Van  Voorst,  London, 
1852)  may  be  considted  with  advantage  ;  and  the 
Cybele  Britannica,  and  GeoQraphi/  of  British  Plants, 
of  Mr  H.  C.  Watson,  treating  of  the  geograiihio 
distribution  of  plants  in  the  British  Isles,  are 
umivalled  among  works  of  its  kind. 

GEO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  graph-,  to 
write  or  describe)  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  This  science  is  best  considered 
under  the  tluree  distinct  heads  of  Matliematical  or 
Astronomical  Geography,  Physical  Geography,  and 
Political  Geography,  which  all  admit  of  further 
subdi^ion  into  nmnerous  subsidiai-y  branches. 

Mathematical  or  Astronomiad  Geography  describes 
the  earth  in  its  planetary  relations  as  a  member 
of  the  solar  system,  influencing  and  influenced  by 
other  cosmical  bodies.  It  treats  of  the  figure,  mag- 
nitude, and  deusity  of  the  earth  ;  its  motion,  and  the 
laws  by  which  that  motion  is  governed ;  together 
with  tlie  phenomena  of  the  movements  of  other 
cosmical  bodies,  ou  which  depend  the  alternation  of 
day  and  night,  and  of  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
the  eclipses  and  occultations  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets ;  it  detenuines  position,  and  estimates  dis- 
tances on  the  earth's  surface,  and  teaches  methods 
for  the  solution  of  astronomical  problems,  and  the 
construction  of  the  instniments  necessary  for  such 
0]ierations,  together  with  the  modes  of  representing 
the  surface  of  the  earth  by  means  of  globes,  charts, 
and  ma]i3.  The  numerous  sulijects  comjirised  in 
this  portion  of  geographical  science  will  bo  found  in 
other  parts  of  the  present  work,  and  we  therefore 
refer  our  readers  for  further  particidars  to  the  several 
articles  in  which  they  are  more  fully  treated,  as,  for 
instance,  AsTRoxoivn-,  Latitudk  and  Longitude, 
Mathematical  Instruments,  Observatories,  &c. 

Physical  Geogr.ajihy,  as  the  name  indicates,  con- 
siders the  earth  in  its  relation  to  nature  and  natural 
or  physical  laws  only.  It  describes  the  earth,  air, 
and  water,  and  the  organised  beings,  whether  animal 
or  vegetable,  by  which  those  elements  are  occupied, 
and  considers  the  history,  extent,  mode,  and  causes 
of  the  distribution  of  these  beings.  This  may  be 
regarded  as  the  most  important  branch  of  geograph- 
ical science,  since  it  involves  the  oousideration  and 
study  of  phenomena,  wliich  not  only  tend  to  further 


the  material  iuterests  of  man,  by  teaching  liun  how 
best  to  promote  the  development  of  the  products  of 
natiu-e,  but  also  conduce  in  no  inconsiderable  dcree 
to  general  intellectual  advance,  by  stimulating°tlie 
faculties  of  obser\-atiou,  and  exercising  the  powers 
of  thought  The  vast  sphere  of  inqiiiry  included 
in  jihysic.al  geogi-aphy  necessarily  embraces  tlie  con- 
sideration of  all  the  natural  sciences  generally,  and 
we  can  here,  therefore,  merely  refer  om-  readei-s  for 
more  special  information  reganhng  the  details  of 
the  suliject  to  such   articles   lus   Climate,  Heat, 

LaKE-S,  lin'ERS,   MOUNT.UNS,    OCE.VN,  WiNDS,  KaIN, 

Clouds;  Ethnologv,  Geograpuica-L  Distribution 

OF  ANULiLS  AND  PlANTS,  &C. 

Political  Geograi)hy  has  been  well  defined  as 
'  inclucUng  all  those  facts  which  are  the  immediate 
consequences  of  the  operations  of  man,  exercised 
either  on  the  raw  materials  of  the  earth,  or  on  the 
means  of  his  intercourse  with  his  fellow-cre.atures.' 
Thus  considered,  it  endjraces,  primarily,  thedescri]i- 
tion  of  the  political  or  arbitrary  ilivisious  and  limits 
of  empires,  kingdoms,  and  states ;  and,  secondarilj', 
that  of  the  laws,  modes  of  government,  and  soci:d 
organisation  wliich  prevail  in  the  several  countries. 
The  details  of  this  branch  of  geography  will  be 
found  under  the  names  of  eoimtries,  cities,  &c., 
wlule  more  general  information  in  regard  to  the 
subject  must  be  sought  from  historical,  i»>Htical, 
and  statistical  sources. 

Before  proceedmg  to  sketch  the  progress  and 
history  of  geographical  discovery,  we  will  indicate  a 
few  of  the  leading  works  that  afford  the  best  aid 
in  studying  the  three  main  brauchcs  of  geograjihy  to 
wliich  we  have  referred.  Thus,  for  iustanee,  in  iMathe- 
matical  Geogi-aphy,  we  would  specially  inst.ance  : 
Manual  of  (Geographical  Science  (Part  I.  Mathe- 
matical Geography,  by  Mr  O'Brien) ;  Hersehel's  Out- 
lines of  Astronomy  ;  KXiiAen'sKrdkunde  (Part  I.) :  in 
Physical  Geography,  Kitter's  Erdkunde  ;  Klodeu's  ; 
A.  Maury's  La  Terre  (t  t Homme  ;  Mrs  Somerx-ille's 
Physical  Geography ;  Mr  F.  Mauiy's  Physical 
Geography  of  the  Sea,  &c. :  while  in  regard  to'Poli- 
tical  Geography,  information  may  be  sought  from 
the  gi-eat  works  of  Hitter,  Bergli.aus,  Stein,  Wappaus, 
and  Kluden,  and  from  the  ordinary  geographical 
manuals  and  maps. 

Geographical  Discovery. — The  earliest  idea  formed 
of  the  earth  by  nations  in  a  primeval  conihtiou 
seems  to  have  been  that  it  was  a  flat  circular  disc, 
surroimded  on  all  sides  by  water,  and  covered  bj- 
the  heavens  as  with  a  canoj>y,  in  the  centre  of  which 
then-  own  laud  was  supposed  to  be  situated.  The 
Phteniciaus  were  the  lirst  people  who  communicated 
to  other  nations  a  knowledge  of  distant  lands ;  and 
although  little  is  known  as  to  the  exact  period  and 
extent  of  their  various  discoveries,  they  had,  before 
the  age  of  Homer,  navigated  all  jiarts  of  the  Euxine, 
and  penetrated  lieyond  the  limits  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean into  the  Western  Ocean,  and  they  thus  form 
the  first  linli  of  the  great  chain  of  discovery  which, 
2500  years  after  their  foundation  of  the  cities  of 
Tartessus  and  Utica,  was  carried  by  Columbus  to 
the  remote  shores  of  America.  Besides  various 
settlements  nearer  home,  these  bold  adventurers  had 
founded  colonies  in  Asia  Jlinor  about  1200  n.  c, 
and  a  century  later  they  laid  tlie  foundation  of 
Gades,  Utica,  and  several  other  cities,  which  was 
followed,  in  the  coiu-se  of  the  9th  c.  by  that  of 
Carthage,  from  whence  new  streams  of  colonisation 
continued  for  several  centuries  to  flow  to  hitherto 
unknown  jiarts  of  the  world.  The  PhaMiicians, 
although  less  highly  gifted  than  the  Egypti.ans, 
rank  next  to  them  in  regard  to  the  inlluence 
iiliich  they  exerted  on  the  ])rogi-ess  of  human 
thought  and  civilisation,  for  their  knowledge  of 
mechanics,  their  early  use  of  weiglits  and  measures, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


and  what  was  of  stUl  floater  importance,  their 
emploj-ment  of  an  aliihaljctical  foiiu  of  ■m-iting, 
facilitated  and  confinned  cmnmercial  intercourse 
among  their  own  numerous  colonies,  and  formed  a 
bond  of  union  which  speedily  eml)raced  all  the 
civilised  nations  of  Semitic  and  Hellenic  origin.  So 
rapid  was  the  advance  of  geographical  knowledge 
between  the  age  of  the  Homeric  poems  (which  may 
be  regarded  as  representing  the  ideas  entertained 
at  the  commencement  of  the  9th  c.  B.C.)  and  the 
time  of  Hesiod  (800  B.C.),  that  while  in  the  former 
the  earth  is  supposed  to  resemble  a  circular  shield, 
surrounded  by  a  rim  of  water,  spoken  of  as  the 
parent  of  all  other  streams,  and  the  names  of 
Asia  and  Europe  applied  only,  the  former  to 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Catster,  and  the  latter  to 
Greece  north  of  Peloponnesus,  ilesiod  mentions 
parts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  and  is 
actpiaiDted  with  the  Scythians,  and  with  the  Ethio- 
pians of  Southern  Africa.  During  the  7th  c.  B.C., 
certain  Phoenicians,  under  the  jiatronage  of  Keku 
or  Necho  II.  king  of  Egypt,  imdertook  a  voyage 
of  discovery,  and  are  supposed  to  have  eircmn- 
navigated  Africa.  This  expedition  is  recorded  by 
Herodotus,  who  relates  that  it  entered  the  Southern 
Ocean  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  after  three 
years'  absence,  returned  to  Egyjjt  by  the  Pillars  of 
Hercides.  The  fact  of  an  actual  circumnavigation 
of  the  African  continent  lias  been  doubted,  but  the 
most  convincing  proof  of  its  reality  is  afforded  by 
the  observation  which  seemed  incredible  to  Herod- 
ohis,  ■\'iz.,  '  that  the  mariners  who  sailed  round 
Libya  (from  cast  to  west)  had  the  sun  on  their  right 
hand.'  The  7th  and  0th  centuries  B.  c.  were  memor- 
able for  the  great  advance  made  in  regard  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  form  and  extent  of  tlie  earth. 
Thales,  and  his  pupil  Anaximander,  reputed  to  have 
been  the  first  to  draw  maps,  exploded  many  errors, 
and  paved  the  way,  by  their  observations,  for  the 
attainment  of  a  sounder  knowledge.  The  logo- 
graphers  contributed  at  this  period  to  the  same  end 
by  the  descriptions  which  they  gave  of  various 
parts  of  the  earth ;  of  these,  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  to  us  is  the  naiTative  of  the  Carthaginian 
Hi:nilco,  who  iliscovered  the  British  Islands,  includ- 
ing the  ffistrymnides,  which  he  described  as  being 
a  four  months'  voyage  from  Tartessus. 

With  Herodotus  of  Halicamassus  (bom  484  B.C.), 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  geography  as 
well  as  of  history,  a  new  era  began  in  regard  to 
geographical  knowledge,  for  although  his  chief  object 
was  to  record  the  struggles  of  the  Greeks  and 
Persians,  he  has  so  minutely  described  the  countries 
which  he  \-isited  in  his  extensive  travels  (which 
covered  an  area  of  more  than  31°  or  1700  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  24°  or  1660  miles  from  north  to 
south),  that  his  History  gives  us  a  complete  represen- 
tation of  all  that  was  known  of  the  earth's  surface 
in  his  age.  This  knowledge,  which  was  extremely 
scanty,  consisted  in  belie\-ing  that  the  world  was 
boumied  to  the  south  by  the  Red  Sea  or  Indian 
Ocean,  and  to  the  west  by  the  Atlantic,  while  its 
eastern  boundaries,  altliough  admitted  to  be  vm- 
dcfiiied,  were  conjectured  to  be  nearly  identical  witli 
the  limits  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  its  northern 
termination  somewhere  in  the  rerion  of  the  amber- 
lands  of  the  P..altic,  which  had  been  visited  by 
Phtenician  mariners,  and  with  which  tiie  people  of 
MassiUa  (the  modem  Marseille)  kept  up  constant 
intercourse  by  way  of  Gaul  and  Germany.  In  the 
next  century,  the  achievements  of  Alexander  the 
Great  tended  materially  to  enlarge  the  boimds  of 
Imman  knowledge,  for  while  he  carried  his  arms  to 
the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Oxus,  and  extended  his 
conquests  to  Northern  and  Eastern  Asia,  he  at  the 
same  time  promoted  science,  by  sending  expeditious 


to  explore  and  survey  the  various  provinces  whicli 
he  subdued,  and  to  make  collections  of  all  that  was 
curious  in  regard  to  the  organic  and  inorganic  pro- 
ducts of  the  newly  visited  districts  ;  and  hence  the 
victories  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror  formed  a  new 
era  in  physical  inquiry  generally,  as  well  as  in 
geogra])hical  discovery  specially.  AVhile  Alexander 
was  opening  the  East  to  the  knowledge  of  western 
nations,  Pj^thea-s,  an  adventurous  navigator  of 
Massilia,  conducted  an  expedition  past  Spain  and 
Gaid  through  the  Channel,  round  the  cast  of  Eng- 
land into  the  Northern  Ocean,  where,  after  six  days' 
sailing,  he  reached  Thule  (conjectured  to  be  Iceland), 
and  returning,  passed  into  the  Baltic,  where  he  heard 
of  the  Teutones  and  Goths.  Discovery  was  thus  being 
extended  both  in  the  north  and  cast  into  regions  whose 
very  existence  had  never  been  suspected,  or  which 
had  hitherto  been  regarded  as  mere  chaotic  wastes. 
An  im]>ortant  advance  in  geography  was  m.ade  by 
Eratosthenes  (born  276  B.  c),  wholirst  used  jLanallels 
of  longitude  and  latitude,  and  constructed  majis  on 
mathematical  principles.  Although  his  work  on 
geography  is  lost,  we  learn  from  Strabo  that  he 
considered  the  world  to  be  a  sphere  revolving  with 
its  surrounding  atmosphere  on  one  and  the  same 
axis,  and  having  one  centre.  He  believed  that  only 
about  one-eighth  of  the  earth's  surface  was  inhab- 
ited, while  the  extreme  points  of  his  habitable  world 
were  Thide  in  the  north,  Chirui  in  the  east,  the 
Cinnamon  Coast  of  Africa  in  the  south,  and  the 
Prom.  Sacrum  (Cape  St  Vincent)  in  the  west.  Dur- 
ing the  interval  between  the  ages  of  Eratosthenes 
and  Strabo  (born  06  E.  c),  many  voluminous  works 
on  geography  were  compiled,  which  have  been  either 
wholly  lost  to  us,  or  only  very  partiaDy  preserved 
in  the  records  of  later  writers.  Strabo's  great  work 
on  geography,  which  is  said  to  have  been  composed 
when  he  was  eighty  years  of  age,  has  been  con- 
sidered as  a  model  of  wh.at  such  works  should  be  in 
regard  to  the  methods  of  treating  the  subject ;  but 
whUe  his  descriptions  of  all  the  places  he  has  him- 
self Wsited  are  interesting,  and  instructive,  he  seems 
imdidy  to  have  discarded  the  authority  of  preceding 
WTiters. 

The  wars  and  conquests  of  the  Romans  had  a 
most  important  bearing  upon  geography,  since  the 
practical  genius  of  the  Roman  j)eople  led  them  to 
the  study  of  the  material  resources  of  every  province 
and  state  brought  under  their  sway,  and  the 
gi-eatest  service  was  done  to  geographical  knowledge 
by  the  survey  of  the  empire,  wliich  was  begun  by 
Julius  CiEsar,  and  completed  by  Augustus.  This 
work  comprised  a  description  and  measurement  of 
every  province  by  the  most  celebrated  geometricians 
of  the  day.  Pliny  (bom  23  A.  D.),  who  had  travelled 
in  Spain,  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Africa,  has  left  us 
a  compendium  of  the  geographical  and  physical 
science  of  his  age  in  the  four  books  of  liis  Ilistoria 
Naluralis  which  he  devotes  to  the  subject.  He 
collected  with  indefatigable  industry  the  information 
contained  in  the  works  of  iSallust,  Ca;sar,  Tacitus, 
and  others,  to  which  he  added  the  results  of  his 
own  obsei-vations,  without,  however,  discriminating 
between  fact  and  fiction.  The  progress  that  had 
been  made  since  Caesar's  time  in  geographical  know- 
ledge is  e\'inced  by  Pliny's  notice  of  arctic  regions 
and  of  the  Scandinavian  lands,  and  the  accounts 
which  he  gives  of  Mount  Atlas,  the  course  of  the 
Niger,  and  of  various  settlements  in  different  parts  of 
Africa ;  whde  his  knowledge  of  Asia  is  more  correct 
than  that  of  his  predccessoi-s,  for  he  correctly  aflu'ms 
that  Ceylon  is  an  island,  and  not  the  commencement 
of  a  new  continent,  as  had  been  generally  supposed. 
The  study  of  geography  in  ancient  times  may  be  said 
to  have  terminated  with  C.  Ptolem}^,  wlio  tiourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  2d  c.  of  our  era.     His  work 

605 


GEOGRAPnY. 


on  Geoi^aphy,  in  eight  books,  which  continued  to  be 
regarded  as  the  most  jtorfect  system  of  the  science 
through  the  dark  and  middle  ages  down  to  tlie  IGth 
c,  gives  a  tc^lcrably  correct  account  of  the  well- 
known  countries  of  the  world,  and  of  (he  Mediter- 
ranean, Euxine,  and  Caspian,  together  with  the 
rivers  which  fall  into  those  seas,  but  it.  added  little 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  north  of  Eiirojie,  or  the 
extreme  boundaries  of  Asia  or  Africa-  Yet,  from 
his  time  till  the  14th  c,  when  the  records  of  the 
travels  of  the  Venetian  JIareo  Polo  <.pened  new 
fields  of  inquiry,  the  statements  of  Ptolemy  were 
never  questioned,  and  even  during  the  loth  c.,  it 
was  only  among  a  few  German  scholars  at  Niini- 
berg  that  the  strange  accounts  giveu  of  tUstant 
eastern  lands  by  the  Venetian  traveller  were 
received  as  trustworthy  where  he  differed  from 
Ptolemy.  Marco  Polo  had,  however,  unfortimately 
made  no  astronomical  observations,  nor  had  he 
even  recorded  the  length  of  the  day  at  any  place, 
and  hence  the  NUrnbei-g  geographers,  who  liad 
no  cei-tain  data  for  estimating  the  extent  of  the 
countries  which  he  had  travei"sed,  "were  the  means 
of  propagating  errors  which  led  to  results  that 
were  destined  to  influence  the  history  of  man- 
kind ;  for  taking  Ptolemy's  tables  as  their  basis, 
they  had  incoqiorated  on  their  globes  and  maps 
the  results  of  their  own  rough  estimates  of  the 
length  of  Marco  Polo's  days'  journeys,  and  they 
had  thus  represented  the  continent  of  Asia  as 
extending  across  the  Pacific,  and  ha\Tiig  its  eastern 
shores  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  Antilles. 
These  erroneous  calculations  misled  Christopher 
Columbus  to  the  false  assumption  that,  by  sailing 
120*  west,  he  woidd  reach  the  wealth}'  trading  marts 
of  China;  and  the  result  of  this  con\'ictiou  was  his 
entering  upon  th.it  memorable  expedition  which 
terminated  in  the  discovery  (in  1492)  of  the  continent 
of  America.  Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  American  continent  was  visited  in  the  9th  and 
loth  c.  by  Northmen,  the  event  remained  without 
influence  on  the  history  of  discovery,  and  cannot 
therefore  detract  from  the  claims  of  Columbus.  Tliis 
momentous  discovery,  which  had  becu  iireceded  in 
14S()  by  the  ex]"iloration  of  the  African  coast  as  far 
as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (which  wa.s  doubled  by 
Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497),  was  followed  by  a  rapid 
succession  of  discoveries ;  and  within  30  years  of 
the  date  of  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus,  the  whole 
coast  of  America  from  Greenland  to  Cape  Horn  had 
been  explored,  the  Pacific  Ocean  had  been  navigated, 
and  the  world  circumnarigated  by  Magellan  (q.  v.) ; 
the  coasts  of  Eastern  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
India  had  been  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
numerous  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean  discovered. 
The  lUth  c.  was  marked  by  continued  attempts,  suc- 
cessful and  unsnccessfiU,  to  extend  the  sphere  of 
oceanic  discovery;  and  the  desire  to  reach  India  by 
a  shorter  route  than  those  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  or  Cape  Horn,  led  to  many  attempts  to  dis- 
cover a  north-west  passage,  which,  though  they 
signally  failed  in  their  object,  had  the  effect  of  very 
materially  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  the  arctic 
regions.  The  expetlitions  of  Willoughby  and  Fro- 
bisher,  in  1553  and  1570,  of  Davis  (15S5),  Hudson 
(1007),  and  Baffin  (1010),  were  the  most  import.ant 
in  their  results  towards  this  end.  The  17th  and 
18th  centuries  gave  a  new  tiu-n  to  the  study  of 
geography,  by  bringing  other  sciences  to  bear  upon 
it,  which,  in  their  turn,  derived  elucidation  from  the 
extension  of  geograpliical  knowledge ;  and  it  is  to 
the  aid  derived  from  history,  astronomy,  and  the 
physical  and  n.atural  sciences,  that  we  owe  the 
completeness  which  has  characterised  modern  works 
on  geography.  In  the  17th  c,  the  Dutch,  imder 
Tasman  and  Van  Diemen,  made  the  Australasian 

t'JG 


islands  known  to  the  civilised  world  ;  and  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  c.,  Captain  Cook  extended 
the  great  oceanic  explorations  by  the  discovery  of 
New  Zealand  and  many  of  the  Polynesian  groups  ; 
but  he  failed  to  find  the  antarctic  continent, 
which  was  first  visited  in  1840  by  American,  Eng- 
lish, and  French  expeditions,  under  then*  respective 
commanders,  Wilkes,  lloss,  and  Dumont  d'Urville. 
This  "will  probably  prove  to  have  been  among  the 
last  of  great  oceanic  discoveries  ;  and  the  attention 
of  explorers  is  now  turned  to  the  interior  of  the  great 
continents.  In  America,  the  travels  of  Hundjoldt, 
Lewis  and  Clark,  Fremont,  and  others,  have  done 
much  to  make  us  acquainted  with  broad  general 
features,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in  regard  to 
special  districts  of  Central  and  Southern  America. 
In  Asia,  mmierous  travellers,  geograjihers,  and  natu- 
ralists have  contributed  to  render  our  knowledge 
precise  and  certain  in  respect  to  a  great  part  of  the 
continent,  whose  natiu'al  characteristics  have  been 
more  especially  rejiresented  by  the  great  jihysieist 
Kitter  ;  while  we  owe  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  to 
the  Jesuit  mission.aries,  whose  indefatigable  ze.al 
has  furnished  us  \Tith  a  rich  mass  of  infonnation  in 
regard  to  minor  details  of  Asiatic  life  and  nature. 
In  Africa,  the  combined  inti^lences  of  a  deleterious 
climate,  and  a  religion  hostile  to  EiU"opean  advance, 
have  hitherto  retarded  explorations  into  the  inte- 
rior ;  but  notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  much 
light  has  been  thrown  on  the  character  and  con- 
dition of  the  African  continent  by  many  of  its 
greatest  explorers — as  Bruce,  Park,  Cl.apperton, 
Adanson,  the  Landers,  Burton,  Speke,  Barth,  Vogel, 
and  Livingstone.  In  AustraUa,  although  much 
stdl  remains  to  be  done,  the  obscurity  wliich  had 
hitherto  hiuig  over  the  interior  has  been  to  a 
great  extent  iliminished  by  the  explorations  of 
Sturt,  Eyre,  Leichhardt,  and  the  brothers  Gregory ; 
and  still  more  by  the  highly  important  laboui'S 
of  Biu-ke  and  Wills,  who  in  1800  crossed  the 
Australian  continent  from  Melbourne  to  Carpen- 
taria, Although  both  these  intrepid  explorera 
])erislied  miserably  from  starvation  on  their  return 
route,  their  journals  and  the  description  that  has 
been  given  by  them  and  their  sole-surviving  com- 
panion, King,  of  the  countiy  through  which  they 
jiassed,  prove  that  the  land  is  far  from  being  the 
desert  it  was  once  imagined  to  be. 

The  progress  which  has  marked  recent  discovery 
has  been  materially  aided  by  the  encouragement 
and  systematic  organisation  which  have  been  given 
to  plans  of  exploration  by  the  piublic  governments 
of  different  countries,  and  by  the  efforts  of  the 
numerous  geographical  societies  which  have  been 
formed  during  the  present  century  both  at  home 
and  abroad ;  while  the  constantly  increasing  mass 
of  information  collected  by  scientific  explorers  is 
rapidly  difiusing  correct  information  in  regard  to 
(Ustaut  regions,  and  thus  effectually  dispelling  the 
numerous  fallacies  which  have  hitherto  obscm-ed  the 
science  of  geography.  Among  the  numerous  works 
of  authority  on  the  subject  of  geogra])liical  dis- 
covery, the  foUov^'ing  may  be  consulted  with  advan- 
t.age  :  Hudson's  Oeoijrap/ti  Gi'O'Ct  viiiiores  ;  Precis  de 
Georjraphie  Universale,  by  Malte  Brun  ;  Manual  of 
Geoijrnpliical  Science  (mathematical,  physical,  his- 
torical, and  descriptive),  18G0  ;  Latham's  Gernuiiiia 
of  Tacitus  ;  Humboldt's  Hist.  crlt.  de  VHid.  de  la 
Geographic,  Asie  Cent  rale,  and  the  Cosmos  ;  Bitter's 
Asi);n;  and  IJie  Erdkunde  im  VerlUiUni-sse  :.  A'atiir. 
M.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Mensc/dieit ;  Petermann,  Mittheilnngen 
aiu  J.  PcrtUes'  Geoqraphischer  Anstall  (1855 — 1857); 
Proceedings  of  Geof/rap/iical  Societif,  &e. 

GEOGRAPHY,  Medicix.  The  liabihty  of  par- 
ticidar  localities  to  become  the  centres  of  special 
diseases,  or  groups  of  diseases,  has  been  observed 


GEOGRAl^IIY— GEOLOGY. 


from  the  most  ancient  periods,  as  we  haye  excel- 
lent eviJeuce  in  the  Hippocratic  treatise.  On 
Airs,  Waltrrn.  and  Places,  one  of  the  unJoubtciUy 
genuine  worlcs  of  the  great  Greek  jihysician,  and 
one  of  those  whieh  best  sustains  his  traditional 
reputation.  No\v-a-days,  medical  geography  has 
lieciime  a  most  elaborate  and  carefully  investigated 
branch  of  medical  science,  the  details  of  wliich, 
thougli  of  considerable  po])nlar  interest,  are  far  too 
conipUoated  and  ton  teclmical  to  be  discussed  %rith 
advanta"e  here.  The  reader  may  be  refeiTed  to  the 
articles  Endemic  Dke.vse,  Climate,  Ar;uE,  Dysen- 
tery, GoiTUE,  LepPwOSY,  Yellow  Feveis,  Placue, 
llE.MirrEXT  Keveii,  for  incidental  illustrations  of  the 
subject.  Generally  speaking,  the  tropics  are  subject 
to  dianhieal  diseases,  with  acute  allections  of  the 
liver,  and  severe  remittent  or  pestilential  fevers, 
caused  by  the  exalted  temperature  acting  on  the 
soil,  and  producing  emanations  very  destructive  of 
health  ;  the  like  causes  in  more  temperate  climates 
causing  ague  and  diarrhira,  especially  during  the 
summer  and  autimin,  in  low-lying,  ill-drained 
localities.  Tcmjierate  climates  are  also  subject  in  a 
Jieeidiar  degree  to  pulmonary  diseases,  and  to  all 
manner  of  contagious  fevers,  the  result  of  over- 
crowding and  confined  air.  Certiiu  diseases,  again, 
as  goitre,  leprosy,  and  some  animal  par.asites  (see 
E.vtozoa),  appear  to  have  no  relation  to  climate,  but 
are  found  to  all'ect,  more  or  less  exclusively,  certain 
well-delined  (Ustricts  of  country  ;  as  in  the  c;vse  of 
the  Guinea-worm,  the  Egy]]tiau  ophthalmia,  the 
pellagra  of  Lonibardy,  the  beri-beri  of  Ceylon  and 
the  JIalabar  coast,  and  the  elephantiasis  of  the 
Indian  peninsula  generally.  The  best  works  on 
medical  geography  are  those  of  Mlihry  in  Ger- 
many, and  Boudet  in  France,  which  are  remarkably 
learned  and  complete  treatises  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject. A  more  recent  one  still  is  that  of  Dr  August 
Hirsch  of  i>auzig,  a  work  of  immense  labour  and 
erudition,  not  yet  comj)leted.  On  tro]>lcal  diseases 
generally,  the  English  works  of  Annesley,  Twining, 
Morehead,  and  Sir  Ranald  Martin  are  of  confirmed 
reputation. 

GEO'LDGY  (Gr.  r/e  and  lo;/os),  the  science  of 
the  earth,  should  include  all  the  sciences  that  treat 
of  the  constitution  and  distribution  of  the  inor- 
ganic matter  of  the  earth,  >as  well  as  those  which 
describe  the  hving  beings  that  inlial:>it  it  ;  just  as 
astronomy  includes  the  whole  science  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  In  this  wide  sense,  as  comprising  all  the 
physical  sciences,  it  lias  sometimes  been  used.  As 
usually  cmployetl,  however,  it  has  a  nmcli  more 
limited  meaning,  being  confined  to  that  section 
of  the  sciences  wliich  takes  cognizance  of  the  hard 
crust  of  the  earth — of  the  m.atcrials  of  which  it 
is  composed,  and  of  the  manner  iu  which  these 
materials  are  arranged. 

The  structnre  of  the  earth  received  little  attention 
from  the  ancients  :  the  extent  of  its  surface  known 
was  limited,  and  the  changes  upon  it  were  neither 
so  speedy  nor  violent  as  to  excite  special  attention. 
The  only  opinions  deser%'ing  to  be  noticed,  that  have 
come  down  to  us,  are  those  of  Pythagoras  and  Strabo. 
They  both  observed  the  jihenomena  which  were 
then  altering  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  jiroposed 
theories  for  explaining  the  changes  that  had  taken 
jilace  in  geological  time.  The  first  held  that,  in 
addition  to  volcanic  aetiim,  the  change  in  the  level 
of  sea  and  land  was  owing  to  the  retiring  of  the 
sea ;  while  the  other  maintained  that  tlie  land 
changed  its  level,  and  not  the  sea,  and  that  such 
changes  happened  more  easily  to  the  land  below  the 
sea  liecause  of  its  humidity. 

From  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  during  the 
dark  ages,  the  cultivation  of  the  pliysical  sciences  1 
w.is  neglected.     In  the  10th  c,  Avicenna,  Omar,  and  ] 


other  Arabian  writers,  commented  on  the  works  of 
the  Romans,  but  added  little  of  their  own. 

Geological  phenomena  attracted  attention  in  Italy 
in  the  lljth  c,  the  alisorbing  question  then  being  as 
to  the  nature  of  fossihs.  On  the  one  side,  it  was  IieUl 
that  they  Mere  the  results  of  the  fermentation  of 
fatty  matter,  or  of  terrestrial  exhalations,  or  of  the 
influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  that  they  were 
mere  earthy  concretions  or  sports  of  nature  ;  while 
only  a  few  maintained  that  they  were  the  remains 
of  animals.  Two  centuries  elapsed  before  this 
opini(jn  was  generally  achiptcd.  At  the  outset,  it 
was  unfortunately  linked  to  the  belief  that  the 
fossils  were  relics  of  the  Noachian  deluge. 

Steno  (1()09)  obser\-ed  a  succession  m  the  str.ata, 
and  asserted  that  there  were  rocks  older  than  the 
fossilifcrous  strata  in  which  no  organic  remains 
occur ;  he  also  distinguished  between  marine  and 
iluviatile  formations.  He  was  not  al)le,  however, 
to  free  himself  from  the  absurd  hypotheses  of  his 
day. 

In  England,  the  dilnvialists  were  busy  framing 
idle  theories,  to  give  a  plausibility  to  their  creed, 
that  the  Noachian  deluge  was  the  cause  of  all  the 
past  changes  on  the  earth's  surface.  Differing  some- 
what in  detail,  they  all  agreed  in  the  notion  of  an 
interior  abyss,  whence  the  waters  rushed,  breaking 
uj)  and  bursting  through  the  crust  of  the  earth,  to 
cover  its  surface,  and  whither,  after  the  deluge,  they 
returned  again.  .Sueh  absurd  dreams,  obviously 
opptised  to  the  observed  order  of  nature,  greatly 
hindered  the  progress  of  true  science. 

Leibnitz  (KiSO)  proposed  the  Ijold  theory,  that  the 
earth  was  originally  in  a  molten  state  from  heat, 
and  that  the  primary  rocks  were  formed  by  the 
cooling  of  the  surface,  which  also  produced  the 
]iruneval  ocean,  by  condensing  the  surrounding 
vapours.  The  sedimentary  strata  resulted  from  the 
subsiding  of  the  waters  that  had  been  put  in  motion 
from  the  collapse  of  the  cmst  on  the  contracting 
nucleus.  This  process  was  sever.al  times  repeated, 
until  at  last  an  ecjnilibrium  was  est.ablished. 

Hooke  (168S)  and  Ray  (1G90),  diirering  as  much 
from  Burnet  as  from  Leil)nitz,  advocated  views 
similar  to  those  of  I'ythagoras.  They  considered 
the  essenti.d  condition  of  the  gloljc  to  be  one  of 
change,  and  that  the  forces  now  in  action  would, 
if  allowed  sutiicient  time,  in-oduce  changes  as  great 
as  those  of  geological  d.atc.  They  were  followed 
ill  the  same  direction  by  Vallisneri  (1720),  Moro 
(1740),  Buffon  (1749),  Lehman  (17.")0),  and  Fuchsel 
(177o),  each  contributing  sometliiug  additional. 
^Veruer  (I7S0)  greatly  adv.anced  the  science  by 
establishing  the  superposition  of  cei-tain  groujis, 
by  giving  a  system  and  ii.ames,  and  by  shewing  the 
practical  apjihcations  of  geology  to  mining,  agi'iciU- 
ture,  and  medicine.  He  had  very  criule  notions 
regarding  the  origin  of  the  strata,  supposing  that 
the  v.ai-ious  formations  were  precipitated  over  the 
earth  in  succession  from  a  chaotic  fluid  ;  even  the 
igneous  rocks  he  held  to  be  chemical  jirecipitatcs 
from  the  w,atei-s.  Hutton  (17SS),  rejecting  all 
theories  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  world,  returned 
to  the  opinions  of  Pyth.agoras  and  Ray.  He  held 
th.at  the  strata  which  now  compose  the  continents 
were  once  beneath  the  sea,  and  were  formed  out  of 
the  waste  of  pie-e.xisting  continents  by  the  action  of 
the  s.ame  forces  which  are  now  destroying  even 
the  hardest  rocks.  He  introduced  the  notion  of  a 
jieriodieal  elevation  of  the  sedimentary  deposits 
from  the  internal  heat  raising  the  bed  of  the  sea. 
Lyell,  in  our  own  da}',  has  adopted  and  improveil 
these  views,  eliminating  the  b.aseless  theories  which 
were  mixed  up  with  them,  and  demonstrating  th.at 
existing  forces  might  produce  all  the  iihenomeua  of 
geology. 

C97 


GEOLOGY. 


The  determination  of  the  order  of  the  strata,  and 
the  groiii)iu!;  of  thoni  in  chronological  order,  were 
begun  by  Leliman  (175(3),  and  carried  on  by  Fuchsel 
(ITT."!),  I'allas  (1785),  and  Werner.  Sniitli  made  the 
mti.st  important  contribution  to  thi.s  subject  when, 
in  1790,  he  published  his  Tahnlar  V ii'ii)  of  ilie  Britisli, 
Strata.  He  shewed  their  superposition,  and  charac- 
terised the  different  jjronps  by  their  jieciiliar  fossils. 
The  j)ublieation  of  his  Geological  Ma]i  of  England 
(1S15)  may  be  said  to  form  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  geology.  Since  then,  the  science  has  advanced 
by  rajiid  strides  ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect 
that  ere  long  all  the  chief  geological  features  of  the 
accessible  parts  of  the  world  will  be  known  and 
published. 

Geology,  in  its  restricted  and  usual  sense,  takes 
cognizance  of  the  solid  sulistance  of  the  earth,  or 
rather  of  as  much  of  it  as  is  accessible  to  man's 
observation.  Ho  has  not,  by  his  own  cflTorts,  pene- 
trated at  any  point  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards 
from  the  sm-face ;  but  natural  sections,  and  the  pecu- 
liar arr.ingement  of  the  stratified  rocks  (the  key  to 
which  he  has  to  some  extent  obtained),  have  given 
him  an  acquaintance  with  a  greater  thickness  than 
ccjuld  have  resiUted  from  his  own  labours.  He  has 
thus  by  actual  observations,  coupled  •with  reasonings 
upon  them,  been  able  to  construct  an  ideal  section 
representing  a  depth  of  perhaps  ten  miles,  or  about 
a  400th  part  of  the  distance  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre.  He  does  not,  and  cannot  "with  certainty, 
know  anjrthing  of  the  structure  or  condition  of 
what  is  deeper.  This  does  not,  however,  prevent 
the  attempt  to  know  something  of  what  is  beyond ; 
and  in  making  the  attempt,  there  are  many  facts 
which  serve  as  bases  for  inductions,  or  at  least 
thcorisings,  as  to  the  condition  of  the  interior  of  the 
globe.  As  the  conclusions  depend  upon  the  balancing 
of  evidence,  upon  the  value  given  to  one  set  of  facts 
as  set  against  another,  they  will  diS'er  according  to 
the  importance  given  by  each  individual  to  the  one 
or  other  set  of  facts. 

The  long  entertained  opinion  of  the  existence  of  a 
central  heat  seems  to  be  on  the  whole  fairly  estab- 
lished, and  upon  such  facts  as  these:  1.  There  is  a 
regular  and  gradual  increase  in  the  temperature  of 
all  deep  mines,  equal  to  1°  F.  for  every  55  feet  of 
descent  after  the  fii-st  100.  2.  Deep  weUs  hare 
always  a  high  tempcr.ature.  This  has  been  carefully 
determined  in  artesian  wells,  not  only  by  applying 
the  thermometer  to  the  water  at  the  surface  which 
has  risen  from  a  known  depth,  but  also  by  sinking 
the  instrument  to  various  depths.  The  results  have 
shewn  an  increment  similar  to  that  cxliibited  in 
mines.  Hot  or  boiling  natur.al  springs  rise  through 
great  and  deep  fissures.  3.  Igneous  rocks — that  is 
to  say  rocks  which  have  cooled  from  a  state  of 
fusion  by  heat — invariably  come  from  below  upwards, 
and  thus  testify  to  an  amount  of  internal  heat  able 
either  to  retain  these  rocks  in  a  state  of  fusion,  or 
to  convert  them  into  a  fluid  condition  before  their 
ejection.  4.  Physics  also  contributes  important 
evidence.  The  specific  gravity  of  granite  or  basalt 
is  scarcely  3,  whde  that  of  the  earth,  according  to 
the  recent  experiments  of  Airy,  is  about  C.^.  If  the 
earth  were  solid,  the  influence  of  gravitation  would 
so  increase  the  density  of  the  composing  rock  as  to 
give  a  greater  spcciflc  gravity  for  the  earth  than  6i. 
Tlierc  must,  then,  be  some  expansive  force  acting  to 
reduce  the  gravity,  and  the  only  force  witli  which 
we  are  acquainted  that  could  so  act  is  heat.  On 
the  other  hand,  physics  raises  difficulties  which 
militate  against  the  fluid  condition  cjf  any  consider- 
able portion  of  the  earth's  ulterior,  and  in  these 
difhculties  it  is  supported  by  astronomy.  If,  how-  I 
ever,  the  obser\'ations  made  in  mines  and  wells  ' 
supply  a  measure  for  estimating  the  increase  from  I 
01)3 


the  surface  do^miwards  of  that  heat  which  seems 
to  be  fairly  established,  then  it  would  follow  that 
the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  is  not  more  than  25  miles 
thick,  for  the  heat  at  that  depth  wotdd  be  so  great 
as  to  fuse  any  known  substance. 

The  strict  province  of  geology  is  the  observed 
or  observable  portion  of  the  earth's  crust.  l"he 
early  "cologists  were  no  more  than  geognosts — 
they  observed  and  described  the  rock-mineralogy 
of  districts,  and  tlms  laid  the  foimdations  for 
those  generalisations  which  have  raised  geology  to 
its  present  position.  The  materials  of  the  "arth's 
crust  were  at  flrst  grouped  together  according 
to  their  composition,  structure,  and  origin ;  but 
gradually  it  became  evident  that  the  rocks  them- 
selves occurred  in  groups,  and  that  they  had  a 
particular  order  in  nature  ;  until  at  last,  all  the 
sedimentary  strata  were  arranged  in  a  single  con- 
tinuous and  chronological  series,  fi-om  characters 
drawn  less  from  their  lithological  structure  than 
from  their  organic  contents.  Both  systems  of 
classification  are  important — that  of  the  geognost 
as  well  as  that  of  the  modern  geolorist.  The  one  is 
the  result,  to  a  large  extent,  of  work  in  the  labora- 
tory and  the  study,  and  m.ay  be  accomjilished  by 
the  examination  of  hand  specimens ;  the  other  mu.st 
be  determined  in  the  field,  and  only  from  the  exami- 
nation of  rocks  in  the  mass,  and  in  their  natiu-al 
position.  The  term  hthology  has  been  applied  to 
the  one  aspect,  while  stromatology  {stroma,  a  layer) 
may  with  equal  fitness  be  given  to  the  other. 

Lilhuloijy. — All  rocks  are  either  igneous  or  sedi- 
mentary ;  that  is,  have  either  been  produced  by  the 
action  of  heat,  or  been  arranged  by  mechanical  or 
other  means  in  layers  or  beds. 

I.  The  Igneous  rocks  difTer  amongst  themselves 
in  their  composition,  structure,  and  age  :  they  are 
made  up  of  different  materials ;  they  have  various 
textures,  as  granidar,  comjiact,  or  glassy ;  and 
they  have  been  ejected  at  difl'erent  periods  of  the 
earth's  liistory.  From  these  characteristics,  they 
have  been  grouped  thus :  1.  The  Volcanic  Rocks 
(q.  v.),  comprising  all  that  have  been  formed  during 
the  present  and  tertiary  periods,  and  which  are 
popularly  known  as  lavas  and  volcanic  ash.  They 
have  been  ejected  from  volcanoes  either  in  a  fluid 
state,  spreading  over  the  land,  and  cooling  as  com- 
pact lavas ;  or  spreading  below  sh.allow  water,  and 
becoming  vesicular  pumice,  or  as  ash  scattered  in 
layers  over  the  country;  or  they  have  risen  into 
cracks  and  creWces  of  rocks  as  dykes  and  veins. 
Their  principal  constituents  are  felspar  and  augite, 
and  the  different  varieties  depend  on  the  predom- 
inance of  the  one  or  other  of  these  ingredients. 
The  feldspathio  lavas  are  generally  light-coloured, 
and  have  a  rough  prickly  feel  to  the  finger.  The 
chief  varieties  are  Trachj'te,  Pcarlstone,  PhonoUte, 
Obsiilian,  and  Pumice.  The  augitic  lavas  .are  of 
a  dark-green  or  black  colour,  weathering  broTvn 
externally,  and  are  generally  heavier  than  the  feld- 
spathio lavas.  The  most  common  forms  are  Dolorite, 
Basalt,  and  Leucito.  2.  The  Trappean  Rocks  (q.  v.), 
which  generally  belong  to  the  primary  and  second- 
ary strata,  and  .are  composed  of  the  same  m.aterials 
as  the  volcanic  rocks,  except  that  the  sdicates 
of  m.agnesia  and  lime  crystallise  in  the  hatter  as 
augite,  while  they  assume  the  more  obtuse  form  of 
hornblende  in  the  trappean  rocks.  Tr.ap-rocks  are 
always  associated  with  a  pipe  or  dyke  connecting 
them  -inth  the  underlying  mass  from  which  the 
materials  were  obtained.  They  have  either  over- 
flown the  surface,  and  formed  a  bed  conformable 
to,  and  contemporaneous  with  the  subjacent  str.ata, 
or  inserted  themselves  between  already  formed 
strata,  forming  injected  sheets  that  are  not  contem- 
poraneous.  The  i>redonunance  of  the  one  constituent 


GEO  LOG  V. 


material  over  the  other  gives  the  basis  for  grouping 
the  trappeau  rocks  iiito  the  feldspathic  traps,  wliich 
are  light-coloureil  anil  generally  compact  rocks,  the 
chief  varieties  being  Felstone  and  Pitehstone,  and 
HombleuJic  trajis  or  Greenstones,  containing  the 
most  abundant  and  best  known  rocks  of  this  divi- 
sion. They  are  of  a  greenish  colour,  varying  from 
very  light, -nhen  the  felspar  is  white  and  abounding, 
to  almost  black,  when  the  constituent  minerals  are 
liuely  divided  and  coloured  with  iron.  In  texture, 
also,  there  is  considerable  difference,  some  being 
line-grained  and  compact,  wlule  in  others  the  crys- 
talline structure  is  very  evident.  The  prmcipal 
varieties  are  Greenstone,  Basalt,  and  Melaphyre. 
rori)hyry  occurs  in  both  the  volcanic  and  trappean 
rocks  when  the  felspar  is  aggregated  in  l.irge  and 
evident  crystals,  scattered  tlu-ough  the  body  of  the 
rock.  3.  The  (iranitic  Rocks  (q.  v.).  The  striking 
characteristic  of  these  rocks  is  the  abundance  of 
silex  in  a  separate  and  uncombuied  state  as  pure 
quartz.  Granites  are  associated  with  the  prunaiy 
strata  ;  they  form  also  the  support  of  the  sedmien- 
tary  deposit,  wherever  their  base  has  been  exposed 
to  view.  They  occur  in  beds  oveApreading  the 
sedimentary  deposits  or  intercalated  with  them, 
in  dykes,  or  as  the  apparent  fundamental  and 
unstratified  rock.  The  cliief  varieties  arc  true 
Granite,  Syenite,  and  Protogene. 

II.  The   Sedimentary  Rocks   occur  in   layers   or 
strata.      They  are  cither  aqueous,  aerial,  chemical, 
or  organic  in  their  origin.     1.  The  Aqueous  Rocks 
(q.  V.)  are  Argillaceous  (q.  v.),  composed  more  or  less 
of  clay,  as  kaolin  shale  and  clay-slate ;  or  Arenaceous 
(q.  v.),  in  which  the  constituent  portions  are  so  large 
as  to  be  evident  to  the  eye,  as  in  sandstone.     The 
aqueous  rocks  were  deposited  in  tliiu  layers,  which, 
however,   frequently   cohere,  so   as    to   form    solid 
masses  or  beds  of  considerable  thickness.    Originally 
deposited  horizontally,   they   have   in   many   cases 
been  subjected  to  disturbances  that  have  elevated 
or  depressed  them ;  hence  have  arisen  Faults  (q.  v.) 
and  Dislocations  (q.  v.),  as  well  as  the  exjiosmg  of 
the  edges  of  the  strata  on  the  surface  of  the  e.arth 
(Strike,  q.  v.)  at  v.arious  angles  (Dip,  q.  v.).     2.  The 
Aerial  Rocks,  which  cannot  be  easily  separated  from 
.aqueous  rocks,  excejit  by  their  anomalous  stratifica- 
tion (see  DniFT).      'ITiey  play  so  important  a  part 
on   sandy  coasts  and   arid  interiors  at  the  present 
d.iy  that  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  helped  m 
former  periods  to  bring  the  earth  into  its  jiresent 
condition.    3.  The  Chemical  Rocks  have  been  formed 
from    the   evaporation    of    liquids   containing    sub- 
stances in  solution.     The  materials  thus  deposited 
are  salt,  gypsmn,  lime,  and  silex.     Salt  is  generaUy 
associated  with  gj-psum,  and  occurs  in  a  great  range 
of  formations  from  the  Devonian  or  Carboniferous, 
up  to  the  most  recent.     The  salt  nunes  at  North- 
wich    in  Cheshire,  belong   to  the   Tnassic   period. 
Rock-s.ilt   occurs   in    a    coarsely   crystalline    mass, 
cenerally   coloured   with    iron,   and    more    or    less 
fiiixed  with  clay  and  other  impurities.     The  deposits 
are   often   of    great    thickness,   but    apparently  of 
hmited  extent,  and  were   probably  precipitated   in 
isohatcd  brine-lakes.     Gypsum  seems  to  h.ave  been 
formed  under  similar  circumstances.    It  is  abundant 
in  the  Maguesian  Limestone,  m  the  London  tiay 
and  in  the  Paris  Basin.    Lime  has  not  been  deposited 
in  masses,  like  g>TSum,  but  only  from  the  exposm-e 
to  the   atmosphere   of   smaU   quantities   of    liqmil 
saturated  ■ivith  it,  which,  by  evaporation,  have  left 
stalacTuitic  or  tuf.accous  deposits.     bOicioiLs  sinter 
has  been  deposited  in  a  simil.ar  manner  as  it  is  at 
the  present  day  around  the  liot  springs  of  Iceland. 
4.  The  Organic  Rocks  arc  those  which  have  been 
entirely     or    to    a    large  extent,  formed  from  the 
remains    of    auim.als-as    chalk    and    other    more 


compact  limestones— or  vegetables,  as  coal,  ligmte, 
and  diatomaceous  dejiosits. 

Changes  arc  continually  taking  place  in  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  altering  their  structure  and  texture. 
Among  the  chief  agents  including  these  mctamorphio 
changes  are  chenucal  attraction,  the  infiltration  of 
water,  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  strata, 
and  above  all,  heat  and  magnetism.  Some  of  the 
older  strata  have  been  so  much  altered  that  they  are 
generally  spoken  of  as  Metamorphic  Rocks  (q.  v.). 

Stromatolorjij.—'We  apply  this  title  to  that  division 
of  geology  which  considers  the  stratified  rocks  in 
their  clSonological  order,  as  exhibiting  different 
phases  of  the  history  and  development  of  the  globe 
itself,  and  in  their  fossil  contents  setting  forth  the 
progress  of  life  upon  its  surface.  Referring  to  the 
article  PAI..E0NT0LOGY  for  a  notice  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  organisms  that  have  been  preserved  in 
the  rocks,  we  shall  lieie  give  a  rapid  sketch  of  the 
various  periods  in  the  earth's  geological  history. 

The  original,  .and,  as  it  is  supposed,  molten  condi- 
tion of  the  globe  is  hid  in  mystery  and  uncertainty. 
The  geologist  takes   up   the   history  at  the   point 
where  air  and  water  make   their  appearance,  and 
where  the  inorganic  substances  were  subject  to  the 
same  infiuences  as  those  now  in  operation.     It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  the  fundamental  crust  is  in 
any  place  exposed  or  has  ever  been  uncovered  by 
man.     The  earliest  rocks  observed,  though  probably 
not  the  oldest,  are  those  described  by  Logan  as  the 
Laurentian  System  (q.  v.).     The  typical  beds  occur 
in  Canada ;  strata  of  the  same  age  have  lately  been 
detected   in   Scotland    by   ilurchison   and   Geikie. 
The   strata  have  been  very  much  metamorphosed 
by  the  action  of  heat,  and  by  the  many  chemical 
and  physical  forces  wliich  heat  has  set  in  motion, 
so  that  the  original  condition  is   entirely  altered, 
the   whole   series    being    converted   into    gneissose 
strata,  with  one  or  two  greatly  altered  beds  of  lime- 
stone.    Fossils,  if  they  ever  existed,  have  been  obli- 
terateiL     Even  in  the  succeeding  Cumbrian  Series 
(q.  v.),   they   are   very   rare,   consisting  of    a   few 
zo'ophj-tes,    crustaceans,    and    annelids,   with    very 
doubtful  impressions  of   sea-weeds.      The   rocks  of 
this  iieriod  consist  of  thick  masses  of  sandstones 
and  slates  or  shales.     The  Snurlan  Period  (q.  v.)  is 
represented  by  immense  marine  deposits,  which  in 
some  districts  are  rich  in  the  remains  of  invertebrate 
animals,   while    other    extensive    tracts    have    not 
yielded   a  single    fossil      Ko   certain   e^.^dence   of 
I)I.ants  has  yet  been  observed  in  this  period,  yet  the 
economy   of   life    woidd   however   require   then,   as 
now,  oxygen-producers  and  carbonic  acid  consumers. 
Perhaps  Ihe    anthracite  of   the   graiitolitic   shales, 
and  the  od  from  the  bitummous  Siliuaan  shales  of 
North  America,  may  be  in  ])art  or  in  whole  of  vege- 
table origin.     The  first  traces  of  the  existence  of 
dry  land  occur   in  the  Old  J!<d  Snndstone  (q.  v.). 
The  great  mass  of  the  strata  of  this  period  consist 
of   immense  thicknesses  of   limestone,  composed  of 
corals  and  shell-fish,  of  beds  of  shale  and  of  s.and- 
stone,  crowded   in   some   places  with  fish-remains. 
A  few  land-plants  and  air-breathing  anim.als,  the 
tenants  of  the  dry  land,  are  preserved  in  the  upper 
strata,  which,  however,  probably  belong  to  the  next 
period.     The  Carhoniferoua  Meamres  (see  Cakboni- 
FEKous  Systesi)  are  ushered  in  by  a  great  thickness 
of  deep-sea  hmestone.     The  coal-bearmg  strata  are 
alternately  sea,  estuary,  or  lake  deposits  of   sand- 
stone, shale,  and  limestone,  and  dry  land  surfaces 
with  the  vegetation  converted  into  coaL   The  waters 
teemed  with  fishes  of  gre.at  size  and  strange  form  ; 
and  the  dry  land  was  covered  with  a  rank  and  lu.xu- 
riant  vegetation  of  ferns  and  coniferous  trees,  and 
strange  forms  like  gigantic  reeds  and  club-mosses. 
A  few  air-breathing  reptiles  and  sliclls  have  been 

cy'J 


GEOMANCY-GKOMETRICAL  IT.OGRESSIOX. 


found  in  these  strata.  The  Permian  Period  (q.  v.) 
cxhiliits  a  gioui)  of  orf;anism3  differing  little  from 
those  of  the  preceding  ejioch,  witli  tlie  exceiitiou  of 
a  few  added  reptiles.  The  Permian  strata  are 
sandstones,  gypseous  marls,  and  common  and  mag- 
iifsian  limestones. 

With  these  beds  terminate  the  Palieozoio  Kocks. 
Before  the  commeucerneut  of  the  Seeondary  Epoeli, 
great  disturbances  and  depressions  took  place  in 
the  districts  whose  geological  structure  has  been 
examined ;  and  .it  the  same  time  a  great  change 
took  place  in  the  character  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  life. 

The  tj-jjical  rocks  of  the  Triasslc  Period  (q.  v.), 
the  earliest  of  the  Secondary  Epoch,  exist  in  Ger- 
many. They  are  highly  fossUiferous,  containing  the 
remains  of  marine  animals  of  various  kinds.  In 
Uritain,  the  rocks  are  chielly  red  sandstones  and 
red  marls,  the  colouring  matter  of  which  seems  to 
have  been  destructive  to  life  ;  the  oidy  fossils  they 
contain  are  a  few  land-plants,  and  some  footprints 
and  fragments  of  bones  of  reptUcs. 

The  Lias  (q.  v.),  which  follows,  and  forms  the 
base  of  the  Oolite  formation,  consists  of  extensive 
clay  deposits,  witli  argillaceous  limestones  and  sand- 
stones— strata  which  indicate  the  existence  of  large 
tracts  of  land.  The  contained  fossils  have  a  mixed 
land,  fresh-water,  and  sea  ch.aracter.  With  con- 
siderable numbei'S  of  jilants  and  insects,  there  are 
also  mai'ine  brachiopods  and  cejihalopods,  and  the 
reuuirkable  swimming  reptiles,  that  are  so  perfectly 
preserved  as  to  supply  materials  for  nearly  perfect 
restorations. 

The  Oolite  Sei-ieg  (q.  v.)  consists  of  alternating  beds 
of  limestone  and  clay,  with  A-cry  little  intervening 
sandstone.  The  abundance  of  dry  land  is  testified 
to  by  the  number  and  variety  of  the  air-breathing 
fossils  (amongst  which  mamm.alia  apjiear  for  the 
first  time),  and  even  by  the  occiu-rence  of  str.ata 
that  have  been  ancient  soils.  The  group  is  highly 
fossiliferons. 

Tlie  Cretaceous  Strata  {see  Cretaceous  Group), 
which,  as  a  -nhole,  have  had  a  deep-sea  origin,  are 
introduced  by  fresh-water  and  estuary  de])osits, 
shewing  that  gi'e.at  tracts  of  land  were  traversed 
by  mighty  rivers  actively  abrading  and  carrying  ofT 
materials  for  delta  deposits.  The  life  of  the  pi-riod 
was  abundant.  The  immense  thicknesses  of  clialk, 
wliich  give  the  name  to  the  group,  are  composed  to 
a  very  large  extent  of  the  perfect  or  comminuted 
shells  of  foramiuifera  and  moUusca.  Besides  these, 
land-pl.ants,  fresh-water  and  marine  shells  and  fish, 
and  large  terrestrial  and  marine  reptiles,  occur. 
Eii-ds  and  mammalia  have  not  yet  been  observed, 
but  it  is  most  probable  that  they  did  exist,  as  they 
have  been  foimd  in  older  strata. 

In  passing  to  the  Terti.ary  Epoch,  there  is  not 
found  so  striking  a  change  in  the  life  of  the  globe 
as  tliat  which  characterised  the  division  between  the 
Pakeozoic  and  Secondary  strata.  From  the  Trias, 
the  fossils  have  been  gi-adually  assuming  the  .appe.ar- 
ance  of  existing  organisms :  many  strange  forms 
have  existed  and  ]iassed  away  without  leaving 
representatives  in  the  later  strata  or  in  the  living 
inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Still,  the  fades  of  the 
organic  remains  gradually  ajiproachcs  that  of  the 
present  fauna  and  flora,  until  the  Eoeene  Period 
(q.  v.),  when  some  fossils  appear,  which,  if  not  iden- 
tical \\\\\\  recent  species,  so  nearly  aj^proach  them, 
as  to  make  it  impossible  to  distinguish  them.  The 
jiroportiou  of  such  species  is  from  3i  to  5  per  cent. 
The  seas  in  which  the  Eocene  beds  were  deposited 
were  comparatively  small,  and  consequently  the 
dejiosits  occur  in  scattered  and  isolated  basins.  The 
earlier  .strata  are  marine,  but  towards  the  middle  of 
this  period  they  become  laciistrino  or  fluviatile. 


The  Miocene  Period  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  contain  abuve 
2.5  per  cent,  of  living  forms.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
there  are  in  Britain  any  true  represent.atives  of  this 
jieriod.  The  strata  are  largely  developed  in  France 
and  Belgium.  Besides  abouniling  in  marine  mol- 
lusea,  the  Miocene  strata  contain  the  remains  of 
many  large  mammalia.  The  dej>osits  of  the  Pliocene 
Period  (q.  v.)  contain  from  5U  to  70  per  cent  of 
existing  forms.  The  strata  are  marly  sands  and 
gi-avels  abounding  with  sea-spoils. 

In  the  Pleistocene  Strata  (q.  v.),  the  proportion  of 
existing  forms  is  still  greater — indeed,  all  the  prin- 
cipal generic  forms  now  alive,  except  man,  seem  to 
have  been  in  existence  during  this  jierioih  The 
strata  consist  of  the  sands,  gravels,  and  bouldei 
clay  left  by  glaciers  and  icebergs,  of  marls  and 
raised  sea-beaches. 

The  newer  strata  belong  to  the  human  period, 
and  have  been,  and  are  continuing  to  be,  formed  by 
agents  now  in  operation.  They  contain  the  remains 
of  species  of  plants  and  animals  wliich  stiU  live  on 
the  globe. 

GE'OSIANCY.     See  Dn-iNATiox. 

GEOME'TrvIC.\L,  related  to  Geometry  (q.  v.), 
as  a  geometrical  line,  demonstration,  construction, 
&e.  As  to  geometrical  lines,  see  Co-ORDiN.VTEi!, 
Curves,  and  Demonstration.  Geometrical  con- 
structions and  Solutions  were  anciently  such  as 
were  efiected  by  means  of  the  straight  line  and 
cu'cle — the  only  lines  which  were  regarded  as  pro- 
perly geometrical — and  according  to  the  strict  rules 
of  geometry.  The  ancient  geometers  employed  two 
methods  of  reasoning  in  their  inquiries  and  demon- 
strations, known  as  ijeometrieal  aiiah/sis  and  si/ntJiesit. 
Of  these,  the  synthetical  method  was  the  older  and 
more  generally  employed.  It  is  abundantly  illus- 
trated in  Euclid's  Elements,  in  which  new  truths  are 
deduced  from  combinations  of  truths  already  estab- 
lished, so  that  every  proposition  depends  on  others 
preceding  it.  See  Svnthesis.  Though  admir.ably 
suited  for  the  demonstration  of  truth  once  ascer- 
tained, tills  method  Avas  found  of  little  use  in  the 
discovery  of  truth,  or  of  the  mode  of  its  demonstra- 
tion. For  these  purposes,  the  an.alj-tical  method 
is  admii-ably  adapted.  See  An.vlvsls.  According 
to  this  method,  the  proposition  which  is  to  be 
proved  is  assumed  to  be  true,  or  the  construction 
required  is  supjiosed  to  be  efiected;  and  then  the 
conditions  of  the  proposition  being  true,  or  the 
construction  eftectcd,  are  investigated  by  reasoning 
backwards  tUl  some  elementary  truth  or  smii>le 
constniction  is  reached,  on  Avhich  the  tnitli  or 
constiiiction  nnder  inqniiy  is  seen  to  depend.  The 
analj-tical  method  of  reasoning  in  geometry  is  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Plato.  The  Greeks  have 
left  on  record  many  proofs  of  the  power  and  beauty 
of  the  method  as  a  means  of  discovery. 

GEOMETRICAL  MEAN  of  two  numbers  is 
that  number  the  square  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  the  two  numbers  ;  thus,  the  geometrical 
mean  of  9  and  IG  is  1-2,  for  9  x  16  =  144  =  P2=; 
hence  the  geometrical  mean  of  two  numbers  is 
found  by  multiiilyiug  the  two  numbers  together, 
and  extr.acting  the  squ.are  root  of  the  product. 

GEOMETRICAL  PROGRESSION.  A  scries 
of  quantities  are  said  to  be  in  geometncal  pro- 
gression when  eacli  term  of  the  soxaes  is  equal 
to  that  which  precedes  it  multiplied  by  some 
constant  factor — i.  e.,  some  factor  which  is  the 
same  for  all  the  tei'uis ;  or,  in  other  words, 
when  the  ratio  of  any  two  successive  terms  is  the 
s.ame.  Thus  o,  or,  or",  ar'...  and  2,  0,  18,  54...  are 
geometrical  series.  Tlie  sum  of  n  terms  of  the 
fonner  series  may  be  easily  obtained.  Let  it  be  S. 
Then  S  =  a  +  ar  +  an  +  ...  +  ar"'\   Multiply  botli 


GEOMETKICAL  TRACERY— GEOMETRY. 


siilfs  Ijy  )■,  we  have  rS  =  ar  +  at"  +  ...  +  ar". 
Sulitractinj,'  the  fornier  of  these  expressions  from  the 
latter,  wo   liave   (r  —  1)S  =  a;-"  —  a.     Whence  we 

r"  —  1 
have  S  =  n. :-.     If   the  series  be   one  whose 

T  —  i 

terms  constantly  diniini-sli,  i.  e.,  ii  r.^\.  and  then  if 
we  suppose  n  inileliuitcly  great,  r"  will  be  iude- 


lliiitcly  small,  and  we  shall  have  S  = 


for  the 


sum  of  the  series  e.xtended  ad  hiJinUum.     For  ex- 

3         'i         3 

ami.le,  the  sum  of  the  series  j~  +  -l^^  +  _1-^  +  „.ad 

iiijiiiitum  is  J.     It  is  obvious  that  any  three  of  the 
four  quantities  a,  r,  n,  S  being  given,  the  enuatiou 

r"  —  I      . 
S  =  a . will  enable  us  to  iind  the  fourth. 

)■  —  1 

OKOMETUICAfy  TKACEKY,  a  name  fre- 
quently used  to  (listiuf;nisli  a  class  of  tracery  where 
the  parts  are  all  more  or  less  like  diagrams  iii 
geometry.     See  Tracekv. 

GEO'METRY,  the  science  of  space,  discusses  and 
investigates  the  jiroperties  of  delinite  portions  of 
s|iace  under  the  fourfohl  division  of  lini:s,  angles, 
surfaces,  and  volumes,  witliout  reganl  to  any  Jiliysi- 
eal  properties  wliicli  they  may  have.  It  has  various 
divisions,  e.  g.,  I'lane  and  Solid  Geometry,  Analyti- 
cal or  Algebraical  Geometry,  Descriptive  Geometry, 
and  the  Higher  CJeometry.  Plane  and  solid  geometry 
are  occuiiied  with  the  consideration  of  right  lines 
and  plane  surfaces,  and  with  the  solids  generated 
by  them,  as  well  as  witii  the  ])i-operties  of  the 
circle,  and,  it  may  be  saiil,  the  sphere;  while  the 
higher  geometry  considers  the  conic  sections  and 
curved  lines  generally,  and  the  bodies  generated  by 
them.  In  the  higher  geometry,  immense  advances 
have  recently  been  made  through  improved  methods, 
the  application  of  modem  anaJysis,  and  the  various 
calculi  in  algeln-aical  geometry,  the  nature  of 
which  is  explained  in  the  article  Co-oudinates 
(q.  v.).  Descriptive  geometry,  a  division  of  the 
science  so  named  by  Monge  (q.v.),  is  properly  an 
extension  or  general  apiilicatiou  of  the  princijile  of 
I'rojections  (q.  v.),  its  object  being  to  represent  on 
two  jilane  surfaces  the  elements  and  character  of 
any  solid  figure.  It  has  many  practical  applications. 
When  one  surface  ]ienetrates  another,  for  instance, 
there  often  result  from  their  intersection  curves 
of  doulde  curvature,  the  description  of  which  is 
necessary  in  some  of  the  arts,  as  in  groined  vault- 
work,  aud  in  cutting  areh-stoncs,  &c.,  and  this  is 
supplied  by  descriptive  geometry. 

The  history  of  geometry  is  full  of  interest,  but  no 
more  can  be  given  here  than  a  very  bare  sketch 
of  it.  The  nanu!  of  the  science  (Gr.  and  Lat. 
f/cotnelna)  originally  signified  the  art  of  measuring 
land.  Herodotus,  the  earliest  authority  on  the 
subject,  assigns  the  origin  of  the  art  to  the  neces- 
sity of  measuring  lands  ui  Egyjit  for  the  purposes 
of  taxation,  in  the  reign  of  8esostris,  about  1-116 — 
l.'i57  1!. C.  (Hero,  book  ii.  chap.  109).  This  is  prob- 
able, not  only  as  resting  on  such  authority,  but  also 
becaiLse,  d  yn'ori,  we  should  expect  the  necessity 
of  measuring  lands  to  arise  with  property  in  land, 
and  to  give  birth  to  the  art.  Of  the  state  of 
the  science,  however,  among  the  Chaldeans  and 
Egyptians,  we  have  no  record. 

The  story  of  Herodotus  is  further  confirmed  by 
tradition.  Pi'oclus,  in  his  commentary  on  Euclid's 
KUmaiU  (b.  ii.  c.  4),  says  that  the  art  was  brought 
to  Greece  from  Egypt  by  Thalcs,  who  was  himself 
a  great  discoverer  m  geometry.  The  (creeks  at 
once  took  keenly  to  the  study;  various  disciples  of 
Thales  excelled  iu  it,  chief  among  them  Pythagoras, 
who,  according  to  Proclus,  first  gave  geometry  the 


form  of  a  deductive  science,  besides  discovering 
some  of  its  most  important  elenu'utary  jiropo- 
sitions,  among  others,  it  is  said,  the  47th  Prop.  Euc. 
b.  i.  See  article  Pvthauoras  for  a  notice  of  his 
othor  contril)Ution3  to  the  science.  Pythagoras  had 
illustrious  successors:  Anaxagoras  of  Clazomeme ; 
/Enoi)idis,  the  reputed  discoverer  of  Euc.  b.  I. 
12,  2;{;  Briso  and  Antipho;  Hii)poerates  of  Chios, 
who  '  doubled  the  cube,'  and  quadrated  the  lunula, 
which  bear  his  name,  and  is  said  to  have  wiitten 
a  treatise  on  geometry ;  Zenodorns  ;  Ucmocritus 
of  Abdera ;  ami  Theodoi'us  of  C'.>Tene,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  one  of  tlu'.  instructors  of  Plato, 
whose  name  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
science.  Over  his  Academy  at  Athens,  I'lato 
iJaced  the  celebrated  iuscrijition,  Mede'iKuijenmHretoa 
eisUo  ('  Let  no  one  ignoi-ant  of  geometry  enter 
here  '),  thus  recognising  it  as  the  first  of  the  .sciences, 
and  as  the  projier  introduction  to  the  higher  ])hil- 
osophy.  He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  method 
of  geometrical  analysis,  and  of  geometrical  loci 
and  the  conic  sections,  called  in  his  time  the  higher 
geometry.  From  his  Academy  proceeded  many 
who  advanced  the  science,  of  whom  Proclus  men- 
tions thirteen,  and  more  than  one  of  them  as  having 
written  treatises  on  the  subject,  that  have  becu 
lost.  We  shall  mention  but  two  of  these  :  Eudoxus, 
who  is  said  to  have  l)rought  into  form  and  order  ui 
a  treatise  the  results  of  the  studies  at  the  Academy, 
aiul  to  have  invented  the  doctrine  of  proportion,  as 
treated  in  the  5th  book  of  Euclid's  KlemeiiU ;  and 
the  great  Aristotle,  who  assigned  geometry  as  high 
a  jJace  as  Plato  did,  aud  wlio  wmte  a  treatise  on 
the  subject,  as  did  at  least  two  ttf  his  pujiils,  Theo- 
phrastns  and  Eudenius,  from  the  latter  of  whom 
Proclus  took  most  of  his  facts.  Autolycns,  a  dis- 
ciple of  this  Theophrastus,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
movable  sphere,  yet  extant ;  while  Arista;us,  the 
reputed  instructor  of  Euclid  in  geometry,  is  said 
to  have  written  live  books  on  the  conic  sections, 
and  five  on  solid  loci,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

The  name  of  Euclid  marks  another  epoch  in  the 
history  of  geometry,  and  the  chief  interest  of  the 
vague  sketch  above  given  of  the  labours  of  his 
predecessors  lies  in  its  demonstrating  the  great 
mass  of  materials  from  which  he  constructcil  his 
Elementx — the  variety  of  treatises  which  prepared 
tlie  Avay  for  that  gi-eat  work  whose  pre-eminence  has 
now  for  over  2l)lil)  years  been  undisputed.  In  the 
J^lan^fiitls,  pjUclid  c()llected  all  the  theorems  which 
had  been  uivented  by  his  predecessors  in  Egyjtt  and 
Greece,  and  digested  them  into  fifteen  books, 
demonstrating  and  ari-augiug  the  whole  in  a  very 
accurate  and  jjcrfect  manner.  See  Euclid.  Next 
to  Euclid,  of  the  ancient  writers  whose  works  are 
extant,  must  lie  named  AiioUonius  I'ergauis,  who 
nourished  about  230  B.C.,  aiul  about  lUO  j-ears  later 
than  Euclid,  aud  was  called  '  the  Great  Geometri- 
cian,' on  account  of  his  work  on  the  Conies,  and 
other  ingenious  geometrical  writings.  Much  aliout 
the  same  time  with  ApoUonius  ilourished  Archi- 
medes, not  less  celebrated  for  his  geometrical  than 
for  his  mechanical  inventions.  See  Archimedes, 
and  ArOLLO.MVS  of  Perga.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  Aiiollonius  first  gave  the  names  of  ellipse  and 
hifperhula  to  two  of  the  conic  sections,  the  thml 
of  which  had  previously  been  called  the  parabola 
by  Archimedes. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  time  of  Archimedes, 
we  find  few  names  of  note  in  connection  with 
gecmietry.  We  but  mention  Nicomedcs,  Hippar- 
clius,  and  Theodosins  of  Tripoli.  The  Greeks, 
however,  never  mtermitted  their  attention  to  the 
science  ;  they  continued  it  even  after  their  subjuga- 
tion by  the  Romans,  and  we  finil  them  prodncing 
many  excellent  geometers  after  the  translation   of 

7W 


GEO.METKY— GEOKGE  I. 


the  Eoman  Empire,  and  witliin  our  era :  Ptolemy 
(q.  v.),  who  died  147  A.D. ;  Pappus  (q.  v.),  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Theodosius  (370—395  A.D.) ;  Proelus, 
who  lived  in  the  5tli,  and  Eutocius,  in  the  Gth  cen- 
tiiry.  The  works  of  all  these  WTiters  are  still  extant. 
Meantime,  the  P>omans,  the  dominant  race,  even  in 
the  most  flourishing  time  of  the  republic,  were  so 
ignorant  of  the  science,  that,  according  to  Tacitus, 
they  gave  the  name  of  Mathematicians  (q.  v.) 
to  those  who  practised  divination  and  judicial 
astrology.  As  may  be  supiiosed,  their  domination 
was  not  favourable  to  the  science,  and  only  one 
Eoman  name  can  be  mentioned — \'i2.,  Boethius,  who 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  5th  c,  who  attained 
eminence  in  geometry ;  and  of  his  writings,  it  must 
be  said,  as  of  the  Roman  literature  generally,  th.-it 
they  were  but  compilations  and  reflections  of  Greek 
thought.  But  if  the  Pvoman  emjjire  was  unfavour- 
able.its  downfall,  and  the  consequent  inundation  of 
ignorance  and  barbarism,  -were  still  more  so.  The 
rise  of  the  Slohammedan  power  in  the  7th  c., 
and  the  rapid  and  desolatmg  consequences  which 
followed,  further  hastened  the  extinction  of  the 
Greek  sciences.  The  time  now  came  when  those 
who  devoted  themselves  to  science  were  everj'where 
branded  as  magicians,  and  exposed  to  popular  fury. 
It  was  in  these  times  that,  fortunately  for  ci\'ilisa- 
tion,  an  asylum  was  found  for  the  spirit  of  inquiry 
in  Arabia.  An  acquaintance  with  the  science  of 
the  Hindus  prepared  the  Arabians  for  the  reception 
of  the  writings  of  the  Greek  astronomers  and 
mathematicians ;  and  the  dispersion  of  the  scientific 
coteries  of  Alexandria  gave  to  Bagdad  many  pre- 
cejitors  in  the  learning  of  the  West.  In  little  more 
than  a  century  after  it  took  place,  the  Arabians 
were  the  most  zealous  patrons  and  ciUtivators  of 
Greek  science ;  from  the  9th  to  the  14th  centuries, 
they  produced  many  astronomers,  geometricians, 
&c. ;  and  through  them  the  mathematical  sciences 
were  again  restored  to  Europe  towards  the  close  of 
the  14th  c,  being  first  received  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
The  revival  of  ancient  literature  in  Europe,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  about  the  middle  of 
the  15th  c,  concm-red  to  cUfl'use  a  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  the  Greeks,  which  came  into  notice  with 
their  general  Uter.iture ;  and  from  this  date,  many 
names  occur  of  eminent  geometricians.  Dm'ing  the 
16th  c,  Euchd  was  held  in  such  estimation,  that  no 
attempts  were  made  to  advance  the  science  beyond 
the  point  at  which  he  left  it.  Conmientaries  and 
translations  of  the  Elements  of  Euclid  w^ere  rife; 
but  till  the  time  of  Kepler,  no  attempts  were  made 
to  improve  or  extend  the  methods  of  geometry. 
Kepler  (rj.  v.)  introduced  the  principle  of  infinity 
into  geometrj'.  Next,  Descartes,  seizing  the  results 
of  Vieta's  discoveries  in  the  use  of  sj-mbols,  invented 
the  new  or  the  analj'tical  algebraical  geometry, 
which  vastly  extended  the  domains  of  the  science. 
It  then  reqxiircd  but  the  invention  of  the  calculus 
to  give  the  science  that  grand  sweep  and  power 
which  it  now  possesses.  Eor  a  notice  of  some 
of  the  more  recent  improvements  in  geometrical 
methods,  see  Tr^vksveesals,  Polap.s,  Projections. 
The  reader  will  also  find  a  very  excellent  ^•iew  of 
Die  growth  of  the  science  in  the  introduction  to 
Mr  Pott's  Euclid  (London,  1S45) ;  also  under  the 
various  names  of  those  mentioned  in  this  article, 
w-ill  be  foimd  fidler  notices  of  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  science.  No  full  list  can  be  given 
of  the  contributors,  but  it  would  be  unjust  not 
to  refer  here  to  Johann  Miiller  (called  Regiomon- 
tanus),  Copernicus,  Tartaglia,  Vieta,  Galileo,  Ferm.at, 
Koberval,  Pascal,  Huyghens,  Barrow,  Newton,  the 
Gregories,  Lagrange,  Clairaut,  Euler,  Robert  Simson 
— whose  translation  of  Euclid  may  be  regarded  as 
the  standard  text  in  English — Mathew  Stewart, 
ro-j 


Brook  Taylor,  Maclaurin,  Mongc,  Poncelet,  Camot, 
Chasles,  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  of  Dublin.     See 

also  QUATERNIOX.S. 

GEORGE  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  son  of 
Ei'ust  August,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia, 
a  granddaughter  of  James  1.  of  England,  was 
born  on  2Sth  May  IGGO.  According  to  the  theory 
that  the  blood  of  James  II.  in  the  direct  line  was 
'  corrupted,'  he  w.os  the  nearest  heir  to  the  crown. 
On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  31st  July  1714, 
he  was  instantly  procl.oimcd  lung,  and  arrived  in 
this  country  from  his  electorate  of  Hanover  at 
the  age  of  54.  To  him  this  country  was  to  the 
last  a  foreign  country,  for  which  he  had  no  love, 
and  of  the  language,  feelings,  and  thought  of 
which,  he  was  profoundly  ignorant.  His  ali'ections 
remained  with  Hanover,  but  to  Britain  his  alli- 
ances, experience,  and  fair  abilities  for  business, 
resolutely  exercised,  were  of  considerable  value. 
A  king  of  more  lirilliant  paits  might  have  been 
an  imijediment  in  the  way  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment adjusting  itself  to  habits  of  domestic  peace 
and  order  after  the  dethronement  of  the  Stuarts, 
whose  ruined  fortunes  excited  the  pity  of  the  people, 
and  afTordcd  a  convenient  cry  for  the  minorit.v,  that 
declaimed  in  jirivate,  and  wrote  songs,  and  ]  Jotted 
against  the  imported  king,  whom  they  called  a 
'  foi-eign  tyi-ant.'  Being  supported  by  the  ^^^Iigs, 
and  undisguisedly  partial  to  them,  the  Tories  were 
adverse  to  him,  as  well  as  the  Jacobites,  and  they 
associated  together  to  bring  about  a  revolution.  In 
Scotland,  in  1715,  the  Earl  of  Mar  raised  the 
staudard  of  rebellion ;  and  he  had  collected  about 
10,000  men,  when  he  eug.aged  the  Didie  of  Ai-gyle 
with  about  half  that  nimiber  of  men  at  Sherifl- 
muir,  near  Dunblane.  It  w.as  a  drawn  battle,  the 
left  wing  of  both  armies  being  victorious  ;  but  to  the 
rebels  it  was  not  a  victory,  and  it  caused  delay  and 
checked  their  progress,  and  that  was  equivalent  to 
a  defeat,  for  the  Highlanders,  seeing  little  prospect 
of  fighting  and  plunder,  returned  home  ;  and  in  that 
part  of  the  island  the  reljeUion  m.ay  be  said  to  have 
burned  out  of  itself.  In  England,  it  did  not  suc- 
ceed so  well ;  and  it  was  ended  miserably  by  the 
unconditional  surrender  of  the  instirgents  at  Preston. 
For  this  outbreak  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater  and 
Viscoimt  Kenmure  were  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill, 
several  officers  were  shot,  many  persons  of  dis- 
tinction were  attainted,  about  thii-ty  of  the  less 
conspicuous  rebels  were  executed,  and  above  1000 
were  transported  to  the  plantations.  The  Earl  of 
Mar  aud  the  Pretender  both  escaped  to  France. 

The  next  most  notable  and  calamitous  event 
of  this  reign  was  the  failure  of  the  South  Sea 
Company  (q.  v.).  A  qiiaiTel  with  the  Spaniards 
commenced  in  1720,  which  issued  in  a  somewhat 
unsuccessful  expedition  of  Admiral  Hosier  to  their 
American  possessions,  and  a  fruitless  attempt 
on  Gibraltar  (q.  v.)  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1727, 
George  I.,  who  had,  amid  the  splendours  of  British 
royalty,  sighed  for  his  fatherland  and  his  family, 
set  out  for  Hanover,  and  died  of  apoplexy  on  his 
way  to  ™it  his  brother,  who  was  Bishop  of  t)sna- 
bvirg,  on  the  night  of  the  lOth  or  the  morning  of 
thellth  of  June.  His  life  was  not  a  happy  one. 
His  wife,  Sophia  Dorothea  of  Zell,  to  whom  he 
was  untrue,  had  solaced  herself  by  yielding  to  the 
attentions  of  Phdip  von  Koningsmai'k.  On  Simday 
the  1st  July  1694  the  latter  tUsappeared  for  ever  in  a 
mystei-ious  way,  and  on  the  2Sth  December  Sophia 
was  divorced.  The  remaining  32  years  of  her  life 
were  spent  as  .a  prisoner  in  the  fortress  of  Ahlden, 
where  she  died  at  the  ase  of  60.  There  are  clear 
glimpses  of  George  I.  in  Carlyle's  Life  of  Frederick 
the  (Jreat.  C'arlyle  commends  his  talent  for  silence, 
and  thinks  him,  in  spite  of  appearances,  a  man  of 


GEORGE  II.— GEORGE  in. 


more   hiunan   f.aculty,   '  chiefly   of    aa    inarticulate 
kind,'  than  he  generally  gets  credit  for. 

GEORGE  II.  succeeded  his  father  as  kins;  of 
Euylaud  iu  the  45th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  born 
at  Hanover  on  the  30th  October  1GS3,  and  married 
CaroUua  Wilhelmina,  daughter  of  the  markgraf  of 
i\ji3pach.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
uucouimon  attainments  in  literature,  theology,  and 
politics,  and  her  death  in  1737  was  reckoned  a  public 
loss.  The  king  himself  did  not  aspire  to  a  code  of 
morals  differeut  from  his  fathers,  nor  to  any  intel- 
lectual accomplishments  except  those  of  a  soldier. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  in  1743, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Earl  of  Stair  he 
gained  it :  the  French  being  entirely  defeateil,  and 
very  efficient  service  rendered  to  Maria  Theresa 
of  Hungary,  who  had  besought  it  to  prevent 
the  jiartition  of  her  dominions.  His  second  son, 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  not  so  fortunate, 
for  the  English  forces  under  him  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  in  1745  at  Fontenoy  by  the 
French  under  the  famous  Marshal  Saxe.  In  the 
same  ye.ar  (1745)  Prince  Charles  Stuart,  son  of  the 
old  Pretender,  landed  in  Scotland  with  seven 
officers,  and  arms  for  2000  men.  After  some 
transient  successes,  he  w.as  completely  defeated  at 
Culloden,  16th  Aj>ril  174(),  aud  what  is  known  as 
the  Second  Rebellion  was  brought  to  an  end.  (See 
STn^\j{T,  Cu.\KLE.s  Edward.)  The  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, whose  barbarities  in  the  suppression  of  the 
insurrection  earued  him  the  name  of  the  '  Bloody 
Butcher,'  returned  to  the  command  of  the  English 
forces  on  the  continent,  aud  was  repeateiUy  beaten 
by  Marshal  Saxe  and  the  French  ;  much  that  Marl- 
borough had  gained  being  hist.  In  India,  Colonel, 
afterwards  Lord  Clive,  gained  various  victories, 
the  chief  of  them  being  the  victory  at  Plassey  in 
1756,  wliieh  laid  the  "foundations  of  the  British 
E.ast  Indian  Empire  ;  and  during  the  next  three 
years  the  British  dominion  iu  North  America  was 
extended  and  strengthened  by  the  victory  of  Wolfe 
on  the  heights  of  Abraham,  and  by  the  subsequent 
surrender  of  Quebec.  British  allied  troops  contri- 
buted to  the  Hanoverian  \-ictury  at  Minden  in  1739. 
U.  died  25th  October  1760,  iu  the  77th  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  34th  of  his  reign.  Generally,  the  reign 
of  George  I F.  was  a  ])rosperous  one :  accortUng  to 
Hallam,  '  the  most  jirosperous  period  that  England 
had  ever  known;'  and  it  was  this  not  less  from  the 
acquisitioa  of  new  territory,  than  from  the  conquest 
of  new  tields  of  thought  effected  by  Pojie,  Hume, 
Samuel  Johnson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  Reynolds, 
Hogarth,  and  many  others. 

GEORGE  III.,  son  of  Frederick  Lewis,  Prince 
of  Wales,  succeeded  his  grandfather,  George  II. 
He  -was  born  ou  the  4th  June  1738,  and  died  at 
Windsor  Castle,  on  the  29th  January  1820,  in  the 
GOth  year  of  his  reign,  which  was  eventfid  as  weU 
as  long.  Ou  Sth  Sejitembcr  1761,  he  married  the 
Princess  Charlotte  Sophia,  daughter  of  Charles 
Duke  of  Meekleulmrg-Strelitz,  aud  was  by  her  the 
father  of  fifteen  children.  His  intellect  was  not 
of  the  strongest,  Init,  like  his  two  predecessors, 
he  had  lirniuess  of  purjiose,  and,  in  addition,  a 
conscientiousness  .and  sense  of  deconmi  unknow 
to  them,  while  both  friends  and  enemies  could  lely 
U|)on  him — the  one  for  favours,  and  the  other  for 
the  reverse.  His  mind  tjave  way  several  times 
—in  niU,  in  1788,  in  1801,  in  1804;  .and  in  1810, 
when  the  British  were  fighting  behind  the  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras,  his  final  insanity  supervened  He 
had  an  abundance  of  cares,  like  most  sovereigns. 
The  Letters  of  Jutihix  aud  the  invectives  of  Wilkes 
annoyed  him";  so  did  the  jirojiosals  to  emancipate 
the    Roman    CathoHcs     aud    the    terriljle    French 


Revolution  of  1780.  His  life  w.os  attempted  by 
the  maniacs  Margaret  Nicolson  aud  a  man  named 
Hatfield.  The  maiTiages  of  two  of  his  brothers 
with  the  widows  of  subjects  displeased  him,  and 
led  to  the  p.assing  of  the  Royal  jiarriage  Bill,  12 
Geo.  III.  c.  11,  prohibiting  the  members  of  the  royal 
family  from  contracting  maiTiage  without  the 
consent  of  the  king,  if  under  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  and  the  consent  of  parliament  if  above  that 
age  ;  and  afterwards  the  imdonbted  debts  and  dis- 
sipation of  his  eldest  son,  who  became  (ieorge  IV., 
his  hardly  doubtfid  marriage  with  JIrs  Fitzherbert, 
the  Roman  Catholic  widow  of  two  husbands,  and 
the  scandals  of  his  ])ublic  marriage  with  his  cousin, 
Caroline  of  Brunswick,  must  have  led  the  '  good 
old  king'  to  reflect  that  not  even  a 'marriage-bill' 
could  cure  all  the  domestic  miseries  of  monarchs. 
Nor  were  matters  of  national  excitement  and  mag- 
nitude awanting.  A  bill,  imposing  certain  stamp- 
duties  upon  the  American  colonies,  which  had  been 
resolved  to  be  inexjiedieut  in  1764,  was  passed  in 
March  1765,  and  repealed  in  1766  by  the  Marqitis 
of  Rockingham's  ministry ;  and  in  1767  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  Mr  Townshend,  brought 
forward  a  plan  for  the  taxation  of  these  colonics, 
which  led  to  their  revolt,  the  colonists  objecting 
to  be  taxed  by  a  parliament  in  which  they  were 
not  representetL  In  1770,  Lord  North,  the  premier, 
brought  in  a  bill  for  the  repeal  of  all  the  recently 
imposed  American  duties,  except  the  duty  on  tea, 
which  was  retained,  to  .assert  the  English  right  to 
impose  taxes  on  these  colonies.  In  December  1773, 
'  Boston  harbour  is  black  with  unexpected  tea,' 
cargoes  of  it  being  wantonly  destroyed  by  the 
colonists ;  and  on  19th  April  1775,  hostilities  com- 
menced w-ith  the  undecisive  battle  of  Lexington, 
which  on  the  16th  June  was  followed  by  that  of 
Bunker's  Hill,  which  was  a  victory  to  the  colonists, 
and  helped  to  give  them  boldness  to  renoimce  the 
dominion  of  Great  Britain,  and  ])ubli.sh  the  decl.ar- 
ation  of  independence  on  the  4th  July  1776.  George 
Washington,  a  colonel  of  militia,  who  had  been 
appointed  general  of  the  insurgent  colonists,  took 
possession  of  Boston  in  that  year,  having  compelled 
General  Howe  and  the  British  troops  to  retire,  and 
next  year  he  gained  an  important  advantage  by  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne's  army  of  10,000  fine  troojis, 
British  aud  German.  The  French,  Spanish,  aud 
Dutch  all  thi-ew  their  weight  into  the  American 
scale,  and  the  chequered  and  disastrous  struggle 
ended  in  America  Ijy  the  surrender  of  Lord  Curn- 
wallis,  with  a  British  army  of  0000,  to  Washington 
and  the  Marquis  de  la  Fayette.  The  French 
surt'ereil  at  sea  by  tlio  g.allantry  of  the  British 
under  Byi'on,  Hood,  and  Rodney,  this  last  having, 
in  1782,  in  the  West  Indies,  obtained  over  them  a 
naval  victory  by  the  hitherto  untried  method  of 
breaking  the  enemy's  line.  In  that  year,  also. 
General  Elliott  repulsed  the  grand  attack  of  the 
French  and  Spaniards,  aud  put  an  end  to  their 
chances  of  success  in  the  obdurate  siege  of  Gibraltar. 
At  Versailles,  ou  3d  September  1783,  a  peace  was 
concluded  with  France  and  Spain,  in  which  the 
independence  of  the  American  states  was  recog- 
nised, not  a  little  to  the  satisfaction  of  many  of 
the  English  at  home,  who,  besiiles  being  tii'ed  of 
the  struggle,  had  throughout  the  contest  sympa- 
thised with  the  American  colonists,  whose  cause, 
originally  good,  had  had  its  merits  kept  before  the 
public  niind  by  the  eloquence  of  Chatham,  Fox, 
and  Burke,  tlu'ec  of  the  greatest  orators  of  all 
time. 

Meanwhile,  the  British  rule  in  India  w.as  conso- 
lidated, and  this  was  effected  in  no  insignificant 
degree  under  the  governor-generalship  of  Wan'cn 
Hastiii'^s,  a  most  able  but  somewhat  imscmpulous 


GEOi;(_!E  IV.— GEOKGE. 


man.  His  trial  for  misrule  and  oppression,  famous 
for  the  eloquont  accusations  of  Burke  and  Slieridan, 
lie^'an  in  17SU,  and  was  protractrd  for  nine  years. 
Wars  will>  Hydor  Ali  and  his  son  Tijipoo  Saib  were 
ended  liy  tlie  stormini;  of  Seringapatain  in  1790. 

The  after-swell  of  the  French  revolution  broke 
over  all  the  continent  of  Europe  in  wave  after 
wave  of  war.  The  avereion  of  Britain  to  the 
insane  denincr.acy  of  France  was  not  concealed, 
and  in  1793,  a  few  days  after  the  execution  of 
their  kkii;,  the  French  declared  war  against 
Britain.  lu  the  confused  warfare  that  followed, 
the  English,  under  Lord  Mowe,  in  1794,  defeated 
the  French  fleet  in  the  Cliannel ;  under  Sir  John 
■fervis  they  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  oil"  Cape  St 
Vincent  in  1797  ;  and  also  in  that  year,  under  Lord 
Duncan,  they  defeated  the  Dutch  off  Cam]ierdown  ; 
and  in  179S  Nelson  was  victorious  on  the  IS'ile  over 
the  French  fleet  that  had  conveyed  Ka))oleon 
Bonaparte  and  his  troops  to  Egypt.  In  ISUl,  he 
bombarded  Copenh.agen,  and  i)artiaUy  destroyed 
the  Danish  fleet ;  and  the  forces  under  Sir  Kalph 
Abercromby — who  was  mort.ally  wounded — gained 
the  victory  of  Alexandria  over  the  troops  which 
Napoleon  liad  loft  in  Egjqit  to  menace  the  jiower 
of  Britain  in  the  East.  "Un  25th  March  lSO-2,  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  Amiens  was  signed,  but,  within 
a  year,  hostilities  were  renewed.  In  1S03,  Hanover 
was  occupied  by  the  French.  On  October  "21,  1S05, 
Kelson  lost  his  life,  and  gained  his  greatest  victory 
of  Trafalgar  over  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets. 
Napoleon's  splendid  victory  of  Austerlitz  over  the 
Austrians  and  Bussians,  December  ISUo,  was  sur- 
vived only  a  few  weeks  by  the  great  statesman 
I'itt,  whose  breaking  heart  and  constitution  could 
not  sustain  the  shock  of  this  last  tlisappointment. 
Napoleon's  Berlin  decree  of  18IH),  aud  his  Milau 
decree  of  1807,  declaring  the  British  dominions  in 
a  state  of  blockade  ou  pui-pose  to  destroy  British 
commerce,  were  not  supported  by  a  suifioient  navy 
to  carry  them  into  execution  by  captiu'ing  vessels 
trading  with  Britain  ;  Itut  they  did  no  inconsider- 
able damage.  In  1808,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  landed 
in  Portugal,  and  defeated  the  French  at  Vimeira  ; 
liut  tlie  advantage  of  this  victory  was  thrown  away 
in  the  Convention  of  Cmtra.  The  retreat,  four 
months  after,  to  C'onmna  of  the  English  army 
under  .Sir  John  Moore,  from  overwhelming  odds, 
and  its  safe  endiarkation  in  January  1809,  after 
the  rcpidse  of  Marshal  Soult,  has  secured  a  repu- 
tation for  the  able  and  distinguished  general  who 
fell  there  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  those  who  have 
died  in  the  moment  of  ^'ictory.  In  April  of  that 
year,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  returned  to  the  com- 
mand in  the  Peninsula,  and  after  conqixering  at 
Talavera  on  the  Sth  of  Jidy,  wearuig  out  the  powers 
of  the  assailing  FVench  behind  the  lines  of  Torres 
^'edras  during  the  last  months  of  1810,  and  con- 
quering at  Fuentes  do  Onoro  in  1811,  at  S.alam.anca 
in  1812,  at  Vittoria  in  181.3  (as  Lord  Wellington), 
and  in  other  battles  and  sieges,  he  drove  the 
French  out  of  the  peninsula.  The  struggle  was 
terminated  on  the  eventfid  field  of  Waterloo  (q.  v.), 
18th  June  1815. 

On  the  1st  of  January  1801,  Ireland  was  united 
to  Great  Britain,  and  its  separate  legislation  was 
aboUshcd.  During  this  reign  many  Scotclunen  had 
forced  their  way  to  the  first  jilaces  in  the  state  ;  all 
the  Jacobite  feeUngs  had  died  out ;  and  the  Union 
had  become  not  a  legislative  one  merely,  but  a 
uiiiou  of  society,  literature,  thought,  and  enterprise. 
The  most  original  and  vigorous  thought  of  this 
j>eriod  found  its  expression  in  poetry-,  and  among  its 
great  jioets,  the  most  noteworthy  are  Byron,  Cole- 
ridge, Wordswortli,  and  Walter  Scott,  the  last  of 
whom  is  also  at  the  head  of  all  the  writers  of  prose- 
701 


fiction.  In  sjiite  of  the  depressing  effects  of  war, 
conmicree  greatly  increased  during  tlie  GO  years  of 
this  reign  ;  and  the  revenue,  which  at  the  beginning 
of  it  was  under  nine  millions,  h.ad,  during  the 
yeais  of  the  French  war,  been  increased  more  th.in 
sevenfold,  thus  shewing,  thougli  by  an  undesirable 
metho<l,  the  vast  increase  of  the  resources  of  the 
country.  Chemistry  and  the  steam-engine  were 
beginning  to  alter  the  f.ace  of  society.  Among 
legislative  reforms,  the  most  consiiieuous  was  the 
abolition  of  the  jiunisliment  of  death  for  minor 
crimes,  aud  generally  the  statute-book,  which  h;ul 
gi-eatly  increased,  liecamc  more  and  more  favourable 
to  individual  liberty. 

GEOKGE  IV.  became  king  of  Great  Britain  on 
his  father's  death.  He  had  been  virtual  sovereign 
during  tlie  long  jieriod  of  his  father's  last  insanity, 
as  Prince  Regent.  He  was  born  on  12th  August 
1702,  and  died  on  the  2Uth  June  1S30.  That  he 
shoidd  have  lived  so  long  as  G7  years  is  not  the 
least  notable  circumstance  connccteil  v.ith  a  life 
that  has  supplied  as  much  material  for  scandal  as 
any  in  English  histoi-y.  G.  had  considerable  iutel- 
lectual  ability  and  address,  could  tell  stories  well, 
and  enjoy  every  day  without  thinking  of  the  next. 
His  personal  attractions,  and  his  position  together, 
led  many  in  his  lifetLme  to  style  him,  not  without 
sincerity,  'the  first  gentleman  of  Europe;'  but 
the  decay  of  king-worship,  and  the  growth  of 
morahty,  have  not  allowed  that  to  continue  to  be 
the  ojtinion  of  liis  countrymen.  His  frailties,  and 
those  of  his  royal  namesakes,  have  been  merci- 
lessly exposed  by  Thackeray  in  his  '  Four-  lieorges ' 
(I8G1).  Unfortunately  for  their  memory,  no  man - 
of  Thackcniy's  abilities  has  set  lumself  to  look 
for  their  viitues  and  their  good  deeds  to  England 
— which  were  not  few — and  for  which  they  have 
earned  the  gratitude  of  patriots,  not  mere  bhnd 
worsliippers  of  royalty. 

Tlie  marriage  of  George  IV.  was  specially  unfor- 
tunate. He  entered  into  it  on  8th  Aju-il  1794, 
with  his  cousin,  Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth,  secuuil 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  luider  tho 
pressure  of  debt,  and  of  his  father,  and  their  con- 
jugal hapjiiness,  if  it  ever  existed,  did  not  last  many 
weeks.  T'he  Princess  Charlotte  Augusta  was  born 
of  the  marriage  on  7th  January  179G,  and  shortly 
after  hpr  parents  se})arated,  having  ceased  to  speak 
to  each  other  months  before.  See  Cakolin'e.  The 
Princess  Charlotte  had  married  Prince  Leopold, 
now  (1862)  king  of  Belgium,  and  she  died  in 
childbed  on  Gth  November  I8I7,  greatly  to  the 
grief  of  the  whole  nation. 

lloyal  visits  to  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  the  aid 
rendered  to  the  Greeks  by  the  British  fleet  in  the 
battle  of  Navarino  (1827).  which  secured  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece;  and  the  passing  (1829)  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill  (q.  v.)  (so  odious  to  his 
father),  are  the  most  notable  incidents  of  this 
king's  reign.  He  w'as  succeeded  by  his  brother 
William,  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  had  entered  the 
na\*y  in  his  youth. 

GEORGE  (the  Bearded),  Duke  of  Saxony,  eldest 
son  of  Albert  (the  Br.ave) ,  the  founder  of  tlie  Ducal 
or  Albertinian  Saxon  line,  was  born  in  1471.  He 
early  exhibited  a  strong  desire  for  the  acquisition 
of  religious  knowledge,  and  in  1484  was  sent  to 
Meissen  to  pursue  his  studies,  with  a  view  to  his 
entering  the  church.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1500,  G.  succeeded  to  the  whole  dukedom,  consist- 
ing of  the  half  of  Thuringia  and  Meissen,  with  the 
exeejition  of  the  lately  acquired  country  of  Friesland, 
which  fell  to  his  yoimger  brother  Henry;  who,  how- 
ever, soon  after  exchanged  it  with  G.  for  Freiberg 
aud  Wolkenstein.   Though  G.  and  WilUam,  Didce  of 


GEOEGE-GEOKGETOWN. 


Lower  Bavaria,  were  the  two  pillars  of  Catholicism 
ia  Germany,  yet  the  former  did  not  appear  to  be 
much  displeased  witli  the  proceedings  of  Luther 
jircvious  to  the  Leipsic  controversy;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  were  at  one  ill  re^jard  to  the  many 
abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  church,  but  (i. 
wished  to  remedy  them  thi'ough  papal  edicts,  or  tlie 
<lecisious  of  a  i^eueral  council.  The  ill-feeling  betweeu 
G.  and  Luther  commenced  during  the  Leipsic  con- 
troversv,  and  arose  from  a  misapprehension  of 
i^uther's  doctrine  of  justificati^in  by  faith ;  it  neces- 
sarily increased  in  strength  in  one  who  was  so 
remarkable  for  obstinacy,  especially  as  it  was  care- 
fully fostered  by  John  Eck  and  other  of  Luther's 
enemies.  Yet  when  the  emperor  seemed  likely 
to  violate  liis  safe  conduct  given  to  Luther,  G. 
strongly  protested  against  such  a  breach  of  good 
faith.  The  later  years  of  his  reign  were  imbittered 
1  ly  a  succession  of  domestic  calamities :  lirst  his 
wife  died,  then  all  his  children  in  succession,  and 
thus  his  brother,  Henry  of  Freiberg,  became  heir- 
apparent.  Henry  was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and 
such  was  G.'s  antipathy  to  being  succeeded  by  one 
of  that  religion,  that  he  attempted  to  break  the 
line  of  succession,  but  did  not  live  long  enough  to 
accomplish  his  pm-pose.  He  died  ui  1530,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Henry. 

GEORGE,  a  district  of  the  Cape  Colony,  is 
sei)arated  from  that  of  Zwellendam  on  the  west 
by  the  Gauritz  (q.  v.).  It  contains  4032  square 
niiles,  and  about  20,000  inhabitants.  It  is  valuable 
chietly  for  its  pasturage  and  its  timber.  On  its 
coast  is  the  port  of  Mossel  Bay. 

GEORGE  (Lake),  called  also  Iloricon,  a  jnc- 
turesque  sheet  of  water,  remarkable  for  its  trans- 
parency and  for  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  on 
its  shores,  lies  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
measures  34  miles  by  ,3.  It  discharges  its  waters 
into  Lake  Champlain,  thus  forming  a  part  of  the 
grand  system  of  the  St  Lawrence.  It  is,  in  some 
places,  400  feet  deep.  It  possesses  some  historical 
interest  in  comiection  with  the  North  American  wars 
between  England  and  France. 

GEORGE  (St),  one  of  the  Bermudas,  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  forms  the  principal  depot  in  the  group 
for  miUtary  purjjoses.  On  the  south  coast  is  a  town 
of  its  owii  name,  which  has  a  large  harbour  of 
considerable  strength. 

GEORGE,  St,  a  saint,  venerated  both  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches,  held  in  especial 
veneration  as  the  patron  of  Chivaliy,  and  adopted 
as  the  tutelary  saiut  of  England.  His  origin  is 
extremely  obscure;  and  the  very  oldest  accoiuits 
of  him  which  are  extant  contain  a  strange  admix- 
ture of  history  and  legend.  He  is  honoiured  both 
in  the  East  and  the  West  as  a  martyr,  and  the 
Greek  acts  of  his  martp-dom  fix  the  date  of  his 
death  as  the  persecution  imder  Diocletian ;  but 
these  acts  are,  by  the  confession  even  of  Roman 
Cathohc  hagiologists,  imdoubtedly  spurious.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  (see  Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fair,  ii.  323)  that  the  canonisation  of  G.  is 
one  of  the  many  errors  which  Protestant  historians 
freely  impute  to  the  Roman  calendar,  and  that  tlie 
George  who  is  thus  reputed  a  saint  and  martyr 
is  no  other  than  the  tiu-bulent  and  luiscrupulous 
Arian  jiartisan,  George  of  Cappadocia,  whom  his 
Arian  followers  revered  as  a  saint,  and  imposed 
as  such  upon  the  credulity  of  their  Catholic 
couutrj-men.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that 
the  best  modern  authorities,  CathoUc  and  Pro- 
testant, agree  in  adniittiug  the  great  improbability 
of  this  allegation.  Heylin  is  of  one  mind  in 
this  matter -Cv-ith  the  Jesuit  Papebroch,  and  Dean 
Mihnan   adopts  the   argnmients,  and  agrees  in  the 


o|)inion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  Milner. 
The  truth  is,  that  whatever  is  to  be  said  of  the 
early  accounts  of  the  martyrdom  of  G.,  the  fact 
of  his  being  honoured  as  a  martyr  by  the  Catholic 
churcli,  of  churches  being  dedicated  to  him,  and  of 
the  Hellespont  being  called  'St  George's  Arm,'  is 
traced  by  Paiiebroch,  liy  llilner,  and  by  other 
writers  to  so  early  a  date,  and  brought  so  imme- 
diately into  contact  with  the  times  of  the  angry 
conflicts  in  which  George  of  Cappadocia  figured  as  an 
Arian  leader,  that  it  woul<l  be  jiist  as  reasonable 
to  believe  that  the  Catholics  of  Englaiul  at  the 
present  day  "woidd  accept  Lord  George  Gordon  as 
a  Catholic  saint,  as  to  suppose  that  the  Cathohcs 
of  the  East — while  the  tomb  of  Athanasius  was 
hardly  closed  upon  his  honoured  relics  —  would 
accept  as  a  sainted  martyr  liis  cruel  and  uuscru- 
indous  i)ersecutor.  Indeed  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  St  G.  of  the  Eastern  Church  is  a  real 
jiersouage,  and  of  an  earlier  date  thau  George  of 
Cappadocia — very  probably  of  the  date  to  which 
these  acts,  though  otherwise  false,  assign  him.  The 
legend  of  his  couflict  with  the  Dragou  arose  most 
jirobably  out  of  a  symbolical  or  allegorical  represen- 
tation of  his  contest  with  the  pagan  persecutor.  As 
in  this  ancient  legend  St  G.  appears  as  a  soldier, 
he  was  early  regarded  as  one  of  the  patrons  of 
the  military  profession.  Under  this  title,  he  was 
honoured  in  France  as  early  as  the  6th  c. ;  liut  it 
was  not  untU  after  the  Crusaders,  who  ascriljcd 
their  success  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  to  his  inter- 
cession, returned  to  Europe  from  the  Holy  War, 
that  the  rehgious  honour  paid  to  him  reached  its 
fuU  development.  He  was  selected  as  the  patron 
saint  of  the  Republic  of  Genoa  and  also  of  England. 
At  the  council  of  Oxford,  in  1222,  his  feast  was 
ordered  to  be  kept  as  a  national  festival.  In  I3.')0, 
he  was  made  the  patron  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter 
by  Edward  III. ;  and  even  since  the  Reformation, 
the  ancient  sentiment  is  still  popidarly  maintained. 

GEORGE,  St,  Banner  of,  white  with  a  red 
cross.  According  to  Sir  N".  H.  Nicolas,  the  cross 
of  St  George  was  woni  as  a  badge  over  the  anuom- 
liy  every  EngUsh  soldier  '  in  the  i4th  and  subsequent 
centuries,  even  if  the  custom  did  not  prevail  at  a 
much  earlier  period,'  to  inibcate  that  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  crown.  On  the  invasion  of  Scotland 
by  Richard  II.  in  13S6,  it  was  ordained  'Tliat 
everi  man  of  what  estate,  condicion,  or  nation  they 
be  of,  so  that  he  be  of  om-e  partie,  here  a  signe  of 
the  armes  of  Saint  George,  large,  bothe  before  and 
behynde,  upon  parell  that  yf  he  be  slayne  or  wounded 
to  deth,  he  that  hath  so  doon  to  hym  shall  not  be 
putte  to  deth  for  defaulte  of  the  crosse  that  he 
laeketh.  And  that  non  enemy  do  here  the  same 
token  or  crosse  of  St  George,  notwithstandyng  if 
he  Ije  prisoner,  upon  payne  of  deth.'  A  similar 
ordinance  was  adopted  by  Henry  V.  for  tlie 
govermnent  of  his  army  in  France. 

GEORGE,  The,  the  badge  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter  (q.  v.),  exhibiting  the'figure  of  St  George  on 
horseback  piercing  the  falling  dragon,  which  lies 
on  a  mount. 

GEORGE'S  CHANNEL,  St,  is  the  name  applied 
to  the  south  portion  of  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic 
which  sejiarates  Ireland  from  the  United  Kingdom. 
A  line,  extending  from  Holyhead  in  Wales  to 
Dublin,  would  form  the  northern  limit  of  this 
channel ;  and  a  similar  line  from  St  David's  Head 
to  Wexford,  would  form  its  southern  limit.  At  its 
northern  extremity  it  is  G4  miles  in  width,  and  at 
its  southern  it  is  about  62  miles  wide  ;  its  length, 
from  north-east  to  south-west,  is  about  100  miles. 

GEORGETOWN,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
North  America,  in  the  state  of  Maryland,  is  situated 


GEORGETOWN— GEORGIA. 


on  a  range  of  hills,  the  highest  of  which  are 
(leuomiuated  the  Heights,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
I'otoniac,  two  miles  north-west  of  Washington  (q.  v.). 
From  the  Heights,  which  are  occupied  by  elegant 
villas,  a  magniliecnt  view  of  the  cities  of  G.,  Washing- 
ton, anil  of  the  snrroiinJing  country  is  obtained  G. 
is  quiet  and  antiquated,  and  has  a  reputation  for  its 
literary  advantages  and  for  its  refined  society.  Its 
principal  institutions  are  the  Georgetown  CoUege, 
under  the  management  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
convent  of  Visitation  Nuns— attached  to  which  is 
au  academy  for  females  with  about  100  pupils.  Here 
the  Alex.andria  branch  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Canal  is  carried  across  the  Potomac  by  means  of 
an  enormous  viaduct  1446  feet  long,  and  36  feet 
above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  water.  As  it  is  the 
only  port  in  the  district  of  Cohmibia,  and  situated 
at  "the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Potomac, 
125  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  foreign  commerce  and 
coasting  trade  are  important.  It  kee])s  50  mills 
in  oper.ation  to  supply  its  trade  in  Horn-.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  markets  in  the  United  States 
for  shad  and  herrings,  of  which  vast  quantities 
are  caught  in  the  Potomac,  and  brought  hero  for 
barrelling.     Pop.  (1S70)  11,384. 

GEORGETOWN  (Dutch,  Sfahroelc),  the  capital 
of  British  Guiana,  is  situated  at  the  mouth, 
and  on  the  right  or  eastern  shore,  of  the  river 
Demcrara,  in  lat.  6°  49'  20"  N.,  and  long.  58°  11' 
30"  W.  It  is  handsomely  built,  and  consists  of 
siiaeious,  clean  streets,  intersecting  at  right  angles, 
and  composed  of  neat  wooden  houses,  which  are 
raised  three  or  four  feet  above  the  gi-oimd,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  damp,  have  open  verandahs  in  front, 
and  are  embosomed  in  trees,  of  which  the  cabbage- 
palm,  the  cocoa-nut,  and  the  orange  tree  are  the 
chief.  Most  of  the  streets  are  traversed  by  canals, 
commimicating  with  each  other  and  vntli  the  river. 
Of  the  public  buildings,  the  town-hall,  an  elegant 
Etructure,  with  marble-paved  gaUories  resting  on 
cast-iron  columns,  the  Episcopal  cathedral,  and 
the  Colonial  Hospital,  are  the  principal.  Tlicre  are 
also  a  mariners'  hospital,  numerous  churches  aud 
schools,  astronomical  and  botanical  societies,  bar- 
racks, theatres,  and  a  market-place  surrounded  by 
elegant  and  weU-stocked  shops.  G.,  owing  to  the 
low  and  swampy  character  of  the  district  in  whicli 
it  stands,  is  luihealthy.  Yellow  and  intermittent 
fevers,  diarrhcca,  dysentery,  and  dropsy  are  local 
diseases.  The  chief  exports  of  G.  are  sugar,  coffee, 
aud  rum  ;  and  its  annual  trade  employs  about  GOO 
vessels  of  102,000  tons  burden.  Population  26,000, 
of  which  about  20,000  are  negroes  aud  people  of 
colour. 

GEO'RGIA,  GxTLF  of,  au  arm  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  between  Vancouver's  Island  and 
the  mainland  of  British  Columbia.  It  averages  20 
miles  in  width,  is  100  miles  in  length,  receives 
Eraser  River  (q.  v.),  and  communicates  with  the 
open  ocean  by  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  in  the 
north,  and  by  the  Strait  of  Fuca  in  the  south.  Its 
southerly  entrance  is  about  lat.  49°  N.  and  long. 
124°  W. 

GEORGIA,  an  Atlantic  state  of  the  American 
Union,  and  one  of  the  13  original  states,  extends  in 
lat.  from  30"  21'  to  35°  N.,  and  in  long,  from  80°  48' 
to  85°  40'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by 
the  states  of  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolin.a,  on  the  W.  liy  Alabama,  and  on  the  S.  by 
Florida.  Its  extreme  length,  from  north  to  south, 
is  320  miles  ;  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  east 
to  west,  is  254  miles.  Its  area  is  58,000  square 
miles;  and  its  population  in  1870  w.as  1,184,109. 
The  proportions  of  races  were — whites,  638,920  ; 
coloured,  645,143;  Chinese,  1.  The  abolition  of 
700 


slavery  is  forcibly  represented  in  these  statistics. 
In  1869,  the  aggregate  value  of  the  land  was 
87,117,010  dollars;  the  value  of  town  and  city  proji- 
crty,  38,473,905  ;  and  that  of  property  of  all  kinds 
in  the  state  was  estimated  at  207,963,090  dollars. 
(i.  was  then  represented  in  the  feder.al  congress  liy 
8  members  and  2  senators.  G.  presents  every 
variety  of  surface,  rising  from  low  allu\-ial  lands 
and  swamps  along  the  shore  thi-ough  an  mululatiug 
.and  rough  hilly  country  to  the  Blue  Ridge  Moim- 
tains,  in  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  state. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Savannah,  which  forms 
the  north-east  boundary  of  the  state,  and  the 
Ch.attahoochee,  which  forms  a  great  portion  of 
its  south-west  boundary.  The  course  of  all  the 
important  rivers  is  tow.ard  the  south  aud  south- 
cast.  Only  about  a  fifth  of  the  entire  area  of  the 
state  is  under  cidtivation  ;  but  oiving  to  the  diver- 
sity of  climate  and  sod,  the  productions  are  wonder- 
ful in  their  vanety.  The  islands  that  fringe  the 
coast  .are  fertile  in  cotton  of  a  superior  quality  :  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  great  rivers  produce  rice, 
cotton,  Indi.an  corn,  and  sugar  ;  further  west  are 
the  '  pine  barrens,'  vahiable  for  their  timber,  and 
easily  cultivable ;  the  central  region  consists  of  a 
loamy  soil,  once  productive,  but  now  imjioverished  ; 
and  the  north,  the  Cherokee  country,  contains  lands 
which,  althoiigh  long  worked  by  the  Indians,  still 
produce  fi-om  50  to  76  bushels  of  grain  to  the  acre. 
Gold,  though  not  now  sought  for,  was  once  found 
here  in  some  quantity ;  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
marble,  and  precious  stones  also  occur.  G.  has 
upwards  of  IGOO  miles  of  railw.ay ;  is  divided 
into  132  counties— the  capital  being  Milledge- 
ville.  It  was  colonised  in  1733.  Having  joined 
in  the  great  revolt  which  occasioned  the  Ameri- 
can war,  and  shared  the  defeat,  it  was  readmitted 
into  the  Union  in  1870.  There  are  in  the  st.ate  33 
colleges,  with  an  aver.age  of  3300  students ;  242 
academies  and  schools,  with  11,000  pupils;  .anil 
prorision  has  been  made  for  a  system  of  general 
education,  as  well  as  for  the  encouragement  of 
immigration. 

GEORGIA,  the  name  formerly  applied  in  a 
gener.al  manner  to  the  region  now  called  Rnssi.an 
Transcaucasia  (see  Tbakscaucasia),  which  forms 
the  isthmus  connecting  Europe  with  Turkey-iu- 
Asia,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Caucasian  mountains 
on  the  north,  and  by  the  Armenian  mountains  on 
■the  south.  The  Persian  name  is  Gm-jestan ;  the 
Russian,  Grusia ;  and  the  native,  Iberia ;  the  name 
of  G.  arose  cither  from  the  numerous  kings  called 
George  that  ruled  over  the  country,  or  fi'om  the 
patron  saint  being  St  George. 

The  early  history  of  the  Georgians,  who  trace 
their  origin  to  Thargamos,  a  great-gr,andson  of 
J.aphet,  is  wn-apped  in  f.able.  Mtskliethos,  who  is  s.aid 
to  have  built  Mtsketha,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
country,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible  near 
Tiflis,  plays  a  prominent  part  iu  it.  They  appear, 
however,  iu  authentic  history  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  to  whom  they  submitted.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  in  the  year  324  E.  c,  they 
were  delivered  from  a  foreign  yoke  by  Phamawas, 
and  united  in  one  kingdom.  With  Pharnawas 
begins  the  series  of  the  Mephc  or  kings  of  6.,  who, 
under  a  variety  of  dynasties,  ruled  the  country  almost 
\vithoiit  interruption  for  more  than  2000  years. 
By  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  Christianity  had  dill'used 
itself  throughout  the  coiuitry,  and  through  it  G. 
became  connected  with  the  Eastern  empire,  with 
which  it  joined  in  repelling  the  attacks  of  the 
Sassanides.  After  the  empire  of  the  Sassanides  had 
becu  destroyed  by  the  Ar.abs,  the  latter  carried  their 
conquests  into  G.,  which  now  became  a  province  of 
the    Arabian   Califate.      Toward   the  end  of    the 


GEOEGIA  BAUK— GERACE. 


9th  c,  (luriDg  the  decline  of  the  Arabian  Califate, 
the  Georgians  recovered  their  independence  for  a 
short  periotl,  but  it  was  only  to  become  tributary 
in  the  10th  c.  to  those  dynasties  which,  in  Persia, 
took  the  place  of  the  Califs.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  10th  c,  they  again  achieved  independence,  and 
inaugurated  the  most  brilliant  era  in  Georgian 
liistory ;  for  from  this  period  to  the  13th  c,  w-hen 
they  were  conquered  by  the  Mongols,  G.  was 
governed  by  a  series  of  able  sovereigns,  who 
increased  its  extent,  repulsed  its  enemies,  and 
raised  it  to  great  prosperity.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  1-lth  c.  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Timour,  who,  however,  was  driven  from  it  in 
the  beginning  of  the  following  century  by  George 
VII.  Alexander  I.,  the  successor  of  George  VII., 
committed  the  fatal  error  of  dividing  the  kingdom 
between  his  three  sons.  Each  of  these  states 
was  again  dinded,  and  at  one  time  2G  different 
princes  reigned  in  Georgia.  The  general  history 
of  G.  now  divides  into  two  jiarts :  that  of  the 
eastern  states,  Karthli  and  Kacheth;  and  that  of 
the  western  states,  including  Imereth,  Mingreha, 
and  Guria.  From  the  ICth  to  the  ISth  c,  the 
eastern  states  had  been  hea^^ly  oppressed  by  Persia, 
and  in  1799  Gregory  XI.,  after  many  attempts  to 
cstabUsh  their  independence,  resigned  the  states 
in  favour  of  Paul  Emperor  of  Paissia,  and  in  1S02 
the  Emi)erur  Alexander  proclaimed  the  territory  a 
Kussian  prorince.  Of  the  three  states  forming 
Western  G.,  Guria  fell  into  the  hands  of  Eussia  in 
ISOl,  and  formally  surrendered  itself  to  that  empire 
by  the  treaty  of  1810;  Mingrelia  was  virtually 
added  to  Russia  in  180.3 ;  and  the  state  of  Imereth 
toward  the  close  of  the  ISth  century.  Thus  the 
whole  of  G.  has  been  brought  under  the  dominion 
of  Russia,  and  has  been  united,  along  with  the  other 
Transcaucasian  possessions  of  that  country,  into  a 
general  government,  the  head  of  which  unites  in  his 
o\vn  person  the  military  and  civil  powers,  and  exer- 
cises mUitary  supremacy  over  the  whole  of  the 
Caucasus.  For  the  character  of  the  country  of  G., 
and  for  its  capabilities,  see  TR,vxscArcA.siA. 

The  Georgians  are  one  of  that  numerous  group 
of  nations  or  trilies  that  inhabit  the  Caucasus,  to 
which  Dr  Latham  has  given  the  name  of  Dioscurians 
(see  Cauc.\.scs).  They  are  celebrated  for  their 
beauty,  and  under  the  Mohammedan  rule,  the  white 
slaves  of  Western  Asia  and  of  Egypt  were  mostly 
drawn  from  among  them  and  the  Circassians. 
Though  endowed  by  nature  with  mental  no  less 
than  physical  advantages,  the  long  course  of  oppres- 
sion to  which  they  have  been  subjected  has  had 
its  effect  both  upon  their  intelligence  and  their 
morahty.  Despite  the  long  supremacy  and  cruel 
tyranny  of  their  JIohanimed.an  conquerors,  they 
have,  as  a  nation,  remained  faithful  to  the  Christian 
religion,  according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek 
church.  In  Guria,  however,  nearly  half  the  inha- 
bitants have  gone  over  to  the  religion  of  Islam. 
The  condition  of  the  people,  although  somewhat 
amchorated  under  Russian  nde,  is  on  the  whole 
dejilorable. 

The  language  of  the  Georgians  is  harsh,  but 
regiU.ar  and  forcible.  It  has  a  peculiar  structure, 
and  Dr  Latham  considers  it  as  having  nearer 
alhnities  with  the  Tibetan  and  other  monosyllabic 
tongues,  than  with  the  Aryan.  The  Kterature, 
which  is  not  altogether  imimportant,  begins  with 
the  introdiiction  of  Christianity  into  the  countrj', 
and  consists  chiefly  of  ecclesiastical  ■writings,  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible,  the  fathers,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
their  commentators.  Profane  literature  flourished 
chiefly  in  the  17th  c,  and  consists  mainly  of  poetry 
and  chronicles,  particidarly  of  an  ecclesiastical 
character.      A    few  heroic   poems   maj'  be   traced 


back  to  the  time  of  Queen  Thamar  (1184—1206). 
Scientific  works  are  few  in  mmiber,  and  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  historical  works,  are  of  no 
importance.  Recently,  however,  a  greater  zeal  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  has  begim  to  shew 
itself  among  the  Georgians,  and  imder  the  Russian 
government  the  system  of  education  and  instruction 
has  progressed  considerably.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  a  circumstance  imfavour- 
able  to  the  mental  ciJture  of  the  country,  that, 
in  1807,  the  archives  and  scientific  works  of  G. 
were  conveyed  to  St  Petersburg.  The  person  most 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  language,  literature, 
and  history  of  G.  is  Brosset.  Besides  the  transla- 
tion of  a  Georgian  chronicle,  he  has  published, 
among  other  works,  the  Elements  de  la  Languc 
Gcorr/ienne  (Paris,  1837),  the  Rapport  sur  un  Voyage 
Archeologique  dans  la  Georgie  et  dans  I'Arnn'n'ir, 
execute  en  1847—1848  (Petersburg,  1850—1851), 
L'JIUloire  de  la  Georgie,  in  Georgian  and  French, 
and  Additions  et  Edatrcissements  A  VHistoire  de  la 
Georgie  (Petersburg,  1851). 

GEORGIA  BARK.    See  Petckkeya. 

GEORG.SWALDE,  a  small  town  on  the  northern 
border  of  Bohemia,  64  nules  north  of  Prague.  It 
has  a  mineral  spring  and  some  manufactures  of 
hnen.     Pop.  5100. 

GEOTEU'THIS,  a  genus  of  fossU  calamaries, 
peculiar  to  the  Oohtic  period.  ITie  shell  or  horny 
pen  is  broad  and  truncated  in  front,  and  pointed 
behind,  with  the  lateral  wings  shorter  than  the 
shaft.  Some  specimens  from  the  Oxford  clay  are 
remarkably  preserved,  still  shewing  the  muscular 
mouth,  the  bases  of  the  arms,  and  the  ink-bag. 
The  ink  has  been  made  into  SejMa.  Some  of  the 
ink-bags  from  the  Lias  are  nearly  a  foot  long, 
and  are  invested  with  a  brilUant  nacreous  layer. 
Ujiwards  of  a  dozen  species  have  been  found. 

GERA,  a  town  of  Gei-many,  the  chief  place  in 
the  small  principality  of  Reuss,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  tlie  White  Elster,  35  mihs 
south-south-west  of  Leipsic.  It  is  handsomely 
built,  \i-ith  broad  and  regular  streets,  and  has  six 
squares,  a  castle,  a  fine  town  hall,  and  several 
rehgious  and  educational  institutions.  There  are 
extensive  manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
also  machine  making,  and  manufactures  of  soap, 
gloves,  leather,  hats,  tobacco,  waxcloth,  ironware, 
stoneware,  and  porcelain.  The  recent  prosperity  of 
the  town  is  seen  in  the  increase  of  the  population 
from  11,300  in  1843  to  17,871  in  1871.  A  large 
manufactory  of  harmonicas  employs  600  hands. 
Beer  is  extensively  manufactured  for  export. 

GERA'CE,  an  ancient  commercial  town  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  province  of  Calabria  Ultra  I., 
occupies  a  beautiful  and  fertile  situation  on  the 
u]iper  slopes  of  the  Apennines,  at  about  four 
miles  distance  from  the  Ionian  Sea.  On  the 
destruction  of  the  ancient  town  of  Locri  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  12th  c,  the  inhabitants,  out  of  the 
ruins  of  their  homes,  constnicted  a  new  settlement 
about  four  miles  from  the  site  of  Locri,  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  called  it  Santa  Ciriace,  which  has  since 
Ijecome  Gerace.  This  town  has  suffered  severely 
from  repeated  earthquakes,  in  one  of  which,  in 
1783,  both  the  cathedral  and  the  citadel,  a  fortress 
of  great  strength,  were  reduced  to  ruins.  In  a 
neighbouring  plain  are  seen  ruins  sujiposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  Locri  EpizephjTii,  an  important 
city  of  Magna  Grecia,  celebrated  by  Pindar  in 
more  than  one  of  his  odes.  Coins  Iiearing  the 
epigraph  of  Locri  have  been  foimd  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  ruins,  and  together  with  the  Greek  char- 
acter borne  by  the  ruined  edifices,  seem  to  support 


GERANIUM— GfiRAKD. 


this  supposition.  The  moJorn  G.  is  well-buUt, 
and  owes  its  ooinmcrcliU  prosperity  to  its  silk 
factories  and  its  trade  in  wine,  a  sweet  white 
kind  of  which,  kno\ni  as  'II  Greco  di  Gerace,'  is 
duserveiUy  liekl  in  hiyh  repute.     Pop.  about  GOOO. 

GERA'NIUBI,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants,  tlie 
typo  of  the  natural  lirder  WcranittCOT,  the  liuiits  of 
which  correspond  with  those  of  the  Linnsoan  genus. 


a,  Geranium ;  b,  Pelarstonium ; 
c,  Herb  Bohcrt  {Geranium  Jtobcrtianum). 

This  order  contains  at  least  500  known  species,  very 
niu'qu.ally  distributed  over  the  world,  and  jiarticu- 
larly  abounding  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  of  which 
coiuitry  most  of  the  species  of  the  l.irge  geuus  Pilar- 
gon'tum  are  natives — a  genus  distinguished  by  an 
irregular  corolla  and  by  a  nectariferous  tube  running 
down  the  flower-stalk.  M.any  species  of  Pelar- 
gonium, and  many  fine  hybrids  and  varieties  pro- 
duced by  cultivation,  are  to  be  seen  in  green-houses, 
and  some  of  them  are  frequent  in  cottage-\\aiidows. 
The  name  geranium  is  still  very  frequently  given  to 
them.  The  British  Geraniacecp  are  thu-teeu  sjiecies 
of  Geranium  and  three  of  Erodium,  all  herbaceous. 
Some  of  them  are  common  weeds  in  fields  and 
gardens,  with  small  flowers ;  others  have  large  and 
heautifid  flowers,  and  are  among  the  finest  orna- 
ments of  groves  and  meadows.  Some  species  of 
Geranium  are  often  cultivated  in  flower-gardens. 
The  name  Geranium  (Gr.  rjernnos,  a  crane),  the 
popidar  English  name  Crane's-bill,  and  the  Germ.au 
Storclisndbel,  all  refer  to  the  beaked  fruit.  The 
Geraniacece  are  generaDy  characterised  by  astrin- 
gency ;  many  have  a  disagreeable,  others  a  ple.is- 
antly  aromatic  and  resinous  smell,  some  a  dehghtfid 
fragrance.  The  Stinking  Crahe's-eill  or  Here 
Robert  [Geranium  Pobertianum),  a  common  weed 
in  Britain,  with  a  diffuse  habit,  deeply  divided 
leaves,  and  small  flowers,  has  been  used  medicinally 
as  an  astringent,  and  in  nephritic  compl.Tints.  G. 
maculatum,  a  North  American  species,  with  flowers 
of  considerable  beauty,  is  the  most  valuable  medi- 
cinal plant  of  the  order.  Its  root,  called  Alum 
Root  in  America,  is  extremely  astringent,  and 
abounds  in  fcvnuin  :  it  is  used  for  gargles  and  as  a 
medicine  in  various  diseases. 

A  few  Geraniacece  produce  edible  tubers :  those 
of  Geraninm  tuberosum  are  eaten  in  the  south  of 
Europe;  those  of  G.  parvijloruui  in  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  where  they  are  known  as  Kuiive  Carrol ;  and 
those  of  Pelargonium  triste  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  leaves  of  Pelargonium  acetosum  and 
P.  pellatum  are  edible,  and  gratefully  acid.  The 
cultivated  Geraniacece  are  propagated  by  seed  or  by 
cuttings ;  the  shrubby  kinds  are  very  easOy  propa- 


gated by  cuttings.  They  require  a  light  rich  soil : 
a  mixture  of  le.af  mould  and  sand  is  very  suitable. 
They  are  kept  low  by  priming,  to  increase  their 
beauty  and  make  them  more  productive  of  flowers. 

GERARD,  Etie.nnt.-Maurice.  Comte,  Marshal 
of  Franco,  was  born  at  Damvilliers,  in  Lorraine, 
on  the  4th  of  April  177.'?.  He  enrolled  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  second  battalion  of  the  Mouse,  and 
served  diu'ing  the  campaign  of  1702 — 1793  under 
Dumouriez  and  Jourdau,  and  afterwards  accom- 
p.anied  Bernadotte  on  his  embassy  to  Vienna,  where 
lie  was  the  means  of  saving  his  lu.aster's  life  in  the 
mfilee  that  ensued  on  his  arrival.  After  rising 
rapitlly  through  the  different  grades  of  promotion, 
he  was  appointed  colonel  on  the  15th  November 
1800,  and  in  1805  aid-de-camp  to  his  friend 
Bernadotte.  He  specially  distinguished  himself  at 
Austerlitz  (1805),  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
■appointed  general  of  brigade,  at  Halle  (1806),  Jena 
(1806),  Erfurt  (ISOG),  Lmtz  (1S09),  and  Wagram 
(1809).  On  the  morning  after  this  last  b.attle,  he 
received  the  title  of  Baron  of  the  Empire.  He  took 
part  both  in  the  wars  of  the  Spanish  roninsula 
and  in  the  Russi.an  campaign  ;  and  in  1812  was 
made  a  general  of  tli^'ision.  Subsequently,  Najio- 
leon  named  him  Count  of  the  Empire.  After  the 
first  restoration,  he  w.as  named  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  Chevalier  of  St  Louis,  and 
received  various  houounable  appointments.  On  the 
return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  G.  joined  him,  and 
commanded  the  fom-th  corps,  numbering  16,000 
men.  At  the  battle  of  Ligny,  (J.  was  opposite  to 
the  centre  of  the  Prussian  position,  which  covered 
Ligny,  and  was  thus  in  the  hottest  of  the  fight. 
On  the  morning  of  the  18th  of  Jime,  G.  was  near 
W.avres,  when  firing  was  heard  in  the  direction  of 
Soignies,  upon  which  a  council  was  called,  and  if 
G.'s  advice  had  been  taken,  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
might  perhaps  have  had  a  ilifferent  residt.  After 
the  second  restoration,  G.  was  obliged  to  leave 
France,  and  did  not  return  till  1817.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1822  ;  he  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution 
of  1830,  and  comm.auded  the  troops  appointed  to 
maintain  order  and  tr.anquillity  in  Paris.  In  1831, 
Louis  Philippe  appointed  G.  a  marshal  of  Frame, 
aud  g.ave  him  the  command  of  the  expedition  to 
Belgium,  in  the  course  of  which  he  distinguished 
himself  by  taking  Antwerp  in  December  1S32.  In 
1835  he  succeeded  Marshal  Mortier  as  Grand 
Ch.ancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  died  17th 
of  Aprd  1855. 

GERARD,  FKAN501S  Pascal,  Baron,  oue  of  the 
first  historical  and  portrait  painters  of  the  modem 
French  school,  was  born  at  Rome,  11th  March  1770. 
At  an  early  age,  he  went  to  France,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  Pajou,  the  sculptor,  in  Paris.  He  after- 
wards worked  for  some  time  in  the  studio  of  tlie 
painter  Brenet,  and  in  his  ICth  year  became  the 
pupil  of  David,  but  his  aHistic  career  was  inter- 
loipted  for  several  years  by  the  Revolution.  In 
1795,  he  exhibited  his  first  picture,  'Belisarius;' 
some  time  after,  he  painted  'Psyche  recei^'ing  the 
First  Kiss  from  Cu])iiL'  Encouraged  by  his  success, 
he  now  turned  his  attention  to  portrait-painting. 
Ha\'ing  gained  Napoleon's  favour,  ho  was  loaded 
with  honours,  and  received,  among  other  commis- 
sions, that  of  painting  the  B.attle  of  Austerlitz,  jier- 
liaps  the  most  successfid  of  his  jiaintiugs  Ulustratiug 
the  campaigns  of  Napoleon.  But  his  grandest  work 
- — both  .as  regards  size  and  merit — is  his  '  Entrance 
of  Henri  Quatre  into  Paris.'  It  is  30  feet  wide  by 
15  high,  glowTng  with  life,  bright  with  colour,  and 
accurate  in  costume.  It  was  painted  in  1817.  G. 
w.as    shortly    after    appomted    first    court-painter, 


GERASA— GERHAEDT'S  NOTATION. 


and  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  Baron  by  Louis  XVIII. 
He  died  at  Paris,  11th  January  1837.  G.'s  most 
celebrated  portraits  are  those  of  Napoleon  in  his 
Coronation  Kobes,  the  Queen  of  Naples  and  her 
Children,  TallejTand,  Talma,  Louis  Philippe,  and 
Madame  Itocamier.  Of  his  other  pictures,  the  best 
known  are  '  Ossian's  Dream '  {engraved  by  Godefroy), 
'Homer'  (engraved  by  Massard),  'Daphnis  and 
Chloii,'  'Philip  V.,'  'Corinna  on  the  Promontory  of 
Misena,'  'St  Theresa  Kneeling  at  the  ^Vltar,'  and 
'  Thetis  Bearing  the  iVrmour  of  Achdles.' 

GERA'SA,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  a  city 
of  Palestine,  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Penea.  It 
was  situated  among  the  mountains  of  Gilcad,  about 
20  miles  cast  of  the  Jordan,  and  25  north  of  P.ab- 
bath-Ammon,  and  attained  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
jjcrity  under  the  Antonines  (138 — ISO  A.D.).  On 
the  rise  of  Christianity,  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  but  subsequently  sunk  into  decay.  G. 
;s  now  deser\-ing  of  notice  solely  on  account  of  its 
nuns,  which  are  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  and 
extensive  in  that  p-ort  of  Palestine  lying  east  of  the 
Jordan.  In  f.aet,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
city  in  ruins,  but  wliich  still  preserves  its  original 
outlines.  Great  portions  of  the  wall  suiToimding 
the  town  are  in  good  preservation ;  three  of  the 
gateways  are  almost  perfect,  and  within  the  city 
more  than  230  columns  are  still  standing  on  their 
pedestals. 

GERBI,  GERBA,  or  JERBA  (the  iMeninx  of 
Strabo  and  Pliny),  a  small  island  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa  belonging  to  the  state  of  Tunis,  is 
situ.ated  in  the  Gulf  of  C.ibes,  and  is  separated 
by  a  strait  from  a  headland  on  the  shore.  It  is 
abojit  20  miles  long  and  12  miles  bro.ad,  and  is 
fertile  and  populous.  .Shawls  of  brilliant  colours, 
beautifid  silk  and  wooUen  fabrics  of  the  finest 
te.xture,  bornous  and  blankets,  are  manufactured. 
This  island  contains  a  triumphal  .arch  in  honour 
of  Antoninus  and  Verus,  and  a  jijTamid  from  25  to 
30  feet  in  height,  built  u])  of  the  skulls  of  the 
Spanifih  soldiers  who  fell  here  in  a  disastrous  battle 
with  the  Turks  in  the  Gth  ccntiuy. 

GERHARDT,  Karl  Friedrich,  an  eminent 
chemist,  was  bom  at  Str,asburg  on  the  21st  of 
August  1816,  and  died  in  that  city  on  the  19th  of 
August  1856.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Polj-technic  .School  of  Carlsnihe,  where  his 
attendance  at  Professor  Walchner's  lectures  first 
awaked  in  his  mind  a  taste  for  chemistry.  After 
two  years'  residence  in  this  to\vn  he  removed 
to  Leipsic,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Erdmann,  which  seem  to  have  developed  in  him 
an  irresistible  passion  for  questions  of  speculative 
chemistry. 

On  his  return  home,  he  reluctantly  entered  upon 
the  business  of  Iiis  f.ather,  who  w.as  a  manufacturer 
of  chemical  products ;  but  the  requirements  of 
commerce  seem  to  have  been  intensely  repugnant  to 
him,  and  in  a  hasty  moment  of  passion  he  enlisted 
(being  now  in  his  twentieth  year)  in  a  refrfment  of 
chasseurs.  He  soon,  however,  found  a  military  life 
as  insupportable  as  a  commercial  career,  and  in  the 
course  of  three  months  he  purchased  his  discharge, 
and  .at  once  set  out  for  the  laboratory  of  Giessen, 
where  he  worked  under  Liebig's  supcriutendenoe 
for  eighteen  months.  In  1S38  he  arrived  in  Paris, 
where  he  wa-s  cordially  welcomed  by  Dimias.  Here 
he  gave  lectures  and  instiaactions  in  chemistry,  and, 
■with  Che\Teul'3  permission,  worked  in  the  labora- 
tory of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  where,  in  association 
mth  his  friend  Cahours  (to  whose  memoir  of  (i. 
we  are  indebted  for  many  of  the  facts  noticed  in 
this  article),  he  commences  his  important  researches 
on  the  essential  oils.     In  1844  he  was  appointed 


professor  of  fJeneral  Chemistry  in  the  Faculty  of 
Sciences  at  Montpellier,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
married  the  youn^jest  daughter  of  the  late  Dr 
J.amcs  Sanders  of  Edinburgh.  About  this  time  he 
published  his  Pr(cis  de  Chimie  Organ'vfue,  in  which 
he  sketches  the  idea  of  '  Homologous  and  Hetero- 
logous Series'  (q. v.),  which  at  a  later  jicriod  ho 
so  successfully  developed.  In  1845,  in  association 
with  Laurent,  he  commenced  the  Comptes  rendus  des 
Traraux  de  Chimie pubh'es  en  France  et  A  V Elranger, 
which  were  continued  till  1848.  In  1848,  he  resigned 
his  chair  and  returned  to  Paris,  in  order  to  follow 
out  uninterruptedly  his  sjiecial  investigations  ;  and 
in  that  city  he  established,  between  the  years  1 849 
■and  1855,  in  successive  memoirs,  his  views  of  series 
(already  adverted  to)  and  the  theory  of  types, 
with  which  his  name  will  be  ever  associated  in 
the  history  of  chemistry.  It  was  there,  also,  that 
he  gave  to  the  scientific  world  his  remarkalile 
researches  upon  the  anhydrous  acids  .and  the  oxides. 
All  his  ideas  and  his  discoveries  are  embodied  in 
his  Traits  dc  Chimie  Onjanique  (1853 — 1856, 4  vols.), 
which  forms,  to  use  the  words  of  his  friend  and 
biographer  Cahours,  '  an  important  monument  of 
modem  science.'  He  had  h.ardly  completed  the 
correction  of  the  last  proof  of  this  great  work,  when, 
after  an  illness  of  only  two  days,  he  was  surprised 
by  the  hand  of  death  at  the  very  period  when  he 
seemed  to  be  beginning  to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his 
labours ;  for  he  had  just  received  the  diploma  of 
corresponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  P.aris,  and  in  the  previous  year  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  .Strasbourg. 

GERHARDT'S  NOTATION  is  now  intro- 
duced, not  orjy  into  niunerous  foreign  works  on 
chemistrj',  but  into  some  of  our  recent  English 
manuals — as,  for  example,  Comington's  Handbook  of 
Chemic(d  Analyses,  Odling's  Manual  of  Chemistnj, 
&C. ;  and  being  employed  by  a  large  section  of 
English  chemists — as,  for  example.  Professors 
Williamson,  Brodie,  Hofmann,  and  Odling — requires 
a  brief  notice.  On  certain  theoretical  grounds, 
Gerhardt  h.a3  doubled  the  combining  or  equivalent 
numbers  of  oxygen,  carbon,  sulphur,  selenia,  and 
telluriiun ;  the  other  numbers  remaining  unaltered. 
We  give  in  the  following  table  the  ordinary  and 
Gerhardt's  numbers : 


Ordinary 

Geihardt'3 

Equivalent. 

Equivalent. 

0, 

8 

16 

c, 

G 

12 

s, 

IG 

32 

Se, 

39-75 

79-5 

Te, 

64-5 

129. 

The  examination  of  a  few  formula;  will  reatlily 
enable  the  reader  to  translate  from  one  system  into 
the  other : 

„  .  Orclinarv  Gerhardt's 

Compounds.  Iormul.-c.  Formulaj. 

W.ater HO  H,0 

Potash,      .         .         .  .     KO  KjO 

H}'dr.ate  of  Potash,       .        KO,HO  KHO 

Hv(b-ated  Nitric  Acid,  .    HO.NO^  NO^H 

Hydrated  Sulphuric  Acid,     HO.SO,  SO^R, 

Hj'drated  Acetic  Acid,  .     H0,C,H303  C.H^O, 

Alcohol,        .        .        .        HCC.HjO  a,H,0 

In  Gerhardt's  formuh-e  we  have  printed  in  italics 
the  symbols  whose  equiv.alents  are  ch.anged.  E.ach 
system  of  notation  h.as  its  advantages,  but  upon 
the  whole  we  are  inclined  to  .agree  with  Professor 
Jldler,  that  'the  question  to  be  considered  is  not 
simply,  what  is  iii  the  abstract  the  best  mode  of 
not,ation,  but  what,  considering  aU  the  cii-cum- 
stances  of  the  science,  possesses  the  greatest 
advantage.      That    system    of    notation  which    is 


GEKIZIM  AND  EBAL— GERMAN  CATHOLICS. 


consistent    \i-ith    itself,    and    Trhich    lenda    itself    their  aversion  to  a.sriculture,  and,  indeed,  to  any 
most  completely  to  the  expression  of  the  various    form  of  industry.     Population  estimated  at  15,()0(). 
theories   and   aspects   of    the    science   which   have 
been  maintained,  or  may  be  maintained,  is  there- 
fore, pliilosophically  speaking,  the  best     And  such 
grounds,  it  appears  to  me,  exist  for  continuing  to 


use  the  system  hitherto  adopted.' 

GERI'ZIJI  AXD  E'BAL,  two  mountains  cele- 
Ijrated  in  Scrijitiu-e  story.  They  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  naiTow  valley  about  200 
yards  -nide,  in  which  stanils  the  town  of  NJlbulus, 
the  ancient  Shechem  or  Sychar,  the  metropoUs  of 
the  Samaritan  sect.  They  are  nearly  equal  in 
altitude,  neither  of  them  exceeding  700  or  800  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  valley,  which,  however,  is 
itself  1800  feet  above  the  sea.  The  ^^ew  from  the 
top  of  Mount  G.,  the  southern  hill,  is  said  to  be 
among  the  finest  in  Palestine,  embracing,  as  it 
does,  glimpses  of  the  blue  waters  of  the  Jlediter- 
ranean  on  the  west,  the  snow-capped  heights  of 
Hermon  on  the  north,  and  on  the  east  the  wall 
of  the  Trans-Jordanic  mountains,  broken  by  the 
deep  cleft  of  the  brook  Jabbok. 

In  aU  probability,  Moimt  G.,  and  not  the  mere 
hillock  called  Moriah,  on  which  Solomon  afterwards 
built  the  Temple,  was  the  place  where  Abraham 
offered  up  his  son  Isaac.     Along  vnth  Moimt  Ebal, 
it  was  also  the  scene  of  a  grand  and  impressive 
ceremony,  in  which  the  whole  people  of  Israel  took 
part  after  crossing  the  Jordan,  in  obedience  to  a 
command  which  Sloses  had  given  them.      Half  of 
the  tribes  stood  upon  the  declivities  of  the  one  hill ; 
the  rest  occupied  the  sides  of  the  other,  while  in  the 
valley  between,  the  Levites,  surrounding  the  sacred 
ark,  pronounced,  '  ^^•ith   loud  voice,'  the   blessings 
aifixcd  to  the  performance  of  the  law,  and  the  curses 
affixed  to   the   neglect    of    it.      According  to   the 
Mishna,  their  manner  of  procedure  was  as  follows  : 
They  first  turned  towards  Gerizim,  and  pronounced 
the  blessing,  whereupon  the  vast  host  that  thronged 
the  ascent  of  that  hdll  roUed  back  their  midtitud- 
inous  '  Amen ; '    then  turning  towards  Ebal,  they 
uttered  the  corresponding  malediction,  to  which  the 
tribes  there  stationed  responded  in  deep  and  solemn 
tones.     In  this  way,  alternating  blessing  and  curse, 
they  went  through  the  whole  series.     The  narrative 
of  the  ceremony  (which  is  to  be  found  in  the  27th 
chapter  of  Deuteronomy)  gives  only  the  curses — 
the  customary  explanation  of  which  fact  is,  that 
probably  these  were  merely  the  reverse  form  of  the 
blessings,  and  may  have  been  selected  by  the  -nTiter 
of  the  book  on  account  of  the  greater  awe  inspired, 
among   a   rude   people,  by   a    malediction   than  a 
benecliction.     At  a  later  period  the  Samaritans,  by 
permission  of  Alexander  the  Great,  biult  a  temple 
on  Mount  G.,  as  a  rival  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  and 
organised   a   rival    priesthood.      And    though   this 
temple  was  destroyed  by  Hyrcanus  about  200  years 
after,  the  mountain  on  which  it  stood  continued  to 
be  held  sacred  by  the  Samaritans.     It  was  to  Mount 
G.  that  the  '  woman  of  Samaria'  referred  when  she 
said  to  our  SaWour :   '  Our  fathers  worshipped  in 
this  mountain,  and  ye  say  that  in  Jerusalem  is  the 
place  where  men  ought  to  worship.'     Subsequently, 
a  Christian  church  in  honour   of   the  Virgin  was 
biult   on   it,  which    Justinian    suiTounded   with   a 
strong  waU  to  protect  it  against  the  assaults  of  the 
Samantans,  who  were  even  then  a  powerful  and 
important  sect.      The  ruins   of  this  wall  are  stUl 
^sible. 

GE'RKI,  a  considerable  town  of  Africa,  is  situated 
in  the  Sudan,  in  the  district  of  Sokoto,  in  lat.  12° 
2G'  N.,  and  long.  9°  10'  E.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  surmounted  with  pinnacles.  Its  inliabitants 
are  notorious  for  their  thievish  propensities,  and  for 
710 


GERLACHE,  Etienxe  Constantix,  B.vkox  df., 
a  native  of  the  province  of  Luxemburg,  in  Belgium, 
was  born  on  the  26th  December  1785.  In  1824,  he 
was  elected  as  deputy  from  the  province  of  Liege  to 
the  second  chamber  of  the  '  States  General.'  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution,  G.  presided  over  the 
committee  appointed  to  re\Tse  the  constitution,  and 
was  head  of  the  deputation  scut  to  offer  the  crown 
to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg.  In  18.31,  ho 
became  president  of  congress,  and  in  that  capacity 
received  the  oath  exacted  from  the  king  by  the 
constitution,  and  the  following  year  was  appointed 
first  president  of  the  '  court  of  cassation.'  In  1 S43, 
the  king  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  baron.  Since 
his  election  as  deputy  in  1824,  he  has  supported  the 
Catholic  part}',  and  is  now  considered  as  one  of  their 
chief  leaders.  G.  has  also  acquired  a  literary  repu- 
tation. The  most  important  of  his  works  are  the 
following  :  Memoires  sur  les  Changemmt^  a  apporler 
anx  Tarif's  du  Royaume,  which  appeared  between 
1821  and  1824,  and  were  addressed  to  the  king; 
Histoire  du  Royaume  des  Pays-Bas,  depuis  1814 
jusqu'en  1830  (Brussels,  1839),  besides  other  works 
of  local  interest. 

GERMAN,  San,  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  the 
Spanish  island  of  Porto  Kico,  stands  in  lat.  IS"  10" 
N.,  long.  67°  W.  It  is  situated  about  10  miles  from 
the  sea,  in  the  centre  of  a  district  productive  in 
cotton,  coffee,  and  cattle.  Its  population  is  esti- 
mated at  9125. 

GERMAN  BARM.     See  YE.iST. 

GERMAN  CATHOLICS  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  a  religious  sect  that  has  recently  sprung  up 
in  Germany  in  the  bosom  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Thoudi  retaining  the  designation  Catholic 
— i.  e.,  universal — they  form  independent  congrega- 
tions, and  most  commonly  style  themselves  Chris- 
tian CathoHcs.  So  far  as  their  general  principles 
are  concerned,  the  G.  C.  stand  upon  Protestant 
ground ;  but  neither  in  theory  nor  practice  are 
they  evangelical  Protestants,  nor  do  they  wish  to 
be  accounted  such. 

Whatever  might  be  the  deeper  causes  of  the 
schism,  the  immediate  occasion  of  it  was  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  Holy  Coat  at  Treves.  In  1844,  Bishop 
Arnoldi  appointed  a  special  pilgrimage  and  service 
to  this  relic,  to  be  preceded  by  confession  and  remis- 
sion of  sins.  This  proceeding  called  forth  a  jirotcst 
from  J.  Eonge  (pronounced  Ronge,  the  (j  hard),  a 
priest  in  SUesia,  who,  haNdng  quarrelled  with  the 
authorities  of  his  cliurch,  had  been  suspended  from 
his  office,  and  was  living  in  retirement.  Ronge 
addressed  a  public  letter  to  Bishop  Arnoldi,  October 
1,  184A,  in  which  he  characterised  the  exhibition 
of  the  coat  as  idolatry.  Rouge's  voice  foimd  a 
vi^ad  response  in  the  minds  of  many  Catholics,  and 
was  also  approved  by  Protestants. 

A  short  time  preWous  to  the  publication  of  this 
letter,  J.  Czerski,  a  priest  at  Schncidemiihl,  in  Posen, 
had  seceded  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
was  about  to  form  a  congregation  of  '  Christian  Apos- 
tolic Catholics.'  Czerski  and  Ronge  were  naturally 
drawn  into  confederacy.  Ronge  at  last  addressed 
an  appeal  to  the  lower  orders  of  the  priesthood, 
calling  upon  them  to  use  their  induence  in  the 
pulpit  and  every\vhere  to  break  the  power  of  the 
court  of  Rome,  and  priestcraft  in  general,  through- 
out Germany ;  to  set  up  a  national  German  Church 
independent  of  Rome,  and  governed  by  coimcils 
and  sjTiods ;  to  abolish  auricular  confession,  the 
Latin  mass,  and  the  celibacy  of  the  priests ;  and 
to  aim  at  liberty  of  conscience  for  aU  Christians, 


GERilAN,  COUSIN— GERMAN  PASTE. 


and  perfect  freedom  for  the  religioiia  education  of 
cluldren. 

The  first  congregation  of  the  new  church  was 
formed  at  Schneidemiihl,  and  took  the  name  of 
Christian  Catholic.  The  confession  of  faith,  which 
nas  drawn  up  by  Czerski,  difl'ered  little  in  point 
of  doctrine  from  that  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Holy  Scriptures  and  the  Nicene  Creed  were  held  to 
lie  the  only  standards  of  Christian  faith,  and  were 
to  bo  understood  in  the  sense  patent  to  every 
cnliijlitened  and  pious  Christian.  Nothing  was 
said  against  the  worship  of  saints  and  relics, 
pilgrim.agps,  confession,  &c.  This  Confession  of 
.Schneidemiihl  served  many  other  congregations  as 
a  gi'cnmdwork,  though  some  of  them  modified  it 
in  various  ways,  and  expressed  themselves  moro 
dflluitely.  The  new  sect  quickly  incre.ased.  At 
the  beginning  of  lS-1.5,  more  than  a  hiuidred  con- 
gregations were  in  existence.  The  congregation 
wluch  was  formed  at  Breslau  is  noticeable  from 
the  confession  of  faith  which  it  issued,  drawn  up 
imdcr  the  influence  of  Eonge,  who  had  l)cen  chosen 
preacher.  This  confession  completely  departed 
Irom  the  doctrine  and  ritual  of  the  Koman  Catholic 
elnu-ch.  The  Scripture  was  laid  down  to  bo  the 
only  nde  of  Christian  faith,  and  no  extem.al  autho- 
rity, it  was  added,  can  be  allowed  to  interfere 
with  the  free  interpretation  of  it.  Tlie  essentials 
of  belief  were  restricted  to  a  few  doctrines :  belief 
in  God  as  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  world, 
and  the  Father  of  all  men ;  in  Christ  as  the  Sa\-iour, 
in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  holy  Christian  Church,  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,  and  etcrn.al  life.  Baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper  were  held  to  be  the  only  sacra- 
ments. Confirmation  was  retained,  but  most  of  the 
rites  and  practices  peculiar  to  the  Koman  Catholic 
church  were  given  up. 

The  need  of  something  like  concert  being  felt,  the 
first  council  of  German  Catholics  was  held  at  Leipsic, 
Jlarch  '22,  1S45,  and  attended  by  deputies  from 
many  of  the  leading  congregations,  others  signify- 
ing their  \(-illingness  to  abide  by  the  decisions  that 
might  be  come  to.  The  principles  of  the  Breslau 
(-'onfcssion  were  mostly  adopted.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  the  only  source  of  Christian  belief, 
was  left  to  the  free  exercise  of  reason,  pervaded  and 
actuated  by  the  '  Christian  idea.'  Forms  of  worship 
were  to  be  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  time 
and  place.  With  regard  to  church  government,  the 
council  declared  in  favour  of  the  presbyterial  and 
synodal  constitution.  The  congregations  were  to 
have  the  free  election  of  their  clergy  and  eldership. 

The  elfcct  of  this  union  was  to  increase  the  nimil)er 
of  congregations,  which  by  the  end  of  1S45  amounted 
to  about  300.  Numbers  of  leading  Catholics,  pro- 
fessoi-s  and  others,  joined  the  movement ;  and 
learned  Protestants,  like  Gcrvinus,  looked  upon  it 
as  a  momentous  event  in  the  history  of  Germany. 
IndiWdual  Pi'otcstant  clergymen  went  over  to  the 
body ;  and  all  those  Protestants  who,  from  dis3.atis- 
faction  with  the  state  church,  had  formed  what  are 
called  '  free '  or  independent  congregations,  entei-ed 
more  or  less  into  relations  with  it.  The  local  boartls 
and  magistracy  also  shewed  great  favour  to  the 
cause,  and  often  suj)ported  it  by  granting  the  use  of 
Protestant  churches,  and  even  fimds. 

But  German  Catholicism  was  destined  soon  to  find 
enemies  both  within  and  without.  To  say  nothing 
of  orthodox  Cathohcs,  eonsen-ative  Protestantism 
began  to  suspect  it  as  an  undermining  of  religion  in 
genenal,  and  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  'church 
.and  state.'  And  as  the  movement  fell  in  T\-ith  the 
liberal  tendencies  of  the  times  in  genenol,  the 
governments  took  the  alarm,  and  set  themselves  to 
check  its  spread.  Saxony  took  the  lead,  and  Prussia 
Boon  followed,  in  imposing   vexatious,  and    even 


tyrannical  restrictions  upon  the  ''Dissidents,'  as 
they  were  styled  by  the  authorities.  In  Baden, 
they  were  even  denied  the  rights  of  burghers,  whUe 
Austria,  pre-eminent  in  religious  bigotry,  sent  them 
out  of  her  territories. 

It  was  more,  however,  internal  disagreements  than 
state  persecutions  that  checked  the  prosi)erity  of 
German  Catholicism,  as  was  to  be  anticipated  from 
the  wide  discrepancy  between  the  views  of  Czerski 
and  those  of  Konge.  Czerski  and  his  adherents  held 
closely  by  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  Home,  and 
issued  successive  confessions,  laying  down  more  and 
more  definitely  the  essential  points  of  beUef,  such  as 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  other  positive  doctrines. 
Rouge's  party,  on  the  other  hand,  apjjroached  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  Rationalists,  and,  leaving  the 
province  of  rehgion  altogether,  occupied  themselves 
with  free -thinking  theories  and  dcmocratical  politics. 
This  led  to  nimierous  disagreements  between  con- 
gregations and  clergjTneu,  and  discouraged  the 
spread  of  the  movement.  ^V^lcn  the  second  council 
was  held  iu  Berlin  in  1847,  the  interest  had  greatly 
declinccL 

When  the  great  stonn  of  18^18  burst,  the  German 
Catholics,  as  well  as  other  bodies,  had  free  space 
for  their  exertions,  which,  however,  took  mostly 
a  poUtical  direction.  Some  additions  were  made 
to  the  number  of  the  congregations,  especially  in 
Austria.  Ronge  was  active  in  travelling  and 
preaching,  and  although  his  freethinking  and  politi- 
cal tendencies  were  repudiated  by  numbers  of  tho 
body,  they  predominated  in  many  places,  and  foimd 
exi)ression  iu  a  series  of  puljlication.^,  among  others, 
iu  Rau's  Catechism  of  ilie  Chr'uitian  litUtjlon  of  lieason^ 
and  Shell's  Book  of  Religion.  After  the  political 
reaction  set  in,  strong  measures  were  taken  against 
the  German  Catholics.  The  early  enthusiasm  of  tho 
movement  apparently  died  out,  and  after  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Frankfurt  parliament,  Ronge  retired  to 
London,  where  he  has  since  resided.  The  individual 
congregations  once  formed  still  continue  to  exist, 
though  in  a  depressed  condition,  except  in  Austria, 
where  they  have  been  altogether  suppressed.  A 
conference  was  held  at  Kcithen  in  1850,  at  which  it 
was  proposed  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Free 
congregations  foi-med  of  dissenters  from  the  Pro- 
testant chm'ch,  and  a  diet  was  fixed  for  1S.j2,  but  it 
did  not  meet.  Since  then,  German  Cathohcism  has 
been  rapidly  diminishing  aU  over  Germany,  and  at 
the  Gotha  conference  of  ISoS  there  were  only  42 
representatives  present.  Compare  Kampe's  Geschichle 
der  lielijiiiseti  Bewegumjcn,  ilt-r  A't«crc7i  Zeil  (Leip. 
185G). 

GERMAN,  COUSIN-.  Cousins-german,  or  first 
cousins,  are  those  who  are  related  to  each  other 
by  their  fathers  and  mothers  haWng  been  sisters 
or  brothers,  or  the  father  or  mother  of  the  one 
being  the  sister  or  brother  of  tho  other.  The 
tcnn  has  no  relation  to  Gei-man,  in  the  sense  of 
Teutonic,  but  comes  from  the  Latin  word  rjermanus, 
which  again  is  derived  from  germen,  a  young  bud  or 
branch.  Cousins-german  are,  therefore,  those  who 
are  the  buds  or  branches  of  the  same  tree,  and  they 
have  in  reality  always  one  grandfather  in  common. 

GERJIAN  OCEAN.    See  North  Se.i. 

GERMAN  PASTE,  used  for  feeding  birds  such 
as  larks,  thrushes,  nightingales,  and  other  singing- 
birds,  especially  those  which  in  their  wild  state 
feed  chiefly  upon  insects.  Take  2  lbs.  pea-meal, 
^  lb.  of  sweet  almonds  blanched,  J  lb.  of  fresh 
butter  or  lard,  5  oz.  moist  sugar,  ^  dr.  of  hay 
saffron,  and  3  eggs  boiled  hard.  Beat  them  into 
a  smooth  paste,  using  sufficient  water  to  give  it  the 
consistence  required  for  granulating  by  passing  it 
through  a   colander;    theu   expose  tlie  granulated 

711 


GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY. 


paste  to  the  air  in  a  warm  place  until  it  is  quite 
banl  ami  dry.  If  properly  prepared  and  dried,  it 
will  keep  good  in  a  dry  place  for  a  year  or  more. 

GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY.  When  we  speak 
of  the  jihilosophy  of  Gennany,  we  do  not  necessarily 
imply  that  it  differs  from  the  philosophy  of  any  other 
country  in  respect  of  the  problems  it  seeks  to  solve, 
any  more  than  when  we  compare  the  German  cliem- 
istry  with  that  of  France  or  England.  To  charac- 
terise Gemi.an  pliilosophy,  means  nothing  more  than 
to  i)oint  out  the  peculiar  path  that  German  thinkers 
liave  followed,  and  the  degree  of  success  that  has 
attended  their  investigations,  in  seeking  to  answer 
those  speculative  questions  which  are  understood  to 
form  the  domain  of  philosophy,  and  which  concern 
all  men,  if  they  concern  any.  Understood  in  tliis 
sense,  German  philosophy  claims  a  high  place — 
according  to  many,  the  highest.  At  least,  for  almost 
a  century  now,  a  more  general  interest  has  been 
taken  in  the  cidtivation  of  philosophy  in  Germany 
tliau  elsewhere,  and  abstruse  and  deep  speculation 
lias  Ijeen  chiefly  represented  by  German  thinkers. 
That  counti-y  has  thus  made  up  for  the  ground  she 
lost  by  continuing  to  adhere  to  the  traditional  forms 
of  scholastic  philosophy  after  they  had  been  forsaken 
iu  France  and  England.  This  spread  of  philosophic 
culture  was  coincident  -with  the  perfecting  and 
adaptation  of  the  Gei-man  language  to  prose  compo- 
sition. For  though  Leibnitz  confined  himself  iu  his 
philosophical  -nTitings  to  the  Latin  and  French 
languages,  Chr.  Thomasius,  about  the  same  time, 
had  begim  to  employ  the  mother-tongue  both  iu 
academic  Icctiu-ing  and  in  writing,  a  pr.actice  which 
was  extended  by  the  mmierous  writings  of  C'hr. 
Wolf.  The  expansion  of  German  literature  in  the 
last  half  of  the  18th  c.  completely  emancipated 
specidation  from  the  trammels  of  a  foreign  idiom, 
and  alongside  of  a  rich  poetical  literature  there 
sprang  up  a  philosophy  which  may  claim  comparison 
with  that  of  Greece. 

As  reg.ards  the  scientific  characteristics  of  Gerra.an 
philosophy,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  systems 
put  forth  by  Bacon  in  England,  Descartes  in  France, 
and  Sjiinosa  in  Holland,  had  but  little  influence 
in  Germany  at  the  time  of  their  appearance.  It 
was  Locke  that  first  awakened  any  considerable 
attention.  The  empuicism  of  this  philosopher,  who 
grounds  all  knowledge  on  experience,  and  makes 
psychology  the  regulator  of  met.aphysic,  called  forth 
the  opposition  of  Leibnitz,  the  first  German  that 
made  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  modern  philosophy, 
and  who,  from  the  varied  impulse  he  commmiicated, 
must  be  looked  upon  as  the  creator  of  the  philosophic 
spirit  in  Germany.  At  the  same  time  the  f\mdamental 
doctrines  of  Leibnitz's  system — that  of  monaels,  of  a 
I)re-established  hannony,  and  of  innate  ideas — were 
rather  genial  hyjjotheses  than  regidarly  established 
propositions.  To  remedy  this.  Wolf  endeavoured  to 
constnict  a  system  of  pihilosophy  complete  in  all  its 
parts  as  required  by  the  forms  of  logic,  in  doing 
which,  however,  he  set  aside  precisely  those  doc- 
trines that  formed  the  characteiistics  of  Leibnitz's 
philosophj-.  The  great  inflxience  exercised  by  Wolf 
is  shewn  by  the  wide  cii-culation  of  his  writings, 
and  the  multitude  of  his  disciples  and  adherents. 
Wolf  himself,  however,  outlived  his  fame,  and  the 
original  pliilosophic  mind  in  Gennany  went  to 
sleep  for  a  period,  during  which  a  sort  of  Eclec- 
ticism, without  any  fundamental  principle — the  so- 
called  ])hUosophy  of  'common  sense,'  prevalent  in 
England  and  France  in  the  18th  c. — became  generally 
spread.  This  period,  however,  was  not  without 
great  intellectual  excitement  of  other  kinds.  Poetry, 
reform  in  education,  politics,  and  religious  enlighten- 
ment, keenly  occupied  men's  minds  ;  old  customs 
and  .associations,  both  in  family  and  political  life, 


were  shaken  ;  and  prep.aration  was  sUently  going  on 
for  a  great  and  radical  revolution. 

Kant,  with  whom  the  next  period  of  German 
philosophy  begins,  thus  found  an  age  ready  to  receive 
impressions  ;  and,  although  the  Kritik  der  Hehirn 
Vernunft  (Critique  of  the  Pure  Ile.ason)  w,as  at  first 
in  danger  of  being  overlooked,  when  a  hearing  M'.as 
once  obtained,  that  and  his  other  critical  works, 
which,  after  long  prepar.ation,  appeared  in  rapid 
succession,  communicated  a  profound  impulse  to  the 
scientific  world.  This  arose  not  more  from  the 
novelty  and  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  researches, 
than  from  the  circumstance  that  their  aim  fell  iu 
with  the  tendencies  of  the  age.  The  exclusion  of 
everji;hing  dictated  by  caprice  or  sentiment,  the 
maintenance  of  the  independence  of  si)eculative 
inquiry,  the  reference  of  all  theoretical  spcciU.ation 
to  the  field  of  experience  accessible  to  it,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  moral  element  to  the  highest  and 
ultimate  object  of  all  himi.an  endeavour,  form  the 
leading  traits  of  his  philosophy,  which  he  recom- 
mended to  consideration,  more  from  its  importance 
to  man  and  society  than  to  philosophers.  He  also 
entertained  the  hope  that,  through  the  critical 
inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  human  mind,  it  might 
be  possible  to  reconcile  empiricism  and  rationalism, 
sensualism  and  spiritualism,  and  other  ]>hilosophical 
opposites,  and  discover  a  series  of  comprehensive 
principles  to  which  all  philosophical  disputes  might 
be  referred  in  the  last  resort.  This  hope  was  disap- 
pointed ;  among  other  causes,  because  Kant  sought 
to  ground  the  old  metaphysic  of  the  schools  on  a 
psychology  which  itself  rested  on  the  basis  of  that 
metaphysic.  Besides,  there  was  w.anting  in  the 
heyday  of  Kantism  any  satisfactory  point  of  unity 
for  the  several  parts  of  philosophy.  K.  L.  Keinhold 
was  the  first  to  point  out  this  defect ;  and  scepticism, 
as  in  C.  Schulze's  JEnesidemus,  and  dogm.atism  in 
the  writings  of  Eberhard  and  others,  carried  on  a 
war  with  the  '  ciitical '  philosophy,  but  not,  it  must 
be  confessed,  \\"ith  any  great  success.  It  was  Fichte 
who  fomid,  or  thought  lie  had  found,  in  the  fact  of 
consciousness,  that  absolute  point  of  unity  which 
Kant's  '  Critique'  had  always  pointed  to.  Fichte, 
following  out  the  p.ath  on  which  Kant  had  entered, 
changed  tlie  half-idealism  of  Kant  into  a  com- 
plete idealism,  by  declaring  the  Ego  to  be,  not  only 
the  bearer  and  source  of  knowledge,  but  the  only 
reality,  the  world  beings  merely  the  ideas  .and  active 
manifestations  of  the  Ego.  In  the  ego,  being  .and 
knowing  were  identical,  it  was  at  once  existence  and 
knowledge,  and  nature  appeared  only  as  the  reflex 
of  its  absolute  acti\*ity. 

With  this  idealism  began  a  kind  of  revolu- 
tionary excitement  in  the  philosophising  minds 
of  Germans,  which  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
calm  and  sober  spirit  of  Kant.  System  followed 
system ;  philosophical  books  appeared  in  shoals ; 
and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  and  more  the  interest 
w.as  shared  by  the  public  in  general.  But  tlie 
meteors  that  .appeared  in  tlie  philosoijliical  sky  of 
CTcrmany  vanished  for  the  most  i)art  as  suddenly 
as  they  had  blazed  forth.  Schelling  was  the  first 
that  attained  a  general  influence.  F.  H.  Jacobi  had 
previously  recalled  attention  to  Spinosa,  and  Schel- 
ling, influenced  by  the  speculations  of  Spinosa, 
converted  the  idealism  of  Fichte  into  wh.at  is  called 
'  the  philosophy  of  identity.'  This  system  set  out 
originally  with  the  assertion,  that  as  Fichte  educes 
nature  out  of  the  ego,  so  by  an  inverse  process  the 
ego  may  be  educed  out  of  natm-e ;  but  that  both 
these  forms  of  philosophising  have  their  ground  in 
the  ahsoliUe  as  the  identiUj  of  aU  opposites — of 
the  real  and  the  ideal,  of  subject  and  object,  of 
mind  and  matter.  In  can-jing  out  this  assertion, 
SchelUng   fixed  upon   intellectual  intuition  as   the 


GERM.VX  PHILOSOPHY— GERMAN  SILVER. 


kind  of  cognition  alone  corresponding  to  the  absolute, 
or  rather  as  identical  with  and  representing  the 
absolute.  The  organ  of  this  intuition  was  called 
reason,  and,  as  such,  was  opposed  to  the  reflection 
of  the  understanding,  wliich  was  held  to  be  quite 
incapable  of  taking  cognition  of  the  absolute.  The 
relation  of  the  phenomenal  world  to  the  absolute 
was  held  to  consist  in  this,  that  the  absolute  repre- 
sents itself  in  the  multiplicity  of  appearances,  steps 
out  of  the  state  of  '  indifference'  into  that  of  '  differ- 
ence,' manifests  itself  in  '  difference,'  &c.  Taking 
special  cases,  particidarly  in  natural  philosophy, 
SchoUing  endeavoured  to  demonstrate  the  existence 
of  this  identity  in  the  midst  of  non-identity,  and  of 
non-identity  in  the  midst  of  identity.  In  this 
.-ittempt,  however,  neither  Schelling  uor  his  disciples 
effected  much.  For  in  unden'aluing  and  neglecting 
exj)erienco  and  reflection,  the  door  was  opened  to 
a  fanciful  mode  of  speculation,  which  in  most  cases 
had  little  more  in  common  with  science  than  the 
name  ;  so  that  in  the  departments  of  poetry,  reli- 
gion, and  social  hfe,  the  SchelUng  philosophy  often 
degenerated  unto  a  blind  groping,  leading  to  the 
strangest  abcrr.ations  of  romanticism,  mysticism, 
and  tendency  to  Catholicism. 

The  ijhilosophy  of  Hegel  (q.v.)  took  tlie  same 
general  direction  as  that  of  Fichte  and  Schelling. 
Hegel  attempted  to  develop,  in  regular  organisation, 
the  contents  of  the  inteUeutual  intuition  (in  plain 
words,  the  cognitions  and  ideas  of  the  mind)  by 
the  dialectic  or  logical  methoil.  Though  he  broke 
loose  from  the  prevalent  fashion  of  indulging  in  an 
unbridled  jilay  of  fanciful  combinations,  he  did  not 
content  himself  with  the  ndes  of  logic  recognised 
for  thousands  of  years,  but  sought  an  expression  for 
specidative  thought  in  a  dialectic  of  his  own.  The 
essence  of  this  transcendental  logic  consisted  in  the 
analysis  of  all  the  estabhshed  general  conceptions ; 
and  the  process  or  method  consists  in  making 
each  conception  of  itself  generate  its  opposite, 
and,  combining  with  this  opposite,  thus  become 
enriched  and  enabled  to  advance  to  still  higher 
st-ages.  This  method  Hegel,  with  enduring  perse- 
vor.ince,  endeavoured  to  carry  out  through  the 
whole  field  of  philosophy ;  and  divided  his  system 
into  the  three  provinces  of  logic,  philosophy  of 
nature,  .and  philosophy  of  mind. 

While  the  systems  above  considered  form  pretty 
much  a  continuous  line  of  progress,  that  of  J.  F. 
Herbart  (q.  v.),  on  the  contrary,  arose  in  opposition 
to  the  idealism  of  Fichte,  and  took  a  direction  in 
complete  ant.agonism  to  the  dominant  secul,ar  phil- 
osoi>hy ;  and  when  we  have  named  Herbart,  along 
with  ScheUing  and  Hegel,  we  have  named  the  only 
men  that,  since  the  era  of  Kant  and  Fichte,  can  Lay 
claim  to  extended  and  general  influence.  For  the 
well-nigh  innumeraijle  productions  of  other  thinkers 
in  this  department,  though  often  of  individual  merit, 
are  only  of  secondary  importance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  philosophy  as  a  whole.  None  of  them 
opened  up  any  new  leading  path  ;  they  are  occupied 
chiefly  in  defemling  or  remodelling  older  systems, 
and  applying  them  to  particular  departments  of 
science,  or  in  controversy  with  the  dominant 
philosophy  of  the  day.  To  tliis  category  belong 
the  Kantian  systems  of  Krug  and  others;  the 
physical  speculations  of  Stcffens,  Oken,  Schubert, 
&c. ;  the  various  attempts  to  lead  back  philosophy 


was  thus  actively  prosecuted  as  a  science,  a  corres- 
ponding interest  was  taken  in  its  history  ;  in  fact, 
it  was  Germans  who  first  sought  to  grapple  with 
the  history  of  philosophy  as  a  whole,  and  to  throw 
light  upon  the  principiu  dep.artments  of  it  by  valuable 
special  treatises.  See  Philosophy.  ITie  rajiid 
succession  of  systems  one  after  another,  and  tho 
extravagances  into  which  some  of  them  ran,  have, 
it  is  true,  produced  a  lull  in  the  interest  taken  in 
specul.ation  ;  and  to  the  fonner  enthusiasm  there  has 
succeeded  a  scei)tical  aversion  to  all  speculative 
inquiry.  Still  the  influence  that  pliQosophy  has 
had  in  elevatuig  and  strengthening  the  scientific 
mind  of  Germany,  has  been  powerful  and  beneficial ; 
and  there  are  few  departments  of  research  in  which 
the  fruits  of  the  philosophic  spirit  may  not  be 
seen  in  a  deeper  and  more  thorough  mode  of 
treatment. 

GERMAN  SILVEK,  the  name  given  to  an  alloy 
formed  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel.  It  is  variable 
in  its  composition  according  to  the  reqiurements  of 
the  manufacturer,  but  may  be  stated  for  general 
purposes  to  consist  of  copper  50"0,  zinc  300,  nickel 
'200 ;  this  composition  is  very  malleable,  susceptible 
of  high  polish,  and  nearly  as  white  as  silver.  This 
is  used  to  imitate  silver  in  articles  wliich  are  rolled 
and  stamped,  and  consequently  require'  cousider- 
.ablo  maUcability.  By  taking  55  parts  of  copper, 
244  of  zinc,  antl  206  of  nickel,  we  obtain  a  very 
beautiful  alloy,  scarcely  inferior  in  beauty  to  silver 
itself.  For  wire-drawing  and  very  thin  rolling, 
a  tougher  alloy  is  formed  of  copper,  CO  parts; 
zinc,  25  parts;  nickel,  20  parts;  and  for  castings 
the  following  proportions  are  used — copper,  GO 
parts ;  zinc  and  copper,  each  20  parts.  Many 
other  formulae  are  in  use  arising  from  difference  of 
opinion  amongst  the  manufacturers  as  to  the  best 
proportions  for  their  respective  operations,  usually, 
however,  the  aim  is  to  obtain  a  silvery  whiteness, 
and  the  largest  proportion  of  m.alleability. 

This  alloy  must  not  be  confounded  with  other 
white  .alloys,  such  as  Albata,  Brit.annia  mcbil,  and 
nickel  silver,  which  are  used  as  substitutes  for  the 
true  German  silver.  The  first  of  these  is  composed 
of  copper,  zinc,  nickel,  and  a  little  lead  ;  the  second 
of  copper,  zinc,  tin,  antimonv,  and  sometimes  bis- 
muth :  and  the  third  of  copper  60-0,  nickel  22-2, 
zinc  178.  This  last  differs  only  in  its  projiortions 
from  the  German  silver ;  it  has  the  colour  of  highly 
pohshed  silver,  and  is  very  hard.  The  colour  of 
GeiTnan  silver  being  so  near  that  of  the  precious 
metal,  it  is  p.articularly  well  adapted  for  plating 
either  by  the  old  process  of  rolling  with  sdver,  or 
in  the  newer  and  now  generally  used  process  of 
clectro-pl.ating ;  tho  advantages  are  th.at  a  thinner 
deposit  of  suver  can  be  used,  and  the  articles 
made  are  not  liable  to  the  objection  of  the  old 
process  of  plating  on  copper,  which  as  soon  as  the 
sOver  began  to  wear  off  was  rendered  app.arent  by 
its  red  colour. 

As  alloys  of  the  nature  of  German  silver  are 
easdy  o.xidised  when  brought  in  contact  with  free 
acids  (as,  for  example,  with  the  acetic  .acid  con- 
tained in  vinegar),  and  as  the  salts  of  lead,  copper, 
and  nickel,  th.at  are  thus  foi-med  are  poi.sonous,  it  is 
not  expedient  to  use  spoons,  dishes,  &c.,  composed 
of  German  silver. 

The  extent  to  which  it  is  now  used  is  very  great 


to  empirical  psychology ;    the  pecidiar  speculative    indeed,  and,   combined  with  electro-depositing,   it 


.attempts  of  Schkicrmacher,  .1.  J.  Wagner,  Fichte 
the  yoimger,  A.  Trendlenburg,  &c. ;  the  different 
tendencies  within  the  Hegelian  school ;  and  lastly, 
the  position  which  SchcUing  latterly  took  up  with 
recard  to  his  own  earlier  doctrines,  and  to  the 
development  given  to  them  by  others. 

While  philosophy  during  the  last  half  century 


has  been  the  me.an3  of  adding  immensely  to  the 
national  industry,  the  manufacturers  of  Birmingham 
and  Sheffield  supplying  every  qu.artcr  of  the  globo 
with  a  profusion  of  articles  of  taste  and  utility  in 
electro-phate  in  beautifid  designs,  and  rivalling 
genuine  sdver-phate  in  beauty  of  appearance. 

German  silver  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 

713 


GEEMAN  TINDER-GERMANIA. 


it  was  first  made  at  Hildburshausen,  iu  Germany, 
■where  it  was  made  by  smelting  the  ores  of  the 
metals  above-mentioned,  and  a  small  proportion  of 
iron  ore  also  ;  this  last,  however,  is  very  rarely  used 
now,  altlionj;h  it  adds  to  the  silvery  whiteness  of 
the  alloy,  but  it  renders  it  more  brittle. 

GERMAN  TIXDER.    See  ^Vii.U)or. 

GERMA'NDER  {Teiirriuvi),  a  genus  of  plants 
nf  tlie  natural  order  Lahiahr,  havin.i,'  the  calyx 
tubular,    5-toothed   and   sometimes   2-lipped;    the 


Germander,  or  TVood  Sago  (Tcucrmm  Scorodonia] : 
a,  corolla ;   &,  calyx,  with  pistil. 

corolla  with  the  upper  lip  very  short  and  bipartite, 
the  lower  lip  spreading  and  trifid  ;  the  stamens 
much  exserted.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
very  widely  distril)uted.  A  few  are  natives  of 
Britain.  The  Common  G.  or  Wall  G.  [T.  chama:- 
dr-ijs),  often  found  on  ruined  walls,  has  probably 
been  introduced  from  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
small,  almost  shrubby,  perennial ;  with  wedge- 
shaped  ovate  inciso-serrate  leaves,  and  whorls  of 
about  tlrree  large  reddish  puri>le  flowers.  It  is 
bitter,  somewhat  aromatic,  and  was  formerly  much 
used  in  medicine,  particularly  in  cases  of  gout.  It 
was  a  principal  ingredient  in  a  once  famous  gout 
medicme  called  Portland  powder. — Similar  medi- 
cinal virtues  were  ascribed  to  T.  Botrys,  a  small 
annual  species  common  on  dry  hills  in  Germany ; 
with  aromatic  fragrance  and  yellow  flowers.  Wood 
G.  or  Wood  Sage  (T.  scorodonia)  is  a  very  common 
British  plant,  growing  in  dry  bushy  or  rocky  places, 
with  oblong-ovate  very  much  wrinkled  leaves,  and 
one-sided  racemes  of  yellowish-white  flowers.  It  is 
very  bitter  and  slightly  aromatic.  It  is  used  in 
Jersey  instead  of  hops. — Water  G.  (T.  scordiuni), 
a  rare  British  species,  growing  in  wet  meadows,  has 
a  smell  resembling  that  of  garlic.  It  had  once  a 
gre.at  reputation  in  medicine. — Cat  Tiivme  {T. 
Marum),  a  n.ative  of  the  south  of  Europe,  abounds 


in  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  has  a  camphor-like  smeU, 
and — like  catmint  and  valerian  root — has  great 
attractiveness  for  cats.  It  is  often  used  as  a  ster- 
nutatory ;  and  its  powder  snuffed  into  the  noso 
has  proved  very  beneficial  in  eases  of  polyjius. — A 
species  found  in  Cochin-Cliiua  (T.  thea]  is  used 
there  in  infusion  as  tea. 

GERMA'NIA  was  the  general  name  under  which 
the  Romans  designated  not  only  great  part  of 
modern  Germany,  but  also  a  portion  of  Belgium 
and  the  north  and  north-eastern  districts  of  Gaul, 
the  two  last  being  more  especially  characterised  as 
'  Germauia  Prima'  and  ' .Sccunda,' while  Germany 
proper  was  also  called  '  Gennania  Magna,'  '  Ger- 
mauia Trans-Rhenaua,'  or  '  Germania  Barbara.' 
The  boundaries  of  the  region  comprehended  under 
these  designations  were— on  the  west,  the  Rhine 
and  Celtic  Gaul ;  on  the  cast,  the  Vistula  and 
the  Car}5athian  Mountains ;  on  the  south,  the 
Danube ;  and  on  the  north,  the  sea,  which  was 
divided  by  the  Cimbrian  Chersonesus  (Jutland) 
into  the  German  and  the  Suevic  (Baltic)  seas.  The 
first  occurrence  in  connection  ■n-ith  the  history  of 
the  people  of  G.  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
was  the  appear.ance  of  warlike  tribes  of  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  in  the  present  Steiermark  or  Stiria, 
where  they  defeated  the  Roman  cousid  Papirius,  in 
the  year  113  B.C.  Eleven  years  later,  they  again 
came  into  coUisiou  with  the  Roman  arms,  but  the 
residt  was  their  signal  defeat  by  Marius.  The 
names  Gerniani  and  Germania  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  appellations  in  use  among  the  people  them- 
selves ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Romans  bor- 
rowed them  from  the  Gauls  or  Celts,  in  whose  lan- 
guage the  word  *  gairm,'  a  loud  cry  (like  the  Homeric 
bocn  ajalhos,  'good  at  the  war-shout'),  may  possibly 
have  served  to  designate  this  people,  whose  habit 
it  was  to  accompany  their  attack  on  an  enemy 
by  loud  cries.  The  Tungri  were  the  first  German 
people  th.at  crossed  the  Rhine,  but  other  tribes 
soon  followed ;  and  when  Julius  Crcsar  opened  his 
Gallic  campaigns  (58  E.  c),  he  found  the  Germanic 
nations  of  the  Triboci,  Nemetes,  and  Vangiones  in 
possession  of  the  districts  lying  between  the  left 
bank  of  the  'Rhine  and  the  Vosges,  while  he  even 
encountered  a  rival  pretender  to  the  supremacy  of 
Gaul  in  the  person  of  Ariovistus,  the  leader  of  the 
Suevic  tribe  of  the  Marcoraanni.  All  these  tribes 
were,  however,  finally  reduced  to  subjection  with 
the  rest  of  Gaid,  while  the  Tencteri  and  Usipetes, 
who  had  invaded  Belgium,  were  driven,  together 
with  the  Sicambri,  across  the  Rhine  to  their  former 
settlements  by  the  victorious  general,  who  for 
the  first  time  (."5  E.  c.)  led  a  Roman  army  into 
Trans-Rhenic  Germany.  The  quiet  which  Ca>sar'3 
\'ictories  had  secured  in  the  Rhenish  districts  was 
again  so  seriously  distiu-bed  by  the  Usipetes  and 
several  of  the  neighbouring  tribes  in  the  year 
16  B.C.,  that  Augustus,  who  had  hastened  to  Gaul 
on  the  outbreak  of  disturbances,  saw  that  stringent 
measures  must  be  adopted  to  keep  the  Germans 
in  check,  and  sent  Drusus  at  the  head  of  eight 
legions  into  Germany.  The  first  step  of  the  Roman 
general  was  to  dig  a  canal  ('  fossa  Drusiana ')  irom 
the  Rhine  to  the  Ysscl,  by  which  the  Roman 
galleys  could  sail  from  the  heart  of  the  continent 
to  the  ocean  ;  and  so  successful  were  his  measures, 
that  in  the  course  of  four  campaigns  he  had  carried 
the  Roman  arms  as  far  as  the  Albis  (Elbe),  subdued 
the  Frisii,  Batavi,  and  Chauci  in  the  north,  and 
defeated  the  Catti  of  the  Moenus  (Maine)  dis- 
tricts. Dnisus,  who  died  9  B.C.,  began  the  series 
of  forts,  bridges,  and  roads  which  were  completed 
and  extended  mider  succeeding  commanders.  The 
attempt  made  bj'  Varus,  under  the  direction  of 
Augustus,  to  introduce  the  Roman  provincial  forma 


GEKMAKIA. 


of  administration  into  Germany,  brought,  however, 
a  sudden  check  to  the  advance  and  consolidation 
of  Roman  power;  for  the  tribes  of  Central  Ger- 
many, indignant  at  this  attempted  subversion  of 
their  national  institutions,  ranged  themselves  under 
the  leadership  of  Arminius,  a  chief  of  the  Cherusci, 
who  organised  a  general  revolt.  The  result  of 
this  movement  was  the  destruction  at  the  Saltus 
Teutobergiensis  of  the  three  legions  commanded 
by  Varus,  and  the  subsequent  loss  of  all  the 
Roman  possessions  between  the  Weser  and  the 
Rhine.  The  news  of  this  disastrous  event  threw 
the  city  of  Rome  into  consternation.  Gcrraanicus, 
who  was  sent  forth  in  14  A.  D.  to  restore  Roman 
supremacy,  woidd  probably  have  again  wholly  sub- 
jugated the  Germanic  tribes  hail  ho  not  been 
recalled  by  Tiberius  in  the  midst  of  his  \'ictoric3. 
From  this  time  forth  the  Romans  ceased  their 
attempts  to  conquer  Germany,  and  contented  them- 
selves with  repelUng  the  incursions  which  the  tribes 
made  on  their  frontiers,  and  endeavouring  by  their 
influence  to  foster  the  intestine  disturbances  which 
were  perpetually  generated  through  the  ambition 
and  jealousy  of  rival  leaders,  such  as  Arminius, 
MarboiUus,  and  the  Goth  Catualda.  After  the 
murder  of  Arminius  by  his  own  people,  the  power 
of  the  Cherusci  declined,  while  the  Longobartli  and 
Catti  began  to  assert  a  recognised  jjreponderance 
among  the  neighbouring  tribes.  Occasional  encoim- 
ters  took  place  between  the  people  of  Central 
Germany  and  the  legions  who  guarded  the  well- 
protected  Roman  boimdary-line,  which  extended 
from  the  Rhino  to  the  Taimus,  and  from  thence  to 
the  Danube ;  and  from  time  to  time  the  Batavii 
and  other  warhke  tribes  of  the  north  and  north- 
west, who,  like  them,  had  been  brought  into  partial 
dependence  on  the  Romans,  rose  in  formidable 
insurrection  ;  but  after  Trajan  had  restored  order 
and  strengthened  the  forts,  peace  remained  undis- 
turbed in  the  north  till  the  beginning  of  the  3d  c, 
while,  ^Wth  the  exception  of  the  sanguinary  war  of 
the  Marcoraanui  and  Quadi  under  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus in  the  year  IGG  A.D.,  there  was  a  similar 
absence  of  hostilities  in  the  south.  But  ■with  the 
."d  c.  the  tide  of  war  turned,  and  the  Romans  were 
now  compelled  to  defend  their  omi  empire  from  the 
inroads  of  the  numerous  Germanic  tribes,  foremost 
among  whom  stood  the  powerfid  confederacies  of 
the  AJemanni  and  Franks.  In  their  track  followed, 
during  the  next  two  centuries,  successive  hordes  of 
the  Vandals,  Suevi,  HenUi,  Goths,  and  Longobards, 
who  soon  formed  for  themselves  states  and  princi- 
palities on  the  ruins  of  the  old  Roman  pro\'inces. 
From  this  period  tUl  the  establishment  of  the 
western  empire  in  the  person  of  Charlemagne,  the 
history  of  German}'  is  a  blank  ;  but  the  condition  of 
the  coimtry  when  he  entered  on  the  i)ossession  of 
liis  Gennan  patrimony,  shewed  that  since  the  retire- 
ment of  the  Romans  the  lesser  tribes  had  become 
gradually  absorlied  in  the  larger,  for  on  his  accession 
the  land  was  held  by  a  few  great  nations  only,  as  the 
Saxons,  Frisians,  Franks,  Suabians,  and  Bavarians, 
whose  leadei-s  exercised  sovereign  power  within 
their  own  territories,  and  in  return  for  military 
cervices,  p.arcelled  out  their  lands  to  their  followers. 
The  knowledge  which  we  possess  of  the  habits 
and  government  of  the  ancient  Germans  is  princi- 
I)a]ly  derived  from  the  Commentaries  of  Ciesar,  and 
the  '  Germania '  of  Tacitus  ;  and  imperfect  as  these 
sources  of  information  arc,  they  are  infinitely  less 
ccntratUctory  than  the  subsequent  records  of  the 
earliest  Christian  times.  According  to  the  Roman 
historians,  the  Germans  were  a  people  of  high 
stature,  fair  complexion,  and  red  or  yellow  hair, 
endowed  with  great  bodily  strength,  and  distin- 
guished for  an  indomitable  love  of   liberty.    The 


men  delighted  in  active  exercises  and  the  perils  of 
war,  and  the  women,  whose  chastity  was  without 
reproach,  were  held  in  high  esteem.  Each  master  of 
a  family  had  absolute  power  over  those  of  his 
liousehold.  Their  habitations  were  generally  sepa- 
rate, and  surrounded  by  their  several  stalls  and 
garners;  for  although  there  were  ■I'illages  whoso 
inhabitants  made  common  use  of  the  holds  and 
woods  surrounding  them,  the  Germans  seem  to 
have  preferred  isolated  and  detached  dwellings  to 
aggregate  settlements.  Towns  and  cities  they  Ion" 
regarded  with  aversion,  as  inimical  to  pei-son:3 
freedom.  In  regard  to  then-  political  organisation, 
it  would  appear  that  several  %Tllage3  formed  a 
'  hundred,'  several  hundreds  one  '  "au,'  and  several 
gaus  one  tribe.  In  each  tribe  the  people  were 
dirided  into  four  classes — nobles,  freemen,  freed- 
men  or  vassals,  and  slaves.  The  king  or  chief  was 
elected  from  among  the  nobles ;  but  his  power  was 
very  limited,  and  the  government  of  the  several 
tribes  seems  to  have  been  democratic  rather  than 
monarchical. 

The  religion  of  the  Germans,  which  is  shrouded 
in  great  obscurity,  points,  like  their  language,  to 
their  eastern  origin,  and  was  based  ujion  Asiatic 
myths  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  gods  ha%-ing  the  fonns  and  attributes  of 
a  perfect  hum.anity.  Their  conceptions  of  these 
mj-thical  beings  were  modified  by  the  local  colour- 
ing which  they  received  from  association  with  now 
scenes,  and  through  the  lapse  of  time ;  and  hence 
the  different  tribes  had  all  their  special  gods  or 
demigods,  who  were  often  their  own  leaders  or 
chiefs,  to  whom  the  attributes  of  the  god  to  whose 
worship  they  were  most  partial  were  ascribed.  It 
is  generally  said  that  the  Germans  bad  neither 
temples  nor  statues.  Both  Caesar  and  Tacitus 
expressly  affirm  this,  but  it  cannot  be  regarded 
as  literally  true,  for  Tacitus  himself  mentions  a 
temple  of  a  goddess  Tanfana  among  the  M.orsians ; 
and  at  a  Later  period,  we  find  Christian  mission- 
aries exhorting  the  Germans  to  change  their  pagan 
temples  into  Christian  churches,  while  we  also  read 
of  the  destruction  of  pagan  idols.  Nevertheless, 
the  reUgion  of  the  Germans  was  mainly  can-ied 
on  in  the  open  an- — in  groves  and  forests,  and 
on  heaths  and  mountains.  Although  a  priestly 
order  also  existed  among  the  Germans,  j'ct  each 
master  of  a  household  performed  religious  services 
for  himself  and  his  family  within  his  own  home- 
stead. A  knowledge  of  the  will  of  the  gods  and 
the  events  of  the  future  was  sought  by  diNina- 
tion  from  observations  of  the  flight  of  birds,  the 
rushing  of  waters,  and  other  sinuiar  signs,  in  the 
interpretation  of  which  women  were  thought  to  be 
especially  skilled.  Belief  in  a  future  life,  and  in 
an  abode  after  death  for  those  who  had  deserved 
well  in  this  life,  was  cherished  among  the  Ger- 
manic races,  who  liad  a  strong  faith  in  retribu- 
tive justice,  whose  sway  they  believed  would  he 
extended  over  the  gods  by  involring  them  in  a 
imiversal  annihilating  conflict  as  the  punishment 
of  their  evil  deeds,  after  which  a  new  world 
w.as  to  arise  guarded  by  a  pure  and  perfect  race 
of  gods.  In  addition  to  the  higher  deities,  the 
Germans  peopled  eveiy  portion  of  space  with  a 
class  of  subordinate  beiugs  who  pervaded  the 
earth,  air,  and  water,  in  the  shape  of  elves,  nixes, 
kobolds,  dwarfs,  and  giants ;  while  Nornes  and 
Valkuries  stood  apart  from  either  grade  of  spiritual 
existence  as  the  representatives  of  destiny  hke  the 
Moir^  and  Parcai  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — See 
KiUin,  Zur  iilteatm  Gesch.  d.  indogcrman.  VOUxr 
(Berlin,  1S50) ;  Wackernagel,  Familicnhhen  d.  Oer- 
maiien  (Freibr.  184G) ;  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire;   Grimm,  Deutsche  Mt/tkolor/ie 

716 


CEKMANICUS  C^SAE-GERMANTO-nTs'. 


(1844) ;   MiiUer,   Gesdi.  und  Si/slcm    d.   altdeutsdi. 
Jieliglon  (1S44). 

GERMA'NICUS  C^SAR,  a  distinguished 
Koman  general,  belonging  to  the  imperial  family,  was 
the  sonof  Nero  Claudins  Dnisus,  and  of  Antonia, 
daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  and  niece  of  Augustus. 
fie  was  born  15  B.  c,  in  the  month  of  September. 
lu  accordance  with  the  desire  of  Augustus,  who 
liad  even  thought  of  making  liim  his  successor,  he 
w.-is  adopted  in  the  year  4  a.d.  by  Tiberius,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  the  war  waged  against  the 
I'annonians  and  Dalmatians,  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  the  German  frontiers  after  the  defeat  of 
Varus.  After  having  been  consul  in  12  A.D.,  he  was 
appointed  in  the  following  year  to  the  command 
of  the  eight  legions  on  theEhiue.  On  the  death  of 
Augustus,  in  14  a.d.,  the  soldiers  revolted,  demand- 
ing higher  pay,  and  a  shorter  period  of  ser-i-ice.  G. 
hastened  from  Gaul  (where  he  happened  to  be  at 
the  time)  to  remind  them  of  their  dut)'.  The 
soldiers,  who  almost  idolised  him  for  his  frank  and 
generous  disposition,  ujged  him  to  seize  upon  the 
supreme  power.  G.,  however,  was  incapable  of 
treachery,  and  declared  that  he  woidd  rather  die 
than  forfeit  his  allegiance.  He,  however,  granted 
their  demands,  though  his  colleague,  A.  Csecin.a, 
secretly  massacred  the  ringleaders  at  night.  G. 
now  led  the  legions  over  the  Rhine  below  Wesel, 
attacked  the  Marsi  during  a  nocturnal  festival,  and 
destroyed  their  celebrated  temple  of  Tanfana.  In 
15  A.D.,  he  made  a  second,  inroad  into  Germany. 
Proceeding  from  Metz  into  the  country  of  the  Catti, 
he  destroyed  their  chief  town  of  Mattium  (JIaden, 
near  Gudensberg),  slaughtering  the  entire  inliabit- 
ants,  young  and  old.  On  his  return,  his  assist- 
ance was  implored  by  the  ambassadors  of  Segestes 
(always  a  firm  ally  of  the  Romans),  who  was 
besieged  by  his  son-in-law,  Arniinius,  the  conqueror 
of  Varus.  This  was  at  once  given,  and  Thusuclda, 
the  heroic  wife  of  Arminius,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Roman  general.  Arminius,  burning  with  anger 
and  shame,  now  roused  the  Cherusci  and  all  the 
neighbouring  ti'ibes  to  war.  G.,  in  consequence, 
commenced  a  third  campaign.  He  di^^ded  his  army 
into  three  di\'isions.  The  main  body  of  the  infantry 
were  led  by  Caecina  through  the  country  of  the 
Bructeri,  the  cavalry  under  another  general  marched 
through  Friesland,  while  G.  himself  sailed  with  a 
fleet  through  the  Ziiydersee  into  the  German  Ocean, 
and  proceeded  up  the  river  Ems,  where  he  joined 
the  others.  The  united  divisions  now  laid  waste 
the  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Teutoburg 
forest,  penetrated  into  its  gloomy  depths,  and 
gathering  up  the  bones  of  Varus  and  his  legions, 
which  had  lain  bleaching  there  for  six  long  years, 
bm-ied  them  with  solemn  fimeral  honours.  A 
\nctory  gained  hy  Arminius  induced  G.  to  make  a 
hasty  retreat,  dm-iug  which  he  lost  part  of  his  fleet 
in  a  tempest.  Caiciua,  who  retreated  by  land,  sus- 
tained severe  losses  at  the  hands  of  the  pursuing 
Germans.  Before  the  fleet  of  1000  vessels,  which  G. 
had  buUt  in  Batavia,  was  equipped,  he  was  recalled 
over  the  Rhine  in  IG  a.d.  by  news  of  the  beleaguer- 
ment  of  the  recently  acquired  fortress  of  Aliso,  on 
the  Lippe.  The  Germans  were  repulsed,  and  the 
funeral  mound  in  the  forest  of  Teutoburg,  which 
they  had  thrown  down,  was  again  erected.  G.  now 
sailed  with  his  fleet  again  into  the  Ems,  pressed 
forward  to  the  Weser,  which  he  crossed,  and  com- 
pletely overthrew  Arminius  in  two  battles.  Never- 
theless, he  determined  to  return,  and  on  his  way, 
again  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  fleet  in  a  great 
storm.  In  order  to  prevent  this  event  from  giving 
cour.age  to  the  Germans,  he  once  more,  in  the  same 
year,  marched  into  the  country  of  the  Marsi,  and 
despatched  his  lieutenant,  SUius,  against  the  Catti. 

71G 


The  victories  thus  achieved  were  to  have  been 
followed  wp  in  the  succeeding  years,  but  Tiberius, 
jealous  of  his  glory,  recalled  him,  and  feigning 
good-will,  bestowed  upon  him  the  honour  of  a 
triumph,  in  wliich  Thusnelda  appeared  among  the 
captives.  To  rid  himself  of  G.,  whose  popularity 
seemed  to  render  him  dangerous,  Tiberius  sent 
him,  in  17  A.D.,  with  extensive  authority,  to  settle 
affairs  in  the  East,  at  the  same  time  appointing 
Piso  \-iceroy  of  Syria,  whose  haughty  and  despotic 
character  everywhere  counteracted  the  influence  of 
Germanicus.  G.  died  at  Epidaphnie,  near  Antioch, 
9th  October,  19  A.D.,  probably  of  poison.  He  was 
deeply  lamented  both  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  pro- 
vinces and  the  citizens  of  Rome,  whither  his  ashes 
were  conveyed,  and  deposited  by  his  wife  Agrippina 
in  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus.  Agrijipina  herself 
and  two  of  her  sons  were  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Tiberius  ;  her  third  son,  Caligida,  was  spared. 
Of  the  thi'ce  daughters  who  sur\-ived  their  father, 
Agrippina  became  as  remarkable  for  her  vices  as 
her  mother  had  been  for  her  virtues.  Besides  his 
splendid  generalship,  G.  was  conspicuous  for  his 
magnanimity,  benevolence,  finely  cidtured  imder- 
standing,  and  personal  purity  of  life.  He  wrote 
several  works  of  a  rhetorical  character,  which  have 
been  lost ;  but  of  his  poetical  works,  wo  possess  an 
epigram,  a  version  of  the  PhiEtwiii^na  of  Aratus,  and 
fragments  of  a  work  of  the  same  character,  entitled 
Diosemeia,  or  Progiwstica,  compiled  from  Greek 
sources.  G.'s  literary  remains  were  first  published 
at  Bologna,  in  1474.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Orelli,  at  the  end  of  his  Ph.-edrus  (Zurich,  1831). 

GERMA'NO,  San,  a  beautifid  and  pros]ierous 
town  of  Italy,  is  situated  at  the  base  of  Monte 
Casino,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  about 
50  miles  north-north-west  of  Naples.  It  contains 
handsome  public  edifices,  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
remains  of  monuments  and  builtlings  of  high  anti- 
quarian interest;  it  is  built  on  the  site  and  from 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Volscian  town,  Casinum,  or 
Casca.  The  principal  ruins  of  the  ancient  Volscian 
period  are  a  monument,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
tomb,  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  temple.  The  first  is 
now  employed  as  a  church ;  it  is  a  square  building, 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  constructed  with  enor- 
mous squared  blocks  of  stone,  on  the  Cyclopeau 
principle.  From  its  form,  it  is  colled  the  Church 
of  the  Grucifi.v,  or  Crocefisso.  The  second  must  have 
been  a  magnificent  building,  and  it  is  stiU  in  a  state 
of  preservation  sufficient  to  convey  an  idea  of  its 
original  vast  proportions.  The  tliird,  adjoining  the 
amphitheatre,  was  jtrobably  biult  in  conjunction 
with  it,  at  the  cost  of  the  Volscian  matron,  Umidia 
QuadratiUa,  mentioned  by  PKnj'.  The  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  at  a  couple  of  miles' 
distance  from  San  G.,  is  one  of  the  most  renowned 
rehgious  communities  of  Europe.  Its  foundation 
by  St  Benedict  dates  from  529.  It  contains  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  chm-ches  of  Italy,  an  extensive 
library,  and  a  collection  of  the  most  precious  docu- 
ments of  the  midtUe  ages  in  its  valuable  archives. 
The  district  surroimding  San  G.  is  highly  cultivated, 
and  beautiful.     Pop.  about  SOOO. 

GERMANS,  St,  formerly  the  scat  of  the  Epis- 
copal government  of  the  ancient  diocese  of  Cornwall, 
England,  now  a  small  village  in  the  county  of  Corn- 
wall. It  stands  on  the  slojie  of  a  hill,  on  a  branch 
of  the  river  Lynher,  10  miles  above  Plymouth  Soimd, 
and  21  miles  east-south-east  of  Bodmin.  It  is  notable 
only  for  its  fine  parish  church,  which  has  an  excel- 
lent Norman  west  front,  and  the  towers  of  which 
are  hung  with  ivy  and  fern.     Pop.  (18G1)  2827. 

GE'RMANTOWN,  formerly  a  post-borough  of 
North  America,  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  about 


b 


2 


H    I  ll.\MT!KK';    lOKDDN   .ttUUiBimCH 


c 


GERMANY. 


6  miles  north-north-west  of  Philadelphia,  irithin  the 
chartered  limits  of  whieh  city  it  was  iuehided  in 
ISoi.     See  article  Piiilaukli-uia. 

GERMAISfY,  from  Lat.  Germuu'ia  (q.v.),  is  the 
Enjjlish  name  of  the  country  which  the  natives  call 
Deutschlaud,  and  the  French  L'AUemagnc.  See 
Alk:maxni.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  whole  area  of  the  European  continent  >\-ithin 
whieh  the  Oermanic  race  and  langua,i;e  are  dominant. 
In  this  broad  sense,  it  includes,  besides  Germany 
I'roper,  parts  of  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  perhajis 
even  of  the  Netherlands  ;  but  in  the  present  article 
the  name  is  to  be  understood  as  denoting  the  exist- 
ing Ciermanic  Empire,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  head. 
C.t.  occuj)ie3  the  central  jiortions  of  Europe,  and 
extends  from  C°  to  22'  40'  E.  long.,  and  frora  49'  7' 
to  55°  SO*  N.  lat  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Oerman  Ocean,  the  Danish  Peninsula,  and  the 
Baltic  ;  on  the  E.  by  Itussia  and  Austria  ;  on  the  .S. 
by  Austria,  Italy,  and  Switzerland;  and  on  the  W. 
by  France,  Belgium,  and  the  NetherlaiuLs.  The 
population  (1871)  is  about  41,000,000.  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  208,000  square  miles,  or  about  y'jth 
of  that  of  all  Europe.  The  coast-line  measures 
about  950  miles.  G.  is  comjiosed  of  an  aggregation 
of  different  states  (26  in  number),  whieh,  as  they  are 
specially  treated  of  under  their  respective  heads, 
will  only  be  noticed  in  the  present  article  in  as 
far  as  they  severally  form  parts  of  the  present 
Gcrnuuiic  Empire. 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  these  states, 
with  the  number  of  members  representing  each  in 
the  Bundesrath  or  Federal  Council,  and  the  Iteich- 
stag  or  Imjiprial  Diet.  The  populatious  and  areas  of 
the  states  will  be  found  under  Europe  generally, 
and  under  the  head  of  each  specially. 


SlatC]  of  Iho  Emi>Irc. 


Kingdom  of  Prussia,    "    . 
ti  n    B  ivuria,    . 

tt           II    M'iii'icmberg,        ...  4 

II           II    S.ixnny, 4 

Grand-duchy  of  B;iilen 3 

II             II     MecUlenburg-Scliwcrin,    .  2 

II             II      llessf,      ....  3 

II             II     Uldenburf^,         ...  1 

II              II      Saxc-Weimar,          .        .  1 

II             II     Mecklenbur^'-Strclilz,        .  1 

DucUy  of  Brunswick,       ....  2 

II      II    t<axc-MeiniDgcn,  ....  1 

It       II    Anlialt 1 

II       II    Siu-ic-Coburij-Gotba,     ...  1 

II       II    Saxc-AUcnbur}?,        ...  I 

Princiiiality  of  Waldecli,      ....  1 

II           II      Lippe-Detmold,         .        .  1 

II           II      Scliwarzbuig-Kudolsladt,    .  1 

II           II      SchwarzbuiK-Sundcrshauscn,  1 

II           II       Ueuss-Schleiz,      ...  1 

II           II      Schauinburg-Liiipe,          .  1 

II           II      Ucuss-Grciz,         ...  1 

Free  town  uf  TIambucg 1 

II           II    LCibcck, 1 

II            II    Bremen 1 

Rciclisland  of  Alsace-Lorraine 

Total,     .         .  03 


Niimber  of  Kunibcr  of 
Jllenibcrs  in  Deimiioi  in 
"  -^      hstag. 


Butijcsralb. 

17 
.      6 


23G 
48 
17 
23 
14 
C 

a 

3 
3 
1 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 


3SJ 


Besides  the  above  political  divisions,  there  are 
certain  distinctive  aii|)ellations  applied  to  dill'erent 
p.arts  of  G.,  which  have  been  derived  either  from 
the  names  and  settlements  of  the  ancient  Germanic 
tribes,  or  from  the  circles  and  other  great  sub- 
division of  the  old  empire.  Thus  the  name  of 
'Swabia'  is  still  apphed  in  common  parlance  to  the 
districts  cmbr.acing  the  greater  part  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  Southern  Baden,  South-western  Bavaria,  and 
HoheuzoUern ;  '  Franconia,'  to  the  Maine  districts 
of  Bamberg,  Schweinfm-t,  and  Wurzburg ;  '  the 
Palatin.ate,'  to  Bhenish  Bavaria  and  the  north  of 
Baden ;  '  the  Khineland,'  to  portions  of  Baden, 
Bhenish  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and 
Nassau ;  '  Voigtlaud,'  to  the  high  ground  between 


Hof  and  Plauen  ;  '  Thuringia,'  to  the  districts  lying 
between  the  Upper  Saale  and  the  Werra,  as  Saxe^ 
Weimar,  &c. ;  '  Lusatia,'  to  the  eastern  part  of 
Saxony;  'E.-uit  Fricsland,'  to  the  country  between 
the  Lower  Weser  and  Ems ;  and  '  VVestph.alia,'  to 
the  district  cxteuduig  between  Lower  Saxony,  the 
Netherlands,  Thuriugha,  and  Hesse,  to  the  German 
Ocean. 

Four-fifths  of  the  pojiulation  of  this  country  are 
of  the  race  called  in  English  Germans,  in  French 
Allemands,  but  by  the  peoi)le  themselves  Deutsche. 
The  term  Deutsch,  in  Gothic  tliiudUk,  in  0.  H. 
Ger.  diulisc  (Latiiiised"  into  ^/«;o?i'»cim),  is  derived 
from  the  Gothic  stibstantive  thiuda,  people,  and 
therefore  meant  originally  the  popular  languane, 
or,  in  the  mouth  of  the  learned,  the  vulgar  tongue! 
In  the  12th  and  l.'Jth  centiu-ies,  it  became  eleviitcd 
into  the  acccjited  designation  both  of  this  wide- 
spread tongue  and  of  the  race  that  speak  it. 

The  Almanadi  de  GoOut  for  1873  divides  the 
population  of  the  German  empire,  in  regard  to 
nationality,  as  follows:  Germ.ans,  37,800,000;  Poles 
2,450,000 ;  Wends,  140,000  ;  Czechs,  50,000  ;  Lithu- 
anians and  Courlanders,  150,000;  Danes,  150,000; 
French  and  Walloons,  230,000.  Among  the  lirst  of 
these  must  be  included  liaU  a  million  of  Jews. 
The  Germans  admit  of  being  divided  into  High 
and  Low  Germans ;  the  phraseology  of  the  former 
is  the  cultivated  language  of  all  the  German 
states ;  that  of  the  latter,  known  as  PUUl- Deutsch,  is 
spoken  iu  the  north  and  north-west.  The  Poles  are 
found  exclusively  in  the  east  and  north-east  of 
I'russia ;  the  Czechs,  in  Silesia,  about  Ojipelu  and 
Breslau  ;  the  Wends,  in  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and 
I'russian  Lusatia ;  the  Lithu.inians  and  Courlanders, 
in  East  Prussia ;  the  D.anes,  in  Slesvig ;  the  Walloons, 
about  Aix-la-Chapelle,  iu  I'henish  Prussia  ;  and  the 
French,  partly  iu  the  same  region,  and  partly  iu  the 
newly  re-acquired  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 
Although  the  Jews  are  scattered  over  every  part 
of  Germany,  they  are  most  numerous  in  the  Prussian 
territories. 

Physical  Cliaraclcr. — G.  presents  two  very  distuict 
jjhysical  formations.  1.  A  range  of  high  table-land, 
occupying  the  centre  and  southern  parts  of  the 
coimtry,  interspci'sed  with  nnmeroi^s  rauges  and 
groups  of  mountains,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Harz  and  Teutoburgerwald,  iu  the  north ; 
the  Taunus  and  Thuringerw.ald,  iu  tlie  middle  ;  and 
the  Schw^arzwald  and  Paulie  Alps,  in  the  south ; 
and  containing  an  area,  including  Alsace  aud  Lor- 
raine, of  110,000  square  miles.  2.  A  vast  sandy 
jilain,  which  extends  from  the  centre  of  the  empire 
north  to  the  German  Ocean,  aud  inchuling  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  contains  an  area  of  .about  98,000  scpiaro 
miles.  This  great  plain,  stretching;from  the  Pussiau 
frontier  on  the  east  to  the  Netherlands  on  the  west, 
is  varied  by  two  terrace-like  elevations.  The  one 
stretches  from  the  Vistula  into  Mecklenburg,  at 
no  great  distance  from  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  and 
has  a  mean  elevation  of  500  to  COO  feet,  rising  in 
one  jioint  near  Danzig  to  1020  feet ;  the  other  line 
of  elevations  begins  in  Silesia  aud  terminates  in  the 
moorlands  of  Liiueburg,  iu  Hanover,  its  course 
being  marked  by  several  summits  from  500  to  800 
feet  in  height.  A  large  portion  of  the  plain  is 
occupied  by  saudy  tracts  interspersed  with  deposits 
of  peat ;  but  other  parts  are  moderately  fertile,  and 
admit  of  successful  cultivatiou. 

In  respect  of  drain,age,  the  surface  of  G.  belongs 
to  three  different  basins.  The  Dauube  (q.  v.)  from 
its  source  in  the  Schwa^z^vald  to  the  borders  of 
Austria  belongs  to  G.,  aud  through  this  channel  the 
waters  of  the  greater  part  of  IJavaria  are  poured 
into  the  Black  Sea ;  thus  opening  up  communi- 
cation with  the  east.     By  far  the  greater  jiart  of 

717 


GERMANY. 


the  surface,  however  (about  1S5.I100  sq.  m.),  has  a 
northcru  slope,  anil  belongs  partly  to  the  basin  of 
the  North  Sea,  and  partly  to  the  basin  of  the 
Baltic.  The  chief  German  streams  tlowini;  into  the 
North  Sea  are  the  Khiao  (ij.  v.),  the  Weser  (q.  v.), 
and  the  Elbe  (q.  v.) ;  into  the  Baltic,  the  Oder  (q.  v.) 
and  the  Vistula  (q.  v.). 

The  most  important  of  the  numerous  canals 
which  connect  together  the  great  river  systems  of 
G.  are  Ludwig's  Oanal  in  Bavaria,  which  unites  the 
Danube  and  Maine,  and  thus  opens  a  communica- 
tion between  the  Black  Sea  and  German  Ocean ; 
the  Fiuow  and  Friedrich-Wilhelm's  canals  in  Bran- 
denburg ;  the  Plaue  Canal,  which  connects  the 
Elbe  and  the  Ilavel ;  and  the  Kiel  and  Eyder 
Canal,  uniting  the  Baltic  and  German  Oceau. 
Numerous  lakes  occur  both  in  the  table-laud  of 
Southern  G.  aud  in  the  low  lands  of  the  northern 
districts,  but  few  of  them  are  of  any  great  size.  G. 
abounds  in  swamps  aud  marsh-lauds,  which  are 
especially  numerous  in  the  low  northern  districts. 
Its  mineral  springs  occur  principally  in  Nassau, 
"Wurteniberg,  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Rhenish  Prussia. 
Mauy  of  these  springs  have  retained  their  high 
rejiutatiou  from  the  earliest  ages. 

Geology. — The  great  plain  of  North  Germany 
consists  of  strata  of  the  same  age  as  the  Tertiary 
strata  of  the  Paris  b-asin,  covered  with  very 
recent  sand  aud  mutL  Newer  Terti.ary  beds  occupy 
the  river  basin  of  the  Rhino  north  from  Mayence  ; 
they  consist  of  tine  light-coloured  loam,  aud  contain 
the  bones  of  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  and  other 
contemporaneous  mammals.  Erratics  are  scattered 
over  the  north  of  Germany.  The  whole  district  in 
the  centre  of  Germany,  from  the  Danube  north- 
wards to  Hanover,  consists  of  Secondai-y  strata. 
The  rocks  of  the  Trias  period  are  best  known  in 
Germany,  the  tjqiical  rocks  of  Viuuter  sandstein, 
muschel-kalk,  and  keuper  being  developed  here,  so 
as  to  justify  the  suitableness  of  the  name  Trias, 
which  is  wholly  inapplicable  in  Britain,  where 
the  series  is  represented  by  sandstone  beds  only. 
The  Tri.os  is  highly  fossiliferous,  abounding  especi- 
ally in  marine  shells,  and  containing  several  genera 
of  remarkable  labyrinthodont  saurians.  Jurassic 
rocks  occur  in  Central  Germany ;  at  Hanover  they 
consist  of  clays  and  marl,  with  beds  of  sandstone 
and  limestone,  containing  coal  and  ironstone  of  such 
v.aluc  that  they  have  been  extensively  wrought. 
The  Cretaceous  str.ata  are  frequently  highly  altered 
from  the  intruded  igneous  rocks,  which  have  raised 
the  beds  in  some  districts  to  a  nearly  vertical 
jiositiou,  and  have  altered  them  into  crystalline 
marbles  and  silicious  sandstones. 

Of  the  Palajozoic  rocks,  the  carboniferous  strata 
are  nearly  absent  in  Germany.  The  coal  obtained 
in  the  country  is  from  rocks  of  a  later  age.  True 
coal-beds  are  found  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  the  Harz  Mountains  are  chiefly 
Devonian ;  to  the  south-east,  near  Herzgerode, 
they  are  Upper  Silurian.  They  are  all  greatly  dis- 
located by  granite  and  other  intrusive  rocks.  The 
Harz  ^Mountains  are  surrounded  by  a  zone  of  Per- 
mian rocks.  The  stratified  rocks  of  the  Thuringer- 
wald  are  also  Devonian,  resting  on  Lower  Silurian 
strata,  the  lower  portion  of  which  is  highly  altered 
into  quartzose  schists ;  the  remainder  consists  of 
grcywacke,  slate,  and  sandstone,  with  limestone  and 
alum  slates.  There  are  numerous  f  ucoid  and  annelid 
impressions  in  the  older  beds,  aud  graptohtes,  ortho- 
ceratites,  aud  trilobites  in  the  newer. 

The  basaltic  rocks,  trachytes,  and  other  volcanic 
products  are  largely  developed  in  the  Eifel,  Sieben- 
gebirge,  Westcrwald,  Vogels,  Rhongebirge,  and 
other  moimtain  systems  of  Central  CJermany. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  G.  presents  less  diversity 


Summer. 

Wliittr. 

Cr  F.ih. 

30'  l\ill 

67 

29 

66 

31 

C6 

27 

63 

33 

63 

21 

than  a  first  glance  at  the  map  might  lead  one  to 
infer,  for  the  greater  heats  of  the  more  southern 
latitudes  are  considerably  modilied  by  the  hilly 
char.acter  of  the  country  in  those  parallels,  while 
the  cold  of  the  northern  plains  is  mitigated  by  their 
vicinity  to  the  ocean.  The  aver.age  decrease  in  tho 
mean  temperature  is,  in  going  fi'om  south  to  north, 
about  V  F.  for  every  52  miles ;  and  in  goin"  from 
west  to  east,  about  1°  F.  for  every  72  miles.  The  lino 
of  perpetual  snow  v.aries  from  7200  to  SOOO  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  se.a.  The  mean  annual  f.all  of 
raiu  is  20  inches.  The  following  table  shews  tho 
mean  annual  records  of  the  temperature  at  different 
points  of  the  continent : 

Mpia  An. 
Trini.. 

Hamburg,       •        .        .  47-°  Fiih. 

Dresa.^n,      ...  48- 

Frankfurt-on-Uic-Mahie,  48-5 

Bev)in,        .        .        .  46'5 

Hanover,         .        .         .  48' 

Kijnigsberg,         .        .  4j* 

Products. — G.  is  rich  in  mineral  products,  among 
which  the  most  important  are  silver,  found  in  the 
Harz  Mountains ;  iron  in  numerous  mountain-ranges ; 
salt  in  many  parts  of  the  countiy ;  coal  in  Rhenish 
Prussia  and  Silesia.  Cobalt,  ai'senic,  sulphur,  salt- 
petre, ahtm,  gypsum,  bismuth,  pumice-stone,  tripoli- 
slate,  kaoUn,  emery,  ochre,  and  vitriol,  are  all  among 
the  exports  of  Germany.  The  vegetable  products 
comprise  a  very  largo  proportion  of  the  European 
flora.  All  the  ordinary  cereals  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  the  north,  and  largely  exported,  chiefly 
from  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria ;  hemp  and  flax, 
m.adder,  woad,  and  saffron,  grow  well  in  the  central 
districts,  where  the  vine,  the  cultivation  of  wliich 
extends  in  suitable  localities  as  far  north  as  51°,  is 
brought  to  great  perfection — the  best  wine-producing 
districts  being  the  valleys  of  the  Danube,  Rhine, 
Maine,  Neckar,  and  Moselle,  which  are,  moreover, 
generally  noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  fruits  ancl 
vegetables.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities for  extensive  export.ation  on  the  Upper  Rhine, 
the  WeiTa,  and  Oder.  The  hops  of  Bavaria  have  a 
high  reputation,  and  the  chicory  grown  in  that 
country,  and  in  the  district  between  the  Elbe  and 
Weser,  finds  its  way  all  over  Europe  as  a  substitute 
for  coffee.  The  most  extensive  forests  are  found  in 
Central  G.,  aud  in  some  parts  of  Prussia,  whUe  the 
north-western  parts  of  the  great  plain  are  deficient 
in  wood,  the  place  of  which  is  in  some  degree  sup- 
plied by  the  abundance  of  turf  yielded  by  the 
marshy  lands.  G.  has  long  been  noted  for  the  good 
breed  of  horses  raised  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
continent;  while  Saxon}',  Silesia,  and  Brandenburg 
have  an  equal  reputation  for  their  sheep-flocks,  and 
the  tine  cpiaUty  of  the  wool  which  they  yieki  Tho 
rich  alluvial  flats  of  Mecklenburg  and  Hanover  are 
celebrated  for  their  cattle ;  the  forests  of  Northern 
and  Central  G.  abound  in  swine,  aud  in  small  game 
of  various  kinds  ;  whde  the  Bavarian  Alps  aUbrd 
shelter  to  the  larger  animals,  as  the  chamois,  the 
red  deer  and  wild-go.at,  the  fox,  marten,  and  wolf ; 
and  in  all  the  plains  in  the  north,  storks,  %vild-geese, 
and  ducks  are  abundant.  Among  the  fishes  of  G., 
the  most  generally  distributed  are  carp,  salmon, 
trout,  and  eels ;  the  rivers  contain  also  ci-ay-fish, 
pearl-bearing  mussels,  and  leeches.  The  oyster, 
herring,  and  cod  fisheries  constitute  important 
branches  of  industry  on  the  German  shores  of  the 
Baltic  .and  North  Sea.  G.  stands  next  to  Great 
Britain  in  regard  to  the  care  .and  success  with 
which  its  agricultural,  mining,  and  other  natural 
cap.abilities  have  been  cultivated.  All  the  German 
states  encourage  agriciUture,  and  have  endeavoured, 
by  the  establishment  of  agricultural  colleges  and 
exhibitions,  to  diffuse  among  the  people  a  knowledge 


GERMANY. 


of  recent  scientific  appliances.  The  countries  which 
have  become  most  conspicuous  in  this  movement 
are  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony.  The  preservation 
anil  cultivation  of  woods  receive  almost  as  much 
attention  in  (i.  as  agi-iculture,  and  like  the  latter, 
are  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  The  larger 
woods  and  forests  in  most  of  the  states  belong  to 
the  government,  and  are  uniler  the'  care  of  special 
boards  of  management,  which  exercise  the  right  of 
supervision  and  control  over  all  forest  lauds,  whether 
public  or  private. 

Mamifactures. — The  oldest  and  most  important  of 
the  German  industrial  arts  are  the  manufactures 
of  linen  and  woollen  goods.  The  chief  localities 
for  the  cultiv.ation  and  preparation  of  flax,  and  the 
weaving  of  linen  fabrics,  are  the  mouutaiu-valleys 
of  Silesia,  Lusatia,  Westphalia,  the  Harz,  and 
Saxony  (for  thread-laces) ;  while  cotton  fabrics  are 
principally  made  in  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Saxony. 
The  same  districts,  together  with  Pomerauia  and 
Bavari.a,  manufacture  the  choicest  woollen  fabrics, 
including  damasks  and  carpets.  Toys,  wooden 
clocks,  and  wood-earrings,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  almost  a  speciality  of  German  industry,  are 
carried  to  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  hilly  dis- 
tricts of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  the  Black  Forest. 
The  best  iron  and  steel  manufactures  belong  to 
Silesia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony.  Silesia  probably 
])ossesses  the  finest  glass-manufactories ;  while 
Saxony  and  Prussia  stand  pre-eminent  for  the 
excellence  of  their  china  and  earthen  wares.  Augs- 
burg and  Niirnberg  dispute  with  Munich  and 
Berlin  the  title  to  pre-eminence  in  silver,  gold,  and 
jewellery  work,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  philo- 
sopliical  and  musical  instruments ;  while  Leipsic  and 
Munich  claim  the  first  rank  for  type-foundries, 
printing,  and  lithography.  The  trading  cities  of 
Northern  G.  nearly  monopolise  the  entu'o  business 
connected  with  the  preparation  of  tobacco,  snuff, 
&c.,  the  distillation  of  brandies,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  sugar  from  the  beet, :  potato,  and  other 
roots  ;  while  vinegar  and  oils  are  prepared  almost 
exclusively  in  Central  and  Southern  Germany. 

Eailways,  itr. — The  railways  which  intersect  each 
other  in  all  directions,  from  Basle  oa  the  Rhine  to 
Hadersleben  in  the  north  of  Slesvig,  and  from 
Bautzen  in  the  east  of  Saxony  to  Aix-Ia-Chapelle 
in  the  west  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  measured,  in  1S71, 
aVioiit  IS,!.^  Enghsh  miles;  but  these  figiu-es 
strictly  represent  the  length,  not  of  the  hues  within 
the  limits  of  the  German  empire,  but  of  those  which 
ai'c  under  German  administration,  though  extending 
some  way  into  neighbouring  states. 

The  various  telegraphic  lines  of  the  empire  (ex- 
cepting those  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg)  arc  now 
under  a  central  administration,  and  in  1S71,  the 
whole  measured  nearly  22.130  English  miles. 

The  postal  sj'stem  of  the  German  states,  which 
is  administered  by  Boards  of  Control,  includes  the 
expedition  of  passengers  and  goods  by  the  post- 
cai-riages  of  the  several  departments.  Since  ISol, 
in  accordance  with  a  treaty  concluded  between 
Austria  and  Prussia,  a  Gei-mauo-Austrian  postal 
union  has  been  established,  the  objects  of  which  are 
to  secure  an  ctTective  and  more  energetic  administra- 
tion of  the  various  branches  of  the  organisation,  and 
the  adoption  of  a  iiniform  scale  of  charges,  while 
it  likewise  exercises  the  duty  of  concluding  inter- 
national postal  treaties  with  foreign  states.  Bavaria 
and  Wiirtemberg  have  still  their  special  postal 
administrations. 

The  niiiltiplicity  of  small  states,  into  which  the 
German  land  was  long  broken  up,  opposed  great 
olistacles  to  the  development  of  commerce  ;  but 
the  difficiilty  has  to  some  extent  been  obviated  by 
the  establishment  of  the  Zo'.l  und  JIandels-verein 


(q.  v.),  or  'Ciistoms  and  Trade  Confederation,'  and 
partly  also  by  the  absoiption  of  several  of  the 
smaller  states  by  I'russia. 

Education. — Education  is  more  genenally  diffused 
in  (;.  than  in  any  other  coiiiitry  of  Europe,  and  is 
cultivated  with  an  earnest  and  systematic  devotion 
not  met  with,  to  an  equal  extent,  among  other 
nations.  There  are  21  univei-sities  :  Berlin,  Breslau, 
Halle,  Bonn,  Greifswald,  Munster,  Munich,  Wurz- 
burg,  Erlangen,  iLeipsie,  Tiibingen,  Gottingen, 
Heidelberg,  Freibiirg,  Jlarbiirg,  Giessen,  Jena, 
Rostock,  Kiel,  Konigsberg,  and  Strasbiirg.  These 
institiitions  embrace  the  four  faculties  of  Theology, 
Law,  Medicine,  and  Philosophy;  and  in  Jane  1872, 
had  1154  professors  and  teachers,  and  13,090 
students.  Of  the  21  universities  of  the  empire,  14 
are  Protestant,  i.  e.,  in  the  department  of  theology, 
they  teach  only  Protestant  theology ;  four  are 
Roman  Catholic,  viz.,  Freiburg,  Munich,  Miinster, 
and  Wtirzburg ;  three,  viz.,  Bonn,  Breslau,  and 
Tiibingen,  are  mi.xed.  Protestantism  prevailing  in 
the  first  two,  and  Ronian  Catholicism  in  the  last. 
There  are  also  16  polytechnic  institiitions ;  about 
500  high  schools  or  gymnasia ;  niimeroiis  special 
schools  of  technology,  agriciiltiire,  commerce,  mili- 
tary science,  &c. ;  several  seminaries  for  teachers, 
and  for  the  ministers  of  different  religious  denomina- 
tions ;  aiid  more  than  50,000  elementary  schools. 
The  attendance  of  cliildreu  at  school,  for  at  least 
four  or  five  years,  is  made  compulsory  in  nearly  all 
the  German  states,  and  hence  the  proportion  of 
persons  who  cannot  read  and  write  is  exceedingly 
small  in  Germany. 

Pubhc  libraries— of  which  there  are  more  than 
150 — miisciims,  botanical  gardens,  art-collections, 
pietiire-gallcries,  schools  of  miisic  and  design,  and 
academies  of  arts  and  sciciices,  are  to  be  met  with 
in  most  of  the  capitals,  and  in  many  of  the  country 
towns,  iipwards  of  200  of  which  possess  one  or  more 
permanently  established  theatres.  In  no  country 
is  the  book  and  publishing  trade  more  iiniversally 
patronised  than  in  Germany.  The  jircss  anniially 
sends  forth  from  8000  to  10,000  works,  while  about 
3000  papers  and  journals  are  circulated  throughout 
the  empire ;  of  the  current  newspapers,  a  com- 
paratively small  niimVier  only  exert  any  marked 
influence,  biit  many  of  the  German  scientific  and 
literary  periodicals  enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation. 
The  censorship  of  the  press  was  abolished  by  a 
decree  of  the  diet  of  1848,  and  freedom  of  the  press, 
under  certain  restrictions,  which  were  i)romulgatcd 
in  1854,  has  been  introdiiced. 

Army  and  Navy. — 1.  Army. — By  the  constitution 
of  April  16,  1871,  the  Prussian  obligation  to  servo 
in  the  army  is  extended  to  the  whole  empire ; 
article  !>0  prosci'ibcs  that  evci'y  German  who  is 
rrehrfahi'j,  i.e.,  'capable  of  bearing  arms,'  must  bo 
in  the  standing  army  from  his  twenty-first  to  his 
twenty-eighth  year.  Of  these  seven  years,  three 
niiist  be  spent  in  active  service  [bei  den  Fahnen), 
and  the  remainder  in  the  army  of  reserve.  On 
quitting  the  army  of  reserve,  he  has  to  form  part  of 
the  Landwi'Jir  (q.  v.)  for  other  five  yeai-s.  Article 
63  enacts  that  die  ije.sammle  Landmac/U  des  Jteic/is 
xi-ird  (in  eiuheitlicltes  Hccr  bilden,  welches  im  Krkg 
und  Friedrn  unter  dem  Be/ehle  des  Kaisers  atelit 
( 'the  whole  land-forces  of  the  empire  shall  form  a 
iinited  army,  in  war  and  peace,  lindcr  the  command 
of  the  emperor').  Tlie  sovereigns  of  the  princii)al 
states  have  the  right  to  select  the  lower  grades  of 
otticers,  but  even  their  selections  require  to  olitain 
the  approval  of  the  emperor,  whose  authority  is 
jiaramoiint ;  article  64  expressly  declaring  that 
alle  deuischen  TrupjKU  sind  verpjtichlet  den  Befthlen 
des  Kaisers  unbedinrjl  Fohje  zu  le.istcn  ( '  all  German 
troops  are  bound  to  obey  unconditionally  the  ordeis 

71'J 


GERMANY. 


o£  the  em]ieroi-').  In  July  1872,  the  imperial  army, 
ou  its  peace-footing,  consisted  of  1-iS  regiments  of 
infantry,  incUuliug  the  guards ;  2li  battalions  of 
jager,  or  riflemen  ;  93  regiments  of  eavalry  ;  28 
reiiinients  of  artillery  ;  IG  battalions  of  engineers  ; 
and  IC  battalions  of  military  train  :  comprising  a 
total  of  ]7,.')'J5  olUcers,  3S6,1G5  rank  and  lile,  85,101 
horses,  and  1080  guns.  On  its  war-footing,  the 
numbers  are  18,883  officers,  749,329  rank  and  file, 
222,819  horses,  and  1530  gims. 

2.  ^'ari/. — The  formation  of  a  German  navy,  due 
to  tlie  initiative  of  Prussia,  d.ates  froni  1848,  and  of 
late  years  rapid  progress  lias  been  made.  In  July 
1872,  the  imperial  fieet  consisted  of  40  steamers,  5 
of  which  were  ironclads,  12  frig.ates  and  corvettes, 
22  g\inbo.ats,  and  1  yacht,  with  a  total  tonnage  of 
o7,ij22  tons ;  aud  of  7  sailing-vessels,  having  a 
tuuii.age  of  5SG3.  But  nine  additional  men-of-war 
are  in  course  of  construction,  three  of  which  are 
iron-clad  turrets,  all  to  be  finished  in  the  course  of 
1873  and  1S74.  The  fleet  is  manned  (1872)  by  3500 
seamen  and  boys,  and  officered  by  1  admiral,  1  vice- 
admiral,  1  rear-admiral,  '2i  captains,  and  224 
lieutenants.  The  total  sea-faring  population  of 
Germany  is  estimated  at  80,000,  of  whom  48,000  are 
serving  in  the  merchant  navy  at  home,  aud  about 
GOOO  in  foreign  navies.  The  empire  has  4  ports  of 
war :  Kiel  (q.  v.),  Danzig  (q.  v.),  and  Stralsund 
(q.  V.)  on  the  Baltic,  aud  Willielmshaven  (q.  v.)  in 
the  Bay  of  Jahde  on  the  North  Sea. 

Jielir/ion. — lu  reg.ard  to  religion,  it  may  be  stated 
generally  that  Protestantism  predominates  in  the 
north,  and  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  south,  although 
very  few  states  exhibit  exclusively  either  form  of 
faitli. 

The  following  is  the  proportion  of  the  different 
denominations,  according  to  the  census  of  Decem- 
ber 1871:  Protestants  (Lutheran  .and  Calvinist), 
25,500,000  ;  Roman  Catholics,  15,000,000  ;  various 
small  Christian  sects,  as  Herrenhuters,  Mennonites, 
&c.,  110,000;  Jews,  440,000. 

Political  Orcjanisation. — All  the  states  of  the 
empire  recognise  four  distinct  orders — viz.,  the 
nobility,  clergy,  biirghers,  and  peasantry,  and  all  dis- 
tinguish throe  distinct  grades  of  nobility.  The 
higlicst  of  these  includes  the  members  of  reigning 
houses,  and  the  descendants  of  families  who  belonged 
at  the  time  of  the  old  empire  to  the  sovereign 
nobility  of  the  state,  and  were  reichmnmitlclbar,  or 
directly  connected  with  the  empire,  as  holding  their 
domains  directly  under  the  emperor,  but  whose 
houses  have  subsequently  been  mediatised,  or  deprived 
of  sovereign  power  iu  accordance  with  special  treaties 
between  the  state  and  the  princes.  There  are  at  pre- 
sent 50  princely  and  51  rjrufliche  (countly)  mediatised 
families,  who,  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  the  diet 
of  1806,  have  equality  of  rank  with  reigning  houses, 
and  enjoy  many  of  the  special  privileges  which 
were  accorded  to  the  high  nobles  of  the  emj)ire. 
The  second  grade  of  nobility  is  composed  of  counts 
aud  barons  not  belonging  to  reigning  or  mediatised 
houses,  ^^•hilst  the  third  and  lowest  grade  includes 
the  knights  aud  hereditary  patrimonial  proprietors 
of  Germany. 

Before  we  proceed  to  consider  the  political  organ- 
isation of  the  new  Germanic  empire,  we  will  briefly 
describe — 1st,  the  principal  features  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  old  Germanic  empire,  which  was  over- 
thrown by  the  First  Napoleon  in  1806  ;  and  2d,  that 
Bund  or  federal  government  which  lasted  from  1814 
to  18GG,  when  Austria  was  excluded  from  the  Con- 
federation, and  the  hegemony  of  Germany  was 
transferred  to  Prussi.a. 

Tlie  Old  Germanic  Empire. — The  states  of  this 
empire  comprised  three  chambers  or  colleges  :  1. 
The  Electoral  College,  which  consisted  of  the  archi- 


episcopal  electors  of  Mainz,  Treves,  and  Cologne  ; 
and  the  secular  electors,  of  whom  there  were  origin- 
ally only  four,  but  whose  number  was  subsequently 
increased  to  five,  and  who  at  the  dissolution  of  the 
empire  wore  represented  by  the  sovereigns  of 
Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Bruus- 
wick-Luneburg  or  Hanover  (see  Electoim).  2.  The 
College  of  the  Princes  of  the  Empire,  who  had  each  a 
vote  in  the  diet,  and  were  divided  into  spiritual  and 
temporal  princes.  3.  The  Free  Imperial  Cities  which 
formed  a  college  at  the  diet,  divided  iuto  two 
benches,  the  Rhenish  with  14  cities,  and  the  Swabiau 
with  37  ;  each  of  which  had  a  vote.  These  colleges, 
each  of  which  voted  separately,  formed  the  diet  of 
the  empire.  When  their  respective  decisions  agreed, 
the  matter  imder  discussion  was  submitted  to  the 
enq)eror,  who  could  refuse  his  ratification  of  the 
decisions  of  the  diet,  although  he  had  no  power  to 
modify  them.  Ordinary  meetings  were  usually  sum- 
moned twice  a  year  by  the  emperor,  who  specified 
the  place  at  which  the  sittings  were  to  be  held,  and 
which,  during  the  latter  periods  of  the  empii'e,  were 
at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon).  The  diet  had  the  right 
to  enact,  abrogate,  or  modify  laws,  conclude  peace 
and  declare  war,  aud  impose  taxes  for  the  general 
expenses  of  the  state.  The  Aulic  Chamber,  and  the 
Cameral  or  chief  tribunal  of  the  empire,  decided  in 
cases  of  dispute  between  members  of  the  diet.  The 
emperors  were  chosen  by  the  electors  in  person  or 
by  their  dejiuties ;  and  after  their  election  aud 
coronation,  which  usually  both  took  place  at  Frank- 
furt-on-the-Maine,  the  emperor  swore  to  the  'capitu- 
lation '  or  constitution  of  the  empire.  After  the 
dissolution  of  the  empire  iu  1806,  its  place  was 
nominally  taken  by  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhiue, 
which  owed  its  existence  to  Napoleon,  and  which 
lasted  till  1815. 

Late  Germanic  Confederation. — Tlie  late  Ger- 
manic Confederation  was  established  by  an  act  of 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  on  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon.  It  was  an  mdissoluble  union,  from 
which  DO  single  state  could  at  its  own  pleasure 
retire.  Its  central  point  and  its  executive  aud  legis- 
lative powers  were  represented  by  the  federative 
diet,  which  held  its  meetings  at  Frankfurt-on-the- 
Maine,  and  was  composed  of  delegates  from  all  the 
confederate  states,  chosen,  not  by  the  people,  but  by 
the  various  governments.  The  diet  deliberated 
either  in  a  limited  council  (the  Federative  govern- 
ment) or  as  a  general  assembly  {Plenum).  In  the 
limited  council  there  were  17  votes,  of  which  11  of 
the  ju'incipal  states  had  each  a  single  vote,  while 
the  remaining  states  divided  the  six  collective  votes 
between  them.  The  Plenum,  which  met  only  when 
any  organic  change  was  to  be  effected  in  the  diet 
itself,  embraced  70  votes,  of  which  Austria  and  the 
five  German  kingdoms  had  each  four,  while  the 
other  states  had  3,  2,  or  1  vote  each  in  proportion 
to  their  individual  importance.  It  rested  with  the 
limited  council,  which  executed  the  enactments  of 
the  Plenum,  and  despatched  the  ordinary  business 
of  the  Confederation,  to  decide  (by  a  majority  of 
voices)  whether  a  question  should  be  submitted  to 
the  Plenum,  where  it  was  not  debated,  but  simply 
decided  by  a  majority  of  ayes  or  noes.  Austria 
presided  in  both  assemblies,  and  had  a  casting  voice 
in  eases  of  eqn.ilitj'.  The  diet,  as  a  collective  body, 
had  the  right  of  concluding  peace  and  alliances,  and 
declaring  war ;  but  this  power  could  only  be  exer- 
cised for  the  maintenance  of  the  independence  and 
external  security  of  G.,  and  the  individual  integrity 
of  the  several  federative  states,  which  on  their  jiart 
were  bound  to  submit  to  the  diet  the  consideration 
of  all  questions  in  dispute  between  themselves  and 
other  powers.  Where  such  differences  could  not  be 
settled  by  the  committee  empowered  by  the  Plenum 


GERi\IA2^Y. 


to  consider  them,  they  were  finally  referred  to  a 
special  tribunal  known  as  the  '  Austnigal '  Court, 
which  was  composed  of  several  members  of  the 
Confederation  invested  for  the  time  with  full  powers. 
For  a  full  account  of  the  proceedings  which  broke 
up  tins  Bund,  and  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tiiiii  which  practically  took  its  place  from  1SG6  to 
1S71,  see  article  Gkrmaxy  in  Slti'Lemext. 

New  Germanic  Empire. — The  seventy-ninth  article 
of  the  constitution  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion provided  for  the  admission  of  the  South  Ger- 
man states  into  the  new  Bund ;  and  the  war  between 
France  and  Germany,  which  broke  out  in  July 
1S70,  and  in  which  all  the  German  princes  and 
I'eoples  took  part,  gave  an  irresistible  impetus  to 
tlie  desire  for  national  unity.  On  the  15th  Novem-  j 
ber  1S70,  the  grand-duchies  of  Baden  and  Hesse' 
joined  the  Bund  ;  Bavaria  followed  on  the  23d,  and 
Wiirtemberg  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month.  Shortly 
after,  the  king  of  Bavaria  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king 
of  Prussia,  urging  him  to  re-establish  the  German 
empire.  This  brought  the  question  under  the  notice 
of  the  Bund ;  and  on  the  10th  December  1870  it  was 
agreed,  by  188  votes  to  6,  that  the  empire  should  be 
restored,  and  that  the  king  of  Prussia  should  be 
acknowledged  hereditary  emperor  of  Germany. 
The  latter  solemnly  accepted  the  new  dignity  at 
Versailles,  ISth  .January  1871. 

The  new  empire  is  composed,  like  the  old  Bund, 
of  a  confederation  of  German  states  ;  but  these  are 
welded  into  one  for  national  purposes  as  was  never 
before  the  case  ;  and  the  !m2)erial  power,  by  the 
terms  of  the  constitution,  is  so  fully  asserted,  that  ] 
it  cannot  ])ossibly  be  assailed  or  questioned  fromi 
within.  There  are  two  legislative  bodies  in  the 
empire — the  Bunderiratli,  or  Federal  Council,  the 
members  of  which  are  annually  appointed  by  the 
governments  of  the  various  states  ;  and  the  Eeichs- 
tar/,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  and  ballot  for  a  period  of  three  years.  All 
imperial  laws  must  receive  the  votes  of  an  absolute 
majority  of  both  bodies,  and,  to  be  valid,  must,  in 
addition,  have  the  assent  of  the  emperor,  and  be 
countersigned  when  promulgated  by  the  Rcich-'i- 
kanzler,  or  chancellor  of  the  empii-e,  who  is  ex  officio 
president  of  the  Bundesrath. 

According  to  the  eleventh  article  of  the  constitu- 
tion, the  German  emperor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Bundesrath,  can  declare  war,  make  jieace,  enter  into 
treaties  with  foreign  nations,  and  appoint  and 
receive  ambassadoi-s.  If,  however,  the  territory  of 
the  empire  is  attacked,  he  does  not  require  the  con- 
sent of  the  Bundesrath  to  declare  war,  but  can  act 
independently. 

The  power  exercised  by  the  empire  extends  to 
everything  nece.ssary  to  the  security  and  welfare  of 
the  German  people.  The  preamble  to  the  constitu- 
tion expressly  declares  that  all  the  states  of  Ger- 
many schliessen  einen  ewi;inn  Bund  zum  Schutze  des 
liundesgebiets,  nnd  zur  PJlege  der  Wohlfahrt  des 
IMutschen  Vollce-i  {'  form  an  eternal  union  for  the 
protection  of  the  territory  of  the  Bund,  and  for  the 
care  of  the  welfare  of  the  German  people ').  Thus,  it 
possesses  the  exclusive  right  of  legislation  on  all 
military  and  naval  aHairs ;  on  imperial  finance  and 
commerce ;  on  posts,  telegraphs,  and  railways  in  so 
far  as  the  interests  of  the  national  defence  are  con- 
cerned. Wherever  the  laws  of  the  empire  come 
into  collision  with  those  of  particular  states  of  the 
Bund,  the  latter  must  be  held  as  abrogated,  and 
in  all  disputes  that  arise  among  the  latter,  the  impe- 
i-ial  jurisdiction  is  supreme  and  final. 

Acting  under  the  direction  of  the  chancellor  of 
the  empire,  the  Bundesrath,  in  addition  to  its  legis- 
lative functions,  represents  also  a  supreme  adminis- 
trative  and   consultative  board,  and  as  such,   has 
202 


seven  standing  committees — namely,  for  army  and 
naval  matters  ;  tariff,  excise,  and  taxes ;  trade  and 
commerce  ;  railways,  posts,  and  telegrajjhs ;  civil 
and  criminal  law ;  financial  accounts ;  and  foreign 
affairs.  Each  committee  consists  of  representatives 
of  at  least  four  states  of  the  empire ;  but  the 
foreign  affairs'  committee  includes  only  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg. 

See  Handhudi  d.  Geog.  und  Statist,  v.  Dr  WappUus 
(Leip.  1859) ;  Geogr.-Stalist.-Hist.- Atlas  der  Staaten 
d.  JJeuL^h.  Bund  v.  WeUand  (1828) ;  11.  Bcrghaus, 
Ethno'jraph.-Statist.-DarsteMunri  des  dcutschen  Jteiclis 
(Gotha,  1848) ;  Schauenburg,  Flussdiarle  v.  Deutsdd. 
und  Mittel-Europa  (Berlin,  1855)  ;  Stieler'a  Hand- 
Atla.t  ((iotha,  1861)  ;  Von  Kloden's  Erdkunde  (Ber- 
lin, 1801) ;  Brachelli,  Deutsdie  Stuatenkunde  (Wien, 
1857), and  his  Slulistische  Tabeln  (1862);  C.  Dieterici, 
StatiM.  Uebers  im  deutsch.  Zollvtr.  (Berl.  1857)  ; 
Zachariii,  Die  deutsch.  Ver/ass.  Geselze  der  Gegenwart 
(Gottingen,  1855) ;  K.  Badekcr's  IlandbUclier,  and 
the  Almanach  de  Gotha  (1862). 

German  Uistonj. — After  the  gradu.al  expulsion 
or  retirement  of  the  Romans  from  Germany,  the 
country  necessarily  became  subdivided  into  numer- 
ous petty  states,  each  governed  by  its  own  chief. 
The  erection  of  the  Frauko- Merovingian  empire 
in  France  had  given  preponderance  to  the  Frankish 
power  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  and  when 
Charlemagne  succeeded  in  771  to  the  German  as 
well  as  the  Gallic  possessions  of  his  father,  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  he  foimd  himself  possessed  of  an  amoimt 
of  territory  and  a  degree  of  influence  which  speedily 
enabled  him  to  assert  supremacy  over  the  whole 
of  the  west  of  Germany,  while  lus  conquests  over 
the  heathen  Saxons  in  the  north,  and  the  Avari  who 
then  held  Pannonia  in  the  south-east,  extended 
his  German  dominions  from  the  North  Sea  to  the 
Alps,  and  from  the  Rhine  as  far  as  Hungary.  With 
Charlemagne,  who  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
the  hands  of  the  pope  in  800,  began  the  long  line  of 
emperors  and  kings  who  occupied  the  German  throne 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  with  him,  too, 
the  vast  fabric,  which  he  had  reared  on  the  ruins 
of  Roman  power,  lost  its  stabihty,  for  at  his  death 
in  814,  no  member  of  his  family  was  competent  to 
wield  the  imperial  sceptre,  although  in  843  some 
portions  of  his  German  possessions  fell,  in  accordance 
with  a  family  compact,  to  his  grandson  Ludwig, 
sm-uamed  '  the  German,'  who  was  recognised  as  king 
of  Germany.  On  the  extinction,  in  911,  of  the 
degenerate  Carlovingian  dynasty  in  the  i)ersou  of 
Ludwig  'the  Child,^  the  pro\-incial  rulers,  who, 
together  with  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  abbots, 
constituted  the  chief  members  of  the  diet  or  national 
assembly,  arrogated  to  themselves  (in  imitation  of 
the  practice  of  the  nobles  of  the  ancient  German 
tribes)  the  right  of  electing  their  sovereign,  who, 
however,  covUd  not  assume  the  imperial  title  till  he 
had  been  crowned  by  the  pope.  At  this  period, 
there  were  in  Germany  five  nations — the  Franks, 
Saxons,  Bavarians,  Swabians,  and  Lorraiuei-s.  The 
j  Franks,  as  the  descendants  of  those  who  had  con- 
1  quered  the  land  and  founded  the  empire,  enjoyed  a 
pre-eminence  over  the  others ;  and  hence,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  race,  the  choice  of 
the  prince-electors  seems  to  have  fallen  almost  as 
a  matter  of  course  on  the  chief  of  the  Franks, 
the  Duke  or  Count  of  Franconia,  who  reined  as 
king  of  Germany  from  911  to  918,  mider  the  title 
of  Conrad  I.  At  his  own  instigation,  his  rival 
and  adversary,  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was  chosen 
as  his  successor,  and  proved  himself  a  J  able  and 
warlike  prince.  The  conquests  which  he  gained 
over  the  Danes,  Slaves,  and  Magyars  were  con- 
firmed   and   e.\teuded   by   his   son    ami   successor, 


GERMANY. 


Otho  I.  (936 — 973),  who  carried  the  boundaries  of 
the  em]nre  beyond  the  Elbe  and  Saale,  and  who, 
liy  his  acquisition  of  Lombardy,  Laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  rchitioas  which  existed  for  many  ages 
between  the  riders  of  Germany  and  the  Italian 
nation.  Otho's  coronation-festival  was  eventful,  as 
it  formed  the  jirecedent  for  the  exercise  of  those 
offices  which,  till  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  were 
retjarded  as  connected  with  the  dignity  of  the 
secular  electors,  for  on  that  occasion,  while  the 
crajieror  dined  "with  his  three  si>iritual  electors,  ho 
was  waited  upon  by  the  secular  princes — the  Klector 
of  Bavaria  (afterwards  Saxony)  serving  as  grand- 
marshal  ;  of  Swabia  (afterwards  Bohemia),  as 
grand-cupbearer ;  and  of  Lorraine  (afterwards 
Brandenburg),  as  arch-chamberlain. 

Otho  II.  (973—983),  Otho  III.  (9S3— 1002),  and 
Henry  II.  (1002— 10'24),  belonged  to  the  House  of 
Saxony,  which  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Frauconia, 
in  the  person  of  Conrad  II.  (1024 — 1039),  an  able 
ruler,  who  added  Burgundy  to  the  empu'e.  His  son 
and  successor,  Henry  III.  (1039 — 1056),  extended 
German  supremacy  over  Hungary,  part  of  which  he 
conquered  and  annexed  to  Lower  Austria,  while  he 
rejiressed  the  insolence  and  desjiotism  of  the  tem- 
pond  and  spiritual  princes  of  Germany,  and  gained 
the  resjiect  of  his  contemporaries  by  his  zeal  for 
Justice  and  liia  valour  in  the  field.  The  minority 
of  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  IV.  (1056 — 1106), 
enabled  the  nobles  to  recover  much  of  their  former 
power,  and  to  ajtply  a  check  to  the  further  consoli- 
dation of  the  iin]>erial  authority,  which  had  been  con- 
siderably extended  under  the  two  preceding  reigns. 
Henry's  constant  quarrels  with  the  astute  Gregory 
VII.  entangled  him  in  difficulties  and  mortifications 
which  only  ended  with  his  life,  and  which  pkmged 
Germany  into  anarchy  and  cbsorder,  and  entailed 
upon  the  empire  destructive  wars  which  convulsed 
the  whole  of  continental  Europe  for  more  than  two 
centuries.  With  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  V. 
(HOG — 1125),  the  male  line  of  the  Franconian 
dynasty  became  extinct ;  and  after  the  crown  had 
been  worn  (1125 — I13S)  by  Lothaire  of  Saxony,  who 
made  a  bold  attempt  to  recover  some  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  which  at  his  election  the  emjiire  had 
been  deprived  tlu'ough  papal  intrigues,  the  choice  of 
the  electors,  after  a  season  of  dissension  and  intrigue, 
fell  upon  Conrad  III.,  Duke  of  Fi'anconia,  the  first 
of  the  Hohenstauffen  dynasty  (1138—1152).  His 
reign,  in  which  the  civil  wars  of  the  Guelphs  and 
GhibeUines  began,  was  distracted  by  the  dissensions 
of  the  great  feudatories  of  the  empire,  while  the 
strength  of  Germany  was  wasted  in  the  disastrous 
Crusades,  in  which  Conrad  took  an  active  part.  On 
his  death,  the  electoral  coUege  for  the  first  time  met 
at  Frankfurt,  which  retained  the  honour  of  being 
the  ])lace  at  which  the  sovereign  was  elected  and 
crowned  till  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in 
the  19th  ceutiu-y.  Frederick  L  (1152—1190),  sur- 
named  Barbaro.ssa,  Duke  of  Swabia,  was,  at  the 
recommendation  of  his  uncle  Conrad,  chosen  as  his 
successor,  and  the  splendour  of  his  reign  fully 
warranted  the  selection.  By  the  force  of  his 
character,  Frederick  acquii'ed  an  influence  over  the 
diets  which  had  not  been  possessed  by  any  of  his 
immediate  predecessors,  and  diu-ing  his  reign  many 
important  changes  were  effected  in  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  great  duchies  and  counties  of 
Germany,  while  we  now  for  the  first  time  hear  of 
the  hereditary  right  possessed  by  certain  princes  to 
exercise  the  privilege  of  election.  Unfortunately  for 
Germany,  this  great  monarch  suffered  the  interests 
of  his  Italian  dominions  to  draw  him  away  from 
those  of  his  own  country,  whUst  his  participa- 
tion in  the  Crusades,  in  which  both  he  and  the 
(lower  of  his  chivalry  perished,  was  only  memorable 


for  the  misfortunes  which  it  entailed  on  the 
empire.  The  interval  between  the  death  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa  (1190)  and  tlie  accession  of 
Kudolf  I.  (1273),  the  first  of  the  Hapsburg  line, 
which,  through  a  female  branch,  still  reigns  in 
Austria,  was  one  of  constant  struggle,  internal 
dissension,  and  foreign  wars.  Intli\'idiially,  the 
princes  of  the  HoheustaulTeu  dynasty  were  popular 
mouarehs,  their  many  noble  and  chivalrous  quali- 
ties having  endeared  them  to  the  people,  while 
one  of  the  race,  Frederick  II.  (1212 — 1250),  was, 
after  Charlemagne,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
sovereign  of  the  middle  ages ;  but  their  ambitious 
designs  on  Italy,  and  their  constant  but  futile 
attempts  to  destroy  the  papal  power,  were  a 
source  of  misery  to  Germany,  and  with  Frederick 
II.  ended  the  glory  of  the  empire,  tdl  it  was 
partially  revived  by  the  Austrian  House  of  Haps- 
Ijurg.  His  son,  Conrad  IV.  (1250 — 1254),  after  a 
brief  and  troubled  reign,  was  succeeded  by  various 
princes,  who,  in  tiu'ii,  or  in  some  cases  contem- 
poraneously, bore  the  imperial  title  without  exer- 
cising its  legitimate  functions  or  authority.  This 
season  of  anarchy  was  terminated  at  the  accession 
of  Eudolf  I.  (1273—1291),  who,  by  the  destruction 
of  the  strongholds  of  the  nobles,  and  the  stringent 
enforcement  of  the  lawa,  restored  order.  His  chief 
etibrts  were,  however,  directed  to  the  aggrandise- 
ment of  his  Austrian  possessions,  which  embraced 
Styi'ia,  Carinthia,  Caruiola,  and  TjtoI. 

For  the  next  200  years,  the  history  of  the  German 
empire  presents  very  few  fe.atiu-es  of  interest,  and 
may  be  briefly  passed  over.  Adolf  of  Nassau, 
who  was  elected  to  succeed  Rudolf,  was  compelled 
in  1298  to  yield  tlio  crown  to  the  son  of  the  latter, 
Albrecht  I.  (1298-1308),  whose  reign  is  chieUy 
memorable  as  the  period  in  which  three  Swiss  can- 
tons, Unterwalden,  Schwytz,  and  Uri,  established 
their  independence.  After  the  murder  of  Albrecht, 
the  throne  was  occupied  in  rapid  succession  by 
Henry  VIL  (1308— I3I3),  who  added  Bohemia  to 
the  empire  ;  and  conjointly  by  Frederick  of  Austria 
and  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  (1313—1349).  Charies 
IV.  (1349 — 1378)  of  Luxembourg  was  the  success- 
ful candidate  among  many  rivals,  and  although  he 
attended  speci.aUy  to  the  interests  of  his  hereditary 
possessions  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and 
Lusatia,  he  tUd  not  entuely  neglect  those  of  the 
empire,  for  which  he  ]>ro\ided  by  a  ^mtten  com- 
pact, known  as  the  Golden  Bull,  which  regidated 
the  rights,  prix-ileges,  and  duties  of  the  electors,  the 
mode  of  the  election  and  coronation  of  the  emperors, 
the  couiage,  customs,  and  commercial  treaties  of  the 
empire,  and  the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  free 
cities.  His  son,  Wenceslaus  (1378 — 1400),  who  was 
finally  deposed,  brought  the  royal  authority  into 
contempt,  from  which  it  was  scarcely  redeemed 
by  Paijirecht  of  the  Palatinate  (1400—1410).  The 
nominal  reign  of  Sigismund  (1410 — 1437),  the 
brother  of  Wenceslaus,  would  demand  no  notice 
were  it  not  for  his  connection  mth  the  Councils  of 
Constance  and  Basel,  at  the  former  of  which  Huss 
was  condemned,  and  which  was  followed  by  the 
disastrous  Hussite  wars.  The  readiness  with  which 
Sigismund  lent  himself  to  the  interests  of  Henry  V. 
of  England,  and  of  all  other  princes  who  ministered 
to  his  love  of  personal  tUs])lay,  brought  discredit 
on  the  imperial  dignity,  while  his  dishonourable 
desertion  of  Huss  will  ever  attach  ignominy  to  his 
name.  Albrecht  II.  of  Austria  (1438 — 1440),  after  a 
brief  reign  of  two  years,  in  which  he  gave  evidence 
of  great  capacity  for  governing,  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  Frederick  111.  (1440 — 1493),  an  accom- 
plished but  avaricious  and  indolent  jirinee,  whose 
chief  object  seemed  to  be  the  aggrandisement  of 
the   House   of   Austria,   with   which   the    title   of 


GERMAKTY. 


emperor  had  now  become  permanently  connected 
(see  Austria),  while  he  neglected  the  interests 
of  Germany  collectively,  and  snll'ered  the  intidela 
to  make  unchecked  advances  upon  its  territory. 
Maximilian  I.  (149.S — 1519),  the  son  and  successor 
of  Frederick,  resembled  him  in  few  respects,  for  he 
was  active,  ambitious,  and  scheming,  but  deficient 
in  steadiness  of  purpose.  His  marriage  with  Mary, 
the  rich  heiress  of  her  father,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  involved  him  in  the  general  politics 
of  Europe,  while  his  oi>i)osition  to  the  reformed 
faith  ])reached  by  Luther  exasperated  the  reli- 
gious diflurences  which  disturbed  the  close  of  his 
reigu.  Ma.ximilian  had,  however,  the  merit  of 
introducing  many  improvements  in  regard  to  the 
internal  organisation  of  the  state,  by  enforcing 
the  better  administration  of  the  law,  estabhshing 
a  police  and  an  organised  army,  and  introducing 
a  postal  system.  With  him  originated,  moreover, 
the  special  courts  of  jiu-isdiction  known  as  the 
'  Imperial  Chamber '  and  the  '  AuUc  Council ; ' 
and  iu  his  reign,  the  empire  was  divided  into  ten 
circles,  each  under  its  hereditary  president  and  its 
hereflitary  prince-convoker.  Maximihau  lived  to 
see  the  beginning  of  the  lleformation,  and  the  success 
that  attended  Luther's  preaching ;  but  the  firm 
establishment  in  Germany  of  the  reformed  faith, 
and  the  religious  dissensions  liy  which  its  success 
was  attended,  belong  principally  to  the  reign  of  his 
grandson,  Charles  L,  king  of  Spain,  the  son  of  the 
Archduke  Pliilip  and  of  Joanna,  the  heiress  of  Spain, 
who  succeeded  to  the  emjiire  under  the  title  of 
Charles  V.  (1519 — 1556).  The  management  of  his 
vast  possessions  in  S])ain,  Italy,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, and  the  wars  with  France,  iu  which  he  was 
so  long  implicated,  diverted  him  from  his  German 
territories,  wliich  he  committed  to  the  care  of  his 
brother  Ferdinand.  The  princes  of  Germany  were 
thus  left  to  settle  their  rehgious  differences  among 
themselves,  and  to  quell,  unaided  by  the  head  of  the 
state,  the  formidable  insurrection  of  the  peasants 
(1525),  wliich  threatened  to  undermine  the  very 
foundations  of  society.  This  rising  of  the  lower 
orders  was  due  to  the  preaching  of  the  fanatic 
Miinzer,  and  other  leaders  of  the  sect  of  Anabaptists, 
which  had  arisen  from  a  perverted  interpretation  of 
some  of  the  tenets  advanced  by  Luther.  Charles's 
determined  opposition  to  the  reformers  rendered  all 
settlement  of  these  religious  differences  impractic- 
able ;  and  although,  by  the  aid  of  his  ally,  Maurice  of 
Saxony,  he  broke  the  confederation  of  the  Protestant 
princes,  known  as  the  Union  of  Smalkald,  he  was 
forced  by  his  former  ally  to  make  concessions  to  the 
Lutherans,  of  which  he  disajiproved ;  and  in  liis 
disgust  at  the  complicated  relations  in  which  he 
was  placed  to  both  parties,  he  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  lirothcr  Ferdinand  (1556 — 1564),  who  put  an 
end  to  much  of  the  religious  dissension  that  had 
hitherto  distracted  the  e'mpu-e,  by  granting  entire 
toleration  to  the  Protestants.  Although  Ferdinand 
was,  i>ersonally,  mild  and  pacific,  his  reign  was 
trinibled  by  domestic  and  foreign  aggressions — the 
different  sects  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  empire 
at  home,  while  the  French  and  the  Turks  assailed 
it  from  abroad.  During  the  next  fifty  years,  the 
empire  was  a  prey  to  internal  disquiet.  Ma.ximilian  II. 
(1564 — 1576)  was  indeed  a  wise  and  just  prince,  but 
the  little  he  was  able  to  effect  in  reconciling  the 
adherents  of  the  different  churches,  and  in  raising 
the  character  of  the  imperial  rule,  was  fatally 
counteracted  by  the  bigotry  and  vacillation  of  his 
son  and  success'or,  Rudolf  II.  (1576—1612),  m  whose 
rei^n  Germany  was  torn  by  the  dissensions  of  the 
opposite  rehgious  factions,  while  each  in  turn  called 
in  the  aid  of  foreigners  to  contribute  towards  the 
universal  anarchy  which  culminated  in  the  Thirty 


Years'  War,  begun  under  Rudolfs  brother  and 
successor  Matthias  (1612 — 1GI9) ;  continued  under 
Ferdinand  II.  (1619—1637),  an  able,  but  cruel  and 
bigoted  man ;  and  ended  under  Ferdinand  III. 
(1637—1657),  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648. 
The  effect  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  to  depo- 
piUate  the  rural  districts  of  Germany,  destroy  its 
commerce,  biu'den  the  people  with  taxes,  crii>ple  the 
alreatly  debilitated  power  of  the  emperors,  and  cut 
up  the  empire  into  a  multitude  of  petty  states, 
the  nUera  of  which  exercised  almost  absolute 
power  within  their  own  territories.  Leopold  I. 
(1658 — 1705),  a  haughty,  pedantic  man.  did  not 
avail  himself  of  the  <  opportimities  afforded  by 
I)eace  for  restoring  order  to  the  state,  but  suffered 
himself  to  be  dj-a«'n  into  the  coalition  against 
Frauce,  whilst  his  hereditary  states  were  overnm 
by  the  Turks.  Although  success  often  attended 
his  arms,  peace  brought  him  no  signal  advantages. 
The  reigns  of  Joseph  I.  (1705 — 1711)  and  Charles  VI. 
(1711 — 1740),  with  whom  expired  the  male  line 
of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty,  were  signalised  by  the 
great  Wctories  won  by  the  imperialist  general.  Prince 
Eugene,  in  conjunction  with  Jlarlborough,  over  the 
French  ;  but  they  brought  no  solid  advantage  to 
the  empire.  The  distiu-bed  condition  of  Spain  and 
Saxony  opened  new  channels  for  the  interference 
of  Germany,  which  M*as  further  distracted,  after 
the  death  of  Charles,  by  the  dissensions  occasioned 
by  the  contested  succession  of  his  daiighter,  Maria- 
Theresa,  and,  through  her,  of  her  husband,  Francis  I. 
of  Lorraine  (1745—1765),  after  their  rival,  the 
Bavarian  Elector,  Charles  VII.,  hatl,  through  the 
intervention  of  Prussian  aid,  been  elected  in  1742  to 
the  imperial  throne,  which,  however,  he  was  obhged 
to  cede,  after  a  brief  occiipation  of  three  yeiirs. 
Constant  disturbances,  intensified  diunng  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  when  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 
maintained  his  character  of  a  skilful  general  at  the 
expense  of  the  Austriaus,  made  the  reign  of  these 
sovereigns  one  of  trouble  and  disaster,  .loseph  II., 
their  son  (1765 — 1790),  during  the  lifetime  of 
Maria-Theresa,  who  retained  her  authority  over 
all  the  Austrian  states,  enjoyed  little  beyond  the 
title  of  emperor,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  on  his 
father's  death.  But  when  he  idtimately  acquired 
his  mother's  vast  patrimony,  he  at  once  entered 
upon  a  course  of  reforms,  which  were,  however, 
premature,  and  unsuited  to  the  cases  to  which  they 
were  applied  ;  whilst  his  attempts  to  re-establish 
the  supremacy  of  the  imperial  power  in  the  south 
of  Germany  were  frustrated  by  Prussian  influence. 
Leopold  II.,  alter  a  short  reign  of  two  years,  was 
succeeded  in  1792  by  his  sou,  Francis  II.,  who,  after 
a  series  of  defeats  by  the  armies  of  the  French 
republic,  and  the  .idhesion,  in  1805,  of  many  of  the 
German  princes  to  the  alliance  of  France,  which 
led  to  the  subsequent  formation  of  the  Rhenish 
Confederation  under  the  protectorate  of  Xapoleon, 
resigned  the  German  cro^ii,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Emperor  of  Austi'ia.  From  this  period  till  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  of  1814 — 1815,  (;erm.any  w;»s 
almost  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  Xajioleon,  who 
deposed  the  estabUshed  sovereigns,  and  dismem- 
bered their  states  iu  favour  of  his  favourites 
and  dependants,  while  he  crippled  the  trade  of 
the  country,  and  exhausted  its  resources  by  the 
extortion  of  subsidies  or  contributions.  As  a 
reconstruction  of  the  old  empire  was  no  longer 
possible,  those  states  which  still  maintained  their 
sovereignty  combined,  in  1815,  to  form  a  German 
Confederation.  Of  the  300  states  into  which  the 
empire  had  once  been  divided,  there  now  remained 
only  40,  a  number  which  has  since  been  reduced 
to  35  by  the  extinction  of  several  petty  dynas- 
ties.    The  diet  was  now  reorganised,  and  appointed 

723 


GERMANY. 


to  hold  its  meetiuss  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, 
after  having  bucu  formally  recogiiised  by  all 
the  allied  states  as  the  legislative  and  executive 
organ  of  the  Confederation ;  but  it  failed  to  satisfy 
the  expectations  of  the  nation,  and  soon  became 
a  mere  political  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  princes, 
who  simply  made  its  decrees  subservient  to  their 
own  efforts  for  the  suppression  of  every  progres- 
sive movement.  The  French  revolution  of  1830 
reacted  sufficiently  on  some  few  of  the  German 
states  to  compel  their  rulers  to  grant  written 
constitutions  to  their  subjects ;  but  the  effect  was 
transient ;  and  it  was  not  tUl  1848  that  the  German 
nation  gave  expression,  by  open  insurrectionary 
movements,  to  the  discontent  and  the  sense  of 
oppression  which  had  long  jjossessed  the  minds  of 
the  people.  The  princes  endeavoured,  by  hasty 
concessions,  to  arrest  the  jirogress  of  republican 
principles,  and,  fidly  recognising  the  inefficiency  of 
the  diet,  they  gave  their  sanction  to  the  convo- 
cation, by  a  proWsional  self-constituted  assembly,  of 
a  national  congress  of  representatives  of  the  people. 
Archduke  John  of  Austria  was  elected  Vicar  of  the 
newly  organised  national  government ;  but  he  soon 
disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  assembly  by  his  e\-i- 
dent  attempts  to  frustr.ate  all  energetic  action  on 
the  side  of  the  parliament,  while  the  speedy  success 
of  the  anti-republican  party  in  Austria  and  Prussia 
damped  the  hopes  of  the  jirogressionists.  The 
refusal  of  the  king  of  Prussia  to  accept  the  impe- 
rial crown  which  the  parliament  offered  him,  was 
followed  by  the  election  of  a  provisional  regency  of 
the  empire;  but  as  nearly  half  the  members  had 
declined  t.aking  part  in  these  proceedings,  or  in  a 
previous  measure,  by  which  Austria  had  been 
excluded,  by  a  single  vote,  from  the  German  Con- 
federation, the  assembly  soon  lapsed  into  a  state 
of  anarchy  and  impotence,  which  termhiated  in  its 
dissolution.  The  sanguinary  manner  in  which 
insurrectionary  movements  had,  in  the  meanwhile, 
been  suppressed  by  Prussian  troops  both  in  Prussia 
and  Saxony,  put  an  effectual  end  to  republican 
demonstrations  ;  and  in  1850,  Austria  and  Prussia, 
after  exhibiting  mutual  jealousy  and  ill-will,  which 
more  than  once  seemed  likely  to  end  in  war,  com- 
bined to  restore  the  diet,  whose  first  acts  were  tlie 
intervention  in  Slesvig-Holstein  in  favour  of  l)en- 
mark,  and  the  abolition  of  the  free  constitutions  of 
several  of  the  lesser  states.  Since  that  period,  the 
diet  has  been  the  arena  on  which  Austria  .and 
Prussia  h.ave  striven  to  secure  the  supremacy  and 
champioushii)  of  Germany,  and  every  measure  of 
public  interest  has  been  made  subservient  to  the 
views  of  one  or  other  of  these  rival  powers.  These 
states  did,  however,  conclude  a  treaty  of  alliance 
in  1854,  guaranteeing  to  each  other  the  mutual 
defence  of  their  possessions  against  .all  enemies — 
a  compact  in  which  the  diet  soon  joined.  In  1858, 
a  currency  convention  was  concluded  between  all 
the  states  of  the  German  Confederation,  which  had 
previously  entered  into  similar  alliances  for  the 
adjustment  of  international  postal  and  commercial 
rehations  ;  and  in  the  s.ame  ye.ar  the  diet  adopted 
a  resolution  by  which  the  Banish  government 
was  called  \ipon  to  submit  to  the  legislative 
assemblies  a  new  project  for  the  pohtical  org.anis- 
ation  of  the  duchies  of  Holstein,  Lauenburg,  and 
Slesvig.  In  1859,  after  many  stormy  discussions, 
the  assembly  passed  a  resolution  to  mobilise  the 
whole  federal  army,  and  to  a]ipoint  the  Prussian 
Prince  Regent  commander-in-chief,  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  diet,  or  virtually  of  Austria,  with 
which  rests  the  casting-vote  in  the  federal  assembly. 
Tills  appointment  did  not  satisfy  the  ambitious 
views  of  Prussia,  which  has,  however,  abstained, 
dm'ing  the  last  year  or  two,  from  making  any  very 
in 


decisive  attempt  to  secm'o  the  supreme  ])olitical 
leadership  in  Germany.  A  strong  anti-Napolrouic 
feeling  has  existed  since  the  first  outbreak  of 
difficulties  between  France  and  Austria ;  and  it 
may  be  st.ated  generally,  th.at  the  discussions  and 
apprehensions  to  which  this  sentuuent  have  given 
rise,  together  with  the  consideration  of  the  Slesvig- 
Holstein  difficulties,  have  constituted  the  principal 
questions  under  discussion  in  the  federal  iiarliament 
during  the  sessions  of  1859,  1800,  and  1801.  For 
the  later  history  of  Germany,  see  articles  Germany 
and  BiSMARK  in  Supp.,  also  Feanx'E.  Scrlptoreh 
Reriim  German,  apud  Menhfnium ;  Maimort,  Gesch. 
d.  Teati'dien;  Sismondi,  Hisloire  des  Franfais; 
Putter,  Hi.ftori/  of  the  German  Constitution;  Rauiner, 
Hist,  of  the  Hohenstauffen  ;  Coxe,  House  of  Austria  ; 
Eichhorn's  Dcutsch.  Staals-llechtsgesch. ;  Carlyle, 
IJist,  of  Fred.  II.;  Schulze,  Finleitung  in  das  Deutsche 
Staatsrecht,  &o.  (Leip.  1867)  ;  Meyer,  Grandzw/c  des 
Nordde-utschen  Bundesrecht  (Leip.  180S)  ;  Hirth, 
Annalen  des  Nordd.  Bundes,  &c.  (Berl.  1S6S);  and 
Annalen  desDeut.  lieichs  (1871) ;  AuerViach,  Das  neuc 
Deut.  Reich  und  seine  Verfassun;/  (Berl.  1871)  ;  and 
Hansen,  Die  Verfassuncj  des  Deut.  J'eicha  (Nordl.  187 1 ). 
German  Language  and  Literature. — The  nume- 
rous dialects  which  were  sjioken  by  the  different 
confederacies  and  tribes  of  .ancient  Germany  were  all 
derivatives  from  one  branch  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
Germanic  family  of  languages,  which  separated  from 
the  parent  stock  at  a  very  early  period,  although 
subsequently  to  the  separation  of  the  Celtic.  We 
can  ti-ace  the  co-existence  of  the  two  branches 
of  Teutonic  speech  knowm  as  Low-German  and 
High-German  as  far  back  as  the  7th  c,  but  there 
is  no  evidence  to  shew  that  they  existed  as  com- 
mon uniform  languages,  from  which  their  variously 
modified  dialects  were  respectively  derived.  Accord- 
ing to  the  eminent  phdologist  Max  MUUer,  there 
never  was  one  common  Teutonic  language  which 
diverged  into  two  streams ;  while  the  utmost  we 
can  venture  to  assert  in  regard  to  the  various  High 
and  Low  German  dialects  is,  that  they  respectively 
p.assed  at  different  times  through  the  same  stages 
of  gi'.ammatical  develo[iment.  The  High-German 
branch — which  was  spoken  in  the  dialects  of  Swabia, 
Bavaria,  and  Austria,  and  parts  of  Franconia  and 
Saxony — has  been  the  literary  language  of  Germany 
since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  It  may  be  classified 
under  three  periods — the  Old  High-German,  dating 
from  the  7th  c,  and  extending  to  the  period  of  the 
Crusades,  or  the  12th  c. ;  the  jliddle  High-German, 
beginning  in  the  12th  c,  and  continuing  till  the 
Reformation ;  and  the  New  High-German,  dating 
from  Luther's  time  to  our  o%ra  days.  The  Low- 
German,  which  in  Germany  itself  has  been  Httle 
used  in  hteratm-e,  comprehends  many  dialects,  as  the 
Frisian  (q.  v.),  the  Flemish,  Dutch,  Platt-Deutsch, 
&c.  The  oldest  literary  monument  of  Low-German 
belongs  to  the  9th  c,  and  is  a  Christian  epic  known 
as  The  Heliand  (the  Healer  or  Saviour) ;  and 
although  there  are  tr.aces  of  jiopidar  Low-German 
Hteratm-e  up  to  the  17th  c,  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  High-Gci-man  liy  Luther  decided  the  fate 
of  Low-German.  In  addition  to  the  various  dialects 
which  are  commonly  included  under  the  heads  of 
High  and  Low  German,  an  important  evidence  of 
the  cultivation  of  a  form  of  Genuan  differing  equally 
from  the  High  and  Low  groups  has  been  preserved 
to  us.  This  important  linguistic  monument  is  a 
fragment  of  a  Gothic  transl.ation  of  the  Bible,  which 
was  made  in  the  4th  c.  by  Bishop  Ullilas,  and  used 
by  all  the  Gothic  tribes  when  they  advanced  into 
Italy  and  Spain.  The  Gothic  language  died  out  in 
the  i)th  c.  ;  and  after  the  extinction  of  the  power  of 
the  Goths,  the  translation  of  Ullilas  was  forgotten 
and  lost  sight  of  till  the  accidental  discovery,  in  the 


GERMAJfY. 


IGth  c,  of  a  M.S.  |)re3LTVud  in  tlie  al)ljey  of  Werden, 
.ind  containing  fragments  of  this  import.ant  ■work. 
This  MS.  is  a  copy  made  in  the  .5th  c.  of  Ultilas's 
translation,  and  fragmentary  as  it  is,  it  afifords  evi- 
dence of  the  high  degree  of  development  to  which 
this  dialect  hail  been  canned,  and  exhibits  a  form  of 
S]>ooch  which  belongs  to  neither  the  High  nor  Low 
German  gioup,  Ijut  very  possibly  may  have  been 
merely  one  among  numerous  other  allied  forms  of 
Teutonic  speech  which  have  perished. 

The  diflusiou  of  Christianity  among  the  Germanic 
tribes  had  the  effect  both  of  suppressing  the  use 
of  the  Runic  characters  that  had  been  common 
to  them,  and  of  changing  the  character  of  their 
literature,  for  instead  of  the  heroic  songs  and 
'beast-epics'  of  a  sanguinary  paganism  (Tlikr-epos), 
scriptural  ])araphrases,  legends,  and  hymns  were 
now  selected;  while  the  ancient  form  of  alliteration 
by  degrees  gave  place  to  the  rhytlmiical  arrange- 
ment of  the  Latin  versification  common  in  the 
early  periods  of  the  middle  ages.  Latin,  moreover, 
became  the  language  of  the  court,  the  church,  and 
the  law  under  the  Saxon  emperors,  while  (Jerman 
was  left  entirely  to  the  people,  until  the  new 
ideas,  which  were  diffused  both  in  regard  to  Utera- 
ture  and  language  duriug  the  Crusades  under  the 
rule  of  the  accomplished  emperors  of  the  Hohen- 
stauffen  line,  had  the  etlect  of  reviving  the  use  and 
cultivation  of  the  vernacular  dialects,  among  which 
the  .Swabian,  as  the  language  of  the  court,  soon 
acquired  a  marked  preponderance  over  the  others. 
In  that  age  of  chivalry  and  romance,  the  art  of 
song  was  cherished  by  princes  and  nobles,  many  of 
whom  belonged  to  the  order  of  the  Minnemiiger  (or 
Singers  of  Love),  and  composed  in  the  Swabian  or 
High-German  dialect  of  the  imperial  court.  The 
subjects  chiefly  selected  during  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  both  by  courtly  and  popidar  singers,  were 
based  on  the  legendarj'  lore  of  Ch.arlemague  and  his 
paladins,  and  King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  and  of 
the  Sangrael ;  and  it  is  to  this  period  that  we  must 
refer  the  JS"ibdunrjm  Lied  and  Gudrun,  which  rank 
as  the  greatest  treasures  of  German  national  litera- 
ture. Among  the  most  successfiU  poets  and  minne- 
singers belonging  to  the  .Swabian  period,  we  may 
specially  indicate  Heinrich  von  Veldeke,  Hartmann 
von  der  Aue,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  Walthcr 
von  der  Vogelweide,  Xeidliart  of  Eav.aria,  Heinrich 
von  Ofterdingen,  &c.  The  taste  for  the  Thier-ejius 
received  a  new  impetus  among  the  people  in  the 
middle  of  the  Tith  c.  by  the  re-translation,  from 
the  Walloon  into  German,  of  the  ancient  poem  of 
Jteinluxid  Fuchs,  which,  according  to  the  distin- 
guished philologist  Jakob  Grimm,  originated  with 
the  Fraukish  tribes,  who  carried  it  with  them  when 
they  crossed  the  Rhine  and  founded  an  empire 
in  Gaid,  and  from  whom  it  was  dili'used  amonj; 
the  neighbouring  tribes  of  Northern  France  and 
Flanders. 

The  i)eriod  which  succeeded  the  decline  of  chivalry 
w.os  marked  by  a  thorough  neglect,  among  the 
higher  classes,  of  national  literature,  which  thus  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  people,  to  the  thorougli 
disorganisation  of  all  principles  of  grammar.  To 
this  age  belongs,  however,  the  great  mass  of  the 
Vulkxih'der,  or  national  ballads,  in  which  Germany 
is  specially  rich ;  the  fables  and  s.n.tires  of  Brand 
and  of  Sachs,  and  the  romances  of  the  satirist 
Johann  Fischart.  The  mysterias  and  passion-plays, 
which  were  at  their  height  in  the  loth  c,  and 
still  linger  in  the  village  of  Oberammergau,  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  may  be  said  to  have  given  origin 
to  the  German  drama,  which  numbered  among 
its  earliest  cultivators,  Sachs,  Rebhidin,  and  Ayrer. 
The  close  of  the  loth  c.  was  prolific  in  rhyming 
historical  chronicles,  in  satires  on  the  clergy,  and 


in  theological  \\Titings  for  and  against  the  tottering 
power   of    the   Romish   Church.      The  writings  of 
Luther,    his    translation    of    the    Bible,    and    the 
works   of   Ulrich   von    Hutten,   Zuindius,   and   of 
many  of  the  other  reformers,  were,  however,   the 
most  important  events  in   the  history  of  German 
literature  from  the  close  of  the  15th  to  the  middle 
of  the  16th  c. ;   and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Luther   addressed    himself    to   the    minds    of    his 
countrymen    not    merely    through    his    polemical 
writings,  but  also  by  those  noble  hymns,  which, 
since  his  day,  have  constituted  one  of  the  greatest 
literary  treasures  of  the  kind.      Some  of  the  best 
of  these  Kirch-lieder,  or  church  songs,  were  composed 
by  Luther  himself ;   while  next  to   him   those  of 
.Speratus,  Decius,  Nicolai,  and  Herberger,  have  per- 
haps found  most  favour  both  among  Genuans  and 
foreigners.    These  fervent  e£Eusions  of   the  devout 
and  eloquent  reformers  were  followed  by  a  period 
of  hterary  degeneration  and  stagnation,  which  is  in 
a  great  measure  to  be  ascribed  to  the  demoralising 
effects  of  the  Tliirty  Years'  War,  when  Germany- 
was  a  prey  to  all  the  erils   inseparable  from  ci\nl 
war  fostered  by  foreign  interference.     The  indirect 
result  of  this  jjeriod  of  anarchy  was  to  quench  the 
national  spirit,  and  ^■itiate  the  jiopular  taste ;   for 
while  the  petty  courts  aped  the  habits,  language, 
and  literature  of  VersaUlcs,  the  lower  orders  forgot 
their  own  Uterature,  with  its  rich  treasures  of  legends, 
tales,   and   ballads,   and   acquired   a  taste  for  the 
coarse  camp-songs  imijortcd  by  foreign  mercenaries, 
and  the  immonu  romances  borrowed  from  impure 
French  and  Italian  sources.     German  poetry  in  the 
17th  c.  was  framed   after  the   model  of  the  later 
classics,  and  their  modem  imitators.     The  study  of 
the  genuine  national  Uterature  was  neglected,  and 
although  a  host  of  learned  societies  were  formed, 
whose  professed  object  was  to  purify  and  elevate 
the    public    taste,    the    results    were    lamentably 
unsatisfactory ;  and  it  was  not  till  3.  C.  Gottsche<l 
(1700 — 176(i)  succeeded  in  his  Critkal  Art  of  Potlrij 
m  drawing  attention   to  the  turgid  pedantry  and 
artificial   stiffness   of   the   classicist  school,  that  a 
better  taste  was  awakened.     His  own  pretentious 
bigotry  gave   origin,   however,  to  a  counter-jiarty, 
from  which  emanated,  at  a  somewhat  later  period, 
the  German  esthetic  school,  under  the  guid.ince  of 
A.  Baumgarten  and  G.  Meier.     A  favourable  reac- 
tion now  took  place,  and  with  the  names  of  Klop- 
stock,   Lessing,   and  Wieland  began    the   brilliant 
epoch  of  modem  German  literatme.     Their  influence 
was  alike  great  and  varied ;  for  whUe  Klopstock's 
poem  of  the  Messiah,  and  his  odes,  in  which  he  had 
taken  Milton  as  his   model,  re-echoed  the   tender 
))iety  of  the  old  reformers,  and  were  so  thoroughly 
Gemian    in   their   spirit,   that   they   at    once    met 
with  an  enthusiastic  response  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people.   Lessing's  tragedy  of   Minna  i:   Barnlielm, 
and  his  drama  of  JVaihan  der  Weise,  may  be  said  to 
have  created  anew  the  dramatic  art  in  Gemiany. 
Wieland,  on  the  other  hand,  who  was  the  complete 
antithesis  of  Klopstock,  although,  like  his  two  great 
contemporaries,  he  was  the  founder  of  a  new  style, 
and  gave  a  graceful  flexibdity  to  German  diction, 
whicii  it  had  never  before  been  made  to  assume, 
had  imparted  to  his  numerous  tales  and  romances 
an   imdis<mised   sensuous   materiahsm,  which,  like 
his  style,  nad  been  borrowed  from  the  French  philo- 
sophers of   his  day,  and  thus  introduced  into  the 
laui'uage  and  literature  of  Germany  the  germs  of 
many  defects,  as  well  as  graces,  to  which  they  had 
hitherto  remained  strangers.     The  influence  exerted 
on  German  literature  by  these  three  writers,  who 
may   be    regarded    as   its   regenerators,   was    soon 
appreciable   in    every   branch  of    knowledge ;   and 
among   the   galaxy   of    great    names    which    have 


GEEMANT— GEEMEN. 


imparted  reno^^Ti  to  the  literary  and  seientilic  annals 
of  Germany  during  the  last  100  years,  we  can  only 
instance  a  few  of  the  principal  writers  who  have 
more  ospeciallj'  enriched  the  several  departments  of 
learning  with  which  they  have  been  associated. 

I'liilosojihy,  which  in  Germany  originated  with 
Leibnitz,  wlio,  however,  wrote  in  Latin  and  French, 
assumed  a  degree  of  individuality  and  completeness 
through  the  iutellectnal  acumen  and  subtle  analysis 
of  Kant,  Fichte,  ScheUing,  and  Hegel,  which  have 
no  jiarallel  iu  any  other  country.  Other  names 
worthy  of  mention  in  this  department  are  Herbart, 
Schopenhauer,  and  Baader.  In  theology,  Reinhard, 
Paulus,  Schlciermacher,  Neander,  Julius  MUUer, 
Liicke,  Baur,  Strauss,  Jlohler,  Dlillinger,  and  a  host 
of  others,  have  infused  new  life  into  bililical  inquiry; 
while  invaluable  aid  has  been  afforded  in  the  same 
direction  by  the  profound  philological  and  critical 
researches  of  Wolf,  Hermann,  MUUer,  the  erudite 
brothers  J.  and  W.  Grimm,  Bopp,  Benecke,  Adelung, 
Lassen,  Rosen,  Schlegel,  W.  Humboldt,  Lepsius, 
Bimsen,  &o.  Iu  archaeology,  history,  and  jurispru- 
dence, all  nations  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Winckel- 
maun,  Heeren,  Von  Raumer,  Schlosser,  Von  Hammer, 
Gervinus,  Dahlmann,  Ranlce,  Niebuhr,  and  Mommsen. 
In  poetry  and  belles-lettres,  the  name  of  Goethe 
(who  lived  from  1749  to  1S.32)  is  a  host  in  itself. 
He  had  been  preceded  in  the  school  to  which  he 
attached  himself,  which  was  known  as  that  of  the 
Sturm-  itnd-  Drang  period,  by  Herder,  its  originator, 
whose  philosophical  critiques  of  foreign  and  Ger- 
man literature,  contributed  materially  to  the  com- 
plete literary  revolution  which  ushered  in  the 
modern  jieriod  of  German  poetry.  In  his  Leiden 
des  Jungeu  Werther  (The  Sorrows  of  Werther), 
Goethe  carried  the  sentimental  tendeucies  of  the 
school  to  their  culminating  point ;  but  his  own  later 
and  very  numerous  works  became  in  time  mm'o  and 
more  free  from  the  blemishes  into  which  he  had  led 
others.  The  Sturm-i.ind- Drang  period  closed  with 
Schiller  ( 1 759 — 1  S0.5),  whose  early  works.  The  Jtohbers, 
Fle-sco,  and  Don  Carlos,  threw  the  whole  German 
people  into  a  frenzy  of  excitement.  His  later  dramatic 
works,  if  less  exciting  than  these,  gave  evidence  of 
more  matured  taste,  while  some  of  his  ballads  and 
lyrics  may  be  said  to  be  unrivalled.  In  the  present 
century,  poetry  has  found  noble  representatives  in 
the  so-called  Vaterlandsdichter  (Poets  of  the  Father- 
laud),  among  whom  we  may  instance  Theodor 
Kiirner,  and  Arudt,  whose  spirited  jiatriotic  songs 
are  intimately  associated  with  the  war  of  1S13 
against  Napoleon,  in  which  the  former  fell  lighting 
gloriously.  F.  Ruckert  and  L.  Uhland  belong 
to  the  same  school ;  but  the  former  is  more 
especially  known  for  his  admirable  adaptations 
and  translations  from  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
the  latter  for  his  exquisite  romances  and  ballads. 
A  still  greater  n.ame  is  that  of  Heine,  who  may 
rank  almost  with  Goethe  and  Schiller  in  )ioetic 
power.  We  may  also  mention  the  names  of  MuUer, 
Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  Platen,  Freiligrath, 
Geibel,  who,  amidst  a  crowd  of  others,  are  highly 
esteemed  in  their  native  country.  The  influence 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller  extended  in  a  marked 
degree  to  the  drama  and  to  novel- writing.  In 
the  former  department,  Iffland  acquired  great  repu- 
tation as  a  writer  of  sensation  dramas,  A.  von 
Kotzebue  as  an  inexhaustible  composer  of  light 
effective  comedies,  A.  MuUner  v.  Honwald,  F. 
Grillp.arzer,  and  E.  Raupach  for  their  historical 
and  social  tragedies,  while  C.  Immermann  (who  is 
better  known  as  the  author  of  the  novel  Milnch- 
liausen),  Moscn,  Laube,  and  G.  Freytag,  have  all 
produced  good  dramatic  pieces.  Among  the  host 
of  novelists  who  have  ende.avom-ed  to  follow  in  the 
steps  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  Sturyn-  und-  Drang 


period,  the  majority  do  not  require  notice.  J.  P. 
Richtcr,  the  satirist  and  humorist,  stands  forth, 
however,  apart  from,  and  far  above  his  compeers ; 
and  few  novelists  ever  exerted  so  lasting  an  influ- 
ence on  the  literature  and  mode  of  feeling  of  their 
compatriots  as  that  which  Richter  exercised  over 
the  minds  of  the  middle  classes  of  Gei-many,  during 
the  close  of  the  last  and  the  early  [lart  of  the 
present  centun,'.  Among  other  writers  of  note,  we 
may  instance  De  la  Motte  Fouqu6,  A.  »lIoll'mann, 
and  A.  Chamisso,  whose  tendencies  were  to  dwell 
on  the  mysterious  agencies  of  nature,  which  they 
attemjited'  to  individualise,  and  bring  into  associa- 
tion with  material  forms,  as  in  the  Undine  of  the 
first,  the  fantastic  tales  of  the  second,  and  the  Peter 
Sddemi/d  of  the  last-named.  C.  Pichler,  Spindlcr, 
H.  Steti'ens,  C.  Gutzkow,  Sternberg,  W.  Hiiring 
(the  imitator  of  Sir  W.  Scott),  Hauff,  Zschokko, 
an  admir.able  writer  of  noretett^s,  Hackliinder,  Ida 
V.  Hahn-Hahn,  Auerbach,  the  narrator  of  \'iUago 
tales,  and  Freytag,  the  author  of  a  social  novel.  Soil 
und  Hahen,  have  all  in  turn  enjoyed  imiversal 
popularity. 

But  numerous  as  have  been  writers  of  poetic  and 
dramatic  literature  during  the  present  century 
in  Germany,  the  tendency  of  the  German  mind  has 
of  late  years  been  rather  to  science  than  fiction ; 
and  the  immense  impetus  given  to  the  taste  for 
scientific  inquiry  by  A.  v.  Humboldt's  travels  and 
observations,  and  by  his  Cosmos  and  Views  of 
Nature,  has  been  followed  by  the  prosecution  of 
the  most  ]irofoimd  researches  in  every  department 
of  physical  and  uatirral  science,  and  by  the  appear- 
ance of  a  midtitude  of  records  of  travel,  among  the 
more  important  of  which  we  can  only  instance  .a 
few,  as,  for  example,  those  of  Martins  in  Brazil, 
Piippig  in  S.  America,  Tschudi  iu  Peru,  Schubert  in 
Greece,  Lepsius  and  Erugsch  in  Egypt,  Schomburgk 
in  British  Guiana,  Giitzlatf  in  China,  Siebold  in 
Japan,  the  three  brothers  Schlagentweit  in  the  Al]is 
aud  in  Central  Asia,  Earth  and  A'ogel  in  Africa,  and 
Leichhardt  in  Australia.  In  conclusion,  we  can  only 
group  together  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  many 
eminent  Germans  who  by  their  labours  have  at 
once  enriched  the  science  of  the  world,  and  enhanced 
the  literary  and  scientific  glory  of  their  own  countrj'. 
Without  again  referring  to  writers  whom  we  may 
already  have  mentioned,  we  may  specially  instance, 
in  astronomy  and  m.athematics,  Bessel,  Eucke, 
Stnive,  Gauss,  and  Miidler ;  in  the  natural  sciences, 
and  in  medicine,  J.  ISlUUer,  Ehrenberg,  Cams,  Oken, 
Schleidcn,  Von  Buch,  Liebig,  Kopp,  Simon  Dove, 
Valentin  Moleschott,  Bischoff,  Rose,  Poggendorf, 
Erdmann,  Gmelin,  Griife,  Vogel,  Rokitansky, 
Wagner,  Schonlein,  and  Dieffenbach ;  in  history 
and  biogi'aphy,  Niebuhr,  Leo,  Duncker,  Preuss, 
Biittiger,  Varnhagen  v.  Ense,  Pertz,  Lapjienberg, 
Pauli,  &c. ;  in  geography,  ethnology,  statistics, 
and  travels,  Berghaus,  Pctermann,  Steiu,  Hubner, 
Kloden,  Kohl,  Kcinbcck,  Bunsen,  Ideler,  Lassen, 
Unger,  Zimmermann  ;  in  the  liistory  of  language, 
literature,  and  the  fine  arts,  and  on  jjolitics  and  the 
social  sciences,  Vihnar,  Bouterwck,  Kuno,  Fischer, 
Waagen,  Heinsius,  Heyse,  Becker,  Creuzer,  Lersch, 
Wachler,  Ernesti,  Jacobs,  Savigny,  Eichhorn,  Bulow, 
Ersch.  See  Grimm,  Oeschiehie  d.  Deutsclim  Spraclie, 
and  Detitsche  Orammatik ;  Bopp,  Comparative  Oram- 
mar;  Bessel,  Ueher  das  Lchen  dcs  Ulfila;  M.  MUUer, 
On  the  Science  of  Language;  Koberstein,  Oi-undrisa 
der  Deidschen  NaiionaUita-atur ;  Vilmar,  Vorle- 
sungen  iiber  die  Geschichte  d.  Deutsch.  National- 
literatur ;  HaUam,  Europe  in  the  iliddle  Ages. 

GE'RMEN  (Lat.  a  sprout),  or  O'VARY,  the 
lowest  and  thickened  part  of  the  Pistil  (q.  v.)  of  a 
flower ;  containing  in  its  cavity  the  rudiments  of  the 
seeds,  called  Ovules  (q.  v.),  attached  to  the  Placenta 


GERMINATION— GERSOX. 


(q.v.)  often  by  umbilical  conl.i{q.  v.).  There  is  often 
only  one  oviUe  in  the  germen ;  sometimes  it  consists 
of  a  niuuber  of  Carpela  (q.v.),  with  one  ovule  in  each ; 
occasionally  the  cavity  of  the  germen  is  divided 
into  cells,  eacli  of  these  containing  one,  and  often 
many  o\niles.  When  there  are  many  ovules,  some 
of  them  are  generally  abortive.  The  germen  is  some- 
times superior — that  is,  it  is  free  in  the  centre  of 
the  (lower,  as  in  the  poppy,  stock,  and  carnation; 
occasionally  inferior,  the  calyx  being  adherent  to  it 
throughout,  and  the  upper  part  or  limb  of  the  calyx 
thus  seeming  to  arise  from  its  summit,  a.s  in  the 
gooseberry,  rose,  campanula,  and  snowdrop  ;  some- 
times it  is  half  inferior,  as  in  Saxijraga  i/ranulata. 
The  germen  develops  itself  into  the  Fruit  (q.  v.), 
after  the  flowering  is  over.  Some  plants  bend  their 
llower-stalks  to  the  ground  after  flowering,  press 
the  germen  into  the  ground,  and  ripen  their  fruit 
in  the  earth,  as  a  species  of  Clover  (TrifvUum  gub- 
terraneiim),  and  the  Ground-nut  {Aracltia  liypogcea). 
See  AiLiVcuis. 

GERMINATION  {Lat.  sprouting),  the  begin- 
ning of  growth  in  a  seed,  or  of  the  vital  action  by 
which  it  is  converted  into  a  new  plant.  See  Seed  ; 
and  for  what  is  peculiar  to  acotyledoDOus  plants, 
see  Spore. 

GERO'NA  (anc.  Gerujula),  a  city  of  Spain,  in 
lat.  41°  5S'  N.,  long.  2°  50'  E.,  capital  of  the  pro- 
\-ince  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ter,  with  its  affluent  the  Oiiar,  60 
miles  north-e.ast  of  Barcelona.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  new  towni,  the  latter  irregularly  built  on  the 
declivity  of  a  rocky  hill,  but  highly  picturesque,  and 
containing  a  beautiful  and  lofty  Gothic  cathedral, 
commenced  in  1316,  and  approached  by  a  superb 
flight  of  steps.  Besides  the  cathedral,  there  are 
five  churches  and  twelve  convents.  The  inhabit- 
ants carry  on  the  manufacture  of  j)aper,  soap,  and 
leather ;  and  spinning  and  weaving.  The  city  is 
fortified  by  high  thick  walls,  and  protected  by 
four  forts.     Pop.  14,G15. 

Gc.  was  of  Roman  origin,  and  was  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Aragon.  It  has 
suffered  much  from  siegee,  of  which  the  most  note- 
worthy was  that  of  1S09,  when  the  French  with 
.3.5,000  men  encompassed  and  ass.iiled  the  town. 
The  besieged,  unprovided  with  everything,  even 
with  ammunition,  maintained  a  defence  for  seven 
months  and  five  days  against  seven  open  breaches, 
and  were  forced  to  capitulate  only  when  their  heroic 
governor  was  struck  down  by  famine  and  disease. 

GEROPI'GIA,  or  JERtJPIGIA.  Of  late  years,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  this  material  has  been  sent 
from  Portugal  to  this  country.  It  consists  of  grape 
juice  unfermented,  and  coloiu-ing  matter,  probably 
the  extracts  of  rhatanj'-root  and  logwood,  with 
sufBcient  brandy  and  sugar  to  preser\-o  it  from  fer- 
mentation. It  is  used  for  giving  a  spurious  strength 
and  colour  to  red  wines,  more  especially  to  those 
intended  for  exportation — the  factitious  compound 
being  mixed  or  vatted  with  the  wines  in  boncL  At 
least  20,000  gallons  are  now  imported  annually, 
and  this  Large  trade  has  sprung  up  within  the  last 
fifteen  j-ears. 

GERS,  a  department  in  the  south-west  of 
France,  is  formed  of  jmrtions  of  the  old  provinces 
of  Gascony  and  Guienne.  The  department  of 
Landes  intervenes  between  it  and  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  and  that  of  Hautes-PyrfinCes  between  it 
and  the  frontier  of  Spain.  It  has  an  area  of 
2403  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1S72)  of  284,717.  The 
siu^ace  toward  the  south  is  mountainous,  covered 
with  ramifications  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  extend 
northward  in  parallel  lines.     These  lines  decrease 


in  height  as  they  advance,  and  are  separated  by 
fan-shaped  valleys,  which  are  only  a  few  yards  wide 
in  the  south,  but  expan<l  to  a  wdth  of  several  mdes 
in  the  north  of  the  department.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Gers — which  gives  its  name  to  the 
department — the  Losse,  the  Baise,  the  An-atz,  the 
Gimone,  and  the  Save.  The  cUmate  is  healthy  and 
teniper.ate.  The  soil  is  a  stiff  loam,  resting  on  thick 
layers  of  clay,  and  is  only  moderately  jiroductive. 
More  than  one-half  of  the  surface  is  devoted  to 
agriculture,  one-seventh  is  in  vineyards,  and  the 
rest  in  meadows,  heaths,  and  forests.  Wine  is  pro- 
duced in  considerable  quantity,  but  of  an  inferior 
quality ;  great  part  of  it  is  converted  into  Armagnac 
brandy,  which,  after  Cognac,  is  esteemed  the  best. 
The  manufactiires  and  exports  are  inconsiderable. 
The  town  of  Audi  is  the  capital. 

GERSON,  Jflvn'  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars  and  divines  of  the  14th  and  loth  centuries. 
His  proper  name  was  Jean  Charlier,  the  name  of 
G.  being  given  to  him  from  the  place  of  his  birth 
(1363),  the  village  of  Gerson  in  the  diocese  of 
Rheims.  He  was  educated  in  the  imiversity  of 
Paris,  under  the  celebrated  Peter  d'^Villy.  Here  he 
rose  to  the  highest  honours  of  the  university,  and 
idtimately  to  its  chancellorship,  having  acquired 
by  his  extraordinary  learning  the  title  of  '  The 
Most  Christian  Doctor.'  Diuing  the  unhappy  con- 
tests which  arose  out  of  the  rival  claims  of  the 
two  lines  of  pontiffs  in  the  time  of  the  AVestem 
Schism,  the  university  of  Paris  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  negotiations  for  union ;  and  G.  was  one 
of  the  most  active  supporters  of  the  proposal  of 
that  imiversity  for  jnitting  an  end  to  the  schism 
by  the  resignation  of  both  the  contending  parties. 
With  this  view,  he  visited  the  other  universities, 
in  order  to  obtain  their  assent  to  the  plan  pro- 
jiosed  by  that  of  Paris.  But  although  he  had 
the  satisfaction  to  see  this  plan  carried  out  in  the 
co>incil  of  Pisa,  it  failed,  as  is  well  known,  to 
secure  the  desired  union.  In  a  treatise  inscribed 
to  his  friend  D'Ailly,  he  renewed  the  proposal  that 
the  rival  pontiffs  (now  not  two,  but  three  since  the 
election  of  John  XXIII.  at  Pisa)  should  be  required 
to  resign ;  and  in  the  new  council  held  at  Con- 
stance in  1414,  he  was  again  the  most  zealous 
advocate  of  the  same  expedient  of  resignation. 
It  is  to  him,  also,  that  the  great  outlines  of  the 
plan  of  church  reformation,  then  and  afterwards 
juoposed,  are  due.  But  his  own  personal  fortimes 
were  marred  by  the  animosity  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgimdy  and  his  adherents,  to  whom  G.  had 
become  obnoxioiis,  and  from  whom  he  had  already 
suffered  much  persecution,  on  account  of  the  bold- 
ness with  which  he  had  denounced  the  murder  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans.  To  escape  their  vengeance, 
he  was  forced  to  remain  in  exile ;  and  he  retired 
from  Constance,  in  the  disguise  of  a  pilmm,  to 
Kattenberg  in  Bavaria,  where  he  composed  his  cele- 
brated work  De  Consolatione  TheoluijiiV,  in  imitation 
of  that  of  Boethius,  De  Consolatione  Philosophia. 
It  w;vs  only  after  the  lapse  of  several  years  that  he 
was  enabled  to  return  to  France,  and  take  up  his 
residence  in  a  monastery  at  Lyon,  of  which  his 
lirother  was  the  sujierior.  He  devoted  himself  in 
this  retirement  to  works  of  piety,  to  study,  and  to 
the  education  of  youth.  He  died  in  1429,  in  his 
66th  year.  His  works,  which  .are  among  the  most 
remarkable  of  that  age,  fill  five  volumes  in  folio. 
Among  the  books  formerly  ascribed  to  him  was 
the  celebrated  spiritual  treatise  On  the  Imitation  of 
Chruit ;  but  it  is  uq  longer  doubtfiU  that  the  true 
author  is  Thomas-a-Kempis.  See  Kejii'M.  The 
authority  of  G.  is  much  relied  on  by  the  advo- 
cates of  Gallican  principles  ;  but  the  Ultramontancs 
allege   that  the   principles  laid  down   by   him    as 


GERSTACKER— GESENIUS. 


to  the  authority  of  the  ijojjc  are  only  apjiUcable 
to  the  exceiitional  case  in  which  he  wrote — ^^z., 
that  of  a  disputed  succession,  in  which  the  claim 
of  each  of  the  rival  popes,  and  therefore  of  the 
existing  papacy  itself,  was  doubtful. 

GEKSTACKEE,  FraEDRiCH,  a  German  novehst 
and  traveller,  was  born  at  Hamburg,  IGth  Jlay 
1S16.  In  1837,  he  went  to  America.  After  spend- 
ing some  months  in  New  York,  he  began  his 
wanderings  through  the  United  States,  sometimes 
as  a  stoker  or  sailor  in  various  steam-packets,  some- 
times as  a  sUversraitli,  a  woodcutter,  a  maker  of 
pill-boxes,  &c.,  working  till  he  had  earned  money 
enough  to  enable  him  to  proceed  further.  He  also 
led  for  a  considerable  period  a  wild  adventurous  life 
as  a  hunter  in  the  forests.  In  1842,  he  set  up  a 
hotel  at  Point  CoupSe,  in  Louisiana  ;  but  in  1843,  a 
strong  desire  to  see  his  friends  induced  him  to 
return  to  Germany.  Here  he  published  his  admir- 
able Streif-  und-  Jagdziige  durch  die  Veivlniglen 
Staaten  Nordamerikas  (2  vols.,  Dresden,  184-4).  This 
was  followed  by  his  Die  Jiegulatoren  in  Arkansas 
(3  vols.,  Leip.  1846),  Die  Flusspiraten  des  Mississippi 
(3  vols.,  Leip.  1848),  Mississippi Ij-ilder,  Lichl-  imd 
Schatteuseitcn  Iransatlantischen  Lehens  (2  vols.,  Dres- 
den, 1847),  and  Amerih.  Wald-  mid-  Slrombilder 
(2  vols.,  Leip.  1849).  In  his  popular  %vi-itings,  as  the 
Reiseti  um  die  Welt  (6  vols.,  Leip.  1847),  and  Der 
DeuUchen  Aiiswanderer  Fahrten  und  Schichsale 
(Leip.  1847),  G.  contrives  to  rivet  the  attention 
even  of  the  uneducated  reader.  In  18G2,  he 
accompanied  the  Duke  Ernest  of  Gotha  on  his 
travels  in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia  ;  and  on  his  return 
lived  some  time  in  Gotha.  In  1867 — 1868,  he  under- 
took the  longest  joiu'ney  of  his  life,  visiting  North 
America,  Mexico,  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  and  the  West 
Indies ;  and  published,  in  1 868,  Neue  Heisen,  in  which 
he  gives  a  vivid  account  of  them.  As  to  novels,  he 
published  among  othei's,  Eine  Mutter  in  18G7  ;  Die 
Missioniire,  in  1868  ;  Die  Blauen  und  die  Gelhcn,  in 
1870  ;  in  1871,  he  issued,  as  afeuillcton  in  the  Ilain- 
hnrg  News,  a  novel  of  the  simple  title,  In  America. 

GE'RXJND  (from  Latin  gero,  I  carry  on)  is  a 
part  of  the  Latin  verb  which,  according  to  gram- 
marians, declares  that  anything  is  to  be  done.  Thus 
the  gerimd  of  scribo,  I  WTite,  is  scribendum:  as, 
ciiarta  ntilis  ad  scribendum,  paper  useful  for  wi'iting. 
It  is  a  sort  of  verbal  noun,  possessing  the  same 
power  of  government  as  its  verb,  but  is  scarcely 
ever  found  iii  the  nominative,  at  least  as  a  govern- 
ing word.  In  French,  the  infinitive  has  almost 
entirely  supplanted  the  gerund,  the  sole  survi™ig 
remnant,  we  believe,  being  found  after  the  prepo- 
sition en,  as  eti  attendant.  In  English,  the  present 
participle  does  duty  also  for  the  gerund  ;  as,  he  is 
reading  novels  (participle) ;  he  amvises  himself  with 
reading  novels  (gerund). 

GERVAS  (Stnchytarpheta  Jainaicensis),  a  small 
shnib  of  the  natural  order  Verbenaeeai,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America.  It 
has  scattered  hairy  branches,  oblong-ovate  coarsely 
and  sharply  serrated  leaves  about  two  inches 
long,  and  long  dense  spikes  of  lilac  flowers.  It  is 
regarded  as  a  stimidant,  febrifuge,  anthelmintic,  and 
vidueraiy ;  a  decoction  of  the  leaves  is  applied  to 
severe  contusions  ;  and  the  dried  leaves  ai'e  used 
as  tea.  In  Austria,  they  are  sold  imder  the  name 
of  Brazilian  Tea.  In  Britain,  they  are  employed 
only  for  the  adulteration  of  tea;  but  for  this  pur- 
pose they  are  perhajjs  more  frequently  used  than 
any  other  kind  of  leaf. 

GE'RVASE  OF  TiLEUKY,  an  historian  of  the  13th 
c,  was  boi-n  at  Tdbmy,  in  Essex.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  nephew  of  King  Henry  II.  of  England. 
About  1208,  he  was  received  with  great  distinction 


at  the  court  of  Otho  IV.,  cm))cror  of  Germany, 
and  appointed  by  that  monarch  marshal  of  tlic 
kingdom  of  Aries.  He  died  about  1218.  He 
wTote  a  commentary  upon  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's 
History  of  Britain,  entitled  Illu-ilraliunes  Ualfridi 
Motiemutliensis,  lib.  iv.  ;  a  History  of  the  Holy  Land 
(Historia  Ternt  Sa.ncta) ;  a  treatise,  De  Origine 
Burgundionum  ;  and  a  History  of  the  Kings  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  comprised  in  a  work  entitled  Olia 
Imperialia,  libri  tres  ;  also  known  under  the  titles, 
Mappa  give  Desrriptio  Mundi,  and  De  Mirabilibua 
Urbii.  MSS.  of  the  Otia  Imperialia  are  preserved 
in  the  C'ottonian  Collection,  and  in  the  library  of 
Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge.  Nicolson  ascribes  to 
G.  the  Black  Book  of  the  Exchetiuer  (Liber  Niger 
Scaecarii).  Madox,  who  published  a  very  correct 
edition  of  that  work,  makes  Richard  Nelson,  Bishop 
of  London,  the  author. 

GERVI'NUS,  Georg  GoTrrniED,  an  historian 
of  German  literature  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Darmstadt,  20th  May  1805.  He  received  a  merean- 
tde  education,  and  was  for  some  time  employed  in 
the  coxuiting-house  of  a  merchant  in  his  native 
town.  By  a  diligent  course  of  self-instruction,  he 
supplied  what  was  wanting  in  his  school-education, 
and  in  1826,  was  so  far  advanced  as  to  be  ready  to 
enter  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies,  during  which  a  taste  for  history 
had  been  awakened  in  him  by  Sehlosser's  lectures, 
lie  became  teacher  in  an  educational  institution  at 
Frankf  urt-on-the-Maine.  In  183.5,  he  was  appointed 
a  professor  extraordinary  at  Heidelberg.  Pre\ious  to 
this,  he  had  published  his  Geschichte  der  AngeUachsen 
im  Veberhliek  (Frank.  1830),  which  was  followed 
by  his  Historiselie  Sehriflen  (Frank.  1833).  In  1836, 
he  was  appointed  ordinary  professor  of  history  and 
literature  at  GBttingeu.  He  had  now  begun  to  ])ub- 
lish  his  Geschichte  der  Poetischcn  Nalinnalliteratiir 
der  Devtschen  (3  vols.,  Leip.  183.5—18.38  ;  3d  edit. 
1846-1848).  This  was  foUowed  by  the  Neuere 
Geschichte  der  Poetischeit  Nationalliteraticr  der 
Deutschen  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1840-1842;  3d  edit.  1852). 
Both  of  these  works  have  attained  to  well-deserved 
popidarity.  In  1837,  he  was  one  of  the  Giittingen 
]irofessors  who  signed  the  famous  protest  against 
the  abolition  of  the  Hanoverian  constitution,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  lost  his  chair,  and  was 
ordered  to  leave  the  country  within  three  days.  He 
first  went  to  Darmst.adt,  then  to  Heidelberg,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1838,  to  Italy.  He  spent  the  winter  in 
Rome,  engaged  in  hi.storical  studies.  In  1844,  he 
was  appointed  honorary  professor  in  the  university 
of  Heidelberg.  From  this  period,  his  career  was 
that  of  a  political  writer.  Constitntion.il  liberty 
w.as  the  object  which  he  had  in  view,  and  for  which 
he  ardently  laboured.  His  pamphlets  and  writings 
in  difl'orent  periodicals  exercised  a  very  great 
influence  over  the  national  mind.  In  Jidy  1847, 
along  with  some  others,  he  established  the  Deutsche 
Zeitung  in  Heidelberg,  to  advocate  the  ]iolitic.al 
views  of  the  Constitutionalists.  In  1848,  he  was 
deputed  to  attend  the  diet  in  behalf  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Assembly  by  a  district  of  Prussian  Saxony.  After 
the  failure  of  the  national  democratic  party  in  Ger- 
many, G.  returned  to  his  literary  jiursuits,  the  fruits 
of  which  are  his  suggestive  work  on  Shakspeare  (4 
vols.,  Leip.  1849-50),  his  Geschichte  der  Deut.  Dich- 
tinig  (5  vols.,  Leip.  1853),  and  his  Geschichte  des  19'e« 
Jahrhundert  (Leip.,  1853-58;  English  translation, 
1859).    He  died  March  1871. 

GESE'NIUS,  FRiEnKicii  Hetmricii  AViliielm, 
one  of  the  greatest  modern  German  Orientalists 
and  biblical  scholars,  was  born  at  Nordhausen,  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  3d  February  1785,  and  educated 


GESN'ER— GESNERACKS. 


first  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  town, 
afterwards  at  the  imiversities  of  Helmstedt  and 
Giittingen.  After  having  been  a  short  time  teacher 
in  the  ptcdagofrium  at  Ilebnstedt,  he  became  in 
ISOfi  a  theological  liepeteiil  in  (JiJttingen ;  and 
in  1809,  on  the  proposal  of  Johann  von  Muller, 
was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  literature  in 
the  gj'mnasium  of  Heiligenstadt.  In  1810,  how- 
ever, he  received  a  call  to  Halle  as  extraordinary 
]irofessor  of  theology,  and  was  made  an  ordinary 
professor  in  the  following  year.  In  1810 — 1812,  he 
puhhsheil,  in  two  volumes,  a  Hchrew  and  C'/uiktce 
JHctionnr;/  of  the  Old  Tentami-iit,  which  underwent 
imi)rovements  in  several  subsequent  editions,  after 
he  had  made  a  journey  to  Paris  and  Oxford  in 
the  summer  of  1820,  to  make  researches  in  the 
Semitic  languages.  In  the  two  years  following  the 
pulilication  of  this  Dictionary,  appeared  his  Hebrd- 
iirhes  JClemenlarbuch  (2  Bde.,  Halle,  1813 — 1814), 
consisting  of  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  reading-book. 
This  work,  as  it  has  been  improved  in  the  recent 
editions  of  G.'s  distinguished  jnipil  and  literary 
executor,  Professor  Rijdiger  of  Halle,  and  the  le.xicon 
already  mentioned,  are  still  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  the  Old  Testament  most  in  use  not 
only  throughout  Germany,  but  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  America.  The  best  English  translations  of 
the  dictionary  foimded  on  the  Latin  edition  are 
those  of  Robinson  (American ),  and  of  Tregelles ; 
the  best  of  the  grammar  are  those  of  liaWes 
(London)  and  of  Con.ant  (New  York).  In  1815, 
another  work  was  published  by  G.  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  language  {Kritinc/ie  Gesch.  d. 
Ildir.  Sprache  u.  Schrift,  Leip.),  and  a  treatise,  De 
Pentateudu  Samaritani  Originc,  imlole  et  auctoriUtte 
(Halle).  Besides  a  translation  of  Isaiah  with  a  com- 
mentary in  three  vols.  (Leip.  1820 — 1821),  we  are 
indebted  to  G.  for  a  larger  Hebrew  Grammar  (Gram- 
mntiacli-hritlsrhes  Ldirijehdude  d.  Ilehr.  Sprache,  2 
Bde.,  Leip.  1817),  as  well  as  for  a  larger  lexicogra- 
phical work  (TJiesaunis  phUoloriico-crUicus  Liiu/uue 
IlebraiecB  ct  Chaldakm  Veteris  TeMnmenti),  of  which 
the  first  part  was  published  in  1829,  but  which  w'as 
completed  only  in  1858  by  Professor  Rcidiger.  G. 
contritjuted  also  some  papers  on  Oriental  Antiquity 
to  Ersch  and  Grubers  Aligeinnne  Enrijdopddu' ;  and 
his  notes  to  the  German  translation  of  Burckhardt's 
Travels  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  throw  light  on  many 
jjoints  connected  with  bibhcal  geography.  He  dieil 
23d  October  1842,  and  a  memorial  of  him  appeared 
in  the  following  year  ((r.,  cine  Erinnerunff  an  srine 
Prtunde,  Berlin,  1843). — ilanj'  of  the  results  of  the 
rationahsing  method  of  interpreting  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  characterises  all  the  works  of  G.,  have 
been  unable  to  stand  the  progress  of  biblical  science, 
and  he  h;is  certainly  been  surjiassed  by  Ewald  in 
insight  into  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and 
its  bearing  on  the  interjiretation  of  Hebrew  life 
and  thoiight,  as  well  as  in  all  that  qualifies  the 
critic  for  a  true  historical,  asthetical,  and  religioiuj 
appreciation  of  the  literature  preserved  to  us  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Yet  his  intense  devotion  to  his 
favourite  studies,  and  the  advance  which  he  made 
beyond  all  his  predecessors  in  the  establishment 
of  more  certain  principles  of  Hebrew  philology, 
nndoubtetUy  entitle  him  to  be  regarded  as  having 
constituted  a  new  epoch  in  the  scientific  study  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

GESNER,  KoNKAl)  vox,  a  celebrated  Swiss 
naturidist,  was  born  at  Zlirich  in  1516,  and  died 
there  of  the  plague  13th  December  loGo.  His 
father,  who  was  a  leathcr-seUcr,  was  too  poor  to 
pay  for  more  than  the  first  years  of  his  education 
at  the  town-school ;  but  John  Jacob  Ammianus, 
jjrofessor  of  Latin  and  oratory  in  the  college,  saw 
in  the  boy  so  much  promise,  that  he  took  him 


into  his  house,  and  instructed  him  gratuitously  for 
three  years  in  Latin,  Greek,  dialectics,  and  oratory. 
He  subsequently  studied  for  three  or  four  years  at 
Paris,  whence  he  was  summoned  back  to  Zurich, 
to  become  a  teacher  in  the  school  in  which  he  had 
derived  the  elements  of  his  own  education.  He 
devoted  all  his  sjiare  time  to  the  study  of  metlicine 
and  botany,  in  the  hope  of  ultimately  rising  from 
the  office  of  a  schoolmaster  to  that  of  a  professor. 
The  hope  was  gratified  upon  the  opening  of  the 
university  of  Lausanne,  when  he  was  ai)pointcd 
professor  of  Greek.  After  holding  the  oUice  three 
years,  he  went  to  Montpclher,  where  he  attended 
medical  lectures,  and  to  Basel,  where,  after  addi- 
tional study,  and  the  usual  disputations,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine.  He 
then,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  returned  to 
his  native  town.  In  a  very  short  time,  he  received 
the  appointment  of  professor  of  philosophy,  which 
he  held  imtil  his  death.  He  likewise  practised  medi- 
cine, and  published  from  time  to  time  the  fruit  of 
his  studies.  As,  in  the  course  of  his  life,  he  jmb- 
lished  no  less  than  seventy-two  works,  besides  leav- 
ing at  his  death  eighteen  that  were  in  progress,  it 
wul  be  impossible  for  us  to  notice  more  than  a 
few  of  the  most  important.  His  fii-st  gi'cat  work, 
the  BihliiiOvica  Universalis,  ajipeared  when  he  was 
only  twenty-nine  years  old.  It  contained  the  titles 
of  all  the  books  then  known  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  with  critici.sms  and  summaries  of  each ;  and  as 
an  index  to  authors  who  wrote  before  the  year 
1545,  it  remains  to  this  day  very  valuable.  Ten 
years  later  (in  155.5),  his  Hilliridales,  de  Differenliis 
Linrjuarum  appeared,  which  contained  histories  of 
one-hundred-and-thirty  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages. But  by  far  the  greatest  of  his  literary  works 
was  his  Histuria  Animalium,  which  was  planned  in 
six  books,  of  which  only  four  were  completed.  The 
first  treats  of  viviparous,  and  the  second  of  ovipar- 
ous quadru])eds  (tortoises,  lizards,  &c.),  the  third  of 
birds,  and  the  fourth  of  fishes  and  aquatic  animals. 
The  fifth  book  was  to  have  contained  the  history  of 
serpents,  and  the  sixth  that  of  insects.  Each  of  the 
four  published  books  is  a  folio  of  considerable  thick- 
ness, anil  with  closely  printed  pages.  In  this  work, 
which  will  ever  remain  a  monument  of  his  untii-ing 
industry,  he  aimed  at  bringing  together  all  that 
was  known  in  his  time  concerning  every  animal. 
The  information  which  he  collected  reganling  each 
animal  w.as  arranged  under  eight  heads,  represented 
by  the  fii-st  eight  letters  of  the  alphabet.  These 
four  volumes  contain  the  complete  liistory,  up  to 
the  midtlle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  of  beasts, 
birds,  and  fishes,  and  well  entitle  their  author  to 
the  designation  which  he  often  received  of  *  the 
German  Pliny.' 

Botany  was  probably  the  section  of  natural 
history  with  which  he  had  the  greatest  practical 
acquaintance.  He  had  collected  more  than  five 
hundred  ]>lants  undescribed  by  the  ancients,  and 
was  arranging  the  residts  of  his  labours  in  this 
department  at  the  time  of  his  death.  He  apjjcars 
to  have  been  the  first  who  made  the  gi-eat  step 
towards  a  scientific  classification  of  distinguishing 
genera  by  a  study  of  the  fructification. 

GESNERA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Herupliulariaca:,  and  consisting  of 
herbaceous  plants  and  soft-wooded  shrubs,  gene- 
rally tro]iical  or  sub-tropical.  They  frequently  spring 
from  scaly  tubers.  The  leaves  are  wTinkled  and 
destitute  of  stipules.  The  calyx  is  o-p.arted ;  the 
corolla,  tubular,  5-lobed,  more  or  less  irregular.  The 
stamens  are  generally  four,  two  long  and  two  short, 
with  the  rucliment  of  a  fifth.  The  germen  is  half 
inferior,  surrounded  at  its  base  by  glands  or  a  fleshy 
ring ;   it  is  one-celled,  and  has  parietal  placenta;. 


GESSLEE— GET^E. 


The  fruit  is  either  a  capsule  oraberry,  manj'-seoded. 
— There  are  ahout  120  species,  exclusive  of  those 
soiuetiiiies  fonned  into  a  distinct  order  under  the 
name  Ctp-tandraccm  or  Didi/mocarpeie,  of  which 
there  are  about  140.  The  true  Gesneracecs  are  all 
natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  where 
some  of  them  grow  upon  trees.  The  Cyrtan- 
ilracva:  are  more  %\-ideIy  distributed. — Some  plants 
of  this  order  have  mucilaginous  and  sweetish  edible 
fruits  ;  but  it  is  chietly  remarkable  for  beauty  of 
(lowers,  containing  some  of  the  most  atlmired  orna- 
ments of  our  hothouses,  as  species  of  Gloxinia, 
Achimenes,  &c. 

GESSLER,  Alerecht,  called  also  G.  von 
Bruueck,  was  in  1300  appointed  joint-governor  along 
with  Berenger  von  Landenberg,  of  the  Waldstiidten 
or  Forest  (Cantons  (Schwytz,  ijuterwalden,  and  Uri), 
by  Albrecht  I.  of  Austria.  According  to  the  tradi- 
tions connected  M-ith  Tell  (q.  v.),  his  oppressive 
edicts  and  wanton  cruelty  so  enraged  the  inhabit- 
ants that  a  oonsitiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
and  he  was  shot  by  Tell  in  a  narrow  pass  near 
Kiissnacht  in  1307. 

GESSNER,  Salomon,  a  Gei-man  poet  and  artist, 
was  born  at  Zurich,  1st  April  1730,  and  apprenticed 
to  a  bookseller  in  Berlin  in  1 749,  but  soon  ran  away 
fi'om  his  master,  and  endeavoured  to  earn  a  liveli- 
hood by  landscape  painting.  From  Berlin  he  went 
to  H-ambiu-g.  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Hagedorn.  On  his  retiu-n  to  Zilrich,  he 
]iublishod  Daphiiif,  wliich  was  followed  by  Inkle 
itnd  Yai'icn,  a  small  volume  of  idylls,  and  7'od 
Abels  (the  Death  of  Abel),  a  species  of  idyUio  heroic 
prose  poem,  which,  though  the  feeblest  of  all  his 
productions,  is  the  best  known,  and  the  one  on 
which  his  claim  to  the  notice  of  posterity  rests.  He 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  for  several  years 
exclusively  to  painting  and  engra^'ing,  in  the  latter 
of  which  arts  he  attained  high  excellence.  Some  of 
the  engravings  with  which  he  illustrated  his  feeble 
poetry  are  said  to  be  worthy  of  the  tirst  masters. 
In  1772,  he  published  a  second  volume  of  idylls, 
and  a  series  of  letters  on  landscape  painting.  He 
died  2d  March  1787. 

GE'STA  ROMANO'RUM  is  the  title  of  the 
oldest  legendary  work  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
stories  are  written  in  Latin,  and  for  the  most  part 
are  either  taken  from  the  histories  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  or  at  least  are  referred  to  the  period 
in  which  these  flourished.  At  a  later  period, 
moralising  expositions  were  added,  whence  the  work 
obtained  the  name  of  Historic^  Moralists.  The 
G.  R.  belongs  to  that  class  of  works  with  which 
the  monks  were  wont  to  beguile  their  leisure 
hoiu's,  and  which  were  appointed  to  be  read  in 
the  refectory.  The  stories  are  short,  and  desti- 
tute of  rhetorical  ornament ;  neither  have  they 
any  dialogues  or  tragic  incidents.  Their  attrac- 
tiveness lies  in  the  charm  of  their  naivete  and 
childlike  simplicity,  although  their  artless  piety 
often  passes  into  a  deep  mysticism.  Down  to  the 
16th  c,  the  G.  R.  was  one  of  the  most  widely 
read  books  among  the  learned,  as  the  number  of 
manuscrijits  and  of  printed  impressions  shortly 
after  the  invention  of  printing  (the  first  was  issued 
at  Cologne  in  1472)  prove.  At  an  early  period, 
it  was  translated  iuto  French,  English,  German, 
and  Dutch.  The  oldest  Dutch  translation  was 
published  at  Gouda  by  Gerard  Leeu  in  1481  ;  the 
oldest  German  translation  at  Augsburg,  by  Hans 
Schobser,  in  1489.  Among  the  older  English  trans- 
lations may  be  mentioned  that  by  R.  Robinson 
(Lend.  1577).  Recently  (1824),  the  Rev.  C.  Swan 
published  Gesta  liomanonvm,  translated  from  the 
Latin,  u-ith  Preliminary  Observations,  and  Copious 

730 


y^otes.  The  later  German  fabulists  and  novelists, 
such  as  Hans  Sachs,  Burkard  Waldis,  and  others, 
made  abundant  use  of  this  great  storehouse.  But 
soon  after  the  Reformation  it  was  thrown  into 
the  background,  and  even  in  the  monasteries,  where 
for  a  long  time  it  maintained  its  footing,  it  was 
at  length  forgotten.  Recently,  however,  amid  the 
general  re\-ival  of  interest  in  the  Uteratiire  of  the 
]iast,  it  has  received  special  attention.  Its  author 
has  been  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  Petrua 
Berchorius  or  Bercheur  of  Poitou,  who  died  prior 
of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St  Eloi  in  Paris  in 
13G2,  but  it  is  now  believed  that  he  only  added 
the  moralisings ;  and  Griisse,  in  an  appendix  to 
his  German  translation  (2  vols.,  Dresd.  and  Leip. 
1842),  has  shewn  that  a  certain  Elinandus  is  the 
author  or  com])iler  of  the  work.  This  Elinandus 
was  undoubtecily  a  monk,  and  was  either  an  Eng- 
lishman or  German,  as  is  clear  from  the  numerous 
Germanisms  and  Anglicisms  that  pervade  the  Gesta. 
The  most  recent  edition  of  the  original  text  is  that 
of  Keller  (Stutt.  and  Tub.  1842). 

GESTA  TION,  in  Physiology,  Ls  the  tei-m  applied 
to  the  period  that  intervenes  in  the  mammalia 
between  impregnation  and  the  bringing  forth  of  the 
j'oung.  The  period  and  the  munber  of  yoimg 
produced  at  a  birth  vary  extremely  in  different 
mammals,  but  usually  stand  in  an  inverse  ratio  to 
one  another.  Thus,  in  the  larger  herbivora,  as,  for 
example,  the  elephant,  the  horse,  the  ox,  and  the 
camel,  the  female  seldom  produces  more  than  one  at 
a  time,  but  the  period  of  gestation  is  long  ;  while  in 
the  smaller  ones  the  progeny  is  numerous,  but  the 
period  of  gestation  only  a  few  weeks.  In  the  ele- 
phant, the  period  of  gestation  extends  over  twenty 
or  twenty-one  months  ;  in  the  giraffe,  it  is  fourteen 
months  ;  in  the  dromedaiy,  it  is  twelve  months  ;  in 
the  mare,  upwards  of  eleven  months ;  in  the  tapir, 
between  ten  and  eleven ;  in  the  cow,  nine  ;  and  in 
many  of  the  larger  deer  somewhat  more  than  eight 
months.  In  the  sheep  and  goat,  the  period  is  hve 
months.  In  the  sow,  which  produces  a  niunerous 
litter,  the  period  is  four  months.  In  the  rodentia, 
the  progeny  is  numerous  and  imperfectly  developed, 
and  the  jieriod  of  gestation  is  comparatively  short : 
in  the  beaver,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  order,  it  is 
four  months ;  in  the  rabbit  and  hare,  from  thirty  to 
forty  days ;  in  the  dormouse,  thirty-one  days ;  in 
the  squii-rel  and  rat,  four  weeks ;  and  in  the  guinea- 
pig,  three  weeks  or  less.  The  young  of  the  car- 
nivora,  iike  the  young  of  the  rodentia,  are  bom  ivith 
their  eyes  closed,  and  in  a  very  immature  condition; 
and  in  even  the  larger  carnivora  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  far  shorter  than  in  the  larger  ruminantia  or 
pachydei-mata :  it  is  six  months  in  the  bear ;  one 
hundred  and  eight  days  in  the  lion  (the  period  in 
this  animal  is  stated  by  Van  der  Hoeven  at  three 
months);  seventy-nine  days  in  the  piuna ;  sixty-two 
or  sixty-three  days  in  the  dog,  the  wolf,  anil  the 
fox ;  and  fifty-five  or  fiftj'-six  days  in  the  cat.  In  the 
marsupial  animals,  which,  from  a  structural  pecu- 
liarity, produce  their  young  in  a  far  more  immature 
state  than  any  other  mammals,  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  very  short,  being  thirty-nine  days  in  the 
kangaroo,  the  largest  of  the  marsupial  animals,  and 
only  twenty-six  days  in  the  opossum.  Nothing  certain 
is  known  regarding  the  period  of  gestation  of  the 
cetacea.  The  quaclrumana  produce  one,  sometimes 
two,  at  a  birth ;  and  the  period  of  gestation,  as  far  as 
has  been  observed,  seems  to  be  seven  months.  In 
the  himian  race,  forty  weeks  is  the  usual  period  (pf 
gestation,  Init  this  period  is  liable  to  certain  devia- 
tions, which  are  noticed  in  the  ai-ticle  Fietus. 

GE'T^,  a  people  of   Thracian  extraction,  who, 
when    first    mentioned   in    history,   inhabited  the 


GETHSEMAKE— GEYSER. 


country  which  is  now  called  Bulgaria.  They  were 
a  warlike  people,  and  for  a  long  time  successfully 
resisted  the  attem])ts  of  Alexander  the  Great  and 
I'yrrhus  to  subdue  them.  They  afterwards  removed 
to  the  north  bank  of  the  Danulje,  ha\-ing  the 
Dnieper  as  their  boundary  on  the  east,  while  west- 
ward they  cncroache<l  on  the  lioman  empire,  with 
which  from  tliis  time  they  were  continually  at 
war.  They  were  called  Daci  by  the  Romans, 
and  their  country  Dacia,  and  are  often  mentioned 
in  the  literature  of  the  Augjistan  era  as  savage 
and  unconquerable  foes.  During  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  they  overcame  the  Romans,  and  exacte<l 
an  annual  tribute.  But  in  KKi,  their  gallant 
king,  Decebalns,  was  defeated  by  Trajau,  and  the 
people  completely  subdued.  A  luiman  colony  was 
settled  in  the  countrj-,  and  becoming  incorporated 
with  the  G.,  gave  rise  to  a  mixed  race,  the  modem 
Wallachs. 

GETHSE'MANE  (Heb.  Gath,  '  a  ivinc-prcss,'  and 
SJiemen,  'oil'),  the  scene  of  our  Savioiu^'s  agony 
on  the  night  before  his  Passion,  was  a  small  farm 
or  estate  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  and  rather 
more  than  half  a  mile  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem. 
Attached  to  it  w.is  a  garden  or  orchard,  a  favourite 
resort  of  Christ  and  his  disciples.  The  spot  pointed 
out  to  modern  travellers  !is  the  site  of  the  g.ardcn 
of  G.  corresponds  sufficiently  with  the  requirements 
of  the  Scripture  narrative,  and  the  statements  of 
Jerome  and  Euscbius.  It  is  a  i)lace  aboiit  50  jiaccs 
square,  enclosed  by  a  low  wall  of  loose  stones,  and 
contains  eight  very  old  olive-trees,  regarded  with 
pious  superstition  as  having  existed  in  the  time  of 
oiu'  Lord. 

GE'UM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
J\Osacea,  sub-order  PolentiUexe,  nearly  allied  to 
PotentUla,  but  distinguished  by  the  hardened  hooked 
styles  which  crown  the  carpels,  so  that  the  fruit 
becomes  a  bur.  The  carpels  are  dry.  Tyio  species 
are  common  natives  of  Britain,  G.  m-hanum,  called 
CoiiMOS  AvENS,  or  Herb  Bexnktt,  a  herbaceous 
plant,  about  1 — 2  feet  high,  and  G.  rivale,  called 


Geimi  Rivale ; 
a,  ciii'pc-l  and  awn  ;  b,  petal ;  c,  stamen  ;  d,  pistil. 

Water  Avexs,  about  one  foot  high,  both  of  which 
have  the  radical  leaves  interruptedly  jjinnate 
and  lyrate,  and  the  caidine  leaves  teniate,  but  G. 
urbanum  has  erect  yellow  (lowers,  and  G.  rivale 
has  nodding  flowers  of  a  brownish  hue.  The  former 
grows  in    hedges    and  thickets,  the  latter  in  wet 


meadows  and  woods,  and  sometimes  even  in  very 
alpine  situations.  Both  are  aromatic,  tonic,  and 
astringent,  and  are  employed  to  restrain  mucous 
discharges,  and  in  cases  of  dysentery  and  inter- 
mittent fever.  The  root  of  G.  rivale  is  also  used 
in  diseases  of  the  bladder.  Tlie  root  of  G.  urbanum, 
when  fresh,  h.as  a  clove-hke  flavour,  which  it  com- 
municates to  ale  ;  and  for  this  puqjose  it  is  gathered 
in  spring  before  the  stem  grows  up.  G.  Canadensis, 
the  Chocolatk  Root  or  Bi.ood  Root  of  North 
America,  has  some  reputation  as  a  mild  tonic.  It 
is  much  employed  in  the  United  States  in  disea-sea 
of  the  bladder.  It  nuich  reseiiibles  the  British 
species  in  its  leaves,  and  h.as  erect  flowers  Uke  O. 
urbanum.  A  number  of  other  species  are  knowni, 
natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  both 
of  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres. 

GEY'SER  (Icelandic,  grt/sa,  to  burst  forth  vio- 
lently, allied  to  Eug.  ffiisli)  is  a  term  applied  in 
Iceland  to  the  eruptive  thermal  spriujjs  and  wells 
which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  its  surface 
in  evident  connection  ^nth  the  volcanic  forces 
at  work  below.  The  most  remarkable  group  of 
these  singtdar  objects  is  one  about  70  miles,  or 
a  two  days'  ride  from  Reikiavik,  IG  miles  north 
of  Skalholt,  and  •nithin  sight  of  the  volcano  of 
Hecla.  On  the  slope  of  a  low  trap-hill,  overlook- 
ing the  wide  grassy  valley  of  the  ^Vllitae,  or 
White  River,  a  space  of  ground  measuring  perhaps 
half  a  mile  each  way  is  thickly  interspersed  ^^■ith 
boding  or  hot  springs,  of  various  sizes,  from  jets  not 
gi-cater  than  an  overboiling  tea-kettle,  up  to  great 
caldrons,  besides  vestiges  of  others  no  longer  in 
operation.  AU  are  surroxmded  by  silicious  incrusta- 
tions, formed  in  the  course  of  time  by  the  minute 
charge  of  silica  infused  into  the  water.  The  chief 
apertures  are  two,  respectively  called  the  Great 
Geyser  and  the  Strokr  (i.  e.  Chum),  which  are  little 
more  than  a  hundred  yards  apart.  The  latter  is  an 
irregidar  apertiu"e  of  from  six  to  eight  feet  tlianieter, 
down  which  one  may  in  general  safely  look,  when 
he  sees  the  water  noisily  working  in  a  narrower 
passage  about  20  feet  below.  If,  by  throwing  in 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  turf,  he  can  temjrorarUy 
choke  this  gullet,  the  water  wiH  in  a  few  minutes 
overcome  the  resistance,  and,  so  to  spe.ak,  ]ierform 
an  erui>tion  with  magnificent  effect,  bursting  up 
GO  feet  into  the  air,  brown  with  the  turf  that  has 
been  infused  into  it,  and  diffusing  steam  in  vast 
volumes  around. 

The  appearance  of  the  Great  Geyser  is  consider- 
ably different.  On  the  summit  of  a  mount  which 
rises  about  15  feet  above  the  surrounding  ground, 
is  a  circular  pool  or  cup  of  hut  water,  72  feet 
across  at  its  greatest  diameter,  and  about  four 
feet  deep,  being  entirely  formed  of  silicious  cnist 
of  a  dull  gray  colour.  At  the  edge,  this  water  luas 
been  found  to  be  188°  F. ;  in  the  centre,  it  is 
considerably  higher.  From  the  centre  descends  a 
pit  of  eight  feet  width,  and  8-3  feet  deep,  up  which 
a  stream  of  highly  heated  water  is  continually 
but  slowly  ascending,  tlie  suqilus  liuduig  its  way 
out  by  a  small  channel  in  the  edge  of  the  cup, 
and  trickling  down  the  exterior  of  the  crusty 
eminence.  Every  few  hoiu-s,  the  water,  with  a 
rumbling  noise,  rises  tumultuously  through  the  pit, 
and  jets  for  a  few  feet  above  the  siu-f.oce  of  the 
])Ool ;  l>y  and  by,  it  subsides,  and  aU  is  quiet  again. 
Once  a  day,  however,  or  thereabouts,  this  ttunult 
ends  in  a  terrific  paroxysm,  which  lasts  perhaps  a 
()uarter  of  an  hour,  and  diu'ing  which  the  water  is 
thrown  in  repeated  jets  from  GO  to  SO  feet  high, 
mingled  with  such  volumes  of  steam  as  obscure  the 
country  for  half  a  mile  roun<L  If  a  visitor  be  toler- 
ably near  on  the  windward-side,  he  may  catch 
glimpses  of  this  grand  spectacle — the  eruption  of  a 


GPK0I;EU— GIIAMB.VPvU. 


water-volcano,  it  may  be  termed — and  he  must 
needs  be  charmed  -n-ith  the  beautiful  jets  as  they 
curve  outwards  aud  fall,  as  well  as  impressed  by 
the  sublimity  of  the  whole  scene.  When  quiet  is 
restored,  the  chalice,  and  pcrhajis  twenty  feet 
of  the  pit,  are  found  empty,  and  the  ■\'isitnr  obtains, 
so  far,  a  sight  of  the  internal  arrangements  and 
structure  of  the  geyser.  In  a  little  time,  the  water 
reascends  to  its  usual  level,  and  there  remains  for 
the  next  day  or  two,  with  only  those  minor  disturb- 
ances which  have  been  described. 

The  thermal  springs  aud  wells  of  Iceland  may  be 
said  to  be  of  three  classes — 1.  Those  of  continual 
and  uniform  ebullition ;  2.  Those  which,  while  not 
constantly  elnillient,  are  liable  to  occasional  eruji- 
tions  ;  and,  3.  Certain  wells  not  yet  particularised, 
which  contain  tranquil  tepid  water,  but  are  sup- 
jiosed  (at  least  in  some  instances)  to  have  formerly 
been  eruptive.  It  is  only  in  regard  to  the  second 
class  that  there  is  any  room  for  doubt  or  specula- 
tion. To  what  are  we  to  attribute  the  occasional 
eru])tions  ? 

The  theory  started  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  who 
visited  Iceland  in  1810,  is,  that  steam  is  gathered  in 
some  cavernous  recess  connected  with  the  subter- 
ranean channels  through  which  the  water  rises ; 
and  that,  when  it  has  accunudated  there  till  such 
time  as  the  pressure  overcomes  the  resistance,  it 
bursts  forth  tlirough  the  tube,  carrying  the  water 
before  it,  and  tossing  it  high  into  the  air.  This 
mechanical  theory,  as  it  may  be  called,  has  lost 
ground  since  the  announcement  of  a  chemical  one 
by  Professor  Bunsen,  who  spent  eleven  days  beside 
»the  Great  Geyser  in  1846.  The  learned  German 
looks  for  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena  to  the 
molecular  changes  which  take  place  in  water  after 
being  long  subjected  to  heat.  '  In  these  circiun- 
stances,*  water  loses  much  of  the  air  contained  in 
it ;  the  cohesion  of  its  molecules  is  greatly  increased, 
and  a  higher  temperature  is  required  to  boil  it. 
When  water  in  this  state  is  brought  to  the  boil, 
the  production  of  vapour  is  so  instantaneous  and 
so  considerable  as  to  cause  au  explosion.  It  has 
been  foimd  tliat  the  water  of  the  Great  Geyser  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tul:>e  has  a  temperature  higher 
than  that  of  boiling  water,  and  this  goes  on  increas- 
ing till  an  eruption  takes  place,  immechately  before 
which  it  has  been  found  as  high  as  261°  F.  This 
pecidiarity — for  so  it  is,  seeing  that,  in  ordinary 
cirenmstances,  the  hotter  water  at  the  bottom 
wovdd  rise  to  the  top  till  all  was  equally  warm — 
shews  that  the  heating  of  the  water  in  the  Geyser 
takes  place  irader  extraordinary  circumstances.  As 
far  as  I  understand  Professor  Bimsen,  he  implies 
tliat  the  great  pressure  of  the  column  above,  and 
perhaps  some  mechanical  impediments  to  free 
circulation  in  the  foi-m  of  the  Geyser,  give  these 
required  circumstances.  Such  being  assimiedly 
the  case,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  cohesion  of  the 
molecules  of  the  water  constantly  going  on  at  the 
bottom,  at  the  same  time  that  the  heat  is  constantly 
increasing  ;  at  length,  the  latter  force  overcomes 
the  former — elnillitiou  takes  place — an  immense 
volume  of  vapour  is  instantaneously  engendered, 
and  an  eruption  is  the  consequence.'  We  have  to 
consider  this  tlieory  in  an  unusually  curious  light  in 
connection  with  a  small  double  geyser,  as  it  may  be 
called,  which  exists  in  the  group  at  Reikholt,  and  in 
whicli  each  ])ool  makes  an  eruption  every  few 
minutes,  the  other  being  at  those  times  pacific. 

*  This  account  of  Euusen's  theorj'  is  frt>m  a  series  of 
articles  entitled  Tracinr/s  of  Iceland,  which  appeared 
in  Chambers's  Journal  in  1855,  and  subsequently  in 
a  small  8vo  volmne,  Is.,  published  by  W.  and  E. 
Chambers. 


The  water  of  the  Great  Geyser  contains  soda  in 
various  forms  ;  but  the  chief  ingredient  is  a  charge 
of  about  31  grammes  of  sUica  to  sLx  gallons.  This 
forms  the  incmstations  around  the  pools,  reaching 
to  the  bidk  of  a  little  hill  in  the  case  of  the  Great 
Geyser. 

GFRORER,  August  Friedkich,  a  German  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Calw,  in  the  Black  Forest, 
5th  March  1803.  Although  he  studied  for  the 
church,  he  had  lost  all  taste  for  its  practical  work 
when  he  completed  his  theological  education  in 
1825.  After  spending  some  time  at  Lausanne  and 
Geneva,  where  he  uuistered  the  Freuch  language, 
he  went  to  Rome  in  1S27  to  study  Italian.  On  his 
return  next  year,  he  became  a  Mepetent,  or  tutor,  in 
the  theological  institution  at  Tubingen ;  in  1829, 
he  was  removed  to  a  similar  situation  in  Stuttgart ; 
and  in  1830,  he  was  appointed  national  Hbrarian. 
He  now  abandoned  ecclesiastical  life  entirely,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literatiire.  The  first  fruit  of 
his  studies  w'as  a  work  on  Philo  and  the  Jud;eo- 
Alexandi-ian  Theosophy  in  their  relation  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  New  Testament  {I'hilo  unci  die 
Jiidisc/t-Alcxaiidrinhche  Theosophie^  2  Bde,,  Stutt. 
1831).  This  formed  the  first  part  of  a  larger  work 
on  the  History  of  Prunitive  Christianity  (Gesch.  d. 
Urch-istenthums),  which  was  completed  in  1838  in 
three  other  parts.  Between  the  beguming  aud 
completion  of  this  work,  G.'s  views  on  Chi-ist  and 
Christianity  had  undergone  a  change,  which  appeared 
also  in  his  History  of  Gusta\'ns  Adolphns  and  his 
Times  (Gustav  Adolf,  Kijnui  von  Sc/weden,  und 
Seine  Zcit,  Stutt.  1833—1837),  for  the  first  edition 
of  that  work  takes  at  the  commencement  the  side 
of  the  Guelphs,  aud  towards  the  close,  that  of  the 
Ghibellines — an  impropriety  which  was  corrected  in 
the  second  edition  (1844 — 1845).  After  a  work  on 
the  Prophetce  Veleres  PseudepigrapM  (Stutt.  1840), 
G.  pubUshed  his  AUcjemeine  KirclKnrjescliiclde  (Stutt. 
1841 — 1846),  which  has  reached  the  Tth  vol.,  and 
brings  church  history  down  to  1305.  While  working 
at  this  history,  he  carae  to  the  conviction  that  the 
Roman  Catholic  is  the  true  church,  and  that  the 
Reformation  originated  to  a  large  extent  in  misunder- 
standing and  the  ambition  of  princes.  He  was  called 
in  1846  to  the  Catholic  university  of  Freiburg,  and 
there  was  drawn  into  manifold  conflicts,  which  were 
fought  again  more  earnestly  at  the  Frankfurt  parlia- 
ment in  1848,  where  he  was  one  of  the  most  decided 
adherents  of  the  party  called  the  GrossdcuUchen.  In 
1848  appeared  his  History  of  the  Carlovingiaus  of 
Eastern  and  Western  Franconia  {Gesch.  d.  ost-  u. 
westfriinl-ischen  KaroUnrjer,  2  Bde.,  Stutt.)  ;  in  1855, 
the  first  two  volumes  of  a  work  on  the  Early 
History  of  Mankind  (Unjesch.  d.  vieiischlichen  Ge- 
schleclits,  SchafF.) ;  and  in  1861,  the  concluding  vol. 
of  Pahst  Gregorius  VII.  und  Seiner  Zeit,  7  Bde., 
Schaflfh.).  He  published  Geschichte  des  18  Jahr  in 
1863;  and  in  1S66,  Zur  Ge.schichle  deutsclier 
Volksrechte.  In  all  these  works  he  gives  emphatic 
expression  to  his  new  views  on  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

GHAJIBARU,  formerly  a  celebrated  town  of 
Africa,  iij  the  state  of  Bornu,  in  lat.  13'  5'  N., 
and  long.  12°  5'  E.  During  the  flourishing  period 
of  the  Bornuese  empire,  it  was  the  favourite  retreat 
of  the  kings  of  the  country.  It  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  Fulahs  in  1809,  aud  since  that 
date  has  remained  in  a  state  of  utter  ruin  aud 
desolation ;  so  that  now  almost  all  traces  of  the 
town  have  become  covered  with  vegetation,  aud 
enveloped  in  the  surrountling  forest.  The  most 
interesting  relic  of  G.  is  a  weU-preserved  portion 
of  an  ancient  edifice,  evidently  a  mosque.  This 
mosque  was  buUt  of  bricks,  which,  although  not 
so  regidarly  shaped  as  European  bricks,  are  in  other 


GHAI5A— GHAZZALI. 


respects  saiil  to  be  quite  as  gootL  G.  stands  in 
the  midst  of  a  district  comprising  the  finest  land 
of  Bornn,  and  which,  before  the  beginning  of  the 
l)reseut  century,  was  loud  with  the  noise  and  bustle 
of  hundretis  of  towns  and  vUlages  ;  now,  however, 
it  is  the  haimt  of  the  elephant  and  the  lion  ;  the 
silence  of  solitude  has  overspread  it,  and  it  has  smik 
back  into  the  condition  of  the  primeval  jun"le. 

GHA'EA,  formed  by  the  jimction  of  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Beas,  the  most  easterly  of  the  rivers  of 
the  Punjab,  unites  with  the  C'henab,  wliich  has 
preriously  collected  the  remaininjr  three  of  the 
live,  to  form  the  Punjnud,  which  thus  carries  the 
whole  into  the  Indus.  The  distance  between  the 
two  points  of  confluence  is  about  300  miles.  The 
G.  is  nowhere  fordable  at  any  season ;  and  its 
breadth  varies  from  200  yards  to  500. 

GHASEL,  or  GHAZEL,  a  favourite  form  of 
lyrical  poetry  among  the  Turks  and  Persians.  It 
is  composed  of  not  less  than  tive,  and  not  more  than 
seventeen  strophes  of  two  lines  each,  all  the  second 
lines  of  which  rhyme  together.  The  last  couplet 
always  conbiins  the  real  or  assiuned  name  of  the 
author.  In  regard  to  matter,  the  ghasel  is  either 
purely  erotic  and  bacchanalian,  or  allegorical  and 
mystical.  Western  scholars  regard  it  as  the 
Oriental  sonnet.  Hafiz  is  unsurpassed  in  this  kind 
of  verse,  and  it  has  also  been  happily  imitated  by 
the  German  poets,  Platen,  RUckert,  Bodenstedt,  &c. 

GHATS,  or,  as  usuaUy  written,  GHAUTS,  are 
buildings  erected  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  in  order 
to  afford  easy  access  to  bathers.  They  are  peculiar 
to  Northern  Hindustan,  and  line  the  river  banks 
in  most  of  the  gi-eat  cities,  more  especially  those 
situated  on  the  Ganges.  A  ghilt  consists  in  general 
of  a  long,  high  budding,  fronting  the  river,  to 
which  access  is  had  by  means  oi  several  flights 
of  steps,  these  latter  forming  the  essential  part 
of  the  structure,  as  the  wall  or  building  is  only 
for  the  protection  of  loungers  from  the  sun's 
rays.  The  unifonnity  of  the  long  lines  of  steps  is 
broken  by  small  jirojections,  often  crowned  by 
kiosks,  which  reUeve  the  eye.  '  Upon  these  ghilts,' 
says  one  traveller,  'are  passed  the  busiest  and 
happiest  hours  of  a  Hindu's  d.aj'.  Escaping  from 
the  nan'ow  unwholesome  streets,  it  is  a  luxury 
for  him  to  sit  upon  the  open  steps,  and  taste  the 
fresh  air  of  tlie  river ;  so  that  on  the  ghats  are 
concentrated  the  pastimes  of  the  itUer,  the  duties 
of  the  devout,  and  much  of  the  necessary  inter- 
course of  business.'  Though  the  Ganges,  being  the 
sacred  river,  is  par  exct'llence  the  river  of  ghits,  one 
of  the  most  beautifid  in  Hindustan  is  that  erected 
at  Maheswar,  on  the  Nerbudda,  by  Alaya  Baiee, 
the  widow  of  Holkar;  and  though  Benares  prides 
itself  upon  possessing  the  greatest  niunber  of 
ghdts,  it  is  almost  rivalled  by  Ougein  and  other 
cities.  For  a  fuller  accoimt  of  these  stnictures,  see 
Fergusson's  Hand-hook  of  Architecture. 

GHAUTS  (in  English,  Gates  or  Pusses)  are  two 
converging  ranges  of  mountains,  which  run  parallel 
with  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  peniusxda  of 
Hindustan,  and  hence  known  as  the  Eastern  and 
Western  G. — 1.  The  Eastern  G.  extend,  with  an 
average  height  of  1.500  feet,  from  the  vicinity 
of  Balasore,  in  lat.  'IV  30'  X.,  a  little  north  of 
the  Jlahanadi,  to  within  20  miles  of  Cape  Comorin. 
Before  joining  the  kindred  ridge  at  tlxis  last-men- 
tioned point,  they  send  forth,  about  3G  miles  to  the 
north  of  Madras,  a  common  spur,  as  it  were,  of  both 
ranges,  which  reaches  the  other  range  to  the  north 
of  the  gap  of  Palghatcheri.  To  the  south  of  the 
departure  of  this  connecting  chain,  the  Eastern  G. 
become  less  continuous  and  lUstiuct.    Moreover,  they 


are  nowhere  a  water-shed  on  any  considerable  scale, 
being  penetrated  and  crossed  by  nearly  all  the 
drainage  of  the  interior. — 2.  The  Western  G.  stretch 
from  the  south  side  of  the  Tapti,  about  the  same 
latitude  as  Balasore,  to  their  junction  with  the 
kindred  ridge,  at  a  distance  of  20  miles  from  Cape 
Comorin,  or  rather,  in  fact,  to  CajMi  Comorin  itself. 
Though  they  are  generally  far  more  continuous  and 
distinct  than  the  G.  Eastern,  yet  they  are  sharjjy 
divided  by  the  gap  of  Palghatcheri,  16  miles  broad 
— the  northern  section  measuring  SOO  miles  in 
length,  and  the  southern  200.  Their  general  eleva- 
tion appears  to  vary  from  about  4000  feet  to  f idly 
7000.  The  peak  of  Dodabetta  in  that  portion  of  the 
Western  G.  kno\vn  as  the  Neilgherries,  is  said  to 
be  8700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  fippo- 
site  faces  of  these  mountains  differ  very  remarkably 
from  each  other.  Landward,  there  is  a  gradual 
slope  to  the  table-land  of  the  Deccan;  seaward, 
almost  pcrpendiciUar  precipices,  speaking  generally, 
sink  at  once  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  a 
distance  from  it  ranging  from  40  to  70  mUes,  but  at 
one  place  approaching  within  6  mUes.  From  this 
lieculiarity,  aggravated,  as  it  is,  by  the  incredibly 
heavy  rains  which  the  south-west  monsoon  d;uihes 
against  the  lofty  barrier  before  it.  the  maritime 
strij),  more  particidarly  towards  the  south,  pre- 
sents that  singidar  feature  of  the  coimtry  which 
is  known  as  the  •  Backwaters.'  See  CocHix.  The 
Western  G.  are,  with  hardly  an  exception,  a  water- 
shed, for  not  a  single  stream  of  any  magnitude  finds 
its  way  through  them. 

GHAZIPO'EE,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  stamU  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25"  32'  N.,  and  long. 
83°  39'  E.  It  contains  about  7000  inhabitants. 
The  mean  temperatm'e  of  May,  the  hottest  month, 
is  97°  F. ;  and  of  Jamiary,  the  coldest  month, 
it  is  56°.  The  air  is  said  to  be  comparatively 
salubrious.  The  place  owes  this  advantage  to  the 
porous  character  of  the  soil ;  and  it  has,  moreover, 
a  long  reach  of  the  river  towards  the  south-east — 
the  quarter  from  which  the  hot  winds  generally 
blow. 

GHAZZA'LI,  Abu  Hajud  Moiluimad  Ids 
AiULiD,  surnamed  ZArxEDDix  (glory  of  the  law), 
one  of  the  most  eminent  Mohammedan  phUosophers 
and  di\Tnes,  and  one  of  the  warmest  adherents  of 
Sufism  (q.  v.),  bom  in  450  n.  (1058  a.d.)  at  Tus,  in 
Khorassan,  the  birthplace  also  of  Firdusi,  and 
burial-place  of  Harun-al-Piashid.  The  sm-name  of 
G.  was  given  to  htm,  according  to  some,  because 
his  father  dealt  in  ghazal  or  spun  cotton.  Left  an 
orphan  at  an  early  age,  by  the  advice  of  his 
guardian,  a  Sufi,  he  went  to  Djorshan,  with  the 
intention  of  devoting  himself  to  study  and  science, 
as  a  means  of  suppoi-t,  and  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Abu  Nasr  Ismad,  an  eminent  teacher  of  the 
time.  He  afterwards  betook  himself  to  Nishapur, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  learned 
Imam  of  the  two  sanctuaries  (Mecca  and  Meilina) 
on  law,  polemics,  philosophy,  and  theolog)-,  and 
remained  till  the  death  of  his  instructor.  Tlie 
grand  rizier  of  E.agdad  then  appointed  him  (1091 
A.  II.)  to  a  professorship  at  his  Xizamje  (university), 
which  he  left  four  yeai-s  later,  in  order  to-  perform 
the  holy  pUgrimage  to  Mecca.  On  his  return,  he 
visited  Jerusalem  and  Damascus,  and  remained  for 
ten  years  at  the  mosque  of  the  latter  place,  leading 
a  studious  and  ascetic  life.  He  afterwards  \-isited 
Cairo,  Alexandria,  and  other  places  in  Africa, 
everywhere  teaching  and  lecturing  on  religion  and 
science,  and  also  returned  for  a  short  time  to 
Nishapur ;  but  ho  finally  went  back  to  Tus,  his 
native  jJace,  where   he   died   505  H.    (1111   A.D.), 


GHEE— GHENT. 


having  founded  a  monastery  for  Sufis,  and  a  college 
for  the  studions. 

Of  the  uincty-niue  works  written  Viy  him  (mostly 
in  jVrabic,  a  few  in  Pereian),  the  most  famous  is  his 
Ilijd  Otdmad-D'm  (Restoration  of  Keligious  Sciences), 
a  work  so  remarkable  and  exhaustive,  that  it  has 
been  said :  '  If  all  the  books  of  the  Islam  were  lost, 
and  we  had  only  this  one  left,  we  should  not  miss 
the  others'  (Haji  Khalifali).  The  academies  of  the 
West,  however,  Cordova,  Marocco,  Fez,  &c.,  con- 
demned it  as  contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Suuna  (q.  v.),  and  had  it  pubUcly  burned.  Next  in 
importance  stands  his  cp-eat  philosophical  work 
Taha/al  Al-FUdsafah  (The  Overturning  of  the 
Philosoi>hers),  which  has  survived  only  iu  Hebrew 
translations,  and  which  gave  rise  to  a  warmly  con- 
tested controversy  between  him  and  Averroes  (Ibn 
Koshd).  We  may  mention  also  his  commentary  on 
the  ninety-nine  names  of  God,  and  an  ethical  treatise, 
O  ChiUl !  published  and  translated  into  German 
by  Hammer-Pm'gstall.  About  one-third  only  of 
his  works  is  known  to  have  survived,  and  of  this 
but  a  very  small  part  has  been  published. 

GHEE,  a  kind  of  butter  used  in  many  parts  of 
India,  and  generally  prepared  from  the  milk  of 
buffaloes.  The  fresh  milk  is  boiled  for  an  hour  or 
more ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  a  little  curdled 
milk,  called  dhye,  is  added  to  promote  coagulation. 
The  curdled  mass  is  churned  for  half  an  hour ;  some 
hot  water  is  then  added  ;  and  the  churning  continued 
for  another  half  hour,  when  the  butter  forms.  ^Vlleu 
the  butter  begins  to  become  rancid,  which  is  usually 
the  case  after  a  few  days,  it  is  boiled  till  all  the 
water  contained  in  it  is  e.xpelled,  and  a  Uttle  dhye 
and  salt,  or  betel-leaf,  is  added ;  after  which  it  is 
put  into  closed  jiots  to  be  kept  for  use.  It  is  used 
to  an  enormous  extent  by  the  natives  of  many  parts 
of  India,  but  is  seldom  relished  by  Europeans. 

GHEEL,  a  well-known  colony  for  the  insane, 
is  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  proWnce  of  Antwerp, 
and  20  miles  east-south-east  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  is  literally  an  oasis  in  a  desert ;  a 
com])aratively  fertile  spot,  inhabited  and  cidtivated 
by  10,000  or  11,000  peasants,  in  the  midst  of 
an  extensive  sandy  waste,  called  the  Camiune, 
where  neither  cliinate,  soU,  nor  surroundings 
invite  a  settlement.  There  are  no  gentlemen's 
seats  in  the  district,  and  the  farmhouses,  though 
neat,  and  generally  surrounded  by  trees  and  a 
garden,  are  eWdcntly  in  the  hands  of  the  poor. 
Their  frequency  shews  this.  They  are  sometimes 
built  of  brick ;  much  more  generally,  they  are  con- 
structed of  wattled  or  wicker  work,  thickly  laid 
over  with  mud  or  plaster,  and  whitewashed.  A 
G.  crofter's  house  is  much  larger  than  the  dwell- 
ing of  a  small  farmer  in  Scotland.  The  people 
inhabiting  these  seem  to  be  about  the  rank  of 
English  cottagers,  but  are  inferior  in  aspect,  tone  of 
character,  and  cleanliness  of  habits.  The  dwellings 
are  aiTanged  into  three  classes,  or  cordons :  those  of 
the  village  proper ;  those  scattered  around  in  its 
immediate  vicinity  ;  and  those  collected  into  hamlets 
in  the  more  distant  and  least  reclaimed  portions  of 
the  commune,  which  may  be  about  20  miles  in 
cu'cumference. 

Historically  considered,  G.  is  noted  as  having  been 
the  spot  where  a  woman  of  rank,  said  to  have  been 
of  British  origin,  was  murdered  by  her  father,  in 
consequence  of  her  resistance  to  his  incestuous 
passion.  The  pagan  in  his  revenge  gave  the  church 
a  martyr.  PUgrinis,  the  sick,  the  sorrowful,  and  the 
insane,  visited  the  tomb  of  the  Christian  virgin; 
the  last  were  restored  to  sanity  and  serenity. 
Dyraphna  became  the  tutelar  saint  of  those  stricken 
in  spirit ;  a  shrine  rose  in  her  honour,  which  now, 


for  ten  centimes,  h.as  been  consecrated  to  the  relief 
of  mental  disease,  is  said  to  have  been  distinguished 
by  never-failing  success,  and,  at  all  events,  has 
collected  around  it  hundreds  of  lunatics,  chietly 
of  the  poorer  classes,  but  laboiiring  under  every 
form  and  stage  of  nervous  malady.  Formerly, 
besides  the  benefit  derivable  from  jiroximity  to  the 
ashes  of  the  saint,  and  from  the  prayers  of  the 
church,  the  afflicted  imderwent  a  sort  of  novitiate 
in  a  building  adjoining  the  church,  where  they 
were  chained  to  the  wall,  and  subsequently  passed 
under  the  mausoleum  of  their  patron,  &c  ;  but  now, 
although  faith  lingers,  there  do  not  appear  to  bo 
any  other  than  the  ordinary  ministrations  of  the 
church  to  which  the  jjatients  belong,  resorted  to  as 
treatment. 

About  800  insane  persons  are  lodged  with  the 
citizens  of  this  coramunitj',  or  ■with  GOO  heads 
of  families,  and  are  controlled  and  employed  by 
them,  and  this  ■without  recourse  to  walls  or 
ha-has,  or  other  asylum  apphances,  and  with  little 
coercion  of  any  kind.  The  quiet  and  industrious 
reside  generally  one  in  each  family  in  the  town, 
the  more  excited  in  the  suburban  cottages,  and 
the  most  unmanageable  ■with  the  labourers  ou  the 
confines  of  the  commune.  The  effect  produced  by 
this  large  body  of  lunatics  wandering,  working, 
displaying  many  of  their  pecidiarities  in  the  miilst 
of  a  thriving  sane  population,  who  chiefly  depend 
upon  a  traffic  in  insanity,  is  both  striking  and 
picturesque.  In  the  enjoj-ment  of  comparative 
liberty,  and  of  what  is  called  the  free-aii-  treat- 
ment, these  patients  are,  upon  the  whole,  contented, 
tranquil,  and  healthy.  Violence  is  rare;  only  two 
siucides  have  occurred  iu  four  years ;  and  morality  is 
less  outraged  than  in  more  protected  classes.  Each 
indiridual  is  maintained  for  about  64'^  to  l\d. 
per  diem.  Until  recently,  this  colony  was  merely  a 
])sychological  curiosity ;  recently,  the  anomaly  and 
absm-dity  of  treating  all  cases  alike,  and  indepen- 
dently of  medical  aiil,  have  led  to  the  institution  of 
a  medical  staff,  the  erection  of  an  hospital,  and  the 
introduction  of  many  salutarj'  alterations  in  the 
relations  between  the  insane  and  their  custodiers, 
in  classification  and  superrision.  The  compatibility 
of  the  seclusion  of  the  insane  ^\'ith  greater  freedom, 
with  domestic  Hfe,  and  association  with  the  sane, 
have  suggested  the  introduction  of  cottage  asylums, 
as  a  modification  iu  the  acconunodation  of  this  class 
in  this  country.  (Gheel  ou  une  Colonie  d'Alicncs 
vivant  en  famile  et  en  Uherte^  par  M.  Jides  Duval. 
Paris,  1S60.) 

GHENT  (Flem.  Gend,  Ger.  Gent,  Fr.  Gand),  an 
imiiortant  city  of  Belgium,  capit;il  of  the  province 
of  East  B^landers,  is  sitiiated  at  the  cimll  uence  of  the 
Lys  and  the  Scheldt,  31  miles  west-north-west  of 
Brussels.  It  is  divided  by  canals  into  26  islands, 
connected  by  309  bridges,  and  is  encompassed  with 
gardens,  meadows,  and  pleasant  promenades.  It  is 
siu-rounded  by  walls,  i)ierced  by  seven  gates,  and 
enclosing  an  area  eight  miles  in  circiut,  and  is  iu 
general  weU  built ;  but  in  the  older  part  its  quaint 
and  fantastic  houses  render  it  in  the  highest  degi'ee 
pictm'esque.  Ajnoug  the  chief  buildings  are  the 
Chm"ch  of  St  Bavon,  containing  the  famous  '  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb,'  by  the  brothers  Van  Eyck ; 
the  new  citadel,  finished  in  1S30 ;  the  Palace  of 
Justice,  buUt  in  1S44,  and  having  a  peristyle  of  the 
Corinthian  order ;  the  imiversity,  connected  with  a 
school  for  cixil  engineering,  and  for  trades  and  pro- 
fessions ;  the  Beguiuage,  a  convent  containing  about 
700  nuns ;  the  roy;d  Gymnasiiun  ;  and  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  The  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures 
are  carried  on  on  a  great  scale.  There  are  many 
cotton-mills,  and  about  25,000  workmen  are 
employed   in   the   spiiming,   printing,    dyeing,   and 


GHERARDESCA— GniKA. 


weaving  of  cotton,  wooUen,  and  linen  fabrics.  Leather 
and  paper  are  also  manufactured,  and  a  flourishing 
trade  is  carried  on  in  floriculture.  Extensive  flower- 
dealers  are  engaged  io  this  branch  of  trade.  By  the 
Great  Canal,  which  flows -into  the  Scheldt,  G.  is 
united  with  the  sea,  and  it  can  receive  into  its  docks 
vessels  dramng  IS  feet  of  water.  The  new  dock  or 
basin  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  city  is  capable  of 
holding  400  vessels.  A  handsome  statue  in  honour 
of  .Jacques  van  Artevclde  was  erected  at  G.  in  1SG3. 
Pop.  (1S69)  121,-1(;0. 

G.  is  mentioned  in  history  as  early  as  the  Tth 
centurj'.  About  the  year  808,  Baldwin  Bras-de-Fcr, 
the  first  Count  of  Flanders,  built  a  fortress  here 
as  a  defence  against  the  Normans.  Under  the 
Counts  of  Flautlers,  G.  continued  to  prosper  and 
increase,  until,  in  the  14th  c,  it  was  al)le  to  send 
.W.OOO  men  into  the  flelcL  The  wealth  of  the 
citizens  of  G.,  and  the  unusual  measure  of  liberty 
which  they  enjoyed,  encouraged  them  to  resist 
with  arms  any  attempt  to  infringe  upon  their 
peculiar  rights  and  jirivileges.  This  readmess  to 
arm  in  their  orni  defence  is  cxcmpUfied  in  the 
famous  insurrection  of  Jacob  van  Artevelde  (q.  v.), 
aud  other  instances.  For  many  years,  it  maintained 
a  vigorous,  but  unavailing  resistance  against  the 
DiUies  of  Burgundy — who  wished  to  be  recognised 
as  Counts  of  Flanders — and  the  kings  of  Spain. 
In  the  various  wars  of  which  the  Netherlands  has 
been  the  battle-ground,  G.  sullered  severely,  and 
was  frequently  taken.  In  1792,  the  Netherlands 
fell  imder  the  power  of  France,  and  G.  was  made 
the  cajiital  of  the  department  of  the  Scheldt,  con- 
tinuing under  French  dominion  until  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  in  1814,  when  it  was  incorporated  with 
Flanders  iu  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

GHERARDE'SCA,  a  family  of  Tuscan  origin, 
which  enacted  a  conspicuous  part  iu  the  history  of 
the  Italian  republics  during  the  middle  ages.  Their 
vast  territorial  possessions  lay  between  Pisa  and 
Piombino.  In  the  13th  c.,  the  Counts  G.  exercised 
a  preponderating  authority  in  the  republic  of  Pisa, 
and  were  prominent  supporters  of  the  popidar 
interests,  in  opposition  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
nobles.  In  the  great  feud  between  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines,  they  became  warm  partisans  of  the 
latter,  and  were  the  irreconcilable  enemies  of  the 
Visconti,  who  headed  the  Guelphs.  The  most 
famous  of  this  family,  both  with  respect  to  the 
historical  events  of  his  career,  and  the  appalling 
tragedy  of  his  f.ite,  is  Count  Ugolino,  whose  name 
and  fate  have  been  invested  \\ntli  nnd\nng  interest 
by  Dante.  Count  Ugolino,  more  than  any  of  his  race, 
was  possessed  by  a  lawless  ambition,  and  a  subtle, 
unscrupulous  spirit.  Having  resolved  to  usurp 
supreme  power  over  Pisa,  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  Giovanni  Visconti,  the  head  of  the  Guelphic 
party,  who  promised  to  supi>ly  liim  secretly  mill 
soldiers  from  .Sanlinia.  The  plot  was,  however, 
discovered,  and  both  Giovanni  and  Ugolino  were 
banished  from  the  city.  The  former  died  soon  after;  j 
but  the  latter,  imiting  himself  with  the  Florentines 
and  the  Lucchese,  forced  the  Pisans,  in  127G,  to  ! 
restore  him  his  territories,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived.  No  sooner  was  he  reinstated  in  his 
possessions  than  he  began  to  devise  anew  ambi- 
tioixs  schemes.  The  war  of  the  Pisans  with  the 
Genoese  afforded  him  the  opportunity  he  desired. 
In  the  battle  fought  at  the  island  of  Malora,  6th 
August  1284,  Ugolino,  by  treacherously  abandoning 
the  Pisans,  occasioned  the  complete  annihilation  of 
their  fleet,  together  with  a  loss  of  11,000  prisoners.  I 
When  the  news  of  this  disaster  spread,  the  Floren- 
tines, the  Lucchese,  the  Sienese,  the  Pistoians,  and 
all  the  other  enemies  of  the  Pisan  republic,  gathered 
together  to   destroy  it,  as   the   stronghold   of  the 


Ghibellines  in  Italy.  Being  thus  brought  to  tha 
brmk  of  ruin,  the  Pisans  had  no  other  resource  left 
than  to  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of  him 
whose  treachery  had  reduced  them  to  such  misery. 
From  the  time  of  his  election,  he  gave  free  scope 
to  his  vindictive,  desjiotio  nature,  persecuting  and 
Ijanishing  all  who  were  privately  obnoxious  to  him, 
on  pretexts  of  state  delinquency,  till  at  length  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  headed  by  his 
former  supporter,  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa.  Dragged 
from  his  palace,  1st  July  1288,  after  a  desperate 
defence,  he  was  thrown  into  the  tower  of  Gualandi, 
with  his  two  sons  and  two  grandsons,  where  they 
all  perished  amid  the  agomes  of  starvation,  for 
which  reason  their  dungeon  has  since  borne  the 
ominous  name  of  the  '  Tower  of  Hunger.'  In  spite 
of  this,  the  family  again  rose  into  importance;  and 
in  1329  we  find  Nieri  Donavatico  O.  at  the  head  of 
the  republican  authority  in  Pisa.  See  Sismondi'a 
History  of  the  Italian  Republics. 

GHIBELLINES.     See  Guelphs  and  Ghibel- 

LINES. 

GHIBE'RTI,  LoREN-zo,  a  famous  Italian  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Florence  about  1378.  He  was  educated 
in  art  by  his  stepfather,  a  skilful  gohlsmith,  and 
rapidly  acquired  dexterity  in  dra^ving,  painting, 
and  modelling.  At  the  age  of  19,  he  was  selected 
for  the  execution  of  a  noble  fresco  in  the  palatial 
residence  of  Prince  Pandolfo  Malatesta  at  Rimini. 
Along  with  seven  other  artists,  he  was  next  chosen 
by  the  Florentine  guild  of  merchants  to  compete  for 
the  execution  of  a  splendid  gate  in  bronze,  to  suit 
that  executed  by  Andi'ea  Pisano  in  the  baptistery 
of  Florence,  about  1.340.  The  subject  of  the  design 
was  Tlie  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  to  be  executed  in  bas- 
reUef  as  a  model  for  one  of  the  panels.  The  judges 
foimd  a  difficulty  in  deciding  between  Bnmelleschi, 
Donatelli,  and  G.,  but  the  two  former  generously 
proclaimed  the  superiority  of  G.'s  design,  both 
with  respect  to  the  art  and  beauty  of  its  con- 
ception, and  the  delicacy  and  skill  of  its  execution. 
AVhen  G.  had  completed  his  gi'eat  work,  his  fellow- 
citizens  intrusted  him  with  the  execution  of  another 
gate,  to  eniidate  the  beauty  aud  colossal  dimensions 
of  the  two  already  adorning  the  baptistery.  From 
ilichael  Angelo,  G.  received  a  noble  tribute  of 
admiration,  when  the  great  artist  asserted  that  the 
lico  dates  were  worthy  of  Paradise.  G.'s  second  gate 
contains  ten  reliefs  on  a  larger  scale,  the  subjects  iu 
this  case  also  being  wholly  biblicaL  The  mingled 
gi'ace  and  grandeur  of  these  compositions  are  beyond 
all  praise.  Not  the  le.ist  of  G.'s  merits  was  the 
success  that  attended  his  efforts  to  break  up  the 
conventionalism  that  before  his  day  hampered  the 
free  development  of  sculptural  art.  Among  his 
other  works  may  be  mentioned  a  bronze  relief  in 
the  Duomo  at  Florence,  rci)resenting  San  Zenobi 
bringing  a  dead  child  to  life,  aud  bronze  statues  of 
St  John  the  Baptist,  St  JIatthew,  and  St  Stephen. 
G.  died  at  Florence  in  1455. 

GHI'KA,  a  princely  family  of  Albani.an  origin, 
which  has  given  many  hospodars  to  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia.  The  founder  of  the  House  was  George 
G.,  an  Albanian  by  birth,  who,  through  the  favour 
of  his  compatriot,  the  grand  vizier,  Mohammed 
Kiupruli,  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Hospodar  of 
\Vallachia  iu  1657.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Gregory  G.,  who  nded,  with  various  vicissitudes, 
till  1673,  and  received  from  the  Emperor  Leojwld  1. 
the  title  of  Prince  of  the  Holy  Roman  Emjiire.  Of 
subsequent  members  of  the  family,  the  only  ones 
calling  for  special  notice  are  Alex.ander,  Gregory, 
and  Helena. 

Alex.wder  Guik.v  X.  was  born  in  1795,  and, 
through  the  iuflueuce  of  the  Russian  Count  Kisseleff, 

735 


GHIL.\2s-GHIUSTEXDIL. 


wns  elevated  to  the  liospodarat  of  Wallachia  in 
1S34.  ^Nevertheless,  he  soon  exhibited  liberal  and 
cnliKliteneil  tendencies.  He  founded  schools  for 
jiriniary  instruction  in  every  village,  lightened  the 
burdens  of  the  peasantry,  commenced  the  enfran- 
chisement of  the  gipsies,  and  assisted  in  the  organ- 
isation of  a  national  party,  known  as  young  Jiou- 
7nania.  Itussia  naturally  took  the  alarm,  and 
gradually,  under  her  influence,  a  twofold  op]iosition 
was  excited  against  him,  atz.,  an  opposition  of  the 
extreme  liberals,  and  also  of  the  old  boyards  (the 
landed  proprietors),  who  formed  the  Torj'  j)arty,  and 
were  lus  personal  enemies ;  the  residt  of  which, 
after  many  intrigues  and  plots,  was  that,  in  1S42,  he 
was  ordered  to  resign  his  dignity  by  the  Turkish 
sultan.  He  now  betook  himself  to  Vienna,  where 
he  lived  quietly  till  1S53,  when  he  returned  to 
Wallachia,  to  tind  himself  once  more  popular ;  and 
in  1856  he  was  elected  '  Caimacam '  of  the  princi- 
pality, which  office  he  held  till  1869.  He  died  in 
1872. 

Gregory  Ghika  X.,  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  Ixim 
at  Botochani,  in  Moldai-ia,  25th  August  1807,  was 
appointed  Hetnmn,  or  commander-in-chief  of  the 
mihtia,  in  1826,  Secretary  of  State  in  1842,  and 
Minister  of  Finance  in  lS-t3,  under  the  hospodarat 
of  Michael  Stourdza.  But  as  the  system  of  the 
government  became  more  and  more  Knssian  in  its 
character,  he  resigned  his  fuuctions,  and  passed  into 
the  ranks  of  the  liberal  opposition,  of  which  he  soon 
became  one  of  the  chiefs.  In  1849,  the  sultan 
appointed  him  hospodar,  in  order  to  counteract  the 
influence  then  exercised  by  Russia  in  the  adjoining 
principahty.  His  tenure  of  oflice  may  be  <ii\-ided 
into  three  distinct  periods.  In  the  first,  his  efforts 
at  reform  were  crippled  by  the  presence  of  Russian 
troops  in  the  Principalities,  in  A-iolation  of  the  con- 
vention of  Balta-Liman.  The  second,  commencing 
with  the  departure  of  the  Russians  in  1S51,  was 
marked  by  many  excellent  measures  ;  he  organised 
a  good  police  system,  augmented  the  effective  force 
of  the  militia,  founded  schools  for  sujierior  and 
secondary  instruction  at  Is'iamtzo,  Houch,  Galatz, 
&c,,  pi-omulgated  an  administrative  code — the  first 
gi-eat  step  towards  the  reform  of  abuses — increased 
mimicipal  resources,  and  at  his  own  expense  built 
aqueducts,  and  printed  important  historical  ^ISS. 
The  re-occupation  of  the  PrincipaUties  by  Russia  in 
1853  suspended  his  labours,  and  resigning  the 
hospodarat  provision.allj',  he  withdrew  to  Vienna, 
but  resumed  his  functions  in  the  end  of  the  following 
year.  The  third  period  of  G.'s  ride  was  initiated 
by  the  formation  of  a  liberal  ministr3',  by  the 
support  of  which  he  efl'ected,  among  other  things, 
a  radical  reform  of  the  penitentiary  system,  the 
abolition  of  serfdom  (1855),  and  of  the  censorship  of 
public  journals  (18.56),  and  the  esta)jlishment  of 
foreign  merchant  companies  for  the  navigation  of 
the  Pruth  and  the  Sereth  (1856);  while  he  also 
encouraged  the  grovrth  of  a  union  feeUug  among 
the  Roimianian  party  in  both  principalities.  His 
tenure  of  office  expiring  in  1856,  G.,  whose  private 
fortune  had  been  rather  diminished  than  increased 
1  ly  his  dignity,  quitted  Moldavia,  and  went  to  reside 
in  France.  His  death  occurred  in  the  end  of  July 
18.57. 

Helena  Ghika, Princess  Kollzoff-Massahhy,\>AteT 
known  by  her  literary  pseudonym  of  Dora  jyistria, 
is  niece  of  Prince  Alexander  Ghika  X.,  hospodar  of 
Wallachia,  and  was  bom  at  Bucharest,  22d  January 
1829.  Profoundly  instructed  in  the  classics  under 
the  care  of  George  Pappadopmdos,  she  added  to 
these,  bj'  frequent  travels  through  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy,  an  extensive  knowledge  of  modern 
languages  and  literature,  and  at  the  age  of  15 
commenced  a  translation  of  the  Iliad  into  German, 
730 


and  not  long  after  WTote  several  pieces  for  the 
theatre.  On  her  marriage  with  Prince  Koltzoff- 
Massalsky,  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  the 
court  of  St  Petersburg.  Her  first  important  work, 
La  Vie  Monastique  dans  rK'jiise  Oricntnk,  was 
published  at  Paris  and  Geneva  in  1855.  This  was 
followed  by  two  works,  GH  Erui  dilla  Jiumenia,  and 
/  Iturneyii  ed  il  Papato.  Her  studies  in  Switzerland 
also  resulted  in  a  volimie  entitled  La  Suisse  /lulicnnc. 
She  received  an  official  in«t.ation,  in  1S65,  to  attend 
the  sixth  centenary  festival  in  honour  of  the  birth- 
day of  Dante.  This  event  she  described  vividly  in 
a  Pi'krinape  au  Tombenu  du  Dante.  In  1867,  she 
went  to  Venice  to  exiilore  the  ample  archives  of 
that  city ;  but  the  first  thing  she  did  was  to  publish 
Venice  en  1867.  Afterwards,  she  shewed  the  fruits 
of  her  researches  in  Lcs  Albanais  musulmans,  and 
Les  AWanaisen  Eov.manie,  ou  les  Princes  de  Uhika, 
In  1868,  she  gave  some  account  of  her  own  active 
life  in  Di  ulcnne  opere  del/a  Principessa  Dora 
d'Jstria,  a  work  which  reappeared  in  1S71,  under 
the  title,  Dora  d'Igtria  c  la  poesie  Albancse. 

GHILA'N,  a  border  province  of  Persia,  consists  of 
the  south-western  portion  of  the  narrow  strip  of 
country  lying  between  the  Elbirrz  range  and  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  extends  between  lat.  36°  30"  and 
38°  30'  N.,  and  long.  48°  33'  and  50°  30'  W.  It  is 
upwards  of  150  miles  in  length,  and  about  70 
mdcs  at  its  broadest  part.  The  proxnnce  is  sub- 
ject, from  the  lowness  of  the  land,  to  frequent 
inundations,  and  indeed  drawing  greater  ])art  of  the 
year  is  little  better  than  a  swamp.  Forest  and 
mulbeiTy  trees,  with  some  rice,  are  grown.  Its 
extent  in  square  miles,  and  its  population,  have  not 
yet  been  ascertained.     The  cUmate  is  unhealthy. 

GHIRLANDAJO,  or  CORR.AJ)!,  Domexico, 
an  eminent  ]>ainter  of  the  early  Florentine  school, 
w-as  born  at  Florence  in  1451.  From  his  youth,  he 
w'as  educated  to  the  craft  of  the  goldsmith  by 
his  father,  who  received  the  name  of  Ghirlandajo 
on  accoimt  of  his  being  the  inventor  of  some 
silver  ornaments  of  great  elegance,  in  the  form 
of  a  wreath  or  ghirlanda,  which  became  the 
favourite  head-dress  of  the  Florentine  beauties 
of  his  day.  At  the  age  of  24,  G.  abandoned  work- 
ing in  gold,  and  set  aljout  qualifj'ing  himself 
for  the  calling  of  a  painter.  He  lived  to  Ijecome 
not  only  a  famous  and  lauded  artist,  Imt  also  one 
of  the  most  progressive  and  original  masters  of  his 
age.  His  greatest  works  are  frescoes,  but  he  has 
also  left  fine  easel  paintings,  both  in  oil  and  dis- 
temper, and  his  composition  in  mosaic — or  '  eternal 
painting,'  as  he  termed  it — are  imrivalled  for  the 
brilliant  dyes  of  the  colouring  and  the  delicate  soft- 
ness with  which  they  are  bleudeil  and  graduate<L 
The  Ca])ella  di  Sassetti.  in  Florence,  contains  a  noble 
series  of  G.'s  frescoes,  iUustrative  of  both  historical 
and  legend,ary  incidents  in  the  life  of  St  Francis. 
They  are  strongly  characterised  by  the  wonderful 
mastery  of  intense  and  varied  human  expression, 
which,  more  than  accurate  delineation  of  form,  w.as 
the  great  merit  of  G.'s  jiaintings.  The  Church  of 
S.anta  Maria  Novella  is  also  rich  in  this  artist's 
works,  being  .adorned  by  a  set  of  frescoes  representing 
scenes  from  the  life  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  many  of 
the  figiires  introduced  being  correct  likenesses  of 
some  of  the  leading  celebrities  of  the  day.  G.  was 
the  first  artist  wko  adopted  correct  princijiles  of 
perspective,  just  gradations  of  shade  and  form,  and 
dramatic  art  in  grouping.  G.  died  at  the  early  age 
of  44,  in  the  year  1495. 

GHIUSTENDI'L.atown  of  Em-opean  Turkey,  in 
the  ej'alet  of  Rumili.  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a 
hill  about  two  miles  distant  from  the  right  bank  of 
the   Struma  or  Kara  Su,  192  miles  in  direct  line 


GHIZEH— GHIZKEVIDES. 


west-north-west  of  Adrianople.  It  13  surrounded 
by  an  old  wall  flanked  "with  towers,  is  the  sec  of  a 
Greek  bishop,  and  contains  a  bazaar  and  sulphurous 
baths.     I'op.  lO.OUO. 

GHI'ZEH,  or  GIZEH  (Coptic,  Tpersioij,  a  village 
in  Egypt,  close  to  the  northern  border  of  Jliddle 
Egyjit,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  and  about 
three  miles  west-south-west  from  Cairo.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity,  the  line  of  great  p3Tamids  com- 
mences. See  Pyh-VMID.  Here  one  may  still  witness 
the  process  of  egg-hatching  in  ovens,  a  j)ractice 
which  has  been  continued  from  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs  to  the  present  day.  G.,  formerly  adorned 
with  beautiful  jialaucs  and  mosques,  the  pleasant 
retreat  <->f  the  Cairo  merchants,  is  now  a  mere 
village,  and  inounds  (tf  rubbish  are  almost  the  only 
iniUcation  that  buililings  of  some  pretension  once 
e.>dsted  here. 

GHI'ZNEVIDES,  a  celebrated  dynasty,  which, 
in  the  height  of  its  power,  possessed  an  empire 
extending  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Ganges,  and  from 
the  Sihon  or  Sir-Daria  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
founder  of  the  dynasty  was  Alepteghiu,  oi-iginally 
a  slave  belonging  to  Abdulmelek,  the  Samanl 
.Ameer  of  Bokhara,  who  was  appointed  governor  of 
Khorassan ;  but  on  the  death  of  his  benefactor  he 
rebelled,  and  proceeded  at  the  head  of  an  army  to 
Ghizni,  of  which  he  took  possession  in  9G1,  and  for 
15  years  suceessfuUy  withstood  the  whole  power  of 
the  Samaut  (q.  v.).  On  liis  death,  Sebektcghin  or 
Sabactagi  was  unanimously  chosen  as  his  successor. 
He  was  distingi)ishcd  for  his  prndeuce  and  valour, 
and  equally  so  for  his  humanity  and  justice.  By 
him  the  kingdom  was  extended  from  the  Indus  to 
Khorassan,  and  from  the  (iulf  of  Oman  to  the  Amfl- 
Uaria  or  Jiliou ;  and  in  the  latter  produce  his  st>n, 
MahniCld,  was  appointed  governor  muler  the  uominal 
suzerainty  of  the  Samani.  Sebekteghin  died  in  997, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  sou  Ismlil ;  but 
Mahmftd  the  elder,  hearing  of  his  fath»r's  death, 
hastened  to  Ghizni,  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment in  99S,  with  the  title  of  Sultan.  In  the  j'ear 
foUowmg,  he  took  couq^lete  possession  of  Khoras- 
san, and  in  1001  commeuced  a  series  of  destructive 
inroads  into  Hindflstfln.  Falling  in  with  Jeyj)ill,  the 
]irince  of  Is'orth-Wcstern  India,  at  Peshawur,  Sultan 
MahmOd,  on  the  8th  of  Jlohun-im  (November  26), 
defeated  him  with  immense  slaxighter.  In  1004, 
while  on  his  second  expedition  to  Intlia,  he  w:\s 
recalled  liy  the  news  that  Eylek  Khln  of  Ivh;ishgar, 
who  in  990  had  coiiqiiered  the  Saman!  and  taken 
possession  of  their  territory,  was  ravaging  Khorassan 
and  Balkh;  on  hearing  which,  Siiltan  Jlahmfid, 
leaving  his  conquests,  returned  in  an  incredibly 
shoi-t  time  to  Ghizni,  and  thence  proceeding  without 
delay  to  Balkh,  engaged  in  battle  with  the  enemy, 
and  completely  defeated  them.  He  then  took  pos- 
session of  the  country  between  the  Sihon  and  the 
Jihon  (ancient  Transoxiana).  In  1007  and  1009, 
Sultan  Mahnifld  made  his  third  and  fourth  expedi- 
tions into  Hindflstflu,  and  each  time  carried  off  an 
immense  booty  in  money,  jewels,  and  slaves.  On 
his  return  to  Ghizni,  he  made  a  liberal  distribution 
from  his  treasures  among  the  poor  and  the  ministers 
of  reliL'ir>n.  About  this  time  he  reduced  Ghftr, 
Gherjistilu,  and  Khaurezm,  bestowing  the  latter 
[irovince  npon  Altun-Taush,  one  of  his  favourite 
generals.  In  1024,  he  was  engaged  in  his  last 
ex])edition  against  the  Hindis,  the  famous  expedi- 
tion to  Somnaut  (q.  v.),  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  Gnzerat.  Mahmdd  here  obtained  an  enormous 
booty.  In  1027,  he  received  from  the  Calif  VI  Kader 
a  ratification  of  all  his  conquests,  together  with 
numerous  titles  of  honour,  and  in  the  two  following 
years  having  conquered  Irak,  Tebriztln,  and  Mazan- 
203 


deran,  he  returned  to  his  ca]>ital,  where  he  died  on 
the  29th  of  April  1030.  At  this  time,  the  empire  of 
Ghizni  was  at  the  summit  of  its  glorj%  having  in  the 
short  space  of  69  years  extended  over  .38  degrees 
of  longitude  and  20  of  latitude,  ilahmftd  possessed 
some  of  the  most  exalted  qualities  that  dignify  and 
adorn  human  character,  but  they  were  much  obscured 
by  his  sanguinary  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  Islam. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son  Mahomed, 
who  in  Octolier  of  the  same  year  was  compelle<l  to 
resign  the  sovereignty  to  his  elder  brother,  JSIussaftd 
I.  This  prince  was  in  1037  signally  defeated  by 
the  SeljCiks  (q.  v.),  who  had  taken  ])ossession  of 
Khorassan  under  Toghrul  Beg  and  Tchegher  Beg, 
the  grandsons  of  Seljfik.  Though  an  able  and 
warlike  prince,  misfortunes  crowded  thickly  round 
his  decUning  years,  and  in  1041  he  was  put  to  death. 
During  his  reign,  the  Seljfika  took  jiossession  of 
BMkh,  Khoraiisan,  Khaurezm,  Herlt,  and  Irak. 
The  sovereigns  who  in  succession  reigned  in  (iliizui 
were  Mftdud  (1041—1049),  Mus.saad  II.  (1049),  Ali 
(1049—1052),  Abdurrashld  (1052—1053),  and  Inirru- 
khzaud  (1053 — 1058),  during  whose  reigns  there  is 
nothing  worthy  of  relation,  beyond  the  intestine 
quarrels  at  Ghizni,  and  the  encroachments  of 
the  Seljfiks  on  the  west  and  north.  The  reigu 
of  Furrukhzaud,  however,  shed  a  bright  lustre 
over  the  exjiiring  glory  of  Ghizni,  for  the  Seljflk 
jirince,  Daoud,  thinking  to  take  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  at  Ghizni,  marched  towards  it ;  but 
on  the  way  he  was  met  by  N&shtekein,  one  of 
the  best  generals  of  the  age,  and  signally  defeated. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  victory,  Nilshtekein 
marched  into  Khorassan,  to  recover  that  province, 
and  encountering  Kellisaurek,  a  celebrated  Tdrk- 
man  chief,  totally  defeated  him.  On  news  of  this 
second  defeat,  Alp-Arslan  (q.  v.)  was  sent  by  liis 
uncle  Toghrid  Beg  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  G.  ; 
and  in  the  liattle  which  ensued,  fortune  changed 
sides,  and  Nftshtekeiu  was  totally  defeated.  A 
treaty  of  peace  was  then  concluded.  FunnUihzaud 
was  succeeded  by  Ibrahim  (1058-1098),  Mussaiid 
III.  (109.S— 1114),  Arslan  Shah  (1114—1118),  and 
Bchram  Shah  (HIS — 1152).  During  the  reign  of 
this  last  prince,  the  Ghilri,  a  trilie  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  countiy  of  GhClr,  began  to  make 
inroads  upon  the  territory  of  Ghizm,  and  growing 
bolder  by  success,  attacked  and  took  the  ca)iital 
itself,  ch-iving  Bchram  Shah  across  the  Indus.  But 
on  the  reti-eat  of  jiart  of  the  (ihftri  to  their  own 
country,  Bchram  Shah  returned  and  retook  his 
capital,  making  prisoner  the  Prince  of  (ilifir,  Seyfiid- 
deen  Souri,  whom  he  put  to  death  with  the  most 
refined  cruelty.  On  learning  this,  the  brother  of 
the  unfortunate  prince,  Allah-ud-deen,  hastened 
from  Ghflr,  and  ha^-iug  defeated  Behram  Shah,  gave 
up  Ghizni  to  be  pillaged  by  his  followers.  Behram 
Shah,  thus  driven  a  second  time  across  the  Indus, 
desisted  from  all  further  attempts  to  regain  his 
ancestral  dominions,  and  died  in  1152.  His  son 
Khosrft  Shah  succeeded  him,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Lahore  ;  but  the  many  attempts  which  he 
made  to  repossess  himself  of  Ghizni  and  the  sur- 
rounding territory  were  uusucccssfid.  Kliosrfl  Jlelek, 
the  seventeenth  and  last  monarch  of  the  dynasty  of 
Ghizni,  occupied  himself  in  the  first  pai-t  of  his 
reign  (1160 — 11G6)  in  extending  and  consohdating 
liis  Indian  possessions,  but  subsequently  his  whole 
energies  were  required  to  repel  the  attacks  of  Shahab- 
ud-deen  Mahommed,  Prince  of  Ghftr,  who,  having 
conqiiered  all  the  tenitory  west  of  the  Indus,  now 
sought  to  di-ive  the  race  of  Seliekteghin  from 
their  hist  possession.  In  1184,  I,ahore  was  aU  that 
remained  to  Khosrft  Melek,  and  the  taking  of  that 
city  by  the  Ghdrian  prince  in  IISG  put  an  end  to 
the  power  of  the  Ghiznevidcs. 

'  737 


GHIZXI— GHUIU. 


GHI'ZXI.  a  river  o£  Afghanistan,  loses  itself, 
after  a  simtherly  course  of  about  SO  miles,  iu  the 
salt  lake  of  Abistada,  which  is  707G  feet  above  the 
sea.  Its  soui'ce  is  12  miles  to  the  north  of  the  city 
of  its  own  name,  anil  its  mouth  is  about  lat.  32° 
35'  N.,  and  long.  GS°  E.  Its  embaulanents,  dating 
from  the  11th  c,  ai'e  still  lit  for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation. 

GHIZNI,  the  city  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
article,  stantU  at  an  elevation  of  77215  feet,  on  a 
scafped  rock,  which  rises  280  feet  above  the  .adjacent 
plain.  Its  natural  strength  has  been  increased  by 
walls  of  35  feet  in  height,  and  a  wet  ditch.  It  has 
long  been  a  place  of  importance  in  Centr.al  Asia, 
having  been,  iu  the  11th  c,  the  seat  of  an  empire 
(see  Uhiznevides).  Some  of  the  most  interesting 
points  in  its  history,  however,  are  much  more 
recent.  In  the  Jidy  of  1839,  G.  was  stormed  by 
the  British  under  Lord  Keane ;  and  in  1842  it  was 
fii'st  surrendered  to  the  Afghans,  and  then  retaken 
by  General  Xott.  Eventually  it  was  restored, 
with  the  rest  of  the  country,  to  Dost  Mohammed. 
It  is  situated  in  long.  68°  18'  E.,  and  lat.  33° 
34'  K. — a  parallel  which,  under  the  influence  of  the 
remarkable  altitude  of  the  spot,  j-ields,  in  winter, 
a  temperatm-e  of  about  20°  Fah.  below  zero.  The 
popidation  h.os  been  variously  estimated  up  to 
10,000,  fluctuating  most  probably  with  the  season 
of  the  year.  G.  is  an  entrepSt  of  the  trade  between 
Afgh.anistan  and  the  Pimjab. 

GHO'GRA,  or  GHAGEA,  one  of  the  largest 
affluents  of  the  Ganges,  joins  that  river  from  the 
left  m  lat.  25°  46'  N.,  and  long.  84°  40'  E.,  after  a 
generally  south-east  course  of  600  miles.  It  rises 
in  lat.  30°  28'  N.,  and  long.  80°  40'  K,  on  the 
southern  decliWty  of  a  mountain-range,  which 
separates  the  district  of  Kumaon  from  South- West 
Thibet.  The  actu;il  soiu-ce,  being  between  17.000 
and  18,000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  hidden  under  per- 
petual snows  at  evei-y  season,  while  in  winter  it  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  flow  at  all.  Throughout  the  first 
50  miles,  the  torrent,  tiunbhng  as  it  does  do^rni  deep 
gorges,  is  in  many  places  entirely  concealed  by 
glaciers.  Aftei'  receiving  many  tributaries  on  both 
sides,  it  enters  the  gi-eat  plain  of  Hindustan  in  lat. 
29°  &  N.,  and  long.  80'  13'  E.,  being  now,  after  a  run 
of  148  miles,  798  feet  above  the  sea.  Here  it  has 
been  estimated  to  bo  about  two-thirds  of  the  size  of 
the  Ganges  at  the  corresponding  point  of  Hiu'dwar. 
Hitherto  it  has  generally  formed  the  boimdary 
between  Kumaon  and  Nepal.  Before  the  G.  has 
descended  70  miles  fm-ther,  it  has  become  navi- 
gable for  craft  of  considerable  burden.  Further 
down,  it  is  practicable  for  boats  of  all  sizes  at 
every  season,  but  is  here  and  there  beset  Jjy 
dangerous  and  intricate  shoals.  Like  other  great 
rivers  traversing  alluvial  tracts  (see  Ganges),  it 
sends  ofl"  lateral  water-courses,  which  in  the  rainy 
season  communicate  with  the  parent-flood  and 
mth  each  other.  The  principal  au.xiliaries,  to  take 
them  in  order,  are  the  Kalipani  on  the  left ;  the 
Dhouli,  on  the  right ;  the  Gorin;iuiga,  also  on  the 
right ;  the  Chiunalea,  on  the  left ;  the  Western 
Surju,  on  the  right;  the  Lohomtahi,  on  the  right; 
the  Ladhia,  the  last  of  its  hill-tributaries,  also  on 
the  right ;  the  Kiu-nalli,  on  the  left ;  the  united 
Chonka  and  Woel,  on  the  right;  the  Eastern 
Surju,  on  the  left ;  and  finally,  the  Eajrti,  also  on 
the  left. 

GHOST-MOTH  (Hepialus  hmmili),  a  species 
of  moth  very  common  in  many  parts  of  Britain, 
and  of  which  the  cater|)illar — popularly  known  as 
the  Otter — often  commits  great  ravages  in  hop 
plantations,  devouring  the  roots  of  the  hop.  It 
feeils   also   on    the  roots   of  the    nettle,    burdock, 


and  some  other  plants.  This  moth  belongs  to  a 
family  [Ilepialida:]  often  jiopidarly  called  Swifts 
from  their  rapid  flight,  having  long  narrow  wings, 
and  destitute  of  a  tongue.  The  antenna;  are  short. 
The  male  G.-M.  is  entirely  of  a  satiny  white  colour 
above ;  the  female  yellomsh  with  darker  markings ; 


Ghost-Moth  (Hepialus  humuli) : 
1,  eggs,   natural  size ;  2,  the  same,  magnified ;   3,  larva  or 
caterpillar ;  4,  chrysalis  ;  5,  imago  or  perfect  insect,  male  ; 
6,  the  same,  female. 

both  sexes  are  brown  on  the  imder  side.  They  are 
to  be  seen  fljTng  about  in  the  twilight,  generally 
over  lawns  and  pastures,  not  unfrequently  in 
chiu'chyards,  from  which  circumstance,  and  from 
the  w^hite  colom*  of  the  males  and  their  sudden 
disappearance  in  the  imperfect  light  on  their  folding 
theii-  wings,  or  risiug  above  the  level  of  the  specta- 
tor's eye  so  that  the  bro'wn  par-t  is  turned  towards 
him,  they  derive  their  name.  The  caterpillar  is 
yellowish  white,  wath  scattered  hairs,  sometimes 
nearly  two  inches  long.  It  spins  a  large  cylindrical 
cocoon  among  the  roots  on  which  it  has  been 
feeding,  and  there  becomes  a  chrysalis. 

GHOSTS.     See  Appaeitioxs;  also  Supp. 

GHUMURD  JI'NA,  or  KOMULDSI'NA,  a  town 
of  European  Tiu-kcy,  in  the  eyalet  of  Runuli,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Karadji,  about 
SO  miles  south-west  of  Adrianople.  It  has  exten- 
sive bazaars  and  a  small  citadel,  and  is  supposed 
to  contain  about  SOOO  inhabitants. 

GHTJR,  or  GHOEE,  a  mountainous  district  of 
Western  Afghanistan,  Ij'ing  south-east  from  HerAt. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  famous  Sdnni  hero,  Mah- 
mfid  of  Ghizni  (q.  v.),  and  about  three  centuries 
afterwards  was  overrun  by  Genghis  Khan,  who 
almost  completely  exterminated  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  ha\-ing  been  the 
original  possession  of  the  princes  who  established 
the  second  Mohammedan  djmasty  in  Hindflst.1n.  It 
is  inhabited  at  the  present  day  by  the  independent 
nomad  Tartar  tribes  of  the  Hazireh  and-Eimilk, 
principally  the  latter. 

GHURI,  or  SULTANS  OF  GHUE,  were  a  race 
of  princes  who  had  the  seat  of  their  empire  in  the 
country  of  Ghfir  (q.  v.),  and  rided  over  Persia, 
Northern  Htndftstilu,  and  Transoxiana.  The 
first  of  this  family  mentioned  in  history  is  St\ri, 
who  opposed  an  obstinate  but  unavailing  resist- 
ance to  Sidtan  Mahmiid  of  Ghizni.  One  of  his 
descendants,  named  Husseyne,  was  subsequently 
appointed  governor  of  Ghir,  iu  which  oiiioe  he  was 


GIAKLBELLI-GUNT3  AND  DWAllFS. 


succeeded  liy  his  sons.  But  Behram  Shah  having 
put  to  death  one  of  the  brothei-s,  the  others  threw 
off  their  allegiance  to  the  race  of  Sebekte;;hin, 
and  hostilities  ensued  (see  Ghiznevtbes),  in  which 
the  eldest  brother,  Scyf-ud-deen,  was  killed,  and 
his  brother  Allah-ud-deen,  sumamed  Jehaim-souz 
(the  Conliagrator),  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty. 
After  subduing  the  sultan  of  Ghizni,  Allah-ud-deen 
invaded  Khorassan,  but  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Sultan  Sunjur  the  SeljCilc  He  was 
succeeded  l)y  his  sou  Mahommed  in  11  GO,  who  was 
assassinated  at  the  end  of  the  tirst  year  of  his  reign. 
Gheiatheddui  Mahommed  ascended  the  throne  in 
1161,  and  after  a  long  and  bloody  contest  with  the 
Khaurezmians,  succeeded  in  obtauiiug  possession  of 
Khorassau.  Diu-ing  his  reign  the  aflaii-s  of  Ghizni 
were  committed  in  charge  to  his  brother,  Shahab- 
ud-deen  Mahommed,  who,  having  subdued  the 
Ghiznevide  provinces  west  of  the  Indus,  crossed 
that  river  and  conquered  successively  the  provinces 
of  Mdltan  (1176),  Lahore  (1186),  and  Ajmere  (1190), 
defeating  the  rajah  of  Ajmere's  army  nmnberiug 
300,000  horse  and  3000  elephants,  aud  in  the  course 
of  the  next  six  years  conquering  Hindflstiln  as  far 
south  as  Nagpdr,  and  westward  to  the  In-awady. 
It  is  from  this  epoch  that  the  preponderance  of 
Islam  in  Hinddstan  is  dated.  Shahab-ud-deen 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1203,  on  the  death  of 
his  brother  (see  GmzXEViDEs).  The  house  of 
Ghtir  had  now  reached  its  acme  of  power,  their 
ten-itory  extending  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  from  the  Jihon  to  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Shahab-ud-dccn,  haNdng  invaded  Khaurezm 
in  1'204,  was  attacked  by  the  sultan  of  that  coimtry, 
and  completely  routed.  In  the  following  year,  he 
undertook  an  expedition  into  Kojud,  on  the  south 
border  of  Cashmere,  in  order  to  reduce  that  rebel- 
lious province,  in  which  \mdertaking  he  obtained 
complete  success,  but  on  his  return  was  assassinated 
by  one  of  the  Fedavan,  or  followers  of  Hussun 
Sabah,  in  1206.  His  iiephew,  Mahmid,  succeeded ; 
but  after  a  short  reign  of  four  years  was  assassin- 
ated. After  his  death,  some  members  of  the  family 
made  feeble  efforts  to  re^ve  the  grandemr  of  their 
ancestors,  but  as  the  sidtans  of  Khaxirezm  had  by 
this  time  subjugated  the  whole  Persian  empire,  their 
attempts  were  fruitless. 

GIANIBELLI,  or  GIAMBELLI,  Fedekigo,  a 
famous  military  engineer,  was  bom  at  ilantua 
about  the  year  1530.  After  servmg  for  some  time 
in  Italy,  he  proceeded  to  Spain  and  offered  his 
services  to  Philip  II. ;  but  having  failed  to  obtam  an 
audience  of  that  monarch,  and  coucei\-mg,  moreover, 
that  he  h.ad  been  personally  slighted,  he  abruptly 
quitted  Matlrid,  swearing,  as  the  story  goes,  that  the 
Spaniards  woxdd  yet  hear  of  him;  and  after  a 
residence  for  some  time  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
acquired  a  high  rcimtation  as  a  mechamst,  passed 
over  to  England  aud  entered  the  service  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  granted  him  a  pension.  During  the 
War  of  Independence  in  the  Netherlands,  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Parma,  generalissimo  of  the  Spanish  forces, 
besieged  Antwerp  in  15S5,  whereupon  Elizabeth 
commissioned  G.  to  proceed  to  the  .assistance  of  the 
inhabitants.  On  his  arrival,  ho  found  that  the 
Spaniards  had  built  a  vast  bridge  across  the  Scheldt, 
intcrruirtiug  all  communication  with  the  sea,  by 
which  alone  the  city  coidd  get  iirovisious  or  help. 
Setting  his  wits  to  work,  G.  invented  an  mfenial 
macliine,  which  he  Launched  against  the  bridge  one 
stormy  night.  The  effect  was  frightfid.  The  whole 
Spanish  .army  was  roused  by  the  noise,  and  the 
Scheldt  was  found  to  be  quivering  to  its  lowest 
depths.  The  obstnicting  bridge  was  blown  mto 
the  air,  and  no  less  than  SOD  men— among  whom 
were  some  of  the  best  Spanish  officers— were  killed. 


Many  Spanish  ships  also  were  either  burned  or 
sunk.  The  want  of  unity,  however,  among  the 
citizens,  ultimately  rendered  G.'s  aid  unavaOiug, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England.  Here  ho 
was  employed  at  the  time  of  the  threatened  Spanish 
invasion  in  fortifying  the  coast-line,  which  he  did 
in  a  very  skilful  manner.  When  the  Armada 
appeared  in  the  Channel,  it  was  G.  who  proposed 
and  carried  out  the  plan  of  sending  fire-ships  into 
the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  in  this  way  greatly 
contributed  to  their  defe.at.  After  this  he  disap- 
pears from  history,  and  all  we  know  of  him  is  that 
he  died  in  London. 

GIANNO'KE,  PiETRO,  an  eminent  historian  and 
lawyer,  was  bom,  1676,  at  Ischitella,  a  ■\Tlla£;e  of 
Capitan.ata,  in  Naples.  He  early  distiuguishedmm- 
self  as  an  able  and  learned  practitioner  at  the  bar 
of  Naples,  and  soon  realised  an  easy  independence, 
which  enabled  him  to  devote  his  time  and  energies 
to  his  favourite  historical  researches.  In  his  beauti- 
ful vdla,  adjoining  Naples,  he  laboured  during  the 
space  of  twenty  years  at  his  greatest  historical 
work,  which,  in  1723,  he  pubhshed  in  four  volumes, 
imder  the  title  of  Sloria  Civile  dd  lierjno  di  Napoli. 
This  valuable  and  comprehensive  work,  not  only 
treats  of  the  ciial  history  of  the  kingdom,  but  also 
contains  learned  and  critical  dissertations  on  the 
laws,  customs,  and  administrative  ^^cissitudes  of 
Naples  fi-om  the  most  remote  times,  tracing  the 
successive  working  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Christian 
influences  on  the  legislative  and  soci.al  institutions. 
Some  severe  strictures  on  the  spii'it  of  worldly 
aggrandisement,  and  progressive  corruption  of  the 
doctrines  and  practices  of  primitive  Christianity 
apparent  in  the  modern  Komau  CathoUc  Church, 
so  enraged  the  ecclesiastical  party,  that  G.  was 
imiversally  denounced  and  anathematised  from 
pulpit  and  altar.  The  ignorant  fanaticism  of  the 
lower  classes  was  aroused  by  the  grossest  calumnies 
levelled  at  the  great  -wiiter,  who  was  finally  forced 
to  yield  before  the  tempest  and  take  refuge  at 
Vienna.  The  history  was  solemnly  condemned  as 
heretical  and  libellous  by  the  pope,  and  was  strictly 
prohibited.  G.  was  granted  a  small  pension  by  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.,  imder  whose  dominion  Naples 
then  was,  and  received,  in  some  degree,  compen- 
sation for  his  sufferings,  in  the  admiration  and 
sj-mpathy  of  the  enlightened  sjiii-its  of  his  own 
land.  In  173-t,  G.  w.as  deprived  of  liis  pension  and 
retm-ned  to  Venice,  from  whence  he  was  expelled 
and  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  Geneva.  There  he 
composed  his  famous  and  bitterest  diatribe,  entitled 
II  Trirerino,  .against  the  papal  pretensions,  and  even 
proclaimed  his  adoption  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrines. 
Shortly  after,  an  emissary  from  the  court  of  Turin, 
havmg  artfully  ingratiated  himself  into  the  con- 
fidence of  G.,  induced  him  to  enter  the  Sardinian 
states,  where  he  was  immediately  arresteil  and 
conducted  to  the  fortress  of  Turin  a  close  prisoner. 
G.  beguiled  his  tedious  confinement  with  his  chosen 
studies,  and  retracted  his  change  of  rehgious 
opinions,  a  step  which  in  no  way  alleviated  his 
persecution.  He  died  a  prisoner  in  the  fortress, 
in  174S,  after  an  incarceration  of  twelve  yeai-s. 
His  son,  Giovanni,  was  assigned  a  liberal  pen- 
sion by  the  new  king  of  Naples,  Don  Carlos 
of  Bom-bon,  who  thus  sought  to  avert  from  his 
house  the  reproach  which  overwhelmed  the  perse- 
cutors and  jailers  of  one  of  Italy's  most  illustrious 
citizens.  La  Storia  Civile  has  passed  through 
several  editions,  the  most  modern  is  that  of  Milan, 
1823,  in  13  vols.,  Svo.  See  Corniani :  Vita  di 
P.  O'iannone  da  Leonardo  Pamini ;  Sloria  delta 
Letteratura  Italiana  da  Maffei. 

GIANTS   A>D  DWARFS.     A  giant  (from  tho 

739 


GIAKTS  AND  DWARFS. 


Greek  woi-d  (i>ff'is)  is  an  indii-iilual  whose  stature  and 
bulk  exceed  tliose  of  his  species  or  race  generally. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it 
was  universally  beheved  that  giants,  of  a  size 
far  exceeding  those  who  are  exhibited  in  oiu: 
times,  formerly  existed,  either  as  nations  or  as 
individual  specimens.  This  belief  was  based  (1)  on 
the  asserted  discovery  of  colossal  himian  bones ; 
(2)  on  supposed  scriptural  evidence ;  and  (o)  on  the 
evidence  of  various  ancient  and  medieval  authors. 

A  reference  to  the  first  volume  of  Cu\aer's 
OssemenU  Fossiks  will  shew  that  the  bones  of  ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses,  m.astodons,  &c.,  have  been 
exhibited  and  accepted  as  evidence  of  pre-historic 
giants.  Even  so  good  a  naturaUst  as  Buffon  feU 
mto  this  popular  delusion,  and  figured  the  bones 
of  .an  elephant  as  the  remains  of  human  giants. 
Isidore  GeotJroy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  his  Hitstolre  dcs 
Anomalies  de  V Onjanisation,  notices  several  of  the 
most  famous  of  tl2e.se  cases.  A  gigantic  skeleton 
which  was  found  at  Trapani,  in  Sicily,  in  the  14th  c, 
was  at  once  }tronounced  to  be  that  of  the  cl.assical 
giant  Polj'phemus,  and  his  height  was  calcidated  at 
.'iOO  feet.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  bones  differed 
in  form  as  well  as  in  size  from  those  of  man,  but 
this  objection  was  easilj^  met  by  the  qiiestion : 
Why,  if  his  height  was  sixty  tunes  as  great  as  that 
of  an  ordinary  man,  should  not  his  form  be  also 
diH'erent  ?  Many  less  celebrated  giants  were  subse- 
quently exhumed  in  Sicily,  and  the  existence  of  the 
'  Osseous  Caverns,'  described  by  De  Quatrefages  in 
his  Ramhles  of  a  Naturalist^  f^dly  accounts  for  such 
discoveries,  at  an  ejioch  when  few  coidd  recognise 
the  difierences  in  form  between  the  bones  of  an 
elephant  and  those  of  man.  Passing  over  a  giant 
whose  bones  were  exposed  by  the  action  of  the 
Khone  in  14.56,  and  whose  height  was  estimated  at 
30  feet,  and  .anotlicr  whose  skeleton  was  discovered 
near  Lucerne  in  1577,  and  who,  according  to  the 
calculation  of  the  learned  physician  Plater,  did 
not  exceed  19  feet,  we  come  to  the  case  of  King 
Teutobochus,  whose  remains  were  discovered  near 
the  Rhone  in  lOLS,  by  a  surgeon  named  jMazurier, 
whose  Histolre  Visritahle  die  Gcant  Teutobochus 
(1618)  gave  rise  to  a  warm  controversy.  The 
au.atomist  Riolan  endeavoured  to  expose  the  im- 
posture, but  the  Parisians  rushed  in  crowds  to 
see  the  mastodon's  bones,  wliich  were  reported  to 
have  been  found  in  a  tomb  30  feet  long,  bearing 
the  inscription  'Teutobochus  Rex.'  Nor  have  our 
own  countrymen  been  less  credulous  than  their 
continent.al  neighboiu's.  In  1712,  Dr  Mather,  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  announced  the  discovery 
of  enormous  bones  and  teeth  which  had  been  found 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  which  he  regarded 
as  allbrding  evidence  of  the  existence  of  giants  of 
enormous  size  in  ancient  times.  The  bones  were  in 
re.ility  those  of  a  mastodon. 

The  Scriptm'e  evidence,  when  carefully  examined, 
does  not  amoimt  to  much.  The  Hebrew  words 
nephilim  and  giborim,  which  occur  several  times  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  and  which  are  translated 
giants,  might  as  well  be  tr.ansl,ated  bearded,  cruel, 
or  violent  men.  The  height  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan, 
is  not  given;  we  are  only  told  the  length  of  his 
bed ;  and  excluding  his  helmet,  which  was  probably 
taken  into  account  in  the  recorded  measurement, 
Goliath,  at  most,  did  not  exceed  eight  feet  and  a  half 
in  stature,  and  consequently  was  not  t,aller  than 
some  giants  of  modern  days. 

The  classical  e\^dence  is  .abundant,  but  oljviously 
imtrnstworthy.  Thus  Plutarch  relates  that  Ser- 
bonius  had  the  grave  of  Antanis,  in  the  city  of 
Tungis,  opened,  and  '  finding  there  his  body,  full  GO 
cubits  long,  was  infinitely  astonished,  ordered  the 
tomb  to  be  closed,  gave  his  confirmation  to  the 
710 


story,  and  added  new  honours  to  the  memory  of  the 
giant.'  Pliny  reports  that  an  earthqu.ake  in  Crete 
disclosed  the  bones  of  a  giant  4fi  cubits  in  letigtli, 
who  was  held  by  some  to  be  Orion,  and  by  others 
Otus.  Descending  to  more  certain  evidence,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  height  of  between  8  and  9 
feet,  and  prob.ably  of  more  than  9  feet,  has  been 
attained.  There  is  a  skeleton  in  the  Museum  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  8  feet  6  inches  in  height ; 
that  of  O'Brien  (or  Byrne),  in  the  ^luseum  of  the 
College  of  Siu'geons  of  England,  is  S  feet  2  inches  ; 
and  that  of  a  giant  in  the  Museum  at  Bonn  is  8 
feet ;  and  the  aetu.al  body  with  the  soft  parts 
attached  was  probably  two  or  tlu-eo  inches  longer 
than  the  skeleton.  (O'Brien,  for  exam]ile,  measured 
8  feet  4  inches  after  his  death,  as  we  find  recorded 
in  the  Annual  Jlegister,  vol.  xxvi.  ji.  209.) 

We  commonly  apply  the  term  fJirarf  to  any 
organised  being,  but  especially  to  individuals  of  the 
himian  species,  whose  height  is  much  less  th.an  the 
average  height  of  their  race.  Strictly  speaking, 
however,  the  word  should  be  restricted  to  those 
cases  in  which  there  is  a  general  and  uniform  ari'est 
of  growth,  except,  perha])S,  in  the  nervous  system, 
which  is  often  fully  developed  in  dw.arfs. 

The  ancients  believed  not  only  in  dwarfs  of 
extreme  minuteness,  but  in  nations  of  them.  Aris- 
totle, the  greatest  n.aturalist  th.at  perhaps  ever 
existed,  declared  that  the  report  of  trustworthy 
witnesses  testifies  to  the  existence  of  a  minute  race 
of  men,  with  minute  horses,  living  in  the  caves 
which  are  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Nile ;  and 
Pliny  gives  various  details  regarding  their  habits 
and  their  geographical  position.  Amongst  the 
extreme  cases  recorded  on  ancient  authority,  we 
may  notice  that  of  Philetas,  a  ]ioet  who  was  a  con- 
temporary with  Hippocrates,  and  who  was  obGged 
to  biillast  himself,  to  avoid  being  blown  away  by 
the  wind  ;  that  of  the  Kgjq>tiau  dwarf  mentioned 
by  Nicephorus  Calistus,  who,  at  the  age  of  25  years, 
did  not  exceed  a  partridge  in  size ;  and  lastly, 
that  of  the  poet  Aristratus,  of  whom  Athenteus 
records  that  his  stature  was  so  small  that  no  one 
could  see  him. 

W^e  shall  now  briefly  notice  a  few  of  the  most 
remarkable  dw.arfs  of  modern  times.  All  the 
readers  of  Pereril  of  the  Peak  are  acquainted  with 
Sir  Geoffrey  Hudson.  Up  to  the  age  of  30,  his 
height  was  only  IS  inches ;  from  that  age,  he 
rapidly  gi-ew  to  the  height  of  3  feet  9  inches.  Ho 
h.ad  an  enormous  head,  and  large  hands,  but  in 
other  respects  was  well  proportioned.  He  died  .at 
the  age  of  63.  Count  Joseph  Borowlaski  was  the 
son  of  well-formed  healthy  parents  of  the  ordin.ary 
size,  who  had  six  children,  of  whom  the  fii-st,  third, 
and  fifth  were  dwarfs.  Joseph,  who  wrote  a  history 
of  his  own  life,  records  th.at  his  eldest  brother  was 
3  feet  6  inches  high;  then  came  a  son  who  w.as 
5  feet  10  inches ;  then  came  Joseph  himself,  whose 
height  at  20  was  2  feet  4  inches,  and  at  30,  3  feet 
3  inches.  He  was  succeeded  by  three  others,  the 
middle  one  being  a  gii'l,  who  died  at  22  of  the 
small-pox,  being  then  2  feet  2  inches,  but  of  .admir- 
able proportions.  Joseph  Borowlaski  w.as  very  well 
proportioned,  was  m.arried  to  a  woman  of  ordinary 
size,  who  brought  him  several  well-formed  children, 
and  died  at  Bank's  Cott.age,  ne.ar  Durham,  in  1837, 
at  the  age  of  98 — a  great  age  for  an  ordin.ary  man,  and 
without  example  in  the  history  of  dwarfs.  Nicholas 
Ferry,  commonly  known  under  tlie  name  of  Bebe, 
was  another  celei^rated  dwarf.  His  juarents  and  his 
brothers  and  sisters  were  all  well-formed  persons. 
He  was  a  seven  months'  child,  and  at  birth  measured 
less  than  eight  inches,  and  weighed  less  than  a 
pound.  When  five  years  old.  a  physician,  who 
examined    him,    reported    that    he    then    weighed 


GIANTS  AND  DWAEFS. 


9  pounds  7  ounces,  and  stood  22  inches  high,  but 
■was  formed  like  a  young  man  of  20.  He  died 
in  liis  2;jd  year,  being  tlien  under  three  feet  high. 
(Humjilny,  On  the  Human  Skeleton,  p.  101.)  In  tlie 
Museum  of  the  Kaculte  de  MC-deeine  of  Paris,  there 
is  a  wax-model  which  represcuts  him  at  the  a"e  of 
18  ;  and  in  the  Jlusouni  d'Histoire  Naturellc  is  his 
skeleton,  which  in  the  comjilete  ossification  of  the 
bones,  and  in  the  disaijjiearance  of  the  cranial 
sutures,  resembles  that  of  an  aged  person.  Accord- 
ini,'  to  C.  G.  Carus  (Symbolik  der  mensMichen  Oestalt, 
Zweite  Aujlage,  1S5S,  p.  83),  General  Tom  Thumb, 
the  well-known  dwarf,  exhiluted  about  twelve  years 
ago  in  this  country,  wa.s  25  inches  in  height,  and 
weighed  25  pounds  ;  and  Prince  Colobri,  a  tJlesN-ig 
dwarf,  who  was  being  exhibited  in  Dresden  in  1851, 
was  of  a  similar  height  and  weight,  his  age  being  21 
years.  Cams  likewise  examined,  in  the  year  1857,  a 
Dutch  dwarf,  who  took  the  name  of  Tom  Thumli. 
He  was  aged  IS  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  and 
then  measured  about  2  feet  4  inches.  (These  are 
probably  Prussian  measures,  which  slightly  exceed 
those  of  this  country.) 

On  comparing  the  data  in  our  possession  regarding 
giants  and  dwarfs — and  for  most  of  these  data  we 
must  refer  the  reader  to  Geofl'roy  Saint-Hilaire's 
UiMolre  dts  Anomalies — it  appears  (1)  That  giants 
are  of  rarer  occurrence  than  dwarfs:  (2)  That 
giants  are  usually  of  a  lymphatic  temperament, 
and  of  a  very  delicate  complexion,  often  deformed, 
and  almost  always  badly  j)roportioned ;  that  their 
miLscles  are  flabby,  and  their  voice  weak ;  while 
dwarfs  arc  often  perfectly  well  proportioned,  and 
are  strong  for  their  size :  (3)  That  giants  are  never 
long-lived— O'Byrne  died  at  22,  Magrath  at  20 
— while  dwarfs  seem  to  attain  the  full  ordinary 
period  of  human  existence — Borowlaski  died  at  98, 
Hudson  at  G3  ;  and  although  we  do  not  know  the 
age  at  which  Therese  Souvray — a  dwarf  described 
by  Virey — died,  we  know  that  at  the  age  of  73 
'  elle  ctait  encore  vive,  gaie,  bien  portant,  et  dansait 
a  la  mode  de  sou  pays:'  (4)  That  wlule  giants 
usually  exhibit  a  want  of  activity  and  energy,  and 
are  feeble  both  in  body  and  mind,  dwarfs  are  in 
general  livelj',  active,  and  irascible  (Borowlaski  in 
his  memoirs  gives  a  good  illustration  of  the  last 
cliaracteristic,  as  exliibited  by  the  dwarf  Bebe : 
'  \\Tien  he  perceived  that  the  king  took  pleasure  in 
my  society,  he  conceived  the  most  \iolent  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  me  ....  and  endeavoured  to  push 
mc  on  to  the  fire  ;'  and  Sir  Geoffrey  Hudson's 
irascibility  is  well  dejucted  in  Peveril  of  l/ie  Peak). 
That  the  intellectual  power  of  dwarfs  is  sometimes 
considerable,  is  sufficiently  evidenced  in  the  cases 
of  Borowlaski,  General  Tom  Thumb,  and  the  Dutch 
Tom  Thimib,  who,  according  to  Cams,  spoke  four 
languages. 

We  know  little  of  the  causes  which  occasion  the 
excessive  development  or  the  arrested  growth  on 
which  the  production  of  giants  and  dwarfs  depends. 
Bishop  Berkeley*  is  said  to  have  attempted  with 
considerable  success  to  manufacture  a  giant.  He 
took  a  poor  orjjhan,  named  Magi'atii,  and  reared  him 
on  ccrtam  hygienic  principles  (Virey  conjectures 
that  he  fed  him  with  uiucil.iginous  foods  and 
drinks,  but  nothing  seems  known  on  this  point), 
which  were  so  far  successful  that,  .it  the  age  of 
10,  he  was  7  feet  in  height,  and  that  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  occurred,  with  all  the  symp- 
toms of  old  age,  at  the  age  of  20,  he  was  7  feet 
8  iichcs  high.  If  food  in  this  case  did  really 
produce  a   giant,   why   cannot   our  farmers  be  as 

*  Our  authority  for  this  statement  is  Geoffrey  Saint- 
Hilaire,  who  quotes  Watkinson's  Pkitosophical  Suri'€i/ 
of  Ircktnd  (Loud.  1777).     The  bishop  died  m  1753. 


successful  as  the  bishop  ?  They  can  only  produce 
fatty  monstrosities,  not  giants. 

Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire  devotes  a  special  section  of 
his  book  to  'the  causes  of  dwarfism,'  but  he  only 
arrives  at  the  general  conclusion,  that  in  these  cases 
there  is  an  obstacle  to  the  ])ro|)er  nutrition  and 
development  of  the  fcctus ;  that  this  obstacle  may  be 
due  either  to  something  wrong  in  the  maternal 
organism,  or  more  commonly  to  some  disease 
affecting  the  foetus  itself;  and  that  this  disease  is 
usually  rachitis  or  rickets. 

M i/l)u>logical  Giants  and  Dwarfs. — Giants  play  a 
])art  in  the  mythology  of  almost  aU  nations  of  Aryan 
descent.  The  Greeks,  who  represented  them  as 
beings  of  monstrous  size,  with  hideous  countenances, 
and  luaWng  the  tails  of  tlragons,  placed  their  abode 
in  volcanic  districts,  whither  they  were  fabled  to 
have  been  banished  after  their  unsuccessful  attempt 
upon  heaven,  when  the  gods,  with  the  assistance  of 
Hercides,  imprisoned  them  under  ^Etna  and  other 
volcanoes.  Their  reputcil  origin,  like  the  places  of 
their  abode,  jjoints  to  tlie  idea  of  the  mysterious 
electrical  and  volcanic  con\-ulsious  of  nature,  which 
they  obWously  typify ;  and,  in  accordance  with 
this  view,  they  are  said  to  have  been  of  mingled 
heavenly  and  earthly  descent,  and  to  have  spnmg 
from  the  blood  th.at  fell  from  the  slain  Ouranos  upon 
the  earth,  Ge,  which  was  their  mother.  In  the 
cosmogony  of  the  northern  nations,  giants  occui)y 
a  far  more  important  place  than  the  Greeks  assigned 
to  them,  for  here  the  first  created  being  was  the 
giant  Ymir,  called  also  '  Atirgelmir,'  or  '  the  ancient 
Chaos,'  the  progenitor  of  the  Frost-giants  (Hrim- 
thursar),  among  whom  dwelt  the  AU-Father  before 
the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth.  The  mode  of 
origin  of  Ymir  w.as  as  follows  :  In  the  beginning  of 
time  a  world  existed  in  the  north,  called  Niflheim, 
in  which  was  a  well,  Hvergelmu-,  from  whence 
issued  a  poisonous  stream  which  hardened  into  ice, 
the  accumidation  of  which  formed  the  northern 
part  of  Ginnimgagap,  or  abyss  of  abysses,  whose 
southern  extremity  was  radiant  with  the  heat  and 
light  wliich  emanated  from  another  world,  known 
as  '  Muspelheim.'  The  meeting  of  heat  and  ice 
produced  drops,  which,  through  the  agency  of 
the  same  creative  power  (the  All-F.ather)  which 
had  sent  them  forth,  received  hfe  and  a  human 
form.  This  was  Ymir,  who  was  noiu-ished  from 
four  streams  of  milk,  which  flowed  from  the  cow 
Audhumla,  or  the  nourishing-power,  which  hatl 
been  created  by  Snrt,  the  guardian  watch  of  Mus- 
pelheim. While  Ymir  slept,  a  man  and  woman 
grew  from  imder  his  left  arm,  and  a  son  was 
produced  from  his  feet.  In  course  of  time,  other 
beings  were  generated  from  the  salt  and  frost- 
covered  stones  which  the  cow  Audhumla  licked, 
and  from  these  were  born  three  brothers,  Odin, 
Vili,  and  Ve,  who  were  gods,  and  who,  ha\-ing 
slain  Ymir,  and  dragged  him  out  into  the  middle 
of  Ginnungagap,  formed  from  his  blood  the  sea  and 
all  waters,  and  from  his  huge  body  heaven  and 
earth  and  all  soUd  things  in  nature. 

With  Ymir  perished  all  the  frost-giants  except 
Bergelmir,  who,  with  his  wife,  escaped  on  a  chest 
or  drum,  and  became  the  father  of  the  new  giant 
d3'nasty  of  the  Jutuns.  The  gods  formed,  how- 
ever, of  the  eyebrows  of  Y'mir,  a  wall  of  defence 
against  these  giants,  who  thenceforward  dwelt  in 
Jotunheim,  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  ocean, 
wliich  encircled  Midgard,  the  future  abode  of 
the  sons  of  men.  The  -Esir  or  gods  lived  in  their 
own  city,  Asgard,  occupjdng  themselves  with 
works  of  industry  till  they  were  con-ujited  by  the 
giantesses  who  came  to  them  from  .Jcitunheim, 
when  the  Golden  Age  ceased,  and  discord  arose 
among  the  gods.     At  the  instigation  of  the  m.aidens 

;n 


GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY— GIBBOX. 


from  Jotunlicim,  the  gods  created  dwarfs  and  men ; 
the  former  from  the  magjjots  generated  within  the 
l)cidy  of  Ymir,  and  the  latter  from  trees  ;  and  from 
this  time  the  giants  gradually  lost  their  power, 
under  the  united  opposition  of  gods  and  men.  In  the 
jiopular  belief,  common  in  all  countries,  that  tkrough 
the  agency  of  giants  mountains  aud  islands  have 
arisen,  and  rocks  and  mountains  have  been  hurled 
from  their  original  sites,  we  trace  the  ideal  per- 
sonification of  the  forces  of  nature,  which,  after 
long  periods  of  inert  repose,  exliibit  sudden  and 
uncontrollable  outljui'sts  of  ■violence:  thus  giants 
were  represented  as  good-humoured  and  complacent 
when  at  rest,  but  implacable,  savage,  and  treacher- 
ous when  excited  ;  while  they  were  at  all  times 
impressed  with  a  consciousness  that,  notwithstand- 
ing their  huge  biUk,  and  the  excess  of  heads  aud 
arms  with  which  many  of  them  were  gifted,  they 
were  but  stupid  monsters,  unable  to  cope  with 
the  ready  wit  and  keen  intelligence  of  divine  or 
even  human  beings,  to  whom  they  believed  it 
was  the  decree  of  fate  that  they  must  idtimately 
succumb.  In  this  respect,  the  giauts  tyjiify  the 
heathen  element  in  its  conflict  with  Christianity, 
and  northern  Sagas  are  rife  with  the  histories  of 
gigantic,  wild,  and  cruel  races,  known  as  Thursar 
(Goth,  thaursjan,  to  thirst,  or  J  dinar ;  Anglo- 
Saxon  elan,  to  eat),  who  ate  and  drank  voraciously, 
and  subdued  all  things  to  their  sway,  until  there 
came  from  the  far  East  a  people,  who  knew  and 
worshipped  the  god  of  the  universe  imder  the  name 
of  the  '  All-Father,'  and  who,  by  their  greater  skill, 
overcame  the  savage  giants  of  the  north,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  withdraw  more  and  more  into  tlie 
recesses  of  the  forests  and  mountains,  whence  they 
only  emerged  from  time  to  time  in  the  form  of 
mountain  trolls  and  giants. 

The  dwarfs  who  ligure  in  the  Eddas  as  cun- 
ning and  crafty  elves,  skilled  iu  magic  and  in 
the  working  of  metals,  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  a  race  of  Oriental  Lapps,  who  immigrated 
into  Sweden  and  Norway  later  than  the  Finns, 
who  were  the  descendants  of  the  giants,  and 
therefore  the  oldest  of  the  races  that  now  occupy 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  When  considered 
under  the  broadest  signification  of  the  term,  dwarfs 
(Goth,  dvairgs,  which  Grimm  conjectures  may  be 
identical  with  the  Greek  thcourgos,  one  who  does 
sujiernatural  works)  typify  the  transition  from  inor- 
ganic to  organic  nature,  and  thus  personify  the  sub- 
ordinate powers  of  nature ;  and  under  this  idea  they 
are  represented  as  assisting  men  by  combining  the 
primary  ores  into  new  mineral  bodies,  and  fostering 
the  development  of  fruits  and  seeds.  Considered 
from  this  point  of  view,  they  occupy  an  intermediate 
position  between  giants  and  men ;  and  while  they 
fear  both,  they  incline  to  serve  the  latter  at  the 
expense  of  the  former,  and  thus  appear  imder  the 
form  of  beneficent  elves  (q.  v.),  faiiies,  and  brownies 
(q.  v.).  During  the  latter  part  of  the  middle  ages, 
when  the  traditionary  folk-lore  of  Western  Europe 
was  being  supplanted  by  the  literature  of  the 
monks,  which  consisted  mainly  of  legends  of  saiuts, 
the  devil  aud  the  fallen  angels  took  the  place,  in 
the  muids  of  the  illiterate,  that  had  hitherto  been 
occupied  by  giants  and  dwarfs;  aud  the  various 
supernatural  feats  of  strength  which  had  in  earlier 
ages  been  ascribed  to  these  imaginary  beings,  were 
attributed  to  Satan  and  his  attendant  spirits,  or  iu 
some  cases  to  the  saints  of  the  church. — See  Giimm's 
Deutsche  Mythohgie,  Thorpe's  Nortliern  Mylhologii, 
Gnmdt\-ig's  Nordens  Mythologk,  and  Petersen's 
Nordisk  Mythologie. 

GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY  (deriving  its  name 
from  a  mythical  legend  that  it  was  the  commence- 
meut  of  a  road  to  be  constructed  by  giants  across 
742 


the  channel  to  Scotland),  is  a  sort  of  pier  or  mole,  of 
columnar  basalt,  projecting  from  the  northern  coast 
of  Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North  Ch.annel,  about 
l.j  miles  from  Coleraine.  It  is  part  of  an  exten- 
sive and  overlying  mass  of  basalt,  from  300  to  500 
feet  iu  thiclcness,  which  covers  almost  the  whole 
county  of  Antrim  and  the  eastern  part  of  London- 
derry, extending  over  an  area  of  nearly  1200 
square  mUes.  The  basalt  occurs  in  several  betls, 
interstratified  with  layers  of  ash.  It  covers  secon- 
dary strata,  converting  the  chalk  into  gi-anular 
limestone,  and  the  lias  shale  into  Lydian  stone, 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  them.  Several 
of  the  basaltic  beds  are  more  or  less  columnar,  but 
thi'ee  layers  are  remarkably  so.  The  first  appears 
at  the  bold  promontory  of  Fair  Head  ;  its  cohmins 
are  coarse  aud  large,  exceeding  200  feet  in  height. 
The  other  two  are  seen  together  rising  above  the 
sea-level  at  Bengore  Head.  'The  lower  one  foi-ms  the 
Causeway  at  the  place  where  it  is  uncovered,  as  it 
again  gradually  dips  under  the  sea.  It  is  exposed 
for  300  yards,  aud  exhibits  an  unequal  pavement, 
formed  of  the  tops  of  polygonal  columns,  fitting  so 
compactly  that  the  blade  of  a  knife  can  scarcely  be 
inserted  between  them.  The  columns  are  chiefly 
hexagonal,  though  examples  may  be  foimd  with  5, 
7,  8,  or  9  sides ;  and  there  is  a  single  instance  of 
a  triangular  prism.  The  diameter  of  the  pillar  is 
very  variable,  but  the  average  size  is  from  15  to 
20  inches.  Each  pillar  is  divided  by  joints  of 
unequal  length,  the  concave  hollow  at  the  end  of 
one  division  fitting  exactly  into  the  convex  ])ro- 
jeetiou  of  the  other.  The  rock  is  compact  and 
homogeneous,  and  is  somewhat  sonorous  when 
struck  with  a  hammer. 

The  Causeway  is  divided  into  the  Little,  Middle, 
and  Large  Causeways.  The  Large  Causeway,  which 
is  formed  by  the  lowest  of  the  three  columnar  beds 
of  basalt,  is  about  30  feet  wide,  and  runs  more 
than  200  yards  from  its  exposure  on  the  cUlf  till 
it  is  covered  by  the  sea.  'The  Little  and  Middle 
Causeways  are  formed  from  the  second  columnar 
stratimi,  and  are  less  remarkable  than  the  other. 

GIAOUR,  a  Turkish  word,  corrupted  from 
the  Arabic  tiajir  ('  unbeliever '),  and  applied  by 
the  Turks  to  all  who  reject  Mohammedanism, 
especially  to  Em-opean  Christians.  Though  at  first 
used  exclusively  as  a  term  of  reproach,  its  signi- 
fication has  been  since  modified,  and  now  it  is 
frequently  employed  merely  as  a  distinctive  epithet. 
Sultan  Mahmfid  II.  forbade  his  subjects  to  apply 
the  term  G.  to  any  European. — O.  was  the  title  of 
a  poem  written  by  Lord  Byron,  aud  published  in 
1813.     Compare  with  G.  the  word  Guebres  (q.  v.). 

GIAVE'NO,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  torrent  Sangone,  17  miles  west- 
south-west  of  Turia.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
and  possesses  a  castle,  erected  in  1369  by  the 
al)bot  of  the  monastery  St  Michel  deUa  Chius.a. 
In  1003,  Urban  II.,  Count  of  Savoy,  endowed  this 
.abbey  'with  the  lands  of  G.,  which,  however,  owing 
to  the  unproductiveness  of  the  sod,  were  not  of 
great  value.  The  town  was  formerly  a  thriving 
commercial  place,  "tt-ith  a  considerable  ti'ade  in  linen, 
leather,  &c.  It  still  jiossesses  some  manufactories 
of  linen,  cotton  and  silk  stufl's,  besides  tanneries 
and  ii'on  forges.     Pop.  9144. 

GIBBET.    See  H.iXOiNO. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  the  liistorian  of  T!ie  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  born  at  Putney, 
on  the  27th  April  (0.  S.)  1737,  and  was  the  first 
cliild  of  Edward  Gibbon  and  of  Judith  Porten,  both 
of  good  family,  and  the  only  one  of  seven  children 
that  survived  infancy.  Memoirs  of  his  Life  and 
Writings  were  written  by  himself,  and  these,  with 


GIBBON. 


his  letters  and  other  miscellaneous  works,  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  friend  Lord  Sheffield, 
with  whom  he  had  long  carried  on  a  most  confi- 
dential correspondence.  Few  autobiographies  are 
so  interesting  as  that  of  G.,  and  none  more  veracious. 
It  is  a  self -portraiture,  both  in  regard  to  what  is 
said  and  in  regard  to  the  manner  in'which  it  is  said 
— his  pride,  self-compLocency,  integrity,  and  con- 
tempt for  the  contemptible,  and  much  beside,  beinr' 
all  clearlj'  revealed  as  proposed  by  him  with  '  truth, 
naked  unblushing  truth.'  He  refleets  :  '  My  name 
may  hereafter  be  placed  among  the  thousand  articles 
of  a  Biographia  Britannica ;  and  I  must  bo  con- 
scious that  no  one  is  so  well  qualified  as  myself  to 
describe  the  series  of  my  thoughts  and  actions.'  So, 
in  liis  52d  year,  after  he  had  finished  his  '  ardiious 
and  successfid  work,'  he  proceeded  to  do  it.  Like 
most  thinkers,  his  actions  were  few,  and  apart 
from  his  thoughts  and  the  gro\rth  of  his  mind 
quite  unimportant.  He  spent  a  sickly  childhood 
in  occasional  lessons  and  desultory  reading  and 
discussion  with  his  mother's  sister,  a  lady  of  a 
strong  understanding  and  wanu  heart,  whom  he 
calls  '  the  mother  of  his  mind,'  and  to  whose  kind- 
ness he  ascribes  not  only  the  bringing  out  of  his 
intellectual  faculties,  but  the  preservation  of  his  life 
in  these  critical  early  years.  One  of  his  temporary 
masters  was  the  Eev.  Philip  Francis,  the  translator 
of  Horace.  His  father,  who  seems  to  have  been 
the  somewhat  impulsive  possessor  of  the  ■m-eck  of 
a  fortune,  had  him  entered  at  Magdalen  CoUege, 
Oxford,  at  the  age  of  15,  when  he  was  very  imper- 
fectly prepared  for  this  crisis ;  his  extensive  reading 
and  inten'ujjted  education  having  produced  '  a  stock 
of  erudition  that  might  have  puzied  a  doctor,  and 
a  degree  of  ignorance  of  wliich  a  school-boy  woiUd 
have  been  ashamed.'  Here  he  spent  14  idle  mouths, 
the  chief  result  of  which  w.as,  that  in  his  incursions 
into  controversial  theology  he  became  a  convert  to 
the  Church  of  P^ome,  and  foimd  himself  shut  out 
from  Oxford.  He  was  by  his  father  placed  under 
the  care  of  Mallet  the  poet,  and  a  deist,  but  by  his 
philosophy  the  young  enthusiast  w.as  '  rather  scan- 
dalised than  reclaimecL'  To  eflect  his  cure  from 
popery,  he  was  sent  to  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland, 
to  board  in  the  house  of  M.  Pavillard,  a  Calvinist 
minister,  a  poor  but  sensible  and  intelligent  man, 
Avho  judiciously  suggested  books  and  arguments  to 
his  young  charge,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
him  reconverted  to  Protestantism,  iu  witness  of 
which  conversion  he  received  the  sacrament  in  the 
church  of  Lausanne  on  Christmas-day  17.34,  his 
belief  in  pojiery  having  lasted  not  quite  18  months. 
He  Hved  nearly  five  years  in  this  house,  respecting 
the  minister,  and  enduring  ■nith  more  or  less 
equanimity  the  'uncleanly  avarice'  of  his  wife  ;  and 
it  was  here  that  he  began,  and  carried  out  steadily 
and  joyously  to  an  extent  that  %\'ill  astonish  very 
hard  students,  those  private  studies  which,  aided  by 
his  enormous  memory,  made  htm  a  master  of  erudi- 
tion without  a  superior,  and  with  hardly  an  equal. 
Here  also  he  fell  in  love  \\-ith  iLademoiselle  Susan 
Ciu-chod,  the  daughter  of  a  clergyman,  a  young  lady 
beautiful  and  learned,  who  afterwards  became  the 
\viic  of  M.  Necker,  the  distinguished  French  minister 
and  financier.  G.'s  f.ather  disapproved  of  this  aUi- 
ance,  and  he  yielded  to  liis  fate.  After  his  return 
to  England  and  his  father's  house,  he  persevered 
in  his  studies  as  he  best  couliL 

He  finished  a  little  work  in  French,  begun  at 
Lausanne,  and  pubhshed  it  under  the  title  of  Kasain 
mir  VEtuile  de  ta  Liiteralure  in  1761.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  captain  in  the  Hampshire  militia, 
ill  which  he  continued  for  two  and  a  half  years.  Of 
this  part  of  his  career  he  obseires  :  '  The  discipline 
and  evolutions  of  a  modern  battalion  gave  me  a 


clearer  notion  of  the  phalanx  and  the  legion  ;  and 
the  ca])tain  of  the  Hampshire  grenadiers  (the  reader 
may  smile)  has  not  been  useless  to  the  historian  of 
the  Roman  Empire.'  The  miUtia  being  disbanded, 
he  revisited  the  continent,  and  travelled  into  Italy ; 
and  among  the  benefits  of  foreign  travel,  he  notes  its 
influence  in  suggesting  the  work  of  his  life  in  these 
words  :  '  It  was  at  Home,  on  the  loth  of  October 
1764,  as  I  Bat  musmg  amidst  the  niins  of  the 
Capitol,  while  the  barefooted  friars  were  singing 
ves]>ers  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  that  the  idea  ot 
writing  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  citj'  first  started 
into  my  mind.'  His  j)lan,  originally  circumscribed 
to  the  decay  of  the  city,  giew  by  years  of  reading 
and  reflection  and  delay  to  embrace  the  empire. 
During  these  years  his  father  died,  leaving  his 
affairs  deranged,  and  he  entered  parliament  for 
the  borough  of  Liskeard  at  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle  with  America,  '  and  supported  with  m,any 
a  sincere  and  silent  vote  the  rights,  though  not,  per- 
haps, the  interest,  of  the  mothcr-countrj.'  He  sat 
eight  years,  but  never  had  courage  to  speak  ;  '  the 
great  speakers  filled  huu  with  despair,  the  bad  ones 
with  terror.'  In  1776,  the  first  volume  of  The 
Decline  ami  Fall  was  published,  aud  its  success  was 
prodigious.  The  rci>utation  of  the  author  was 
estabhshed  before  the  religious  world  had  had  time 
to  consider  and  attack  the  last  chapters  of  the  work 
— the  loth  and  16tli — in  which,  while  admitting, 
or,  at  least,  not  denj-ing,  the  'convincing  evidence 
of  the  doctrine  itself,  and  the  ruling  providence 
of  its  great  author,'  he  proceeds  to  account  for 
the  rapid  groAvth  of  the  early  Christian  church 
by  '  secondary '  or  human  causes.  Hume,  who  was 
then  slowly  dying,  in  a  highly  complimentary  letter, 
told  him  in  regard  to  these  chapters  :  '  I  think  you 
have  observed  a  very  prudent  temperament ;  but  it 
was  impossible  to  treat  the  subject  so  as  not  to 
give  grounds  of  suspicion  against  you,  and  you  may 
expect  that  a  clamour  will  arise.'  The  prophetic 
cnticism  was  correct ;  the  groimds  of  the  '  clamour ' 
being,  at  the  best,  only  strong  suspicions  that,  in 
becoming  a  convert  from  Popery  to  Protestantism, 
Gibbon  had,  hke  Bayle,  gone  on  '  to  protest  .against 
aU  sects  and  systems  whatsoever.'  That  he  did  not 
hke  to  see  the  barefooted  friars  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  is  clear  enough  all  thi'ough  the  si.x  largo  and 
compact  volumes  of  his  history.  He  finished  this 
great  work  on  the  27th  June  17S7  .at  Lausanne,  to 
which  he  had  retired  for  quiet  and  economy  after 
leaving  parhament,  and  holding  office  under  govern- 
ment for  a  short  time.  In  his  Memoirs,  he  tells 
the  hour  of  his  release  from  his  protracted  Labours 
— between  eleven  o'clock  and  midnight— and  records 
his  first  emotions  of  joy  on  the  recovery  of  liis 
freedom  and  the  sober  melancholy  that  succeeded 
it,  aU  in  a  style  and  in  a  connection  which,  with 
much  beside,  must  be  studied  iu  his  own  pages  by 
those  who  would  know  Gibbon  in  his  real  grcatucs^i, 
self-complacency,  egotism,  and  contemplative  sad- 
ness. The  lady  of  Lord  Sheffield,  his  close  fiiend, 
having  died,  G.  left  Lausanne  for  England  to  con- 
sole him  ;  aud  about  six  months  after  his  arrival,  he 
(bed  without  apprehension  or  suffering,  on  the  16th 
January  1794,  in  St  James's  Street,  London,  of  an 
enormous  rupture  and  hydrocele,  which,  .as  it  gave 
him  no  pain,  he  had  allowed  to  grow  neglected 
mthout  speaking  of  it  to  either  friend  or  physician 
for  thu-ty-two  years. 

In  person,  G.  became  very  corpulent,  and  the  small 
bones  of  the  big-headed  deUcate  boy  were  in  after 
years  hardly  adequate  to  sustain  their  load.  Vanity 
was,  perhaps,  his  only  frailty.  He  affected  the 
manners  of  the  fine  gentlem.an  of  last  century  to 
the  end,  aud  they  adjusted  themselves  grotesquely 
to  the  luiwieldy  body  and  the  massive  mind. 


GIBBON— GIBBONS. 


It  is  not  easy  to  charactfrise  a  man  of  so  gigantic 
and  cnltivateil  an  intellect  in  few  or  many  plii-ases. 
He  vas  a  faithful  friend,  pleasant  and  hardly 
rivalled  in  conversation,  not  disliked  liy  any  one 
who  came  near  him.  His  Decline  and  Fall  is  prob- 
ably the  greatest  achievement  of  human  thought 
and  enulition  in  the  department  of  history ;  at 
least  Nicbiihr  gives  it  this  high  praise.  It  is  virtu- 
ally a  history  of  the  ei\"ilised  world  for  thirteen 
centuries,  during  which  paganism  was  breaking 
dovni  and  Clu'istianity  was  superseding  it ;  and 
thus  bridges  over  the  chasm  between  the  old  world 
and  the  new.  Its  style  is  marked  by  the  highest 
jrawer  of  condensation,  and  is  full  of  smiting  phrases 
and  ponderous  antithesis.  Byron  designates  him 
'  The  lord  of  Irony,  that  master-spell.' 

He  himself  was  not  unaware  of  this  part  of  his 
genius,  and  he  saj's  he  cultivated  it  by  reading  the 
Provincial  Letters  of  Pascal  every  year;  which  must 
have  become  eventually  a  mere  form,  for  two  care- 
fid  readings  sufficed  to  fix  almost  any  composition 
indelibly  on  his  impressible  and  retentive  memory. 
His  accm'acy  in  regard  to  fact  has  never  been  suc- 
cessfully impeached,  and  his  industry  has  never 
been  questioned.  The  best  edition  of  T/te  Decline 
and  Fall  is  that  published  by  Dr  W.  Smith  in 
1854 — 1S5.5,  containing  the  notes,  comments,  and 
corrections  of  Guizot,  Wenck,  and  Dean  Milman. 

GIBBON  (Hylohates),  a  genus  of  apes,  or  tailless 
monkeys,  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  oraugs  and  chimpanzees,  but 
are  of  more  slender  form,  and  their  arms  so  long  as 
almost  to  reach  the  ground  when  they  are  placed  in 
an  erect  posture ;  there  are  also  naked  callosities 
on  the  buttocks.  The  canine  teeth  are  long.  The 
gibbons  are  inhabitants  of  forests,  their  long  .arms 
enabling  them  to  swing  themselves  from  bough  to 
bough,  which  they  do  to  wonderful  distances,  and 
w-ith  extreme  agility.  They  camiot,  however,  move 
irith  ease  or  rapidity  on  the  ground.  The  confor- 
mation of  the  hinder  extremities  adds  to  their 
difficulty  in  this,  whilst  it  increases  their  adaptation 
to  a  life  among  the  branches  of  trees,  the  soles  of 
the  feet  being  much  turned  inwards.  None  of  the 
gibbons  are  of  large  size.  The  Common  G.,  or 
L.VR  G.  (//.  lar) — black,  with  a  border  of  gi'ay  hair 


■Wliite-handed  Gibbon  (Hijlohatcs  alhimana). 

around  the  face— is  found  in  some  parts  of  India, 
and  m  more  eastern  regions.  The  White-handed 
G.  [H.  aiiimana)— black,  the  face  bordered  with 


gray,  and  the  four  hands  white — is  a  native  of 
Sumatra.  The  Active  G.  (//.  aijitis),  found  in 
Sumatr.a,  is  particularly  remarkable  for  the  i)ower 
which  it  displaj's  of  flinging  itself  from  one  tree 
to  another,  clearing  at  once,  it  is  said,  a  distance 
of  forty  feet.  The  Wow-wow  (//.  leuciscus)  is 
a  G.  found  in  M.alacca  and  the  Sunda  Isles.  The 
HooLOCK  {JI.  Hooloek)  is  a  native  of  the  tiaiTow 
Hills.  The  SIjUI-V>g  (//.  si/ndacti/la),  a  Sumatran 
species,  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  genus  in  lia%'ing 
the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the  hinder  extremities 
united  to  the  second  joint.  All  the  gibbons  are 
of  gentle  disposition,  and  easily  domesticated. 

GIBBONS,  Okl.\ni)0,  an  eminent  Engli.sli 
musician,  w.os  born  at  Cambridge  in  1583.  At  the 
age  of  21,  he  became  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal ; 
and  in  102'J,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  learned 
Camden,  he  received  from  Oxfonl  University  the 
degree  of  doctor  in  music.  He  was  the  best  church 
composer,  and,  according  to  Anthony  Wood,  'one 
of  the  rarest  musicians  of  his  time.'  His  madrigals 
have  always  been  popular.  Of  these,  three,  Dainti/ 
Su)eet  Bird,  0  that  the  Learned  Poets,  and  The 
Silrer  Swan,  are  considered  far  superior  to  most 
compositions  of  the  kind.  He  composed  the  music 
for  the  marriage-eeremoni.al  of  Charles  I.,  in  16"25 ; 
but  while  attending  it  officially,  he  caught  the 
small-pox,  and  died  at  Whitsunday  thereafter.  A 
monument  to  his  memory,  erected  by  his  A\-ife 
over  his  burial-]ilace  in  Canterbm-y  Cathedral,  is 
still  shewn.  His  anthems,  Hosannah  to  the  Son 
of  Dacid!  Almiijldy  and  Ecerlastiny  God!  and 
0  Clap  your  Hands  together!  are  reckoned  by 
Wood  '  master-pieces  of  the  most  ingenious  and 
scientifie  writing  in  fugiie  that  musical  .skill  ever 
brought  forth.'  His  two  brothers,  Edw.ard,  organist 
of  Bristol,  and  Ellis,  organist  of  .Salisbury,  were 
likewise  good  musicians.  Edward,  sworn  in  a 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Koyal  in  1604,  was 
master  to  the  famous  composer  Matthew  Lock. 
During  the  civil  wars  he  lent  Charles  I.  £1000,  for 
which  he  was  afterwards  deprived  of  a  consider- 
able estate,  and,  Avith  his  thi-ee  grandchildren, 
thrust  out  of  his  house  at  a  very  advanced  age. 
In  the  Triumplis  of  Oriana  are  two  madrigals  by 
Ellis  Gibbons.  G.'s  son,  Dr  Christopher  Gibbons,  at 
the  Restoration,  was  appointed  principal  organist 
to  the  king  and  to  Westminster  Abbey,  and  by  a 
recommendatory  letter  from  Charles  II.  was  created 
doctor  in  music  by  the  univei-sity  of  O.xford.  Cele- 
brated for  his  organ  playing,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  the  instructor  on  that  instrument  of  Dr  John 
Blow,  the  well-known  composer  of  the  pieces 
published  under  the  title  of  Ampldon  Anglicus,  who 
died  in  1708. 

GIBBONS,  Grinlino,  an  eminent  English 
sculptor  and  wood  carver,  of  Dutch  extraction, 
was  born  in  London  in  IG48.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Evelyn,  he  was,  by  Charles  II., 
ajipointed  to  a  place  in  the  Board  of  Works,  and 
emjiloyed  in  the  ornamental  earvuig  of  the  choir 
of  the  chapel  at  Windsor.  His  works  display  gi'cat 
taste  and  delicacy  of  finish,  and  his  flowers  and 
fohage  have  almost  the  lightness  of  nature.  For 
the  choir  of  St  Paul's,  London,  he  executed  the 
foliage  and  festoons,  and  those  in  lime-tree  which 
decorate  the  side-aisles.  At  Chatsworth,  the  seat 
of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  ;  at  Burleigh  ;  at  South- 
wick,  Hampshire  ;  and  other  mansions  of  the  Eng- 
lislx  nobility,  he  executed  an  immense  quantity  of 
carved  embellishment.  At  Petworth,  he  devised 
the  ceiling  for  a  room,  which  is  believed  to  be  his 
clief-d^cnuore.  In  marble  and  bronze,  he  also  pro- 
duced several  fine  pieces.  Among  these  are  the 
statue  of   James  II.,  behind  the  Banqueting  HaJl, 


GIBBOSITY— GIBRALTAK. 


Whitehall  ;  of  Charles  I.,  at  Charing  Cross ;  and 
that  of  Charles  II.,  at  the  Bank  of  England.  The 
wooden  throne  at  Canterbury ;  the  nionnment  of 
Viscount  Camden  at  Exton,  iiutlandskire  ;  and  the 
ba]itismal  font  at  St  James's  (Jhiireh,  London,  are 
by  him.     He  (Ued  August  o,  1721. 

GIBBO'SITY  (Lat.  r/ihlnis,  Gr.  hlbos,  huplios, 
humpbacked),  a  st.ate  of  disease  characterised  by 
]]rotulierancc  of  a  part  of  the  body  ;  chiefly  applied 
to  humjibaek  or  other  distortions  depending  on 
disease  (Rickets,  q.  v.)  of  the  spinal  column. 

GI'BBOTJS,  a  term  signifying  '  protuber.ant,' 
'swelling  out,'  applied  to  bodies  which  are  double- 
convex,  and  particulai'ly  to  the  moon,  when  she  is 
within  a  week  of  the  full. 

GI'BEAH,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  'hill,' 
and  giving  name  to  several  towns  and  places  in 
Ancient  Palestine.  The  only  one  requiring  special 
mention  is  Oihcah-of- Benjamin,  a  small  city  about 
four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  scene  of 
the  horrible  story  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine, 
related  in  the  li)th  chapter  of  Juilgcs.  and  subse- 
(jncntly  the  residence,  if  not  the  l)irth]ilace  of  King 
Saul.  Gibeah-of-Benjamin  has  been  identified  with 
the  modern  village  of  Tuleit  el-Fill. 

GIBEli  {Ci/pj-iiuis  giluliv),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  \\ith  the  earii,  but  of  the  divi.sion  of  the 
genus  destitute  of  barbulcs  at  the  mouth,  by  which 
it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  car[i,  whilst  from 
the  crucian  it  is  at  once  distinguished  by  its  forked 
tail.  The  weight  is  seldom  much  more  than  half  a 
pound,  although  specimens  h.ave  been  caught  of  two 
pounds  weight.  The  G.  is  common  in  some  jiarts  of 
continental  Europe  ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Engl.and  from  Gcrm.any,  but  ia  now 
fully  naturalised  in  ]>onds  near  London  and  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  generally 
known  in  England  as  the  Prussian  carp.  It  is  a 
good  lish  for  the  table,  but  affords  little  sport  to  the 
angler,  seldom  taking  any  bait  readily.  It  feeds 
Jiartly  on  aquatic  jdants,  ])artly  on  worms  and 
molluscs.  It  is  very  tenacious  of  life  out  of  the 
water,  and  has  been  kiio\vn  to  recover  after  thirty 
hours. 

GIBELLI'NA,  a  village  of  Sicily,  in  the  pro\-inco 
of  Trapani,  and  34  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of 
th.at  name,  is  situated  amid  mountains,  has  a  castle, 
and  a  pop.  of  about  5000. 

GI'BEON  (Hel).  signilics  'belonging  to  a  hill'), 
a  celebrated  city  of  ancient  I'alestine,  about  5 
miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  conquest 
of  (.'anaan  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  it  was 
inh.abited  by  the  Hivites.  By  a  clever  stratagem, 
the  Gibeonites  insured  the  alliance  and  jirotection 
of  the  invaders,  and  so  escaped  the  fate  of  Jericho 
.and  Ai ;  but  their  deceit  being  afterwards  found 
out,  they  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of  serWtude, 
being  ajipointed  '  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water  unto  all  the  congregation.'  \\lien  the  live 
kings  of  the  Amorites  besieged  G.,  on  the  ground 
of  its  having  entered  into  a  traitorous  compact  with 
the  common  enemy  of  all  the  Canaanitcs,  Joshua 
hastened  to  its  help,  and  overthrew  the  besieocrs 
with  great  slaughter.  The  battle  was  attended, 
wo  are  informed,  with  supernatural  iihenomena-- 
viz.,  the  standing  still  of  the  sun  u|ion  tJibcon,  and 
of  the  moon  in  the  valley  of  Ajalou  ;  Imt  as  the 
l)assage  where  this  occurs  (Joshua  x.  13)  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  these  words :  '  Is  not  this 
written  in  the  book  of  JasherV  it  has  been  thought 
th.at  it  may  perhaps  be  only  an  extract  from  that 
collection  of  national  songs ;  and  the  fact  of  its 
forming  two  hemistichs,  while  the  rest  of  the 
narrative   is   in   prose,  certainly  does   not  weaken 


the  probability  of  this  theory.  If  such  a  suppo- 
sition be  adoiitcd,  the  necessity  for  accepting  the 
statement  literally  is  done  away  with,  and  the  sup- 
jiosed  mir.acle  is  resolved  into  a  hj-jierbole  of  oriental 
I)oetry.  The  city  of  G.  is  mentioned  varion.n  times 
in  the  history  of  I)avid  and  his  caj)t;uns ;  but  its 
sanctity,  iir  the  eyes  ^^f  the  Jews,  arose  from  the 
circumstance  of  it— or  the  hill  near  it — having  been 
for  a  time  the  scat  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  the  brazen  altar  of  burnt-offering.     It 

I  was   at   the  liorns  of   this  altar  that  the  ruthless 

j  Joab  was  slain  by  Benaiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada  ; 
and  here  Solomon,  iu  the  beginning  of   his  reign, 

[  with  magnificent   ceremony  sacrificed  a,  thousand 

j  bumt-oii'erings. 

j  GIBRA'LTAR,  a  rocky  promontory,  .3  miles  in 
length  and  J  mile  in  average  breadtli,  forms  the 
southern  extremity  of  Spam.     It  is  situated  at  the 

]  extremity  of  a  low  i)enins»la,  which  connects  it  on 
the  north  with  Andalusia  ;  its  most  southern  head- 
land, I'oint  Eurfijia,  is  in  lat.  .'J()°  -'  JJO"  N.,  and  long. 
•V  15'  12"  W.  I'lve  aiul  a  half  miles  distant  across 
the  sea  is  the  Spanish  town  of  Algesiras,  between 
which  and  G.  lies  the  Bay  of  Giljraltar,  called  also 
the  Bay  of  Algesiras.  On  the  e.ist  side  of  this  b.ay 
is  the  town  of  (}.,  inhabited  Ijy  a  motley  population 

!  of  from  15,000  to  20,000  English,  Si)aniards,  Jews, 
and  Moors. 

j  The  strip  of  peninsula  connecting  G.  with  the 
Spanish  territory  is  called  the  '  neutral  ground.'     It 

I  is  so  low,  that,  seen  from  the  sea  but  a  few  miles 
off,    G.    has    the  appearance   of    a    detached   rock. 

j  The  .approaches  both  from  this  ne\itral  ground 
and  from  the  sea  are  guarded  by  a  great  n\mdjer 
of  very  powerful  batteries,  and  l.)y  fortifications  so 

I  strong  in  themselves  and  in  their  rel.ative  bearing 
on  each  other,  that  the  rock  may  fairly  be  regarded 

I  as  impregnable  so  long  as  a  sufficient  garrison 
remains  for  its  defence,  and  sufficient  ]irovision  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  troops  and  any  civil  inhabit- 
ants suffered  to  reside  there  during  hostihties.  The 
rock  is  composed  of  gray  primary  marble,  dcj)0sited 
in  strata  from  20  to  40  feet  thick.  The  surface  near 
the  sea  is  sandy  and  red  in  appear.ance ;  higher 
up,  the  rock  is  covered  only  with  short  and  scanty 
grass  or  moss.  Seen  from  the  sea,  its  asi)ect  is 
uninviting,  the  whole  appearing  denuded  of  trees 
and  verdure  :  nevertheless,  there  are  gr.assy,  wooded 
glens  in  the  nooks  of  the  mountain.  In  the  crevices 
of  the  rock  grow  asparagus,  capers,  palmitas,  aloes, 
and  cacti,  while  the  faima  disporting  on  the  wild, 
rarely  trodden  upper  jiortions,  comprises  rabbits, 
p.artridges,  ])igeons,  woodcocks,  and  fawn-coloured 
Barbary  apes.  For  v.arious  military  reasons,  shoot- 
ing is  discouraged,  and  these  animals  therefore  enjoy 
the  utmost  impunity.  The  rock,  at  its  highest  point, 
the  Sugar  Loaf,  attains  an  elevation  of  143i3  feet 
above  the  se.o.  It  is  perforated  by  numerous  caverns, 
the  largest  of  which,  called  tlie  '  Halls  of  St  Michael,' 
have  an  entrance  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Thence  there  is  a  descent  through  a  succes.sion  of 
caves — some  ample  chambers,  others  mere  passages, 
tlu'ough  which  it  is  barely  jxjssible  to  creep— to  a 
depth  of  500  feet  below  the  entrance  :  at  this  point 
foul  air  has  barred  further  ingress ;  but  the  roaring 
of  the  sea  hiis  been  distinctly  heard,  which  leacls 
to  the  inference  that  these  gloomy  hollows  have 
communication  with  the  waves  beneath.  Large 
stalactites  are  found  in  most  of  the  caverns,  and 
interesting  fossils  abound  throughout  the  peninsula. 
The  climate  of  G.  is,  as  a  rule,  healthy,  although 
the  period  from  July  to  November,  when  the  greatest 
heat  prevails,  is  attended  with  some  risk  to  English- 
men :  there  is,  however,  a  remarkable  exeejition  in 
the  case  of  infants  ,at  the  jieriod  of  teeth-cutting, 
to  whom  the  atmosphere  of  the  place  is  peculiarly 

746 


GIBnALT-AJl. 


fatal.  Of  late  years,  the  energetic  measures  adopted 
bj'  the  en<;ineer-officers  to  improve  the  drainage  of 
the  town  have,  coupled  with  stringent  pohce  regu- 
lations, greatly  diminished  the  death-rate ;  and  G. 
is  as  remarkable  now  for  its  cleanly  appearance  as, 
up  to  1S14,  it  was  celebrated  for  being  one  of  the 
dirtiest  towns  in  Europe.  The  place  is,  however, 
subject  to  a  periodical  \-isitation,  once  in  twelve 
yeai-s,  or  thereabout,  called  the  G.  fever,  an  epi- 
demic which  works  sad  havoc  among  the  troops. 

There  are  no  springs  of  fresh  water  on  the 
rock,  and  the  inhabitants  are  therefore  compelled 
to  depend  on  the  rain-fall.  In  consequence  of  this, 
every  jirecaution  is  adopted  to  preserve  as  much 
of  the  water  as  possible ;  tanks  are  fed  systematic- 
ally hy  the  di-ops  coDected  from  private  roofs, 
and  conduits  are  made  to  guide  the  drainage 
from  the  rock  surface  into  great  jmblic  reseri'oii-s. 
Among  the  latter,  the  "Savy  Tank,  for  the  supply 
of   ships   coming   to   the   port,   is    conspicuous,   its 


capacity  being  from  9000  to  11,000  tons  of  water. 
Large  stores  of  grain  are  maintained  in  case  of 
siege  ;  but  the  peninsiUa  does  not  produce  suffi- 
cient food  to  furnish  current  sustenance  for  its 
popidation.  Pro^nsions  in  plenty  can,  however, 
be  procured  at  a  cheap  rate  from  the  opposite 
African  shore. 

The  Bay  of  AJgesiras  or  Gibraltar,  is  about  8 
miles  long  by  5  broad,  with  a  depth  in  the  centre 
of  upwards  of  100  fathoms.  The  anchorage,  how- 
ever, is  not  very  good,  and  the  bay  is  quite  exposed, 
especially  to  the  south-west  mnds,  which  sometimes 
drag  the  ships  from  their  anchors  and  drive  them 
ashore. 

G.  has  been  known  in  history  from  a  very  early 
period.  The  Phoenician  navigatoi-s  called  it  Aluhe, 
which  the  Greeks  corrupted  into  Calpe,  its  classical 
name.  With  Abyla  (now  Ceiita)  opposite,  it  formed 
the  Pillars  of  HereiUes,  long  held  to  be  the  western 
boundary  of  the  world.     It  is  impossible  to  doubt 


Europa  Point,  Gibraltar. 


that  such  leaders  as  Hannibal  and  his  feUow-Car- 
thaginians  nuist  have  been  awake  to  the  importance 
of  this  rock  in  their  expeditious  from  Africa  into 
Spain ;  but  we  have  no  certain  information  of  its 
natural  strength  being  made  available  for  defensive 
or  aggressive  purposes  until  the  year  711  A.  D.,  when 
the  Saracens,  passing  into  Spain  under  Tardc  Ibn- 
Zeyad,  a  general  of  the  Calif  Al  WaUd,  for  the 
couquest  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom,  fortified  it,  as 
a  base  of  operations,  and  a  ready  jioint  of  access 
from  the  Barbary  coast.  From  this  chieftain  it 
took  the  name  of  Gebel-Tarik,  or  Hill  of  Tarik,  of 
which  Gibraltar  is  a  corruption.  One  of  the  old 
towers  of  this  early  castle  still  remains.  Subse- 
quently, G.  shared  in  the  revolutions  among  the 
Sloors  of  Spain,  being  now  in  the  hands  of  Alnio- 
ravide  princes  from  Africa,  and  again  in  the 
power  of  native  Arab  monarchs.  In  LSOO,  after  a 
gallant  defence,  it  succumbed  to  the  Christians  of 
Castile  imder  Don  Antonio  de  Guzman.  The 
king  of  Castile  immediately  constnicted  additional 
works  .and  a  dock-yard  at  the  'Old  Mole,'  and 
also  took  measures  to  induce  a  Christian  popu- 
lation to  settle  in  the  town.  The  Moors  besieged 
G.  in  1315  inefi'ectually,  but  in  1333  it  fell  to 
the  army  of  the  king  of  Fez,  whom  a  siege  by  the 
Castiliau  monarch  tailed  to  dislodge,  "in  1436, 
T4li 


the  Spaniards  tried  once  more  to  take  the  strong- 
hold ;  but  they  were  unsuccessful,  until,  in  a  sub- 
sequent siege  in  1462,  the  place  was  captured 
through  the  treachery  of  a  renegade  Moor.  From 
this  time  the  Moorish  power  was  too  thoroughly 
broken  for  any  serious  attempt  to  be  made  for  the 
recovery  of  G.,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Spanish,  and  was  so  strengthened  by  additional 
forttheations,  that  the  engineei-s  of  the  17th  c. 
accounted  it  impregnable.  A  combined  Dutch  and 
EngUsh  force,  however,  under  Sir  George  Rooke 
and  the  Prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  demonstrated 
that  G.  could  be  taken  ;  for  in  1704,  after  a  vigoi-ous 
bombardment,  and  a  landing  in  force,  the  governor 
deemed  it  ■wise  to  capitidate.  How  great,  even  then, 
were  the  capabilities  of  the  rock  for  defence  is  seen 
from  the  fact  that  the  ganison,  only  150  strong, 
placed  276  of  the  English  hors-de-comhat  before 
they  surrendered. 

Since  1704,  G.  has  remained  continuously  in  the 
possession  of  the  British,  but  not  without  the  neces- 
sity of  their  resisting  many  desperate  efforts  on  the 
part  of  Spain  and  France  to  dislodge  them.  Before 
the  victors  had  been  able  to  add  to  the  defences,  their 
mettle  was  severely  tried  by  a  siege  in  1704 — 1705. 
In  1720,  it  was  threatened,  and  in  1727  actually 
attacked  by  an  overwhelming  force  xmder  the  Count' 


GIBRALTAR. 


de  las  Torres.  During  this  siege,  the  place  was 
near  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  assailants.  The 
most  memorable,  however,  of  the  sieges  to  which 
G.  has  been  exposed,  commenced  in  1779,  wheq 
Britain,  being  engaged  in  the  struggle  with  its 
revolted  colonics,  and  at  the  same  time  at  war  with 
France,  Spain  took  the  opportunity  of  joining  the 
coahtion,  and  directed  her  whole  strength  against 
the  isolated  garrison  of  this  small  but  redoubtable 
fortress. 

The  communications  with  Spain  were  closed  on 
the  21st  June  1779,  and  a  strict  blockade  established 
by  the  Spanish  lieet ;  the  strength  of  the  besieged 
force  being  at  this  period  5.SS'2  men,  including  1095 
Hanoverians,  imder  General  Eliott,  the  governor. 
Famine  speedily  set  in ;  the  enemy  pushed  forward 
liis  woi-ks  for  the  future  bombardment,  and  com- 
menced active  .annoj'ance  on  the  12th  January 
1780,  by  tiring  several  shots  into  the  town.  Five 
days  later.  Admiral  Rodney  overcame  the  Spanish 
admiral,  threw  a  good  supply  of  provisions  into  the 
fortress,  added  1000  men  to  the  garrison,  and,  remov- 
ing all  useless  mouths,  left  it  dependent  on  its  own 
strength.  During  17S0  httle  of  hnportance  happened ; 
scurvy  disabled  many  of  the  defenders  ;  the  besiegers 
advanced  their  works,  continually  increased  their 
force,  and  by  obtaining  possession  of  the  opposite 
African  ports,  cut  off  the  last  chance  of  provisions 
being  obtained  for  the  stronghold. 

In  AprU  17S1,  starvation  stared  the  British  in 
the  face,  when,  on  the  12th,  Admir;d  Darby  con- 
voyed 100  merchant-vessels  into  the  bay.  The 
Spaniards  instantly  opened  their  lire,  hoping  to 
reduce  the  debilitated  gan-ison  before  effectual  aid 
was  received.  114  pieces  of  artillery,  inchiding  50 
13-inch  mortars,  poured  their  deadly  missiles  into 
the  place  :  for  many  days  this  bombardment  lasted 
with  im.abated  vigour,  and,  though  less  incessant, 
it  continued  -without  intermission  until  the  26th 
November,  when,  in  a  desperate  midnight  sally,  the 
British  succeeded  in  destroying  the  more  advanced 
of  the  enemy's  hues,  in  setting  fire  to  many  of  his 
batteries,  and  in  bloNving  up  his  iirincipal  depot  of 
ammunition.  This  daring  enterprise,  successfully 
carried  out  against  lines  mounting  135  guns,  was 
attended  with  surprisingly  small  loss,  and  forms 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  incidents  ia  a  magnificent 
defence. 

After  this  repulse,  the  Spaniards  ceased  severe 
hostihties  for  several  days,  up  to  which  cessation 
the  garrison  had  been  incessantly  bombarded  for 
nearly  eight  months,  and  had  had  568  ofHcers  and 
men  placed  hors-de-combat.  The  siege  continu__ed, 
however,  throughout  the  -winter  and  sprin"  of  1782 
without  anv  remarkable  incident.  In  July,  the 
Due  de  Crdlon  took  command  of  the  assailants, 
and  preparations  were  made  for  the  grand  assault. 
Additional  batteries  were  constnicted  on  the  land- 
side,  and  lloatmg  batteries  built  for  this  special 
sice  to  batter  "the  fortress  from  the  sea.  The 
latter  consisted  of  ten  large  vessels,  whose  sides 
were  fortified  by  seven  feet  of  timber  and  other 
materials  supposed  to  be  obstructive  of  shot ;  they 
were  covered  by  slantuig  shot-proo.f  roofs,  and  were 
intended  to  be  moored  by  massive  chains  -inthin 
liaU'-range  of  the  rock.  Covered  boats,  destined  to 
disembark  40,000  troops,  were  at  the  same  time 
prepared  The  effective  force  with  which  General 
Ehott  had  to  withstand  these  clforts  comprised, 
with  the  marine  brigade,  about  7000  mcn.^ 

The  great  attack  commenced  on  the  Sth  September 
by  a  bombanlment  simultaneously  on  all  sides; 
9  hne-of-battle  ships  poured  in  their  broadsides  ; 
15  <nm  and  mortar  boats  approached  the  town; 
whUe,  from  the  Spanish  Imes,  170  pieces  of  ordnance 
of  large  caUbre  opened  in  one  magnificent  discharge. 


This  terrific  fire  continued  tiU  the  12th  ;  when  the 
combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  numbering  47 
sail  of  the  line,  the  10  battering  ships  mentioned 
above,  esteemed  indestructible,  \rith  many  frigates 
and  smaller  vessels,  anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Alge- 
siras.  On  the  13th  every  pun  of  besiegers  and 
besieged  was  in  play.  The"  battering  ves-sels  proved, 
as  anticipated,  invulnerable  to  shot  and  shelh  At 
noon  the  enemy  depressed  their  gims  and  did  much 
damage ;  and  the  defenders  then  resorted  to  the 
expedient  of  red-hot  balls.  These,  with  carcasses, 
and  incendiary  shells,  were  concentrated  on  the 
battering  ships  in  imceasing  volleys.  Success  was 
doubtful  for  some  houi-s,  but  towards  evening  the 
gigantic  efforts  of  the  British  force  began  to  produce 
fruit.  The  ship  of  the  Spanish  admiral  was  in 
flames,  the  second  in  command  was  soon  no  better 
off,  and  although  by  eight  o'clock  the  attacking 
squadron  was  completely  silenced,  the  fire  of  red- 
hot  shot  was  continued  without  intermission  till 
morning.  By  4  A.M.  on  the  14th,  eight  of  the 
battering  ships  were  on  fire.  In  short,  of  the  ten 
invincible  b.atteries,  every  one  was  finally  burned  ; 
the  Spaniards  lost  at  least  2000  in  kiUed  alone  ; 
and  the  naval  attack  was  completely  repulsed  with 
a  loss  to  the  heroic  garrison  of  only  10  kiUed  and  68 
wounded.  It  is  worthy  of  record,  that  notwith- 
standing the  fury  to  which  the  British  soldiers  were 
wrought.  Brigadier  Curtis,  \vith  a  devoted  band, 
made  gallant  and  successful  cllorts  to  preserve  the 
poor  feUows  who  were  left  by  their  affrighted 
comrades  to  perish  in  the  burning  hulks. 

The  great  bombardment  of  tlie  13th  September 
1782,  was  the  crowning  triumph  of  the  siege  ;  but 
the  firing  continued  in  a  harassing  degree  from  the 
Spanish  Imes,  imtil  the  2d  Febniary  1783,  when  the 
Due  de  CrUlon,  as  much  to  his  own  as  to  General 
Eliott's  satisfaction,  annoimced  the  conclusion  of 
peace.  The  Spaniards  welcomed  their  Late  enemies 
-srith  the  enthusiasm  due  to  heroes.  The  thanks  of 
parhament  were  cordially  awarded  to  the  gallant 
band ;  whUe  brave  General  Ehott  received  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Bath,  and  subsequently  the  title  of 
Lord  Heathfield.  More  space  has  been  allowed  to 
the  description  of  this  memorable  struggle  than 
we  can  ordinarily  spare  to  specific  wars ;  but  the 
glorious  place  it  occupies  in  British  annals,  the 
length  to  which  it  extended  (3  years,  7  months,  and 
12  days),  the  disparity  of  force,  the  brilliant  defence, 
and  the  comparatively  small  loss  of  the  garrison — 
333  killed,  536  died  of  disease,  1008  woimded,  and 
43  deserted— seem  to  point  to  this  the  last  siege  of 
G.  as  an  exploit  not  to  be  passed  over  by  a  mere 
reference. 

Since  1783,  the  British  possession  of  G.  has  been 
uumolested,  and  few  events  have  happened  of  .any 
interest,  apart  from  the  gener.al  liistory  of  the  empire. 
At  present,  England  guards  this  formidable  rock 
with  jealous  care  ;  every  available  point  for  defence 
bristles  %vith  artillery;  the  mountain  is  honey- 
combed with  g.alleries  and  bomb-proofs,  steep  escar|)s 
bar  all  approach,  and  batteries  hewn  in  the  solid 
stone,  fruwn  ahkc  on  friend  and  foe.  Immense 
stores  of  pro-vdsiou,  water,  and  munitions  of  war 
are  constantly  maintained ;  and  the  whole  is  garri- 
soned by  a  thoroughly  efficient  force  of  .about  .5000 
infantry,  with  1000  artillerj',  and  a  smaller  body  of 
engineers.  The  jealousy  for  its  safety  would  appear 
to  rest  rather  on  making  its  preservation  to  the 
cro-wn  of  England  a  point  of  honour  than  a  matter 
of  national  hnportance ;  for  beyond  being  a  standing 
menace  to  Sp.ain,  and  a  source  of  constant  in-it.ation, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  its  actual  use  to  Great  Britain. 
The  harbour  is  not  of  great  value,  and  the  fortress 
by  no  means  commands  the  strait. 

With  regard  to  the  internal  organisation  of  G., 
°  747 


GIBRALTAE-GIBSON. 


the  law  of  England  prevails  ;  the  governor's  deci- 
sion beint;  final  in  civil  casos  not  involving  more 
than  i'.'iOO.  In  nmro  ini]Kirtant  causes,  au  appeal 
lies  to  the  British  I'rivy  Council.  There  is  a  good 
police  force,  under  a  police  magistrate,  and  tolerable 
order  usually  prevails.  All  religions  enjoy  a  perfect 
toleration ;  the  Catholics  are  most  numerous,  having 
a  bishop  and  a  cathedral ;  next  the  Jews,  wlio 
possess  foul'  synagogues ;  the  Protestants,  though 
less  numerous,  have  also  a  bishop.  There  are  three 
good  jiublic  librai'ies ;  the  best  and  oldest  being 
that  started  by  the  famous  Colonel  Driukwater, 
the  historian  of  the  great  siege. 

G.  is  a  free  port,  and  a  resort  in  consequence  of 
Spanish  smugglers,  who  drive  an  amazing  trade  by 
introducing  contraband  goods  into  Spain.  The 
llritisli  government  is  not  altogether  free  from  a 
cliarge  of  breach  of  faith,  in  the  toleration  it  has 
given  to  these  dishonest  men  ;  for  it  is  bound  by 
many  engagements  to  use  its  best  exertions  to  pre- 
vent any  fraud  on  the  Spanish  revenues,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  possession  of  this  peninsula.  The 
colony  of  G.  was  for  many  j'ears  a  most  costly  one  ; 
but  of  late,  by  judicious  management,  it  has  been 
made  to  defray  the  expenses  of  its  civil  government : 
the  heavy  charge  for  the  military  force  being,  of 
course,  payable  out  of  imperial  funds.  The  revenue 
amounts  to  about  A'30,000,  and  is  derived  from 
customs,  port  and  quarantine  dues,  land  revenues, 
stamps,  and  licences.  Its  cost  to  this  country  over 
and  above  the  revenue  collected,  is  computed  for 
the  year  1862— ISG3  to  be  £300,000. 

The  town  of  G.  consists  of  three  parallel  streets, 
in  which  the  curious  intermingling  of  English  archi- 
tecture with  the  Spanish  houses  spoils  the  effect 
of  the  whole.  English  domestic  building  is  emi- 
nently iinsiiited  to  a  climate  light  and  hot,  lilce 
CI  il  ■raltar.  There  are,  nevertheless,  some  handsome 
structiu-es. 

GIBRALTAR,  Stkaitb  op  (anciently  the  Straits 
of  Hercules),  extend  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape 
Ceuta  on  the  African  coast,  and  from  Cape  Trafalgar 
to  Europa  Point  on  the  coast  of  Spain.  The  Straits 
narrow  toward  the  east,  their  %ridth  between 
Europa  Point  and  Cape  Cei'.ta  being  only  15  mdes, 
while  at  the  western  extremity  it  is  24  miles.  The 
length  (from  east  to  west)  is  about  36  miles.  The 
tide  at  Tarifa  rises  from  7  to  8  feet.  Through  these 
Straits  a  continual  current  runs  from  the  Atlantic, 
and  is  so  strong  that  sailing  vessels  bound  westward 
can  pass  only  by  the  aid  of  a  brisk  wind  from  the 
Levant.  It  is  supposed  that  the  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean  find  an  outlet  here  liy  an  under- 
current, as  well  as  liy  the  currents  which  flow 
westward  along  the  European  and  African  shores 
respectively. 

GIBSO?!',  JonN",  one  of  the  first  sculptors  of  the 
day,  was  bom  at  Conway,  iu  North  Wales,  in  1791. 
His  father,  a  landscape-gardener,  removed  to  Liver- 
pool about  the  beginning  of  this  centuiy,  and  here 
G.  received  his  education.  His  love  of  art  mani- 
fested itself  strongly,  even  while  he  was  a  mere  hoy 
at  school,  and  at  the  age  of  16  he  entered  the  marble 
works  of  the  Messrs  Francis,  by  whom  he  was  intro- 
duced to  Koscoe,  whose  art-treasures  were  placed  at 
his  service.  Through  the  kindness  of  some  wealthy 
friends  he  was  enabled,  in  his  26th  year,  to  proceed 
to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Canova,  and 
after  his  death  of  Thorwaldsen.  G.  then  fixed  his 
residence  in  that  city,  and  very  seldom  revisited 
his  native  country.  His  first  reappearance  in  Eng- 
land was  after  a  lapse  of  28  years.  At  first,  (i. 
shewed  himself,  naturally  enough,  a  faithfid  follower 
of  Canovaj  whose  graceful  softness  he  made  his 
owii.     But  he  did  not  stop  there.     By  the  study  of 


the  antique,  which  Thorwaldsen  was  the  very  man 
to  stimulate,  G.  finally  rose  to  ideal  jimlty,  and  a 
thoroiigh  re.alisation  of  the  gi'ace  of  fonu.  This 
advance  is  clearly  traceable  in  his  works.  His  lii-st 
important  work  was  a  '  Nymph  unfastening  her 
Sandal.'  This  was  followed  l>y  a  gi'oup  representing 
'  Psyche  borne  by  the  Zephyrs,'  which  he  executed 
for  Sir  George  Beaumont,  and  which  he  several 
times  repeated.  In  the  eluu-eh  of  St  Nicholas,  in 
Liverpool,  there  is  a  bas-relief  of  G.'s  representing 
a  traveller  eonducteil  on  the  dangerous  jiath  of  life 
by  his  guardian  angel.  Among  his  greatest  works 
are  his  '  Am'ora  rising  from  the  Waves  to  annomice 
the  Daj' '  (belonging  to  Lord  Townshend)  ;  '  The 
Wounded  Amazon'  (the  property  of  the  Marquis  of 
Westminster) ;  '  The  Hunter  and  his  Dog  ; '  '  Narcis- 
sus,' '  Helen,' '  Sappho,'  '  Proserpine,'  and '  Venus.'  A 
spirit  of  the  finest  j)octry  lireathes  through  the.se 
works  : — they  are  thoroughly  classical,  and  are 
marked  by  a  refined  and  noble  severity.  His  grand 
innovation,  however,  viz.,  that  of  tinting  his  figures 
— though  he  defended  the  practice  by  a  reference 
to  Grecian  precedents — excited  much  keen  contro- 
versy, and  cannot  yet  be  said  to  have  commended 
itself  to  the  public  taste.  Among  his  jiortrait- 
statues,  those  of  Huskisson  and  Peel,  George 
Stejihenson,  and  Queen  Victoria  are  the  best.  G. 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
IS36.    (He  died  Janu.iry  1866.) 

GIBSON,  Thom-I-s  Milnek,  the  Eight  Hon., 
politician  and  statesman,  only  son  of  Major  Mihier- 
Gibson,  was  born  at  Trinidad,  1S07,  and  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  a 
•\n'angler's  degree  in  1830.  He  entered  parliament 
as  M.P.  for  Ipsviich  in  1837,  on  the  Conservative 
interest.  As  liis  political  views  expanded,  he  threw 
off  his  allegiance  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  for  which  he 
paid  the  penalty  of  the  loss  of  his  seat  in  1839.  In 
tlris  year  he  assumed  the  name  of  Milner,  by  royal 
licence.  His  eloquence,  ability,  and  superiority  to 
party-ties  having  gained  for  him  the  confidence 
of  the  Liberals,  in  1841  he  successfidly  contested 
Manchester  against  the  Conservative  candidate.  Sir 
G.  Murray.  He  had  previously  distinguished  himself 
by  his  advocacy  of  free-trade  ;  and  during  the  suc- 
ceeding five  years,  occupied  a  prominent  position, 
both  in  and  out  of  parliament,  among  the  orators  of 
the  League.  When  the  measure  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws  was  carried,  and  the  Whigs  came  into 
office  in  July  1846,  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor, 
and  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  'Trade ;  but, 
in  April  1848,  gave  up  a  post  which  was  by  no 
means  commensurate  with  his  powers  and  preten- 
sions. More  and  more  identifying  himself  with  the 
opinions  held  by  Messrs  Gobdeu  and  Bright,  when 
the  war  with  Russia  broke  out,  he  espoused  the 
unpopular  doctrines  held  by  Avhat  was  called  the 
'  Manchester  school,'  or  as  it  was  otherwise  desig- 
nated, the  '  Peace  party.'  In  1857,  the  Whigs  and 
Conservatives  of  Manchester  successfidly  imited  to 
unseat  him  and  his  colleague,  Mr  Bright.  Mdner-G. 
was,  however,  returned  at  the  end  of  1857  for 
the  borough  of  Ashtou-under-Lyne,  which  he  has 
continued  to  represent.  In  1858,  he  moved  an 
amendment  to  the  second  reading  of  the  Conspiracy 
Bill,  expressing  the  abhoiTcnce  of  the  House  at  the 
attempt  by  Orsiui  upon  the  life  of  Najjoleon  III., 
and  its  readiness  to  amend  defects  iu  the  criminal 
law ;  but  censuring  the  government  for  not  reply- 
ing to  Count  Persigny's  despatch  of  January  20, 
1858.  The  amendment  was  carried,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Lord  Palmerston  was  shattered  to  pieces. 
When  that  noble  lord  again  took  oflice  next  year, 
he  recognised  the  skilful  parliamentary-tactics  and 
infiuence  of  Milner-G.,  liy  ofl'ering  him  a  place  in 
his  cabmet.     He  became  ail-iiiteriiu  president  of  the 


GIDDINESS-G  lESSEN. 


Poor-law  Commission  in  Juno  1S59,  and  President 

of  the  Board  of  Trade  next  month.  The  duties 
of  this  office  he  stUl  (1SG2)  efficiently  discharges. 
Milner-G.  will  be  honourably  and  gratefully  remem- 
bered for  his  strenuous  advocacy  of  the  abolition  of 
the  taxes  on  knowledge.  He  was  for  twelve  years 
president  of  the  a.ssoeiation  for  the  repeal  of  these 
taxes.  His  labours  were  crowned  with  success,  first 
by  the  repeal  of  the  advertisement  duty  iu  1853, 
and  sccondl}',  by  the  repeal  of  the  compidsory  stamp 
on  newspapci-3  in  185.5.  There  then  only  remained 
the  paper  duty.  Milner-G.  had  made  several 
attempts  in  pre\'ious  sessions  to  induce  successive 
chancellors  of  the  Exchequer  to  abolish  this  impost ; 
and  in  1858,  he  carried  a  resolution,  '  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  excise  on  paper,  as  a  pcnnanent 
source  of  revenue,  woidd  be  impolitic'  Mr  Disraeli, 
then  C'haucellor  of  the  Exchequer,  cimscnted  to 
accept  this  motion,  but  held  himself  at  Hberty,  with 
his  party,  to  oppose  the  Paper  Duty  Abolition  Bill 
proposed  by  the  government,  of  which  JIUiier-Q. 
was  a  memlx^r,  in  1860.  The  bill  was  thrown  out 
by  the  House  of  Lords  on  financial  grounds,  but 
was,  next  session,  incorporated  into  the  general 
finanei.il  scheme  of  the  year:  and  on  the  1st  of 
October  1861,  the  paper  duty  ceased  to  exist. 
Mdner-G.  has  since  received  a  valuable  and  gratify- 
ing commemorative  presentation  of  plate  from  the 
members  and  friends  of  the  Association  for  the 
Repeal  of  the  Taxes  on  Knowledge.  This  testimonial 
was  presented  to  the  right  honourable  gentleman 
at  a  public  banquet  in  London,  iu  the  early  part  of 
the  i)resent  year  (1862). 

GI'DDINESS.     See  Vertigo. 

GI'DEON   (Hcb.  signifies  'a  hewer'  or  'cutter 
downi,'  i.  e.,  'a  brave  soUlier')  was  the  name  of  the 
greatest   of   all  the  judges   of  Israel.     He  was  the 
yoimgest  son  of  Joash  the  Abiezrite,  .and  lived  with 
his  father  at  Ophrah,  in  Manasseh.     The  period  in 
which   his   youth  was  cast  was  a  gloomy  one  for 
Israel.     The  people  had  fallen  into  idolatry,  and  as 
a  pmiishment '  the  Lord  had  delivered  them  into  the 
hand   of   Midian.'      It  docs    not   appear   that   the 
Midianites  exercised  their  sujiremaey  by  any  actual 
form  of  government.   Being  chiefly  wandering  herds- 
men, like  the   Bedouin  Arabs  of  the  present  day, 
they  were  rather  in  the  habit  of  regidarly  coming  up 
from  the   desert   'to   destroy   the  increase   of  the 
earth.'      So  terrible  were  their  marauding  expedi- 
tions, that  it  is  said  they  'left  no  sustenance  for 
Israel,  neither  sheep,  nor  ox,  nor  ass.'     Only  in  the 
mountain  strongholds,  and  in  dens  and  eaves  anion" 
the  bills,  could  the  people  preserve  their  liberty  and 
the  produce  of  their  fields.     At  last,  however,  the 
Israelites   began    'to   cry   unto    the    Lord,'   and   a 
prophet  is  sent  to  stir  up  their  religious  and  patriotic 
feelings.     They  were  now  obviously  ripe  for  resist- 
ance to  the  enemy,  at  least  portions  of  them.     It  is 
at  this  point  th.at  G.  is  introduced  by  the  writer  of 
the  Book  of  .ludses,  'threshing  wheat  by  the  wine- 
press to  hide  it  "from  the  Midianites.'      The  steps 
which  he  took  to  secure  the  freedom  of  his  country- 
men are  too  weU  known  to  require  description.     It 
is  sulEcicnt  to  say  that,  with  a  small  but  resolute 
force  of  .Jewish  p.atriots,  he  fell  suddenly  upon  the 
enemy  in  the  neichbourhood  of  Mount  Gilboa,  and 
utterly  routed  them.     The  pursuit  of  the  fujntives 
was  continued  f.ir  across  the   Jordan  towards  the 
SjTian  Desert.     The  effect  of  the  victory  was  most 
decisive.     The  Midianites,  we  are  told,  'lifted  up 
their  head  no  more,'  and  the  laud  of  Israel  enjoyed 
'  quietness  forty  years  in  the  days  of  Gideon.'     The 
people  vrished  to  make  him  king,  but  he  reliffiously 
refused   to   tamper   with  the  theocracy.      He   left 
behind  him  "0  sons; 


GIEX,  a  small  manufacturing  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Loiret,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of 
a  hiU  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  3S  mUes  east- 
south-east  of  Orleans.  It  is  well  built,  is  connected 
with  the  opposite  banli  of  the  river  by  a  handsome 
.stone-bridge  of  12  arches,  has  an  old  church  (the 
church  of  St  Etienne),  which  has  been  much  hurt 
by  repairs,  and,  surmounting  the  hill,  it  has  an 
interesting  old  castle,  in  a  good  state  of  preser- 
vation. G.  has  inijiortant  manufactures  of  faience 
and  leather,  and  some  trade  iu  ^rinc,  com,  salt, 
saffron,  and  wool.    Pop.  5697. 

GIESELER,   JoHAKX  K.iRL  Ludwig,  German 

church  historian,  was  born  3d  March  1792,  at  Peters- 

hagen,  near  Minden,  where  his  father  was  a  clergj-- 

man.      After    attending   the    orphan-house    school 

and  university  of  Halle,  and  after  teaching   for   a 

year  in  that  town,  in  October  1813,  he  entered  the 

army  as  a  volunteer  during  the  war  of  liberation. 

On  the  re-establishmcnt  of  peace,  however,  in  1815, 

he  returned  to  his  former  situation,  where  he  taught 

for  two   years,   and  then  became  conrcctur  of  the 

Gj-mnasium  at  Minden.     In  the  follomng  year,  he 

w;i3   appointed    to    the    directorship    of    a    newly 

instituted  gymnasium  at  Cloves,  and  pubhshed  an^ 

essay  on  the  origin  and  early  f.ate  of  the  gospels 

(nistorisch-Kritiisdicr  Vermdi,  iiher  d.  Eid,iteliun<i  u. 

d.  frilheni  Schicksak  d.  schrifd'iclien  EvanijcUen  (Leipz. 

1818).     This  and  other  works  were  the  occasion  of 

his  being  called,  m   1819,  as   ordinary  professor  of 

theology,  to  the  university  of  Bonn,  which  had  been 

established  but  shortly  before.     It  was  in  this  place 

that  he  begau  his  great  work  on  church  history,  of 

wliich  3  vols,  appeared  diu^ng  his  life,  and  two  more 

after  his  death,  under  the  editorship  of  E.  E.  Kede- 

penning.     This  work,  which  brings  down  the  history 

of  the  church  to  the   most  recent  times,  has  been 

translated  into  English,  and  is  so  greatly  valued  for 

its  method  of  picturing  the  times  in  happy  quot.a- 

tions   from   contemporary  writings,    that   the   lirst 

three  volumes  have  already  gone  through  several 

editions.      In    1S31,   G.   was   called  to   a   chair  iu 

Guttingen ;  became,  in  1S37,  a  consistorial  councdlor; 

and  later,  also  knisht  of  the  order  of  the  Guelphs. 

He  was   deeply  devoted  to  his  professorial  duties, 

but  took  at  the  s.ame  time  a  iiractical  interest  m 

many  benevolent  schemes,  especially  in  the  Gijttin- 

gen  orphan-house.     Besides  numerous  contributions 

to   periodicals   and    publications   on    contemporary 

questions,    he     edited,    among    other    things,    the 

Xnrratio   de  Bo'jomitis  of   Euthymius    Zygabenus 

(Gott.  1842),   as  well    as    Petrus   Sicidus'  Utsioria 

Mankheorum  sru  Pmdickmorum  (Gott.  1846),  and 

left  behind  him  a  volume  on  the  history  of  dogmas, 

which  was  given  to  the  world  by  lledepenning  in 

1856.     He  (hed  8th  July  1854.     A  notice  of  his  life 

\\-iU  be  found  i)refixed  by  the  editor  to  the  5th  vol. 

of  his  Church  Hiiturij. 

GIE'SSEN,  the  principal  town  of  the  province  of 
Upper  Hesse,  in  the  Grand-duchy  of  Hesse,  or  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  is  pleasantly  situ.ated  in  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  plain  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wieseck 
and  the  Lahn,  :54  miles  north  of  Frankfurt-ou-the- 
Maine.  Pop.  about  9000.  It  is  chiefly  deserving 
of  notice  for  its  well-endowed  imiversity  (founded 
in  1607),  which  possesses  commodious  buildings 
for  lecturing,  and  has  well-appointed  anatomical 
and  other  museums,  a  good  library,  observatory,  a 
famous  chemical  laboratory  (where  the  illustrious 
Liebig  experimented),  botanical  garden,  &c.  There 
are  also  various  endowed  schools,  as  the  Gym- 
nasium, Keal-Schulc,  &c.,  and  several  institutions 
for  the  prelimiuary  instruction  of  different  branches 
of  medical  knowledge,  which  are  connected  with 
the    university.       G.    has    manufactories    for    the 


GIFFORD— GIL. 


preparation  of  tobacco,  liqueurs,  vinegar,  soap,  and 
leather,  and  is  an  active  thriving  town. 

GIFFORD,  William,  an  English  poet,  translator, 
r.nd  critic,  was  born  at  Ashbnrton,  in  Devonshire, 
in  AprE  1750.  At  the  age  of  15  he  was  apjiren- 
ticed  to  a  shoemaker,  but  exhibiting  a  very  decided 
bias  towards  learning  and  poetry,  he  was  enabled, 
through  the  kintlness  of  some  friends,  to  acquire 
an  education,  and  to  proceed  to  lixeter  College, 
Oxford.  G.'s  first  publication  api)eared  in  1794, 
bein"  a  satirical  poem,  entitled  the  Baviml,  dii-ected 
against  the  Ddla  Cniscans  (q.  v.).  It  crushed 
them  in  a  moment,  lilie  the  faU  of  a  rock.  Flushed 
with  success,  G.  nexi;  year  produced  the  Mceviacl, 
which  satu'ised  the  oilences  in  the  high  places  of 
the  drama.  In  Ms  third  satire,  G.  assailed  Petei- 
Pindar  (Dr  Wolcot);  and  the  coarse  and  witty 
doctor,  the  breath  of  whose  nostrils  was  literary 
warfare,  rushed  to  the  fray  -with  A  Cut  at  a  Cobbler, 
and  bespattered  his  opponent  with  mud  from  the 
kennels.  Canning  and  his  friends  having  at  this 
time  set  up  the  Anti- Jacobin,  G.  was  appointed 
editor,  and  through  the  intluence  he  acquii-ed  among 
the  leaders  of  at  least  one  section  of  the  political 
world,  he  was  appointed  to  offices,  the  joint  emolu- 
ments of  which  amounted  to  i'900  per  anniun.  In 
1S02,  he  translated  Juvenal,  and  appended  to  his 
work  a  sketch  of  the  poet's  life.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Massinger,  Ford,  Shirley,  and  Ben  Jonson, 
and  in  his  notes  assailed  former  editors  with  the 
utmost  ferocity.  In  ISOS,  he  was  appointed  editor 
of  the  Quarterly  Peview,  started  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  his  friends  in  opposition  to  the  Edinburgh. 
The  periodical  under  his  charge  attained  great 
influence,  and  he  continued  liis  editorial  duties  till 
■\ritliin  two  years  of  his  death.  He  died  in  Loudon 
on  the  31st  December  1826. 

G.  possessed  much  satirical  acerbity  and  poison, 
but  as  a  jioet  he  holds  no  rank  whatever.  As 
annotator  and  editor  of  the  old  EngUsh  di'amatists, 
he  did  good  service,  but  his  labours  in  this  field 
are  disfigured  by  suspicion  and  malignity.  As  a 
critic,  he  was  bitterly  partial  and  one-sided,  and 
his  jiraise  and  blame  depended  on  the  pohtical 
leanings  of  the  writer.  Leigh  Hunt  was  to  be  pur- 
sued lilie  a  wUd-beast,  because  he  was  a  Liberal ; 
and  the  flower-garden  of  Endymion,  every  rose 
of  which  was  fed  by  the  dews  of  paradise,  was 
to  be  trampled  upon  with  critical  hoof,  because 
Keats  was  known  to  have  written  a  sonnet  in 
praise  of  Hunt,  and  was  understood  to  be  his 
private  friend.  G.  had  been  rudely  nurtured ;  he 
lived  in  a  time  of  great  jioUtical  uncharity;  and 
if  a  portion  of  the  bitterness  he  displayed  may  be 
set  down  to  natural  disposition  and  turn  of  mind, 
the  lai'ger  part,  perhaps,  must  be  explained  by  the 
pressiu-e  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

GIFT,  in  EngKsh  Law,  means  a  gratuitous 
transfer  of  property.  Any  person  is  at  liberty  to  do 
what  he  pleases  with  his  own  property,  and  to  give 
it  away  with  or  without  consideration,  if  he  is  so 
inclined.  When  he  gives  away  goods  or  chattels, 
mere  delivery  of  possession,  accompanied  by  words 
of  gift,  is  sufficient  to  transfer  the  property ;  and 
then  the  transaction  is  irrevocable.  But  if  he  does 
not  give  possession  of  the  goods  at  the  same  time, 
then,  in  order  to  be  bindmg  upon  him,  he  must 
execute  a  deed  or  writing  under  seal.  The  reason 
of  this  is,  that  a  mere  verbal  promise,  without  some 
legal  consideration,  is  nugatory  ami  revocable ; 
whereas,  when  he  execiites  a  deed,  he  is  stopped 
from  ever  afterwards  deuyin<'  it.  \Vliere  the  pro- 
perty given  is  not  personal,  out  real,  then  a  deed 
is  in  general  absolutely  necessary  to  transfer  the 
property.     A  will  is  the  most  familiar  example  of 


a  gift  of  property  both  real  and  personal,  for  the 
testator  generally,  in  such  a  case,  gives  away  his 
property  gratuitously.  Each  gift  of  personalty  by 
•\v\\\  is  better  kno\\'n  under  the  name  of  a  legacy; 
and  a  gift  of  land  is  generally  called  a  devise. 

As  sometimes  the  power  of  giving  away  property 
gi-atuitously  is  abused,  in  order  to  defraud  and 
defeat  creditors,  it  is  provided  by  statute,  that  a 
voluntary  conveyance,  whether  of  chattels  or  land, 
made  by  a  person  who  is  at  the  time  LDSolvent,  shall 
be  void  as  against  such  creditors ;  and  they  are 
entitled,  accordingly,  to  recover  the  property  from 
the  donee  (13  Eliz.  c.  5).  The  gift,  however,  even  in 
such  a  case,  stands  good  against  the  donor  himself. 
So,  if  any  person  give  by  deed  gratuitously  any 
land,  and  then  sell  the  same  land,  the  gift  \vill  be 
void  against  the  bond-fide  purchaser  (27  Eliz.  c.  4). 

There  is  a  pecidiar  Icind  of  gift,  or  rather  a  gift 
made  in  peculiar  circumstances,  called  a  Donatio 
Mortis  Causa,  i.  e.,  a  gift  made  by  a  person 
on  death-bed  of  some  personal  property,  such  as 
chattels,  money,  bills  of  exchange,  &c.  Such  gifts 
are  held  good,  if  they  comply  with  certain  conditions. 
This  is  in  substance  a  mode  of  giving  personal 
chattels  to  a  particidar  individual,  without  the 
necessity  or  intervention  of  a  will ;  but  such  gifts 
ai-e  so  often  afterwards  disputed,  that  it  is  better  to 
include  them  in  a  will. 

In  Scotland,  a  gift  may  be  made  of  goods  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  England ;  but  it  is  usually 
called  a  Donation  (q.  v.).  Gratuitous  alienations 
by  persons  in  insolvent  circimistauces  are  also  held 
to  be  void  as  against  creditors  (stat.  1621,  c.  IS). 
Though  it  is  competent  in  Scotland  to  make  a  gift 
of  goods  or  money  by  merely  delivering  the  posses- 
sion thereof,  accompanied  by  words  of  gift  to  the 
douce,  still  there  is  this  peculiarity,  that  if  the 
transaction  is  afterwards  impeached,  it  can  only  be 
proved  in  Scotland  by  the  donor's  writ  or  oath, 
no  matter  how  many  ■witnesses  may  have  been 
present ;  whereas,  in  England,  it  can  be  proved  by 
ordinary  witnesses,  like  any  other  fact. 

Gift,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  iilso  often  used 
to  denote  a  grant  or  appointment  by  the  crown  or  a 
court,  such  as  gifts  of  non-entry,  escheat,  bastardy, 
tutory,  &c. 

GIGG,  GIGA,  or  GIGUE,  the  name  of  a  short 
piece  of  music,  much  in  vogue  in  olden  times ;  of  a 
joyfid  and  lively  character,  and  in  f  or  '-^  time, 
sometimes  in  f ;  used  formerly  as  a  dance-tune,  and 
often  introduced  as  a  movement  of  a  larger  com- 
position. It  consists  of  two  parts  of  eight  bars 
each,  and  the  shortest  notes  are  quavers. 

GIJO'JT,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Oviedo  (the  former  Asturias),  and 
20  mdes  north-north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
stands  on  a  low  peninsula  projecting  northward 
into  the  Bay  of  Biscaj-.  It  is  the  best  and  most 
regularly  built  town  in  the  pro^^nce  ;  is  partly  sur- 
rounded by  old  walls,  and  is  defended  by  an  old 
castle  and  by  coast  batteries.  It  has  a  good  port, 
at  which  steamers  call  regidarly.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  stone-wares,  hats,  and  linen  fabrics ; 
nuts  and  other  fruits  are  exported.  •  Berniudez,  the 
historian  of  Spanish  art,  was  boi'n  here.  In  718, 
the  Moors  having  been  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Canicas,  were  compelled  to  abandon  G.,  of  which 
they  had  made  themselves  masters.     Pop.  6100. 

GIL,  S.iK  (sometimes  called  St  Giles),  a  small 
town  of  the  republic  of  New  Granada,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Boyaca,  stands  in  lat.  6°  25'  N.,  and  in  long. 
73'  40'  W.,  64  miles  south-west  of  Pamplona.  It 
was  foimded  in  1690,  has  a  college  and  m.-mufactm'os 
of  tobacco  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  a  good  trade 
in  agricidtural  produce.     Pop.  6000. 


GIL— GILBERT. 


Glti,  Vicente,  the  father  of  the  Portuguese 
dram.-i,  waa  bom  about  1470,  or,  accordiug  to 
others,  about  14S5,  whether  at  Guimaraes,  Bar- 
cellos,  or  Jjisbon,  is  disputed.  In  accordance  vnth 
the  desire  of  his  parents,  he  studied  jurisprudence 
at  the  university  of  Lisbon  ;  but  his  poetical  tastes 
soon  drew  him  away  from  that  science,  and  his 
inclination  was  possibly  conlinncd  by  the  favour- 
able reception  of  his  first  poetical  essay  at  the 
court  of  Emanuel  the  Great.  This  was  a  pastoral 
in  Spanish,  which  was  represented  before  the 
court  in  1502,  to  celebrate  the  birth  of  the  prince 
who  became  John  III.  The  queen,  Beatrice, 
Emanuel's  mother,  was  so  pleased  with  the  piece, 
that  she  wished  it  to  be  repeated  at  the  follomng 
Christmas;  but  G.  produced  a  new  work  for  the 
occasion,  also  in  .Spanish,  and  in  (b'amatic  form; 
so  that  the  introduction  of  the  drama  into  Por- 
tugal coincides  with  the  year  of  the  birth  of 
John  III.  G.  continued  at  all  the  more  important 
festivals  to  produce  similar  dramatic  pieces,  in  the 
performance  of  which  not  only  he  and  his  daughter 
Paula,  who  was  a  distinguished  actress  and  poet, 
but  King  John  also  took  part.  His  fame  spread 
beyond  his  own  country,  and  Erasmus,  declaring 
him  to  be  the  greatest  dramatist  of  his  time,  is 
said  to  have  learned  Portuguese  for  the  pm-pose  of 
reading  his  worlcs.  At  home,  however,  ho  had 
detractors,  whom  he  sought  to  silence  once  at  a 
party  by  comjjosing  impromptu,  on  a  given  proverb, 
the  farce,  Jiiez  Perelra,  which  is  his  best  piece. 
Complaints  in  his  works  seem  to  indic.ite  that  the 
court  was  not  liberal  enough  to  keep  him  from  want 
in  his  later  years.  He  died  probably  soon  after 
1530.  His  works  were  edited  by  his  son  in  15G1, 
and  again  in  1585,  after  imdergoing  castigation  by 
the  Inquisition.  It  was  not  till  our  own  times 
that  a  reprint  of  G.'s  works,  as  complete  and  correct 
as  possible,  was  undertaken  by  Barreto  Feio,  and 
Monteiro  (3  vols.,  Hamb.  1832).  Not  only  does  G. 
possess  historical  importance  as  having  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  national  theatre  in  Portugal,  but 
his  works  deserve  study  from  their  intrinsic 
poetical  and  dramatic  worth.  He  has  been  called 
the  Plautus  of  Portugal. 

GIL  POLO,  G^1.SPAI!,  a  Si)anish  poet,  was  bom 
at  A''aleucia  in  the  first  half  of  the  IGth  centurj'. 
■\Vhile  town-clerk  of  his  native  i)lace,  his  talents 
for  office  became  known  to  PliUip  II.,  who  appointed 
him,  in  1572,  coadjutor  to  the  president  of  the 
iqiper  financial  chamber  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
and  in  1580  sent  him  to  superintend  the  royal 
patrimony  at  Barcelona,  where  he  died.  Before, 
however,  his  time  was  absorbed  by  business,  6. 
had  occupied  himself  with  poeti-y.  Besides  various 
lyrics,  and  his  Cmito  de  Turia  in  praise  of  liis 
native  city,  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  Monte- 
mayor's  liiana,  under  the  title  Primera  Parte  tie 
Diana  enamomdn  Cinco  Libra:!,  que  pro^ilqua  his 
Sieta  de  Jorge  Montemayor.  This  work  appeared 
first  at  Valencia  in  15(54,  the  same  year  in  which 
another  continuation  of  Montemayor's  pastoral  was 
given  to  the  world  by  a  physician  named  Perez. 
Though  inferior  to  the  origiual  romance  in  inven- 
tion, ti.'s  continuation  so  greatly  siu-passes  it,  as 
Well  as  the  other  continuation,  in  clearness  of 
thought  and  cxjjression  thi-oughout  the  inctrical 
portions,  that  Cervantes  exempts  it  from  the  con- 
demnation of  Don  Quixote's  other  books  as  deserv- 
ing as  m\ich  respect  'as  though  ApoUo  himself  had 
writcen  it.'  The  best  edition  of  the  Diana  enamu- 
radu  is  that  of  Cerda,  which  is  accomjianiod  by  a 
commentary  on  the  Canto  de  Turki  (Madrid,  1778; 
new  ed.  1802).  Biographers  have  generally  con- 
founded G.  with  a  son  of  his  own  name,  who  was 
a  distinguished  writer  on  jurisprudence. 


GI'LA,  Kio,  a  river  of  North  America,  has  its 
origin  in  the  state  of  New  Mexico,  in  lat.  about 
32°  45'  N.,  long,  about  108°  30'  W.;  and,  after  a 
westward  course  of  nearly  450  miles,  joins  the 
Colorado,  about  70  miles  above  the  fall  of  that  river 
into  the  Gulf  of  California.  For  more  than  one- 
half  of  its  coiu'se  it  passes  through  mountains, 
and  in  some  places  is  wholly  inaccessible,  being 
imprisoned  witliin  walls  of  jieriiendicular  rock 
nearly  1000  feet  high.  The  G.  is  uavij,'.able  for 
flat  boats  for  about  ISO  miles.  Numberless  ruins 
of  stone-built  houses,  among  which  fragments  of 
]>ottery  are  found,  occur  all  along  the  banks  of 
this  river,  proving  that  at  some  past  period  the 
district  must  have  been  much  more  populous  than 
it  now  is.  One  of  these  ruins,  a  structure  of 
three  stories  in  height,  is  still  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation. 

GILBERT,  William,  a  distinguished  natural 
philosopher  and  jihysieian,  was  born  in  1540  at 
Colchester,  of  which  town  his  father  was  recorder. 
He  was  a  member,  and  subsequently  fellow  of  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge ;  was  B.A.  in  1500,  M.A. 
in  1564,  and'M.D.  in  15G'J.  About  the  year  1573,  ho 
settled  in  London,  joined  the  College  of  Physicians, 
and  practised  with  so  much  reputation,  that  ho 
was  ap|)ointed  physician  to  Queen  EUzabeth.  The 
time  that  he  coidd  spare  from  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
fession was  employed  in  philosophical  experiments, 
particiUarly  in  relation  to  the  magnet ;  and  in  these 
he  was  assisted  by  a  pension  from  the  queen.  After 
holding  various  oliices  in  the  College  of  Physicians, 
he  was  finally  elected  its  president  in  1600.  At  the 
death  of  the  queen,  he  was  continued  in  his  office 
of  coiu-t  physician  by  James  I.,  but  he  survived 
his  royal  mistress  only  a  few  months,  and  died  a 
bachelor  in  November  1603.  His  death  seems  to 
have  taken  place  in  London ;  but  he  was  buried  at 
Colchester,  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  where 
there  is  a  handsome  monument  to  his  memory.  He 
left  his  library,  globes,  instruments,  and  cabinet  of 
minerals  to  the  College  of  Physicians.  From  hia 
birthplace,  he  is  generally  designated  as  Gilbert  of 
Colchester.  His  works  are  (I)  De  Magnc'e,  JIapneli- 
cisfjue  C'orporibus,  tl  de  Maqno  Marjiiete,  Tdhire, 
Physiolonia  Nova,  fob.  Lend.  1000  (reprinted  at 
Stettin  in  1633),  of  which  there  are  several  edi- 
tions ;  (2)  De  Mundo  nostra  Suhlmiari  Philosophia 
Nova,  4to,  Amsterdam,  1C51  (published  from  a 
MS.  in  the  library  of  Sir  Wdliam  BosweU).  The 
first  of  these  works  has  served  as  the  basis 
of  most  subsequent  investigations  on  terrestrial 
magnetism ;  and  (to  use  the  words  of  Professor 
Wiiewell  in  his  Ilistor;/  of  the  Inductive  Sciences)  it 
'  contains  all  the  fimdamental  facts  of  the  science, 
so  fully  examined,  indeed,  that  even  at  this  day 
we  have  little  to  add  to  them.'  He  estabUshes 
the  magnetic  n.ature  of  the  earth,  which  he  regards 
(as  the  title  of  his  work  indicates)  as  one  great 
magnet ;  and  he  conjectured  that  terrestrial  mag- 
netism and  electricity  were  two  allied  emanations  of 
a  sinrde  force  ;  a  view  which  was  only  demonstrated 
with  scientific  strictness  more  than  two  centuries 
afterwards  by  Oersted  and  Faraday.  G.  was  the 
first  to  use  the  terms  '  electric  force '  and  '  electric 
attraction,'  and  to  point  out  that  .amber  is  not  the 
only  substance  which  when  rubbed  attracts  liglit 
objects,  but  that  the  same  factdty  belongs  to  the 
resins,  sealing-wax,  sulphur,  glass,  &c. ;  .and  he 
describes  how  to  mco-sure  the  excited  electricitj- by 
means  of  an  iron  needle  moving  freely  on  a  point. 
Galileo  pronounced  him  '  great  to  a  degree  that 
miglit  be  envied ; '  and  the  publication  of  Ins  treatise 
DeMaijnele  will  always  be  regarded  as  constituting 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  magnetism  and  the  allied 


poch 
sciences. 


751 


G ILBEIIT  ISLANDS-GILDING. 


GI'LBERT  ISLANDS,  a  5;roup  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  the  archipelago  ot  Tierra  del  Fuego,  offer  a 
good  harbour  in  Do'ris  Cove. — Another  cluster  of 
the  same  name,  comprising  15  coral  islands,  forms 
part  of  the  Mulgi-ave  Archipelago  iu  the  Pacific, 
between  lat.  1°  S.'and  2"  30'  N.,  and  long.  172'  aud 
174°  30'  E.,  and  contains  a  popidation  of  60,000. 
The  two  largest  are  known  as  Dnimmond's  Isle  and 
Kuo.\'s  Isle ;  the  former  30  miles  long  by  rather  more 
than  i  mile  broad,  the  latter  20  miles  long.  The 
inhabitants  resemble  the  Malays  in  appearance,  and 
are  diN-ided  into  three  classes — chiefs,  lanilhohlers, 
and  slaves.  The  chief,  almost  the  only,  cultivated 
products  are  the  cocoa-nut  and  the  pandauus. 

GI'LBERTINES,  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman 
r'atholic  Church,  specially  noteworthy  as  being  of 
English  origin.  It  was  founded  in  the  twelfth  c. 
by  St  Gilbert,  a  n.ative  of  Sempringham,  in  Lincoln- 
shu-e.  The  rule  of  the  order  was  mainly  derived 
from  that  of  the  Canons  Eegidar  of  St  Augustine. 
St  Gilbert  also  founded  an  order  of  nuns  after  the 
Benedictine  institute.  Both  oi-ders  were  approved, 
and  had  numerous  convents  in  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Keforraation,  when  they  shared  iu  tlie  general 
suppression. 

GILBO'A,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  '  bubbling 
fountain,'  is  the  name  given  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  a  range  of  hills,  between  500  and  600  feet  high, 
overhanging  the  city  of  Jezreel,  in  the  eastern  side 
of  the  pfain  of  Esdi"aelon.  It  is  mcmoraljle  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  King  Said  and  his 
thi'ee  sons. 

GILD.     See  Guild. 

GILDAS,  or  GILDUS,  by  some  surnamed  the 
Wise,  by  others  Badouicus,  appears  to  have  been 
born  in  the  year  510.  He  visited  Fi'ance  in  550, 
and  Ireland  in  565.  He  died  in  570.  His  De 
Excklio  Britanma:  Liher  Querulus  was  first  printed 
at  London  in  1525,  and  has  been  often  reprinted 
both  ill  England  and  on  the  continent.  The  best 
editions  are  j\Ir  Stevenson's,  published  by  the 
Eiiulish  Historical  Society  (Loud.  1S38),  ami  Mr 
Petrie's  in  the  Monumenta  Hisloriai  BrUannka 
(Lond.  1S4S).  G.  is  a  weak  and  wordy  writei'. 
Gibbon  has  justly  descrilied  him  iu  a  single  sen- 
tence :  '  A  monk,  who,  iu  the  profound  ignorance  of 
human  life,  has  presumed  to  exercise  the  office  of 
historian,  strangely  disligiu-es  the  state  of  Britain 
at  the  time  of  its  separation  from  the  Koman 
empire.'  His  obscure  aud  meagre  narrative  may 
be  divided  into  two  jieriods — the  first  exteneling 
from  the  first  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans  to 
the  revolt  of  Maximus,  at  the  close  of  the  4th  c. ; 
the  second,  from  the  revolt  of  M.a.ximus  to  the 
author's  own  time.  The  second  portion  is  even 
more  unsatisfactory  than  the  first. 

GILDING.  There  are  many  processes  of  gilding, 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  substance  to  be 
gilded,  and  the  kuid  of  effect  required  to  be  pro- 
duced, but  they  may  all  be  classified  imder  tliree 
heads — namely,  1st,  mechanical  gilding ;  2d,  chemical 
gUdiug  ;  3d,  encaustic  gilding. 

The  first  is  used  chiefly  for  gilding  wood,  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  other  compositions,  iu  imitation  of 
wood-carving.  It  consists  simply  in  laying  leaf- 
gold  upon  the  surface  of  the  article,  which  is  first 
prepared  with  a  layer  of  tltin  white,  composed  of 
hot  size  and  whiting  ;  then,  if  the  gilding  is  to 
be  burnished,  another  layer  of  thick  while  of  similar 
composition,  but  with  more  whiting,  is  added ; 
after  this,  a  coating  of  gold-size  (see  Gold-.Size) 
is  brushed  over ;  this  is  wetted,  and  the  gold-leaf 
is  laid  upon  it.  A  considerable  amount  of  skill 
is  required  iu  pickiu"  up,  cutting  into  the  proper 
size,  and  haying  on  the  pieces  of  gold-leaf,  so  that 


there  shall  be  as  little  waste  as  possible,  aud  all 
the  inequalities  of  a  raised  design  equally  covered. 
The  gold-leaves  are  first  spread  upon  a  cushion 
l.ty  blowing  them  from  between  the  leaves  of  a 
book,  then  cut  into  the  required  sizes,  and  lifted 
and  laid  on  the  work  by  means  of  a  tip,  which  is 
a  sort  of  comb  formed  of  bristles.  When  the 
gold  is  thus  laid  on,  it  is  forcibly  blown  to  expel 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  moisture  under  it,  .and 
then  fiu-ther  pressed  and  smoothed  by  means  of  a 
camel-hair  brush.  When  it  has  reached  a  certain 
state  of  di-yness,  it  is  burnished  by  rubbing  with  a 
burnisher  of  flint  or  agate.  The  use  of  the  under- 
layer  of  whiting  aud  size  is  to  give  a  somewhat 
j'ielding  surface,  which  renders  it  possible  to  rub 
the  gold-leaf  briskly  with  the  burnisher  without 
abrading  it.  Portions  of  the  surface  which  are  left 
unburnishcd  in  dead-gold  are  called  the  inalt. 
The  above  process  is  called  burnish  rjUdinrj.  Oil 
gilding  differs  somewhat  from  this  iu  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  surface  to  receive  the  gold-leaf.  Two  or 
three  coatings  of  thin  white,  juixed  with  a  little 
mellow  clay,  are  applied ;  then  two  or  three  co.ats  of 
plain  gelatine-size,  called  clear  cule ;  and  finally, 
the  oil  gold-size  (see  Gold-.Size),  upon  which  the 
gold  is  laid  when  it  is  nearly  dry  or  tcicaj.  Those 
parts  which  require  burnishing  are  treated  as  before 
described.     Japan  (jilding  will  be  described  under 

jArANNINC. 

Chemical  pildini). — Metals  are  now  usually  gilded 
by  the  process  of  electro-gililing  (see  G^vlvanism), 
but  besides  this,  various  methods  of  chemical  gililing 
have  been  adopted,  and  some  are  still  in  use. 

Water  gildiiirj,  as  it  is  very  inappropriately  termed, 
is  conducted  by  applying  to  the  surface  to  be 
gilded  a  thin  coat  of  an  amalgam  of  gold,  and  then 
by  heat  driving  off  the  volatile  mercury,  when  the 
gold  remains  adhering  firmly  to  the  surface,  bnt 
having  a  dull  and  dingy  brownish-yellow  colour. 
The  colour  and  lustre  of  gold  is  brought  up  by 
.•icrafchino  with  a  wire-brush,  or  burnishing  with  a 
bloodstone,  or  black  haematite  burnisher.  The 
amalgam  of  gold  is  made  by  dissolving  leaf-gold  or 
precipitated  gold  in  about  ten  times  its  weight  of 
mercury,  and  then  washing  and  straining  it  tlu-ough 
wash-leather.  The  sxu'face  to  Ije  gilt  is  usually 
jirepared  by  dipping  it  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
mercury,  or  quick-water,  after  it  has  been  well 
cleaned ;  this  coats  it  with  a  film  of  mercury,  and 
insures  adhesion  of  the  amalgam.  Water  gilding 
is  very  injurious  to  the  men  and  women  who 
work  at  it,  on  account  of  the  mercurial  fumes. 
Modern  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
furnace,  where  the  'drying  off'  is  conducted,  have 
diminished  this  evil  considerably,  and  at  the  same 
time  economised  the  process  by  recondensing  and 
saving  the  evaporated  mercury ;  but  still,  with 
the  best  arrangements,  the  health  of  the  w.ater 
gUders  is  affected.  This  process  is  only  apjdieable 
to  metals  that  readily  form  an  amalgam  with  mer- 
cury. Iron  and  steel,  therefore,  cannot  be  cUrectly 
gilded  by  it.  It  is  stUl  in  use  for  buttons  and 
some  kinds  of  common  jewellery.  Thirtj'  thousand 
buttons,  one  inch  iu  diameter,  may  be  gilded  ■svitli 
one  ounce  of  gold  ;  14  or  15  thousand  is  the  number 
over  which  this  quantity  is  commonly  spread. 

Gilding  by  immersion. — For  this  puii)ose  a  solu- 
tion is  used  which  slowly  attacks  the  metal  to  be 
gilded,  aud  at  the  same  time  deposits  on  its  surface 
an  equivalent  of  gold.  Elkington's  patent  solution 
is  made  by  dissolving  \  ounce  troy  of  fine  gold  in 
'2\  ounces  of  nitro-miu'iatic  acid,  heating  this  iintd 
red  aud  yellow  vapours  cease  to  be  evolved,  then 
diluting  with  1.^  pint  of  distilled  water,  adding  to 
this  1  [lound  of  bicarbonate  of  potass,  and  boiling 
for  two  hours.     The  article  to  be  gilded  is  dipped 


GILDIXG  METAL-GILLIES. 


into  this  at  nearly  tlic  boiling  heat,  and  agitated  in 
it  for  aljout  a  minute.  Tallxit's  patent  solution  is 
m.ide  by  adding  a  solution  of  gold  to  a  solution  of 
gallic  acid  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether.  The  articles 
are  dipjied  as  above. 

The  metliod  called  Grecian  pildinri  is  a  process 
intermediate  between  the  above  and  water  gilding. 
Sal  ammoniac  and  cttrrosive  sublimate  are  dissolved 
in  nitric  acid,  and  gold  is  dissolved  in  this  solution, 
which  thus  becomes  a  mixture  of  chloride  of  gold 
and  nitrate  of  mercury  with  some  ammonia.  This 
solution,  on  being  a])plied  to  a  surface  of  silver, 
immediately  blackens  it,  but  upon  the  application 
of  heat,  it  is  richly  gildeil. 

Most  articles  that  are  gilded  by  cither  of  the 
above  chemical  methods,  or  by  electro-giliUng,  are 
submitted  to  an  after-i)rocess  of  colouring.  This 
consists  either  in  acting  upon  the  surface  with 
a  saline  solution,  and  heating  the  article  after- 
warcLs,  or  in  coating  it  \vith  a  kind  of  varnish 
of  bee's-wax  and  yellow-ochi-e,  and  then  burn- 
ing it  off.  Various  saline  solntintis  are  used, 
niany  of  \vhich  are  carefully  guarded  trade  secrets. 
1  o'l.  alum,  1  oz.  of  common  salt,  and  2  oz. 
nitre  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of  water  is  recom- 
mended. Also  24  parts  of  nitre,  10  alum,  5  sulj)hate 
of  iron,  5  sulphate  of  zinc  boiled  together  in  snlK- 
cient  water  to  form  a  paste  when  cooled  with  con- 
tinual agitation.  The  articles  are  immersed  in  this, 
and  then  heated  till  the  desired  colour  is  obtained. 

CoU  Gikliiirj. — For  this  a  gilding  powder  is  first 
prepared  by  dissolving  5  ilrams  of  piu-e  gold  and  1 
diam  of  copper  in  10  oz.  of  nitro-muriatic  acid, 
then  moistening  clean  linen  rags  with  the  solution, 
.and  burning  them  to  ashes.  The.'^e  ashes  contain 
finely  divided  gold,  which  maybe  applied  to  surfaces 
of  copper,  brass,  or  silver,  by  simply  rubbing  it  over 
them  with  a  piece  of  cork  moistened  with  a  solution 
of  common  salt  in  water. 

Sword-blades,  lancets,  and  other  steel  .articles  are 
gilded  in  fancy  devices  by  drawing  the  design  with 
a  camel's-hair  pencil  moistened  in  a  solution  of 
gold,  pre])ared  by  agitating  ether  with  a  solution  of 
tercldoride  of  gold,  and  decanting  the  light  liquid 
which  floats  on  the  top.  Naphtha  may  be  used  in 
the  same  manner  for  this  purj)ose,  and  is  much 
chea])er. 

Silks,  satins,  ivory,  bone,  &o.,  may  easily  be  gilded 
by  immersing  them  in  a  neutral  solution  of  1  part 
of  terchloride  of  gold  to  4  or  5  of  water,  and  then 
exposing  them  to  the  action  of  hydrogen  gas,  which 
readily  comljines  with  tlie  chlorine,  and  reduces  the 
gold  to  the  metallic  state.  Flowers,  and  other  orna- 
mental designs,  may  be  thus  produced  in  gold  by 
simply  painting  them  on  the  surface  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush  dijiped  in  the  gold  solution.  The  articles 
may  then  be  suspended  in  an  inverted  tumbler  or 
other  suitable  vessel,  which,  if  placed  over  a  bottle 
containing  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  iron  filings  or 
zinc  scraps,  w'ill  collect  sufficient  of  the  light  gas 
to  bring  out  in  a  few  minutes  a  beautiful  and 
permanent  pure  gold  surface. 

Encaustic  (lildiny  is  usually  applied  to  glass  and 
porcelain.  The  gold  is  first  obtained  in  a  finely 
divided  state  by  precipitating  from  the  chloride 
with  jirotosulphate  of  iron,  or  by  simply  heating  the 
cliloride.  This  powder  is  gromid  u]>  with  ^  of  its 
weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth  and  some  borax  and 
gum  water,  and  then  painted  on  the  ware.  It  is 
then  heated  till  the  borax  is  vitrified  and  the  gold 
thereby  fixed.  Sometimes  the  gold  is  ground  with 
turpentine,  or  an  amalgam  of  gold  is  used  It  has  a 
brown  dingy  appearance  when  it  leaves  the  kiln ; 
the  gold  lustre  is  brought  up  by  biu-nishing. 

GILDING  JMETAL.  The  metal  of  which  gilded 
goods  are  made,  is  required  to  have  as  nearly  as 
204 


possible  the  colour  of  gold,  so  th,at  when  the  surface- 
gilding  is  worn  off  at  the  more  exfiosed  parts,  the 
fbtlereuce  of  colour  will  not  be  readily  apparent. 
This  is  obtained  by  making  a  kind  of  brass  haviug  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  copper  than  in  common 
brass. 

The  following  are  three  receipts  from  among  a 
variety  in  use  :  1st,  6  parts  copper,  1  common  brass; 
2d,  4  parts  copper  to  I  Bristol  brass ;  3d,  13  parts 
cop])er,  o  parts  brass,  12  j>arts  tin.  The  last  is 
much  harder  than  No.  1  or  2. 

GI'LEAD  (in  Eng.  'region  of  rocks')  was  a 
mountainous  district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Hieromax  (the 
modern  Sherint-al-MandliAr),  which  separated  it 
from  the  rich  levels  of  Bashan ;  on  the  E.  by  the 
desert  table  lands  of  Arabia ;  on  the  S.  by  Mo.ab 
and  Ammon ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Jordan.  In 
spite  of  its  name,  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  espe- 
cially in  the  middle,  and  round  the  brook  Jabbok, 
where  forests  of  oak  and  terebinth  occur.  Tlie  hills 
are  not  very  high  ;  they  have  broad  summits  almost 
Uke  table-lands,  '  tossed,'  says  Professor  Stanley 
(Sinai  and  FaleMine),  '  into  wild  confusion  of  undu- 
lating downs.'  G.  anciently  jiroduced  gums  and 
spices.  It  was  given  by  Joshua  to  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Reuben,  because  of  the  multitude  of  their 
cattle,  and  as  a  frontier  land  was  much  exposed  to 
invasion. 

GILFI'LLAN,  George,  critic  and  essaj-ist,  was 
born  at  L'omrie  m  1S13.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  and  at  the  divinity  hall  of  the 
Secession  body,  afterwards  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  in  1835  he  was  licensed  to  preach  the 
gospel.  In  March  1836  he  was  ordained  to  the 
School  Wynd  Church,  Dundee.  His  works  are 
numerous.  They  display  a  rich  but  reckless  fancy, 
and  wide  literary  symjiathies,  although  deficient 
perhaps  in  refinement  of  taste.  The  principal  are, 
A  Gallert)  of  Literarii  Portraits  (1S45)  ;  a  second 
Gallery  (1849) ;  The  Bards  of  the  Bihle  (1850) ;  The 
Marltfrs,  Heroes,  and  Bards  of  the  Scottish  Covenant 
(1852) ;  a  third  Galler;/  of  Literary  Portraits  (1854) ; 
History  of  a  Man  (1856) ;  Christianity  and  Our  Era 
(1857);  and  Alpha  and  Omeija  (1860).  In  1853  he 
commenced  an  edition  of  the  BritUh  Poets,  pub- 
lished by  Nichol  of  Edinburgh,  which  extended  to 
48  vols.  His  contributions  to  periodicals  have  been 
numerous. 

GILL  (Low-Lat.,  yilla,  a  drinking-glass),  a 
measure  of  capacity,  containing  the  fourth  p;irt 
of  a  pint,  or  the  32d  part  of  a  Gallon  (q.  v.). 

GILLE'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceas,  sub-order  Spiraeie ;  perennials,  natives 
of  the  temperate  parts  of  North  America.  The 
roots  are  used  in  medicine  as  a  mild  emetic,  and 
in  small  doses  as  a  tonic ;  and  arc  often  called 
Indian  Physic,  sometimes  American  Ipecacuanha, 
Indian  Hippo,  Dropwort,  and  Bowman's  Hoot.  They 
are  sometimes  planted  in  shrubberies,  on  account 
of  their  graceful  foUage,  They  grow  to  the  height 
of  about  two  feet. 

GILLES,  St,  an  old  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Card,  is  situated  near  the  borders 
of  the  dejiartment  of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  on  the 
Can.al  de  Beaucaire,  12  miles  south-south-east  of 
Nimes.  Its  abbey  church,  the  west  front  of  which 
is  a  master-piece  of  Romanesque  architecture,  and 
is  covered  with  the  richest  decoration,  dates  from 
the  nth  c.,  and  is  the  most  notable  building  in 
the  town.  'The  neighbourhood  of  St  G.  j>roduce3  a 
strong  red  wine  which  is  exportecL     Pop.  5730. 

GILLIE.S,  John,  LL.D.,  kno^vn  as  a  classical 
historian,  the  sou  of  Robert  Gillies,  Esq.,  was  born 

7AJ 


GILLS— GILT  TOYS. 


at  Brechin,  Forfarshire,  January  18,  1747.  His 
vounaest  lirothcr,  Adam,  was  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  session  in  .Scotland,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Gillies. 
G.  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Glasgow  ;  and, 
after  a  time,  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  -nith 
the  view  of  following  literature  as  a  profession. 
He  subsequently  acted  for  several  years  as  travel- 
line  tutor  to  the  sons  of  John,  second  Earl  of 
Hoi)etoun,  who  in  1777  settled  upon  him  an  annuity 
for  life.  In  1778  he  puljlished  a  transl.ation  of  the 
Orations  of  Isocrates  and  Ihune  of  Lyskm,  with  some 
Account  of  their  Lives,  4to ;  and  in  17S6  appeared 
the  first  part  of  his  History  of  Ancient  Greece.  This 
work  forms  2  vols.  4to,  and  4  vols.  8vo.  It  was 
extremely  popular  on  its  first  appearance,  and  is 
really  far  from  being  a  discreilitable  performance, 
though  much  disfigm-ed  by  verbosity,  and  dull 
and  prolix  disquisition  ;  but  it  has  dropped  out  of 
notice  nearly  altogether  since  the  advance  of 
Greek  scholarship  in  the  present  century,  and  the 
pubhcation  of  the  histories  of  Thirlwall  and 
Grote.  His  View  of  the  Reir/n  of  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  appeared  in  1789,  8vo.  In  1793,  on  the 
death  of  I)r  Robertson,  he  was  apjiointed  historio- 
grajiher  to  the  king  for  Scotland,  with  a  yearly 
salary  of  £200.  His  other  works  are,  a  translation 
from  the  Greek  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  and  Polities: 
com/msind  his  Practical  Philosophy,  with  Notes,  the 
Critical  history  of  his  Life,  and  a  new  Analysis  of 
his  Speculative  Works,  2  vols.  ;  Supplement  to  the 
Analysis  of  Aristotle s  Speculative  Works  (1804); 
History  of  the  World  from  Alexander  to  Augustus,  2 
vols.,  4to  (1807—1810);  Translation  of  Aristotle's 
R/wtoric  (1823).     He  died  February  5,  1836. 

GILLS.  See  Kespibation,  Orc^n's  and  Pro- 
cess OF. 

GI'LLYFLOWER,  a  popidar  English  name  for 
some  of  the  cruciferous  plants  most  prized  for  the 
beauty  and  fragrance  of  their  Howers,  as  wall- 
flower, stock,  &c.  The  clove-pink  also,  the  wild 
original  of  the  carnation,  is  called  Clore-Gilljflower. 
The  name  G.  has  been  regarded  as  a  corruption  of 
Jnhj-floioer ;  but  in  Chaucer  it  ajipears  in  the  form 
rjilqfre ;  and  the  French  r/irojlce  iutbcates  the  true 
derivation  from  girojle,  a  clove,  the  smell  of  the 
Clove-G.  being  somewhat  like  that  of  cloves. 

GILOLO,  or  ALMAHERA,  one  of  the  Moluccas 
or  Spice  Islands,  and  the  chief  of  a  group  of  the 
same  name,  is  crossed  by  the  equator  in  long. 
128°  E.  In  its  general  outline  it  bears  a  vague 
resemblance  to  its  western  neighbour  Celebes,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Molucca  Passage,  both 
of  them  being  as  luilike  in  form  to  any  other  island 
as  they  are  like  to  each  other.  It  is  di\'ided  towards 
the  ea.st  from  New  Guinea  by  a  wide  channel  of 
its  own  name.  It  contains  about  6500  square 
miles,  comprising  several  petty  states,  which  are  con- 
nected cliielly  with  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  imports  are  manufactured  goods, 
opiima,  china-ware,  and  iron  ;  and  the  exijorta  are 
sago,  cocoa-nuts,  spices,  fruits,  pearls,  gold-dust, 
horses,  sheep,  and  horned  cattle.  The  interior  is 
mountainous,  and  in  many  parts  densely  wooded. 

GILRAY,  James,  a  celebrated  caricaturist,  born 
in  London  about  the  middle  of  last  century.  He 
first  became  knowTi  as  a  successful  engraver  about 
1784,  and  between  1779  and  1811  issued  as  m.iny  as 
1200  caricatures,  n\imbers  of  which,  it  is  said,  'were 
etched  at  once  ujion  the  copper  without  tlie  assist- 
ance of  drawings.'  They  are  full  of  broad  humour 
and  keen  satire,  the  subjects  of  his  ridicule  being 
generally  the  French,  Napoleon,  and  the  ministers, 
though  he  often  diverged  to  assail  the  social  foUies 
of  his  day.  He  died  1st  June  1815.  G.'s  di'awings 
have  often  been  published,  but  the  best  edition  is 


that  of  M'Lean  (accoin])anied  by  an  illustrative 
description),  in  304  sheets  (Lond.  1830).  More 
recently,  an  edition  has  been  issued  by  Bohn. 

GILTHEAD  {Clirysophrt/s),  a  genus  of  ,acan- 
thopterous  fishes  of  the  family  SparuUe,  having  a 
deep  compressed  body,  a  single  doreal  fin,  the 
anterior  rays  of  which  are  sjjixjous,  the  cheeks  and 
gill-covers  covered  with  scajes,  the  teeth  of  two 
kinds,  six  conical  teeth  in  front  of  each  jaw,  and 
four  rows  of  oval  rounded  grinding-teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  three  rows  in  the  lower.  They  feed 
cliiefiy  on  molluscs,  the  shells  of  which  their  teeth 
enable  them  to  crush  to  pieces.  The  si)ecies  are 
numerous ;   inhabitants  of  the  warmer  seas.      One 


Coimiion  Gilthead  (Chrysophrya  aurata). 

species,  the  CoJrMON  G.  (C.  aurata),  is  found,  but 
rarely,  on  the  British  coasts ;  it  abounds  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  very  much  esteemed  for  the 
table.  It  seldom  attains  a  length  of  more  than 
twelve  inches.  It  is  generally  found  near  the  shore, 
m  smaU  shoals,  and  its  presence  is  sometimes 
betrayed  to  fishermen  by  the  noise  which  its  teeth 
make  in  crushing  shells.  It  is  said  to  agitate  the 
sand  with  its  tail,  in  order  to  get  at  the  molluscs 
concealed  in  it.  The  back  is  silvery  gray,  shaded 
with  blue  ;  the  belly  like  polished  steel ;  the  sides 
have  golden  bands ;  and  there  is  a  lialf-moon-shaped 
golden  si)ot  between  the  eyes,  from  which  it  derives 
the  name  G.,  the  Latin  name  Aurata  (gilded),  and 
the  Greek  name  CJirysophnjs  (golden  eyebrow). 
From  the  Latin  Aiirata  comes  the  French  name 
Dorade.  This  fish  was  very  generally  kept  in  the 
viraria  of  the  ancient  Romans,  being  much  valued 
and  easily  fattened.  Another  species  (C.  microdon) 
is  also  found  in  the  Mediterranean. — The  name  G. 
is  also  given  to  a  British  fish  of  a  different  family 
(Labrida;),  a  species  of  Wrasse  (q.  v.). 

GILT  TOYS.  This  term  is  known  in  trade 
as  a  designation  for  small  articles  which  are  gilded, 
but  is  chiefiy  applied  to  the  chca])  jewellery  which  is 
almost  exclusively  manufactured  at  Birmingham. 
In  that  town  this  trade  is  very  extensive,  and 
employs  thous.ands  of  persons  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  machine  power.  Cheap  jewellery  of  the 
most  elegant  forms  is  made  from  copper,  which  ia 
drawn  through  rollers  for  the  purpose,  into  small 
ribbons  and  wires,  with  elegantly  embossed  surfaces 
to  represent  the  fine  chasing  employed  on  articles 
made  from  the  precious  metals.  These  the  gUt-toy 
maker  twists  and  solders  into  brooches,  bracelets, 
rings,  and  a  variety  of  triiikets,  usually  with  a  raised 
bezell  for  receiving  a  piece  of  polished  coloured 
glass,  or  a  cheap  stone.  PreWous  to  setting  the 
glass  or  stone,  the  trinkets  are  strung  on  copper 
wires,  and  sent  to  the  electro-plater,  who  gives 
them  a  coating  of  gold  or  silver,  and  returns  them 
to  the  gilt-toy  maker,  who  finishes  them  by  burnish- 
ing and  by  setting  the  imitation  gems.  In  this 
way  really  beautiful  imitation  jewellery  is  prfxluced 
at  an  incredibly  small  cost;  and  being  coated  with 
the  precious  metals  in  the  pm-e  state  in  which  they 
arc  dejiosited  by  the  electro- [ilating  process,  their 


GIMBALS— GINGER. 


spurious  character  is  not  easily  detected  by  the 
uninitiated. 

GI'MBALS  (Lat.  gemellus,  a  twin),  are  two 
circular  brass  hoops  used  for  suspending  the  com- 
pass-box on  board  ship,  so  that  it  fnay  always  rest 
horizontally,  unaffected  by  the  ship's  motion.  The 
outer  hoop  is  attached  to  a  box  or  other  fixed 
object,  while  the  inner  is  constructed  so  as  to  allow 
of  its  moving  freely  within  the  outer,  to  which 
it  is  attached  by  two  juvots  at  the  extremities  of 
a  diameter.  The  compass-box  is  attached  to  the 
inner  hoop  by  two  similar  pivots  at  right  angles 
to  the  former.  Thus,  the  compass  moves  freely 
in  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  can  always  retain  its  horizontal  position,  how- 
ever the  vessel  may  roll  or  pitch.  G.  are  often 
applied  to  other  instruments,  such  as  the  mountain 
barometer,  &c. 

GI'MBLET,  a  tool  for  boring  holes  in  wood  to 
receive  nails,  screws,  &c.,  and  generally  used  when 
the  hole  is  to  be  larger  than  can  be  bored  with  a 
brad-awL  It  has  a  conical  screw  point,  followed  by 
a  groove  for  clearing,  and  is  fitted  in  a  cross  or  T 
handle.  An  improvement  has  lately  been  made  by 
twisting  the  grooved  part  of  the  gimblet,  so  that  it 
forms  a  long  spiral  groove. 

GIME'NA,  or  XIMEXA.    See  Jdiflva. 

GIMP,  or  GYMP,  a  kind  of  trinxming  for  dress, 
curtains,  furniture,  &c.,  made  either  of  silk,  wool, 
or  cotton.  Its  peculiarity  is  that  bne  wire  is 
twisted  into  the  thin  cord  of  which  it  is  made. 

GIN  is  a  machine  used  for  raising  weights,  dri\'ing 
piles,  &c.,  and  consists  of  three  poles,  each  frSm  12 
to  15  feet  long,  and  5  inches  in  diameter  at  the  lower 
end,  tapering  to  34  inches  at  the  upper.  The  poles 
are  united  at  the  top,  cither  by  an  iron  ring  which 
passes  through  them,  or  by  a  rope  which  is  twisted 
several  times  roimd  each,  and  to  this  '  joint '  a 
pulley  is  fixed.  Two  of  the  poles  are  kept  at  .an 
invariable  distance  by  means  of  an  iron  rod,  in 
order  that  they  may  support  the  windlass  which  is 
attached  to  them,  its  pivots  running  in  iron  cheeks 
fixed  to  the  poles.  When  the  machine  is  to  be  used, 
it  is  set  up  over  the  weight  to  be  raised  ;  two  blocks 
arranged  according  to  the  Second  System  of  Pulleys 
(q.  V.)  are  fixed,  one  to  the  top  of  the  poles,  the 
other  to  the  weight ;  and  the  rope,  after  passing 
round  both  blocks,  and  over  the  puUey  before-men- 
tioned, is  attached  to  the  windlass,  by  the  revolution 
of  which  the  weight  can  then  be  raised. — The  name 
of  Gin  is  also  given  to  a  machine  used  for  raising 
coal,  &c.,  and  also  for  communicating  motion  to 
thrashing-miUs.  It  consists  of  an  erect  axis  or  drum, 
firmly  fixed  in  sockets,  to  which  are  attached 
transverse  beams,  varj-ing  in  number  according  to 
the  power  required.  To  the  extremity  of  each  beam 
a  horse  is  yoked,  and  they  are  then  driven  roimd 
in  a  circle.  If  coal  is  to  be  raised,  the  horses 
must  either  be  frequently  imyoked,  and  turned  in 
the  opposite  way,  or  the  machine  must  be  made 
reversible ;  the  latter  of  which  is  found  to  be  pre- 
ferable, as  a  saving  both  of  time  and  labour.  This 
machine  is  now  rapidly  disappearing  before  the 
steam-engine. 

GIN  is  a  machine  used  for  disentangling  the  fibres 
of  Cotton  (q.  v.). 

GIN,  or  GENEVA,  an  alcoholic  drink,  distilled 
from  malt  or  from  unmalted  barley  or  other  grain, 
and  afterwards  rectified  and  flavoured.  The  gin, 
which  forms  the  common  spirituous  drink  of  the 
lower  classes  of  London  and  its  i-icinity,  is  flavoured 
very  slightly  with  oil  of  turpentine  and  common 
salt;  ejich   rectifier   has  his  own   particidar  recipe 


for  regulating  the  quantities  to  be  used  ;  but  it  is 
usually  about  5  fluid  ounces  of  spirit  of  turpentine 
and  34  lbs.  of  salt  mixed  in  10  gallons  of  water ; 
these  are  placed  in  the  rectifying  still,  with  80 
gallons  of  proof  corn-spirit,  and  distilled  until  the 
feints  begin  to  come  over.  It  is  then  used  cither 
unsweetened  or  sweetened  with  sugar. 

We  derive  the  terms  gin  and  geneva  from  the 
Dutch,  who  call  the  Hollands-gin  (which  is  their 
national  spirit)  ffiniva,  which  they  have  derived  from 
the  French  geniivre,  juniper.  The  origin  of  this 
name  is,  doubtless,  to  be  found  in  the  employment 
of  jimiiier-berries  in  flavouring  the  spirit  made  from 
unmalted  Kiga  rye  in  Holland,  where  it  is  an 
article  of  great  manufacture,  chiefly  at  Schiedam  ; 
hence  it  is  often  called  Schiedam  or  Hollands,  as 
well  as  geneva  and  gin.  So  extensive  is  the  manu- 
facture of  this  spirit  in  Holland,  that  in  Schiedam 
alone  there  are  175  distilleries,  employing  nearlj' 
1000  men,  besides  which  there  are  30  more  distil- 
leries in  Gouda,  and  17  in  Amsterdam,  and  others 
scattered  about  the  country.  Notwithstanding  this 
immense  manufacture  of  alcohol,  the  Butch  are  by 
no  means  an  intemperate  people :  the  fact  is,  the 
larger  part  by  far  of  the  spirit  made  in  Holland  is 
exported  to  other  countries,  especially  to  North 
America  and  Northern  Europe.  It  was  formerly 
always  exported  in  bottles,  but  cisks  are  now  much 
used  as  well.  The  chief  manufactories  of  gin  iu 
England  are  those  of  Messrs  Booth  and  Messrs 
Smith  and  Nicholson,  in  London ;  Messrs  Coates  and 
Co.,  at  Plymouth  ;  and  one  or  two  large  distilleries 
in  Bristol. 

'  Perhaps  nothing  used  as  diet  by  man  is  liable  to 
greater  and  more  injurious  adidteration  than  gin. 
Almost  every  gin-shop  keeper  in  London  has  some 
vile  recipe  for  increasing  the  pungency  and  giving 
a  factitious  strength  to  the  much  diluted  sweetened 
spirit  sold  under  this  name.  A  mere  enumeration 
of  the  articles  usually  employed  will  give  some  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  sophistication  is  carried  on 
with  this  spirit :  roach  alum,  salt  of  tartar  (car- 
bonate of  potash),  oils  of  juniper,  cassia  nutmeg, 
lemons,  sweet  fennel,  and  caraway  ;  coriander  seeds, 
cardamoms,  and  capsicums  ;  and  worse  than  all, 
creasote,  which  is  most  injurious.  It  is  said  that 
sidphuric  acid  is  even  added,  but  this  is  by  no 
means  probable. 

GI'NGAL,  a  weapon  used  by  Asiatic  armies  in 
the  defence  of  fortresses.  It  may  be  described  as  a 
large  and  rude  musket,  which  is  fired  from  a  rest. 
The  Chinese  employ  it  to  a  considerable  extent. 

GI'NGEE  is  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands — the  group 
at  the  north-east  bend  of  the  grand  arch  of  the  West 
Indies. 

GINGER  (Zingiber),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Scitaminece  or  Zingiberacece,  having 
the  inner  limb  of  the  perianth  destitute  of  laterjil 
inner  lobes,  and  the  fertUe  stamen  prolonged  beyond 
the  anther  into  an  awl-shaped  horn.  The  species 
are  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  with  annual  stems, 
and  creeping  root-stocks  (rhizomes) ;  the  stems  pro- 
duce leaves  in  two  opposite  rows  ;  the  flowers  are  in 
compact  spikes  with  bracts.  They  are  natives  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  root-stocks  of  most  of  the 
species  are  used  as  a  condiment  and  in  medicine. 
The  most  valuable  and  generally  used  are  those  of 
the  CoMJioN  G.  (Z.  ojhcinale),  sometimes  distin- 
guished as  the  Narrow-leaved  G.,  which  has  been 
cidtivated  in  the  East  Indies  from  time  immemorial, 
and  is  now  also  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries, 
particularly  the  West  Indies  and  Sierra  Leone,  from 
both  of  which,  as  well  as  from  the  East  Indies,  its 
root-stocks — the  ginger  of  commerce — are  a  consider- 
able article  of  export.    The  root- stock  is  about  the 


GmOKR-BEER— GrNGKRBREAD. 


thickness  o£  a  man's  finder,  knotty,  fibrous,  and  fleshy 
vhen  fresh.  The  stems  which  it  sends  up  are  reed- 
like invested  vfith  the  smooth  sheaths  of  the  leaves, 
cenerally  three  or  four  feet  high.  The  leaves  are 
linear-lanceolate  and  smooth.  The  flowers  are  not 
produced  on  the  leafy  stems,  but  on  short  leafless  stems 
(scapes),  in  spikes  about  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb, 
and  are  of  a  whitish  colour,  the  lip  streaked  with 
purple.       The  cultivation  of  G.  is  extremely  easy 


Common  Ginger  {Zingiber  officiiiak) : 
a,  a  flower,  detached  ;  ft,  perfect  anther. 

wherever  the  climate  is  suitable.  In  India  it  is 
carried  on  to  an  elevation  of  four  or  live  thousand 
feet  on  the  Himalayas,  in  moist  situations.  The 
root-stock  is  taken  up  when  the  stems  have  withered, 
and  is  prepared  for  the  market  either  by  seething 
and  scalding  in  boiling  water — in  order  to  kiU  it — 
and  subsequent  drying,  or  by  scraping  and  wash- 
ing. The  first  method  yields  Black  O.,  the  second 
White  G. ;  the  blackest  of  Black  G.,  however,  being 
only  of  a  stone  c6lom\  and  the  whitest  of  White  G. 
very  far  from  perfectly  white,  imless  bleaching  by 
chloride  of  lime  be  afterwards  employed,  as  it  not 
unfrequently  is,  to  improve  its  appearance,  a  process 
not  otherwise  advantageous.  There  is  a  consider- 
able difference,  however,  in  the  original  colour  of 
the  root-stock  in  the  G.  of  different  countries, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  difference  in 
the  varieties  cultivated.  The  uses  of  G.  both  in 
medicine,  as  a  stimulant  and  carminative,  and  in 
domestic  economy,  as  a  condiment,  are  too  weU 
known  to  require  particidar  notice.  Its  quaUties 
depend  very  much  on  a  p.ale  yellow  volatile  oil, 
lighter  than  water,  called  Vil  of  Gingei:  It  contains 
also  a  considerable  quantity  of  starch. — Candied 
G.,  or  Preserved  G.,  consists  of  the  young  root- 
stocks  preserved  in  sugar,  and  is  now  imported  in 
considerable  quantity  from  China,  as  well  as  from 
the  East  Indies  and  from  the  West  Indies.  It 
is  a  delicious  sweetmeat,  and  is  iiseful  also  as  a 
stomachic. — Essence  of  G.,  mijcli  used  for  flavouring, 
is  in  reality  a  tincture,  prepared  of  G.  and  alcohol. — 
Syrup  of  G.  is  used  chiefly  by  thiiggists  for  flavour- 
ing.— Ginger  Tea  is  a  domestic  remedy  very  useful 
in  cases  of  flatiUence,  and  is  an  infusion  of  G.  in 
boUiug  water. — Ginrjer-heer  (q.  v.)  is  a  well-knovim 
beverage,  flavoured  with  ginger. — Ginger  Wine  (q.v.) 
is  a  cheap  liqueur  flavoiu-ed  with  ginger. — G.  was 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have 
been  brought  from  Arabia. — Another  species  of  G.  is 
Zerumbet  (Z.  zerumbet),  also  called  Broad-leaved 

7SC 


G.,  cidtivated  in  Java,  and  of  which  the  root-stock 
is  sometimes  erroneously  called  Round  Zedoarj'. 
The  root-stock  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  common 
G.,  and  is  less  pimgent. — The  root-stock  of  the  Cas- 
.m-jiUNAK  (Z.  cassumunar),  sometimes  caUed  Yellow 
Zedoary,  has  a  camphor-like  smell,  and  a  bitter 
aromatic  taste.  It  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
medicine  in  Engl.and  aud  throughout  Eiu-opc  about 
the  close  of  the  17th  c,  but  having  been  extolled 
not  merely  as  a  stimulant  and  stomachic,  but  as 
possessing  virtues  which  did  not  in  reality  belong  to 
it,  it  soon  sunk  into  oblivion. — The  root-stock  of  the 
JIlOGA  (Z.  mioga)  is  less  pimgent  than  G.,  aud  is 
much  used  in  Japan. — Cattle  sent  to  graze  in  the 
jungles  of  Northern  India,  during  the  rainy  season, 
are  supplied  with  the  root-stocks  of  a  species  of  G. 
(Z.  capitatum),  to  preserve  their  health. — The  root 
of  Aristolodda  (q.  v.)  C'anadense  is  sometimes  called 
Indian  G.  or  Wild  G.  in  North  America,  aud  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  ginger.  It  has  a  grateful 
aromatic  odour  and  taste,  and  is  stimidant,  tonic, 
and  diaphoretic. 

GINGER-BEER.  An  cS'ervescing  drink  made 
by  fermenting  ginger,  sugar,  and  some  other  ingre- 
dients, and  bottling  before  the  fermentation  is 
completed.  The  following  recipes  are  amongst  the 
best  known  :  Lump  sugar,  5  lbs. ;  crushed  Jamaica 
ginger  (the  imbleachcd  is  best),  5  oz. ;  cream  of 
tartar,  4  oz. ;  10  lemons,  sliced ;  and  5  gallons  of  boil- 
ing water.  They  shoidd  be  mixed  in  a  vessel  which 
can  be  kept  covered  until  cool,  but  require  stirring 
from  time  to  time  as  the  cooling  goes  on.  ^Vhen 
lukewarm,  add  10  oz.  of  yeast,  aud  keep  it  in  a 
warm  place  to  encourage  the  fermentation,  which 
soon  commences ;  after  one  day's  fermentation, 
strain  through  a  flannel  filter,  aud  let  it  stand 
to  ferment  again  for  a  short  time ;  then  take  off 
the  scum,  and  bottle.  The  bottle  must  be  tied  or 
wired  down.  Another  recipe  is :  Cream  of  tartar, 
3  oz. ;  ginger,  1  oz. ;  refined  sugar,  1  h  lbs. ;  1  shced 
lemon  ;  1^  gallons  boiling  water ;  1  oz.  yeast;  to  be 
treated  in  the  same  way.  A  spurious  ginger-beer, 
largely  used,  is  made  by  putting  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  ginger  and  a  little  syrup  in  a  bottle, 
and  filling  it  up  with  aerated  water  from  the  soda- 
water  machine. 

GI'NGERBREAD.  A  very  well-known  article 
of  food,  which  has  been  in  vogue  certainly  since 
the  14th  c.,  when  it  was  made  and  sold  in  Paris, 
according  to  Monted  in  his  HiMoire  des  Fraiicais 
(torn.  ii.  pp.  47,  48) ;  it  was  then  made  of  rye 
dough,  kneaded  with  ginger  and  other  spice,  and 
honey  or  sugar.  It  was  proljably  introduced  to 
England  by  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  since 
that  time  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
pleasures  of  young  and  old  at  the  fairs  and  festivals 
of  the  country.  Changes  were  no  doubt  ^vrought 
in  its  composition  as  soon  as  it  appeared  in  this 
country,  and  the  expensive  honey  gave  way  to  the 
cheaper  treacle  wliich  was  then  in  use,  and  the 
colour  was  hidden  under  some  colouring  matter 
or  gilding.  '  To  take  the  gilt  off  the  gingerbread,' 
has  become  a  proverb,  and  the  booths  glittering 
with  their  gilded  array  of  rude  devices  in  ginger- 
bread, so  familiar  to  our  boyhood,  stUl  make  an 
occasional  appearance  in  the  coimtry  fairs. 

Three  forms  of  this  article  are  to  be  foimd  in  most 
pastry-cooks'  shops,  and  one  or  more  of  them  in  the 
sanctum  of  every  good  housewife.  1.  Square  soft 
cakes,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  thickness.  2. 
Thin  cakes  of  various  forms,  but  most  frequently 
round,  being  stamped  out  with  the  top  of  a  mne- 
glass,  or  other  contrivance.  3.  Small  button-like 
cakes,  called  gingerbread-nuts.  The  two  last  should 
be  baked  very  quickly,  crispness  being  indispensable. 


GIXGEit-WKE— GINSENG. 


The  constituents  of  modem  gingerbread  are  treacle, 
moist  sugar,  wlicaten-flom-,  and  butter ;  a  little 
carbonate  of  magnesia  and  tartaric  acid,  or  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  are  also  jmt  in  to  give  lightness 
by  many  makers. 

GINGER-WINE,  a  popidar  and  cheap  liqueur, 
made  by  the  fermentation  of  sugar  and  water,  and 
flavoured  -n-ith  various  substances,  but  chiefly  with 
gmger.  It  is  partly  an  article  of  domestic  manu- 
facture, and  is  partly  made  on  a  larger  scale  for 
sale.  It  may  be  made  by  dissolving  about  si.K 
pounds  of  sugar  in  fourteen  gallons  of  water ;  add- 
ing four  ounces  of  bruised  ginger  and  the  whites  of 
two  eggs,  well  beaten  ;  mixing  thoroughly  ;  boiling 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  skimming  carefidly  ;  and 
when  the  liquor  has  cooled,  adding  the  juice  of 
four  lemons,  and  also  their  riuds  for  flavouriug,  with 
a  tea-cupful  of  ale-yeast  to  jjromote  fermentation ; 
letting  it  ferment  in  an  open  vessel  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  putting  it  iuto  a  cask  of  suitable 
size,  closely  bimged,  iu  which  it  remains  for  a 
fortnight  before  it  is  bottled.  It  is,  however,  very 
common  to  increase  the  strength  of  ginger-wine  by 
the  addition  of  spirits,  the  flavour  being  also  modi- 
fied by  the  kiud  of  spirits  employed.  A  little 
si)irits  added  makes  ginger-wiue  keep  well,  and  it 
even  improves  iu  quality  for  many  months.  Its 
quality  depends  much  on  that  of  the  sugar  and  of 
the^  ginger  employed,  and  also  on  the  care  with 
which  the  manufacture  is  conducted. 

GI'NGHAM.  A  cotton  fabric  originally  intro- 
duced with  its  present  name  from  lutlia  ;  it  is  now 
manufactured  to  an  immense  extent  iu  Britain,  and 
our  manufacturers  supply,  to  a  very  great  extent, 
the  Indian  markets.  It  tliSers  from  calico  in  the 
circumstance,  that  its  colours  are  woven  in  and  not 
afterwards  prmted.  At  flrst,  the  Indian  ginghams 
consisted  of  cotton  cloths,  with  two  or  more  colours 
arranged  as  a  small  checkered  pattern ;  now,  a  great  I 
variety  of  designs  are  found  in  this  material,  and  j 
in  the  case  of  umbrella  ginghams,  the  whole  piece  is 
woven  with  yarn  of  one  colour.  The  following  are 
the  chief  kinds  of  gingham  known  in  the  markets 
of  Great  Britain  :  plain  common  light  grounds ; 
plain  common  dark  grounds  ;  Earlston  cinghams  ; 
jjower-loom  seersuckers  and  checks  (imitations  of 
the  Indian  patterns) ;  muslin  groimd  (stripes  and 
checks) ;  furnitui'e  stripes  and  checks ;  coloured 
diapers  ;  crossover  stripes  ;  derries,  Hungarians ; 
jean  stripes,  and  umbrella  ginghams. 

GI'NGILIE  OIL,  a  name  often  given  to  the 
bland  fixed  oil  obtained  by  expression  from  the 
seeds  of  Scsamiim  Indicum.     See  SES.UIUJI. 

Gl'NGKO,  or  GINKO  [Salishuria  adlantifolta),  a 
large  tree  of  the  natural  order  TaxacefB  (yew,  &c.), 
with  straight  erect  trunk  and  conical  head,  and 
leaves  remarkably  resembUng  the  leaflets  of  the 
fronds  of  maiderihair,  somewhat  triangular,  cloven 
and  notched  at  the  upper  extremity,  shortly  stalked, 
leather}',  smooth,  shining,  yello\nsh  green,  with 
lumicrous  minute  parallel  ribs,  and  somewhat  thick- 
ened margins.  The  fruit  is  a  sort  of  dinipe,  of  which 
the  fleshy  part  is  formed  by  the  persistent  calyx, 
about  an  inch  iu  diameter  ;  the  nut  or  endocarp 
white,  a  thin  shi-11  with  a  farinactous  kernel  resem- 
bling an  almond  in  flavour,  with  a  httle  mixture  of 
austerity.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  China,  but  has 
been  long  kno'ivn  in  Eui'opc,  and  large  trees  are  now  | 
to  be  secu  in  England.  The  wood  is  easy  to  work,  j 
receives  a  line  polish,  is  yello'wish  white,  veined,  and 
not  resinous.  In  China  and  Japau,  the  G.  is  grown  ! 
chiefly  for  the  kernel,  which  is  freed  from  austerity 
by  boiUng  and  roasting.  The  fleshy  part  of  the  j 
fruit,  although  resinous  and  astringent,  is  also  eaten  . 


after  being  shghtly  roasted.    The  male  and  female 
flowers  are  on  different  trees,  but  the  Chinese  plant 


Gingko  Tree : 

n,  branohlet  of  female  tree ;  /»,  branchlct  of  male  tree,  in  flower; 

c,  male  flowers ;  d,  female  flowers ;  e,  fruit ;  /,  anther. 

several  close  together,  which  grow  into  a  monstrous 
tree,  producing  both  male  and  female  flowers. 

GI'NSENG,  a  root  highly  esteemed  in  China  as 
a  medicine,  being  imiversaUy  regarded  as  possessing 
the  most  extraordinary  virtues,  and  as  a  remedy  for 
almost  all  diseases,  but  particidiu'ly  for  exhaustion 
of  body  or  mind.  It  is  sometimes  sold  for  its  weight 
iu  gold.  It  was  once  introduced  into  Europe,  but 
soon  forgotten.  It  is  the  root  of  a  species  of  Panax, 
of  the  n>atm'al  order  Araliacec,  to  which  the  name 
P.  Ginseng  has  been  given,  and  which  is  a  native 
of  Chinese  Tartary ;  having  a  stem  from  one  foot  to 
two  feet  high  ;  leaves  on  long  stialks,  five-fingered, 
and  almost  quite  smooth  ;  and  umbels  on  a  long 
terminal  stalk.     It  is  doubted  by  many  botanists  if 


Giuseng  [Panax  quinquefolium). 

this  species  is  really  distinct  from  P.  qiiinquefuHum, 
a  common  North  American  plant;  the  root  of  which 
is  now  an  article  of  export  from  North  jVmerica  to 
China,  and  is  used  as  a  domestic  medicine  iu  the 
states  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  but  which  European 
and  American  medical  jiractitioners  generally  regard 
as  .almost  worthless.  It  is  mucOaginous,  sweetish, 
and  shghtly  bitter  and  aromatic. — P.  frulicosus  and 


GIOBERTI— GIORDANO. 


P.  cochleatua  are  fragrant  aromatics,  growing  in  the 
Moluccas,  and  used  by  the  native  practitioners  of 
India. — The  fruit  of  the  genus  Panax  is  succulent, 
compressed,  with  two  or  three  leathery  one-seeded 
cells. 

GIOBE'RTI,  Vln'CENZO,  a  remarkable  Italian 
writer  and  thinker  of  modern  times,  was  born  in 
ISOl  at  Turin.  He  was  educated  for  the  church, 
obtained  his  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  in  1S23, 
and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1S25.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  Albert,  was  selected  as  chap- 
lain to  the  court,  an  office  which  he  tilled  with  dis- 
tinction till  1833.  At  this  period  of  rising  political 
agitation,  G.  was  accused  of  promoting  the  liberal 
movement,  was  dismissed  from  coui't,  and  suffered 
an  imprisonment  of  four  months.  Having  obtained 
permission  to  retire  into  banishment,  he  went  first 
to  Paris,  and  shortly  after  to  Brussels,  where  he 
spent  eleven  years  as  private  tutor  in  an  academy, 
pursuing  in  his  leisure  hours  his  private  studies. 
A  devout  CathoUc,  G.  looked  upon  the  papacy  as 
the  divinely  appointed  agency  for  the  elevation 
of  Italy  among  the  nations.  A  confederation  of 
states  subject  to  papal  arbitration,  and  ha\'ing  in 
the  king  of  Piedmont  a  mihtary  protector,  was  the 
scheme  devised  by  G.  for  the  unity  and  regeneration 
of  his  coimtry.  In  short,  in  the  19th  c.  he  advocated 
the  Guelph  policy  of  the  middle  ages.  These  views 
he  elaborately  developed  in  his  work  entitled,  II 
Primato  Civile  e  Murale  degli  Italiuni  (The  Civil 
and  Moral  Supremacy  of  the  Italians).  Its  publica- 
tion in  Paris  in  1842,  during  the  author's  exile,  was 
hailed  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  by  Italy,  with 
the  exception  of  a  limited  and  far-sighted  section  of 
the  country.  The  liberal  and  conciliative  policy 
adopted  by  Rome  on  the  accession  of  Pius  IX., 
appeared  the  verification  of  G.'s  predictions,  and 
increased  the  popularity  of  his  name.  On  his  return 
to  Italy,  he  was  received  mth  universal  ovations 
from  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  was  honoured  by 
being  chosen  by  several  towns  as  their  representa- 
tive in  parliament.  The  king  appointed  him  senator, 
he  subsequently  was  elected  president  of  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies,  and  finally  prime  minister ;  owing 
to  the  great  divergence  of  opinion  which  divided  his 
ministi-y,  he  held  office  only  for  a  few  weeks,  and 
was  forced  to  resign.  His  successor  despatched  him 
to  Paris  on  some  unimportant  mission,  in  order  it 
was  thought  to  remove  him  from  Tm-in ;  and  thus 
ended  G.'s  political  career,  as  from  that  period  he 
filled  no  official  position,  but  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  literary  pursuits.  As  a  politician,  G.  failed 
in  far-sightedness  ;  and  ■with  the  course  of  events 
in  Italy,  his  influence  as  a  political  giude  inevitably 
declined ;  but  the  depth  and  range  of  thought  and 
strength  of  conviction  evinced  in  his  varioiis  works, 
entitle  him  to  the  consideration  and  standing  which 
as  a  writer  he  enjoys.  G.'s  remarkable  gentleness 
in  private  intercourse  bore  no  trace  of  the  energetic 
force  mth  which  his  writings  propound  an  opinion 
or  denounce  an  opponent.  He  died  at  Paris  of 
apoplexy  in  1853.  His  chief  writings  are  entitled, 
Inlroduzione  alio  studio  della  Filosojia  (Paris,  1839) ; 
II  Primato  (Paris,  1842)  ;  II  Gemiila,  moderno,  8 
vols.  (Lausanne,  1847);  II  Pinnovamento  civile  degli 
Italiani  (Paris,  1851). 

GIO'JA,  the  name  of  four  towns  of  the  south  of 
Italy.  The  most  important  is  in  the  province  of 
Terra  di  Bari,  26  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Bari. 
It  is  a  thriving  industrious  place,  surrounded  by  a 
fine  fertile  territory.  Pop.  14,000.  It  was  formerly 
famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  woods,  the  favourite 
hunting-grounds  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II. 
758 


The  second  town  is  in  the  province  of  Calabria, 
Ultra  I.,  situated  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and  28  miles 
north-east  of  Reggio.  It  is  said  to  be  of  ancient 
origin,  and  has  sustained  several  severe  sieges.  It 
was  finally  all  but  destroyed  in  1783  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  now  possesses  only  about  1000  inha- 
bitants.— The  third  G.  is  in  the  province  of  the 
Abruzzi,  Ultra  II.,  34  miles  south-south-east  of 
Aquila,  and  60  from  the  sea,  with  2-t09  inhabitants. 
Its  territory,  although  mountainous,  is  productive. 
— The  fourth  is  a  town  of  3560  inhabitants,  in  the 
province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  6  mUes  north-west  of 
Cerreto. 

GIOJA,  Melohiorre,  a  famous  Italian  statis- 
tician, was  bom  at  Piacenza,  20th  September  1767. 
He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  and  for  some 
time  discharged  the  duties  of  tutor  in  a  noble  family, 
but  through  the  Uberahty  of  his  brother  was 
enabled  to  resign  this  post,  and  to  follow  his  own 
bent,  which  was  towards  social  and  economic  science. 
When  the  invading  forces  of  France  descended  into 
Italy,  G.  had  already  attracted  much  notice  by  his 
political  -n-ritrngs ;  and  in  1797  he  quitted  Piacenza 
for  Milan,  and  was  there  appointed  state  historio- 
gi-apher,  a  post  he  was  deprived  of  in  1803,  in 
consequence  of  his  work  on  divorce  giving  great 
dissatisfaction.  In  1806,  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  statistical  department,  and  in  1809  the 
minister  Vaceari  intrusted  to  him  the  preparation 
of  a  grand  statistical  report  of  all  Italy.  This 
great  labour  was  stLU  in  progi-ess  when  a  change 
of  government  interrupted  it.  G.  died  at  Milan, 
January  2,  1829.  His  laborious  habits  and  immense 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  he  wrote  upon,  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  an  incredible  amount  of  labour, 
but  he  is  justly  blamed  for  the  bitter  strain  of  per- 
sonal invective  with  which  he  resented  the  least 
imfavourable  criticism  of  his  works.  Some  of  his 
chief  works  are  :  Sul  Commerdo  de'  Commestibiii  e 
caro  prezzo  del  vitlo  (Mil.an,  1802,  2  vols,  in  12mo) ; 
Teoria  civile  e  penale  del  divorzio  ossia  necessild, 
cause  nuova  maniera  di  organizzarla  (Milan,  1803, 
in  8vo) ;  Nuovo  prospetto  delle  scienze  economiche, 
ossia  somma  tolale  delle  idea  teoricJie  e  praticlte  in 
orpii  ramo  d'amministrazione  privala  e  puhhlica 
(MUan,  1815  to  1819,  6  vols,  in  4to) ;  Filosojia 
della  Statistica  (Milan,  1826,  2  vols,  in  4to) ;  DelV 
ingiuria,  dei  danni,  del  soddisfaci  mento  e  relative 
basi  di  stima  (MUan,  1802,  2  vols,  in  8vo). 

GIOJO'SA,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the  province  of 
Calabria,  is  situated  aViout  7  miles  north-east  of 
Gerace,  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  district,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  risen  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Mitra,  mentioned  by  Pliny.  Its  ail'  is  remark- 
able for  puiity,  and  its  inhabitants  for  physical 
vigour  and  beauty.     Pop.  estimated  at  8485. 

GIORBA'NO,  LrcA,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
of  impoverished  parents  at  Naples,  about  1632 ; 
studied  under  Ribrera  or  Spagnoletto,  and  made 
rapid  progress.  Singidarly  enough,  considering  his 
fine  imagin.ation  and  delicate  touch,  both  his  early 
productions  as  well  as  those  of  his  more  mature 
ye.ars,  indicate  rather  a  power  of  beautifidly  correct 
imitation,  than  any  marked  originaUty  or  elevation 
of  genius.  On  lea\-ing  Ribrera's  school,  G.  repaired 
to  Rome,  where  he  became  the  scholar  and  fellow- 
worker  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Subsequently,  he 
went  to  Lombardy  and  Venice,  to  familiarise  him- 
self with  the  styles  of  the  schools  of  art  there. 
After  some  time  he  proceeded  to  Madrid,  in  1G92, 
at  the  request  of  Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  who 
desired  his  assistance  in  the  embellishment  of  the 
Kscorial.  His  pleasing  freedom  of  manner  and  genial 
humour  rendered  him  a  special  favourite  during 
his  residence  at  the  Spanish  com-t,  which  he  only 


GIORGIOKE— GIKAFFE. 


quitted  for  Italy  on  the  death  of  the  king,  ten  years 
later.  The  extreme  rapidity  of  execution  for  which 
G.  was  remarkable,  enabled  hici  to  produce  a  pro- 
digious number  of  works,  but  undoubtedly  told 
detrimentally  against  their  excellence.  With  some 
blemishes  they  possess,  however,  many  beauties,  and 
are  chiefly  admired  for  their  spirited  animation  of 
character,  and  harmonious  freedom  of  treatment, 
they  also  excel  in  boldness  and  perfection  of  the 
foreshortening.  The  palaces  Riccardi  and  Pitti 
contain  some  fine  specimens  of  this  artist's  style, 
but  his  best  paintings  are  in  the  galleries  of 
Dresden  and  Naples,  and  the  Escorial  at  Madrid. 
G.  died  about  17(14.  The  name  of  Fa  prcido,  which 
distinmiished  him  through  Ufe,  referred  to  his 
father  s  incessant  injunction  to  work  t/nickhj,  in  order 
that  the  proceeds  of  his  labour  might  relieve  the 
indigence  of  the  family. 

GIORGIO'NE,  or  GIORGIO  BARBARELLI, 

one  of  the  most  poetical  and  fascinating  of  Italian 
painters,  was  born  about  1478  at  Castelfrauco,  in  the 
Venetian  territoiy  of  Trevisano.     He  studied  under 
Giovanni  Bellini,  but  quickly  surpassed  his  master ; 
for   whde   BeUiui's   style    is    distinguished   for  its 
minute  finish   and    cramped   precision,   that   of  G. 
literally  revels  in  freedom  and  breadth  of  outline, 
and  gorgeous  de[)th  of  colour.     Unfortimately  for 
art,  6.   died   in  1511,  at  the  early  age  of  3.3.     His  I 
works  are  of  course  limited   in  mmiber,  but  they 
are  among  the    most  rare  and  exquisite  examples  ' 
of   the  Venetian  school.     Scriptural  scenes,  highly  : 
original  m  idea  and  treatment,  portraits,  and  a  few 
sweet  idyllic  scenes,  representing  pastoral  concerts 
and  sylvan  enjoyments,  form  the  subjects  of  these 
pictiu'es,  which  all  glow  with  the  fine  imagination,  t 
the  rich  colouring,  and  the  energy  of  touch,  that  are 
G.'s  distinctive  attributes.     The  Lombard  galleries 
and    the    Louvre    possess   the   best    authenticated 
origLuals  of  G.,  whose  imitators  were  numerous. 

GIO'TTO,  or  AMBROGIOTTO  BORDONE,  a 

great  paintei-,  architect,  and  sculptor,  born  in  127G, 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  shepherd,  and  passed  the 
earliest  years  of  his  life  in  watching  flocks  in  his 
native  Tuscan  valley  of  Vespignano.  Here  he  first 
essayed  to  reproduce  on  a  fragment  of  slate  the 
forms  of  nature  surrotmding  him,  and  to  the  subtle 
influences  of  these  early  associations  m.ay  lie  ascribed 
much  of  the  devotion  which  G.'s  perfected  works 
evince  towards  nature  in  her  purest  and  most 
winning  aspects.  One  of  these  simple  designs,  repre- 
senting a  sheej),  ha%Tng  fallen  under  the  notice  of 
C'imabue,  the  latter  became  interested  in  G.,  and 
having  obtained  the  consent  of  the  youth's  father, 
received  him  mto  his  studio.  G.'s  intuitive  percep- 
tion of  the  tntf'.  in  art  speedily  emancipated  him 
from  the  conventionalities,  .although  it  is  true  that 
Cimabue  himself  had  pre\nously  taken  steps  in  this 
dii'ection.  In  G.'s  paintings,  however,  we  first 
markedly  observe  mstead  of  the  flat  elongated  forms 
and  lifeless  features  of  the  Byzantine  tyi)es,  figures 
imbued  with  the  varied  action  and  expression  of 
nature,  and  exliibiting  besides  an  ideal  elevation 
and  grandeur  of  character.  He  first  also  practised 
the  art  of  grouping  ^-ith  due  regard  to  the  senti- 
ment and  action  of  the  composition,  and  gave 
simpHcity  and  grace  to  the  draping  outline ;  in 
short,  he  effected  a  profound  reformation  in  the 
style  of  art,  which  from  his  era  assumed  its  rightful 
alliance  with  the  beautiful  in  nature.  G.  was  also 
an  eminent  architect,  and  was  emploj'ed  in  the 
execution  of  the  dome  of  Florence,  while  from  his 
designs  the  Campanile  (q.  v.)  was  built.  The  beloved 
friend  of  Dante,  and  of  all  the  great  soids  of  his 
age,  he  himself  presented  a  rare  imion  of  genius, 
knowledge,   and  wit,  combined  with  the  utmost 


equanimity  of  humour  and  massive  good  sense.  The 
restorer  of  portraiture,  his  pencil  has  transmitted  to 
our  day  the  featmes  and  personaUty  of  his  cherished 
Dante,  of  Brunetto  Latini,  Corso  Donati,  and  other 
celelirities ;  and  in  return  we  find  his  name  enshrined 
^ith  reverence  in  aU  the  grand  literary  works  of  the 
times,  especially  in  those  of  Dante,  Boccaccio,  and 
Petrarca.  The  works  of  this  illustrious  man  are  too 
numerous  to  be  recorded  here,  but  we  may  mention 
some  of  the  principal.  '  The  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin,'  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Morence ; 
'  A  Last  Su])per,'  in  the  refectory ;  the  famous 
mosaic,  executed  at  Rome  for  Pope  Boniface  VIII., 
named  '  La  N.avicella,'  and  reiiresenting  Peter  walk- 
ing on  the  waves,  a  wonderfid  work,  which  has 
unhappily  severely  suffered  in  the  successive  repau-s 
it  has  required ;  the  frescoes  of  the  '  Seven  Sacra- 
ments,' painted  at  N.aj)les  in  the  church  of  the 
Incoronata,  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  his  works  in 
point  of  preserv.ation ;  and  the  frescoes  of  Assisi, 
illustrating  the  life  of  St  Francis,  and  innumerable 
other  minor  works.  G.  died  at  Florence  in  1330, 
and  was  interred  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore,  where  a  marble  monument  was  erected  to  his 
honour  by  Lorenzo  de'  MedicL 

GIOVA'NNI  (Sak)  A  TEDUCCIO,  a  town  of 

7298  inhabitants,  three  miles  east  of  Naples,  is 
situated  near  the  sea-shore  in  a  fertile  ])lain.  Its 
neighboiu-hood  is  well  cultivated,  and  embellished 
with  beautifid  villas.  Its  origin  is  supposed  to  be 
very  ancient,  and  its  n.ame  is  attributed  to  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  whose  name  is  carved  on  a 
small  ancient  column  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town. 

GIOVENA'ZZO,  a  thriving  little  towTi  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  province  of  Terra  Di  Ban,  is  situated 
on  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  14  miles  wxjst-north- 
west  of  the  town  of  Ban.  It  is  considered  the 
Natiolum  of  the  Romans,  and  possesses  some 
remains  of  its  ancient  walls.  In  the  11th  c.  it 
belonged  to  the  Greeks,  and.  eventually  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Gonzaga  family.  There  is 
here  an  exceUently  organised  asylum  for  the  poor, 
conjoined  wth  e.^ctensivo  juvenile  reformatories.  G. 
Ls  encircled  by  ^-ineyards  and  rich  plantations  of 
oHve,  almond,  and  other  fnut-bearing  trees.  Pop. 
upw.irds  of  7000. 

GIPSIES.    See  Gypsies. 

GIRA'FFE,  or  CAMELOPARD  (Camelopardalis 
Giraffa),  the  tallest  of  quadrupeds,  ranked  by  some 
naturalists  among  deer  {Cervida'),  but  more  pro- 
perly regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct  family 
of  ruminants,  which  contains,  however,  oidy  one 
species.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  from  Nubia  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hojie,  extensively  diffused,  but 
apparently  nowhere  abundant.  It  occurs  generally 
in  small  herds  of  from  live  to  forty.  It  feeds 
on  the  leaves  and  small  branches  of  trees.  Its 
general  aspect  is  remarkable  from  the  height  of 
the  foreparts  and  great  elongation  of  the  neck, 
the  head  being  sometimes  18  feet  from  the  groimd. 
The  number  of  vertebrae  m  the  neck,  however,  is 
not  greater  than  in  other  quadrupeds,  and  it  has 
no  extraordinary  flexibility,  although  its  fonn  and 
movements  are  very  graceful.  The  body  is  short, 
and  the  back  slopes  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
tail;  but  the  greater  height  of  the  foreparts  is 
not  owing,  as  has  been  often  alleged,  to  the  greater 
length  of  the  fore-legs,  which  are  not  really  longer 
than  the  hind-legs,  but  to  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
which  form  a  basis  for  the  muscidar  support  of  the 
neck  and  head.  The  articulation  of  the  skuU  to  the 
neck  is  such  that  the  head  can  be  easily  thrown 
back  untd  it  is  in  the  same  line  with  the  neck,  thus 
giving  the  animal  additional  irower  of  reaching  its 

169 


GIRAFFE-GIRALDTJS  CAMBRENSIS. 


appropriate  food.  The  skull  has  empty  cavities, 
which  give  lightness  to  the  heatl,  along  w-ith  sufficient 
cxtcnt'of  surface  for  the  iusei-tion  of  the  ligament 
which  supports  it.  The  legs  are  long  anil  slender  ; 
the  feet  have  cloven  hoofs,  but  are  destitute  of  the 


Gh-affo. 

small  lateral  toes  or  spurious  hoofs,  which  ocom-  in 
the  other  cloven-footed  ruminants.  The  head  is 
long ;  the  upper  Up  entire,  projecting  far  beyond  the 
nostrils,  and  endowed  vritii  considerable  muscular 
power.  The  tongue  is  remarkably  capable  of  elon- 
gation, and  is  an  organ  of  touch  and  of  pi-ehension, 
like  the  tnmk  of  an  elephant ;  it  can  be  thrust  far 
out  of  the  mouth,  and  employed  to  grasp  and  take  up 
even  very  small  objects  ;  it  is  said  that  its  tip  can  be 
so  tapered  as  to  enter  the  ring  of  a  very  small  key. 
The  usefulness  of  such  an  organ  for  drawing  in 
leaves  and  branchlets  to  the  mouth  is  obvious.  The 
G.  adroitly  picks  off  the  leaves  of  acacias  and  other 
thorny  plants,  without  taking  the  thorns  into  its 
mouth.  The  dentition  of  the  G.  agrees  with  that  of 
antelopes,  sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  ;  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  male  is  destitute  of  the  canine  teeth,  which  are 
present  in  the  male  of  most  kinds  of  deer.  The 
head  is  furnished  ■(vith  two  remarkable  protuberances 
between  the  ears,  generally  described  as  horns,  but 
very  different  from  the  horns  of  other  animals,  and 
each  consisting  of  a  bone  united  to  the  skull  by  an 
obrious  suture,  permanent,  covered  with  skin  and 
hair,  and  terminated  by  long  hard  bristles.  There 
is  also  a  projection  on  the  forehead.  The  ears  are 
moderately  long  ;  the  tail  is  long,  and  terminates  in 
a  tuft  of  long  hair  that  nearly  reaches  the  gi-oimd. 
There  is  a  callositj'  on  the  breast.  The  neck  has  a 
veiy  short  mane.  The  hau'  is  short  and  smooth ; 
the  colour  is  a  redilish  white,  marked  by  numerous 
dark  rusty  spots.  The  eye  of  the  G.  is  very  large 
and  lustrous,  and  so  placed  that  the  animal  can 
look  all  around  without  turning  its  head,  so  th.at  in 
a  wild  state  it  is  not  easily  approached.  Its  nostrils 
h.ave  a  muscle  by  which  they  can  be  closed  ;  a  pro- 
vision, as  Owen  supposes,  for  excluding  particles  of 
sand.  It  is  an  inoffensive  animal,  and  generally 
seeks  safety,  if  possible,  iu  flight,  although  it  is 
capable  of  making  a  stoiit  resistance,  and  is  said  to 
beat  off  the  lion.  It  fights  by  kicking  with  its  hind- 
legs,  discharging  a  storm  of  kicks  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  It  is  not  easily  overtaken  even  by  a  fleet 
horse,  and  has  greatly  the  advantage  of  a  horse  on 
imeven  and  broken  ground.  Its  pace  is  described 
as  an  amble,  the  legs  of  the  same  side  moving  at  the 
same  time.  The  G.  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
was  exliibited  in  Koman  spectacles.  Kepresentations 
of  it  appear  among  Egj'ptian  antiquities.  It  has 
760 


been  supposed  to  be  the  zemer  of  the  .Tews,  trans- 
lated chamois  in  the  English  Bible  (Deut.  xiv.  5). 
In  the  year  1S36,  giraffes  were  added  to  the 
coUeetion  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London,  and 
interesting  opportunities  of  studying  their  habits 
have  since  been  enjoyed.  They  are  fed  chiefly  on 
hay  placed  in  high  racks,  greatly  enjoy  cari'ots  and 
onions,  and  a  Imnp  of  sugar  is  a  f.avouritc  delicacy. 
They  have  bred  in  England.  The  flesh  of  the  G.  is 
said  to  be  pleasant,  and  its  maiTow  is  a  favourite 
African  delicacy. 

GIRALDUS  CAMBRE'NSIS,  the  Hterary 
name  of  Gerald  de  Barri.  Ho  was  fourtli  sou  of 
WOham  de  Barri,  a  Nonn.in  noble  who  had  settled 
in  Pembrokeshire,  and  allied  himself  l:>y  marriage 
to  the  family  Ehj's  ap  Theodor,  prince  of  South 
Wales.  G.  was  born  about  114C,  and  educated  by 
his  imcle  David,  who  was  Bishop  of  St  David's. 
He  entered  the  university  of  Paris  iu  his  20th  year, 
and  after  thi-ee  years  of  much  literary  distinction 
he  returned  to  England,  entered  into  holy  orders 
in  1172,  and  was  soon  afterwards  appoiuted  Arch- 
deacon of  St  Da\ad's.  He  was  from  the  first  a 
zealous  churchman ;  strenuous  in  the  enforcement  of 
discipline,  and  especially  of  clerical  celibacy;  and 
was  the  chief  agent  iu  the  estabUshraent  of  the 
payment  of  tithes  within  the  principaUty.  On  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  the  chapter  of  St  DaWd's  elected 
him  bishop ;  but  as  the  election  was  made  with- 
oiit  the  roj'al  license,  G.  renounced  it.  The  king, 
Henry  II.,  directed  a  new  election ;  and  on  the 
chapter's  persisting  iu  their  choice  of  G.,  the  king 
refused  to  confinn  the  selection,  and  another  bishop, 
Peter  de  Leia,  was  appointed.  G.  withdrew  for  a 
time  to  his  old  residence  in  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  on  his  return  he  was  required,  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  to  take  the  administration  of 
the  diocese  of  St  David's,  which  had  utterly  failed 
in  the  hands  of  De  Leia.  He  held  it  for  four  yeai-s, 
when  being  appointed  a  royal  chaplain,  and  after- 
wards preceptor  to  Priuee  John,  he  aecompauied 
that  prince  in  11S5  iu  his  expedition  to  Ireland, 
where  he  remaiued  after  .John's  returu,  in  order  to 
complete  the  well  kuo^vn  descriptive  account  of  that 
country,  which,  although  very  valuable  as  a  whole, 
has  in  many  of  its  details  called  forth  much  angry 
criticism  from  Irish  scholars  and  antiquaries.  On 
his  return,  in  1187,  he  read  this  work  publicly  in  the 
university  of  Oxford,  giving  a  full  day  to  each  of 
the  three  divisions  of  which  it  consists.  A  tour  of 
Wales  which  he  made  (118S)  in  the  company  of 
Baldwin,  Ai'chbishop  of  Canterbury,  led  to  a  similar 
descriptive  work,  the  Itinerarlum  Cambria:.  In  the 
following  year  he  accompanied  the  king  to  France, 
where  he  remained  tiU  the  king's  death.  His  later 
years,  after  his  retm'u,  were  full  of  disappointment. 
On  the  see  of  St  David's  agaiu  becoming  vacant,  he 
was  agaia  unanimously  elected  by  the  chapters  ; 
but  the  Ai-chbishop  of  Canterbury  having  interposed, 
G.,  not%rithstanding  an  appeal  to  Rome,  in  prose- 
cuting which  he  made  thiee  different  joiu'neys  in 
the  course  of  five  years  of  the  contest,  failed  to 
obtain  a  confirmation  of  the  nomination.  He  soon 
afterwards  resigned  his  archdeaconry,  and  devoted 
the  remaining  seventeen  years  of  his  life  to  study. 
Once  again  the  see  of  St  Da^^d's  became  vacant, 
but  although  it  was  oifered  to  G.  on  certain  condi- 
tions, he  declined  to  accept  it,  and  died  at  St 
David's  in  the  7'ith  year  of  his  age.  The  reason 
why  G.'s  appointment  to  the  bishopric  was  so  much 
opposed  is  not  ele.arly  known,  but  the  king,  it  is 
said,  had  resolved  that  no  native  of  Wales  shoidd 
obtain  the  dignity.  G.'s  ■mitings,  although  dis- 
figured by  credulity,  and  in  the  personal  narra- 
tives with  which  they  aboiuid,  by  excessive  vanity, 
are  of  great  value  as  materials  for  the  history,   '.nd 


GERAEDIN— GIEDLE  OF  \T5NUS. 


for  the  social  condition  of  the  age  and  the  countries 
which  lie  describes.  But  they  must  be  read  with 
much  caution,  and  with  a  careful  critical  consider- 
ation of  the  sources  of  the  information  which  they 
embody.  Several  of  his  works  arc  still  preserved  in 
manuscript  in  the  British  Jliiseum,  the  Bodleian, 
the  Lambeth,  and  Corpus  Christ!  College  Libraries. 
His  printed  works  arc  the  Jtincrarium  CambricE; 
TopoiimphUn  Ilihcrn'ue ;  Expuijnatio  Hihernim ; 
Descriplio  Cambrice ;  and  several  smaller  jiieces, 
which  are  iirintcd  in  the  second  volume  of 
Wharton's  Amjlia  Sacra.  Barry's  work  on  Ireland 
called  out  several  rejoinders,  the  most  valu.able  of 
which  is  that  of  John  Lynch  (under  the  pseudonym 
of  Gratianus  Lucius],  entitled  Cambrensis  Eversus; 
a  less  valuable  work  is  that  of  Stephen  White, 
recently  pul)lished,  from  the  original  manuscripts; 
Sir  James  Ware  has  freely  criticised  Barry  in  the 
Aniiijuitles  of  Ireta.ml. 

GIRARDIN",  EjnLE  be,  a  French  journalist  and 
politician,  the  illegitimate  son  of  the  royalist  general 
Alexandre  de  Girardin  and  Madame  Dupuy,  was 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1S02,  educated  in  Paris, 
and  in  1823  was  appointed  general  secretary  of  the 
royal  museums.  After  the  Jidy  revolution,  G. 
estalilishcd  the  Journal  des  Comiaissanccs  utiles,  for 
which  he  secured  120,000  subscribers ;  in  1S32,  the 
Musee  des  Families ;  and  in  1S34.  the  Almanack  de 
France.  He  also  published  an  Atlas  de  France  and 
an  Atlas  Universd.  The  whole  of  these  publications 
were  set  forth  as  emanating  from  a  Socieli  Nationale 
pour  Vimancipalion  inteUectuellc,  and  were  not  with- 
out a  considerable  intluence  on  the  jjrogress  of 
pubUe  instruction  in  France.  In  1836  he  foimded 
the  Presse,  as  an  organ  of  political  conservatism, 
and  soon  found  himself  entangled  in  violent  contro- 
versies. One  of  the  imfortmiate  results  of  these 
was  his  duel  with  Ai-mand  Carrel,  editor  of  the 
National,  in  which  the  latter  fell.  From  this  time 
onward  to  the  Revolution  of  IS4S,  he  was  ardently 
occupied  with  pohtios  both  as  a  joiu'uaUst  and 
deputy  ;  and  from  being  a  defender  of  Guizot  and 
moderate  liljeralism,  he  became  a  decided  repuldican. 

G.  was  the  first  to  propose  Louis  Napoleon  as  a 
candidate  for  the  Presidentship,  but  only  four  weeks 
after  the  triumph  of  the  latter,  he  opposed  him  ■\\-ith 
the  greatest  vn-idence — the  reason  generally  given, 
being  that  the  President  had  shewn  himself  unwill- 
ing to  agree  to  the  political  scheme  submitted  to 
him  by  his  advocate.  G.  now  threw  himself  into 
the  arms  of  the  Socialists.  In  18oG,  he  sold  his 
share  of  the  Presse,  being  imable  to  submit  to  the 
restrictions  on  journahsm.  G.  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  ablest,  though  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
most  turn-coat  jouruahsts  in  France,  He  is  very 
fertile  and  original  in  his  political  ideas,  which  ho 
has  given  to  the  world  in  a  host  of  brochures. — 
M/UJAME  DE  GiK-UiDiN,  wife  of  the  preceding,  whose 
m.aiden  name  was  Delphine  Gay  (born  2()th  January 
1804,  died  29th  June  1855),  enjoyed  during  her  life- 
time a  briUiant  reputation  as  a  poetess,  novelist, 
and  play-writer.  Her  best  knomi  work  is  her 
Letlres  Farisiennes,  which  appeared  in  her  husband's 
periodical  La  Presse,  under  the  pseudonj-m  of  Le 
Vicomte  de  Launay." 

GIRARDIX,  St  M.\ec,  an  eminent  French 
journalist  and  professor,  born  at  Paris  in  1801.  He 
studied  at  the  CoU^ge  Napoleon  and  the  Collgge  Henri 
IV.  with  brilliant  success,  and  in  1827  obtained 
a  professorship  in  the  CoUege  Louis-le-Grand.  Dur- 
ing a  ^sit  to  Germany  in  1830,  he  formed  a  close 
intimacy  with  Gans  and  Hegel,  and  on  his  return 
to  Pari.s,  was  appointed  to  succeed  Guizot  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  and  was 
named  master  of  requests  to  the  Council  of  State. 


In  1834  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  poetry  at  the 
Sorbonne.  About  the  same  time  he  was  elected  a 
memlier  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  acquired 
a  considerable  reputation  by  his  report  upon  the 
organisation  of  secondary  instruction  presented  in 
1837.  In  1844  he  was  received  into  the  Academie. 
G.  took  no  special  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
and  still  continues  his  functions  as  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne.  His  inlluence  and  popularity  as  a 
lectiu-cr  arc  very  great.  Clearness,  good  sense, 
moderation,  vivacity,  and  humour  are  iiis  leading 
characteristics.  Besides  his  numerous  contril)utiou3 
to  the  DCbats,  which  he  ha.s  partly  edited  since 
1827.  and  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  he  has 
published  several  large  works,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Notices  Politlques  et  LUteralres  sur 
I'Allemagne  (1834) ;  C'ours  de  Literature  Drama- 
tlque  (4  vols.  1843) ;  Essais  de  Littcrature  el  de 
Morale  (2  vols.  18-t4) ;  and  Tableau  de  la  Littfrahire 
au  iOlh  Slide,  suivi  d' Etudes  sur  la  Litterature  du 
Moijen  Age  d  de  la  lienalssance  (1802). 

GI'RASOL,  a  precious  stone,  exhibiting  in  strong 
lights  a  peculiar  and  beautiful  reflection  of  bright 
red  or  yellow  light,  which  seems  to  come  from  the 
interior  of  the  stone.  From  tliis  it  derives  its  name 
(Ital.  '  sun-turning').  There  are  different  kinds  of 
G.,  variously  referred  by  mineralogists  to  quartz  and 
opal,  species  which,  however,  are  very  nearly  allied. 
One  lund  is  also  known  as  Fire  Opal,  which  is 
found  only  at  Zimapan,  in  Mexico,  and  in  the  Faroe 
Islands.  The  Mexican  specimens  are  of  a  rich  topaz 
yellow  colour,  and  the  reflection  is  very  bright. 
Another  kind  is  the  Quartz  Resinite  of  Haliy,  so 
caUcd  because  of  its  characteristic  resinous  fracture. 
It  is  found  of  various  colours,  sometimes  of  a  fine 
yellow  or  emerald  green,  more  generally  bluish 
white.  For  a  specimen  of  extraordmarv  brilliancy, 
not  au  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  £1000  has  been 
rcfuseiL  The  ancients  held  this  stone  in  high  esti- 
mation. They  called  it  Asteria  (Gr.  aster,  a  star). 
They  obtained  it  both  from  Caramania  and  from 
India.  The  Caramanian  stones  were  preferred. 
The  brightest  are  at  present  brought  from  Brazil, 
but  fine  specimens  are  also  brought  from  Siberia. 
Imitation  girasols  are  made  of  glass,  in  which  a 
little  oxide  of  tin  is  mixed. — The  name  G.  is  some- 
times given  to  a  kind  of  sapphire,  also  called 
Asteria  sapphire,  exliibiting  a  similar  reflection  of 
light,  and  sometimes  to  Sunstone,  an  avanturine 
felspar. 

GIRDER,  a  main  beam  used  to  support  joisting 
walls,  arches,  &c.  Girders  may  be  of  wood  or  iron, 
and  arc  now  very  commonly  made  of  cast  iron. 
They  are  much  used  in  supporting  the  upper  walls 
of  houses,  whUe  the  lower  part  is  cut  away  to  allow 
of  rearrangement.  W'ooden  girders  are  sometimes 
strengthened  ■nith  iron  trusses,  and  are  then  called 
tnissed  girders.  Sometimes  a  beam  is  cut  in  two, 
and  an  iron  plate  inserted  between  the  pieces,  and 
the  whole  bolted  together.  This  kind  of  girder  is 
called  a  sandwich  beam.  Girders  are  much  used  in 
railway  works,  in  which  case  they  are  generally  of 
wrought  ii'on.  The  Menai  and  Britannia  Bridges 
are  simply  very  large  boxed  gu'dcrs.  The  lattice 
girder  is  another  form  in  which  the  sides  are  made 
somewh.at  like  wooden  lattice-work.    See  Strenctu 

OF  ALiTERIALS. 

GIRDLE  OF  VENUS  {C'egtvm  Veneris),  a  very 
remarkable  animal,  one  of  the  Acalcplue  (q.  v.),  inha- 
biting the  Mediterranean,  gclatinons,  of  a  ribbon- 
like shape,  sometimes  five  or  six  feet  in  ajiparent 
length  by  about  two  inches  in  breadth  ;  although 
considered  with  reference  to  the  structure  of  tlie 
animal,  the  apparent  length  is  really  its  breadth, 
and  the  apparent  breadth  its  length.     The  montli  is 


GIRGEH— GIRO?rDISTS. 


situated  in  the  middle  of  the  inferior  edge,  and  the 
stomach  is  imbedded  in  the  gelatinous  substance. 
The  ed^es  are  fringed  with  cilia,  by  the  movements 


Girdle  of  Venus  [Cesium  Veneris). 

of  which  the  creature  seems  to  be  propelled  in  the 
water.  It  exhibits  lovely  iridescent  colours  by  day, 
and  briUiant  phosphorescence  by  night.  Its  sub- 
stauce  is  so  delicate,  that  a  perfect  specimen  can 
with  difficiUty  be  obtained. 

GI'RGEH,  the  third  largest  town  of  Eg^-pt,  is 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  lat.  26"  20' 
N..  and  long.  .31°  58'  E.  It  was  here  that  the  dis- 
contented ilamelukes  raUied  against  Mohammed 
Ali.  It  contains  eight  handsome  mosques,  a  large 
bazaar,  and  a  cotton  manufactory.  The  population 
is  about  10,000,  of  whom  800  are  Christians,  and  it 
h.-is  a  convent  of  Catholic  missionaries. — Clot  Bey, 
Aperi;u  Generale  siir  VEgijpte,  i.  p.  214. 

GIRGE'NTI.     See  Agrioestum. 

GIRL,  in  Heraldry,  is  the  term  used  to  signify 
the  yoimg  of  the  roe  in  its  second  year. 

GI'RNAR,  a  sacred  mountain  in  India  of 
most  remarkable  aspect,  stands  in  the  peninsula 
of  Kattywar,  which  forms  part  of  the  native  state 
of  Guzerat,  in  lat.  21°  30'  N.,  and  long.  70°  42'  E. 
Above  the  mass  of  luxuriant  hills  and  valleys  which 
surroxmd  its  base,  rises  a  bare  and  black  rock  of 
granite  to  the  height  of  about  3000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  summit  is  broken  into  various  peaks,  its 
northern  and  southern  sides  being  nearly  perpen- 
diciUar.  An  immense  boulder,  which  seems  to  be 
poised  on  one  of  the  scarped  pinnacles,  is  called  the 
Beiru  .Jhap,  or  Leap  of  Death,  from  its  being  used 
by  devotees  for  the  purpose  of  self-destruction. 

GIRONDE,  a  maritime  department  in  the  south- 
west of  France,  is  formed  out  of  part  of  the  old 
pro\'ince  of  Guienne,  and  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  N.  by  the  department 
of  Charente-Inferieure,  on  the  E.  by  those  of 
Dordogne  and  Lot-et-Garonne,  and  on  the  S.  by 
that  of  Landes.  It  has  an  area  of  4132  squai-e  miles, 
and  a  population  of  640,757-  It  is  watered  mainly 
by  the  Garonne  and  the  Dordogne,  and  by  the 
Gironde,  which  is  formed  by  the  union  of  these 
two  rivers.  The  surface  of  the  land  is  in  general 
flat ;  but  in  the  east  there  are  some  hills.  The 
climate  is  temperate,  and  except  in  the  Landes 
or  sandy  tracts,  which,  however,  occupy  nearly  all 
the  western  h.alf  of  the  department,  is  healthy. 
In  the  east  and  north-east  the  soil  is  chiefly 
calcareous.  Wine,  including  the  finest  clarets,  is 
the  great  product  of  the  department.  The  prin- 
ciii.al  growths  are  those  of  Latitte,  Latour,  Chlteau- 
Margaux,  Haut-Brion,  Sauteme,  Barsac,  and  the 
Vins  de  Grave,  and  the  quantity  produced  annually 
averages  44,000,000  gallons.  Grain,  vegetables, 
fruit,  and  hemp  are  also  produced  largely.  On 
the  west  coast,  on  the  downs  or  sand-hills,  there 
are  extensive  plantations  of  pine,  from  which  tur- 
pentine, pitch,  and  charcoal  are  obtained.  The 
shepherds  of  the  Landes  traverse  the  sands  on  high 
stilts,  and  travel  with  them  also  to  markets  and 
762 


fairs.  Among  the  manufactures,  salt,  calico,  muslin, 
chemical  products,  pottery,  paper,  vinegar,  and 
brandy,  are  the  chief.     Bordeaux  is  the  capital. 

GIRO'NDISTS  (Fr.  Girondins),  the  name  given 
during  the  French  Revolution  to  the  moderate 
republican  party.  When  the  Legislative  Assembly 
met  in  October  1791,  the  Gironde  department  chose 
for  its  representatives  the  advocates  Vergniaud, 
Guadet,  Gensonng,  Grangeneuvc,  and  a  young  mer- 
chant named  Ducos,  all  of  whom  soon  acquired 
great  influence  by  their  rhetorical  talents  and  poli- 
tical principles,  which  were  derived  fi'om  a  rather 
hazy  notion  of  Grecian  republicanism.  They  were 
joined  by  Brissot's  party  and  the  adlierents  of 
Roland,  as  well  as  by  several  leaders  of  the  Centre, 
such  as  Condorcet,  Fauchet,  Lasouree,  Isnard,  and 
Henri  La  Rivi&re,  and  for  some  time  had  a  par- 
liamentary majority.  They  first  directed  their 
efl'orts  against  the  reactionarj'  policy  of  the  court, 
and  the  king  saw  himself  compelled  to  select  the 
more  moderate  of  the  party,  Roland,  Dimiouriez, 
Cla\afcre,  and  Servan,  to  be  ministers.  Ultimately, 
however,  he  dismissed  them,  a  measure  wliich  led 
to  the  insurrection  of  the  20th  June  1792.  The 
encroachments  of  the  popidace,  and  the  rise  of 
the  Jacobin  leaders,  com|ielled  the  G.  to  assume  a 
conservative  attitude  ;  but  though  their  eloquence 
still  prevailed  in  the  Assembly,  their  popularity 
and  power  out  of  doors  were  wholly  gone,  and 
they  were  quite  unable  to  jirevent  such  hideous 
crimes  as  the  September  massacres.  The  jirincipal 
things  which  they  attempted  to  do  after  this^for 
they  never  succeeded  in  accomplishing  anything — ■ 
were  to  procure  the  arrestment  of  the  leaders  of  the 
September  massacres,  Danton,  &c. ;  to  overawe  the 
mob  of  Paris  by  a  guard  selected  from  all  the 
departments  of  France ;  to  save  the  king's  hfe  by 
the  absurdest  of  all  possible  means,  viz.,  by  first 
voting  his  death,  and  then  by  intending  to  appeal 
to  the  nation ;  and,  finally,  to  impeach  Marat,  who, 
in  turn,  induced  the  various  sections  of  Pai-is  to 
demand  their  expulsion  from  the  assembly  and 
their  arrestment.      This  demand,  backed  up  as  it 

]  was  by  170  pieces  of  artillery  under  the  disposal 
of  Heuriot  (q.  v.),  leader  of  the  sans-culottes,  could 

1  not  be  resisted ;  thirty  of  the  G.  were  arrested 
on  a  motion  of  Couthon,  but  the  majority  had 
escaped  to  the  provinces.  In  the  departments  of  Eure, 
Calvados,  and  all  through  Brittany,  the  people  rose 
in  their  defence,  and  under  the  command  of  General 
Wimpfen,  foi-med  the  so-called  'federalist'  army, 
which  was  to  rescue  the  republic  from  the  hands  of 
the  Parisian  populace.  Movements  for  the  cause  of 
the  G.  took  place  Ukewise  at  Lyon, 'Marseille,  and 
Bordeaux.  The  progress  of  the  insiurection  was, 
however,  stopped  by  the  activity  of  the  Conven- 
tion. On  the  20th  Jul}-,  the  revolutionary  army 
took  possession  of  Caen,  the  chief  station  of  the 
insurgents,  whereupon  the  deputies  of  the  Conven- 
tion, at  the  head  of  the  sans-cidottes,  forced  their 
way  into  the  other  towns,  and  commenced  a  fearful 
retribution. 

On  the  1st  October  1793,  the  prisoners  were 
accused  before  the  Convention  by  Amar,  as  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  of 
conspiring  against  the  republic  with  Louis  XVI., 
the  royalists,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Lafayette,  and 
Pitt,  and  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  brought 
before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal.     On  the   24th, 

I  their  trial  commenced,  llie  accusers  were  such  men 
as  Chabot,  Hebert,  and  Fabre  d'Eglantine.  The 
G.,  however,  defended  themselves  so  etfectually,  that 
the  Convention  on  the  30th  was  obliged  to  come 
forward  and  decree  the  closing  of  the  investigation- 
That    very    night,    Brissot,   Vergniaud,   Gensonnd, 

I  Ducos,  Fonfrfede,  Lacaze,  Lasouree,  Valaze,  Sillery, 


GIKONNE— G  lURGEVO. 


Fauchet,  Duperrct,  Carra,  Leliardy,  Duchltel,  Gar- 
dien,  Boileau,  Beauvais,  Vigge,  Duprat,  Mainvielle, 
and  Autiboul,  were  sentenced  to  death,  and,  vnth 
the  exception  of  Valazc,  who  stabbed  himself  on 
hearin.i;  his  sentence  pronounced,  all  perished  by  the 
gnillotine.  On  their  way  to  the  Place  de  Grfcve,  in 
the  true  spirit  of  French  republicanism,  they  sang 
the  Marsfillaise.  Coustard,  Manuel,  Cussy,  Noel, 
Kersaint,  Eabaut  St  Etienne,  Bernard,  and  Maznyer, 
were  likewise  afterwards  gidUotined.  Biroteau, 
Grangeneuve,  Guadet,  Salles,  and  Barbaroux  .ascended 
the  scaffold  at  Bordeaux;  Lidon  and  Chambon, 
at  Brives;  Valady,  at  PeriOTeux;  DechSzeau,  at 
RocheUe.  Kebecqui  dro-wnea  himself  at  MarseUle, 
Pction  and  Buzot  stabbed  themselves,  and  Con- 
dorcet  iioisoned  himself.  Sixteen  months  later,  after 
the  fall  of  the  Terrorists,  the  outlawed  members, 
including  the  G.  Lanjuinais,  Defermou,  Ponte- 
coulant,  Louvet,  Isnard,  and  La  Ki\-i6re,  again 
appeared  in  the  Convention.  A  rather  flattering 
picture  of  the  party  has  been  drawn  by  Lamartine, 
in  his  Hktoire  des  Girondins  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1847). 

GIRONNE,  GYRONN^,  GYRONNY  (Latin, 
gyriis,  a  circle),  terms  used  in  Heraldry  to  indi- 
cate that  the  Field  (q.  v.)  is  divided  into  six,  eight, 
or  more  triangul.ar  portions,  of  different  tinctures, 
the  points  of  the  triangles  all  meeting  in  the  centre 
of  the  shield.  Nisbet  (i.  28)  objects  to  this  as 
a  viUgar  mode  of  bl.azoning,  and,  in  speaking  of 
the  'paternal  ensign  of  the  ancient  siun-ame  of 
CampbeU,'  he  says  (p.  31)  that  it  is  'composed 
of  the  four  principal  partition  lines,  porti,  coup6, 
traunche,  taille,  which  divide  the  field  into  eight 
gironal  segments,  ortlinarUy  blazoned  with  us 
girony  of  eight,  or,  and  s.-ible.'  The  triangle  in 
dexter-chief  has  been  called  a  Giron  or  GjTon. 

GI'RVAN,  a  seaport  town  .and  burgh  of  barony, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Girvan,  in  the  coimty  of 
Ayr,  and  .about  21  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  It  is  now  the  terminus  of  the  Glasgow 
and  South-Western  RaUway,  and  owns  consider- 
able tonnage  in  shipping.  The  harbour  has  been 
much  improved  of  late,  and  a  consider.able  trade, 
especially  in  the  shipment  of  coiil,  is  carried  on 
betwixt  G.  .and  Belfast,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  65  miles.  The  valley  of  the  Girvan  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  .and  best  cultivated  districts 
in  the  south-west  of  Ayrshire,  .and  .abounds  mth 
coal  and  with  limestone.  The  land  is  of  the 
richest  description.  The  town  is  situated  opposite 
the  celobr.ated  'Ailsa  Craig,'  and  has  been  much 
frequented  of  late  in  the  summer  season  by  parties 
in  quest  of  sea-bathing,  for  which  the  coast  is 
admirably  adapted.     Pop.  (1861)  7047. 

GISORS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Eiire,  Bitxiated  on  the  river  Epte,  33  miles 
north-east  of  Evreux,  and  on  the  high-road  from 
Paris  to  Rouen.  Pop.  3245.  Here  a  b.attle  took 
place,  10th  October  1198,  between  the  French  and 
English,  in  which  the  former  were  completely 
deflated.  Richard  I.,  who  commanded  the  English, 
gave  as  the  'parole,'  or  watchword  of  the  (Lay, 
Tiieu  et  moil  Droll  (God  and  my  Right),  and  ever 
since,  the  expression  kos  been  the  motto  to  the 
royal  .arms  of  England. 

GIULI'NI,  Giorgio,  a  learned  historian  and 
antiquary,  was  bom  at  Milan  in  1714.  He  studied 
Law  at  'the  university  of  Padu.a,  and  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  at  .an  eariy  age.  G.  devoted 
his  decided  antiquarian  genius  to  researches  into 
the  monuments  and  remains  of  his  native  land; 
.and  after  twenty  years  of  patient  labour  he 
published  a  valuable  historical  work  entitled 
Memoirs  concerning  the  Qovemment  of  Milan,  mtn 


Description  of  the  City  and  Milanese  Territory  from 
the  Early  Aaes.  These  Memoirs,  in  4  vols.,  embrace 
the  period  from  the  destruction  of  the  Lombard 
domination,  or  establishment  of  the  Franks  in 
Italy,  down  to  the  opening  of  the  14th  century. 
In  three  subsequent  books,  he  descends  to  1447, 
when  the  House  of  Visconti  was  elevated  to  sove- 
reign rule  in  Milan.  The  work  is  considered  by 
G.'s  countrymen  a  master-piece  of  learning,  inipar- 
ti.ality,  and  judgment.  Much  of  the  history  is  based 
upon  the  evidence  of  coins,  seals,  documents,  and 
monuments  of  the  various  .ages.  Milan  proudly 
recognised  G.'s  patriotic  labour  by  appointing 
him  state  historian,  and,  at  the  request  of  the 
Empress  Maria-Theres.a,  he  collected  materials 
for  four  additional  books,  with  the  view  of  bring- 
ing the  work  down  to  the  IGth  century.  Before 
achie^^ng  this  design,  he  died  of  apoplexy  on 
Christmas  Eve,  in  1780.  G.  was  distinguished 
for  active  benevolence  as  well  as  learning.  He 
likewise  cultivated  with  enthusiasm  both  poetry 
and  music. 


GITJLIO  PIPPI,  sumamed  '  Komaxo,'  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  was  bom  at  Rome  in  1492,  and 
became  one  of  Raphael's  most  distinguished  and 
beloved  pupils.  His  excellence  as  an  architect  and 
engineer  almost  equalled  his  genius  as  a  painter.  _G. 
.assisted  Raphael  in  the  execution  of  several  of  ms 
finest  works,  and  by  special  desire  of  the  great 
master,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  completion  of  all 
his  unfinished  designs  after  his  death.  He  likemse 
inherited  a  great  portion  of  Raphael's  wealth.  The 
works  executed  by  G.,  in  imitation  of  Raphael, 
reflect  so  wonderfully,  not  alone  the  style  and 
character,  but  the  sentiment  and  spirit  of  the 
original,  that  in  many  instances  uncertainty  h.as 
arisen  as  to  the  hand  from  which  they  emanated ; 
whUe,  on  the  contrary,  the  more  original  creations 
of  G.  are  deficient  in  the  ideal  grace  of  his  master, 
aud  display  rather  breadth,  and  power  of  treatment, 
and  boldness  of  imagination,  than  poetical  refine- 
ment or  elevation.  Unlike  Raphael,  the  chief 
excellence  of  G.  does  not  Ue  in  his  conception  of  the 
divine  or  Christian,  but  rather  of  the  classical  ideaL 
G.  died  in  1546.  ,      ,    •        ,  ,     o 

The  principal  architectural  works  designed  by  tn 
were  executed  at  Mantua,  during   his   lengthened 
residence  .at  the  court  of  Duke  Frederick  Gonz.aga. 
The  di-ainage  of  the  marshes  surrounding  Mantua, 
and  the  securing  the  city  fi-om  the  frequent  inunda- 
tions of  the  rivers  Po  .and  Mincio,  attest  his  skill  as 
an  engineer  ;  while  his  genius  as  an  architect  found 
free  scope  in  the  restoration  and  .adornment  of  rnany 
of  the  chief  public  edifices  of  Mantua,  .and  especially 
in   the   erection   of  the  splendid  palace  known  as 
n  Palazzo  del  Te,  which  ho  also  embellished  \vith 
mythological  frescoes,  and  a  profusion  of  exquisite 
decorations.     Many  of  G.'s   finest  pictiu-es  passed 
into  the  possession  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  who 
purchased,  in  1629,  the  celebrated  coUection  of  the 
Dukes  of  Mantux     Sever.al  of  them  are  now  con- 
tained  in   the   H.ampton  Court   Gallery;   but  the 
finest  of  aU,  a  '  N.ati\-ity,'  was  sold  to  France,  and 
now   adorns   the   Lou\Te.     The   Naples   gaUery   of    j 
Capi  d'Opera  possesses  a  Holy  F.amUy  by  G.,  called 
the   'Madonna    della   G.atta,'    and   considered   the 
greatest  of  his  pictures  ;  it  is  strongly  imbued  with 
the  spirit  and  influence  of  Raphael.     The  Loggia  of 
Raphael,  in  the  V.atican,  .also  contains   some   fine 
frescoes    executed    by    G. ;     and    in    the    Palazzo 
F.araese  there  is  a  grand  frieze  attributed  to  hun. 

GIURGE'VO,  an  important  trading  town  of 
Walhachia,  is  situated  on  the  left  b.auk  of  the 
Danube,  directly  opposite  Rustchuk,  and  40  miles 
south-south-west    from  Bucharest,  of   which  town 

763 


GirSTI— CLACIEE. 


it  is  the  port.  It  was  originally  the  Genoese 
settlement  of  St  George.  It  is  the  great  land- 
inf-place  for  steamers  in  AVallachia.  A  bridge 
across  a  narrow  channel  connects  G.  ■with  Slobodse, 
an  island  in  the  Danube,  on  which  .stands  a 
fortified  castle.  Here  the  Turks  defeated  the 
Russians,  7th  July  1S51.    Pop.  20,000. 

GIU'STI,  GiuSKPPE,  the  most  celebrated  and 
popular  of  the  modem  poets  and  satirists  of 
Italy,  was  born  in  181)9,  at  Pescia,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Florence.  Sprung  from  an  influential  Tuscan 
family,  G.  was  early  destined  to  the  bar,  and  at 
Pistoja  and  Lucca  commenced  the  preliminary 
studies,  which  were  completed  at  the  imiversity  of 
Pisa,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws.  Sust.ained  earnestness  of  study  seems  to  hare 
formed  no  feature  in  G.'s  collegiate  course,  whose 
n.atural  bent  rather  incKiied  him  to  a  genial  parti- 
cipation in  the  freaks  and  social  pleasures  of  his 
companions  than  to  the  erudite  investig.ation  of  the 
Pandects.  On  quitting  Pisa,  G.  was  domiciled  at 
Florence  with  the  erninent  advocate  Capoquadri, 
who  subsequentlj'  became  Minister  of  Justice,  and 
here  he  first  attempted  poetry;  Lyrical  compositions 
of  the  romantic  school,  evincing  both  elevated  and 
nervous  thought,  were  his  earliest  efforts  ;  but  he 
speedily  comprehended  that  satire,  not  idealism,  was 
his  true  forte.  In  a  pre-eminent  degree,  G.  possesses 
the  requirements  of  a  great  lyrical  satirist — terse, 
clear,  and  brilliant,  he  depicts,  alternately  with 
the  poignant  regret  of  the  humanitarian,  and  the 
mocking  laiigh  of  the  ironist,  the  decorous  shams 
and  fconventional  vices  of  his  age.  His  impartiality 
only  lends  a  keener  sting  to  his  denimciation.  The 
stern  flagellator  of  tyrants,  he  is  no  less  merciless 
in  stigmatising  those  whose  pliant  ser^Tlity  heljis 
to  perpetuate  the  abasement  of  their  coimtrj-.  Nor 
does  he  adulate  the  people,  whose  champion  he 
avowedly  is,  and  whose  follies  and  inconsistencies 
he  indicates  with  the  faithfulness  of  a  watchfid 
friend.  The  writings  of  G.  exercised  a  positive 
political  influence.  When  the  functions  of  the 
press  were  ignored,  and  freedom  of  thought  was 
treason,  his  flaming  verses  in  manuscript  were 
throughout  all  Italy  in  general  cii-culation,  fanning 
the  hatred  of  foreign  despots,  and  poweriidly 
assisted  in  preparing  the  revolutionary  insurrection 
of  1848.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  did  G.  discard 
the  pseudonym  of  '  The  AnonjTuous  Tuscan,'  and 
append  his  name  to  a  volume  of  verses  bearing 
on  the  e%'ent3  and  aims  of  the  times.  jUI  his 
compositions  .are  short  pieces,  rarely  blemished 
with  personahties,  and  wi-ittcn  in  the  purest 
form  of  the  popidar  Tuscan  dialect.  The  elegant 
familiarity  of  idiom  which  constitutes  one  of 
their  chief  and  original  beauties  in  the  eyes  of 
their  native  readers,  presents  great  difJicidties  to 
foreigners,  and  still  greater  to  the  translator.  G.'s 
writings  are  not  only  Italian  in  spirit  and  ■wit,  but 
essentially  Tuscan.  A  reverent  student  of  Dante, 
G.  himself  often  reaches  an  almost  Dantesque 
sublimity  in  the  higher  outbursts  of  his  scornful 
wrath,  while  he  stands  alone  in  the  lighter  jilay 
of  ironical  ■wit.  In  poUties,  an  enlightened  and 
moderate  liberal,  averse  alike  to  bureaucracy  and 
mobocracy,  G.  was  also  beloved  in  private  life  for 
his  social  qualities,  and  his  loving  and  gentle  spirit. 
He  died  in  1850,  aged  41,  in  the  dwelling  of  his 
attached  friend,  the  Marquis  Gino  Capponi,  at 
Florence ;  and  the  tlirong  of  citizens  who  followed 
him  to  the  grave,  in  the  teeth  of  Austrian  pro- 
hibition, attested  eloquently  the  repute  he  enjoyed 
in  life.  His  most  celebrated  pieces  are  entitled 
Stivale,  or  the  History  of  a  Boot  (Italy),  a  humor- 
ous narration  of  all  the  misfits,  ill-usage,  and 
liatching  allotted  to  this  unfortimate  down-trodden 

7U4 


sjTnbol  of  his  countrj' ;   G'tnijilUno,  a  master-piece 

of  sarcasm,  portraying   the   ignoble  career   of   the 

sycophant,  whose  supple  back  and  petty  diplomacy 

finally  secure  for  him  the  highest  distinctions  ;  jl 

Be  Travicello,  or  King  Log,  the  subject  of  which 

is  indicated   by  the   title  ;   It  Brindiei  di  Girella, 

j  or  the  Weathercock's  Toast,  one  of  his  best  pieces, 

j  dedicated  to  the  suggestive  name  of  Talleyrand ; 

and  the  Dies  Irce,  or  Funeral  Oration  of  the  Em- 

I  peror  Francis  I.     The  only  authorised  and  correct 

j  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Florence 

in  1S52  by  Le  lloimier. 

GIUSTINIA'XI,  an  illustriors  Italian  race,  to 

which  the   republics   of  Venice   and  Genoa   owed 

more  than  one  doge.     One  of  the  palatial  residences 

of  Rome  was  erected  towards  the  end  of  the  16th 

:  c.   by    a   descendant   of   the   family,   the   ilarquis 

Giustiniani.      The  site  he  selected  for  the   palace 

j  was  a  portion   of   the  ruins  of   Kero's  baths,  and 

1  on  its  completion  he  enriched  it  ■with  a  magnificent 

private  gallery  of  paintings,  and  a  fine  collection 

of  sculptures.     He  also  formed  a  museum  of  anti- 

I  quities,  the  treasures  of  which  were  discovered  on 

I  the  spot.      In   1807,  the   G.   family  conveyed  the 

collection  of  paintings  to  Paris,  where  they  disposed 

of  the  greater  part  by  auction,  and  privately  sold 

i  the  remainder,  consisting  of  170  fine  paintings,  to 

the   artist    Bonnechose,   who,   in   his   turn,   resold 

\  them  to  the  king  of  Prussia.     This  fragment  of  the 

'  famous  Giustiniani  Gallery  now  enriches  the  Berlin 

'  Museum,  and  a  very  few  of  its   former  treasures 

j  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  Giustiniani  palace   at 

Pome. 

{      GIVET,  a  town  of  France,  and  a  fortress  of  the 

I  first  r.ank,  is  situated  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,, 

on  both  banks  of  the  Meuse,  close  to  the  border  of 

Belgium,  and  145  miles  north-east  of  Paris.     The 

town  consists  of  three  districts — Charlemont,  Givet 

St  Hilaire,  and  Givet  Notre  Dame,  all  lying  Avithin 

the  line  of  the  fortifications.     It  is  well  situated  in 

a  commercial  point  of  view,  is  regularly  built,  has 

!  handsome   squares,  a  good  port,  barracks,  a  mili- 

I  tary  hospital,  and  manufactures  of  leather,  for  which 

I  G.  is  famous,  of  white-lead,  clay-pipes,  sealing-wax, 

j  and  naUs  ;  breweries,  marble-works,  and  a  zinc  and 

copper  foundry  are  also  carried  on.     Pop.  4136. 

j  6IVORS,  a  to^wn  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
'  Rhone,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of 

that  name,  14  miles  south  of  Lyon.  Bottles  and 
'  window  glass  are   here   extensively  manufactured, 

and  a  trade  in  ironstone  and  coal  is  carried  on. 
I  Pop.  8578. 

GLA'CIER  is  a  name  given  to  immense  masses  of 
ice,  which  are  formed  above  the  snow-line,  on  lofty 
mountains,  and  descend  into  the  valleys  to  a  greater 
or  less  distance,  often  encroaching  on  the  cultivated 
'  regions.  The  materials  of  the  glaciers  are  derived 
from  the  snow  which  falls  during  summer  as  well  as 
winter  on  the  summits  of  high  moimtains.  Every 
fresh  tail  of  snow  adds  a  little  to  the  height  of  the 
mountain,  and,  were  there  no  agents  at  work  to  get 
rid  of  it,  the  mountains  would  l;)e  gradually  rising  to 
an  indefinite  elevation.  Avalanches  and  glaciers,  how- 
ever, carry  the  snow  into  warmer  regions,  where  it 
is  reduced  to  water ;  in  the  one,  the  snow  shps  from 
the  steep  mountain  slopes,  and  rushes  rapidly  down ; 
in  the  other,  it  gradually  descends,  and  is  converted 
into  ice  in  its  progress.  The  snow  which  forms  the 
glacier  at  its  origin  has  a  very  different  appearance 
and  consistence  from  the  ice  of  which  it  consists  at 
its  lower  termination.  The  minute  state  of  division 
of  the  ice,  in  its  snow  condition,  and  the  quantity  of 
air  interspersed  through  it,  gives  it  its  characteristic 
white  colour.  Two  causes  operate  in  causing  this 
change  into  ice :  first,  pressure  expels  the  air,  by 


GLACIEK. 


Lriuginf;  tlic  particles  of  the  lower  layers  of  snow 
more  closely  together ;  and  second,  the  summer's 
heat  melting  the  surface,  the  water  thus  obtained 
liercolates  through  the  mass  beneath,  and  as  it 
passes  amongst  the  ])article3  whose  temperature  is 
below  32"  1''.,  it  increases  their  size  by  external 
additions  tdl  the  particles  meet,  and  the  whole 
becomes  a  solid   mass.      Tlie  suo^vy  region  of  the 


X^  V 


0^^ 


glacier  is  called  by  the  French  name  nivf:  In  largo 
glaciers,  the  nevg  is  of  great  extent,  a  large  quantity 
of  material  being  required  to  make  up  the  waste. 
The  neve  is,  however,  ofteu  confined  to  narrow 
valleys,  and,  as  a  consequence,  produces  glaciers 
■which  soon  perish.  The  increase  of  a  glacier  by 
snow  falhng  on  its  surface  takes  place  only  above 
the  snow-Une— below  that  line,  all  the  aceumidated 
winter's  snows  are  speedily  melted  by  the  summer's 
heat.  The  ice  of  the  glacier  seldom  exhibits  any 
traces  of  the  horizontal  stratification  which  is  foimd 
in  the  neve,  but  is  generally  intersected  with  vertical 
veins  of  clear  blue  ice. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  glaciers  is  their 
motion.  It  has  been  long  known  to  the  natives  of 
the  Alps  that  they  move,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  few  years  that  it  has  received  due  attention 
from  scientific  men ;  the  account  of  their  observa- 
tions, and  the  theories  based  upon  them,  form  one  of 
the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of 
glaciers.  8ee  the  writings  of  Agassiz,  Forbes,  and 
Tj-ndaU.  The  continual  waste  of  glaciers  below  the 
snow-line,  both  along  its  sm'facc  and  at  its  extremity, 
is  ever  bcmg  repaired,  so  that  the  glacier  does  not 
recede  from  the  valley,  nor  decrease  in  depth.  That 
the  materials  of  the  rej)aration  are  not  derived  from 
the  fall  of  the  winter's  snow,  and  the  influence  of 
the  winter's  frost,  is  e\Hdent,  inasmuch  as  these 
additions  speedily  disappear  with  the  return  of  the 
summer's  heat,  and  in  the  end  form  but  a  small 
jiroportion  of  the  year's  total  loss.  The  true 
repairing  agent  is  the  motion  of  the  glacier,  which 
brings  down  the  glacified  snow  from  the  upper 
regions  to  be  melted  below.  To  account  for  this 
motion,  Charpantier  supposed  the  water  which 
saturated  the  glacier  in  all  its  jiarts,  and  filled  the 
innimierablo  capillary  fissures,  was,  during  night 
and  during  the  %rinter,  frozen,  and  that  the  well- 
kno\vn  and  almost  irresistible  expansion  wliich 
woidd  take  place  in  the  conversion  of  the  water 
into  ice,  furnished  the  force  necessary  to  move  the 
glacier  forwards.  This  theory,  known  as  the  dilala- 
tioii  tlieory,  was  for  some  time  adopted  by  Agassiz, 
but  idtimatcly  abandoned.  Agassiz  shewed  that  the 
interior  of  the  glacier  had  a  temperature  of  'i'l"  F., 
and  subsequent  observations  have  she%vn  that  the 
glacier    moves   more   rapidly   in   suiiuner   than    in 


winter.  In  1799,  De  Saussure  pubhshed  a  second 
theory,  known  as  the  gravitation  or  slidinc/  tlieory,  in 
wliich  he  supjiosed  that  the  glacier  moved  by  shding 
}  down  the  inclined  )>lane  on  which  it  rested,  and  that 
it  was  kept  from  aiUiering  to  its  bed,  and  sometimes 
even  elevated  by  the  water  melted  in  the  contact 
of  the  glacier  with  the  naturally  -warmer  earth. 
Wlulo  correctly  attributing  the  motion  to  gravity, 
De  tiaussure  erred  in  considering  glaciers  as  con- 
tinuous and  more  or  less  rigid  solids — indeed,  the 
motion  he  attributes  to  them  would,  if  commenced, 
be  accelerated  by  gravity,  and  dash  the  glacier  from 
its  bed  as  an  avalanche.  Principal  Forbes  was  the 
author  of  tlie  next  important  theory.  Considerable 
attention  had  in  the  meantime  been  paid  to  the 
subject  by  llcndu,  Agassiz,  and  others,  llendu  had 
shewn  that  the  glacier  possessed  a  semi-fluid  or  river- 
like motion,  in  explaining  the  difference  between 
observations  made  by  him  at  the  centre,  which 
'  moves  more  rapidly,'  and  others  made  at  the  sides, 
'  where  the  ice  is  retained  by  the  friction  against 
its  rocky  walls.'  The  rcsidts  based  on  Kendu's 
nbservations  were  established  by  the  repeated  and 
xact  measurements  of  Forbes,  who,  in  the  progress 
it  his  examinations,  made  the  fm-ther  discoveries, 
tliat  tlie  surface  moves  more  rapidly  tlian  the  ice 
near  the  bottom,  and  the  middJe  than  the  sides  ; 
that  the  rate  of  motion  is  gi-eater  wliere  tlie 
glacier-bed  has  the  greatest  inchnation  ;  and  that 
the  motion  is  continued  in  winter,  while  it  is 
accelerated  in  summer  by  the  increase  of  the  tem- 
peratui-e  of  the  air.  The  only  theory  which,  as  it 
appeared  to  Forbes,  could  accoimt  for  these  pheno- 
mena is  thus  expressed  by  him :  '  A  glacier  is  an 
imperfect  fluid  or  a  viscous  body,  which  is  urged 
down  slopes  of  a  certain  inclination  by  the  mutual 
pressure  of  its  ])arts.'  This  is  known  as  the  viscoua 
llieorij.  He  considered  a  glacier  as  not  a  crystalline 
solid,  like  ice  trauqiully  frozen  in  a  moiUd,  but  that 
it  possessed  a  peculiar  fissured  and  laminated  struc- 
ture, tlirough  which  water  entered  into  its  intrinsic 
composition,  giving  it  a  viscid  consistence,  similar  to 
that  possessed  by  treacle,  honey,  or  tar,  but  ditl'er- 
ing  in  degree.  Professor  Tyndall  has  published 
another  theory,  which  he  designates  the  pressure 
tlieorij.  This  differs  httle  from  that  of  Forbes, 
exeejit  that  it  denies  that  glacier  ice  is  in  the  least 
\'iseid.  By  a  number  of  independent  observations,  he 
established  the  facts  fii-st  noticed  by  Rendu  and 
Forbes,  and  added  the  important  one,  that  the  jilace 
of  greatest  motion  is  not  in  the  centre  of  the 
glacier,  but  in  a  curve  more  deeply  sinuous  than 
the  valley  itself,  crossing  the  axis  of  the  glacier  at 
each  point  of  contrary  flexure — in  fact,  that  its 
motion  is  similar  to  that  of  a  river  whose  point  of 
maximum  motion  is  not  central,  but  de\aates 
towards  that  side  of  the  valley  towards  which  the 
river  tiu'ns  its  convex  boimdary.  This  seems  a 
further  corroboration  of  the  viscous  thcorj-,  but 
Tjmdall  explained  it  and  the  other  facts  by  a 
theory  which,  while  maintaining  the  7i(««-(-iiuid 
motion  of  the  glacier,  denied  that  this  motion  was 
owing  to  its  being  in  a  viscous  condition.  The 
germ  of  his  theory,  as  he  tells  us,  was  derived  from 
some  observations  aiul  experiments  of  Faraday's  in 
ISuO,  who  shewed,  '  that  when  two  pieces  of  ice, 
mth  moistened  surfaces,  were  placed  in  contact, 
they  became  cemented  together  l>y  the  freezing  of 
the  film  of  water  between  them,  while,  when  the 
ice  was  below  32'  F.,  and  therefore  r/;v/,  no  effect 
of  this  kind  coidd  be  jirodueed.  The  freezing  was 
also  found  to  take  place  under  water.'  By  a  further 
series  of  experiments,  Tyndall  found  that  ice  at  32" 
F.  could  be  compressed  into  any  form,  and  that  no 
matter  how  great  the  bruising  of  its  particles  and 
the  change  of  its  shape,  it  would,  from  this  property 


GLACIER. 


of  regelation,  re-establish  its  continuous  solid  con- 
dition, if  the  ]>articles  of  ice  ojicrated  on  were  kept 
in  close  contact.  These  facts  he  applied  to  the 
motion  of  glaciers,  asserting  that  the  pressure  of 
the  ])arts  of  a  glacier  on  each  other,  in  a  downward 
direction,  produced  by  gravitation,  was  more  power- 
fid  than  the  attraction  which  held  the  particles  of 
the  ice  together — that,  consequently,  the  ice  vras 
ruptured,  to  permit  the  motion  of  the  glacier,  the 
particles  being,  however,  speedily  reunited  by  rege- 
lation. The  supposed  viscous  condition  of  ice  he 
beUeved  to  be  refuted  by  the  fact  that,  whenever 
the  glacier  is  subjected  to  tension,  as  in  passing 
over  a  cascade,  it  does  not  yield  by  stretching,  but 
always  by  breaking,  so  as  to  form  crevasses.  This 
theory,  equally  with  that  of  Forbes,  explains  the 
known  ])henomena  of  glaciers,  while  the  advantage 
is  claimed  for  it  of  not  drawing  upon  our  imagination 
as  to  a  required  condition  of  the  ice,  but,  by  experi- 
ment, exhibiting  ice  from  known  causes  jiroducing 
effects  on  the  small  scale  similar  to  those  produced 
in  natm-e  on  the  large.  Forbes,  however,  maintains 
(Occasional  Papers,  &c.,  1S59)  that  all  that  is 
peculiar  to  T}Tidall's  theory  was  included  in  his 
own  ;  and  that  the  facts  discovered  and  expounded 
by  Faraday  in  1850  had  already  been  used  by  him 
as  part  of  his  theory  in  1846.  He  says  that  liis 
viscous  theory  included  the  notion  'of  an  infinity 
of  minute  rents  ;  that  it  also  embraces  the  substi- 
tution of  the  finite  sliding  of  the  internally  bruised 
surfaces  over  one  another ; '  and  that  it  includes 
'  the  reconsolidation  of  the  bruised  glacial  substance 
into  a  coherent  whole  by  pressure  acting  upon  ice, 
softened  by  imminent  thaw.' 

Professor  Tyndall  re-introduces  and  re-asserts  the 
gravitation  theory  of  De  Saussure  as  in  part  the 
cause  of  the  glacier's  motion  ;  but  the  phenomena 
which  he  considers  produced  by  a  sliding  motion 
of  the  whole  mass  over  its  bed — ^^z.,  the  poUshing 
and  grooving  of  the  rock  below — can  be  produced 
by  a  substance  whose  motion  is  the  result  of  a 
yielding  of  its  parts,  if  that  substance  has  suffi- 
cient consistence  to  retain  firmly  imbedded  in  its 
lower  siu'face  portions  of  rock  to  act  as  polishers, 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  ice  of  glaciers 
has  such  a  consistency. 

Some  of  the  more  remarkable  phenomena  of 
glaciers  remain  to  be  noticed.  The  sm-face  of  the 
glacier  docs  not  long  retain  the  purity  of  the  snow 
from  which  it  is  derived,  but  is  speedily  loaded 
with  long  ridges  of  debris  called  moraines.  The 
mountains  which  rise  on  either  side  of  the  valley 
occupied  by  the  glacier  are  continually  suffering 
loss  from  the  action  of  the  rain,  disruption  by 
frost,  and  the  impidse  of  avalanches.  The  mate- 
rials thus  liberated  find  their  way  to  the  glacier, 
and  form  a  lino  of  rock  and  rubbish  on  its  two 
borders,  of  greater  or  less  size,  dependent  on  the 
friability  or  compactness  of  the  adjacent  mountains. 
The  lateral  moraines  often  reach  to  a  great  height, 
as  much  as  forty  or  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
glacier.  The  whole  ridge  appears  to  consist  of 
debris,  but  it  is  really  a  ridge  of  ice  with  a  covering 
of  foreign  materials,  which,  by  protecting  the  under- 
Ipng  ice  from  the  heat  which  they  radiate  and 
only  partially  transmit,  leave  the  moraine  as  a  more 
and  more  elevated  ridge,  while  the  siu'face  of  the 
glacier  is  speedily  melting.  Glacier  tables  have  a 
similar  origin.  A  large  and  isolated  mass  of  rock, 
resting  on  the  glacier,  protects  the  ice  liclow ;  and 
as  the  glacier  melts,  it  leaves  the  rock  poised  on  the 
summit  of  an  icy  column.  As  the  rays  of  the  sun 
play  on  the  table  all  day  obliquely,  the  column  is 
gradually  melted  from  under  the  rock,  until  it  slips 
off,  and  begins  to  form  another  table ;  while  the 
unjirotected  column  speedily  melts  and  disappears. 
766 


AVhere  two  glaciers  unite,  the  traUs  of  rock  on  the 
inner  margins  unite  also,  and  form  a  single  ridge, 
which  runs  along  the  midille  of  the  large  trunk 
glacier,  and  is  called  a  medial  moraine.  It  is  evident 
that  the  number  of  the  medial  moraines  must  thus 
depend  upon  the  number  of  the  branch  glaciers, 
and  must  indeed  be  invariably  one  less.  The  glacier 
terminates  amidst  a  mass  of  stones  and  debris, 
which  baring  been  carried  do\vn  on  its  surface,  are 
finally  deposited  by  its  melting  at  its  extremity, 
forming  there  a  terminal  moraine.  Sometimes  a 
glacier  decreases  in  size,  either  withdrawing  from 
the  valley,  and  leaving  the  terminal  moraine  as  a 
barren  waste  of  rocks,  or  melting  on  its  super- 
ficies throughout  its  length,  and  depositing  its 
lateral  moraines  as  a  ridge  of  debris  on  either  side 
at  some  height  above  it  on  the  mountain.  The 
existence  of  such  collections  of  rocks  is  plain 
evidence  of  the  foi-mer  position  and  altitude  of 
glaciers,  and  even  of  their  foi-mer  occurrence  in 
countries  where  they  are  now  imknowii. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  when  the  glacier  is 
subjected  to  tension,  the  continuity  of  its  parts  is 
destroyed,  and  fissures,  called  crevasses,  are  formed. 
In  passing  over  a  brow  on  the  channel,  the  ice 
invariably  yields ;  at  first,  a  deep  crack  is  formed, 
which  gradually  widens  untd  a  fissure  or  chasm  is 
produced  across  the  glacier.  Transverse  crevasses 
disappear  when  the  glacier  reaches  a  level  portion 
of  its  bed ;  the  pressure  bringing  the  walls  again 
together,  the  chasm  is  closed  up.  Longitudinal 
crevasses  are  produced  when  the  glacier  escapes 
from  a  confined  channel,  and  spreads  itself  over  a 
wider  area.  The  spreading  of  the  margins  causes  a 
tension  in  the  body  of  the  glacier,  whicli  yields,  and 
longitutlinal  fissures  are  formed.  These  occasionally 
rend  the  terminal  front  of  a  glacier.  The  smaUer 
marginal  crevasses  are  formed  from  the  tension  of 
the  ice,  produced  by  the  normal  motion  of  the 
glacier  being  retarded  by  the  friction  against  the 
sides  of  its  channel.  The  motion  of  the  glacier 
is  gradually  accelerated  from  the  margin  inwards, 
consequently  the  lines  of  greatest  tension  are 
inclined  downwards  and  towards  the  centre,  more 
or  less,  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  motion. 
The  crevasses  formed  by  the  yielding  of  the  ice  are 
at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of  tension,  and  conse- 
quently poiut  up  the  glacier. 

The  veined  structure  is  apparently  the  residt  of 
pressiu'e.  The  veins  consist  of  blue  ice  penetrating 
the  white  mass  of  the  glacier,  and  occm'  either  in 
ii'regular  du'ections,  or  producing  a  regidarly  lamin- 
ated structure.  The  blue  veins  are  portions  of 
ice  from  which  the  air-bubbles  have  been  expelled, 
and  which  are  consequently  more  compact  than  the 
general  substance  of  the  glacier.  The  pressure  is 
exerted  in  three  directions,  producing  veins  which 
are  complementary  to  the  three  kinds  of  crevasses 
which  have  just  been  noticed.  When  the  glacier 
passes  over  a  level,  or  perhaps  a  gently  rising 
channel,  transverse  veins  are  formed ;  when  it  is 
pressed  through  a  narrower  channel,  longitudinal 
veins  are  produced  ;  and  the  pressure  at  the  margins 
produced  by  the  retardation  of  the  flow  by  friction 
causes  the  formation  of  marginal  veins  in  the  lines 
of  greatest  pressure,  that  is,  at  right  angles  to  the 
marginal  crevasses. 

The  melting  of  the  ice  on  the  surface  of  the 
glacier  produces  streams,  whose  course  is  often 
broken  by  crevasses,  down  which  the  water  descends, 
finding  egress  at  last  through  the  cavernous  mouth 
at  the  termination  of  the  glacier,  where  it  issues 
after  being  increased  by  other  streams,  which  have 
by  similar  channels  reached  the  bottom,  as  well  as 
by  the  melting  of  the  ice  from  the  contact  of  the 
earth.     The  rushing  water  wears  a  shaft  of  greater 


GLACIS— GLADIOLUS. 


diameter  than  the  crevasse,  and  this  shaft  often 
remains  after  the  margins  of  the  crevasse  have 
been  rennitetL  In  the  progress  of  the  glacier, 
another  crevasse  intersects  the  lied  of  the  stream, 
and  dowB  this  the  water  is  diverted,  leaving  the 
formed  shaft  or  mouliv,  as  it  is  called.  The  for- 
saken moulin  has  at  its  base  a  quantity  of  earth 
and  stones  collected  by  the  stream  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  glacier ;  these  are  gradually  raised 
to  the  surface  by  the  melting  of  the  glacier,  and 
eventually  appear  as  cones  of  debris,  sometimes 
rising  high  on  columns  of  ice  under  the  same 
inlluences  as  the  glacier  tables. 

Glaciers  are  not  necessarily  peculiar  to  any 
country  or  zone,  but  wherever  there  are  moimtains 
of  sufficient  height,  it  may  be  expected  that  they 
may  exist.  In  Europe,  they  are  chietly  confined  to 
the  Alps  and  Norway.  Having  their  origin  in  the 
region  of  jjerpetual  snow,  they  reach  far  down  into 
the  vaUeys,  the  largest  |)ushing  themselves  furthest 
down.  That  of  Bossous  at  Chaninuni,  which  comes 
from  the  highest  part  of  Mont  Blanc,  reaches  a 
point  5500  feet  below  the  snow-line,  where  it  is 
embosomed  amongst  lu,xnriant  wood,  and  is  almost 
in  contact  with  cornfields.  Hooker  and  others 
have  described  the  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya.  Ice- 
land and  Spitzbergen  also  aboimd  in  glaciers.  It  is  in 
such  northern  localities  th.at  the  ends  of  the  glaciers, 
resting  on  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  get  broken  off 
by  transverse  crevasses,  and  float  away  as  icebergs. 

It  haa  already  been  noticed  that  the  former 
existence  of  glaciers  is  indicated  by  the  occurrence 
of  moraines.  These  have  been  noticed  in  various 
localities  in  Wales,  England,  and  Scotland.  They 
are  referred  to  the  period  when  the  Boulder-Clay 
(q.  V.)  was  deposited ;  and  this,  with  the  sands  and 
gravels  which  are  associated  with  it,  are  some- 
times included  under  the  title  Glacial  Deposits. 

GLA'CIS  (allied  to  glade  in  the  sense  of  a  lawn), 
in  Fortification  (q.  v.),  the  slope  of  earth,  usually 
turfed,  which  inclines  from  the  covered-way  towards 
the  countrj'.  Its  object  is  to  bring  assailants,  as 
they  approach,  into  a  conspicuous  line  of  fire  from 
the  parapet  of  the  fortress,  and  also  to  mask,  the 
general  works  of  the  jilace. 

GLA'DIATOR,  in  Antiquity,  from  rjladius,  a 
sword,  was  one  who  fought  in  the  arena,  at  the 
amphitheatre  at  Kome,  and  in  other  cities,  for 
the  amusement  of  the  public.  The  gladiators  were 
generally  slaves,  bought  and  trained  for  the  purpose, 
by  masters  who  made  this  their  business.  The 
custom  is  sujiposed  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  East,  and  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  prac- 
tice of  human  sacrifices,  or  that  of  taking  the 
lives  of  captives  or  prisoners  of  war,  in  honour  of 
heroes  who  had  died  in  battle.  Thus,  in  the  Iliad, 
we  read  that  Achilles  sacrificed  twelve  Trojan 
pi-isoners  to  the  manes  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  and 
Virgil  speaks  of  captives  sent  to  Evander,  to  be 
sacrificed  at  the  funeral  of  his  son  Pallas,  The 
\great  custom'  of  the  king  of  Dahomey  thus 
finds  warrant  in  classic  anticpiity ;  and  the  North 
American  Indians,  in  putting  tlieir  prisoners  to 
death  with  tortures,  have  oidy  refined  upon  an 
ancient  barbarism. 

After  a  time,  all  considerable  funerals  were  solem- 
nised by  human  sacrifices,  which  took  the  form  of 
combats,  in  which,  to  increase  the  interest  of  the 
spectators,  the  jirisoners  were  retiuircd  to  sacrifice 
each  other ;  and  as  |)risoners,  and  afterwards  other 
slaves,  were  kept  for  this  puqiose,  they  were  trained 
to  fight  with  skill  and  courage,  to  make  the  spec- 
tacle more  impressive.  These  contests  first  took 
phace  at  funerals,  but  afterwards  in  the  amjihi- 
theatre  ;  aud  in  process  of  time,  instead  of  a  fimeral 


rite,  became  a  common  amusement.  The  first  we 
rea<l  of  in  Roman  history  was  the  show  of  a  con- 
test of  three  j>air3  of  gladiators,  given  by  Marcus 
and  Decius  Bnitus,  on  the  death  of  their  father,  in 
the  year  of  Kome  400.  In  the  year  5.'i7,  a  show  of 
twenty-two  pairs  wjvs  given  in  the  Forum.  In  547, 
the  first  Africanus  diverted  his  army  at  New  Car- 
thage with  a  gladiatorial  exhibition.  Tlie  fashion 
now  rapidly  increased.  Magistrates,  public  ofliccrs, 
candidates  for  the  ]>opidar  suffrages,  gave  shows  to 
the  people,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  these  bloody 
and  generally  mortal  encounters.  The  emperors 
exceetled  all  others  in  the  extent  and  magnificence 
of  these  cruel  spectacles.  J  ulius  Ca;sar  gave  a  show 
of  320  couples  ;  Titus  gave  a  show  of  glafliators, 
wild-beasts,  and  sea-fights,  for  100  days ;  Trajan 
gave  a  show  of  123  days,  in  which  2000  men  fought 
with  and  killed  each  other,  or  fought  with  wild- 
beasts  for  tlie  amusement  of  the  70,000  Komans, 
iiatricians  and  jilelieians,  the  highest  la«lies  and  the 
lowest  rabble,  assembled  in  the  Colosseum.  A  vast 
number  of  slaves  from  aU  i)arts  of  the  world  were 
kept  in  Rome,  and  trained  for  these  exhibitions. 
There  were  so  many  at  the  time  of  Catiline's  con- 
s|iiracy,  that  they  were  thought  dangerous  to  the 
public  safety,  and  it  was  proposed  to  distribute 
them  among  the  distant  garrisons. 

Efforts  were  made  to  limit  the  number  of  gladi- 
ators, and  diminish  the  frequency  of  these  snows. 
Cicero  proposed  a  law,  that  no  man  shoidd  give  one 
for  two  years  before  becoming  a  candidate  for  office. 
The  Emperor  A\igustus  foriiade  more  than  two 
shows  in  a  year,  or  that  one  shoidd  be  given  by  a 
man  worth  less  than  half  a  million  sesterces ;  but 
it  was  difficult  to  restrain  what  had  become  a 
])assion,  and  men  even  had  such  contests  for  the 
amusement  of  their  guests  at  ordinary  feasts. 

These  shows  were  announced  by  show-biUs  and 
pictures,  like  the  plaj's  of  our  theatres.  The  gladi- 
ators were  trained  and  sworn  to  fight  to  the  death. 
If  they  shewed  cowardice,  they  were  killed  with 
tortures.  They  fought  at  first  with  wooden  swords, 
and  then  with  steel.  When  one  of  the  combatants 
was  disarmed,  or  npon  the  ground,  the  victor 
looked  to  the  eni|>eror,  if  present,  or  to  the  peojile, 
for  the  signal  of  death  ;  if  they  raised  their  thumbs, 
his  life  was  spared  ;  if  they  turned  them  donni,  he 
executed  the  fatal  mandate.  A  gladiator  who  had 
conquered  was  rewarded  with  a  branch  of  palm,  and 
sometimes  with  his  freedom.  Though  the  gladiators 
at  first  were  slaves,  freemen  afterwards  entered  the 
|irofession,  and  even  knights.  Senators  aud  knights 
fought  in  the  shows  of  Nero,  and  women  in  those 
of  Domitian.  The  Emperor  Constantine  prohibited 
the  contests  of  gladiators,  325  A.  D. ;  but  they 
coidd  not  at  once  be  abolished.  In  the  reign  of 
Honorius,  Tclemachiis  went  into  the  arena  to  stop 
the  fight,  when  the  people  stoned  him.  They  were 
finally  abolished  by  Theodoric,  500  a.  d. 

GLADI'OLUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Jridetp,  with  a  tubular  perianth,  the  limb  of 
which  is  divided  into  six  imequal  segments,  thread- 
hke,  undivided  stigm.is,  and  winged  seeds.  The 
roots  are  bulbous ;  the  leaves  linear  or  sword-sh.apcd, 
whence  the  name  (Lat.  a  little  sword).  The  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  produces  the  greater  number  of  the 
known  species,  as  well  as  of  several  allied  genera 
once  included  in  this.  A  few,  however,  are  natives 
of  other  countries,  and  two  or  three  are  found  in 
Europe.  None  are  British.  Most  of  the  sjiecies 
have  fiowers  of  great  beauty  ;  and  some  of  them  are 
among  the  finest  ornaments  of  our  flower-borders 
and  green-houses.  They  are  propagated  either  by 
seed  or  by  offset  bulbs  ;  and  in  the  former  way 
many  fine  new  v.arieties  have  been  produced.  Extra- 
ordinary medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed 


GLADIOLUS— GLADSTONE. 


to  the  bulb  of  O.  commvnis,  one  of  the  European 
Bpecies,   found   as   far   north   as   Fraukfort-on-the- 


Gladiolus  Eamosus. 

Oder.  The  Hottentots  eat  the  bulbs  of  some  of  the 
species,  which  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
starch. 

GLADSTONE,  The  Right  Hon.  William 
EwART,  statesman  and  orator,  the  third  son  of 
Sir  John  Gladstone,  Bart.,  of  Fasque,  in  Kincar- 
dineshu'e,  was  born,  1S09,  at  Liverpool,  where 
his  father,  originally  of  Leith,  had  won  eminence 
and  wealth  as  a  West  India  merchant.  Mr  Can- 
ning was  a  frequent  guest  at  his  father's  house 
when  he  visited  his  Liverpool  constituents,  and 
from  the  conversation  of  the  gi-eat  statesman,  G. 
received  impressions  which  gave  a  colour  to  his 
subsequent  aims.  He  was  sent  to  Eton,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  as  a  student,  and  after-, 
wards  entered  himself  of  Christ  Chiu'ch,  Oxford, 
where  he  closed  a  brilliant  college  career  by  talcing 
a  double  first-class  degree  in  1831.  He  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1S.32  for  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle's  borough  of  Newark.  He  held  the 
post  of  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  afterwards  that 
of  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  in  the 
Peel  government,  for  a  few  months  in  1S3-1 — 1 835. 
In  1838,  he  published  his  first  work,  T/ie  State  in 
its  Relations  witli  tlie  Church,  which  gave  occasion  to 
Mr  Macaiday  to  describe  him,  in  a  celebrated  reWew 
of  his  work,  as  a  '  young  man  of  unblemished  char- 
acter, the  rising  hope  of  those  stern  and  unbending 
Tories'  who  followed  Sir  Kobert  Peel,  while  they 
abhorred  his  cautious  temper  and  moderate  opinions. 
In  1841,  G.  became  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of 
Ti-ade  in  the  Peel  administration,  and  in  1843, 
President  of  the  Board.  Next  to  his  chief,  he  took 
the  most  prominent  part  in  the  re\'ision  of  the  tariff 
and  reduction  of  import  duties,  which  reached  their 
natural  development  in  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws. 
He  resigned  office  in  February  1845,  when  Sir  E, 
Peel  proposed  to  increase  the  endowments  of  the 
College  of  Maynooth,  a  proposal  at  variance  with 
all  the  principles  laid  down  by  G.  in  his  work.  He 
rejoined  the  ministry  in  December  1845,  succeeding 
the  Earl  of  Derby  (who  refused  to  be  a  party  to 
the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws)  as  Colonial  Secretary. 
He  rendered  Sir  E,  Peel  eloquent  and  effective  aid 
in  carrying  the  great  measure  of  free  trade  through 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  paid  the  penalty  in 
the  loss  both  of  his  office  and  his  seat,  for  the  then 
Duke  of  Newcastle,  claiming  to  '  do  what  he  liked 
768 


with  his  own,'  refused  to  sanction  his  re-election  for 
Newark.  In  1S47,  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  the 
university  of  O.xford,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
for  eighteen  years.  During  a  visit  to  Naples  iu 
1850,  he  was  induced  by  curiosity  to  attend  the  trial 
of  M.  Poerio,  who  was  sentenced  to  several  yeara' 
imprisonment,  and  subjected  to  indignities  and 
cruelties  which  roused  the  generous  indignation  of 
the  English  statesman.  The  dungeons  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  at  this  period  swarmed  with 
political  prisoners,  and  6.,  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl 
of  Aberdeen,  made  all  Europe  ring  with  the  story  of 
their  sufferings  and  their  wrongs.  He  after  that 
advocated  the  cause  of  Italian  independence  in 
many  eloquent  speeches.  In  1851,  he  opposed  the 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill,  brought  in  by  Lord  J. 
Kussell,  thinking  that  no  legislation  was  necessary, 
and  that  the  act  savoured  of  religious  persecution. 
After  refusing  an  offer  to  hold  office  under  Lord 
Derby,  he  became  Chancellor  of  the  E.xchequer  in 
the  coalition  government  formed  by  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen  in  185i  Wlien  that  government  fell 
before  a  motion  in  the  House  of  Commons 
for  inquiring  into  the  state  of  the  army  before 
Sebastopol,  G.  continued  for  a  brief  period  a 
member  of  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Palmerston,  but  soon 
retired,  from  an  un^HlUngness  to  consent  to  the 
appointment  of  the  Sebastopol  committee.  G.  then 
went  into  opposition,  and  in  1857  made  an  eloquent 
and  damaging  speech  on  Mr  Cobden's  motion  cou- 
demn,atory  of  .Sir  John  Bowriug's  proceedings  in 
China,  which  broiight  about  the  defeat  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  and  the  dissolution  of  parliament.  In 
1858,  G.  accepted  a  special  mission  of  importance 
to  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  the  same  year,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Aije.  In 
the  second  Palmerston  administration,  he  resumed 
the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  E.xchequer.  In  ISGO, 
he  carried  tlirough  parliament  a  commercial  treaty 
with  France,  which,  while  it  lasted,  largely  in- 
creased the  trade  between  the  two  countries.  His 
financial  scheme  that  year  involved  among  other 
proposals  the  al^oUtion  of  the  paper-duty,  which 
was  strongly  but  unsuccessfully  opposed  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  the  Upper  House,  the 
Paper-duty  Repeal  Bill  was  throwTi  out  on  finan- 
cial grounds.  G.  boldly  denounced  this  interfer- 
ence with  the  taxing  privileges  of  the  Commons. 
In  1801,  he  ineoi'iiorated  the  repeal  of  the  paper- 
duty  in  the  financial  scheme  of  the  ye.ar,  and  had 
the  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the  removal  of  the 
last  obstacle  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge. 
Relations  with  the  University  constituency  had 
now  become  so  menacing,  that  in  1861  South  Lanca- 
shire asked  him  to  stand  as  a  liberal  candidate. 
This  lie  refused  at  tlie  time;  but,  rejected  by  a 
majority  of  his  academic  constituency  at  the 
general  election  in  1S65,  he  was  returned  by 
South  Lancashire  third  on  the  poll.  In  1866, 
G.,  now  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons — Lord 
Palmerston  having  died  in  October  1865 — brought 
in  a  Reform  Bill,  the  defeat  of  which  caused 
Earl  Russell  to  resign.  At  the  general  election 
in  1S6S,  South-west  Lancashire  rejected,  and 
Greenwich  returned  him.  Acceding  to  office  as 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  at  the  close  of  that 
year,  G.,  in  1860,  disestablished  the  Irish  Church  ; 
in  1870,  conducted  to  a  successful  issue  his  Irish 
Land  Bill,  and  the  following  year  abolished,  by  the 
exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative,  purchase  in  the 
army.  Another  event  of  1871  was  the  Washington 
Treaty  respecting  the  Alabama  claims,  ti.'s  more 
recent  books  include  a  very  laudatory  Criliijuc  of 
'Kcce  Homo,  1868  (reprinted  from  llood  Words),  and 
\juventus  Mundi,  the  Oods  ami  Men  of  tlie  Heroic 
Uae. 


GLAGOL— GLANDERS. 


GLAGOL,  GLAGOLITZA,  GLAGOLITES, 

.an  anciunt  Slavonic  aljihaljet,  principally  used  in 
several  Koman  Catholic  dioceses  of  Istria  and 
Uabnatia,  in  tlio  psalms,  liturgies,  and  offices  of 
the  church.  Anionf;  these  lllyrian  adherents  to  the 
communion  of  ]{ome,  mass  is  not  celehrated  in 
Latin,  but  in  an  ancient  Slavonic  dialect,  -n-ritten 
in  this  jioculiar  alphabet,  the  invention  of  which  is 
popularly  attriliuted  to  St  Jerome.  The  >ise  of  this 
liturgy  was  coutinned  to  the  jiriesthood  by  a  b>dl 
of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  124S.  Of  the  antiquity  of 
this  alphabet,  the  savants  have  maintained  a  great 
variety  of  opinions.  Dobrowsky  laid  the  fouuda- 
tiou  of  a  critical  investigation  of  the  subject,  and 
has  been  followed  by  Kopitar,  Jacob  Grimm,  Ivan 
I'reis,  &u.  A  Gl.igolitic  M.S.  of  the  11th  c,  behmg- 
ing  to  Count  Ivloz,  )>nblishe(l  muler  the  title  of 
GUif/ollta  Cln-Ja»iis  (\'ieuna,  lS;!li),  proves  a  higher 
antitpiity  than  some  had  been  willing  to  allow. 
Grimm  sujiposes  the  Glagol  aljih.abet  very  ancient, 
from  its  Uunic  character ;  but  Preis  thinks  it  more 
modern  than  the  Kyrillick.  The  name  Glagol  is 
supposed  liy  Kopitar  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
word  ijloijoldli,  which  frequently  occurs  in  the 
liturgies,  and  which,  though  nnkmnvn  to  the  Scrvo- 
Croatians,  signities  in  the  ecclesiastical  idiom,  to 
siKol:     Glagol  means  word  or  speech. 

GLAMO'RGANSHIRE,  the  most  southerly  of 
the  coimties  of  Wales,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  antl 
S.-W.  by  the  Bristol  Channel,  on  the  W.  by  the 
county  of  ('aerniartlion,  on  the  N.  by  Brecknock, 
and  on  the  E.  by  Moumo\ith.  Area,  547.404  acres ; 
pop.  (IS-)!)  231,849;  (ISGl)  .■517,7.")!.  The  co.ast- 
line,  following  the  princip,al  windings,  is  about  90 
inUes  in  length,  and  its  irregidarities  occur  chiefly  in 
the  western  jiortion  of  the  county,  and  are  foi'med 
by  Swansea  Bay  .and  the  peninsula  of  Gower  (q.  v.). 
The  whole  of  the  northern  district  is  covered  with 
mountains,  the  highest  of  which,  however,  Llan- 
geinor,  is  only  1859  feet  in  height.  This  district 
comprises  the  richest  co.al-bed  in  the  kingdom.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  county,  called  the  'Vale  of 
Glamorgan,'  forms  a  gre,at  level,  and  is  by  far  the 
most  fertile  part  of  South  Wales.  Its  soil  is  a 
reddish  ehiy,  resting  on  limestone,  and  is  excellently 
adajited  for  the  gro^-th  of  wheat,  whicli  is  here 
raised  in  rich  and  heavy  crojjs.  The  mountainous 
district  is  intersected  by  numerous  and  deep  valleys, 
aUbriUng  good  pastur.age  for  slice])  and  cattle,  and 
is  the  source  of  many  of  the  streams  of  the  county. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rumney,  the  Tall',  the 
Neath,  and  the  Tawe  ;  all  of  them  running  south- 
ward from  the  momitains  into  the  Bristol  Channel. 
Besides  coal,  anthracite  or  stone-coal  and  coking- 
co.al,  with  iron-stone  and  lead,  are  found  in  givater 
or  less  qu.antity.  The  ironworks  .at  Merthyr- 
Tydvil  are  probably  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world,  and  there  are  many  others  of  scarcely  less 
importance  throughout  the  county.  At  Neath 
and  Swansea  are  large  copper  smclting-works,  to 
which  ore  is  1  iron^ht  from  South  America,  .and  even 
from  Australia.  Lead  and  tin  ores  are  also  brought 
from  considerable  d;.stances  to  this  county  to  lie 
smelted.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  jiotatoes  are 
the  chief  crops  raised  ;  and  butter  and  cheese  are 
largely  jiroduced  and  exiiorted.  The  county  of  G. 
returns  two  members  to  the  House  of  Comniona. 

Originally  included  in  the  territory  of  the  Sihires, 
and  afterwards  (under  the  Romans)  in  th.at  of 
Britannia  Secnuda,  ami  possessing  some  interesting 
Roman  remains,  the  (Ustrict  of  G.,  about  the  close 
of  the  11th  c,  fcU  into  the  hands  of  the  Anglo- 
Norman  barons,  and  subsequently  became,  through 
m.arriage,  a  jiossession  of  the  Duke  of  (Jloiicester, 
afterwards  Richard  III.  The  county  cont.ains  | 
many  memorials  oi  the  middle  .ages,  in  its  ruined  I 
i05 


castles  .and  religious  houses.  Of  these,  Oystermouth 
Castle,  a  bold  and  noble  ruin  overlooking  .Swan- 
sea B.ay,  Caerphilly  Castle,  and  ilargam  Abbey, 
m.ay  be  taken  .as  perhaps  the  finest  remaining 
siiccimens.     (Pop.  1871—390,010.) 

GLANCE  ((ier.  OUutz),  a  tenn  often  applied  in 
popular  language,  ami  .also  l)y  mineralogist.s,  to  a 
numerous  order  or  family  of  minerals,  of  which  Galena 
(q.  V.)  or  Lcad-G.  may  be  regarded  as  a  tj^pe.  All  of 
them  .are  metallic,  and  many  of  them  are  known  by 
names  indicating  the  metal  wliich  is  their  princip.al 
constituent,  as  Lead-O.,  Silref-G.,  Bismuth-G.,kc.  In 
these  and  many  other  sjiecies,  the  met.al  is  comliined 
with  sidpliur,  so  that  the  mineral  is  a  sulphuret, 
but  there  are  also  numerous  species  of  G.  in  which 
sulphur  is  not  present,  but  selenium,  ai-seiiic,  or 
teUnrium  takes  its  place.  In  some  kinds  also,  two 
or  more  met.als  .are  present  instead  of  one,  in  com- 
bination with  one  or  other  of  these  non-metallic  or 
semi-metallie  substances.  Thus,  Goid-G.,  or  Sil- 
vanitv,  consists  of  gold  and  sUvcr  in  combination 
with  tellurium  :  it  occurs  in  veins  in  porphyry,  in 
Transylv.ania,  and  is  wrought  for  the  s.ake  (if  "ijoth 
the  precious  met.als  which  it  contains.  .Several  kinds 
of  G.  .are  very  v.aluable  ores,  as  Lcad-G.  or  Gulna, 
Coppcr-G.  or  Rednilliile,  and  S'dcer-G.  or  AnjtmlUe. 
Although  mineralogists  h.ave  adopted  the  names 
Pi/rilCK,  Glance,  and  Blende  as  names  of  orders  or 
families,  the  limits  and  distinctions  of  these  groups 
are  not  well  marked.  All  kinds  of  (i.  are" fused 
without  much  difficidty  by  the  blowpipe.  They  are 
also  soluble  in  acids. 

GLANCE-COAL.     See  Ajnthracite  and  Coal. 

GLA'NDER.S  is  a  m.alignant  disease  of  the  equine 
species,  ch.ar.acterised  by  the  appearance  within  the 
nostrils  of  little  holes  or  ulcers,  remarkable  for  their 
rugged,  inflamed,  undermined  edges,  their  discharge 
of  sticky,  greenish,  unlicolthy  pus,  their  tendency  to 
spread,  and  their  resistance  of  treatment.  The 
blood  of  glanderous  subjects  is  deficient  in  red 
globules,  contains  an  excess  of  albumen  .and  librine, 
and  in  this  vitiated  and  deterior,ated  state  is  inade- 
quate properly  to  nourish  the  body,  ^^llich  conse- 
quently becomes  weak  and  wasted.  The  in  neons 
membranes  are  also  iirit.able  and  badly  nourished  ; 
there  is  consequently  impaired  resiiiratioii,  an  olisti- 
n.ate  choking  cough,  and  rcla.xed  bowels.  The  Ijin- 
j)hatic  glanils  and  vessels  become  intiamed,  and  in 
their  swollen  state  may  be  distinctly  felt  aliout  the 
throat  and  underneath  the  jaws,  and  also  in  the 
limbs,  where  they  frequently  run  on  to  ulceration, 
constituting  Farcy  (q.  v.).  (jlauders  is  produced 
by  any  cause  which  interferes  with  the  purity  or 
integrity  of  the  horse's  blood,  or  produces  a  dete- 
rior.ated  or  depraved  state  of  his  system.  It  has 
been  frequently  developeil  in  healthy  animals  by 
their  breathing  for  a  short  time  a  close,  impure 
.atmosphere,  and  cases  of  this  sort  were  thus  pro- 
duced amongst  the  horses  of  several  of  our  cavalry 
regiments,  whilst  being  transported  in  badly  con- 
structed, overcrowded  vessels  to  the  Crimea  in  ISrA. 
Confined,  overcrowded,  badly  ventil.ated  stables  are 
almost  equally  injurious,  for  they  prevent  the  perfect 
aer.ation  of  the  blood,  and  the  prompt  removal  of 
its  org.anie  impm-itics.  Bad  feeding,  hard  work,  and 
such  reducing  diseases  as  diabetes  and  inflneiiza, 
.also  rank  amongst  the  causes  of  glanders.  A  small 
portion  of  the  n.asal  discharge  from  .a  glandered 
horse  coming  in  cont.act  with  the  abraded  skin  of 
man,  comninnicates  the  loathsome  and  fatal  disease 
from  which  so  many  attendants  of  horses  have  died, 
and  government  by  the  act  \"ict.  IG  and  17,  of  date 
14th  August  1853,  very  jiropcrly  conqiels  the  imme- 
diate destruction  of  every  glandered  horse.  Whilst 
oxen  and  dogs  .are  exempt  from  it,  donkeys  suffer 

769 


GLANDS. 


gent-rally  in  the  acute  foi-m,  often  dying  in  eight  or 
ten  days,  lloi-ses  freciuently  have  it  in  a  chronic 
form,  ami  if  welj  fed  and  managed,  sometimes  live 
and  work  for  years.  In  the  old  coaching-days,  some 
stages  were  known  to  be  worked  by  a  glandered 
team,  but  no  animal  with  glanderous  ulcers  or  dis- 
charge shoidd  on  any  accoimt  be  preserved,  for, 
besides  being  perfectly  incurable,  the  fatal  disease 
is  communicable  not  only  to  healthy  horses,  but  also 
to  human  beings. 

GLANDS  are  divided  by  anatomists  into  two 
great  classes,  viz.,  true  secreting  glands  and  ductless 
glands. 

The  first  class  constitute  special  organs  which  are 
destined  for  the  jiroduction  of  the  chief  secretions ; 
as,  for  examjile,  the  lachrymal,  manmiary,  and  sali- 
vary gLonds,  the  Uver,  pancreas,  kidneys,  &c. ;  while 
the  suprarenal  capsides,  the  spleen,  the  thymus,  and 
the  thyroid  belong  to  the  second  class. 

An  ordinary  secreting 
gl.and     consists     of      an 
aggregation    of    follicles, 
ail  of  which  open  into  a 
common  duct,  by  which 
the  glandidar  product  is 
discharged.    The  foUicles 
contain  in  their  interior 
Cells    (q.  v.),   whdch   are 
the  active  .agents  in  the 
secreting  process;   while 
their     exterior     is     sm-- 
Pig.  l.-LobiUe  of  P.arotid  rounded  by  a  net- work  of 
Gland  of  an  Infant :         capillaries,    from    whose 
rilled  with  niL-rcuiT,  and       contents  the  materials  of 
magnified  50  diameters.         secretion    are    extracted. 
The  simplest  form  of 
a  gland  is  the  inversion  of  the  surface  of  a  secreting 
membrane  into  follicles,  which  discharge  their  con- 
tents upon   it   by  separate   mouths.      Of   this   we 
have  examples  in  the  gastric  glands   and  foUicles 
of  Lieberkiihu  described  and  figured  in  the  article 
D1GE.ST10X.     Dr   Carpenter  very  well  exhibits  the 
commencement    of    the    progi'essive     compUcation 
which  is  observed  in  most  of  the  glandidar  struc- 
tures occurring  in  man  and  the  higher  animals  in  the 
accompanjTng  diagram  (lig.  2),  where  A  represents  a 


rig.  2. 

portion  of  the  proventriculus  of  a  falcon,  in  Which 
follicles  formed  by  simple  inversion  occur,  while  B 
represents  a  gastric  gland  from  the  middle  of  the 
human  stomach,  and  C  a  still  more  complicated 
fonu,  produced  by  the  follicles  doubling  upon  them- 
selves, taken  from  near  the  pylorus. 

The  articid.ata  (for  example,  insects)  present  glan- 
didar structures  which  can  be  um-avelled  much  easier 
than  the  glancls  of  vertebrate  animals ;  and  the 
forms,  in  all  of  which  a  large  amount  of  secreting 
surface  is  presented  in  corapar.atively  little  space,  are 
often  very  graceful.  In  the  accompanying  gron]> 
(fig.  3),  the  first  two  represent  different  forms  of 
saHvary  glands,  the  third  is  a  rei>roductive  gland, 
770 


while  tlie  fom-th  and  liftli  are  glands  yielding  the 
acrid  matter  which  some  insects  secrete. 


Fig.  3. 
1,  part  of  the  salivary  gland  of  Nepa  Cinerea  (after  Ramdohrl ; 
2,  salivary  vessel  of  Cicada  Ormi  (.after  Succow)  ;  3.  testes  of 
Staphylinus   MaxiUorus;    4,    secreting    gland  of   Chla^niu9 
Velutinus ;  5,  secreting  gland  of  Calatljus  Fuivipes. 

To  understand  the  structure  of  a  complex  gland 
like  the  liver  or  kidney,  it  must  be  followed  from  the 
simplest  form  in  which  it  is  known  to  occur  through 
its  various  degrees  of  comphcation.  In  this  way 
the  liver  may  be  traced,  from  the  lowest  moUusca 
(where  it  exists  as  simple  follicles,  lodged  in  the 
walls  of  the  stomach,  and  ])Ouring  their  jiroduct  into 
its  cavity  by  separate  orifices)  up  to  man,  in  whom 
it  is  an  organ  of  extreme  intricacy;  and  similarly  in 
the  early  fetal  state  of  the  higher  animals,  the  liver 
and   other  secreting  organs  more  or  less   resemble 


Fig.  4.— Mammary  Gland  of  Omithorhynchus. 

the  persistent  state  of  those  parts  in  animals  lower 
in  the  animal  scale.  In  the  same  way,  the  Mammary 
Gland  (q.  v.),  which  is  a  structure  of  considerable 
complexity  in  the  liigher  mammals,  presents  a  very 
simple  arrangement  in  the  lowest  tyjie  of  this  class, 
the  omithorhynchus,  being  merely  a  cluster  of  Ciec.al 
foUicles.  each  of  which  discharges  its  contents  by  its 
own  orifice. 

Sometimes  a  gland  has  several  ducts  (as,  for 
example,  the  lachr\niial  glandl,  but,  as  .a  general 
rule,  the  most  important  glands  have  only  a  single 
canal,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  individual  ducts, 
which  conveys  away  the  product  of  the  secreting 
action  of  the  whole  mass. 

WTiatcvcr  be  the  complexity  in  the  general 
aiTangement  of  the  elements  of  a  gland  in  the 
higher  animals,  these  elements  are  always  found 
to  resolve  themselves  into  fiiUides  or  tubuli,  which 
enclose  the  true  secreting  cells. 

The  second  class  of  glands  resemble  the  secreting 
glands  in  external  conformation,  and  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  solid  ]iarenchymatous  tissue,  but  differ 
from  them  in  the  absence  of  a  duct  or  opening  for 
the  removal  of  the  products  of  secretion ;  and  indeed. 


GLA2TOS— GLASGOW. 


except  in  the  case  of  the  thj-mus,  no  material 
resembling  a  secreted  product  is  yielded  by  any  of 
them.  In  all  of  them,  the  tissue  mainly  consists  of 
cells  and  nuclei,  with  a  great  abundance  of  Idood- 
vessels.  They  m.ay  probably  be  regarded  as  append- 
ages to  the  vascular  system ;  and  from  the  absence  of 
any  excretory  duct,  they  have  received  the  name 
of  nasciiUir  ductless  ;il<i»ds. 

The  Lymphatic  (Hands  belong  to  a  different  class 
of  structures,  and  will  be  described  in  the  article  on 
the  Lymphatic  Systesi. 

GLANDS,  Diseases  of.  The  lymphatic  glands 
are  subject  to  enlargement  from  acute  inflammation 
and  abscess,  usually  iu  conseriuence  of  ii-ritation  of 
the  part  from  which  their  lymphatics  spring,  as  in 
the  case  of  scarlet  fever,  in  which  the  glands  of  the 
throat  are  affected ;  in  gonorrhoea,  the  glands  of  the 
groin,  &c.  The  treatment  of  such  abscesses  belongs 
to  the  ordinary  principles  of  surgery.  See  Abscess. 
A  much  more  troublesome  affection  of  the  glands  is 
the  slow,  comparatively  painless,  at  first  dense  solid 
swelling  which  they  undergo  in  Scrofula  (q.  v.),  which 
tends  very  slowly,  if  at  all,  to  suppuration,  and  some- 
times remains  for  years.  In  Syi)hilis  (q.  v.)  and 
Cancer  (q.  v.),  there  are  also  enlargements  of  the 
lymjihatic  glands.  Scrofulous  or  tubercular  disease 
of  the  mesenteric  gl.inds  in  children  constitutes 
Tabes  mesenterica  (q.  v.).  The  larger  glands,  as  the 
Liver,  Kidney,  Pancreas,  Spleen,  Thyroid,  Thymus, 
Testicle,  and  even  the  Pituitary  Gland,  have  all 
their  special  diseases,  which  ^vill  be  noticed,  so  far 
as  necessary,  in  treating  of  these  organs. 

GLA'NVILLE.  The  earliest  treatise  on  the  laws 
of  England,  Tnictatus  de  Legihus  el  Consuetudinibus 
AwjlUe,  is  written  by  Glanville.  Of  this  work. 
Professor  Robertson  says  (Hist,  of  Charles  V.),  that 
it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  undertaking  of 
the  kind  in  any  country  in  Europe.  It  was  com- 
posed about  1181.  Tlie  author  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  Ranulphus  de  G.,  chief-justice  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  while  he 
admits  the  date  of  the  work  to  have  been  in  the 
reign  of  that  monarch,  appears  to  hesitate  to  ascribe 
the  authorship  to  the  chief-justice.  Lord  Campbell 
{Lives  of  the  Chief-Justices^  i.  25)  remarks  that  G., 
in  some  points,  is  still  of  authority,  '  and  may 
be  perused  with  advantage  by  all  who  take  an 
interest  in  our  legal  antiquities.  This  author  is  to 
be  considered  the  father  of  English  jurisprudence. 
Bracton,  who  writes  in  the  following  century,  is 
more  methodical,  but  he  draws  largely  from  the 
Roman  civil  law,  and  is  often  rather  speculative  ; 
while  Glan\Tlle  actually  details  to  us  the  practice  of 
the  Aula  Regis  in  which  he  presided,  furnishes  us 
with  a  copious  su]>ply  of  precedents  of  writs  and 
other  procedure  then  in  use,  and  explains  with  much 
precision  the  distinction  and  subtilties  of  the  system 
which,  in  the  fifth  Norman  reign,  had  nearly  super- 
seded the  simple  juridical  institutions  of  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors.'  This  work  was  first  piinted  in 
the  year  1554,  at  the  instance  of  Sir  W.  Stanford,  a 
judge  of  the  Common  Pleas.  The  treatise  of  G. 
closely  resembles  the  Scottish  Regiam  Majestatem 
(q.  v.).  'The  latter,'  says  Coke  [Inst.  iv.  345), 
'  doth  in  substance  agree  with  our  Glanville,  and 
most  commonly  de  verba  in  verbum.  and  many  times 
our  Glanville  is  cited  therein  by  special  name.'  A 
dispute  has  arisen,  in  consequence  of  this  close 
similarity,  as  to  which  country  shall  claim  the  honour 
of  producing  the  original  work.  Mr  Erskine  does 
not  hesitate  to  claim  the  distinction  for  Scotland; 
but  Lord  Stair,  following  the  opinion  of  Craig, 
frankly  admits  '  that  those  books,  called  Reijiam 
Mnjestatem,  are  no  part  of  oiir  law,  but  were  com- 
piled for  the  customs  of  England,  in  thirteen  books. 


by  the  Earl  of  Chester,  and  by  some  unknown  and 
inconsiderate  hand  stolen  thence,  and  resarcinate  in 
those  four  books  which  pass  amongst  us '  (Stair, 
i.  1,  s.  IG). 

GLA'RUS,  a  canton  in  the  north-east  of  Switzer- 
land, is  triangular  iu  shape,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  N.-E.  by  the  canton  of  St  Gall,  on  the  S.-R 
by  that  of  the  Orisons,  and  on  the  \V.  by  those 
of  Schwytz  and  Uri.  It  has  an  area  of  2G2  square 
miles,  and  in  1S70  it  had  .'to.I.jU  inhabitants,  of  whom 
(JSSS  were  Catholics,  the  others  almost  all  Calvinists. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  the  highest  peak 
being  that  of  Tiidiberg  or  Diiiliberg  iu  the  south- 
west, which  reaches  a  lieii^'ht  of  11,880  feet.  From 
the  foot  of  this  mountain,  the  Linth,  the  chief 
river,  flows  north-north-east,  through  the  middle 
of  the  canton,  and  cmjities  itself  into  the  Lake  of 
Wallenstadt.  The  principal  valleys,  after  that  of 
the  Linth,  are  the  Sernfthal  and  the  Klonthal,  both 
formed  by  tributaries  of  the  Linth.  The  climate  is 
veiy  severe,  and  only  one-fifth  of  the  laud  is  arable. 
This  canton,  in  which  the  rearing  of  cattle  was 
formerly  the  main  pureuit  of  the  inhabitants,  is  now 
an  important  manufacturing  district.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton,  woollen,  muslin,  and  silk 
goods,  and  paper  and  slates.  Great  part  of  the 
niauufactm-es  are  exported  to  the  East,  to  North 
Africa,  America,  and  China.  The  green  cheese 
called  Schabziger,  which  is  wholly  made  here,  and 
other  agricultural  products,  are  exported.  In  none 
of  the  Swiss  cantons  does  the  population  so  slowly 
increase  as  in  that  of  Glarus.  The  old  homely 
mannere,  and  many  even  of  the  customs  of  anti- 
quity, stiU  prevail  among  the  people.  In  the 
earliest  times,  G.  was  reckoned  sometimes  as  a  part 
of  Rhoetia,  sometimes  as  a  part  of  Swaliia,  and  was 
peoi)led  by  German  settlers.  After  various  changes, 
it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Dukes  of 
Austria,  but  ultimately  secured  its  independence  by 
the  victories  of  NUfels  in  1352  and  1388,  when  it 
joined  the  Swiss  confederation.  The  chief  town  is 
Glarus,  with  a  large  Gothic  chiu-ch,  which  serves 
both  for  Catholics  and  Protestants  and  in  which 
Zwingli  was  parson  from  150G  to  15IG.     Pop.  40S2. 

GLA'SGOW,  the  industri.al  metropolis  of  Scot- 
land, is,  after  London,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  cities  in  the  kingdom.  It  is  sitiuated  on 
the  Clyde,  in  the  lower  ward  of  Lanarkshire,  and 
occupies  chiefly  the  north  side  of  the  river,  but  has 
large  and  populous  sulnirbs  ou  the  south  side.  Tlie 
river  is  crossed  by  three  stone  briilges,  two  of  which 
are  of  granite,  measuring  GO  feet  in  breailth  over 
the  parapets,  and  much  admired  for  their  light  and 
graceful  architecture,  and  by  two  suspension-bridges 
for  foot-passengers,  each  of  a  single  span.  Below 
the  bridges,  there  are  ferry-boats  plying  at  all  hiuirs. 

The  ground  upon  which  G.  is  built  is,  for  the 
most  part,  level,  but  in  the  north  and  north-west 
districts,  there  are  considerable  elevations.  Owing 
to  the  number  of  cotton-factories,  cliemical  works, 
foundries,  and  work-shops  of  aU  kinds,  the  city 
has  a  somewhat  dingy  and  smoky  aspect ;  while 
many  of  the  streets  are  continu.ally  tlironged  with 
passengers,  and  noisy  with  carts,  cabs,  and  omni- 
buses. In  other  respects,  it  has  many  attractions. 
The  houses  facing  the  river  stand  well  back,  lca\-ing 
s[i.aciou3  thoroughfares  on  each  side,  and  affording 
full  and  noble  views  of  the  bridges,  of  several  hand- 
some street  ranges  and  public  buildings,  and  of  the 
harbour  with  its  steaming  funnels  and  forests  of 
masts.  Most  of  the  leading  streets  run  from  east 
to  west,  parallel  with  the  river,  and  almost  all  the 
streets,  except  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the  city,  are 
laid  off  in  straight  lines.  The  houses  are  generally 
lofty,   and  built   of  freestone,   the  floors  of  each 

7T1 


GLASGOW. 


tenement  being  usually  occupied  by  separate  families, 
entering  by  a  common  stair.  In  the  fashionable 
quarters,  what  are  called  *  self-contained'  houses 
prevail.  G.  has  comparatively  few  squares  or  other 
open  spaces  ;  but  it  has  three  public  parks — two 
of  them  of  great  extent,  and  the  third  of  great 
beauty— namely,  the  Green  (140  acres),  occupying 
the  level  next  the  Clyde  at  the  east  end  ;  Queen's 
Park  (upwards  of  100  acres),  finely  situated  on  a 
rising-ground  to  the  south  ;  and  Kelvingrove  (40 
acres),  rounding  the  face  of  a  hill  crowned  with 
noble  terraces,  and  sloping  do^vn  to  the  Kelvin,  at 
the  west  end.  The  city  is  about  three  miles  in 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  is  about  eight  miles 
in  circiuuference. 

G.  had  its  first  nucleus  in  the  cathedral,  and 
afterwards  in  the  university.  The  former  is  situ- 
ated in  the  north-east  of  the  city  on  a  height  on 
the  banks  of  the  Molendinar  stream,  which  runs 
between  the  old  burjnng-ground  and  a  steep  rocky 
eminence  formerly  known  as  the  Fir  Pai-k,  but 
now  transformed  into  the  Necropolis,  a  modern 
cemetery,  studded  and  crowned  with  monuments. 
It  is  from  this  ravine  that  the  name  G.  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  derived,  etymologists  professing 
to  find  in  it  two  Celtic  words  signifying  a  '  Dark 
Glen.'  St  Kentirern,  or  St  Mungo,  founded  a 
bishopric  on  the  banks  of  the  Molendinar  about 
5G0  ;  but  for  more  than  five  hundred  years  after- 
wards, the  history  of  the  place  is  a  blank.  About 
the  year  1115,  DaN-id,  prince  of  Cumbria  (after- 
wards king  of  Scotland),  restored  the  see,  and 
appointed  his  preceptor,  John,  to  the  bishopric, 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  a  cathedral,  which 
was  replaced  by  the  present  pile,  founded  by  Bishop 
Joceliu  in  llSl.  In  1190,  King  WUham  the  Lion 
erected  G.  into  a  burgh,  with  the  pri^'ilege  of  an 
annual  fair ;  but  for  a  century  and  a  half  later,  it 
continued  an  insignificant  town  of  not  more  than 
1500  inhabitants.  In  1345,  Bishop  Ilae  built  the 
first  stone  bridge  across  the  Clyde  ;  and  in  1451, 
Bishop  TurubuU  estabUshed  the  university,  having 
obtained  a  bidl  for  that  piu-pose  from  Pope  Nicholas 
V.  The  latter  event  gave  a  considerable  im])etus 
to  the  place ;  yet,  in  1556,  G.  only  ranked  eleventh 
in  importance  among  the  towns  of  Scotland. 

The  city  as  it  now  exists  is  almost  wholly  modern, 
having  quintupled  in  dimensions  during  the  last  60 
years.  This  immense  growth  has  arisen  from  its 
situation  in  the  midst  of  a  district  abounding  in  coal 
and  iron,  and  from  the  facilities  afforded  by  the 
Cl3'de  for  the  cultivation  of  a  world-wide  commerce. 
At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  much 
of  its  prosperity  is  due  to  local  ingenuity  and 
enterprise.  It  was  here  that  James  Watt,  in  1765, 
made  his  memorable  improvement  on  the  steam- 
engine;  it  was  here  that  Henry  Bell,  in  1S12,  first 
(in  the  old  world)  demonstrated  the  practicability  of 
steam-navigation.  An  enormous  sum  has  been  ex- 
pended on  the  widening  and  deepening  of  the  river, 
now  navigable  by  vessels  300  feet  long,  and  drawing 
23  feet  of  water.  The  harbour  of  Port-Dundas,  on 
the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  situated  on  the  high 
ground  north  of  the  city,  has  likewise  afforded 
facilities  to  its  commerce.  The  enterprising  spirit 
of  the  inhabitants  began  to  manifest  itself  during 
the  17th  century.  Sugar-refining,  the  distillation  of 
spirits  from  molasses,  and  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
were  among  their  earlier  industries.  The  opening 
up  of  the  American  colonies  to  Scotch  enterprise 
after  the  Union  gave  an  inmiense  increase  to  its 
commerce.  G.  became  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
tobacco  trade,  and  its  Virginian  merchants  formed  a 
local  aristocracy,  remarkable  for  wealth  and  hauteur. 
This  tr.ade  was  at  length  paralysed  by  the  American 
war;  but  sugar  cultivation  in  the  West  Indies. 
■m  ' 


and  the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufactiu-e, 
opened  up  new  jiaths  to  opidence.  Calico-printing, 
turkey-red  dyeing,  beer-brewing,  and  other  branches 
followed ;  and  with  the  rapid  exiiausion  of  the 
iron  trade,  including  machine-making  and  steam- 
boat building,  the  city  has  attained  its  present 
magnitude.  Among  its  thousand  chimney-stalks, 
there  is  one  of  460  and  one  of  450  feet,  being  the 
highest  in  the  British  dominions.  The  latter  carries 
aloft  the  noxious  vapours  of  St  RoUox,  tlie  largest 
cliemical  works  in  the  world,  covering  12  acres  of 
groimd,  and  employing  upwards  of  lUOO  men. 

In  all  that  relates  to  lighting,  paving,  sewerage, 
and  the  like,  G.  deserves  laudatory  mention.  The 
city  is  governed  by  a  lord  provost,  10  bailies,  and 
48  councillors,  to  whom  are  added  the  dean  of  guild 
from  the  Merchants',  and  the  deacon-convener  from 
the  Trades'  House.  The  sheriff  and  four  sheriff- 
substitutes  exercise  within  the  city  a  co-ordinate 
jurisdiction  with  the  magistrates,  and  preside  over 
various  civO  and  criminal  courts.  Much  of  the 
spirit  which  characterises  the  manufacturing  and 
commercial  affairs  of  G.  has  been  carried  into  its 
municipal  arrangements.  Corporation  halls,  com- 
prising a  valuable  gallery  of  paintings,  have  been 
secured  for  the  citizens  ;  public  parks  have  been 
piu-chased  at  great  cost,  and  laid  out  in  a  style 
of  unsurpassed  beauty ;  and  a  supply  of  water 
has  been  introduced  from  Loch  Katrine  at  the 
bountiful  rate  of  32,003,000  gallons  a  day.  G.  has 
54,469  registered  voters,  and  sends  tlu'ee  members 
to  parliament. 

Many  of  the  pubhc  buildings  desen'e  notice. 
The  cathedi'al,  which  has  lately  been  restored,  and 
the  windows  enriched  with  stained  glass,  chiefly 
from  Munich,  is  one  of  the  finest  Fu-st  Pouited 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  The  Royal  Exchange, 
in  Queen  Street,  several  of  the  banks,  and  many 
of  the  churches,  likewise  present  fine  specimens 
of  architecture  in  a  variety  of  styles.  G.  has 
three  equestrian  statues,  one  of  William  III.  at 
the  Cross,  another  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in 
front  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  the  third  of 
Queen  Victoria  in  St  Vincent  Place.  The  last  two 
are  by  Marochetti.  In  the  Green  there  is  an  obelisk, 
144  feet  high,  to  Kelson,  forming  a  conspicuous 
object  in  the  landscape.  This  tall  structure,  which 
stands  quite  alone,  has  been  twice  struck  by 
lightning,  once  in  1810,  and  again  in  1861.  In 
George's  Square  there  are  a  column  surmounted 
by  a  statue  of  Sir  Walter  Scott;  a  fine  statue  of 
Sir  John  Moore,  by  Flaxman  ;  a  statue  of  James 
Watt,  in  a  sitting  posture,  by  Chantrey ;  and  a 
statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  by  John  Mossman.  A 
marble  statue  of  Pitt,  by  Flaxman,  has  lately  been 
removed  from  the  old  town-hall  at  t!ie  Cross  to 
the  new  Corporation  Galleries,  Sauchiehall  Street. 
Charitable  institutions  and  benevolent  societies 
abound ;  and  zealous  and  successful  efforts  have 
Lately  been  made  to  pro\ide  cheap  and  innocent 
amusements  for  the  working-classes.  There  are  two 
theatres,  three  museums,  and  numerous  halls  in 
which  soirees  and  concerts  are  held  almost  nightly 
during  winter.  The  wealthier  inhabitants  migrate 
to  the  coast  in  shoals  during  the  summer,  and  cheap 
Saturday  excursions  by  river  and  rail  are  exten- 
sively taken  advantage  of  by  the  working-classes. 
To  the  north-west  of  the  city  is  a  botanic  garden  of 
about  40  acres,  which  is  thrown  open  every  sum- 
mer, during  the  fair  holidays,  at  a  merely  nominal 
charge.  With  the  additional  and  recent  attraction 
of  the  Kil)ble  Conservatory,  large  numbers  visit 
these  gardens.  Besides  the  Necropolis,  there  are 
several  other  garden  cemeteries  in  the  vicinity,  of 
which  Sighthill,  occupying  a  northern  elevation,  is 
the  most  picturesque. 


GLASGOW— GLASS. 


G.  has  four  daily,  and  upwards  of  a  dozen  weekly 
newspapers.  It  has  above  '250  churches  and  chapels, 
VIZ. :  Established  Church,  GO ;  Free  Church,  .57  ; 
United  Presbyterian,  48;  Roman  Catholic,  13;  Inde- 
pendent, 15;  Baptist,  9;  Episcopalian,  9;  Reformed 
Presbyterian,  5;  others,  above  34  In  ISOl,  the 
population  was  S3, 709;  in  18G1,  it  amounted  to 
440,639;  in  1S71,  it  reached  477,710  ;  and  includiu" 
the  suburb.1,  5liC),150.  ° 

GLASGOW,  The  U.viver.sity  of,  was  founded 
in  1451^  by  Bishop  Turnbull,  who  procured  a  bull 
of  ratification  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.  In  1400, 
James,  first  Lord  Hamilton,  endowed  a  coUe'^e 
on  the  site— in  the  densest  part  of  the  High  Street 


and  the  ten  exhibitioners  received  £133,  6«.  8d. 
per  annum  each. 

Libraries,  Museums,  <f-c.— The  library  was  founded 

prior  to  the  Reformation,  and  now  contains  about 
105,000  volumes.  It  is  supported  by  an  annual 
grant  of  i;707  from  the  Treasury,  graduation  fees, 
the  coutriljutioua  of  students,  &c.  Subsidiary 
libraries  are  attached  to  several  of  the  classes,  the 
books  being  selected  with  a  view  to  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  each  class.  In  July  1781,  the  cele- 
brated Dr  William  Hunter  of  London  framed  a 
will,  leaving  to  the  principal  and  ])rofessors  of  the 
university  his  splendid  collection  of  coins,  medals, 

,- ^„  .^..^^„i  <"»<!  anatomical  preparations;    and  for  the  aocom- 

— of  the  late  buildings,  the  older  portions  of  which  I  modation  and  conservation  of  these,  a  building  was 
were  erected  between  1632  and  1656.  Queen  Mary  '  erected  in  IS04,  but  they  are  now  located  in  the 
bestowed  on  the  university  13  acres  of  adjacent '  "*^^  university.  The  university  also  possesses  au 
ground.  In  1577,  James  VI.  granted  increased  oljservatory  and  a  botanical  garden,  and  several  of 
funds  in  a  new  charter.  In  1864,  the  university  tlie  professors  have  collections  of  apparatus  attached 
buildings  and  adjacent  lands  were  sold,  and  hand-  *"  'j^eir  classes,  illustrative  of  the  courses  delivered, 
some  new  buildings,  designed  by  Sir  O.  Gilbert '  Eminent  Froftmors  and  .Students.— Among  the 
Scott  of  London,  were  erected  on  the  western  bank  ■  ^^'^  °^  eminence  who  have  taught  or  studied  in  the 
of  the  Kelvin,  overlooking  the  West  End  Park,  '  "diversity,  are  Bishop  William  Elphinstone,  John 
which  were  formally  opened  in  1870.  The  cost  of  Major,  John  Spottiswoode,  Andrew  Melville,  James 
the  building,  when  complete,  will  be  £350,000 ;  of  '  ^lelville,  Robert  Boyd  of  Trochrig,  John  Cameron, 
which  £150,000  have  been  subscribed  in  Glasgow  and  I  ^"'^'^ary  Boyd,  Robert  BailUe  ;  James  Dalrymple, 
elsewhere.  Parliament  having  promised  £120,000.  first  Viscoimt  of  Stair;  Gilbert  Burnet,  bishop  of 
Cliairg,  Office-hearers,  Derjrees. — The  office-bearers  !  f^alisbury ;  Dr  John  Douglas,  bishop  of  Salisbury ; 
of  the  university  consist  of  Chancellor,  Rector,  \  Dr  Robert  Simsou,  Francis  Hutcheson,  Dr  William 
Principal,  and  Dean  of  Faculties.  The  C'hancellori  Hunter,  Dr  James  Moor,  Dr  Adam  Smith,  Dr 
holds  his  office  for  life,  and  up  to  the  present  time  ;  Thomas  Reid,  Dr  William  CuUen,  Dr  Josejih 
has  been  elected  by  the  senate ;  but  the  next,  and  all  Black,  Dr  Matthew  BailUe,  Professor  John  Mdler, 
futui-e  elections,  will  take  place  by  the  university  '  Thomas  Thomson,  Francis  Jeffrey,  John  Gibson 
conned,  as  in  Edinburgh  University ;  the  Rector  Lockhart,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  the  present  Arch- 
is  elected  triennially  by  the  matricidated  students,    Ijishop  of  Canterbury. 

who  are  divitled,  according  to  their  place  of  birth,  j  GLASS,  from  the  Fr.  glace  (Lat.  glades),  ice, 
into  four  nations — Olottiana  (Lanarkshire),  Trans-  \  which  it  resembles  in  its  transparency.  Glass  is 
forthana  (Scotland  north  of  the  Forth),  Rothseiaua  .  essentially  a  combination  of  sdica  with  some  alkali 
(Buteshire,  Renfrewshire,  and  Ayrshire),  ionrfoiiioHa  '  or  alkaline  earth,  such  as  lime,  barytes,  &c.  Gene- 
(all  other  places).  The  Dean  of  Faculties  is  elected  '  rally  speaking,  it  is  understood  to  be  a  silicate  of 
annually  by  the  senate.  The  duties  of  Chancellor  '  soda,  or  a  combination  of  silica  or  flint  with  one 
and  Rector  are  chielly  honorary.  The  chairs  are  '  or  more  of  the  salts  of  sodium,  with  the  addition, 
Latin,  Greek,  Mathematics,  Logic,  Natural  Philo-  '  for  some  purposes,  of  certain  metallic  oxides  and 
sophy,   Moral   Philosophy,   English   Language   and  i  other  substances. 

Literature,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Materia  Medica,  I  History. — The  invention  of  glass  dates  from  the 
Practice  of  Physic,  Natural  History,  Chemistrj-,  '  earhest  antiquity,  and  the  honour  of  its  discovery 
Clinical  Surgery  and  Medicine,  Midwifery,  Botany,  ,  lias  been  conteste<l  by  several  nations.  As  the 
Surgery,  Oriental  Languages,  Divinity,  Church  i  oldest  known  sijccimens  are  Egyptian,  its  inven- 
History,  Biblical  Criticism,  Civil  Law,  Conveyancing,  tion  may  with  great  probability  be  attributed  to 
Civil  Engineering,  and  Practical  Astronomy.  The  t'lat  people.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the 
degrees  granted  are  Master  of  Arts,  Doctor  of  5th  or  6th  dynasty,  and  called  bashnu,  the  Coptic 
Medicine,  Master  of  Surgery,  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  i  bijni ;  and  articles  made  of  it  are  represented 
Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws,  and  Bachelor  i  i"  the  tombs  of  the  period ;  while  its  fabrication 
of   Laws,  the   last   three  being  honorary   degrees.  I  is    depicted    in    sepidchres   of    the    12th    djTiasty 


The  ceremony  of  graduation  was  of  old  conducted 
with  no  little  pomp  through  all  its  stages,  from  its 
beginning  in  what  was  called  '  the  Black  Stone 
E.xamination,'  to  its  close  in  the  act  of  '  Laureation' 
in  the  College  Hall,  or  one  of  the  city  churches. 
The  number  of  matricidated  students  now  averages 
about  1200  ;  they  reside  outside  the  college  walls  ; 
and  those  in  attendance  on  classes  in  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  wear  scarlet  gowns. 

Bursaries  and  Eddbitions. — The  Senatus  Acade- 
micus  has  in  its  gift  about  30  bursaries,  and  the 
funds  attached  to  several  of  these  are  applicable  to 
from  four  to  six  students  ;  their  yearly  values  range 
from  £6  to  £50,  and  some  may  be  held  for  a  period 
of  four  years.  The  Oxford  Exhibition. — In  1677, 
John  Snell,  a  native  of  AjTshire,  afterwards  of 
Uli'eton  in  War\vickshire,  presented  the  university 
with  an  endowment,  consisting  of  a  landed  est.ate, 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  ten  students  who  had  previously  studied 
at  Glasgow.  The  projierty  was  let  in  1809  on  a 
lease   of   21   years,   at  an  annual  rental  of  £1500, 


about  1800  B.C.  The  glass  of  Egypt 
was  generally  opaque,  rarely  transparent,  and 
always  coloured,  the  articles  made  of  it  being 
of  small  size,  and  principally  for  adornment,  as 
beads,  vases,  small  figures,  and  objects  for  inlajdng 
into  wood  or  other  material.  Specimens  exist  of 
this  glass  bearing  the  name  of  the  queen  Hatasu 
of  the  ISth  dynasty,  1445  B.C.,  and  vases  of 
blue  glass,  with  vravy  lines  in  white,  light-blue, 
yeUow,  black,  red,  and  green,  of  that  and  a  later 
age,  have  been  discovered.  The  E^-ptians  also 
successfully  imitated  precious  and  other  stones  in 
glass — as  emeralds,  lapis  lazuli,  turquoises,  jasjiers, 
onyx,  and  obsidian  ;  for  this  purpose,  they  used 
nearly  the  same  materials  as  at  present,  employ- 
ing manganese,  copper,  iron,  cobalt,  gold,  and  tin. 
Transparent  glass,  indeed,  does  not  appear  earlier 
in  Egyiit  than  the  20th  dynasty,  about  750  B.  c, 
when  bottles  and  a  few  other  objects — as  figures 
for  inlaying,  and  beads  imitating  gems — were  made 
of  it.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Ethiopians, 
two  centuries  later,  placed  their  mummies  in  glass 

;73 


GLAS& 


coffins  ;  but  the  fact  has  never  been  proved  by 
any  as  yet  discovered. 

IJnder  the  native  Pharaohs,  Egj-jitian  glass  seems 
to  have  been  extensively  exjiorted  to  Greece  and 
Italy,  and  its  reputation  still  continued  under 
the  Ptolemies,  when  the  furnaces  of  Alexandiia 
produced  glass  vases  of  numberless  shapes  and 
considerable  size.  At  this  period,  the  Egyptians 
invented  the  mlllefiori  glass,  consisting  of  small 
threads  of  glass  arranged  vertically  and  then 
fused,  so  that  the  whole  rod  thus  formed  was  of 
one  pattern ;  and  by  cutting  off  slices,  each  piece 
reproduced  the  same  pattern.  The  glass  beads  of 
madrepore  glass,  which  are  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  and  are  formed  by  placing  slices 
of  such  rods  in  a  mould  and  fusing  the  whole,  are 
probably  of  Egs'jrtian  or  Pha>nician  origin.  Egypt 
still  retained  the  pre-eminence  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass  under  the  Romans,  the  sand  of  Alexandria 
being  indispensable  for  the  finest  qualities,  and  it 
exported  glass  to  Rome.  Hadrian,  on  his  's'isit, 
was  struck  with  the  acti\'ity  of  the  manufacture, 
and  sent  to  his  friend,  the  Consul  Servianus,  one  of 
the  vases,  called  allosontes,  or  'opalescent;'  and 
the  Roman  writers  mention  with  admiration  the 
melting,  turning,  and  engraving  of  Egyptian  glass. 
To  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  empire  are 
to  be  referred  certain  vases  and  slabs  with  white 
camei  figures  of  fine  execution  in  relief  on  a  blue 
background,  and  plates  of  opaque  glass  for  inlaying 
the  walls  of  rooms,  such  as  those  which  are  said  to 
have  decorated  the  mansion  of  the  usurper  Firmus. 
The  art  of  glass-making,  in  fact,  has  never  become 
extinct  in  Egj-pt,  the  Fatimite  Califs  having  issued 
glass  coins  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries,  and 
beautiful  lami>s  of  glass  enamelled  on  the  surface 
with  v.arious  colours  ha\-ing  been  made  in  the  I4th 
century.  Although  the  art  of  glass-making  has 
fallen  to  the  lowest  ebb  in  Ejyjit,  the  workmen 
are  said  to  manifest  considerable  aptitude  in  its 
production. 

After  the  Egy|rtians,  the  people  of  antiquity 
most  renowned  for  glass  were  the  Phwnicians,  who 
were  the  legendary  inventors.  Certain  of  their 
merchants,  it  is  said,  returning  in  a  ship  laden  with 
natron  or  soda,  and  having  been  compelled  by 
stormy  weatlier  to  land  on  a  sandy  tract  mider 
Mount  Carmel,  placed  their  cooking-pots  on  lumps 
of  natron  on  the  sand,  which,  fused  by  the  heat 
of  the  fire,  formed  the  first  glass.  Sidon,  indeed, 
was  long  celebrated  for  her  glass-wares  made  of  the 
sand  brought  down  from  Jlouut  Carmel  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Belus.  The  nature,  however, 
of  the  earliest  Phcenician  glass  is  unknown,  unless 
the  opaque  little  vases  of  the  toilet  found  in  the 
tombs  of  Greece  and  Italy,  and  the  beads  of  the 
same  discovered  in  the  barrows  and  tmnuU  of  the 
old  Celtic  and  Teutonic  tribes,  were  imports  of 
the  Phffinicians.  The  vases  of  Sidon  were,  however, 
highly  esteemed  at  Rome  under  the  Antonines, 
fragments  of  bowls  of  blue  and  amber  glass,  with 
the  names  of  the  Sidonian  glass-makers,  Artas  and 
Irenajus,  st.amped  in  Latin  and  Greek,  having  been 
found  in  the  niins.  Perhaps  the  Assyrian  glass 
vases  wore  made  at  Sidon ;  at  all  events,  the 
earliest  dated  specimen  of  transparent  white  glass 
is  the  vase  having  upon  it  stamped  or  engraved  in 
Assyrian  cimeiform  a  lion  and  the  name  of  Sargon, 
who  reigned  722  E.  c,  found  at  Nimnid  by  Mr 
Layard  ;  and  glass  seems  to  have  been  imported  or 
even  made  in  Assj-ria  as  late  as  the  time  of  the 
Parthians,  when  Nineveh  became  the  Roman  colony 
of  Claudiopolis.  Under  the  Sassanides,  moulded 
glass  vessels,  elaborately  decorated,  were  made,  as 
is  shewn  by  the  cup  of  Chosroes,  531 — 579  A.D., 
in  the  Louvre ;  and  Persia  continued  to  manu- 
774 


facture  glass  vessels  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
Arabs  seem  to  have  derived  their  glass  from  the 
Byzantines,  and  specimens  introduced  into  Europe 


■n^ 


~-^ 


Fig.  1. — Glass  Vase,  bearing  the  name  of  Sargon,  from 
Nunrud. 


by  the  Crusaders  were  called  in  royal  and  other 
inventories  Damascus  glass ;  this  Wiis  coloured,  and 
not  plain.  Although  the  art  of  glass-making 
appears  to  have  been  pi'uctised  in  remote  times, 
this  nation  does  not  ajipear  to  have  attained  any 
proficiency  in  it,  and  is  content  at  the  present 
day  to  re-melt  European  glass ;  while  some  of  its 
highest  efforts  do  not  exceed  the  imitation  of  jade, 
and  other  stones.  There  is  still  an  extensive  use  of 
glass-beads  in  the  East,  which  are  chiefly  made  at 
Khalib  or  Hebron.  Glass  was  equally  uuknowni  to 
the  Hindus,  except  the  production  of  a  few  trinkets 
and  inferior  objects,  till  the  settlement  of  Europeans 
in  India ;  and  the  country  was,  at  the  remotest 
period,  supplied  by  Phcenician,  and,  m  the  Middle 
Ages,  by  the  Venetian  traders.  Although  Josephus 
claims  the  invention  of  the  art  for  the  Jews,  no 
remains  of  Jewish  glass  are  known,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  Jews  were  principally  indebted  for  their 
supplies  to  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon.  Even  in  Greece  itself,  glass  was  by  no  means 
ancient.  In  the  days  of  Homer  it  was  unknown. 
Herodotus,  indeed,  mentions  its  emplojTuent  foi 
ear-rings,  but  these  may  have  been  of  Phoenician 
fabric.  It  was  called  hyalos,  crystal  or  ice,  and 
tithos  chi/tey  or  fusible  stone.  Aristophanes,  450 
B.C.,  mentions  glass  or  crystal  vessels,  and  various 
inscriptions  confirm  its  use,  but  its  value  was  next 
to  gold,  which  could  hardly  have  been  the  case 
if  it  had  been  of  native  manufactiu-e.  In  the 
4th  c.  E.  c,  Pausias,  a  celebrated  painter,  had 
depicted  Metlw,  or  '  Intoxication,'  drinking  from 
a  transparent  glass  bowl  which  revealed  her  face. 
Glasses  and  plates,  amphora;  and  diotie,  large  two- 
handled  jars,  were  made  of  it,  and  also  false  stones 
for  finger-rings,  called  sphraijides  hijalenai.  These 
last,  called  by  archteologists  pastes,  were  imitations 
of  engraved  stones  in  coloured  glasses,  used  for 
the  rings  of  the  ]ioorer  classes,  and  were  no  doubt 
often  co]iies  or  impressions  of  engraved  stones  of 
celebrated  masters  ;  false  gems  and  camei  ha\-ing  a 
subject  in  opaque  white,  sometimes  like  the  sar- 
donyx, with  a  bro\vn  layer  supeqjosed  on  the  parts 
rejiresenting  the  hair,  and  the  whole  laid  on  a 
dark -blue  ground,  appear  before  the  Christian  era. 
Lenses  were  also  made  of  glass,  and  the  celestial 
sphere  of  Archimedes  was  made  of  the  same 
material.  The  supposed  Phoenician  coloured  glass 
vases  for  the  toilet,  found  in  the  oldest  sepulchres 
of  Greece,  it  must  be  obser\'ed,  have  Greek  shapes. 
Glass-makers,  hyahpsoi,  hf/alepst^,  are  also  mentioned 


GLASS. 


at  a  later  period,  when  there  can  be  no  doubt 
the  art  was  practised.  Of  tlie  Alexandrian  glass, 
mention  has  been  already  made ;  and  the  body  of 
Ale.'cauder  the  Great  was  shewn  to  Augustus  in  a 
glass  coffin. 

The  glass-making  art  in  Italy  does  not  date  earlier 
than  the  commencement  of  the  Koman  Empire, 
importations    from   Sidon    and   Alexandria    h.a\Tng 

Eroviciusly  supplied  the  want  of  native  manufacture ; 
ut  there  is  ample  evidence  of  its  extensive  manu- 
facture at  that  period  having  been  introduced  in 
the  days  of  the  Ptolemies,  large  plates  being  used 
for  incrusting  chambers,  vitreie  cainerce ;  and  hollow 
cohunns,  made  of  this  material,  with  Lamps  inside, 
were  used  to  illumine  the  public  theatres.  As 
early  as  58  B.C.,  the  theatre  of  Scaunis  had  been 
decorated  with  mirrors  or  glass  plates,  disposed 
on  the  walls.  Glass  was  also  used  for  paWng, 
and  for  the  blue  and  green  tesserre  of  mosaics 
(see  Mo.SAic).  Window-glass  does  not  appear  till 
about  the  .Sd  c.  A.  D.,  the  houses  at  Herciilaneum, 
destroyed  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  being  glazed  with 
talc,  and  some  doubt  remaining  as  to  the  use  of 
glass  fur  this  purpose  at  Pompeii.  Lactantius  in 
the  3d  c.  A.  D. ;  St  Jerome,  422  A.  D.,  mentiou  glass 
windows.  Older  ■n-indows  of  this  materi.al  are 
said  to  have  been  found  at  FiciUuca,  and  even  in 
London.     Under  the  Komans,  colomed  as  well  as 


Kg.  2. 


-Moulded  Glass  Roman  Cup,  with  the  Circus 
and  Gladiators,  foimd  in  London. 


white  glass  w-a-s  extensively  used ;  it  had  a  greenish 
tint  in  the  first  days  of  the  Empire,  but  had  sensibly 
improved  iu  colour  and  quality  in  the  days  of 
Constantine.  The  first  production  of  a  white  glass 
like  crj-stal  was  in  the  days  of  Nero.  Its  use  w.as 
most  extensive,  and  it  was  either  blown  or  stamped 
accortUng  to  the  objects  required.  Glass  vases,  rasa 
vitrea  escaria  potoria,  are  mentioned.  So  are  costly 
cups  of  many  colours,  purple  ones  of  Lesbos,  and 
balsamarii,  especially  the  kind  long  called  lachry- 
matories, which  held  perfumes,  medicine,  drugs, 
and  other  substances  like  modem  vials,  amphora', 
ampuUa?,  pillar-moidded  bowls,  bottles  for  wine 
{larjenm),  urns  {la-nce)  for  holding  the  ashes  of  the 
dead,  and  piUar-moulded  bowls  or  cups  {pociila). 

Besides  these  articles  of  amusement  and  luxury, 
hair-pins,  beads,  rings,  balls,  draughtsmen,  dice, 
knuckle-bones  {astrarjall),  mirrors,  multiplying- 
glasses,  prisms,  magnif>-ing-glasses,  telescopes,  and 
vater-clocks  were  made  of  this  material 

Many  vases  are  stamped,  and  some,  principally  of 
square  sh.ipe,  have  the  initials  and  devices  of  their 
makers  or  contents,  as  eye- waters,  impressed  on  the 
bottom.  Most  of  the  precious  stones  were  success- 
fully imitated  in  glass  xiastes;   and  the  Empress 


Fig.  3.— Portland  A'aic. 


Salonina  w.as  egregiously  cheated  by  a  fraudulent 
jeweller.  But  the  most  remarkable  works  in  glass 
are  the  camei  vases  (toreumata  vitri) ;  of  which 'the 
most  celebrated  is  the  Portland  vase  in  the  British 
Museum,  a  two-handled  vessel  about  10  inches  high, 
of  transparent  dark-blue  glass,  coated  with  a  layer 
of  opaque  white  glass, 
which  has  been  treated 
as  a  cameo,  the  white 
coating  having  been 
cut  do\vn,  so  as  to  give 
on  each  side  groups 
of  figures  delicately 
executed  in  relief.  The 
subject  is  the  marriage 
of  Peleus  and  Thetis, 
and  the  urn  held  the 
ashes  of  a  member  of 
the  imperial  family  of 
Severus  Alexander,  who 
died  221—235  A.  r>. 
This  emperor  had  im- 
posed a  tax  u])on  glass. 
It  was  foimd  in  a  mag- 
nificent sarcophagus  in 
the  Jlonte  del  Grano, 
near  Home.  A  vase  of 
smaller  size,  but  of  similar  fabric,  with  arabesques, 
found  at  Pompeii,  exists  in  the  Naples  Museum  ; 
and  numerous  fragments  of  even  fiuer  vases,  some 
with  live  colours,  exist  in  tUfl'erent  musemns. 
In  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  an  adventiu-cr  jiretended 
that  he  had  invented  Uexible  glass,  and  threw 
down  a  vase  which  only  bent,  and  which  he 
readjusted  with  a  hammer ;  he  seems  to  have 
connected  it  iu  some  way  with  the  philosopher's 
stone,  and  the  emperor  is  said  to  have  banished 
him  or  put  him  to  death.  This  invention  is  said 
to  have  been  twice  reinvented  in  modern  times 
— once  by  an  ItaUan  at  the  court  of  Casimir, 
king  of  Poland.  In  the  3d  e.  A.D.  appeared  the 
diatrela  or  '  bored  vases,'  consisting  of  cups  (pouela) 
having  externally  letters,  and  net-work  almost 
detached  from  the  gl.ass,  but  connected  by  sup- 
ports ;  aU  which  must  have  been  hollowed  out 
by  a  tool,  involving  great  labour.  One  v.ase  of 
this  class,  bearing  the  name  of  JLaximianns,  who 
reigned  2SG— 310  a.  d.,  fixes  then-  age.  At  a  later 
jicridd,  liowls  of  engraved  glass,  ha\ing  subjects 
of  gladiatorial  fights,  came  into  use.  Still  later, 
ajipareutly  in  the  5th  c.,  a  new  stylo  of  glass  orna- 
mentation was  introduced,  consisting  of  the  figures 
of  Christ  and  legends  of  saints,  and  the  portraits  of 
private  persons  laid  on  in  gold  upon  one  layer  of 
glass,  over  which  was  placed  another  through  which 
they  appeared.  At  the  close  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  the  glass  art  was  still  rich  and  ornamental. 
Achilles  Tatius  describes  a  vase  which,  when  filled 
with  vine,  made  the  portion  representing  the 
bunches  of  grapes  seem  red,  as  if  ripened  by  the 
autumn.  The  numerous  beads  called  seqients'  eggs 
or  adder  stones  (rjla'm  nerdryr),  found  throughout 
Roman  Britain,  were  imported  by  route  of  Gaul 
to  Britain,  or  made  in  Britain.  Gl.ass  w.os  cheap 
under  the  Koman  Empire,  and  Strabo  informs  us 
that  in  his  days  in  lionie  a  glass  cup  and  saucer 
only  cost  an  n«  (about  a  half-jM-'uny).  Such  articles, 
indeed,  can  only  have  been  of  the  commonest  kintl, 
as  Nero  is  said  to  have  paid  6000  sesterces,  or 
about  £50,000,  for  two  cnjis  of  moderate  dimen. 
sions.  Aurelian  made  the  Alexandrians  pay  a  tax 
of  glass.  A  peculiar  white  gl.ass  seems  to  have  been 
made  at  Carthage  under  the  Uoman  empire.  Glass 
gems  for  rings  (vUre<e  gemma)  were  in  most  exten- 
sive use.  Glass,  however,  was  considered  always 
something   costly  and  rare,  and  is  mentioned  as 


GLASS. 


such  in  the  Revdaliom  and  in  the  Secognitlons 
of  St  Clement,  in  which  St  Peter  is  described 
as  praying  to  see  some  marvellous  columns  of 
this  material  in  the  island  of  jVradus.  At  the 
close  of  the  Roman  Empire,  only  two  kinds  of 
fjlass  appear  to  have  been  manufactured — bottles 
of  a  greenish  glass  in  the  west,  and  the  hi/aliiia 
diachrysa,  or  gilded  glass  of  many  colours,  in  the 
cast.  After  that  period,  a  few  glass  vessels  have 
been  found  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  gi-aves  of  England, 
and  Erauldsh  sepiUchres  of  France,  of  a  pecidiar 
fabric  of  green  glass  with  projecting  knobs,  bout 
round  to  the  body  of  the  glass,  and  apparently  a 
rude  imitation  of  the  diatreta.  The  Romans  knew 
the  use  of  soda  and  lead  as  fluxes  for  glass,  and 
made  both  crown  and  flint  glass.  They  made  most 
of  the  fancy  varieties  at  present  in  use,  and  were 
acquainted  ivith  the  art  of  colouring  it  blue  by 
cobalt,  green  by  copper,  rose  or  ruby  by  gold.  Many 
of  their  imitations  of  gems  and  other  f auciful  colour's 
were  also  oi  Sdunellz  glass.  But  the  gi-eat  site  of 
the  glass  manufactories  of  the  dark  and  middle  ages 
w.as  A^enice,  wliither  it  was  transplanted  on  the 
foundation  of  that  city  in  the  7th  c.  A.  D.  The  art, 
however,  seems  to  have  improved  on  the  conquest 
of  Constantinople  by  the  French  in  1204,  and  in 
1291  the  establislmients  were  removed  to  the  island 
of  Murano,  the  manufacturers  forming  a  guild  ■with 
a  liln-o  d'oro,  or  register  of  nobility,  and  the  secret 
kept  with  the  greatest  jealousy.  In  1436,  then- 
colour-glass  came  into  note,'  anil  continued  so  till 
the  close  of  the  century;  and  in  the  IGth  c.,  lace- 
patterns  and  mirrors  ■were  introduced.  In  the 
loth  and  16th  centuries,  plain  glass  ■with  nice  orna- 
ments gilt  and  enamelled ;  in  the  1 6th,  crackled 
lace  and  reticidated  glass,  vitroili  triiio ;  and  in 
the    I7th   c,  variegated   or   marbled   glasses   were 


Pig.  4. — German 
l>rin  king-glass. 


Fig.  5.— Venetian  Glass  on 
open-work  stem. 


prod\iced.  The  millefiori  glass  extends  through  all 
periods,  and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Roman,  being  continued  to  the  present  day,  when 
large  quantities  of  this  glass  are  annually  imported 


to  England,  and  transjiortfd  to  Africa  and  Asia 
in  the  way  of  trade.  The  Venetian  glass  engaged 
for  a  long  time  the  monopoly  of  commerce,  their 
mirrors,  goblets,  and  cups  being  exported  all  over 
the  world,  but  it  has  been  superseded  by  manuf.ao- 
tures  of  England  and  Germany.  The  forms  of  the 
Venetian  glass  reflected  its  oriental  origin,  and  the 
earlier  glass  of  other  countries  of  Europe  in  their 
turn  shew  the  deriv.ation  of  their  art  from  Venice. 
In  Germany,  the  oldest  glass  (which  was  flint)  dates 
from  the  10th  c,  and  consists  of  goblets  and  tank- 
ards of  white  colour,  enamelled  with  coloured  coats 
of  arms  and  other  devices,  milleliori,  and  schmeltz 
glass.  Engraved  glass  was  flrst  introduced  by 
Caspar  Lehmaun  at  Prague  in  16U9  under  imperi-ol 
protection,  and  continued  by  his  pujul  (i.  Schwan- 
hard  ;  and  ruby  glass  by  Kunckel  iu  1679.  Glass  is 
said  to  have  been  made  in  1294  at  Quinquengrone, 
in  Normandy,  before  the  16th  c.,  in  the  reign  of 
Philip  VI. ;  and  John  and  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine 
established  manufactories  in  their  domains,  and  a 
common  kind  was  made  in  D.auiihiny  and  Provence. 
Cast  plate  is  also  said  to  have  liecn  established  at 
Cherbourg  by  artists  from  Venice,  and  in  lOSS  the 
art  was  declared  noble.  Potash,  lime,  sUica,  and 
no  lead  ■was  employed.  Thevart  introduced  glass 
casting  and  plate-glass  works  at  Paris.  In  France, 
oxide  of  lead  flint-glass  was  made  at  St  Cloud  in 
17S4  ;  .another  manufactory  was  subsequently  estab- 
lished at  St  Louis  in  1790  ;  and  the  St  Cloud  estalj- 
lishment  was  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  the  jNlont 
Cenis,  where  it  flourished  tiU  1S27.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  glass  was  made  in  England  before  the  16th 
c.,  .as  that  mentioned  may  have  been  imported  from 
Flanders  or  Venice.  Window-glass  is  mentioned  l)y 
Bede  in  674,  but  was  not  in  general  use  for  windows 
till  the  15th  century.  In  1.557  flint-glass  was  manu- 
factured at  the  Savoy  and  Crutchcd  Friars ;  in  1565, 
there  were  glass-works  under  Cornelius  dc  Launoy  ; 
and  in  1567,  Jean  Quarre  and  other  Flemish  manu- 
facturers established  works  at  Crutched  Friar.s, 
wliich  Quarre's  descendants  extended  to  Sussex.  In 
1615,  Sir  R.  Maunsell  olitained  a  jiatent  for  making 
glass,  iu  consideration  of  using  pit  coal  instead  of 
wood,  and  oxide  of  lead  ■was  then  introduced  in 
1635 ;  and  in  1673,  Venetian  artists,  brought  over  by 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  manufactured  mirrors  of 
jilato-glass  at  Lamlieth,  and  drinking-glasses  were 
made  at  this  period.  But  Venetian  glass  was 
extensively  imported.  In  1771,  the  company  of 
British  Plate-glass  Manufacturers  was  established  at 
Ravenhead,  near  Prescot,  Lancashu'e ;  and  in  1728, 
plate-glass  was  made  by  the  Cooksons  at  South 
Shields,  and  the  Thames  Phate-glass  Comjiaiiy  in 
1S35 — 1836.  Patent  plate  was  first  m.ade  iu  1840. 
Ill  Scotland,  the  manufacture  w.as  introduced  in 
the  reign  of  James  VI.,  and  George  Hay  obtained 
a  patent  for  31  years.  The  first  ghass  M'as  manu- 
factured at  Wemyss,  in  Fifeshire,  afterwards  at 
Prestonpans  and  Leith.  In  1661,  ouly  the  prin- 
cipal chandjcrs  of  the  king's  palace  had  glass.  In 
America,  attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  to 
establish  glass-works  in  1746  at  Jamestown,  Vu'- 
ginia ;  subsequently,  ui  1780,  .at  Temple,  New 
Hampshii'e  ;  m  1789,  at  Newhaven  ;  and  in  1809,  at 
Boston.  Plate-glass  was  flrst  made  there  in  1853. 
It  is  made  at  Boston,  B.altimore,  and  New  York. 

At  an  early  period  the  application  of  glass  for 
magnifying  lenses  .appears  to  have  been  known. 
Ptolemy  II.  had  a  telescope  mounted  at  the  Pluaros, 
and  globes  filled  with  water  were  iu  use  for  the 
purpose  of  magnifying  under  the  Rom.ans.  Lenses 
are  mentioned  in  the  12th  c.  A.  D.  by  Alliazan,  .and 
by  Roger  B.acon  in  the  13th  c. ;  towards  the  close 
of  which,  Sah-ino  d'Arraato  invented  eye-glasses, 
which  were  subsequently  improved  by  Alessaadro 


GLASS. 


Spina.  AVitbia  the  present  year  (18G"2),  glass-reflectors 
for  telescc)])cs,  of  great  size  anil  accuracy,  have  been 
made  in  France.    See  Telescope. 

As  regards  processes  of  making,  that  called  the 
cylindrical  w.os  used  by  the  ancients,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Theophilns  at  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. The  rotatory  process  was  first  introduced  in 
liobeniia,  subsequently  ijito  France  in  1730,  but  not 
iuto  England  till  183"2.  Pressed  glass  was  invented 
in  .\merica.  In  England,  the  tendency  has  been  to 
throw  the  trade  iuto  fewer  hands,  there  having 
been  24  window-glass  factories  in  1S47,  and  only  § 
in  1858;  but  the  value  of  the  export  increxsed  from 
A:2G,694  in  1848  to  about  i.'.UO.OOO  in  1855.— Franks, 
A.  W.,  Vitreous  Art  in  the  Art  Treasures  of  llie 
i'liiled  Kiiiijdom  (Manchester)  i^x/iihllion  (4to,  1S5S) ; 
I'ellat,  A.,  CuriosUiea  of  Glass-making  (4to,  Lond. 
1849)  ;  Exhibition  of  Works  of  Industry  of  all 
Kations  (1851) ;  Reports  of  Juries  (1852),  CI,  xxiv. 
p.  521. 

Manufacture. — The  m.anufacture  of  glass,  as  at 
present  carried  on,  may  l)o  classed  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  :  Bottle-glass,  Crown  AVindow-gla-ss,  Sheet 
Window-glass,  Plate-glass,  Flint-glass,  Coloured- 
glass.  The  lii-st  is  the  coarsest  kind  in  com- 
mon use.  In  this  country,  it  is  made  generally 
of  soap-makers'  waste  (which  contains  a  quantity 
of  sixti-salts),  fresh-water  river-sand,  briuk-dust, 
caloined-Iime,  and  marl ;  to  these  a  qu.antity  of 
cullet,  or  the  broken  glass  of  the  works,  is  always 
added  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  manufacture.  This 
is  the  mi.\ture  employed  in  making  what  are  called 
black  bottles,  used  for  wine,  beer,  &e.  Of  late 
years,  light-green  coloured  glass  ha.s  been  preferred 
for  many  purposes,  such  as  medicine  bottles,  soda- 
watiT  bottles,  &c.  This  colour  is  commonly  pro- 
duced by  adtling  a  large  proportion  of  the  ciiUet  of 
crown-glass,  which,  by  its  light  colour,  dilutes  the 
darker  material ;  if,  however,  it  is  wanted  of  a 
finer  quality,  it  is  made  of  sand  of  a  light  colour, 
containing  only  about  two-tenths  per  cent,  of  the 
oxide  of  iron.  To  50  parts  of  this  sand  are  added 
20  parts  of  heavy  sp.ar  {Hulphate  rf  Baryta),  30  parts 
of  soap-makei-s'  waste,  and  about  two-tenths  per 
cent,  of  o.xide  of  manganese. 

In  France,  kelp  and  wood-ashes  are  used  to  fur- 
nish the  alkaliue  portion  of  the  mbcture  ;  in  other 
respects,  the  material  is  essentially  the  same.  In 
Germany,  where  a  rich  brown  tint  is  in  fashion  for 
bottles  for  the  light-coloured  Khine  wines,  the 
m.-vteri.als  consist  of  a  Us'ht-coloured  clay,  10  parts; 
a  light  yellow-coloured  sand,  20  parts ;  kelp,  S 
parts ;  wood-ashes,  38  parts  ;  cullet,  15  jjarts  ;  and 
oxide  of  manganese,  3  parts. 

One  of  the  first  essentials  to  a  successfid  manu- 
facture of  glass,  is  the  preparation  of  the  melting- 
jiots.  These  pots  are  composed  of  claj',  which  is 
required  to  be  as  free  as  possible  from  liuie  and 
iron.  A  cl.ay  obtained  from  the  carboniferous  shales 
of  Worcestershire,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stour- 
bridge, is  the  most  esteemed  for  this  purjiose  ;  it 
consists  of  jjretty  nearly  equal  jiroportions  of  silica 
and  ahmiina.  The  clay  is  carefiUly  ilried  and  sifted, 
after  which  it  is  mixed  with  hot  water,  and  worked 
into  a  paste  ;  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  knead- 
ing-floor,  and  when  sufficiently  kneaded — which  is 
done  by  men  treading  it  with  naked  feet— it  is  laid 
in  large  masses  in  a  damp  store-ecLiar  to  ripen,  a 
process  the  theory  of  which  is  not  well  under.^t  lod. 
When  requireil  for  forming  the  jiots,  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  taken  and  again  kneaded  with  one- 
fourth  of  its  qu.antity  of  the  material  of  old  pots, 
which  arc  gi-ound  to  fine  powder  and  carefully  sifted ; 
this  material  gives  firmness  and  consistency  to  the 
paste,  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  be  affected  by 
heat.     The  pots  are  of  two  kinds,  the  open  (fig.  C) 


and  the  covered  (fig.  7).  The  first  is  used  for  melt- 
ing common  glass,  such  as  window  and  bottle  glass ; 
the  other  for  Hint-glass.     In  each  case,  the  pots  are 


Kg-  6. 


Fig.  7. 


made  by  hand,  and  require  great  skill  and  care. 
The  bottom  is  first  moulded  on  a  boarcL  When 
the  bottom  is  finished,  the  workman  begins  to 
build  up  the  side  of  the  pot  liy  first  forming  a 
ring  of  the  same  height  all  round,  taking  care  to 
round  off  the  upper  edge  to  a  semicircular  curve 
of  gi-eat  regularity ;  iipon  this  he  begins  bending 
over  other  lumps  of  tlie  jiaste  until  another  equal 
layer  is  formed,  and  these  are  continued  until  the 
pot  is  complete ;  but  the  workmen  do  not  work 
continuously  at  each  pot  imtil  it  is  finished,  they 
leave  off  from  time  to  time,  spreading  wet  cloths 
over  the  edge  when  they  discontinue  working. 
This  is  nccessaiy,  to  admit  of  a  certain  aniouut  of 
drying,  otherwise  the  large  weight  of  clay  used 
would  prevent  the  form  from  being  kept,  and  the 
pot  would  fall  to  pieces,  or  lose  shai)e  seriously, 
the  building  of  the  pot  is  consequently  extentled 
over  several  days.  Those  made  in  the  form  of 
fig.  6  are  from  three  to  four  inches  thick,  but  the 
flint-glass  pots  are  only  from  two  to  three  inches. 
After  the  potter  has  finished  his  work,  the  jiots  are 
removed  into  the  first  drying-floor,  where  they  are 
only  protected  from  draughts,  so  that  the  ilrying 
may  bo  conducted  with  the  greatest  jwssible  imi- 
foruiity.  \\Tien  they  have  progressed  sufficiently, 
they  are  removed  to  the  second  drying-floor,  which 
is  heated  with  a  stove,  and  the  drjnng  is  here  com- 
pleted. They  are  then  placed  in  the  store,  where 
usually  a  good  stock  is  kept  on  hand,  as  time 
improves  them,  and  they  are  seldom  kept  less  than 
si.\  or  nine  months.  A\Tien  required  for  use,  they 
are  placed  for  four  or  five  days  in  the  annealing 
furnace,  which  is  on  the  rcverberatory  principle,  and 
they  are  there  kept  at  a  red  heat.  This  furnace  is 
so  situated,  th.at  the  pots,  when  read}',  can  be  most 
quickly  transferred  to  the  main  furnace — an  oper- 
ation of  exceeding  difficulty,  and  requiring  great 
skill  and  dexterity,  as  they  hare  to  be  removed 
whilst  red-hot,  and  it  must  be  done  so  quickly  that 
no  sudde»  cooling  shall  injure  the  pot,  a  difficulty 
which  can  only  be  understood  by  remembering  that 
the  ordinary  pots  are  nearly  four  feet  in  depth,  are 
the  same  in  width  at  the  mouth  by  about  thirty 
inches  at  the  bottom,  and  they  weigh  several 
hundredweights.  The  enormous  amouut  of  labour 
bestowed  upon  these  pots  makes  them  very  expen- 
sive, their  value  being  from  £0  to  £10  each.  Their 
removal  from  the  annealing  oven  to  the  main 
furnace  is  efl'ected  by  an  immense  pair  of  forceps 
sever.al  feet  in  leng'th,  which  are  placed  horizontally 
upon  an  upright  iron  jiillar  about  three  feet  in 
height,  which  Vises  from  a  small  iron  truck  on  four 
wheels,  so  that  the  whole  apparatus  can  be  easily 
moved  from  place  to  place.  By  means  of  this 
instrument  the  pot  is  lifted  and  dexterously  with- 
drawn from  the  oven,  and  as  (]uickly  transferred  to 
its  position  in  the  main  furnace,  in  which  iisually 
four  or  six  arc  placed  on  a  platfoim  of  firebrick  or 
stone,  each  pot  being  opposite  to  a  small  arched 
opening,  through  which  it  can  be  filled  and  cni])tied. 

7(7 


GLASS. 


The  entrance  to  the  main  furnace,  throiigh  which 
the  pots  have  been  introduced,  is  then  closed  with 
a  movable  door  of  firebrick,  and  covered  over  with 
fireclay,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat ;  the  pots  in 
the  furnace  are  filled  with  the  prepared  materials  for 
glass,  now  called  frit,  mixed  with  about  a  sixth  or 
eighth  i>art  of  ciUlet  or  broken  glass  ;  the  openings 
are  closed  temporaiily  for  two  or  three  hours,  by 
which  time  the  first  charge  of  material  has  melted 
down,  lea\ing  room  for  a  fm'ther  supply,  which 
is  then  thrown  into  the  pot,  and  this  is  repeated 
two  or  three  times  until  the  pot  is  completely 
full.  The  openings  are  then  closed,  and  the  heat 
increased  to  the  utmost  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  : 
this  part  of  the  ojioratiou  is  called  foundiiif],  and 
the  result  of  it  is  to  perfectly  melt  and  \'itiify  the 
materials.  The  heat  of  the  furnace  is  now  some- 
what reduced,  and  the  scum  is  removed  from  the 
surface  of  the  melted  material,  now  technically 
called  ■Juefal,  by  a  workman  called  the  sL-immer, 
whose  labour  requires  great  care  and  much  expe- 
rience, as  the  metal  is  at  a  glowing  white  heat, 
and  is  only  with  difiicidty  distinguishable  in  the 
fierce  white  glare  of  the  furnace.  The  metal  is  now 
ready  for  the  commencement  of  the  journeij,  as  the 
operation  of  working  it  up  is  called.  This  term, 
like  most  others  in  the  glass  trade,  is  derived  from 
the  French. 

The  arrangements  so  far  apply  equally  to  all 
kinds  of  glass.  We  now,  however,  return  to  the 
manufacture  of  glass  bottles,  in  order  the  more  fully 
to  imderstaud  wliioh,  we  give  the  following  ground- 
plan  of  one  of  the  houses  in  which  this  is  carried  on 
(fig.  S).     a  is  the  main  furnace,  which  in  this  case 


Fig.  S. 

is  square,  and  made  to  hold  only  four  pots ;  at  each 
comer  is  an  opening,  w^hich  allows  the  fire  to  enter 
four  small  reverberatory  furnaces,  6,  6,  &,  &,  called 
arches;  two  are  called  the  coarse  arches,  and  the 
others  the_^He  arclies.  In  the  two  former,  the  soap- 
makers'  waste  is  calcined  at  a  red  heat  for  at 
least  four  hours,  or  whilst  a  set  of  pots  is  being 
worked  out — that  is  to  say,  one  joiuTiey.  Then 
the  calcined  material  is  ground  and  sifted  in  the 
gi'iuding  and  sifting  house,  //,  after  which  it  is 
mingled  with  the  sand,  &c.,  and  transferred  to  the 
fine  arches,  where  for  the  term  of  another  joiu-ney 
it  is  again  calcined.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  the 
pots  being  empty,  are  refilled  with  this  material. 

When  the  furnaces  are   opened  for  a  journey,  the 
ekimmer  first  removes  the  scmn    and  makes  the 
778 


way  clear  for  the  blower  and  moulder,  who  takes 
his  blow-piiie  of  iron,  six  feet  in  length,  the  jjart 
held  in  the  hand  being  guarded  by  a  covering 
of  wood  and  other  non-conducting  materi.als.  After 
heating  the  end  of  the  blow-pipe  in  the  furnace 
mouth,  he  dijjs  it  into  the  pot,  and  turning  it 
round,  gathers  as  much  metal  on  the  end  as  is 
s\tfiicient  to  form  a  bottle  of  the  size  required. 
Usually,  in  bottle  making,  one  gathering  suffices, 
but  in  larger  operations,  such  as  blowing  window- 
glass,  more  gatherings  have  to  be  made.  The 
operator  then  blows  gently  down  the  pipe,  and 
having  thus  slightly  distended  the  bulb  of  red 
hot  jilastic  glass  (fig.  11,  a),  he  takes  it  to  a  plato 
of  polished  iron,  forming  a  low  bench  called  the 
mavrr,  or  mavering  table.  On  this  he  turns  it 
round,  moiUding  the  round  lump  of  glass  into  a 
conical  form,  the  change  being  represented  in 
fig.  II,  b.  This  operation,  called  maverinij',  ia  per- 
formed in  all  cases  where  glass  is  blown;  and 
as  it  is  necessary  th.at  the  glass  shoidd  be  pretty 
fii-m  before  mavering,  it  is  often  cooled  by  sprink- 
ling with  water,  and  even,  as  in  the  case  of 
window-glass  and  other  large  blowings,  turning 
it  in  a  cavity  containing  water,  which  is  made 
by  hollowing  out  a  block  of  wood,  usually,  if 
attainable,  that  of  the  pear-tree,  which  is  said  to 
be  best  for  the  piu-pose. 

After  being  mavered,  the  glass  is  held  to  the 
mouth  of  the  f m-nace,  and  the  operator  blows  down 
his  blow-pipe,  and  further  distends  his  glass. 
Formerly,  he  commenced  moulding  it  into  the  form 
of  a  bottle  with  his  shears,  one  arm  of  which  was 
of  charred  wood,  and  the  concave  bottom  was  made 
by  pnsliing  a  little  piece  of  glass,  called  a  punt;/,  at 
the  end  of  an  iron  rod  called  the  poiiitel;  the  blow- 
pipe was  then  detached  by  a  slight  blow  of  the 
shears,  and  the  partly  formed  bottle  was  left  at  the 
end  of  the  pointcl  attached  by  the  punty  in  the 
h.inds  of  a  boy  who  attends  upon  the  man,  and 
brought  and  applied  the  pimty.  The  man  then 
took  the  pomtel  in  one  hand,  and  after  softening 
the  bottle  in  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  moidded 
the  neck  by  means  of  his  shears,  regulating  the 
size  of  the  opening  by  means  of  a  small  brass 
moidd,  the  size  and  shape  of  a  cork,  attached  to 
the  middle  of  the  shears;  heating  the  neck  again, 
he  formed  with  a  small  portion  of  metal  from 
the  pot  the  ring  round  the  mouth  of  tho  bottle. 
Now,  however,  after  mavering,  and  the  first  slight 
blowing,  the  operator  inserts  the  glass  into  an  u-on 
or  brass  mould,  which  is  formed  in  two  pieces, 
opening  or  closing  by  the  pressiu'e  of  the  foot  on  a 
lever.  When  the  moidd  is  closed,  he  blows  down 
the  pipe,  and  the  bottle  is  completed  .all  but  the 
neck,  the  ring  of  which  has  to  be  formed  by  the 
addition  of  a  fresh  piece  of  metal,  as  before  des- 
cril)ed.  By  this  process,  bottles  are  made  with 
wonderfid  rapidity  and  exactness.  At  this  stage 
of  tlie  manufacture,  by  either  jirocesg,  the  bottles 
are  taken  from  the  •  worliman  by  a  little  boy, 
who  inserts  the  prongs  of  a  fork  into  the  necks, 
and  carries  them  to  one  of  the  annealing  arches, 
d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  where  they  are  carefully  arranged 
ui  proper  bins  until  the  arch,  which  usually  holds 
144  dozen,  is  full;  it  is  then  closed,  and  the  heat 
is  raised  nearly  to  melting  point,  and  then  allowed 
gradually  to  subside  until  it  becomes  cold,  when 
the  bottles  are  removed  to  make  room  for  a  fresh 
ch.arge.  In  the  i)lan,  fig.  8,  e  and  f  are  the  sand 
and  alkali  stores  ;  p,  17,  are  stores  for  the  prejiarcd 
frit';  and  i,j,  are  sifting-cribs  in  the  siftiug-house. 

]Vitidou'-</las,%  whether  crown  or  slieet,  13  made  of 
much  more  carefully  selected  materials.  They  are 
slightly  varied  l)y  difi'erent  manufacturers,  but  the 
following  are  the  ingredients  used  in  one  of  tho 


GLASS. 


largest  plass-bouses  in  Great  Britain :  Sand  (well 
dried) ,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Leighton  Buz- 
zard, in  Bedfordshire;  sul|ihate  of  soda,  ground; 
sxibcarbonate  of  soda,  white  oxide  of  ai-senic,  man-  ' 

fanese,  Welsh  anthracite,  chalk;  limestone  from 
lopton  Wood,  Derliyshire ;  nitrate  of  soda ;  cidlet, 
about  as  much  as  is  equal  to  an  eighth  part  of  the 
other  ingredients.  The  exact  proportions  are  only 
known  to  the  manufacturers.  Each  ingredient  is 
carefully  powdered  before  mixing,  and  they  are 
afterwards  calcined  or  fritted,  except  the  anthra- 
cite, which  is  added  in  the  pot  for  the  i>uri)ose  of 
decomposing  the  sulphate  of  soda,  and  dissipating 
its  acid ;  and  the  manganese  and  arsenic,  which  are 
only  added  in  very  small  quantities,  to  improve  the 
colour ;  too  much,  however,  of  each  is  sure  to  injure 
the  glass,  and  therefore  these  materials  can  only 
be  safely  used  by  experienced  manipulators.  The 
bulk  of  the  glass,  however,  consists  of  the  sand,  and 
carbonate  and  sidphate  of  soda.  1 

The  arrangement  of  the  window-glass  houses  is 
different,  and  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  in  the 
houses  for  bottle-glass,  and  excepting  in  gathering 
and  mavering,  all  the  operations  subsequent  to  the 
foundmg  are  ditfereut     Fig.  9  will  give  a  general 


and  after  turning  it  about  for  a  minute  or  two 
in  the  air  until  sufficiently  cooled,  he  then  dips 
it  in  again,  and  over  the  first  he  makes  a  second 
gathering,  which  increases  the  weight  to  about 
tliree  pounds  weight ;  the  same  cooluig  process  is 
rei>eated,  and  a  third  gathering  is  made,  which 
brings  up  the  weight  to  about  nine  pounds ;  he 
then  hoUis  his  blow-pipe  jwrpendioularly  with  the 
glass  downward,  so  that  it  may  by  its  own  weight 
puU  downward  from  the  pipe  in  the  foi-m  of  a 
symmetrical  pear-sha]>ed  bulb  ;  he  next  takes  it  to 
the  hollowed  block  before  mentioned,  and  turns 
it  round  in  the  water  placed  in  the  carity  by 
which  it  is  made  ready  for  the  mavering  table. 
The  workman,  by  skilful  man.igement,  imirern  the 
bulb  of  glass  into  the  form  h,  tig.  1 1,  and  then  forms 
a  httle  knob  at  its  apex,  by  turning  it  on  a  fixed 
bar  of  iron  called  the  bullion  bar  ;  he  then  ciim- 
mences  blowing,  and  soon  the  bulb  of  nearly  solid 
glass  is  expanded  into  a  large  hollow  sphere 
(c,  fig.  11),  still,  however,  ■n-ith  the  little  nipple  made 
by  the  bullion  bar.  A  Uttle  boy  now  comes  forward 
with  an  iron  rod,  the  pohilel,  upon  the  end  of 
which  has  been  gathered  a  small  hmip  of  metal, 
called  the  puuly,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
this  he  a]>))lie3  to  the  nipple,  to  which  it  firmly 
adheres,  the  workman  meanwhile  resting  his  Ijlow- 
pipe  on  a  fixed  rest  called  the  casher-box,  placed  for 
the  inirpose ;  by  the  pressure  of  the  pointil  the  globe 
of  glass  is  flattened  as  in  d,  fig.  II.    The  application 


r" 


_:^ 


\ 


\ 


Fig.  9. 

plan  of  the  house  for  crown  •window-glass,  and  fig.  10 
gives  an  elevation  of  one  side  of  the  main  furnace, 
with  the  three  openings  throiigh  which  the  glass  is 
gathered  from  the  pots.  In  fig.  9,  a  is  the  main 
furnace ;  6,  b,  two  Hashing  furnaces  ;  the  projecting 
)iiece  of  brick-work,  i',  being  the  screen  which 
jirotects  the  workman  from  the  fire ;  and  c,  c  are 
two  annealing  furnaces  or  ovens. 

When  the  founding  or  melting  and  the  skimming 
are  completed,  the  workman  takes  his  blow-jujie, 
which  is  about  seven  feet  in  length,  heats  it  at  the 
end,  and  dipping  it  into  the  pot  of  melted  glass 


Qoj  LUo^   LfJoS 

r--    n    n 


Fig.  10. 


or  metal  through  the  opening  (a,  fig.  10),  he  rjalhers, 
by  a  slight  tiu-n  or  two,  a  quantity  of  glass,  about 
a  pound  and  a  half  in  weight ;  this  he  withdraws, 


Fig.  11. 

of  a  piece  of  iron,  cooled  for  the  purpose  by  keeping 

it  in  water,  to  the  junction  of  the  glass  with  the  blow- 
pijie,  detaches  it  instantly,  and  the  globe  of  glass  is 
now  held  with  the  pointU.  The  operator  carries  it 
next  to  the  nose-hole  (6,  fig.  10),  and  presents  the 
opening  formed  by  the  detachment  of  the  blow-pipe, 
to  the  action  of  the  furnace  ;  this  again  softens  the 
glass,  which  is  kept  continually  revoKHng  by  turning 
the  pointil  on  an  iron  rest  or  hook  fixed  to  the 
masonry  of  the  furnace.  The  revolutions  are  at  first 
slow,  but  are  gradually  accelerated  as  the  softening 
of  the  glass  goes  on,  and  the  centrifugal  force  so 
produced  throws  the  edges  of  the  orifice  outwards, 
as  in  e,  fig.  1 1,  .■^s  the  glass  flattens,  it  is  revolved 
with  greater  ra]iidity,  and  advanced  so  near  to  the 
mouth  of  the  nose-hole  as  to  draw  the  flames  out- 
ward, by  contracting  the  draught.  This  completes 
the  softening  of  the  ghiss,  which  is  done  suddenly, 
with  a  rushing  noise  like  the  unfurling  of  a  flag  in 
the  wind,  caused  by  the  rapid  flying  outward  of  the 
softened  glass  and  the  rush  of  the  tlanies  outwards. 
It  becomes  jierfectly  flat,  and  of  equal  thickness, 
except  at  the  buUion  or  centre,  formed,  as  before 
described,  by  the  bidhon-bar  and  the  punty.  The 
Jia.fliinri  is  now  complete  ;  and  the  workman  removes 
it  from  the  nose-hole,  and  still  continuing  to  turn 
it  in  his  hands,  in  order  to  cool  and  harden  it,  as  he 
walks  along,  carries  it  to  the  annealing  oven,  where 
another  one  receives  it  on  a  large  flattened  fork-like 
imi)lement  at  the  moment  the  Jiaxlier,  who  has  hold 
of  the  pointil,  suddenly  detaches  it  by  a  touch  of  his 
shears.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  long  horizontal 
slit  which  fonns  the  opening  into  the  annealing 
oven,  and  when  fairly  in,  it  is  dexterously  turned  on 


GLASS. 


its  edge  ;  here  it  remains  at  a  temperature  somewhat 
below  that  required  to  soften  glass,  until  the  oven 
is  filled  with  these  so-called  tabks  of  glass,  when 
the  heat  is  suffered  to  decline,  until  the  whole  is 
cold,  when  they  are  removed  to  the  packing-room, 
to  he  packed  in  crates  for  sale. 

Until  lately,  crown-glass  was  almost  imiversally 
employed  for  windows,  but  now  that  which  is  called 
Oeniian  sheet  has  become  quite  as  common,  besides 
which  British  sheet,  which  is  the  same  glass  polished, 
and  plate-glass  are  much  used.  The  operation  of 
making  the  sheet-glass  is  very  ditl'erent  from  that 
employed  in  making  crown-glass,  inasmuch  as  a 
long  and  perfect  cylinder  is  souglit  to  be  produced 
by  the  blower  instead  of  a  sphere  of  glass.  This 
necessitates  also  a  different  arrangement  of  the 
glass-house,  as  is  seen  by  the  groiuid-plan  shewn  in 
hg.  12 :  aa  is  the  furnace,  6  is  the  annealing  oven, 


Fig.  12. 

heated  by  the  flue  b',  which  opens  into  the  m.ain 
furnace ;  the  leer,  or  annealing  oven,  is  often,  how- 
ever, an  independent  structure  ;  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c,  c, 
are  the  eight  pots,  which  is  the  number  usually 
employed  m  these  works.  These,  of  coiirse,  are 
opposite  to  the  openings  for  working  them,  and  in 
front  of  each  opening  is  a  long  opening  in  the  ground, 
about  eight  feet  deep  and  three  feet  in  width ; 
d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d.  The  "workman  stands  on  the 
edge  of  this  pit,  and  having  made  his  gathering,  as 
in  the  crown-glass  manufacture  (o,  fig.  13),  he  next 
7navers  it,  without,  however,  using  the  bullion-rod 
(6,  tig.  13).  He  next  proceeds  to  blow  his  glass, 
holding  it  downward  whilst  doing  so,  that  its  weight 
may  widen  and  elongate  the  bulb,  and  from  time 
to  time  dexterously  swings  it  round,  which  greatly 
increases  its  length  (c,  d,  hg.  13).  As  it  cools  rapidly 
in  tliis  operation,  he  from  time  to  time  places  his 
pipe  in  the  rest  which  is  fixed  before  the  furnace- 
mouth,  and  gently  turning  it  round,  he  brings  it 
again  nearly  to  the  melting-point,  then  he  repeats 
the  blowing  and  swinging,  standing  over  the  pit, 
to  enable  him  to  swing  it  completely  round  as  it 
lengthens  out.  These  operations  are  continued  until 
the  cylinder  has  reached  its  maximum  size,  that  is, 
until  it  is  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  and  suffi- 
ciently long  and  broad  to  admit  of  sheets  of  the 
required  size  being  made  from  it  (c,  fig.  13).  Some- 
times these  cylinders  are  made  60  inches  in  length, 
allowing  sheets  of  glass  49  inches  in  length  to  be 
made  from  them.  The  next  operation  is  to  place  the 
pijie  in  the  rest,  and  apiily  the  thumb  so  as  to  close 
780 


the  opening  at  the  blowing  end ;  the  heat  of  the  fur- 
nace soon  softens  the  glass  at  the  closed  extremity 
of  the  cylinder,  and  as  the  enclosed  air  is  prevented 
escaping,  as  it  rarefies,  by  the  thumb  placed  ou 
the  opening  of  the  blow-pipe,  it  bursts  at  the  soft- 
ened part  (fig.  13,  /) ;  the   operator  then  quickly 


m 


Fig.  13. 

turns  the  cylinder,  still  with  its  end  to  the  fire,  and 
the  softened  edges  of  the  opening,  which  at  first  aa-o 
curved  inwards,  are  flashed  out  until  they  are  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  (.7,  fig. 
13).  It  is  then  removed,  and  placed  on  a  rest  or 
casher-box,  when  a  small  punty  of  melted  glass  at 
the  end  of  a  pointd  is  brought  by  a  boy  ;  this  the 
workman  applies  to  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  just 
below  the  shoulder  formed  at  the  blow-pipe  end 
(tig.  13,  ,'/),  and  di-awing  it  out  to  a  thin  string,  wraja 
it  quickly  so  as  to  draw  a  line  round  the  cylinder; 
after  a  second  or  two,  he  "withdraws  this  line  of 
red-hot  glass,  and  touching  it  quickly  with  his  cold 
shears,  the  shoulder  and  neck  drop  off  as  neatly  as 
if  cut  mth  a  diamond. 

The  cylinder  (fig.  13, /()  is  now  placed  for  a  short 
time  in  the  anneaUng  oven  {h,  fig.  12),  where  it  is 
prepared  for  cutting ;  it  is  next  placed  in  a  groove 
lined  with  green  baize,  and  a  diamond  fixed  to  a 
sliding  rule  makes  a  perfectly  straight  cut  from 
end  to  end.  The  split  cylinder  is  then  taken  to 
the  flattening  arch  or  furnace,  where  it  is  laid  on 
the  bottom,  with  the  diamond-cut  upwards.  The 
bottom  is  a  perfectly  smooth  stone,  kept  constantly 
free  from  dust  by  the  workman  ;  here  the  heat 
is  sufficient  to  soften  without  melting  the  glass, 
and  the  flatlener,  as  it  softens,  opens  the  two  edges 
of  the  crack  mitil  they  fall  outward  flat  on  the 
stone ;  he  then  takes  an  implement  in  the  form 
of  a  rake,  made  by  placing  a  piece  of  charred 
wood  transversely  at  the  end  of  a  long  handle,  and 
this  is  gently  nibbed  over  the  glass,  producing  a 
very  smooth  surface.  At  the  back  of  the  flatten- 
ing arch  is  an  annealing  oven,  communicating 
with  the  arch  by  a  narrow  horizontal  slit,  through 
which  the  sheet  of  glass  is  now  pushed  on  to 
a  plate  of  iron,  which  receives  it ;  and  as  this 
plate  is  one  of  a  series  linked  together  so  as  to 
form  an  endless  band,  which  can  be  turned  round, 
the  sheets  move  forward  into  the  annealing  oven, 
where  the  workman  gently  lifts  them  on  edge  until 
the  oven  is  filled,  when,  as  in  the  case  of  crown- 
glass,  the  heat  is  allowed  to  decline  until  perfectly 
cool,  the  sheets  are  then  ready  for  use.  Very  much 
larger  sheets  are  obtained  by  this  process  than 
by  the  former  one,  hence  it  is  becoming  of  great 
importance ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  workmen 
sufficiently  powerful  and  dexterous  to  blow  and 
twirl  the  largest-sized  cylinders ;  at  present,  we 
obtain  almost  all  the  operatives  so  employed  from 
Belgium. 

Glass-shades  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
above  described  ;  indeed,  they  are  nothing  more 
than  the  rounded  ends  of  the  cylinders  before  being 
burst.  When  wanted  oval  or  square,  these  forms 
are  produced  by  boxes  of  wood  charred  inside,  of 
the  size  the  shades  are  required,  through  which  the 


GLASS. 


cylinder  is  passed  when  being  blown,  until  the  soft 
glass  touches,  and  receives  shapes  from  the  inside 
of  the  box  or  mould  ;  they  are  afterwards  annealed, 
and  cut  to  the  lengths  required.  If  of  large  diame- 
ter, they  require  immense  strength  and  great  skill 
in  the  operator,  who  sometime.s  aids  the  power  of 
his  breath  by  taking  into  his  mouth  a  little  spirit, 
which  he  blows  down  the  pipe  ;  this,  pf  course,  is 
instantly  converted  into  vapour,  when  it  reaches 
the  red-hot  cylinder,  and  by  its  expansion  aids  in 
distending  the  glass. 

Plate-plass  is  made  in  a  totally  different  manner ; 
and  as  its  value  depends  chiefly  on  its  purity,  the 
greatest  possible  care  is  taken  to  procure  materials 


of  the  best  quality,  and  almost  every  manufacturer 
has  his  own  private  formula  for  the  mixture.  It 
may,  however,  be  said  to  consist  chiefly  of  sand  and 
alkaline  salts,  as  in  other  kinds  of  glass,  and  the 
following  is  one  receipt  known  to  be  in  use :  Fine 
white  sand  well  washed,  to  free  it  from  impurities, 
720  lbs. ;  sulphate  of  soda,  45()  lbs. ;  slaked  lime, 
8U  lbs. ;  nitrate  of  potash,  25  lbs. ;  and  cullet  of  plate- 
glass,  425  lbs.  These  ingredients,  when  melted  and 
skimmed,  should  yield  about  1200  lbs.  of  perfectly 
clear  metal,  which  is  the  quantity  usually  reqiured 
for  a  casting.  When  melted  and  ready  for  use,  the 
pot  is  lifted  out  of  the  furnace  {aa,  fig.  14)  by  means 
of  the  forceps,  and  wheeled  up  to  the  casting-table 


>^J 


Fig  14. 


(fc,  fig.  14) ;  here  it  is  seized  by  a  crane  and  tackle, 
by  which  it  is  lifted,  and  so  nicely  poised  over 
the  table,  that  it  can  be  easily  tilted  so  as  to  pour 
out  its  contents.  All  this  requires  so  much  care 
and  steadiness,  that  the  men,  impressed  -with  the 
great  danger  of  carelessness,  usually  presence  perfect 
silence  during  their  work.  The  table  is  of  large  size 
— 20  feet  or  more  in  length,  by  8  or  10  feet  in  width. 
When  the  red-hot  liquid  glass  is  poured  on,  it  imme- 
diately begins  to  spread ;  two  bars  of  iron,  a  little 
thicker  than  the  plate  is  intended  to  be,  are  quickly 
laid  on  each  side  of  the  table,  and  a  steel  roller  is  laid 
across,  resting  on  these  bars :  this  roller  is  worked 
by  hand,  and  rapidly  spreads  the  glass  all  over  the 
table,  the  bars  preventing  it  from  running  over 
the  sides,  and  regvdating  its  thickness.  In  a  very 
short  time,  it  begins  to  cool ;  the  men  then  seize 
the  end  of  it  with  pincers,  and  pull  it  forward  with 
great  dexterity  on  to  an  endless  band  of  wire-gauze, 
which,  being  made  to  revolve,  moves  the  immense 
plate  forward  to  a  slit-like  opening  to  the  annealing 
oven  (tig.  14,  ff),  where  it  is  worked  on  to  another 
table  on  wheels,  which  is  pushed  forward  to  make 
room  for  another.  The  annealing  oven  is  usually  of 
immense  length,  as,  in  the  case  of  plate-glass,  the 
sheets  cannot  be  set  on  edge.  At  the  works  at  St 
Helen's,  in  Lancashire,  where  glass  of  all  kinds  is 
extensively  made,  there  are  usually  two  annealing 
ovens  to  each  shed,  the  furnaces  being  placed 
between  them ;  each  oven  runs  to  the  end  of  the 
shed,  and  these  sheds  are  usually  over  300  feet  in 
length.  The  ground-plan  shewn  in  fig.  14  will  give 
a  general  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  one  of  these 
vast  work-shops.  The  main  building  is  a  shed, 
with  the  doors  at  each  end,  and  both  doors  and 
windows  are  made  so  as  to  exclude  drafts  of  air, 
which,  if  ailmittcd  during  the  operation  of  cast- 
ing, are  highly  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the 
manufacture,  a,  a,  are  the  two  melting-furnaces ; 
6,  6,  b,  b,  h,  b,  the  pots  ;  c,  e,  the  casting-tables  ; 
rf,  d,  the  endless  bands  of  wire-gauze  for  moving  the 
plates  to  the  annealing  ovens  ;  e,  e,  where  they  enter 


by  the  narrow  openings,  (fi  and,  after  they  have 
sufficiently  cooled,  are  removed  through  the  open- 
ings at  each  end,  g,  g. 

The  plates  are  ne.xt  removed  to  the  fir^t  polishing- 
shed,  where  each  is  imbedded  in  a  matrix  of  stucco, 
leaving  one  surface  exposed  ;  the  whole  is  enclosed 
in  a  frame,  which  holds  both  glass  and  stucco 
securely.  Two  of  these  frames  are  placed  one  over 
the  other,  with  the  two  exposed  surfaces  of  glass  in 
contact.  The  lower  frame  is  fixed,  and  the  upper 
is  made  to  move  by  machinery  with  great  rapidity 
backward  and  forivard  with  a  swinging  motion,  so 
as  to  describe  an  opposite  cur^-e  with  each  backward 
and  forward  motion.  Sand  and  water  are  continu- 
ally tliron-n  on  the  surface  of  the  fixed  plate,  and 
thus  the  tirst  stage  of  polishing  is  performed.  The 
j)lates  are  then  readjusted  in  the  frames,  and  the 
other  surfaces  are  brought  xipwards,  and  receive  a 
similar  rubbing  down  with  sand  and  water.  The 
plates  are  next  removed  to  the  second  polishing- 
room,  where  women  are  usually  employed  ;  here 
they  are  again  fixed  on  low  tables,  and  each  woman 
rubs  the  surface  for  a  long  time  with  a  piece  of 
[jlate-glass,  covering  from  time  to  time  the  whole 
face  of  the  plate  with  emery-powder  and  water. 
After  both  sides  have  received  this  hand-polishing, 
the  plates  are  removed  to  a  third  room,  where 
they  are  again  imbedded  on  tables  which  are 
movable  by  machinery,  so  that  the  whole  surface 
of  the  plate  may  V>e  brought  under  the  action  of 
the  polishers.  These  are  large  movable  blocks, 
covered  with  woollen  cloth  and  leather,  and  loaded 
so  as  to  jiress  on  the  glass ;  the  polishing  material 
used  is  colcothar,  the  red  oxide  of  iron ;  this  com- 
pletes the  polish  which  gives  so  much  beauty  to 
plate-glass.  It  is  a  long  and  laborious  process,  and 
is  the  chief  cause  of  the  high  price  of  plate  as  com- 
pared with  other  sheet-glass.  British  plate  is  only 
the  cylinder  glass  polished  by  the  processes  just 
described ;  its  comparative  cheapness  is  due  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  cylinder  can  be  blown.  Of 
this  rapidity,  the  best  estimate  may  be  formed  from 

761 


GLASS. 


a  single  well-aiithenticated  statement  concerning 
the  tirst  Crj'stal  Palace,  which  had  18  acres  of  roof ; 
when  the  sides  are  added  to  this,  and  a  fair  adiUtion 
for  the  increase  caused  by  tlie  ridge-and-furrow 
s)-stem  of  the  roof,  the  whole  extent  may  be  stated 
at  25  acres ;  and  yet  this  vast  surface  of  glass  was 
Bupplied  by  Messrs  Chance  &  Co.  of  Birmingham, 
with  only  an  interruption  of  three  weeks  to  their 
ordinary  business. 

Flint-glasa  and  Optical  Glasn. — The  general  prin- 
ciple of  the  manufacture  of  these  two  varieties  of 
gl.oss  is  identical  with  those  already  described,  the 
chief  difference  consisting  in  the  great  care  taken 
to  insure  perfect  purity  in  the  materials.  The  pots 
used  are  so  made,  that  the  metal  is  protected  from 
the  chance  of  being  contaminated  by  any  accidental 
impurities  falling  m  or  from  the  gases  of  the  fur- 
nace ;  they  are  made  with  a  dome-shaped  roof  and  a 
lateral  arch-shaped  opening  (tig.  7),  which  is  placed 
opposite  the  furnace-mouth,  so  that  the  workman 
has  easy  access  to  the  contents  of  the  pot,  which  is 
necessarily  smaller,  otherwise  the  workman  could 
not  dip  to  the  bottom. 

The  materials  used  for  the  best  flint-qlass  are 
varied  in  their  projiortions,  according  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  manufacturer ;  they  consist  of  the 
whitest  sand  which  can  be  procured,  fine  American 
pearl-ashes  (impure  carbonate  of  potash,  which  is 
purified  by  dissolving  out  the  carbonate  from  its 
impurities,  and  evaporating  it  to  dryness  in  leaden 
evaporating  pans),  red  lead,  or  else  Htharge  (the 
semi-ritrified  proto.xide  of  lead),  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  nitre  (nitrate  of  potash).  To  these,  according 
to  their  greater  or  less  purity,  the  manipulator  adds 
more  or  less  of  oxide  of  manganese  and  arsenic,  as 
correctives ;  the  former  removes  the  green  discolora- 
tion which  the  presence  of  even  a  small  quantity 
of  iron  in  the  sand  mil  produce  ;  and  the  latter 
corrects  the  tendency  the  manganese  has  to  give  a 
purjile  tint  to  the  glass.  Both  substances  require 
the  utmost  care  and  judgment  in  their  use,  other- 
wise they  are  more  injurious  than  beneficial.  The 
following  are  the  usual  proportions :  Sand,  51  ; 
pearl-ashes,  prepared,  16 ;  litharge,  28  (or  red 
lead,  29) ;  nitre,  4J  ;  white  arsenic,  J  ;  peroxide  of 
manganese,  \  ;  cullet  of  flint-glass  in  any  proportion 
the  manufacturer  thinks  proper. 

Formerly,  the  silica  was  obtained  by  calcining 
flints,  hence  the  name  applied  to  this  kind  of  glass, 
but  now  sand  is  used  instead ;  and  although 
beautifidly  white  sands  are  obtained  from  Lynn, 
in  Norfolk,  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  other 
parts  of  Hampshire,  from  Aylesbm-y,  from  France, 
and  even  from  North  America  and  Australia,  it 
nevertheless  requires  most  careful  preparation  by 
washing,  calcining,  and  sifting. 

But  however  carefully  flint-glass  is  made,  and 
however  pure  and  transparent  the  crj^stal  may  be 
which  is  so  made,  it  nevertheless  possesses  some 
defects,  which  interfere  with  its  fitness  for  tele- 
scopes, microscopes,  hght-houses,  and  other  optical 
purposes.  These  defects  consist  in  almost  imper- 
ceptible striai  in  the  material,  which  produce  certain 
optical  aberrations.  These  strii-e  are  known  to  be 
caused  by  the  imperfect  mixture  of  the  materials, 
and  the  want,  consequently,  of  a  uniform  density. 
This  has  been  obviated  by  11.  Guinaud  and  his 
associate,  M.  Frauenhofer,  by  stirring  the  metal  in 
the  pot  with  an  iron  rod  ;  but  greater  improvements 
have  been  effected  by  our  own  chemist  Faraday,  who 
not  only  improved  upon  the  manipidation  of  Messrs 
Guinaud  and  Frauenhofer,  but  suggested  also  an 
improvement  in  the  materials,  by  the  addition  of 
carbonate  of  baryta  and  a  little  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  produces  a  glass  of  the  greatest  density  and 
clearness  that  has  ever  been  known  before.     Instead 

782 


of  the  iron  rod  for  stirring,  which  of  itself  is  ajit  to 
discolour  the  glass,  an  irou  rod  coated  with  jtlatina 
is  used.  In  the  manufacture  of  this  particular  kind 
of  glass,  the  Messrs  Chance  of  Birmingham  are 
unrivaUed,  and  they  have  produced  very  perfect 
discs  for  lenses,  weighing  as  much  as  two  hundred- 
weights each. 

Flint-glass  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  all 
the  articles  of  utility  and  ornament  for  table  and 
other  domestic  uses  ;  and  as  the  manufacture  of  each 
article  requires  different  management,  it  woidd  be 
impossible  here  to  give  any  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  manii)idative  processes.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
at  jiresent  Great  Britain  is  imrivalled  in  the  pro- 
duction of  so-called  crj-stal  or  flint-glass,  which  we 
manufacture  of  the  greatest  purity  and  brilliancy  ; 
but  in  the  coloured  kinds  the  Bohemians  take  the 
lead,  and  excel  both  in  design  and  in  the  art  of 
colouring. 

Much  flint-glass  is  now  mouhled  into  drinking- 
vessels,  bottles,  and  other  common  articles ;  but 
these  are  always  greatly  inferior  to  those  which 
are  made  by  the  handicraft  of  the  regular  glass- 
blower. 

Coloured  rjlass  is  a  general  term  which  includes 
several  distinct  varieties  :  first  may  be  mentioned  the 
glass  made  for  windows  arid  other  similar  purjioses. 
Coloured  sheet-glass  is  made  both  by  the  crown- 
glass  and  cylinder-glass  processes.  Sometimes  it  is 
of  pot-metal — that  is,  the  glass  and  the  colouring 
materials  are  all  melted  and  worked  from  one  pot- 
generally,  however,  this  glass  is  of  too  dark  a  colour, 
and  the  kind  called  flashed  glass  is  most  generally 
used  ;  in  this,  two  pots  are  employed,  one  containing 
the  coloured  glass,  as  if  for  pot-metal,  the  other 
colourless  glass.  The  workman  makes  his  first 
gatherings  from  the  colourless  glass,  and  the  last 
only  from  the  coloured  pot ;  the  consequence  is  that 
the  glass  when  finished,  although  it  cannot  be  ]ier- 
ceived,  has  only  a  thin  skin  of  the  coloured  material 
on  one  side,  and  the  colom-  is  thus  as  it  were  diluted. 
This  has  other  advantages,  because,  byskilfid  ga-ind- 
ing,  the  colour  may  be  removed,  and  transparent 
jiatterns  produced  on  the  coloured  ground  ;  and  the 
same  may  be  done,  and  even  delicate  shading  of 
the  colour  effected,  by  eating  away  the  coloured 
side  more  or  less  by  means  of  fluoric  acid,  which 
is  frequently  employed,  and  most  beautiful  effects 
are  produced. 

The  colours  usually  employed  consist  of  metallic 
oxides,  other  substances  are,  however,  occasionally 
used  Gold,  in  the  state  called  Purple  of  Caesius, 
invented  by  Dr  Andrew  Cassius  of  Leyden  in  1G32, 
and  also  in  the  state  of  a  simple  solution,  without 
tin,  yields  the  most  beautiful  ruby,  crimson,  rose, 
and  purple  colours.  Copper,  as  a  sub-oxide,  yields  a 
tine  ruby  red,  and  the  black  oxide  gives  an  emerald 
green.  Cobalt  jaelds  the  rich  deep  blues.  Iron,  .as 
a  protoxide,  gives  a  dull  green  ;  combined  with 
alumina,  it  gives  flesh  colour,  or  pale  rose,  and  com- 
bined with  chloride  of  silver,  it  yields  an  orange 
yellow ;  as  a  peroxide,  it  gives  a  common  red  and  a 
brownish  red.  Silver,  with  alumina,  also  yields  a 
yellow  colour  of  great  beauty ;  and  commoner  and 
less  beautiful  yellow  tints  are  produced  by  glass  of 
antimonj',  and  even  by  carbon,  either  in  the  form 
of  soot  or  charcoal.  Uranium  gives  the  beautiful 
chrysoprase  green  and  canary  yellow,  with  a  slight 
degree  of  oiialescence  ;  it  also  gives  an  emerald 
green.  Arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid,  produces  an 
opaque  white.  Manganese  gives  a  purple  or  ame- 
thystine colour  as  an  oxide  ;  and  as  a  peroxide,  with 
a  httle  cobalt,  a  tine  garnet-red  colour.  These  are 
some  of  the  materials  generally  employed,  but  there 
are  numerous  others,  the  use  of  which  depends  upon 
the  skill  of  the  manuf.ictiu-er. 


GL.VSS— GLASS-PArNTING. 


The  ainilications  of  coloured  glass  to  ornamental 
jmriMises  are  very  minieroua ;  cue  has  already  been 
fully  desuribed  under  the  bead  of  Gems,  Arti- 
ficial. In  the  haiirls  of  skilful  glass-workers, 
es]iociaIly  tliose  of  IJolieniia,  articles  of  ornament 
and  utility,  combining  the  most  exquisite  comljiu- 
atious  of  form  and  colour,  are  produced.  But 
not  the  least  iuteresting  application  of  coloured 
glass  is  the  art  of  produciug  windows  exhiliiting 
beautifid  pictorial  designs.  So  beautiful  arc  the 
designs  of  some  of  the  windows  formed  from  this 
material,  that  tlicy  deservedly  rank  as  works  of 
bigli  art.  This  art  originated  at  the  commencement 
of  the  9th  c.,  and  received  its  greatest  develop- 
ment in  the  15th  century.  It  then  began  to 
decline,  until,  at  the  commencement  of  the  present 
ccntiu-y,  it  was  slowly  rerived,  at  first  with  but 
little  success,  a  conviction  having  been  formed 
that  the  true  secrets  of  the  art  of  jiroducing  the 
rich  colo\ir3  seen  in  ancient  windows  were  lost. 
(Jradually,  chemistry  and  the  microscope  removed 
the  errors,  the  former  demonstrating  the  exact 
constituents  of  the  best  kinds  of  ancient  glass, 
enabled  the  m.inufacturer  to  imitate  it  exactly. 
iStill,  however,  with  the  same  ingredients,  there  was 
a  remarkable  want  of  richness  in  the  modern  mate- 
rial :  the  cause  of  this  was  revealed  by  the  micro- 
scope, which  shewed  that  it  was  due  to  minute 
jiores,  which  are  produced  by  weathering  of  the 
outer  surface,  the  alkaline  parts  of  the  ghiss  being 
washed  out,  as  it  were,  by  the  rain,  &c.  This  porosity, 
liy  breaking  up  the  surface,  destroyed  the  flatness 
and  glare  of  the  glass,  and  Ijy  mixing  more  thoroughly 
the  raj'3  of  light,  produced  that  richness  for  which 
the  ancient  glass  is  so  famous.  Various  methods  were 
adopted  to  produce  this  ell'ect :  one  which  became 
common  was,  to  stipple  the  surface  with  dots  of  a 
dark  ojiatjue  colour  ;  now  it  is  stUl  better  and  more 
ingeniously  done  by  sprinkling  sand  thickly  over 
the  gathering  of  glass  before  receiving  the  coloured 
coat,  so  that  wheu  blown  and  flashed,  it  has  the 
grains  of  sand  thinly  scattered  through  its  sub- 
stance, and  these  being  refractive,  very  successfully 
]iroduce  a  richness  nearly  equal  to  that  acquii-ed 
by  age. 

So  far,  indeed,  from  the  art  being  lost,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  a  better  nuiterial  and  better  colours 
are  now  made  ;  ami  those  who  examine  the  works 
produced  by  Ballantyne,  Chance,  and  other  manu- 
factiurers  of  oiu-  couutrj',  and  those  of  Munich  and 
other  continental  works,  will  not  easily  believe  that 
the  ancients  were  more  succcssfid  in  their  designs 
than  the  moderns.  But  besides  the  jiot-metal  and 
fhished  glasses  before  mentioned,  there  are  two  other 
methods  of  colouring  and  producing  pictorial  eflects 
on  ulass.  The  lirst  is  by  staining,  that  is  to  say, 
paiifting  the  glass  with  various  materials,  usually 
metallic  oxides  linely  powdered,  and  mixed  with  oil 
of  spike  iir  some  other  volatile  meiliuni  ;  the  glass 
is  then  placed  in  a  furnace,  in  which  it  is  made  red 
hot,  and  a  dee])  stain  of  the  colour  reqjured  is  pro- 
duced on  the  glass.  This  process  enables  the  artist 
to  jiroduce  a  comi)lete  jjicture  on  one  i)ieee  of  glass ; 
whereas,  by  the  older  method,  the  iiicturo  had  to  be 
made  up  of  a  vast  number  of  ]iieces  set  in  a  slender 
lead-framing.  Generally,  both  methods  are  cm|>loyed 
in  pictorial  windows,  as  the  staining  enables  tl'.c 
artist  to  give  the  human  features.  But  staining 
does  not  produce  the  same  brilliancy  of  colour,  and 
lessens  the  transparency  of  the  glass,  hence  it  is  in 
less  esteem. 

Another  mo<le  of  decorating  glass  is  by  using  the 
opaque  or  nearly  opaque  enamel  colours,  and  after 
the  design  is  produced  with  these,  to  lix  them  by 
liring :  this  is  a  beautifid  art,  and  is  variously 
employed. 


Lately,  another  and  very  remarkable  invention 
for  decorating  glass  has  been  ]>atentcd  by  M. 
Joubert  of  Bayswater,  London — viz.,  the  fixing  of 
photographic  pictures  upon  this  material.  The 
sensitive  salt  used  to  receive  the  j)icture  is  ouo 
which  will  stain  glass  ;  therefore,  on  liring,  the 
picture  is  deeply  burned  into  the  glass,  ami  cannot 
be  eifaced;  most  beautiful  eflfecta  are  thus  produced; 
natural  landscajies  and  pictures  may  be  transferred 
with  most  perfect  fidelity. 

Vla.is-ijrindiiiij  and  JCiiijrarinci. — Glass  can  be 
easily  ground  with  sand  and  water,  so  that  the 
ornamental  'effect  of  vessels  and  other  objects  of 
Hint-glass  may  be  very  gi-eatly  enhanced.  Sand, 
however,  leaves  a  rough  sm-face,  and  destroys  the 
transparency ;  but  this  is  easily  restored  by  other 
polishing  materials,  as  emery,  putty-powder  (oxide 
of  tin),  tripoli,  red  oxiile  of  iron,  or  colcothar, 
&c.  The  cutting  and  polishing  are  elfected  with 
wheels  or  discs  of  sandstone,  wood,  and  metal.  Very 
fine  engraving  is  done  with  ■pointed  metal  tools  and 
diamond-dust,  the  same  as  in  seal-eugi'aviug,  &c. 

The  polishing  of  lenses  for  optical  instruments 
and  for  light-houses  is  an  art  of  very  great  import- 
ance, requiring  extraordin.ory  skill.  Much  of  the 
jiolishiug  of  the  larger  lenses  is  effected  by  the 
ai<l  of  machinery,  aiul  perhai)s  no  condjinatioua 
of  mechanical  art  are  more  wonderful  than  the 
machines  by  which  the  Messre  Chance  of  Birming- 
ham polish  the  i)risms  and  lenses  for  catoptric  and 
dioj)trio  light-houses. 

Glass  iu  a  liquid  form  has  lately  been  exten- 
sively made  under  the  name  of  soluble  glass  or 
silicate  of  soda ;  it  is  silica,  or  sand,  dissolved  in 
a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This  li(piid,  when  used 
as  a  varnish,  is  said  to  protect  stone  and  other 
materials  from  the  injm'ious  action  of  the  weather, 
and  for  this  purpose  is  now  employed  to  arrest 
the  decay  of  the  stone  of  the  new  llouses  of 
i'arUament.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap  (see  So.\i') ;  antl  this,  or  a 
simil.ar  solulile  ghiss  made  with  potash,  has  been 
recommended  to  be  uscil  as  a  dressing  for  muslins 
and  other  fabrics  to  I'ender  them  fireproof.  The 
soluble  soda-glass  has  also  been  successfully  employed 
in  mounting  microscopic  objects,  insteail  of  Canada 
balsam  or  glycerine. 

GLASS-PAINTING  (in  Art).  The  apphcation 
of  coloured  glass  to  the  ai-tistie  decoration  of  win- 
dows has  been  previously  alluded  to,  but  the  very 
high  position  which  it  fonnorly  attained,  and  which 
it  is  again  rapidly  approaching,  renders  it  necessary 
to  devote  a  short  space  to  its  relationship  to  the 
tine  arts. 

Origin.ally,  there  w.os  but  one  method  of  making 
ornamental  glass  windows,  and  that  was  to  produce 
the  pattern  in  outline  with  finely  made  leaden 
frames,  into  the  grooves  of  which  pieces  of  coloured 
glass  or  of  stauicd  glass  were  fitted.  Modern 
chemistry  has,  however,  so  imjirovcd  the  art  of 
glass-staining,  that  large  pictures  may  now  be 
produced  on  single  sheets  of  glass,  :is  in  the  ease 
of  the  windows  shewn  by  the  St  Helen's  Crown 
Glass  Company  in  tlie  Exhibition  of  1851,  one  of 
which,  designed  by  Mr  Frank  Howard,  representing 
'  St  Michael  Casting  out  the  Great  Dragon,'  was 
upwards  of  nine  feet  high  by  three  feet  broad. 
It  W'as  on  ])late-glas3,  .and  had  to  be  Jtyed  or  s\ih- 
mittcd  to  intense  heat  fifteen  times,  notwithstand- 
ing which  it  was  perfectly  smooth,  and  although 
somewhat  deficient  in  brilliancy  of  colour,  was  an 
excellent  and  etlective  comiiosition. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  early  applications 
of  glass  to  the  window  decoration  is  that  in  the 
monastery  of  Tegernsee,  in  Upper  Bavaria,  which 
was   secidarised   in    1802,  and   is  now  a  private 


GLASS  rAPEO-GLASSITES. 


residence ;  but  these  windows  (executed  in  the  latter 
half  of  tlic  Kith  c),  hke  all  of  the  first  attempts, 
were  only  tasteful  arrangements  of  coloured  glass  in  | 
imitation  of  the  stone  mosaics  used  for  floors,  &c.  | 
Isor  did  the  art  rise  much  above  this  for  at  least 
three  centuries  after  its  origination;  but  in  the  13th 
c,  owing  to  the  fidl  develoiimcnt  of  the  Gothic 
style  of  architecture,  it  became  of  immense  import- 
ance, coloured  glass  taking  the  place  of  tapestried 
curtains  in  lilliiig  up  the  spaces  within  the  groined 
arches.  The  mosaic  patterns  were  superseded  by 
elaborate  designs,  not  only  in  beautiful  arabesque 
and  other  styles  of  decorative  art,  but  even  pictorial 
compositions  were  attempted ;  and  to  such  perfec- 
tion did  this  arise,  that  many  of  the  works  jiro- 
duced  in  the  15th  c.  are  marvels  of  art.  In  all  of 
these,  the  figures,  with  the  exception  of  the  faces, 
were  made  up  of  pieces  of  self-coloured  glass  com- 
bined with  gi-eat  skill  and  taste  ;  the  features  were 
painted  in  enamel  colours,  and  burned  in,  and  the 
art  of  the  artist  was  shewn  by  giving  ease  .and 
grace  to  the  figures  corresponding  to  the  expression 
of  the  faces.  Gradually  the  art  of  shading,  by 
remo\-ing  cert.ain  portions  of  the  coloured  surface, 
and  other  improvements  were  effected.  This  was 
the  cidmin.atiug  point  in  the  history  of  the  first 
period  of  the  art  of  glass-painting,  as  it  is  called, 
and  seemed  to  have  attained  the  highest  perfection 
of  which  it  is  susceptible,  for  the  efforts  which 
followed  to  improve  it  by  assimilating  it  to  oil-paint- 
ing signally  failed,  and  with  this  failure  began  that 
decline  in  the  art  which  was  perhaps  more  remark- 
aljle  in  the  instance  of  glass-painting  than  in  any 
other,  for  in  a  comparatively  short  time  it  began 
to  be  felt  that  the  true  art  was  lost.  Since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  rapid  strides 
have  been  made  towards  improvement;  and  the 
renaissance  bids  fair  to  eclipse  the  glory  of  the  first 
epoch.  The  great  se.ats  of  this  .art  are  now  in 
Munich,  NUrnberg,  Paris,  Birmingh.am,  Edinburgh, 
and  cuie  or  two  more  places ;  and  it  never  received 
more  liberal  patronage  in  its  palmiest  days  than  it 
now  does. 

GLASS  PAPER,  or  CLOTH,  is  made  by  powder- 
inf  glass  more  or  less  fincl}',  and  sprinkling  it  over 
paper  or  c:vlico  still  wet  with  a  coat  of  thin  glue  : 
the  powdered  glass  adheres  as  it  dries.  Glass  paper 
is  very  extensively  employed  as  a  means  for  polish- 
ing metal  and  wood-work  ;  it  is  sold  in  sheets,  and 
is  very  largely  manutactm'ed  at  Birmingham  and 
other  places. 

GLA'SSCHORD,  a  musical  instrament,  with  keys 
like  a  pianoforte,  but  with  bars  of  glass  instead  of 
strings  of  \rire.  It  was  invented  iu  Paris  in  17S.5 
by  a  German  called  Beyer.  The  name  glasschord 
was  given  to  the  instrument  by  Franklin.  When 
the  glasschord  was  completed,  it  was  exhibited 
]iublicly  in  Paris,  and  performed  on  by  the  inventor  ; 
hut  it  never  was  received  with  favour  by  the  instru- 
ment-makers, so  that  no  more  were  ever  made,  as 
possibly  its  construction  and  mechanism  remained 
a  secret  with  its  inventor.  ' 

GLASS-CRABS  {Plnjllosomata),  a  family  of  crus- 
taceans, of  the  division  Malnrontraca,  order  Stoma- 
pofla  of  CuWer,  remarkalile  for  the  transparency  of 
their  bodies,  whence  their  popular  name,  whilst  the 
scientific  name  (Gr.  leaf-body)  refers  to  the  great 
horizontal  expansion  of  the  carapace.  They  have 
little  resemblance  to  crabs.  The  head  is  represented 
Viy  a  large  oval  plate,  bearing  eyes  mounted  on  very 
long  stalks ;  a  second  plate,  the  breadth  of  which 
much  exceeds  its  length,  represents  the  thorax,  and 
bears  the  feet,  most  of  which  are  long,  and  some  of 
them,  as  in  a  few  other  crustaceans,  bifid,  with  one 
branch  much  longer  than  the  other.  The  abdomen 
7»* 


is  small.  Milne-Edwards  supposes  these  creatures 
to  have  no  special  organs  of  respiration,  but  that  the 
blood  is  aijrated  through  the  general  surface  of  the 


Glass  Crab : 
fl,  head  ;  i,  thorax  ;  r,  abdomen. 

body.  They  are  found  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
seas;  and  so  transparent  are  they,  that,  when  float- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  would  not  be 
perceived  but  for  the  beautiful  blue  of  their  eyes. 

GLA'SSITES,  a  religious  sect,  which  sprung  up 
in  Scotland  about  1730,  when  its  founder,  John 
Glass,  a  native  of  Auchtermuchty,  in  Fife,  and 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Tealing,  near  Dundee, 
was  deposed  by  the  General  Assemlily  of  the 
Chm-ch  of  Scotland,  chiefly  on  aci'ouut  of  views 
which  ho  had  adopted  and  jniblishcd  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  In  his  Testi- 
mony of  tlie  Kintj  of  Martyrs  concerning  his  Kinfj- 
doni,  founded  on  the  words  of  our  Savioiu-  recorded 
in  John  xviii.  36,  ,37,  ,  Mr  Glass  maintained  that 
all  national  establishments  of  religicm  are  incon- 
sistent with  the  true  nature  of  the  church  of 
Christ,  and  was  thus  probalily  the  first  assertor  of 
the  Voluntary  principle  in  Scotlanih  He  also  advo- 
cated a  system  of  clmreh-governmcnt  essentially 
Imhpendent  or  Conqre<ia(ion(d.  After  Ins  dcpositiim 
by  the  General  Assemlily,  he  became  the  p.astor  of  a 
congregation.  He  died  at  Dundee  in  1773.  His 
personal  worth  and  jiiety  were  acknowledged  even 
by  the  most  strenuous  opponents  of  his  peculiar 
opinions.  A  number  of  small  congi-egations  or 
churches \vere  soon  formed  on  Glaxsitc  princi]>les,  not 
only  in  Scotland,  but  in  England  and  America  ;  but 
both  in  England  and  America,  the  name  of  a  follower 
of  Glass,  Eobert  Sandem.an,  prevailed  over  his  own, 
and  the  sect  received  the  name  of  Sandemanians. 
Sandeman,  a  native  of  Perth,  is  chieflj'  known  from 
his  advocacy  of  certain  views  respecting  the  nature 
of  saving  faith,  now  commonly  designated  Sonde- 
manian,  essentially  consisting  in  reju-esenting  faith 
as  'a  bare  belief  of  the  bare  truth,'  which  belief, 
however,  both  Glass  and  Sandeman,  with  at  least 
their  immediate  adherents,  regarded  as  the  fruit 
of  Divine  gi-ace  and  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
The  G.  h.ave,  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c., 
decreased  in  numbers.  In  1S51,  there  were  only  six 
Glassite  churches  in  Scotland,  none  of  which  con- 
tained very  many  members ;  and  at  the  same  date 
only  six  Sandemanian  churches  existed  in  England. 
The  G.  maintain  the  necessity  of  a  plurality  of 
teaching  elders  in  every  church,  Init  do  not  reqiure 
any  special  education  for  this  office  or  separation 
from  sectdar  employments ;  they  hold  a  second  mar- 
riage a  disqualification  for  it;  they  deem  it  un- 
lawful to  join  in  prayer  with  any  one  who  is  not  a 
brother  or  sister  in  Christ ;  they  observe  the  Lord's 
Supper  weekly  ;  they  maintain  lore-feasts  or  dinners 
between  morning  and  afternoon  serWces,  at  which  it 
is  incumbent  on  every  member  of  the  church  to 
be  present ;  they  are  rigid  in  abstaining  from  things 


GLASS-MEN— GLAUBEK. 


strangled  and  from  bloml ;  and  in  general  hold  by 
the  most  literal  iutcrjiretation  of  other  Scripture 
rules,  as  concemiug  tlie  kiss  of  charity,  and  the 
washing  of  the  feet  of  fellow-ilisciiiles ;  they  dis- 
ai)prove  of  games  of  chance,  and  of  all  use  of  the 
lot  except  for  sacred  ))urpose3.  Their  charity,  both 
to  their  own  poor  and  to  the  poor  of  other  lieuomi- 
uations,  is  said  to  be  exemplary. 

GLASS-MEN  were  wandering  rogues  or  vaffrants 
under  the  statutes  39  Elizabeth  c.  4,  and  1  James  l' 
c.  7. 

GLA'SSWORT  {Salkornia),  a  geuus  of  j.lants 
of  the  natural  order  C/«'«o/)0(/(«c«r,  having  uniform 
henii.-iiihrodite  flowers,  with  a  single  fleshy  obscurely 
lobed  pcri;mth  imbedded  iu  au  "excavation  of  the 


Glasswort  {Salicornia  Iterbacea) : 
a,  joints  of  stem  bearing  flowers ;  i,  style  j  c,  stamen, 

rachis,  one  stamen  or  two,  and  a  short  style,  the 
fruit  a  utricle  enclosed  in  the  enlarged  perianth. 
One  species  (<S'.  herUicea),  a  leafless  plant  witli  jointed 
stems,  is  common  iu  salt  marshes  iu  Britain.  It 
makes  a  good  pickle,  and  is  sometimes  sold  for  this 
pui-pose.  Several  species  grow  abundantly  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  and  as  they  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  soda,  are  used  in  making  barilla, 
along  with  the  species  of  Saltwort  (tj.  v.). 

GLA'STONBURY,  an  ancient  municipal  burgh 
and  market-town  in  the  county  of  Somerset,  25 
miles  south-west  of  Bath,  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  and  occupies  a  jieninsiUa  formed  by  the  river 
Brue,  or  Brent,  called  the  Isle  of  Avalon.  It  has 
small  manufactures  of  silk,  and  some  export  trade  in 
timber,  slates,  tiles,  and  agricidtural  produce,  by 
means  of  a  can;d  connecting  it  with  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  the  railway  between  the  Bristol  and 
Exeter  .and  WUts  and  Somerset  lijies  which  passes 
tlu-ough  Glastonbury.  Pop.  (1S61)  .3490.  The  town 
owes  its  origin  to  its  celebrated  alibey,  which,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  was  foimded  in  GO  A.  D.,  and  was  one 
of  the  earliest  seats  of  Christianity  in  Britain.  Its 
traditionary  founder  wiis  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and 
the  '  miracidous  thorn,'  which  flowered  on  Christ- 
mas-day, was,  till  the  time  of  the  I'uritans,  believed 
by  the  common  l)eo])le  to  be  the  veritalde  stati" 
with  which  Joseph  aide<l  his  steps  from  the  Holy 
Land.  The  tree  was  destroyed  during  the  civQ 
wars,  l)Ut  grafts  from  it  still  flourish  in  the  neigh- 
bouring gardens.  In  005  .\.  D.  the  monks  adopted 
the  dress  and  rules  of  the  Benedictine  order.  This 
magnificent  ])ile  at  one  time  covered  60  acres ;  but 
as  most  of  the  houses  in  G.,  and  also  a  causeway 
206 


across  Sedgemoor,  have  been  constructed  of  the 
materials,  the  extent  of  the  ruins  is  now  much  dimin- 
ished. The  most  interesting  remains  are  the  Abbey 
Church,  with  St  Joseph's  Chapel,  St  Mary's  Chajjcl, 
and  the  Abbot's  Kitchen.  St  Joseph's  Chajrel 
IS  one  of  the  most  elegant  specimens  m  existence 
of  the  transition  from  Norman  to  Early  English 
architecture,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
dming  the  reigns  of  Henry  II.  and  Richard  L 
It  IS  now  roofless,  and  the  vaulting  6f  the  cryj.t  is 
nearly  destroyed.  The  entrance  is  adorne<l  with 
sculpture.  Below  the  floor  is  a  Norman  crypt, 
witliin  which  is  St  Joseph's  WelL  Of  the  Abbey 
C'hurch,  few  fragments  remain.  The  Chapel  of 
St  Mary  is  rootless,  but  the  remains  of  its  jxiinted 
wmdows  and  archways  are  exceedingly  elegant. 
The  Abbot's  Kitchen,  now  scp.arate  from  the' rest 
of  the  rains,  is  a  square  massive  structure,  the 
walls  strongly  buttressed,  and  dates  from  about 
the  loth  century.  G.  has  the  honour  of  ranking 
St  Patrick  (41.")  a.  i>.)  and  St  Dunstan  among  its 
aljbots.  In  lo.'jO,  Henry  VIII.  summoned  Abbot 
\\'hiting  to  surrender  G.  and  .ill  its  treasures  ;  and 
on  his  refusal,  condemned  him  to  be  hanged  and 
quartered,  and  the  monastery  confiscated  to  the 
king's  use,  which  sentence  was  immediately  carried 
into  execution.  According  to  tradition.  King  Arthur 
and  his  Queen  Guinevere  were  buried  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  the  abljey ;  and  Giraldus  Cambreosis  states 
that  '  a  leaden  cross,  bearing  the  following  inscrip- 
tion, "  Hie  jacet  sepultus  inclytus  Rex  Arthurus  in 
insula  Avallonia,"  was  found  under  a  stone  seven 
feet  below  the  surface  ;  and  nine  feet  l>elow  this 
w.a3  found  an  oaken  coffin,  containing  dust  and 
bones.'  This  disinterment  took  place  l)y  order  of 
Henry  IL  The  ouly  other  objects  of  interest  at  G. 
are  the  Church  of  St  Beuediet ;  the  Church  of  St 
John  the  Baptist,  with  a  tower  of  140  feet  high ; 
the  Weary-all  Hill,  where  Joseph  of  ^Vrimatlica 
rested  from  liis  weary  pilgrimage ;  and  the  Tor 
Hill,  where  the  last  abbot  of  G.  was  put  to  death, 
500  feet  above  the  sea-level,  crowned  by  a  tower,  the 
ruin  of  a  chapel  of  St  Michael     (Pop.  1S71 — 3070.) 

GLATZ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silcsi.a,  is  a  fortress  of  the  second  rank,  and  is 
situ.ated  between  two  fortified  hills,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ncissc,  52  miles  south-south-west  of  Breslau. 
It  has  four  Cathohc  churches  and  a  Catholic 
gymnasium  ;  and  carries  on  considerable  manufac- 
tiu-es  of  hnen,  diimask,  and  woollen  fabrics,  as  well 
.OS  of  leather  ,ind  rose-g.arlands.  Pop.  10,049,  includ- 
ing 2170  of  a  garrison.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
■and  the  Seven  Years'  Wars,  G.  w.as  frequently 
besieged  and  taken. 

GL.\UBER,  JonANX  EcDOLpn,  a  German  chemist 
and  ])hysician,  w:is  born  at  Karlstadt,  in  Francoui.i, 
in  1004,  and  died  .at  Amsterd.am  iu  1GG8.  No 
details  regarding  his  life  are  known,  except  that 
he  resided  for  a  long  time  at  S.alzburg,  then  at 
Kissingen,  then  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  tlien 
at  Cologne,  from  whence  he  prolably  removeil  to 
Amsterilara.  Although  a  believer  in  the  phflosopher's 
stone  and  in  the  universal  medicine,  he  contri- 
buted very  materially  to  the  progress  of  chemistry. 
Poggendorlf  (in  his  Bi»iraph i.<ch-lifernrlxrh;  ]{anil- 
u'urlfrliiich)  gives  a  list  of  .about  thirty  of  his  works, 
of  which  a  collected  edition  up  to  the  d.ate  of 
jnililicaticm  ajipeared,  in  two  (piarto  volumes,  in 
10.58 — 1659,  at  Frankfiu-t,  and  another  cfhtion,  in 
seven  octavo  volumes,  in  10()1,  at  Amsterdam.  Au 
English  translation  by  Packe,  in  one  large  folio 
volume,  was  published  iu  London  in  1G89.  His 
name  at  the  jiresent  d.ay  is  chiefly  known  for  his 
discovery  of  sulphate  of  soda,  which  he  termed  sal 
mlrabile,  and  reg.arded  as  a  univers.al  medicine,  and 


GLAUBER'S  SALT— GLEANIKO. 


a  cure  fur  all  diseases. — Sco  Kojip's  Oesduchte  der 
Cheinie,  vol.  i.  pp.  128—13,3. 

GLAU'BER'S  SALT  (so  called  from  Glaiibcr, 
•who  iliscovered  it  in  1058)  is  the  jiopular  name  of 
the  neutral  sulphate  of  soda,  whose  chemical  compo- 
sition is  represented  by  the  formula  NaO,SOs  +  lOaq. 
It  occurs  iu  lou,;;  four-sided  translucent  prisms, 
temiinated  by  dihedi-al  summits,  and  containing  ten 
atoms  of  water.  On  exposure  to  the  ail-,  the  crystals 
lose  all  their  water,  and  become  resolved  into  a 
white  powder.  \Vlien  heated,  they  readily  melt  iu 
their  water  of  ciystaUisation ;  and  if  the  heat  is 
sufficiently  contunicd,  the  whole  of  the  water  is 
expelled,  and  the  auhydi'ous  salt  romauis.  Glauber's 
salt  has  a  cooUng,  bitter,  and  saltish  taste ;  it  is 
readily  soluble  iu  water ;  its  solubility  (iu  the 
ordinary  crystalline  form)  increasing  np  to  92', 
when  it  appears  to  undergo  a  molecular  change,  and 
to  bo  converted  into  the  anhydrous  salt,  which  at 
this  temperature  is  less  soluble  than  the  hydiatod 
compound,  and  separ.atos  in  minute  crystals.  This 
and  other  anomalies  which  occm-  in  the  solubihty 
of  this  salt  have  been  carcfidly  studied  by  Lowel 
{Ann.  de  C'hemie,  3d  ser.  vol.  ix.  p.  50). 

Glauber's  salt  is  a  constituent  of  many  mineral 
waters,  and  occurs  in  smaU  quantity  in  the  lilood 
and  other  animal  fluids.  It  occm's,  under  the  name 
of  TMnardite,  near  Jladrid,  in  the  form  of  anhy- 
drous octahedra  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  some 
saline  lakes ;  and  is  foimd  combined  with  sidjihate 
of  Ume,  as  Glauherile  (Na'0,CaO,2S03),  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ebro. 

The  anhydi-ous  salt  is  prepared  iu  enormons 
quautity  from  common  salt  and  oil  of  ^^triol,  with 
the  view  of  being  afterwards  converted  into  carbon- 
ate of  soda.     See  Soda. 

For  medical  use  a  purer  form  is  required.  The 
salt  which  remains  after  the  distillation  of  hydro- 
chloric acid — this  salt  being  sidphate  of  soda  con- 
taminated with  free  siUphuric  acid — is  dissolved 
in  water,  to  which  is  added  powdered  white  marble 
(carbonate  of  lime),  to  neutralise  the  free  acid, 
and  to  precipitate  it  .as  an  insoluble  sulph.ate ;  the 
solution  is  boiled  down  till  a  pellicle  ai>pears,  is 
strained,  and  set  aside  to  cr3'stallise. 

It  is  used  as  a  common  purgative,  and  is  espe- 
cially applicable  iu  fevers  and  inflammatory  afl'ec- 
tions,  when  it  is  necessary  to  evacuate  the  bowels 
without  increasing  or  exciting  febrile  distiu-bance. 
The  usual  dose  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  ; 
but  if  it  is  previously  dried,  so  as  to  expel  the 
water  of  crystallisation,  it  becomes  doubly  ellicieut 
as  a  purg.ative.  It  is  now  much  less  frequently 
used  in  domestic  medicine  than  formerly,  having 
given  place  to  milder  aperients. 

GLAUBER'S  SPIRIT  OP  NITRE  is  one  of 
the  old  terms  for  nitric  acid. 

GLAU'CHAU,  a  thriving  manufacturing  town 
of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  iiictmesquely  situated 
on  tlie  right  bank  of  the  river  Wuldc,  8  miles 
north-north-east  of  Zwickau.  Omng  to  the  unevcn- 
ness  of  its  site,  it  is  ii-regidarly  built ;  but  its 
appearance  is  striking.  It  is  the  second  in  rank 
amoug  the  manufacturing  to^^^ls  of  Saxony.  Here 
and  iu  the  neiglibourhood,  the  wea\'ing  of  every 
Itind  of  goods  flourishes  ;  there  are  also  important 
dye-works,  print-works,  ii-ou-foundi'ies,  and  machine 
factories.     Pop.  14,300. 

GLAUCO'MA  (Or.  (jlaukos,  sea-green),  an  opacity 
of  the  vitreous  humour  of  the  eye,  characterised  by 
a  bluish  tint  seen  from  M'ithout,  and  the  absence  of 
the  ])cculiar  ch.aracters  of  Cataract  (q.  v.),  which, 
in  some  respects,  it  resembles  as  regards  the  gradual 
obscuration  of  vision.  It  is  an  almost  incurable 
disease. 
736 


Glaucus  Atlanticus. 


GLAUCONIE,  a  French  term  introduced  by  M. 
Brogniart  as  the  name  of  several  stnata  of  difl'crcut 
ages.  Tlie  Glaucouie  Crayeuse  and  Sableuse  are 
equivalent  to  the  Upper  and  Lower  Greensand, 
wliilo  the  Glauconie  Gi-ossier  is  an  Eocene  deposit 
contemjioraneous  with  the  Bracklesham  beds. 

GLAU'CUS,  a  genus  of  molluscs,  referred  to  the 
class  Gasterojmda,  but  having  no  distinct  respir- 
atory organs.  The 
body  is  long,  slender, 
gelatinous,  furnislied 
with  three  pan-  of 
digitated  finlike  ap- 
pendages, which  wero 
formerly  supposed  to 
be  gills.  The  mouth 
has  horny  jaws, 
adapted  for  preying 
on  other  small  mariuo 
animals.  These  small 
molluscs — about  an 
inch  and  three- 
quarters    long,    of    a 

blue  colour,  and  extremely  delicate  and  licautiful 
— inhabit  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  float  inertly  with  irregidar  movements  of  the 
slender  branches  of  their  fius  on  the  siu'face  of  the 
water. 

GLAUX,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
P)'Limdaceie,  having  a  5-lobed 
calyx,  no  corolla,  and  a  5- valved 
capsule  -irith  about  five  seeds. 
G.  mantima,  sometimes  called 
Se.\.  MiLKWoiiT  and  Black 
Saltwoet,  is  one  of  the  most 
common  plants  of  our  sea- 
coasts,  growing  in  almost  every 
muddy  situation.  It  is  a  small 
plant,  with  branching  stems, 
often  procumbent,  and  small 
fleshy  leaves.  It  makes  a  good 
pickle. 

GLAZE.     See  PoTTEEY. 

GLEA'NING.  In  confor- 
mity with  the  positive  com- 
mand contained  in  the  ilosaic 
law,  to  leave  the  gleanings  of 
the  harvest  to  the  poor  and 
to  the  stranger  (Levit.  xi.x.  9, 
and  xxiii.  22),  tliere  has  been 
almost  everywhere  a  popular, 
feeling  to  the  eft'ect  that  the 
farmer  was  not  entitled  to 
prevent  the  poor  from  g.ather- 
ing  what  the  reaper  had  left  Sea  Milkwort  (G/nui 
behind.        In      Lngland,     the  maritima): 

custom  of  gleaning   had   very  a,  a  flower, 

nearly  jiassed  into  a  legal  right, 
for  tliere  is  an  extra-judicial  dictum  of  Lord  Hale,  iu 
which  he  says  that  those  who  enter  a  field  for  this 
purpose  are  not  guilty  of  trespass,  and  lilackstone 
(iii.  12)  seems  disposed  to  adopt  his  oiiuiiou  ;  but  the 
question  has  since  been  twice  tried,  and  decided 
iu  the  negative  iu  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  the 
court  finding  it  to  be  a  practice  incomi)atible  with 
the  exclusive  enjoj'meut  of  property,  and  productive 
of  vagrancy  and  many  mischievous  consequences, 
1  H.  Bl.  Rep.  51.  It  is  stiU,  however,  the  custom 
all  over  England  to  allow  the  poor  to  glean,  at 
least  after  the  harvest  is  carried.  The  privilege  is 
one  which,  both  from  motives  of  humanity  aud  of 
economy,  ought  certaiidy  to  be  continued  within 
proper  limits,  because  it  not  only  adds  to  the  com- 
fort and  wellbeing  of  the  poor,  but  by  preserving 
fl'om  waste  a  portion  of  the  fruits  of  tlie  earth,  au<l 


GLEBE-GLEIG. 


by  employing  chililren  and  iniirm  ]iersous  whose 
labour  would  not  be  available  for  any  other  jiur- 
pose,  it  diminishes  the  expenditure  for  the  support 
of  the  indigent,  which  idi'eady  presses  so  heavily 
on  the  industrious  portion  of  the  community.  It 
is  a  privilege,  however,  which  is  apt  to  be  abused 
by  able-bodied,  jjersons,  who,  by  rising  early  in  the 
morning,  and  going  into  fields  from  which  the 
crop  has  only  been  partially  carried,  contrive  to 
carry  o£f  grain  to  a  greater  value  than  the  wages 
wliich  they  could  have  eai'ned  by  honest  harvest- 
work.  With  a  view  to  checking  this  abuse,  fanners 
in  various  tlistricts  have  established  rules  for  regu- 
lating the  practice  of  gleaning.  Some  curious 
statistics  on  the  subject  of  gleaning  were  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Suciety  of  London. 
In  Bohn's  Political  Diclionari/,  under  the  head 
'Gleaning,'  a  statement  is  made  shewing  that  the 
total  gleanings  of  3S8  families  was  £42.'f,  l'2s.,  and 
the  average  for  each  family  £1,  Is.  lOd.,  which 
was  one-fifth  of  the  average  harvest-wages  of  each 
of  the  same  number  of  families. 

In  Scotland,  it  has  been  more  than  once  decided 
that  the  poor  possess  no  right  to  glean,  at  common 
law,  and  that  the  fanner  may  exclude  them  from 
his  fields  (Hutch.  Justice  of  tlie  Peace,  ii.  47 ; 
Dunlop's  Paroch.  Law,  223). 

GLEBE  (Lat.  tjleba,  a  clod  or  lump  of  earth),  the 
land  possessed  as  part  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 
or  from  which  the  revenues  of  the  benefice  arise. 
The  assignment  of  glebe-lands  w.-is  formerly  held  to 
be  of  such  absolute  necessity,  that  without  them  no 
church  coiJd  be  regiilarly  consecrated.  In  England, 
the  word  manse  includes  both  the  parsonage-house 
and  the  glebe,  whereas  in  Scotland  it  is  applied 
exclusively  to  the  house.  The  fee-simple  of  the 
glebe  is  held  by  the  law  of  England  to  be  in  abey- 
ance, from  the  "French  haytr,  to  expect — that  is  to 
say,  it  is  only  '  in  the  remembrance,  expectation, 
and  intendment  of  the  law;'  but  after  induction, 
the  fi-eehold  of  the  glebe  is  in  the  parson,  and  he 
possesses  most  of  the  powers  of  a  proprietor,  with 
the  exception  of  the  power  of  aUenation.  Prerious 
to  the  Reformation,  the  clergy  iwssessed  certain 
powers  of  alienation  at  common  law;  and  if  a  bishop, 
■with  the  assent  of  his  chapter,  or  an  abbot,  with 
the  assent  of  his  convent,  or  the  like,  alienated  glebe- 
lands,  the  deed  would  not  have  been  void,  because 
the  fee-simple  was  in  the  holder  of  the  benefice  for 
the  time  being ;  but  by  1  Eliz.  c.  19,  and  13  Eliz. 
c.  10,  all  gifts,  grants,  feoffments,  conveyances,  or 
other  estates,  shall  be  utterly  void  and  of  none  eft'ect, 
notwithstanding  any  consent  or  confirmation  what- 
soever. -Keither  coidd  the  incumbent  exchange  the 
lands  or  any  portion  of  them  without  the  authority 
of  an  act  of  p.arliament.  This  restriction  was  done 
aw.ay  by  55  Geo.  III.  c.  147,  for  enabling  spiritual 
persons  to  exchange  parsonage  or  glebe  houses  or 
glebe-lauds  for  othci-s  of  greater  value  or  more 
conveniently  situated  for  their  residence  and  occu- 
pation. By  o  and  G  Vict.  c.  54,  it  is  now  pro\nded 
that  the  commissioners  ajipointed  to  carry  mto 
effect  the  commutation  of  tithes  shall  have  power 
to  ascertain  and  define  the  boundaries  of  the  glebe- 
lands  of  any  benelice,  and  also  power,  with  consent 
of  the  ordinary  and  patron,  to  exchange  the  glebe- 
lands  for  other  lands  within  the  sam.-  or  any  ad- 
ioinin"  parish,  or  otherwise  conveniently  situated. 
The  sSbseiiuent  act  17  and  IS  Vict.  c.  84  moreover 
provides  that  the  incumbent  of  any  benefice  entitled 
to  glebe,  shall,  with  such  consents  as  are  specified 
in  the  act,  be  entitled  to  annex  such  glebe  or  other 
lan.ls  by  deed  to  any  church  or  chapel  w^thln  the 
parish,  district,  or  idacc  wherein  such  glebe  or 
land  is  situate.  In  addition  to  his  glebe-lands, 
the  rector  or  vicar  is  also  seized  ui  the  edifice  ot 


the  church  itself  (see  Cncr.cn).  It  was  long  ago 
provided  (28  Henry  VIII.  c.  11,  s.  C),  that  if  an 
incumbent  died  after  having  manured  and  sown  the 
glebe-lands,  he  might  make  his  testament  of  the 
profits  of  tlic  corn  ;  but  if  his  successor  bo  inducted 
before  the  severance  thereof  from  the  ground,  ho 
shall  have  the  tithe  ;  for  although  the  executor 
re]iresent  the  person  of  the  testator,  yet  he  cannot 
rejiresent  him  as  parson. 

Glebe,  in  Scotland. — In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  a 
glebe  forms,  as  a  general  rule,  a  portion  of  every 
ecclesiastical  benefice  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
is  thus  an  addition  to  the  stipend,  and  sometimes 
a  very  important  one.  Ministers  in  royal  burghs, 
however,  cannot  claim  glelws,  unless  in  the  case  in 
which  there  is  a  landward  district  attached  to  the 
j)arish.  Even  then,  if  there  are  two  ministers,  only 
the  first  can  claim  a  glebe.  \\Tiere  painshes  are 
disjoined,  or  separated  into  two  portions,  moreover, 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  portion  erected 
into  a  new  parish  shall  contain  a  glebe.  By  5  Geo. 
IV.  c.  72,  provision  is  made  for  p,ajTnent  of  compen- 
sation out  of  the  public  revenue,  in  lieu  of  manse 
and  glebe,  to  ministers  whose  stipends  do  not  exceed 
i.'2()0.  If  there  are  arable  lands,  the  glebe  must  not 
be  less  than  four  acres.  If  there  is  no  arable  land, 
the  minister  is  entitled  to  sixteen  souvis  of  grass 
adjacent  to  the  church.  A  soum  is  as  much  as 
will  pasture  ten  sheep  or  one  cow,  so  that  the  actual 
extent  varies  with  the  richness  of  the  soil  and 
consequent  quality  of  the  pasture.  The  presbyteiy 
possesses  the  power  of  desiniing  glebes,  the  heritor 
from  whose  property  the  glebe  is  designed  ha\'ing 
recourse  against  the  other  heritors  of  the  parish. 
By  1572,  c.  48,  it  is  enacted  that  the  glebe  shall 
not  be  alienated  by  the  incumbent.  As  the  act 
Uinits  its  prohibition  to  such  alienation  as  may 
be  detrimental  to  the  successor  of  tlie  incumbent, 
it  has  been  doubted  whether  the  latter  might  not 
feu.  The  court,  however,  has  been  very  unwilling 
to  sanction  this  proceeding ;  and  from  the  fact  th.at 
land  tends  steadily  to  increase,  whereas  money 
diminishes  in  value,  it  seems  of  very  doubtful 
propriety  even  where  the  arrangement  is  very 
advantageous  at  the  time.  A\Tien  the  church  is 
changed,  or  transported,  as  it  is  called,  to  a  new 
site,  the  court  will  authorise  the  s-ale  or  excambion 
of  the  glebe,  but  such  excambions  must  be  sanc- 
tioned by  the  presbj-tcr.v.  Where  minerals  are 
found  on  the  glebe,  they  are  worked  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  heritors  and  presbytery 
for  the  behoof  of  the  incumbent.  Trees  growing 
on  the  glebe  are  thought  to  belong  to  him.  Seo 
Teixd  Coukt.      * 

GLEE,  the  English  name  of  a  vocal  composition 
for  three  or  more  voices,  and  in  one  or  more  move- 
ments. The  style  of  music  of  the  glee  is  peculiar  to 
England,  and  quite  different  from  the  part-songs  o£ 
Germany. 

GLEET.     See  GoxORRnffiA. 

GLEIG,  the  EE^'.  George  Egbert,  M.A.,  a 
popular  author  and  di\-ine,  son  of  the  Kicht  Rev. 
George  Gleig,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  Brechin,  and  Primus 
of  the  Scots^Episeopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Stirling, 
in  Scotland,  in  1790.  In  1812,  while  a  student  at 
the  university  of  Oxford,  he  joined  as  a  yohmteer 
a  regiment  then  marching  through  that  city  ou  its 
way  "to  Lisbon.  Soon  obtaining  a  commission  in  the 
85th  Regiment  of  light  infantry,  he  served  in  the 
Peninsula.  During  the  American  war  in  1812-— 1814, 
he  was  engaged  \n  the  campaign  of  Washington, 
at  the  capture  of  wliich  city,  in  August  1814, 
he  was  severely  wounded.  In  1821  he  published 
an  account  of  the  Campai'jns  of  Washington  and 
New  Orleans,  Svo.    At  the  close  of  the  war,  he 


( i  LEIWITZ-G  LENDOWER. 


rc'tiretl  on  half-pay.  He  now  completed  his  studies 
at  Oxford,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and  in  1S22 
■was  presented  by  the  Archbishop  o£  Canterbury 
to  the  liviut;  of  Ivy  Chm'ch,  Kent.  In  1S25,  ho 
jiublishcd  The  Subaltern,  a.  novel  founded  on  his 
e.xiierieuce  in  the  Peuiusidar  War.  In  1S44,  he 
was  appointed  chaplain  of  Chelsea  Hospital,  and 
in  1846,  Chaplain-.neneral  of  the  Forces.  Having 
devised  a  scheme  for  the  education  of  soldiei-s,  he 
was  apjjoiuted  Inspector-general  of  Military  Schools. 
In  1848,  he  was  made  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London.  G.  has  written  a  gi'eat  variety 
of  biographiciil,  historical,  and  religious  books.  The 
most  interesting  and  important  of  all  his  works  is 
his  Life  of  the  Great  Duke  of  WtUmijion  (ISoD,  new 
eti  1802). 

GLEI'WITZ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  south-east 
of  the  province  of  Silesia,  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  Klodnitz,  a  small  aflluent  of  the  Oder,  43  miles 
south-cast  of  Oppeln.  It  contains  three  churches,  a 
synagogue,  and  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  and  is  noted 
for  its  royal  foivndries,  iron-works,  leather  manu- 
factures, spinning  and  weaving.     Pop.  9787. 

GLENCOE',  a  valley  well  known  not  only  for 
the  terril)le  massacre  through  which  it  has  become 
historically  famous,  but  also  for  the  wildness  and 
sublimity  of  its  scenery,  is  situated  in  the  north  of 
Argylesliire,  near  the  border  of  Inverness,  at  Loch 
Levcn.  It  is  about  eight  miles  in  length,  and  is 
divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  valley  Ijy  a  gentle 
ridge.  It  is  traversed  by  a  mountain-stream  called 
the  Cona,  and  its  scarred  sides  shew  the  beds  of 
numerous  mountain-torrents.  After  entering  the 
glen,  the  traveller  looks  in  vain  for  any  token  of 
social  life  or  of  civihsatiou. — JvLv,s.sacre  of  Glex- 
COE.  The  principal  cii'cumstauces  of  this  famous 
tragedy  are  l>riefiy  as  follows.  The  state  of  the 
Higlilands  in  the  year  which  followed  the  parlia- 
mentary session  of  1690  was  such  as  to  give  the 
government  much  anxiety.  The  civil  war  which 
had  recently  been  flaming  there  continued  still  to 
smoulder,  and  at  length  it  was  determined,  at 
court,  to  employ  £12,000  or  £1.5,000  in  quieting 
.and  reconciling  the  refractory  clans.  The  Edin- 
burgh authorities  issued  a  proclamation  exhorting 
the  clans  to  submit  to  William  and  Mary,  and 
oifering  pardon  to  every  rebel  who  would  swear 
on  or  before  the  31st  December  1691  to  live  peace- 
ably under  the  government  of  their  majesties,  and 
threatening  to  treat  ail  who  refused  to  do  so  as 
enemies  and  traitors.  All  the  chiefs  submitted 
before  the  31st  December  except  Maclan,  the  chief 
of  the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe,  whose  submission, 
from  unforeseen  causes,  was  delayed  till  the  6th  of 
January.  The  magistrate  before  whom  he  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  transmitted  a  certificate  to  the 
Council  at  EtUnburgh,  explaining  the  circumstances 
of  the  case.  That  certificate  was  never  laid  before 
the  Council,  but  was  suppressjed  by  an  intrigue, 
directed  (it  is  supposed)  by  the  Master  of  Stair 
(Sir  John  Dalrymple,  aftenvards  second  Viscoimt 
antl  Earl  of  Stair),  on  whom,  imdoubtedly,  rests 
the  chief  blame  of  this  odious  transaction.  The 
enemies  of  Maclan  now  hurried  on  their  ]ilans  for 
his  destruction.  The  Master  of  Stair  obtained  the 
king's  signature  to  an  order  directed  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Scotland,  and  which  runs 
thus:  'As  for  JIacIau  of  Glcneoe  and  that  tribe, 
if  they  can  be  well  distinguished  from  the  other 
Highlanders,  it  wdl  be  proper,  for  the  vindication 
of  public  justice,  to  extirpate  that  set  of  tliieves.' 
Accordingly,  on  the  1st  of  February,  120  soldiers — 
most  of  them  CampljeUs,  who  had  a  personal  spite 
against  the  Macdonalds — led  by  a  Captain  C'am])bell 
and   a   Lieutenant    Lindsay,   marched   to   Gleucoc. 


Thoy  had  been  wai'ued  by  Stair  to  do  nothing  by 
hahes  ;  they  were  exhorted  to  bo  '  secret  and  sud- 
den ;'  and  they  obeyed  their  instructions.  Arrived 
in  the  glen,  they  told  the  (ileueoo  men  that  they 
were  come  as  friends,  and  only  wanted  tpiartci-s. 
For  twelve  days  the  soldiers  Uved  in  the  glen.  Ca|i- 
tain  Campbell,  or  Glenlyon  as  he  was  called  from 
the  name  of  his  estate,  while  visiting  daily  at  the 
chiefs  house,  emjdoyed  himself  in  observing  care- 
fully what  avenues  and  passes  there  were  by  means 
of  which  the  Macdonalds  might  escape,  and  report- 
ing the  result  of  his  observations  to  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Hamilton,  who  was  .approaching  with  troo])s 
to  secure  the  passes.  The  morning  of  the  13th  of 
February  was  fixed  for  the  slaughter,  and  on  the 
night  of  the  12th,  Glenlyon  was  supping  and  jilaying 
at  cards  with  those  whom  he  meant  to  ass:issinate 
before  dawn.  At  five  in  the  morning  the  uuirder- 
ous  work  began.  When  the  day  dawned,  38  eoq)scs, 
among  which  were  several  of  women,  and  more 
dreadful  still,  the  hand  of  an  infant  that  had  lieen 
struck  olf  in  the  murderous  tunnilt,  were  lying 
in  or  around  the  village  in  theii"  blood,  iiut  the 
massacre  comprehended  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  tribe,  for  Hamilton  not  having  come  up  in  time, 
the  jiasses  were  open,  and  about  150  men,  and 
proljably  as  many  Avomeu,  escaped,  but  only  iu 
many  eases  to  perish  from  cold  or  hunger  among 
the  snows  in  the  high  mountain-gorges.  Wheu 
Hanulton  did  arrive,  he  was  disappointed  in  fuiding 
the  work  so  uuperfectly  done,  aud  seizing  au  ohl 
Highlander,  whom,  being  above  seventy,  the  other 
butchers  had  agi'eed  to  let  live,  murdered  him 
in  cold  blood.  The  huts  of  the  viUagc  were  then 
set  on  fire,  and  the  troops  departed,  driving  aw.ay 
with  them  all  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  gleii. 

Tlie  question  as  to  the  share  of  King  William 
in  the  guilt  of  this  transaction  has  been  discussed 
with  no  little  warmth  on  both  sides.  Lord 
Macaulay  pleads,  in  vindication  of  the  king's  con- 
duet,  that  the  certificate  detaihng  tlic  submission 
of  ilaclan  had  been  suppressed ;  that  he  knew 
the  JIacdonalds  only  as  a  rebellious  clan,  who  had 
rejected  his  conciliatory  oflers  ;  and  that,  in  signing 
the  order  for  their  extirpation,  he  certainly  never 
intended  them  to  bo  murdered  in  tlieir  sleep,  but 
merely  that  their  organisation  as  a  predatory  gang 
should  be  broken  up. — The  scene  of  the  massacre  is 
visited  annually  by  tourists,  Avho  are  accommod.ated 
with  conveyances  in  connection  mth  Hutchcson's 
steam-vessels  from  Gla.sgow. 

GLENDOAVER,  or  GLENDWE,  OwEN,aWeIsh 
chief,  who  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  formid- 
•able  enemies  of  Henry  IV.  of  England.  He  was 
descended  from  Llewelyn,  the  Last  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  followed  the  fm-tiines  of  Pach.ard  II.  to  the  close, 
when,  in  1399,  Henry  of  Bolingbroke  usurjied  the 
crown,  .and  assiuned  the  title  of  King  Henry  IV, 
Taking  advantage  of  G.'s  known  attachment  to  the 
dethroned  monarch.  Lord  Grey  of  Iluthyn  seized 
p.art  of  his  land.  G.'s  suit  for  its  restitution  was 
dismissed  by  p.arliamcnt,  and  then  Lord  Grey  seized 
the  rest  of  his  laud,  llevenge  and  dcspau-,  conspir- 
ing witli  a  martial  disposition,  and  the  encouraging 
prophecies  of  the  Welsh  bards,  drove  him  to  take 
up  arras,  and  prodded  him  with  followers.  Iu  1400, 
he  commenced  operations  by  seizing  the  estates 
of  Lord  (Jrey.  The  king  ordered  his  subjugation, 
aud  granted  his  estates  to  his  brother  the  Earl  of 
Somerset.  G.'s  forces  were  inferior  iu  number  to 
thttse  of  his  adversaries.  He  was  sometimes  victor- 
ious, chicUy  through  surprises,  ambushes,  and  the 
hlie,  but  sometimes  defeated,  and  forced  to  retire 
to  the  hills,  where  his  positions  and  rude  fortifications 
could  not  be  approached.  In  1402,  he  drew  Lord 
Grey  iuto  an  ambush,  and  took  him  prisoner.     This 


G  LEXELG-GLEXROY. 


nobleman  was  ransomed  on  paying  10,000  marks, 
aiul  the  king,  otit  of  jealousy  of  "the  Earl  of  March 
(a  lioy  of  ten,  the  true  heir  to  the  crown),  or  some 
similar  cause,  allowed  him  to  pay  his  own  ransom. 
Immediately  on  his  release.  Lord  Grey  married  a 
daughter  of  G. ;  and  it  wouM  ajipear  that  Sir 
Edmund  Mortimer,  the  uncle  of  the  Earl  of  Mardi, 
married  another,  having  been  caiitured  also  a  little 
later  by  (i.,  in  a  battle  in  which  1100  of  Mortimer's 
followers  were  left  dead  upon  the  lield.  Treason 
seems  to  have  been  falsely  imputed  to  Mortimer  as 
the  cause  of  his  defeat ;  but  Henry  IV. 's  sus]iicions 
and  G.'s  kindness  soon  made  the  treason  sufficiently 
real,  for  Mortimer  induced  his  sister's  husband.  Earl 
Percy  (Hotspur),  to  conspire  with  liim  and  G.  (now 
proclaimed  Prince  of  Wales)  against  the  govern- 
ment. Percy  led  with  liim  into  tlie  same  enterprise 
tlie  Scoteh  Earl  Douglas,  whom  he  had  just  taken 
prisoner  at  Homildon  HiU.  This  coalition  against 
royalty  ended  in  the  battle  of  Shrewsburj-,  in  July 
1403,  in  which  the  fall  of  Hots|iur  and  the  Late 
arrival  of  G.  gave  the  Wctory  to  the  king  and  his 
forces.  In  June  of  the  following  year,  G.  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  Charles  ^'I.  of  France  against 
the  English.  Little  came  of  it,  for  next  year,  G. 
sustained  severe  reverses,  and  was  driven  to  wander 
among  the  caves  of  the  mountains  with  a  handful 
of  adherents.  Another  two  or  three  years  s.aw  his 
fortunes  somewhat  in  the  ascendant,  and  they  fluctu- 
ated in  the  ordinary  levels  of  the  petty  warfare 
of  a  bold  barbarous  chief,  with  mountains  to  escape 
to  against  the  advance  of  superior  civilised  numbers, 
which  he  coidd  no  more  resist  on  the  plains  than 
they  could  destroy  him  among  the  mountains.  He 
died  a  natural  death  in  tlie  house  of  one  of  his 
daughters,  on  the  20th  .September  1415,  aged  aljout 
6o,  haN-ing  spent  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  in 
constant  turmoil  and  warfare.  His  successes  shew- 
that  he  had  about  the  highest  talents  of  his  class, 
and  he  had  their  faidts  also.  The  popidar  idea  of 
him  is  to  be  found  in  Shakspeare's  Kiiifj  H^nrii 
1 V.  From  the  first,  he  has  been  a  kind  of  mythical 
hero,  and  the  lapse  of  centuries  does  not  clear  up 
the  exact  facts  of  his  history.  His  rebellions  were 
the  expiring  lires  of  the  independence  of  Wales, 
which  the  English  kings  ha*l  been  treading  out  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half. 

GIjENE'LG  is  a  shallow  river  of  considerable 
length,  which  rises  in  the  south-west  part  of 
Victoria,  and  which,  after  crossing  the  boundary 
into  South  Australia,  enters  the  Southern  Ocean 
between  Cape  Northumberland  on  the  west,  and 
Cape  Bridgewater  on  the  cast.  Its  mouth  is  about 
lat.  38°  S.,  and  long.  141°  E. 

GLEJTLX'VET,  a  vale  or  district  in  the  south- 
west of  Banffshire,  extends  along  the  course  of  the 
Livet,  a  small  feeder  of  the  Avon,  .at  the  distance 
of  about  21  miles  south-we.st  from  Iluntly.  It  con- 
tains iron  ore  and  lead,  and  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  finely  flavoured  whisky.  Here  a  battle  took 
pl.ace  between  the  Earl  of  Argj'le  and  the  Earl  of 
Huntly  in  1594,  residting  in  the  defeat  of  tlie 
former. 

GLENROY',  Parallel  PiOads  of.  The  Koy  is 
a  small  stream  in  the  district  of  Lochaber,  Inver- 
ness-shire, having  a  course  of  about  l.T  milos,  and 
falling  into  the  Spean  at  Inverroy,  opposite  to  Ben 
Chlinaig,  the  eastern  spur  of  Ben  Nevis.  The  steep 
narrow  valley  through  whicli  the  Itoy  nms  is 
remarkable  for  having  its  faces  marked  with  three 
shelves,  wlxieh  a])pear  as  lines  running  right  round 
it ;  they  are  everj-ivhere  perfectly  horizontal  and 
]>,arallel  to  each  other,  and  in  each  cose  tlie  line  on 
one  side  of  the  glen  corresponds  ex.actly  in  elev.ation 
to  that  on  the  other.    The  granitic  and  metamorphio 


rocks,  of  which  the  mountains  are  composed,  are 
covered  with  a  greater  or  less  thickness  of  angiUar 
fragments  and  earth,  and  an  examination  of  the 
.shelves  shews  that  they  are  worn  out  of  this  soft 
alluvial  co.ating.  Tlie  accoraiianjnng  sketch  explains 
their  structure.  They  almost  inv.ariably  form  a 
gentle  slope  from  the  hillside,  and  are  from  3  to 
30  feet  wide.  The  protrusion  of  the  rocky  Iwdy  of 
the  mountain,  and  the  furrows  of  mountain  torrents, 
break  their  continuity,  but  with  these  exceptions, 
one  or  more  of  them  may  be  traced  along  the 
whole  valley.  The  highest,  which  is  ]j;«)i  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  is  easily  followed  from  the 
watershed  between  the  Eoy  and  the  Spey  (which 


Glcnroy. 

is  at  the  same  elevation),  along  both  sides  of 
the  valley,  as  far  do-svn  as  the  point  at  which  the 
valley  narrows  above  Glen  Glaster.  The  second 
shelf  is  SO  feet  lower,  runs  parallel  with  the  first 
all  round  the  head  of  the  v.alley,  and  is  continued 
further  down  until  it  includes  Glen  Glaster.  The 
third  line  is  212  feet  lower  than  the  second  ;  it 
may  be  tr.aced  along  both  sides  of  Glenroy,  and 
round  the  mouth  of  the  glen  into  the  valley  of  the 
Spean,  whose  sides,  at  the  same  elevation  of  847 
feet,  is  marked  from  ■within  3  miles  of  the  river 
Lochy  uj)  nearly  as  f.ar  as  Loch  Laggan.  Wh.at  is 
very  curious,  the  eIev.ition  of  the  highest  shelf 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  watershed  at  the  head 
of  Glenroy  (where  it  opens  towards  the  valley  of  the 
Spey)  ;  the  second  corresponds  with  the  watershed 
I  at  the  head  of  Glen  Glaster  (where  it  opens  tow.arda 
Glen  Spean) ;  and  the  third  is  at  the  same  level 
with  the  valley  of  passage  between  Spe.au  and  Spey 
at  MuckalL  There  is  yet  a  higher  shelf  in  the 
neighbouring  Glen  Gluoy,  at  an  elevation  of  115U.i 
feet  aliove  the  sea. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the 
origin  of  tliese  rem.arkable  shelves.  Their  forming 
somewhat  level  roads  around  the  v.illey,  originated 
the  popular  notion,  tluat  they  were  made  for  the 
convenience  of  the  heroes  whose  exploits  are  sung 
by  Ossian.  Playfair,  in  1816,  supposed  they  were 
aqueducts  for  artificial  irrigation.  M.accuUoch 
believed  them  to  be  the  shore-lines  of  fresh-water 
lakes,  which  gradually  washed  aw.ay  their  barriers, 
remaining  for  a  longer  sp.ace  at  the  Iieight  of  the 
various  slielves.  Sir  T.  I).  Lauder  embraced  and 
ilhistrated  the  same  view.  Darwin  considered  that 
the  glens  were  former  arms  of  the  sea,  and  that  the 
shelves  indicated  periods  of  rest  in  the  elevation  of 
the  land.  Agassiz  and  Buckland  returned  to  the 
opinion  of  MaccuUoch,  but  finding  no  indication  or 
remains  of  any  solid  Land  barrier,  they  referred  the 
lake  to  the  glacial  period,  and  held  that  two  Large 

TS'J 


GLENTILT— GLOBE-FLOWEI!. 


glaciers  came  down  from  Ben  Novis,  the  one  uear  the 
centre  of  the  mountain,  and  the  other  along  the 
basin  of  Loch  Treig,  and  that  these  dammed  up 
the  Tvater  in  the  included  jiortiou  of  Glen  Spean 
and  in  Glenroy.  In  a  paper  subsequently  published 
by  Mr  David  Milne,  the  lacustrine  theory  was 
reverted  to,  with  several  new  and  plausible  illus- 
trations. The  reader  is  referred  to  a  work  of  Mr 
K.  Chambers  (Ancient  Sea-marf/in-s,  1S4S)  for  a  full 
account  of  this  remarkable  district.  He  enumerates 
no  less  than  21  terraces  or  shelves,  in  addition  to 
the  four  jn-ominent  ones  already  described,  at  heights 
varying  from  325  to  1495  feet.  And  uniting  all 
these  into  a  regiUar  series,  he  endeavoxrrs  to  shew 
that  they  are  oi^-ing  to  the  recession  of  the  sea 
from  these  glens,  and  that  the  intensity  of  the 
shore-markings  depended  upon  the  angle  at  which 
the  hill  met  the  water,  the  natiu-e  of  the  surface 
of  the  hill,  and  the  quietness  of  the  watei-. 

GLENTI'LT,  a  deep,  narrow  valley  in  the  north 
of  Perthshire,  extends  in  a  south-west  direction 
from  the  Grampians  on  the  north  to  Strathgarry 
on  the  south,  and  is  15  miles  in  length.  Through 
the  bottom  of  the  glen  the  Tilt  rushes  with  great 
impetuosity,  and  the  mountains  on  each  side  are 
scored  with  innimierable  torrents.  Its  upper  half 
is  enclosed  among  mountains  of  from  3350  to  3589 
feet  high,  and  its  left  boundary  is  mainly  formed 
by  the  huge  Ben-y-Gloe,  which  rises  from  a  broad 
base,  and  has  many  summits,  the  highest  being  8725 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  lower  half  is  less  wUd. 
This  glen  is  classic  ground  to  the  geologist.  Two 
elaborate  accounts  of  its  geological  phenomena  have 
been  published — one  by  Dr  M'CuUoch,  to  be  found 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Oeolofiical  Society;  and  the 
other  by  Lord  Webb  Sejrmour,  which  appears  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societtj  of  Edinburgh. 

GLIDDON,  George  V..,  American  Egyptologist, 
antiquarj',  and  ethnologist,  was  born  in  1807  in 
Grand  Cairo,  Egypt,  where  his  father,  John  Gliddon, 
was  for  many  years  United  States  consul.  He 
resided  for  32  years  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
in  the  Levant,  and  had  extraordinary  opportunities 
for  pursuing  those  scientific  researches  to  which  he 
appears  to  have  devoted  a  large  portion  of  his  life. 
He  filled,  for  several  years,  the  post  of  United 
States  consul  at  Cairo. 

About  the  year  18-tO,  !Mr  G.  visited  London, 
Paris,  and  his  own  coimtry,  to  which  he  had 
been  so  entirely  a  stranger.  In  the  United  States, 
he  gave  lectures  in  all  the  principal  cities  from 
Boston  and  New  York  to  Mobile  and  New  Orleans 
on  Egyptian  and  other  Oriental  antiquities.  His 
earliest  \yoTk,  Ancient  Egypt,  lier  Monuments,  Hiero- 
fflyjihici.  History,  and  Archaeology,  &c.,  was  so 
successful,  that  18,000  copies  were  sold  in  America 
alone  in  three  years.  It  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  jmblished  also,  at  about  the  same 
period,  an  Appeal  to  the  Antiquaries  of  Europe  on 
the  Destruction  of  the  Monuments  of  Egypt;  Dis- 
courses on  Egyptian  Archceology ;  A  Memoir  on  the 
Cotton  of  Egypt ;  and  Olia  JSgyptiaca. 

In  the  course  of  his  travels  in  the  United  States, 
Mr  G.  formed  acquaintances  ■with  men  of  science 
who  were  interested  in  his  Egyjitian  researches, 
and  who,  in  turn,  interested  him  in  a  broader  range 
of  ethnological  investigations.  Conspicuous  among 
these  were  Dr  Morton  of  Philadelphia,  distinguished 
for  his  craniological  investigations ;  Dr  Nott  of 
Mobile,  Alabama ;  Professor  Agassiz,  the  naturalist ; 
and  otliers.  He  wished  now  to  avail  himself  of 
the  advantages  of  European  museums  and  liliraries, 
but  had  not  the  neces.sary  means.  He  found,  how- 
ever, a  generous  friend  in  Mr  Richard  K.  Haight  of 
New  York,  who  imported  costly  works  from  Europe, 
7S0 


not  then  to  be  found  in  America,  and  also  furnished 
him  with  money  for  a  visit  to  London,  Paris,  and 
BerUn.  The  results  of  his  studies  are  to  lie 
found  in  two  quarto  volumes,  published  by  Mr 
G.,  with  the  co-operation  of  Dr  Nott,  and  several 
other  savants,  both  European  and  American.  In 
185-1  was  pubhshed  Types  of  Mankind,  or  Ethno- 
logical Beseardies  based  upon  the  Ancient  Monuments, 
Paintings,  Sculptures,  and  Crania  of  Races,  &c.,  by 
J.  C.  Nott,  M.D.,  of  Mobile,  Alabama,  and  George 
K,  Gliddon ;  and  containing  papers  by  Dr  Morton, 
Professor  Agassiz,  and  Drs  Usher  and  Pattison  of 
Philadelphia.  In  1857  was  published,  also  in  a 
handsome  quarto  vohmie,  Indigenous  Races  of  the 
Earth,  or  New  Cliapters  of  Ethnological  Inquiry, 
including  Monographs  by  M.  Alfred  lilaury,  Libra- 
rian of  the  French  Institute ;  Francis  Pidszky,  a 
learned  Himgarian  ;  and  Professor  Meigs  of  Phila- 
delphia. This  work  bears  also  the  joint  names  of 
Nott  and  G. ;  and  Mrs  Gliddon,  an  accomplished 
artist,  gave  her  assistance  in  tlrawing  upon  the  wood 
the  engra\'ings  with  which  it  is  profusely  illustrated. 
Just  as  this  work  was  published,  Mr  G.  died  at 
Panama,  Isthmus  of  Darien,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  pursue  his  ethnological  researches. 

ilr  G.  was  an  enthusiast,  not  only  in  his  inves- 
tigations, but  in  the  advocacy  of  his  theories  or 
convictions,  and  is  imsparing  in  his  criticisms  of 
his  opponents.  He  has  laboured  to  ]>rove  the 
great  antiquity  and  diversity  of  origin  of  the 
himiau  races.  His  works  have  been  severely 
criticised  and  condenmed  by  those  who  hold  to 
the  popiJar  chronology  and  the  \mity  of  the  race. 
The  materials  he  has  brought  together  are  vahiable 
and  suggestive ;  but  his  treatment  of  them  can 
scarcely  1)e  considered  satisfactory  ;  and  he  is  not 
free  from  the  suspicion  of  a  bias  in  favour  of  the 
enslavement  of  certain  of  those  whom  he  con- 
sidered inferior  races. 

GLI'RES  (Lat.  plural  of  gl'is,  a  doiTQOUse),  in  the 
Linnsean  system  of  zoology,  an  order  of  iSIammalia 
almost  exactly  corresponding  to  the  Rodenlia  (q.  v.) 
of  Cuvier  and  other  more  recent  naturalists. 

GLOBE-FISH.     See  DioDox. 

GLOBE-FLOAVER  [TroUius),  a.  gmwa  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  ifanwncwfacete,  having  a  calj-x 
of  coloured  (yellow) 
sepals,  in  ntmiber  five 
or  some  midtiple  of  five, 
the  petals  small  and 
linear.  There  are  several 
species,  natives  of  the 
colder  parts  of  the 
northern  hemisphere. 
The  common  G.,  t)ie 
LUCKEN  GowAN  of  the 
Scotch  { T,  Europa'us) , 
is  the  only  species  found 
in  Britain,  and  chiclly 
in  the  northern  parts, 
where  it  is  one  of  the 
finest  ornaments  of  moist 
groxmds  and  river-banks 
in  somewhat  elevated 
districts.  It  is  sometimes 
cidtivated  in  flower- 
gardens.  The  name  G. 
is      derived     from     the 


Gldbo-FIowcr  [Troll ins 
Europitus). 


appearance     which    the 

flower  jiresents,  the  sepals 

being   curved   so   that   it   forms    almost   a  perfect 

yellow  globe    or    ball.     It   is   a  native  of   all  the 

nortliem  jiarts  of  Europe,  and  also  of  the  Alps. 

GLOBES.     A  globe  is  a  round  or  sjilierical  body 
(see  SpnERE),  and  in  the  singular  number  tlie  word  is 


GLOBaLINE-GLOGGXITZ. 


often  used  to  signify  the  earth,  as  in  the  phrase, '  the 
terraqueous  globe ; '  but  by  '  globes,'  or  '  the  globes,' 
we  usually  mean  a  pair  of  ai'tiiicial  globes  used  as 
a  part  of  school-room  apparatus.  These  globes  are 
hollow  si>heres  of  card-board,  coatc'd  with  a  com- 
position of  whiting,  glue,  and  oil,  upon  which  paper 
bearing  certain  delineations  is  laid.  On  one  of  the 
pair— the  celestial  globe — are  represented  the  stars, 
so  placed  that,  to  an  eye  supposed  to  observe  them 
from  the  centre  of  the  globe,  their  relative  position 
and  distance  correspond  to  those  actu.ally  observed  ; 
while  on  the  terrestrial  globe,  the  distribution  of 
land  and  water,  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the 
foiTner,  together  with  a  few  of  the  most  important 
places,  are  laid  down  in  the  positions  corresponding 
to  those  which  they  actually  occupy  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

The  usual  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows  :  A 
ball  of  wood  or  iron  is  u.sed  as  a  matrix,  and  a  layer 
of  damped  paper  is  carofidly  and  closely  place<l  ujion 
this,  without  paste,  and  other  layers  are  successively 
pasted  over  the  first  one ;  oriUnary  card-board  is  thus 
produced,  but  instead  of  being  flat,  as  usual,  it  forms 
a  spherical  shell.  When  sulficicutly  thick,  this  is 
cut  into  two  hemispheres,  the  section  being  made  in 
the  line  of  the  intended  erjuator.  The  hemispheres 
are  then  taken  off  the  matrix,  and  again  glued 
together  on  an  axis,  and  the  whituig  composition 
laid  on,  the  outside  of  which  is  smoothed  and 
finished  to  shape  in  a  lathe.  The  workman  has  to 
lay  on  this  composition  so  as  to  balance  the  globe,  in 
order  tliat  it  may  rest  at  whatever  point  it  is 
tiu'ncd.  The  smooth  surface  is  now  marked  with 
the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and  is  covered 
with  the  paper  on  which  the  required  geogi"a{)hical 
or  astronomical  delineations  are  engraved.  In  order 
to  adapt  the  plane  siuface  of  the  paper  to  the  I 
curvature  of  the  sphere,  it  is  printed  in  pieces,  small 
circles  for  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions,  and  the 
rest  in  Ions-shaped  gores,  varying  from  20°  to  30° 
of  longitude,  and  meeting  these  circles  which  are 
pasted  first.  Great  care  is  reqxiired  in  laying  on 
these  curved  pieces,  so  that  their  edges  shall  meet 
exactly  without  overlap|iing.  The  surface  is  then 
coloured,  and  strongly  varnished,  and  moimted  in 
its  frame  and  stand. 

Globes  of  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha  have  also 
been  made,  others  of  thin  pajjcr,  to  be  inflated  and 
suspended  in  a  school-room.  Betts's  paper-globes 
fold  up  when  not  in  xisc.  Embossed  globes  shew,  in 
exaggerated  relief,  the  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Compound  globes  including 
the  celestial  and  terrestrial,  are  made  with  an  outer 
glass  sphere  for  the  celestial,  and  orrery  mechanism 
to  shew  the  varying  relative  positions  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  &c. 

Aa  school-room  apparatus,  globea  are  used  for 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  form  and  motion 
of  the  earth,  the  position  and  apparent  motion  of 
the  fixed  stars,  and  for  the  mechanical  solution 
of  a  number  of  problems  in  geography  and  prac- 
tical astronomy.  For  this  purpose,  each  globe  is 
suspended  in  a  brass  ring  of  somewhat  greater 
diameter,  by  means  of  two  pins  exactly  opposite 
to  each  other— these  pins  forming  the  extremities 
of  the  axis  round  which  it  revolves,  or  the  north 
and  south  ])oles.  This  brass  circle  is  then  let  into 
a  horizontal  ring  of  wood,  supported  on  a  stand, 
as  represented  m  the  art.  Armillary  SrUKKi; ;  in 
which  the  lines  drawn  on  the  surface  of  globes 
are  also  explained.  The  globes  in  common  use  in 
schools  are  12  inches  in  diameter;  those  to  be 
found  in  private  libraries  are  more  frequently  18 
inches. 

The  problems  to  which  the  globes  are  applied  are 
such  as :  To  find  when  a  star  rises,  sets,  or  comes 


to  the  meridian  on  a  given  day  at  a  given  place. 
The  mode  of  solution  will  be  found  in  any  school- 
book  on  the  subject.  The  answei-s  obtained  in  this 
way  to  such  questions  are  only  very  ri>ugh  approxi- 
mations, and  are  in  themselves  of  little  or  no  value. 
But  '  the  use  of  the  globes,'  as  it  is  called,  serves 
the  purpose  of  making  evident  to  the  senses  how 
many  of  the  appearances  connected  with  the  motions 
of  the  earth  and  the  heavenly  bodies  are  caused, 
and  enabling  the  nature  of  the  problems  connecte<l 
with  these  apjiearances  to  be  clearly  conceived. 
It  is  only  by  trigonometrical  calculation  that  the 
accurate  solutions  can  be  obtained. 

GLO'nULINE,  or  CRY'STALLIXE,  is  one  of 
the  proteine  bodies  or  albuminates.  In  association 
with  hiematine,  as  h.-emato-globiUin,  it  is  the  main 
ingredient  of  the  blood  globules ;  and  it  occurs, 
mixed  with  albimien,  in  the  cells  of  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye,  forming,  according  to  .Simon,  from 
10  to  14  per  cent,  of  the  dry  lens.  Hence  its  two 
n-imcs.  In  most  of  its  relations  it  rescmldes  albu- 
men, but  differs  from  that  substance  in  being  preci- 
pitated both  from  acid  and  alkaline  solutions  by 
exact  neutr.alisation,  and  in  being  completely  thrown 
down  from  its  solutions  by  carbonic  acid  gas. 

GLO'BUS  HYSTE'RICUS,  or  Ball  in  the  Throat, 
the  name  applied  to  a  peculiar  sensation  described 
under  Uvsteria. 

GLO'CKNER,  or  GROSS  GLOCKNER,  the 
highest  peak  of  the  Noric  Alps,  is  situated  on  the 
boundary  between  Ty^'o'i  Carinthia,  and  Upper 
Austria,  and  is  12,431  feet  in  height. 

GLO'GAU,  or  GROSS-GLOGAU,  a  tomi  and 
important  fortress  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder, 
3J  miles  north-north-west  of  Liegnitz.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  is  other\vise  fortified ;  and 
is  connected  by  a  wooden  bridge  ivith  a  strongly 
fortified  island  in  the  Oder.  It  has  a  beautifid 
castle,  two  gj-mnasiums,  one  Catholic,  and  the 
other  Protestant  ;  and  numerous  religious  and 
educational  institutions.  On  the  island  in  the 
Oder  is  a  c.ithedial  dating  from  1120,  and  con- 
taining a  Madonna,  the  masterpiece  of  Cranach, 
Sen.  Manufactures  of  woollens,  printed  calicoes, 
hosiery,  tobacco,  paper,  and  sugar,  and  some  trade 
and  commerce  are  carried  on.  Pop.  16,656,  includ- 
ing a  garrison  of  3653  men. 

GLO'GGNITZ,  a  small  town  of  Austria  in  the 
province  of  Lower  Austria,  is  situated  on  the 
Schwarza,  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Semmering 
Alp,  a  branch  of  the  Noric  chain,  45  miles  south- 
south-west  from  Vienna.  Pop.  1200.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  Vienna  and  Trieste  Railway,  and 
stands  at  the  northern  extremity  of  that  portion 
of  it  known  as  the  Scmmerinijhalin,  or  railway  of 
the  Semmering.  This  portion  of  railway  is  per- 
haps the  most  extraordinary  work  of  its  kind  in 
Eiu-ope.  It  sweeps  up  the  steep  rocky  face  of  the 
moimtain  in  many  curves,  and  descends  its  southern 
slope,  after  ha\-ing  passed  through  15  tunnels 
and  crossed  as  many  bridges.  It  extends  from 
G.  on  the  north  to  Murzzuschlag  on  the  south, 
a  distance  of  2.5  miles.  The  greatest  elevation  is 
reached  234  miles  south  of  G.,  where  the  lino  is 
2872  feet  above  sea-level,  and  I.IOI  feet  above  its 
height  at  Gloggnitz.  To  this  point  the  line  rises  in 
gradients  of  from  1  in  40  to  1  in  100 ;  the  average 
rate  of  a.scent,  however,  is  1  in  82.  At  its  greatest 
elevation,  the  line  pierces  the  Semmering  in  a  tunnel 
4633  feet  long.  Quick  trains  take  1  hour  and  42 
minutes  to  traverse  these  25  miles ;  slow  trains 
require  2  hours  33  minutes.  The  Scmmerir.rihtthn 
was  constructed  for  the  Austrian  government  by 


GLOMMEX— GLOUCESTEK, 


Carlo    Chcga,   an   eminent   engineer,   between    tlie 
yeai-s  IS-lSand  1S53. 

GLO'JIMEN,  or  Stor-Elv  (i.  e.,  great  river),  the 
largest  river  in  Norwa}',  rises  from  Lake  Anrsund, 
at  "the  town  of  Koros,  in  lat.  about  C'J'  40'  N.,  and 
long.  11^  16'  E.  Its  source  is  2419  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  its  conrse  is  interrupted  by  frequent 
water-falls,  the  last  of  which,  with  a  descent  of  GO 
feet,  is  called  the  Sarpenfos  or  Sarp-fos,  and  occurs 
at  about  10  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Laj-ge  boats  can  ascend  to  the  Sarpenfos.  The 
G.  ilows  first  in  a  south-west  direction  for  about 
50  miles,  then  bends  toward  the  south-cast,  and 
pursues  that  du'ection  imtil  it  jiasses  the  fortress 
of  Kongsvinger,  after  which  it  again  tm-ns  south- 
west, and  empties  itself  into  the  SUager  Kack  at 
Frederickstadt,  after  a  course  of  about  400  miles. 
Its  most  important  affluents  are  the  Rena  on  the 
left,  and  the  Vormeu  on  the  right. 

GLO'EIA,  a  hj-mn  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
service,  beginning  with  the  words,  '  Gloria  in  excelsis 
Deo.'  Its  place  in  the  mass  is  after  the  *  Introitus.' 
except  on  the  penitential  days  in  Advent  and 
diLring  Lent,  when  it  is  omitted.  It  is  founded  on 
the  2d  chajiter  of  St  Luke,  14th  verse.  It  has  been 
so  long  in  use  that  it  is  not  known  by  whom  it 
was  introduced  into  the  serrice  in  its  present  form. 
It  is  also  called  '  The  Great  Do.xology,'  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  '  Gloria  patri  filio  et  sjiiritui,'  which  is 
sung  at  the  end  of  the  Psalms  and  antiphonal 
hymns. 

GLORIO'SA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Liliacece,  having  a  perianth  of  6  elongated  and 
rellexed  segments,  a  3-lobed  stigma,  a  3-eeIled  supe- 
rior germen,  and  globose  seeds.  The  best  known 
species,  G.  siqxrba,  a  native  of  India,  is  a  herbaceous 
perenni.ol  with  a  weak  stem,  6 — 10  inches  high, 
alternate  leaves  terminating  in  tendrils,  and  very 
beautifid  flowers,  linely  coloured  with  red  and 
yellow. 

GLORIOrS  VIRGIN,  or  ST  MARY  THE 
GLORIOUS,  an  order  of  knighthood  in  Venice, 
foimded  by  Bartholomew  of  Vicenza,  and  approved 
by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1262.  This  institution  was 
ecclesiastical  as  well  as  military,  and  its  objects 
were  the  protection  of  widows  and  orphans,  and  the 
furtherance  of  the  peace  of  Italy.  The  badge  was  a 
pni-ple  cross  between  certain  stars,  and  the  costume 
a  white  surcoat  on  a  russet  clo.ak. 

An  order  of  knighthood  of  St  Maiy  the  Glorious 
also  existed  in  Rome  in  the  17th  c,  whose  piu-pose 
was  the  suppression  of  the  Barbary  corsau-s  who 
infested  the  Mediterranean. 

GLOSS  (in  Biblical  criticism),  Gr.  r/lossa 
(tongue,  or  language),  an  explan.ation  of  ]nirely 
verbal  difhculties  of  the  text,  to  the  exclusion  of 
those  which  arise  from  doctrinal,  historical,  ritu.al, 
or  ceremonial  sources.  The  words  which  are  com- 
monly the  subject  of  these  glossarial  explanations 
arc  reducible  to  five  classes:  (1)  foreign  worils; 
(2)  provincialisms  or  dialects  ;  (3)  obsolete  words  ; 
(4)  technical  words  ;  and  (5)  words  used  by  the 
author  in  some  abnormal  or  exceptional  significa- 
tion. From  an  early  }ieriod,  these  verbal  difhculties 
were  the  object  of  attention,  and  the  writers  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  elucidation  were  called 
c/lossatores,  and  their  works  r/lossaria.  The  principal 
Greek  glossatorcs  are  Hesj-chius,  Zonaras,  Suidas, 
Phavorinus.  Most  of  the  Rabbinical  i\Titers  have 
done  the  same  work  for  the  Hebrew  text ;  so  that 
it  would  be  difiicult  to  name  any  in  particular  as 
Hebrew  glossatores.  The  chief  glossatorcs  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate  are  the  celebrated  Walafried  Strabo 
in  the  9th  c,  and  Anselm  of  Laon  in  the  12th,  for 
the  Latin  Vulgate. 
73-' 


In  Rom.in  and  canon  law,  the  practice  of  intm- 
ducing  glosses  was  of  early  origin,  and  probaMy 
was  an  imitation  of  the  bil)lical  glosses.  Among 
jurists,  the  gloss  was  not  purely  verbal,  but  regarded 
the  true  interpretation  of  the  law,  and  in  some 
cases  it  was  held  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the 
text  itself.  From  the  position  which  it  occupied 
in  the  MS.,  being  generally  written  between  the 
lines  of  the  text  and  on  the  m.argin,  it  was  called 
f]los!ia  interlinear^.  The  gloss  of  the  Roman  law 
is  WTitten  in  vei-y  pm'e  Latiuity,  that  of  the  canon 
law  in  the  Latiuity  of  the  medieval  schools. 

GLOSSI'TIS  (Gr.  glossa,  the  tongue),  inflam- 
mation of  the  tongue.  The  disease  in  its  most 
acute  form  is  rare ;  it  is  sometimes  due  to  injury, 
or  to  scald ;  in  other  cases,  to  the  action  of  mer- 
cury on  the  sj'stem.  The  tongue  becomes  enor- 
mously swollen,  and  one  of  the  chief  dangers  of 
the  attack  is  suffocation  from  swelling  of  the  jiarts 
about  the  hyoid  bone,  and  closure  tliereby  of  the 
glottis  (see  Larynx).  The  only  really  effective 
treatment  is  to  make  pretty  deep  incisions  into  the 
inflamed  part,  keeping  in  \'iew  that  the  resulting 
wound  is  likely  to  be  much  less  than  appears  at 
the  time  ;  for  the  enlargement  of  the  organ  has 
stretched  the  mucous  membrane,  and  infiltrated  all 
the  textures  •n-ith  Jluid,  while  the  vessels  also  are 
distended  with  blood.  A  sti-aight  bistom-y  should 
be  boldly  plunged  into  the  u]iper  sm-face,  and 
several  incisions  made  lengthways  sufficiently  deep 
to  evacuate  the  confined  fluids.  A  good  deal  of 
blood  win  usually  follow,  but  if  care  has  been  taken 
not  to  injure  the  lingual  artery  or  its  branches  (see 
Tongue),  there  is  no  real  danger  from  this  cause. 
In  places  at  a  distance  from  medical  adricc,  tliis 
operation  might  require  to  be  performed  by  unskilled 
hands,  and  with  a  jieuknife  or  any  otiier  cutting 
instnmient  at  hand ;  care  should  be  taken  in  this 
case  to  make  the  incisions  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  not  too  far  from  the  middle  line. 

GLOTTIS.     See  L.U1YNX. 

GLOU'CESTER,  a  city  and  county  in  itself, 
the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  an 
inland  port,  cathedral  town,  watering-jjlace,  and  the 
se.at  of  some  imjiortant  manufactures,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Severn,  distant  west- 
north-west  from  London  107  miles  by  road,  and 
114  by  rail,  and  from  Bristol  36  miles  north-north- 
east. G.  is  clean  and  well  built,  with  four  princijul 
streets,  of  convenient  Midth,  meeting  at  right  angles 
in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The  docks  are  spacious, 
and  communicate  with  the  o]ien  part  of  the  Severn, 
below  Sharpness  Point,  by  me.ans  of  a  ship-canal  17 
miles  in  length,  while  the  wharfs,  about  1000  feet 
in  length,  are  directly  connected  with  the  several 
railways.  The  foreign  trade  is  principally  mth  the 
Black  and  Baltic  seas,  Canada,  the  West  Indies, 
and  France  ;  the  foreign  import  returns  for  1861 
give  458  vessels,  and  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
1 30,947  ;  expoi-ts,  9S ;  tonnage,  20,076.  Coasting- 
trade  inwards,  994  vessels,  of  40,584  tons  ;  outwards, 
3561 :  tonnage,  141,040.  G.  is  connected  by  the 
Midland  Railway  with  the  north,  by  the  Bristol 
and  Gloucester  Railway  with  the  west  and  south, 
by  the  Great  Western  with  Loudon  and  the  cast, 
and  by  the  South  Wales  Railway  ■n-ith  the  prin- 
ciiiality.  Besides  affording  a  market  for  the  pro- 
duce of  the  surrounding  districts,  G.  imports  corn, 
timber,  wines,  and  spirits  in  considerable  quantities, 
has  a  large  exjiort  trade  in  iron  and  steel  goods, 
coal,  soap,  malt,  and  potter-w.are,  railway-littings, 
agricultural  implements,  bells,  pins,  chemicals,  and 
hempen  goods. 

The  principal  building  in  G.  is  the  cathedral, 
cruciform   in    structure,    and    presenting   beautiful 


GLOUCESTEE^GLOVES. 


examples  of  several  different  eras  of  ecclesiastical 
arcliiticturc,  427  feet  in  len_f,'tli,  ami  154  in  width ; 
the  heiL,'ht  of  the  central  tower,  its  greatest  external 
oruameut,  is  223  feet ;  the  cloisters  also,  of  great 
beauty,  form  a  large  scjuare.  Formerly  the  church  of 
a  Benedictine  alj)iey,  it  was  converted  into  a  cathe- 
dral in  1541.  There  are,  besides  the  cathedi-al,  12 
churches  of  the  Establishment ;  2  W'esleyan  and  2 
Independent  chapels;  1  Catholic, Ba])tist,  Methodist, 
Friends,  Unitarian,  and  Lady  Huntingdon's  Chapel, 
a  gi'ainmar-school,  many  excellent  public  and  private 
schools,  a  neat  theatre,  assembly  rooms,  town-hall, 
jail,  and  lunatic  asjdum.  (r.  returns  two  meml)ers 
to  parliament.  I'op.  (1S51),  17,572;  (ISUU,  1(>,320. 
It  is  noted  as  one  of  the  three  cities  (Worcester 
and  Hereford  being  the  other  two)  at  which  the 
musical  festivals  of  the  three  choira  are  alter- 
nately held.  The  history  of  G.  is  traceable  to  a 
very  remote  antiquity  ;  it  was  the  Caer  Glow  of 
tlie  Britons,  Colouia  Glevum  of  the  Komans,  and 
an  impoi-t;uit  town  in  Mereia  under  the  Saxons, 
by  whom  it  was  called   Gleari-CeuDla- — whence  its 

{)resent  name.  Here  the  celebrated  single  combat 
jetween  E(.lmund  Ironsiiles  and  Canute  is  said 
to  have  taken  place.  G.  was  repeatedly  visited 
by  William  I.,  afforded  a  refuge  and  support  to 
Queen  Matilda  in  her  contest  with  Stephen,  saw 
Henry  III.  crowned,  and  parliaments  held  under 
r.ichard  II.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  sided  success- 
fully with  the  parUament  in  the  ei\'il  war  against 
Charles  I.  Robert  of  Gloucester,  the  metrical 
historian;  Miles  Smith,  biblical  translator;  the 
Poet  Taylor  ;  and  R.  Raiks,  the  fomider  of  Sunday 
schools,  were  natives  of  G.     (Pop.  1S71 — 18,330.) 

GLOU'CESTER,  a  town,  seaport,  and  fi.shing- 
station  of  North  America,  in  the  state  of  Massa- 
chusetts, is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  Cajje 
Ann,  about  28  miles  north-east  of  Boston.  It  is 
handsomely  built  and  finely  situateil,  and  commands 
extensive  sea-^^ews.  Its  '  harbour,'  one  of  the  best 
on  the  C()ast,  is  roomy,  safe,  easily  accessible,  and 
deep  enough  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  size. 
G.  is  said  to  be  the  lii'st  fishuig-towu  in  the  United 
States.  The  fishing  vessels  in  1859  numbered  357, 
and  were  manned  by  3890  fishermen.  In  1855  the 
mackerel  fishery  realised  388,809  dollars,  or  over 
£80,000 ;  and  the  cod  fishery  293,8.50  doUars,  or 
over  £G0,O0O.  The  town  has,  besides,  extensive 
manufactories  of  anchors,  cables,  saUs,  oil,  soap  and 
candles,  and  pro-visions.  G.,  which  is  connected 
with  Boston  by  a  branch-railroad,  has  recently 
become  a  favourite  summer  resort  for  sea-bathing. 
Pop.  (1855),  8035;  (1859),  estimated  at  12,000. 

GLOTJ'CESTERSHIRE,  a  county  of  England, 
lying  aroimd  the  lower  course  of  the  Severn  and 
the  estuary  of  that  river,  is  boimded  on  the  W.  by 
Monmouth  and  Hereford,  on  the  N.  by  Worcester 
and  Warwickshire,  on  the  E.  by  Oxfordshire,  and 
on  the  S.  by  Somerset  and  Wilts.  Area,  805,102 
acres;  pop.  (1851)  458,805;  (1801)  485,502.  The 
shape  of  the  county  resembles  a  parallelogram, 
and  though  its  outline  is  still  somewhat  irregidar, 
esj)ecially  in  the  north,  it  is  much  less  so  than 
foi-merly,  as  by  act  7  and  8  Vict  c.  Gl,  out- 
lying portions  of  the  county  of  G.  were  annexed 
to  tile  counties  in  which  they  were  resjwctively 
situated ;  and,  in  like  manner,  detached  pieces  of 
land  belonging  to  other  counties,  but  situated  in  G., 
were  declared  jiortions  of  that  county.  There  are 
three  distinct  districts  in  this  county,  the  natural 
features  of  each  being  different.  These  are  the 
Hdl,  the  Vale,  and  the  Forest  districts  ;  the  first 
fonned  by  the  Coteswold  or  Cotswold  Hills  (q.  v.), 
the  second,  comprising  the  vales  of  Gloucester  and 
Berkeley,  by  the  rich  and  low  meadow-lands  lying 


along  the  banks  of  the  Severn ;  and  the  third  con- 
sisting of  the  land  west  of  the  Severn,  which  is 
occupied  chiefly  by  the  Forest  of  Dean.  The  county 
is  watered  )irincip.ally  by  the  Severn,  the  Wye, 
the  Upi)er  and  Lower  Avon,  and  the  Thames  or 
Isis,  which  receives  all  the  streams  on  the  east  of 
the  Cotswold  Hills.  The  soil  is  thin  on  the  hills, 
but  produces  gootl  pasturage  for  sheep,  while  the 
lower  tracts  aliountt  in  cxeelleut  grass  and  arable 
lauds.  The  vales  of  G.  are  remarkable  for  the 
early  maturity  of  their  agricultural  produce.  The 
famous  Double  and  Single  Glo'ster  cheese  is  ])ro- 
duced  at  Berkeley,  in  the  vale  of  that  name,  and 
is  sold  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  Forest  of 
Dean,  20,000  acres  of  which  are  still  crown  pro])erty, 
is  highly  i>icturesque  in  appearance,  and  contains 
many  ajiple-orchards,  from  which  a  favourite  cider 
is  made.  A  lord-warden,  who  is  constable  of  the 
castle  of  St  Briavel's,  with  six  deputy-wai'dens,  and 
other  officers,  superintend  the  government  of  the 
forest.  In  this  county,  numerous  and  important 
manufactures  are  carried  on ;  of  these,  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  cloth,  of  the  better  qualities,  is 
the  chief  ;  hats,  felt,  stockings,  pins,  cheese-cloths 
and  other  linens  are  also  produced  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  county  sends  four  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons.    (Pop.  1871—5*1,320.) 

G.,  jirevious  to  the  Roman  invasion,  was  inha- 
bited by  a  tribe  called  the  Dobuni;  and  after  that 
event,  the  county,  or  the  greater  part  of  it,  was 
included  in  the  pro\-ince  named  Floria  Cttsarknsis. 
From  the  earhi'.st  of  the  Danish  invasions  down 
to  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  in  1471,  and  to  the 
civil  wars  between  the  crown  and  parliament,  G. 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  and  disastrous  encoim- 
ters.  It  contains  numerous  Roman  relies  in  camps, 
roads,  coins,  fragments  of  statuary  and  pottery, 
tesselated  jiavements,  &c.  There  are  also  many 
traces  of  British,  Saxon,  and  Danish  works  in  the 
coimty. 

GLOVER,  Richard,  was  bom  in  London  in 
1712,  and  w;is  educated  at  Cheam,  in  Surrey.  He 
was  a  merchant  in  his  native  city,  and  in  1700, 
became  member  of  parliament  for  Weymouth.  His 
first  poem,  to  the  memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  was 
written  in  his  IGth  year.  His  chief  poem,  entitled 
Leonhla.%  was  published  in  1737,  and  passed  through 
several  editions.  A  continuation  of  it,  the  Atluniod, 
was  pubhshed  in  1787.  These  i)oems  are  in  blank 
verse,  and  of  prodigious  extent.  Although  not  defi- 
cient in  a  certain  majesty  and  elevation  of  tone, 
they  are  in  the  main  turgid  and  heavy,  and  are 
now  almost  entirely  forgotten.  He  wi-ote  several 
tragedies,  which  did  not  meet  with  success.  His 
most  popular  jioem.  Hostel's  Ghost,  written  on  the 
taking  of  Carthagena  from  the  Spaniards,  was  pub- 
lished in  1739.  He  ibed  in  17S5 ;  and  in  1813, 
appeared  a  diary,  or  part  of  a  diary  written  liy  him. 

GLOVES.  Gloves  are  made  of  various  materials, 
such  as  silk,  wool,  linen,  cotton,  fur,  and  various 
kinds  of  leather.  The  latter  material  is  the  most 
abundantly  used,  and  the  mode  of  making  it  up 
is  the  most  characteristic  of  this  branch  of  manu- 
facture. We  need  scarcely  inform  the  reader  that 
the  term  'kid'  is  a  mere  technicality,  as  the 
quantity  annually  consumed  of  leather  bearing 
this  name  is  largely  in  excess  of  what  could  be 
supplied  from  the  skins  of  all  the  yoimg  goats  that 
are  annually  slaui'htered.  It  is  chiefly  made  from 
lamb's  skin.  A  few  of  the  finest  gloves  are  made 
from  real  kid  skins,  obtained  from  those  countries 
where  goats'  mUk  and  flesh  are  articles  of  food. 
Dogskin,  buckskin,  and  doeskin  gloves  are  made 
chiefly  from  sheepskin ;  some  of  the  thickest  kinds 
of   leather  gloves  are  made  from   calf-skin.      The 


G  LO  VES— G  LOW  WORM. 


leather   in    all   cases   iindergoea    a   much    lighter 
dressing  tlian  when  used  for  boots  and  shoes. 

Worcester  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  English  leather 
glove-maniifactory ;  gloves  are  also  made  at  Lud- 
low, Leomiuster,  and  Yeovil,  besides  Woodstock, 
where  a  peculiar  and  superior  doeskin  glove  is 
made  bearing  the  name  of  the  to^vn.  Limerick 
and  the  ueighboiirhood  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  gloves. 

The  French,  however,  still  excel  us  in  this  branch 
of  manufacture.  Up  to  1825,  the  importation  of 
French  gloves  was  prohibited,  and  the  competition 
consequent  u|)on  the  removal  of  this  proliibition  had 
the  usual  effect  of  producing  a  r.^pid  improvement 
in  the  English  manuf.acture.  Vei-y  cheap  and  good 
gloves  are  made  at  Naples ;  and  they  are  much  in 
request  on  the  continent. 

After  tlie  leather  has  been  properly  prep.ared,  it  is 
cut  into  pieces  of  the  required  size,  then  folded  over 
somewhat  unequally,  as  the  back  should  be  larger 
than  the  front.  Three  cuts  are  then  made  through 
the  doubled  piece  to  produce  the  four  fingers  ;  an 
oblong  hole  is  cut  at  the  bending  of  the  fold  for 
the  insertion  of  the  thumb-piece  :  the  cutting  of 
this  of  the  exact  shape  and  size  requires  consider- 
able skill.  The  first  and  fourth  fingers  are  com- 
pleted by  gussets  or  strijis  sewed  only  on  their 
inner  sides,  while  the  second  and  thir-d  fingers 
require  gussets  on  each  side  to  complete  them. 
Besides  these,  small  pieces  of  a  diamond  shape  are 
sewed  in  at  the  base  of  the  fingers  towards  the  palm 
qf  the  hand.  The  stitching  together  of  these  pieces 
requires  much  care,  as  the  junction  must  be  made 
as  closely  as  possible  to  the  edge  of  each  piece,  and 
yet  ^vith  sufficient  hold  to  keep  the  stitches  from 
cutting  thi'ough  the  material.  A  land  of  ^nce  or  clamp, 
with  minute  teeth  to  regulate  the  stitches,  is  some- 
times used  for  this  purpose  ;  and  sewing-machines 
are  apphed  as  f.ar  as  practicable,  especially  for  the 
ornamental  or  embroidery  stitching  on  the  backs. 
The  putting  in  of  the  thumb-piece  requires  special 
skill  and  management.  Badly  made  gloves  com- 
monly give  way  at  this  part.  The  superiority  of 
the  French  and  the  best  English  gloves  depends 
chiefly  iqion  the  adaptation  of  their  shape  to  the 
structure  of  the  hand  by  giving  additional  size 
where  the  flexure  of  the  hand  requii'es  it.  The  best 
woollen,  thread,  and  silk  gloves  are  made  as  above 
by  cutting  and  se-iving  together,  but  commoner 
gloves  are  made  to  a  great  extent  by  knitting  and 
wea^ng  in  like  manner  to  stockings. 

Olove-chji'ing. — The  dye  is  Uglitly  washed  over 
the  stretched  glove,  a  second  and  third  coat  being 
given  after  the  first  is  dry.  ^Vhen  this  is  thoroughly 
dried,  the  sujicrfluous  colour  is  rubbed  off,  and  the 
surface  smoothed  by  rulfbing  with  a  jiolished  stick 
or  piece  of  ivory.  The  surface  is  then  sponged  over 
with  the  white  of  egg. 

Glove-cleaninrj. — Oil  of  turpentine  or  camphine  was 
the  materi.al  chiefly  used  for  eleanmg  kid  gloves,  but 
of  late  this  has  been  to  a  great  extent  superseded 
by  Benzole  (q.  v.)  or  benzine,  which  is  abimd.antly 
obtained  in  sufficient  purity  for  this  purpose  by  the 
careful  rectification  of  coal-naphtha.  The  eliief 
adv.antages  of  this  latter  material  is,  that  it  is  more 
volatile,  and  its  odour  less  persistent  than  that  of 
ordinary  turpentine,  or  even  of  the  best  rectified 
camphine  which  has  been  much  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  mode  of  using  either  of  these  is 
to  stretch  the  gloves  over  a  wooden  hand  of  suit- 
able size,  and  then  sponge  them  with  the  fluid, 
removing  the  first  or  dii'ty  ]ioi"tion  with  a  second 
wash  of  clean  fhiid.  By  collecting  the  washings 
separately,  and  allowing  them  to  stand  till  tlic  dirt 
settles,  the  same  tvirpentine  or  benzole  may  be  used 
over  aiid  over  again. 
7'J4 


An  inodorous  composition  m.ay  be  made  by 
dissolving  one  part  of  soap-shavings  in  two  jiarts  of 
rain  or  distilled  water,  using  heat  to  aid  the  solu- 
tion. Tills  is  improved  by  adding  to  it  a  small 
(piantity  of  liquor  ammonia  and  any  ordinary  per- 
fume. It  should  be  applied  to  the  glove  stretched 
on  the  stock  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  flannel 
always  in  one  direction. 

Doeskin  and  wash-leather  gloves,  when  not  very 
dirty,  may  be  cleaned  dry  by  rubbing  them  when 
stretched  on  a  stock  with  a  mixture  of  finely 
powdered  fidlcr's-earth  and  alum,  then  sweeping  off 
this  powder  with  a  brush,  and  dusting  with  dry 
bran  and  whiting.  If  the  gloves  are  very  dirty,  they 
shoidd  be  washed  with  the  soap  solution,  then 
rulibed  with  pipe-clay  mixed  with  yellow  oehi'e  or 
amber  (according  to  the  shade  required),  made  into 
a  jiaste  with  ale  or  beer,  then  carefidly  dried  and 
dusted  to  remove  the  superfluous  powder. 

Glove  Poicder,  for  cleaning  gloves,  is  made  by 
carefidly  drj-ing  Castde  soap,  and  then  jioimding  it 
in  a  mortar ;  or  of  pipe-clay  coloured  with  yellow 
ochre  or  Irish  skate,  or  it  may  be  made  of  a  mixture 
of  pipe-clay  and  jjowdered  soap. 

GLOVES  (in  Law).  It  is  an  old  custom  in  Eng- 
land on  a  maiden  assize — i.  e.,  an  assize  on  which 
there  is  no  oft'ender  to  be  tried — for  the  sherifl"  to 
present  the  judge  with  a  pair  of  white  gloves.  The 
clerk  of  assize  and  the  judges'  ofhcers  have  money 
given  to  them  on  the  same  occasion,  which  is  called 
ijlove  sUver.  The  ciistom  of  prtsentiug  wliite  gloves 
to  the  jiulges  on  a  maiden  eircmt  is  also  obser\-ed 
in  Scotland. 

GLOWWORM,  the  name  given  to  the  -wingless 
females  of  certain  coleopterous  insects  of  the  family 
Lampyrida,  remarkable  for  the  luminosity  of  some 
of  the  last  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The  insects 
of  the  family  Lampyrida:  have  five  joints  in  all  the 
tarsi,  the  antenna3  toothed,  the  elji;ra  (wing-covers) — 
at  least  of  the  males^covering  the  whole  abdomen. 


Glowworm  [Lampyris  noctiluca) : 
1,  male ;  2,  female. 

the  whole  body  soft  and  the  elytra  flexible,  tlio 
females  often  destitute  both  of  wings  and  clj-tr.i, 
the  thorax  jirojecting  over  and  almost  concealing 
the  head.  Wheu  seized,  they  place  their  feet  and 
antenna;  close  to  the  body,  many  of  them  also 
curving  the  abdomen  downward,  and  sinndate  death. 
The  CojrMON'  G.  (Lampi/ris  noctiluca)  is  abundant 
in  some  parts  of  England,  and  rare  in  the  south  of 
Scotland.  The  antenn;e  are  short.  The  male  has 
very  large  eyes.  The  female,  which  is  larger  than 
the  male,  is  fnUy  half  an  inch  in  length,  of  a 
Idackish  colour,  the  legs  dusky  red,  and  the  thorax 
and  abdomen  ra.argiucd  \\-ith  that  colour.  The 
female  is  perfectly  destitute  both  of  wmgs  and 
elytra.  The  habits  of  the  insect  are  nocturnal.  The 
male  emits  a  faint  hght,  the  female  a  soft  but  strong 
light,  of  which  the  use  is  supposed  to  be  to  attract 
and  guide  the  male.  The  female  G.  is  generally  to 
be  found,  diu'ing  the  summer  months,  among  grass, 
or  on  mossy  banlis.  There  is  reason  to  think  that 
the  G.  has  the  power  of  displayiug  and  extinguish- 
ing its   li^ht  at  pleasure,  so  th;it  it  may  not   be 


GLtTCHOV— GLUCK;. 


unnecessarily  exposed  to  enemies  ;  Lut  if  the  lumin- 
ous portion  of  the  abdomen  be  removed,  it  I'etivins 
its  luminosity  for  some  time.  If  placed  in  hydrogen 
pas,  it  sometimes  detonates.  The  luminous  matter 
is  capable  of  beiu^  mixed  with  water,  and  warm 
water  increases  its  brilliancy.  Two  spots  on  the  last 
aegment  of  the  abdomen  are  more  luminous  than 
any  other  part,  and  a  constant  motion  of  this  seg- 
ment seems  to  be  connected  with  the  emission  of 
the  light.  The  two  segments-  next  to  this  are 
each  surrounded  by  a  band  brighter  than  the  rest 
of  the  segment.  The  lai-va  of  the  G.  is  very 
similar  to  the  perfect  female  insect,  but  is  very 
faintly  luminous.  It  is  very  voracious,  attacking 
and  devouring  snails,  whereas  the  perfect  insect 
eats  little,  and  is  supposed  to  prefer  the  tender 
leaves  of  jilants. — Several  species  of  G.  are  found 
in  the  warmer  jiarts  of  Eiu'opc,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  luminosity  of  the  males  of  the 
genus  Lampyrli,  and  of  other  winged  insects  of  the 
family  Larnpi/riiUe,  has  obtained  for  them  the  name 
of  Firefhes  (q.  v.). 

GLUCHO'V,  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  Itussia, 
in  the  government  of  Tchernigov,  and  112  miles  in 
direct  lino  cast-north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name. 
It  is  surrounded  by  earthen  walls,  contains  eight 
churches,  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  and  some  trade 
in  gi'ain  and  brandy.  In  the  \icinity,  porcelain 
clay  is  obtained,  and  is  sent  north  to  the  imperial 
manufactory  at  St  Petersburg.     Pop.  SSoG. 

GLTJCI']SrA  (more  correctly,  Glvcina,  from  Gr. 
glyki/s,  sweet),  derives  its  name  from  its  salts  having 
a  sweetish  taste.  It  was  discovered  by  Vauquelin, 
in  1797r  in  the  emerald,  and  has  since  been  found  in 
cymophane,  chrysoberyl,  phenokite,  the  gadolinites, 
leucophane,  and  belWue ;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
great  dililcidty  of  preparing  it,  its  properties  and 
combinations  have  not  been  much  stuiUed.  Berzelius 
regarded  it  as  the  sesquioxide  of  Glucinum  (q.  v.), 
in  which  case  its  formula  would  be  GUO3,  but  it 
is  now  gener.ally  believed  to  be  a  protoxide,  GIO. 
For  the  mode  of  extracting  it  from  the  emerald 
or  other  mineral  containing  it,  we  must  refer  to 
Debray's  Memoir  on  Glucinum  and  its  Compounds 
(a  tr.ansl.ation  of  which  is  given  in  the  eighth  vohmie 
of  the  Quarla-ly  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Societij), 
or  to  any  of  the  larger  works  on  chemistry. 
Glucina  is  a  white,  loosdy  coherent  powder,  with- 
out taste  or  smell.  It  is  infusible,  but  volatilises 
at  a  very  high  temperature. 

Amongst  the  salts  of  glucina  that  have  been 
studied  by  Debray  and  others,  we  may  mention  the 
suljihates  of  glucina,  and  of  glucina  and  potash  ;  the 
carlionatcs  of  glucina,  and  of  glucina  aud  potash ; 
and  the  oxalates  of  gluchi.a,  of  gluciu.-i  and  potash, 
and  of  glucina  and  ammouia.  They  are  colom-lcss, 
and  much  reseml>le  those  of  alivmina. 

The  mineral  phenakite  is  a  pure  sUieate  of  glucina. 
The  iK^tjl,  of  which  the  emerald  is  a  variety,  is  a 
double  silicate  of  glucina  and  alumina.  The  mineral 
euchise  is  also  a  doulde  silicate  of  the  same  earths ; 
while  tlie  chri/noben/l  ia  an  alnmiuate  of  glucina, 
coloured  with  peroxide  of  iron. 

GLXJCI'NUM  (sjTnbol,  Gl),  knomi  also  as 
Gi.YciNUM,  Glyctom,  and  Ceryli.ium,  is  a  metal 
whose  atomic  weight  is  4-G5  (as  deduced  liy 
Awdejew  from  the  analysis  of  sulphate  of  glucina), 
and  whose  speciric  gra\-ity  is  2-1.  It  is  white, 
malleable,  and  fusible  below  the  melting-point  of 
silver.  It  does  not  burn  in  air,  oxygen,  or  sidphur, 
but  in  the  first  two  substances  it  becomes  covered 
witli  a  thin  co.at  of  oxide.  It  combines  readily 
with  chlorine,  ioiline,  and  silicon.  Kven  when 
heated  to  redness,  it  does  not  decompose  water. 
It  tlissolves  readily  in  hydrochloric  aud  sidphurio 


acids,  and  in  a  solution  of  potash,  but  is  insoluble 
in  ammonia,  and  only  slightly  acted  on  by  nitric 
acid.     It  forms  one  oxide,  Glucina. 

From  the  researches  of  Debray,  it  follows  that  G. 
should  be  placed  side  by  side  with  aliuniuium. 
These  bodies  are  intermediate  between  the  jirecions 
and  the  ordinary  metals,  and  both  of  them  are 
characterised  by  the  following  properties:  They 
are  jjcnnanent  in  the  air  at  high  as  well  as  at 
low  temperatures ;  do  not  decompose  water,  even 
when  they  are  at  a  white  heat ;  are  not  attacked 
by  sulphur,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  the  alkaline 
sulphides ;  are  not  attacked  by  strong  nitric  acid 
at  ordin.ary  temperatures,  and  only  slowly,  even 
with  the  aid  of  heat ;  but  dissolve  readily  in  dilute 
sulphuric  and  hyLlrochloric  acids. 

G.  was  first  obtained  from  glucina  by  AVohler,  in 
IS'27,  who  procmx'd  it  by  decomposing  the  chloride 
of  G.,  which  is  obtained  by  cva2)or>ating  a  solution 
of  glucuia  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Debray  h.as  smco 
(lSi34)  obtained  it  much  more  abundantly  by 
applying  a  similar  mode  of  proceeding  to  that 
em]iloyed  by  Saiute  Claii'e  Deville  for  the  reduction 
of  aluminium. 

GLUCK,  JonANX  CnniSToru  von,  a  German 
musical  composer,  who  may  be  considered  the 
father  of  the  modern  opera,  was  born,  July  2,  1714, 
at  Weisseuwangen,  in  the  Upper  Palatin.ate.  Ho 
learned  the  rndiments  of  music  in  one  of  the  com- 
mon sclinols  of  Pr.ague,  and  as  a  wandering  musi- 
cian went  to  Vienna,  where  he  found  opportunity 
to  master  the  rides  of  counterpoint  and  hannony. 
In  17.'iS,  he  went  to  Italy,  to  complete  his  musical 
education,  and  found  a  worthy  master  in  San- 
Jlartini.  After  four  years  of  study  he  wrote  his 
first  opera,  Artaxerms,  v.hich  w,a3  performed  at 
Milan,  1741.  This  was  followed  by  Ipermneatra  and 
Demetrio,  given  at  Venice,  1742,  and  several  others 
in  the  two  following  years,  produced  at  Milan  and 
Turin.  Having  achieved  a  high  reputation,  G.  was 
invited  to  London,  where  his  Fall  of  the  Giants 
was  represented  in  1745.  He  foimd  a  formidable 
rival  in  Handel,  whose  genius  he  honoured,  and 
he  derived  gi-e.at  advantages  fi'om  the  friend-ship  of 
Dr  Arne,  the  Enghsh  composer,  and  his  lady,  an 
excellent  singer.  It  was  here  that  he  began  to 
develop  the  lidl  force  of  that  lyric  genius  which 
was  destined  soon  to  create  a  new  order  of  musical 
composition  ;  but  the  outbreak  of  the  Kebellion  in 
Scotland  clcsed  the  opera,  the  singers  and  musicians 
being  mostly  Roman  Catholics,  and  G.  returned  to 
Vienna.  In  1754,  he  was  called  to  Kome,  where  be 
wrote  La  Clemen-.a  di  Tito,  Anli{/ono,  and  several 
others.  But  ho  did  not  rise  to  that  high  style  of 
art  which  distinguished  his  later  works  until  he 
found  at  Florence,  in  llanieri  di  Calzabigi,  a  poet 
whose  dramas  were  worthy  of  his  music.  _  He 
then  composed  the  three  operas,  Alceste,  Paride  e 
Elena,  and  Orfeo,  which  became  the  foundation  of 
an  imperishable  fame.  He  made  music  the  inter- 
preter of  poetry,  givrn"  to  it  the  fidlest  cx^ircs- 
sion.  His  simple,  noble,  and  grand  style  Idled 
Europe  with  admiration.  He  changed  no  less  the 
action  of  the  stage  than  the  music.  Before  him  all 
was  artificial  and  insipid.  He  made  evei-ything 
natural  and  eflfective.  At  Paris,  1777,  he  became 
the  rival  of  the  great  Italian  composer  I'ieiui,  anil 
the  city  was  divided  into  two  rival  factions  of  the 
Ghiekists  and  the  Picinists.  He  conciuered  with  his 
Iphiiynie  en  Tauride,  1779.  llcini,  who  had  com- 
posed an  opera  on  the  same  subject,  would  not 
allow  his  to  be  perfonned  after  listening  to  th.at 
of  his  rival.  His  great  triumph  was  followed  by 
sever.al  successfid  works,  and  he  enjoyed  the  highest 
patronage  and  prosperity.  He  died  of  apoplexy, 
November  25,  1757.     Biu-ncy  has  characterised  him 


GLUCKSTADT— GLUCOSE. 


in  a  sitigle  jihrase,  when  lie  calls  him  '  the  Michael 
Angelo  of  music' 

GLiJ'CKSTADT,  a  town  of  Denmark,  cai)ital 
of  tlie  duchy  of  Holsteiu,  is  situated  ou  tlie  rii;ht 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  on  the  Kremjier  Marsh,  ■■i2  miles 
below  Hamburg.  It  is  a  pretty  town,  regularly 
built,  and  intersected  by  canals.  The  chief  IjuihUugs 
are  the  high  school,  the  school  of  navigation,  the 
house  of  Correction,  the  workhouse  for  Slesvig  and 
Holsteiu,  and  the  theatre.  It  has  a  safe  port  capable 
of  containing  200  ships,  and  furnished  A\'ith  wharfs. 
The  water  with  which  the  town  is  supi>lied  requires 
to  lie  gathered  into  cisterns  and  artitieially  purified. 
Weaving  is  carried  on  here  to  some  extent ;  but 
trade,  navigation,  and  whale-lishing  employ  the 
inhabitants  chiefly.  G.  was  founded  in  1620  by 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  fortified,  and  endowed 
with  various  commercial  pri%-ileges.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  it  successfidly  withstood  three 
sieges  ;  its  fortifications  were  demolished  in  1S15. 
It  has  been  a  free  port  since  1830.     Pop.  6145. 

GLU'COSE  (or,  more  correctly,  Glycose),  known 
also  as  Gr.ipe  Sugak,  Stakch  Sugar,  and  Diabetic 
Sugar  (0,„Hi^Oi^  +  2aq),  seldom  occurs  in  dis- 
tinct, well-formed  crystals,  but  may  be  ol:itained  iu 
warty  concretions,  which,  when  examined  under  the 
microscope,  are  found  to  consist  of  minute  rhombic 
tablets.  It  never,  however,  crystallises  readily.  It 
is  less  sweet  than  ordinary  (cane)  sugar,  is  soluble 
in  water  and  in  dilute  alcohol,  and  its  solutions 
rotate  the  plane  of  polarisation  from  left  to  right, 
this  effect  on  a  ray  of  polarised  light  being  more 
marked  than  with  cane  sugar.  At  212°,  it  fuses, 
and  loses  its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  at  a  higher 
teniperatiu-e  (about  400°)  it  imdergoes  change,  loses 
the  elements  of  water,  and  becomes  converted  into 
Caramel  (CjoHoOa),  a  brown  substance,  which  is 
neither  sweet  nor  capable  of  undergoing  ferment- 
ation, but  which  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  is 
much  used  by  cooks  and  confectioners  as  a  colouring 
matter.  At  a  still  higher  temperature,  it  becomes 
entii-ely  decomposed  into  carbonic  oxide,  carbonic 
acid,  light  carburetted  hytlrogen  (CoHj),  acetic  acid, 
aldehyde,  furfurol,  and  a  very  bitter  substance,  to 
which  the  name  Assamar  has  been  applied. 

With  bases,  glucose  forms  various  definite  biit 
unstable  compounds,  which  have  been  termed 
saccharates,  a  term  which  ought  to  have  been 
restricted  to  the  salts  of  saccharic  acid.  Ou  heat- 
ing an  alkaline  solution  of  glucose,  decomposition 
ensues,  and  a  dark-brown  imcrystaUisable  substance 
is  formed,  which  possesses  acid  properties,  and  is 
known  as  mfkissic  acid.  This  reaction  is  sometimes 
employed  for  the  detection  of  glucose,  and  is  known 
as  Moore's  test. 

Glucose  has  a  strong  reducing  power,  and  upon  this 
jiroperty  several  of  its  tests  are  based.  It  reduces 
the  oxide  of  co])per,  even  without  the  aid  of  heat, 
in  alkaline  solutions  to  the  state  of  the  yellow  sub- 
oxide, and  this  reaction  is  apparent  when  only 
O'OOOl  of  glucose  is  jiresent  in  the  fluid.  This  is 
known  as  Trommer's  test,  and  Fehling's  mode  of 
determuiing  glucose  quantitatively  is  based  on  the 
same  reaction.  In  consequence  of  this  reducing 
power,  sugar  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  solution 
of  the  silver  salts  used  for  the  silvering  of  mirrors. 

Glucose  leadily  undergoes  fermentation.  On  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  it,  kept  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
with  yeast,  each  equivalent  of  it  breaks  up  into 
two  equivalents  of  alcohol,  and  four  equivalents  of 
carbonic  acid,  or — 

Glucose.  Alcohol  CaiboDic  Add. 

C,,H,,0.,  =  2(CJli^)  +  4C0, 

Under  the  influence  of  other  exciters  of  fermentation, 
7'JG 


as,  for  instance,  putrid  animal  membranes,  or 
other  nitrogenous  substances,  glucose  becomes  con- 
verted lirst  into  lactic  acid,  and  subsequently  into 
butj-ric  acid.  These  reactions  are  e.^dlibited  iu  the 
two  following  formulte : 

Glucose.  Lactic  AcicL  Eutjric  AclJ.       Cnrbonio     Hyilro- 

AciU.  gcu. 


O..H,,Oi,  =  2(OoH<,0„)  =  CsH.O,  +  4C0^  +  4H 

Under  certain  conditions,  which  are  not  accurately 
known,  solutions  of  glucose  undergo  a  change  which 
is  termed  viscous  fermentation.  The  sugar  Ijecomes 
converted  into  a  viscous  or  ropy  substance,  while 
lactic  acid  and  mannite  (Ci„H,,iO,2)  are  formed. 
This  kind  of  fermentation  sometimes  occurs  in  light- 
bodied  white  mnes.  Water  is  jirobably  decomposed, 
and  its  hydrogen  unites  with  a  portion  of  the 
glucose  to  foi-m  mannite.  ' 

Glucose  is  a  constituent  of  the  juice  of  grapes, 
plums,  cherries,  figs,  and  many  other  sweet  "fruits, 
and  may  often  be  observed  iu  a  crystalline  form  ou 
raisins,  dried  figs,  &c.  It  likewise  occurs  in  honey. 
In  the  animal  kingdom,  it  is  found  sometimes  as  a 
normal  and  somethnes  a  pathological  constituent  of 
various  fluids  and  tissues.  Thus,  it  occiu's  normally 
in  the  contents  of  the  small  intestine,  and  in  the 
chyle  after  the  use  of  amylaceous  and  saccharine 
food,  iu  the  blood  of  the  hepatic  veins  (see  Liver), 
in  the  tissue  of  the  liver,  iu  both  the  yolk  and 
white  of  bii'ds'  eggs,  in  the  urinary  secretion  iu 
minute  quantity  (according  to  Briicke,  Bence  Jones, 
and  others),  &c. ;  while  in  the  disease  kno^-n  as 
diabetes,  it  exists  iu  large  quantity  in  the  urinary 
secretion,  and  may  be  detected  in  nearly  all  the 
fluids  of  the  body.  By  injuring  a  certain  part  of 
the  medulla  oblongata  (the  part  of  the  spinal  cord 
contained  ^vithin  the  cavity  of  the  cranium),  an 
artificial  diabetes  can  be  jtroduced. 

The  mode  of  formation  of  glucose,  whether  in  the 
laboratory  or  in  the  organisms  of  jilants  and  animals, 
requires  some  notice.  It  can  be  obtained  chemically 
from  starch  and  from  dextrine  by  boiling  them  with 
dilute  sidphiu-ic  acid,  or  by  the  action  of  Diastase 
(q.  v.),  and  from  cellulose  and  gum,  and  from  most 
of  the  varieties  of  sugar,  by  treatment  with  dilute 
acids.  In  the  liver,  it  is  formed  from  the  Glycogen 
(q.  V.)  which  occurs  iu  that  organ,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  ferment  which  has  been  chemically  separ- 
ated from  the  hepatic  tissue,  but  with  the  nature  of 
which  we  are  not  acquainted  ;  while  in  the  rest  of 
the  organism  it  is  toiToed  from  the  starch  which 
is  taken  with  the  food,  the  starch  undergoing  this 
transformation  imder  the  influence  of  ptyaline  (a 
ferment  occurring  in  the  s.aUva),  pancreatine  (a 
ferment  occurring  in  the  pancreatic  juice),  and  an 
uidvno\^-n  but  corresponding  ferment  existing  in 
the  intestinal  fluid. 

The  simjilest  method  of  preparing  pure  glucose  is 
by  treating  honey  with  cold  rectified  spirit,  which 
extracts  the  uncrystallisable  sugar  ;  the  residue  is 
dissolved  in  water,  and  the  solution  is  decolorised 
with  animal  charcoal,  and  allowed  to  crystallise. 

It  is  m.annfactured  on  a  large  scale,  espeeiaUy  on 
the  continent,  from  starch.  A  mixture  of  starch 
and  water  at  a  temperature  of  aliout  1,30'  is  made 
to  flow  gradually  into  a  vat  containing  water  acidu- 
lated with  1  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  kept 
at  the  boiling-point.  In  about  half  au  hour,  the 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar.  The  liquid  is  drawn 
off,  and  the  sidphuric  acid  is  neutralised  by  the 
gradual  addition  of  chalk,  tdl  there  is  no  longer 
any  effervescence.  The  sulphate  of  lime  is  depo- 
sited, and  the  clear  aqueous  solution,  after  being 
concentrated  by  evaporation,  is  set  aside  to  crystal- 
lise. The  molasses  is  drained  off,  and  the  sug.ar  is 
di-ied  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  current  of  air.     'The 


GLUCOSUIU  A-G  LUTTON. 


cliief  use,'  Bays  Dr  Miispratt,  in  his  Chemistr;/ 
Apiillcd  to  Arf-t  and  iliwiifdctima,  'to  wliich 
(glucose  is  applied  on  the  contint-nt,  is  for  the  manu- 
facture of  biLT  and  a  coarse  kind  of  alcohol,  which 
is  said  to  be  extensively  converted  into  French 
brandy  by  the  addition  of  oil  of  raisins,  colouring 
matter,  &c.' 

As  all  alcohoUc  ilrinks  (ales,  wines,  and  spirits) 
are  obtaineil  from  lUiids  containing  this  variety  of 
suf,'ar  as  the  essential  constituent,  and  as  their 
miality  mainly  dejiends  upon  the  amount  of  sui;ar 
that  is  pi-eseiit,  it  is  very  imixirtant  to  have  some 
l-eady  means  of  determinin;;  its  amount.  A  similar 
(leternunation  is  also  of  }ri-eat  value  in  reference  to 
the  urinary  secretion  in  dialjetes,  as  it  is  mainly  by 
ascertaiuinj;  whether  the  daily  amount  of  excreted 
glucose  is  diminishing  or  increasing  that  we  can 
trace  the  favom-able  or  unfavourable  progress  of  the 
case. 

Without  entering  into  details,  we  may  mention 
that  there  arc  three  different  modes  of  determining 
the  amount  of  glucose  in  a  fluid  :  the  first  is  by 
determining  the  specific  gravity ;  the  second  is  the 
optical  test,  which  is  based  upon  the  fact  (already 
noticed),  that  solutions  of  sugar  (whether  grape,  caue, 
or  milk  suyar)  exert  right-handed  rotation  ujion  a 
ray  of  polarised  light,  the  angle  of  rotation  being 
proportional  to  the  percentage  of  sugar.  Soleil's 
apparatus  for  determining  sugar  in  this  way  is 
descrilied  in  the  article  roiAKisiNC,  ArPAB.\TUS. 
The  third  is  by  chemical  means,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  Barreswil's  method  and  the  ferment- 
ation test.  Barreswil's  method  is  base.'  upon  the 
property  which  glucose  possesses  of  throwing  do\vn 
sul)Oxide  of  copper  from  alkaline  solutions  of  o.\ide 
(tf  copper. 

In  employing  the  products  of  the  fermentation  of 
glucose  as  a  means  of  determining  its  quantity,  we 
take  a  given  quantity  of  the  saccharine  fluid,  add  a 
little  well-washed  yeast,  and  collect  the  carbonic 
acid  that  is  evolved  over  mercury.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, a  cubic  iuch  of  carbonic  acid  coiTcsponds  to  a 
giain  of  sugar.  ...     r 

i\Iueh  information  upon  the  different  tests  tor 
glucose,  and  upon  their  relative  dc.grces  of  delicacy, 
will  be  found  in  a  i)aper  recently  published  by 
Dr  Bence  Jones  in  the  Qum-lcrhj  Jounial  of  the 
Chemical  Sockty,  18G1,  vol.  xiv.  p.  22. 

GLUCOSU'RIA,  a  modern  name  for  Diabetes 
Mellitus  (see  Di.vbetis),  and  indicative  of  its  ch.ar- 
acteristic  sj-mptom,  the  presence  of  sugar  m  the 
urine. 

GLUE.     See  Gelatine. 

GLUE  M\RIXB,  a  cementing  composition  used 
in  ship-b'uiiding,  and  for  other  pnn>osc3,  where 
the  materials  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  wet 
It  consists  of  india-rubber  cut  very  small— one  part 
di-estcd  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  closed  vessel  with 
twelve  parts  of  mineral  naphtha  until  it  is  disso  ved, 
then  twenty  parts  of  lu.wdered  shell-lac  are  a.lde.l, 
and  the  di-estiou  continued  until  it  also  is  dissolved. 
Durinf  both  stages  of  the  process,  the  mr^ture  must 
be  stirred  or  shaken  occasionally.  It  requires  to  be 
liquefied  by  heat  before  using,  and  must  be  quick  y 
appUe.l,as  it  very  soon  hardens.  It  is  part.cu  arly 
valuable  in  consequence  of  its  power  to  cement  not 
only  wood,  but  glass  and  metals,  and  also  to  resist 
the  action  of  moisture.  Us  employment,  however, 
requires  some  care  and  skill. 

GLUME,  in  Botany,  a  small  bract  or  scale,  in 
the  axil  of  which  there  grows  cither  a  single  flower 
destitute  of  perianth,  as  in  the  t';/p«;<'';«r,  ,^"d  'n 
some  of  the  Gr;isscs  ;  or,  as  in  others  of  the  Grasses 
a  spih-ht  composed  of  a  number  of  flowers  (floret.,). 
The  Grasses  (amrnhKo:)  and  C:/perace<£  are  some- 


times conjoined  under  the  apiiellation  Glumaceous 
Plants. 

GLU'TEN  is  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
stituents fif  the  varieties  of  corn  used  as  foo(L  It 
is  obtained  by  mixing  flour  with  water,  and  thus 
forming  a  (laste  or  dough.  This  paste  is  placed  in 
a  bag  of  line  linen,  and  kneaded  in  water,  which 
must  be  repeatedly  changed,  till  it  ceases  to  assume 
a  milky  appearance.  A  gray,  tenacious,  viscous, 
tasteless  substance,  having  the  appearance  of  bird- 
lime, is  left  in  the  bag.  This  substance  consists 
mainly  of  gluten,  mixed  with  traces  of  bran  starch 
and  of  oily  matter.  The  gluten  thus  obtained  from 
wheat  anil  from  rye  is  far  more  tenacious  than  that 
which  is  obtained  from  the  other  cereals,  and  it  is 
the  gi-eat  tenacity  of  this  constituent  that  especially 
fits  these  Hours  for  conversion  into  bread.  It  is 
found  by  analysis,  that  the  proportion  of  gluten  con- 
tained in  wheat  grown  in  Algeria  and  other  hot 
countries  is  considerably  higher  than  in  wheat 
gi-own  in  England,  or  still  colder  countries ;  and 
the  hard,  thin-skinned  wheats  contain  more  of  this 
ingredient  than  the  softer  varieties  of  the  giain. 
lt° forms  about  IG  per  cent  of  Algerian  wheat; 
about  l.*)  iier  cent,  of  wheat  from  the  Black  Sea; 
and  nearly  14  per  cent,  of  South  Carolina  wheat ; 
about  lU-7  per  cent,  of  English  wheat  ;  O'S  per  cent, 
of  Canadian  wheat;  and  less  than  9  per  cent  of 
Danzig  wheat. 

Gluten  in  a  moist  state  rapidly  putrefies,  tlie 
mass  acquiring  the  smell  of  decaying  cheese  ;  but 
when  dry,  it  forms  a  hard,  brownish,  horny-lookmg 
mass,  that  docs  not  very  readily  dccompnso.  (.In 
treating  gluten  with  hot  alcohol,  we  find  that  it 
resolve's  itself  into  at  least  two  distinct  substances, 
one  of  which  is  soluble,  and  the  other  insoluble  m 
that  iluid.  t  ■  i  ■ 

The  insoluble  portion  is  regarded  by  Liebig  as 
vegetable  librine.  It  is  a  gray,  tough,  elastic  sub- 
stance, insoluble  in  water  or  in  ether,  but  readily 
soluble  in  dilute  alkalies,  from  which  it  is  precipi- 
tated by  neutralisation  with  acetic  acid.  It  is  also 
soluble  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  from  which 
it  is  thrown  down  by  the  neutral  salts. 

The  soluble  portion  is  in  part  precipitated  from 
the  alcohol  on  cooling,  in  the  form  of  llakcs,  which 
have  the  composition  and  prnperties  of  caserne; 
while  a  third  substance  remains  in  solution,  giving 
to  the  alcohol  a  sirupy  consistence.  It  sejiarates, 
on  the  addition  of  water,  as  a  white  substance 
rcsemblmg  albumen.  It  is  usually  known  as  ijlieidm 
but  some  chemists —Dumas  and  Cahours,  and 
others— have  termed  it  ijlutin,  a  name  which  is 
objectionable  on  the  ground  that  it  is  already 
en"a"ed  for  the  chief  form  of  gelatine.  All  these 
consritueuts  of  gluten  contain  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  sulphur,  in  mucli  tlie  sanio 
iiropoi-tion  as  the  animal  albuminates  or  proteine 
bodies,  and  they  all  doubtless  belong  to  the  flesh- 
forming  group  of  fooils.  -.  ,  1 
The  action  of  gluten  in  the  manufacture  of  bread 
is  iirobably  a  double  one  ;  it  induces,  by  constant 
action,  an  alteration  of  the  starch,  and  subseiiuent 
fermentation,  while  by  its  tenacity  jt  prevents  thu 
escape  of  carbonic  acitl  gas. 

GLU'TTO  Jf  (tjiih),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  usually 
referred  to  the  bear  family  {Ursida-),  but  which 
constitutes  an  interesting  connecting-link  between 
that  and  the  weasel  family  [Mu.^lelld>i),  agreeing 
more  nearly  with  the  latter  in  dentition,  although 
approaching  to  the  former  in  the  plantigrade 
character.  There  are  three  false  molars  in  the  upjicr, 
and  four  in  the  lower  jaw,  anterior  to  the  carnivor- 
ous tooth,  which  is  large  and  sharp.  The  body  la 
loii",  the  legs   are   sh(jrt,  the  feet   have  each   five 


GLYCEEL\-  GLYCEEIXE. 


deei<ly':r    1    5  t  ' -^  terminated  by  long  corved  clawg. 
'I'he  Uul  J-  ititii.  r  bliort,  a  fold  lx.-neath  the  tail  mp- 
j)Ue»  the  i>lace  of  the  glaxidular  pouch  of  the  ba'  i 
but  when   hard   prtMed  by  enemica,  the  gl   ■ 
emit  a  jxscaliar  fluid  of  a  etrong  uuuky  odour,    x  u<,ir 


Glutton  (<?ufo  arcttctu}. 

habits  are  noctumaL  The  speciea  commonly  called 
Cri.l"rro.v,  and  ahcj  WotVKKiSK  (C.  arcticwi),  is  a 
nati%-e  of  the  northern  j/arts  of  Eurojje,  Aisia,  and 
America.  It  i«  more  c/mmon  in  th<-  ar<-tic  r^/ioni 
than  towards  the  - 
which  are  alx;ut  t 

and   the  inountai;.^  - .  j.-.^.,     .    ,.,.-    i,  -t:,   .u 

America.  It  i»  afxiut  two  feet  frix  inches  or  two 
feet  nine  inches  in  lengtli,  from  the  tip  of  the  noise 
to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  tail  alMut  eeven  or  ci;iht 
inches  long,  both  Ixjdy  and  tail  covered  with  long 
hair,  under  which  the  body  is  covered  •with  a  rich 
thick  fur.  The  general  cJour  of  the  long  hair  is 
brown,  s'jmetimes  apj/roaching  to  black,  lighter 
bands  pairing  from  the  neck  along  the  flanks,  and 
meeting  at  the  tail.  The  short  fur  is  chestnut 
)jrown.  The  muzzle  is  black,  A  light-brown  band 
runs  across  the  forehead  from  ear  to  ear.  The 
fur  of  the  0.  '  >;  of  conziderable  value,  and 

is  ujsed  for  7,  ,  &c.,  but  varies  not  a  little 

in  ghjssinets  c.  -  .-  'jualities.  'I'he  most  extra- 
ordinary stories  were  at  one  time  credited  concerning 
the  ferocity,  voracity,  and  cunning  of  this  anim;il, 
and  have  not  altogether  disajjjjeared  from  books 
of  natural  history.  It  is  very  carable  of  drnunxti- 
catiim,  and  even  m  a  w,'  '        -        ■    i  •  i 

able  ferocity  ;  nor  is  tL' 

it  leaps  from  trees  on  il     .,  ,.  ^   .._,   ,.   . , 

artful  methods  of  jirocuring  food  which  were  once 
asc-riljod  to  it.  It  often  i>reys  on  animals  which  it 
lias  n'/t  itself  killed.  The  smaller  cjnadrujieds  are 
its  prin'.ii.al  fo'rl,  and  it  devours  youn^  foxes  in 
;^eat  niiirjberi.  I*  ■ ' ' '  '  '  "  '^  '^  '  ^  '  *  '*  ■  — '-: 
in  gtren/th    and    ; 

the  Biiialler  kin'3  .  

of  North  America  are  very  often  robbed  by  the 
wolverc-ne,  and  it  has  l<eeu  known  to  remo^-e  a 
great  pile  of  •wof>l,  in  order  to  get  at  j/rovi^ions 
which  had  been  hidden  under  it. — Closely  alli'.d 
to  the  <T.  are  the  Oris'jn  and  the  Kat*L  hmm- 
caverus  and  some  of  the  newest  dej»osits  exhibit 
remains  of  more  tfi^in  one  s{/ecie«  of  Glutton. 

GLYCE'ELA,    See  ^Usxi.  Gsjisa. 

GLY 'CEEINE  (C^H , 0 e ), knr/wn  ah»o  as  by'lrat»l 
oxifie  of  lipyl,  or  hylrat^rd  oxide  of  glyceryl,  was 
discovered  hy  Schetl';  in  1779,  who  obtained  it  in 
the  preparation  of  lea/l-jjaster,  and  named  it  'the 
sweet  principle  of  oils.'  It  is  a  colourless,  viscid, 
oeutraC  unciystalliiable,  inodorous  fluid,  of  a  sweet 


taste,  is  soluble  in  water  and  alc«<hol  in  all  jjrojjor- 

tions,  but  is  nearly  inwJuble  in  eth'.T.     Itc  specific 

:ty  at   u'it  is,  according  to   MlUer  and  most 

.'/rities,  I'SS,  but  Gorup-Beaanaz   maices  it  as 

jj.ij  an  1-W.    At  40".   *  '  !  almost 

solid;  at  212',  it  is  t  ilistjlled 

alone,  the  ip^:&U:r  ]  initosed; 

it  may,  however,  Ix-        •  ■  tiiout  alteration  in 

a  current   of  suf>erh-    '    .    >•    iin   which   has  Ijeen 

raised  to  a  tenii>trature  of  between  50*/'  and  G0(/°. 

liy  this    means,    Mr    Wilson*   has    succeeded   in 

Trarating  heati--<l  fats  into  hyflr  •    '     '■     rine,  and 

•  .     acids  wjth  which  it  was  j.i-  combin- 

:-'---n  ;   the  glyx-rine  is  thus   '  .   a  high 

i  state  of  concentration  as  a  colouriess,  sjTupy  liquid, 

I  which  can  be  thus  prejare*!  in  y:!!'mit<rl  'juantity. 

'     Glycerine  forms  Bolubl>-  .  baryta, 

strontia,  and  lime  ;  an  1  i  •  of  lead 

and    nu:r.^  ^    ■       -'---.     li,riu.'j,jM   i^i.i-   i'.,.iid    that 

glycerin".  .ite  (q.  v.),  is  eonvertil)lc  into 

a   true   )■ j    fsugar,    when   digested    'with 

certain  animal  tissues. 

Glycerine  occurs  ready  formed  in  a  few  fats 
(as,  for  example,  old  j/alm-oil),  and,  according  to 
Pasteur,  is  coutaine'l  in  all  fermented  liijuors,  and 

esjiecially  in  wine,  i* -•  * •  '■  ■  •     ■"ree 

j>er  cent  of  the  fern-  :  of 

the   saponification  o:  -  _:^  it 

does  not  exist  as  glj'cenne,  but  rather  as  a  substaoce 
havinc  the  comjioeition  represented  by  **"=  formula 
C'sHjOj.  According  to  Berthollet's  view,  ^ycerine 
is  a  triatomic  alcohol,  and  may  Ije  Tvpreteoied  by 
the  formula  Cf}i^O;,SyiO ;  and  in  the  animal  and 
in  many  vegetable  fats,  the  three  atoms  of  water  are 
replaced  by  three  atoms  of  the  anhydrous  iatty 
add.    Xbu 


Stearine      =    CeH^Oj  +  3C,,H„0, 


Palmitine    =    C^H^O,  +  3C,,H,,0„ 

OlciAcU. 

and  Oleine  =    CcH^O,  +  3C;cH,sO,'. 

In  the  eajioiufication  of  these  fats — that  is  to  say, 
when  thqf  are  treated  with  jK/tash,  soda,  or  oxide 
of  lead,  or  under  the  influence  of  heated  steam — 
the  fatty  acid  sqaratc-s  from  C^H^O,,  which 
asi^imilates  three  atoms  of  water,  and  becomes 
glycerine. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  best  mode 
(AVilson's  jirocess;  of  obtaining  glycerine  on  a  large 
scale  ;  the  usual  method  of  o)it.  '■  /  '-'---  ■  -  Jl 
scale  is  from  olive  oil,  which  we  ;ig 

it  with  an  wjual  weight  of  oiiO       _  ;,;'-), 

which  is  mixed  with  water,  and  added  to  tiae  oil, 
with  wliich  it  is  boiled  till  the  saixiuiBcation  is 
complete.  The  glj-cerine  is  dissolved  by  the  water, 
and  is  easily  sejarated   from  the   insoluble   lead- 

jihister  (a  mixture  of  oleate  and  palrr,: ■' '    .]). 

Any  traces  of  hzd  are  removed  1j/  ■>■(! 

hydrogen,  and  the  water  is  then  exj;  --'to, 

or  over  the  water-bath.  The  former  is  jireferabl^ 
as  in  the  o;*n  air  tlic  glycerine  Ixa^raies  brown. 

The  uses  of  glycerine  are  numerous.  In  medicine, 
it  is  employed  as  a  local  application  in  diseases  of 
the  skin  and  of  the  ear ;  and  it  is  used  internally 
as  a  solvent  f'jr  many  drugs.  It  is  a  valuable 
preservative  fluid  for  small  and  dehcate  anatomical 
jirefiarations,  and  it  has  been  apj>lie<l  to  the  preser- 
vation of  meat.  It  has  l>een  added  to  the  water 
in  gas-metors,  with  the  riev  of  jireventing  it  from 

*  The  chemical  superintendent  at  the  works  of  Price's 
Patent  Candle  Company. 


GLYCINE-GMUND. 


freezing  in  winter,  or  from  cva])orating  too  rapidly 
in  summer.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  copy- 
ing-ink, and  13  of  general  application  wherever  a 
luliricating  agent  is  required. 

Many  interesting  researches  have  been  carried  on 
during  the  last  few  years  regarding  the  true  chemical 
nature  and  the  artificial  j>roduction  of  glycerine ; 
they  arc,  however,  for  the  most  part  of  a  too 
purely  chemical  nattire  to  be  made  intelligible  to  the 
general  reader.  We  will  merely  remark  that,  like 
the  alcohols  in  general,  to  which  cl.iss  glycerine 
is  now  assigned,  it  forms  several  classes  or  series 
of  derivatives,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
its  combinations  \vith  acids,  forming  gltjcerUles,  or 
compound  ethers  of  glycerine,  which  are  analogous 
in  their  composition  to  the  various  fats  and  ods. 
BerthoUet  has  succeeded  in  forming  these  bodies 
synthetically,  aud  has  thus  not  only  rejiroduced 
several  of  the  natural  fats,  but  has  obtained  a  large 
class  of  similar  bodies  which  were  not  previously 
known. 

Treated  with  sidphuric  acid,  glycerine  yields 
sulphoi/lijreric  acid  (CoHsOj.SSOa),  and  treated  with 
phosi)horic  acid,  it  yields  phosiilmrjlycerlc  acid 
(C„HgO„,P05,HO),  a  substance  which  occurs  nor- 
mally, in  combination  with  soda  aud  ammonia,  in 
the  braiu  and  in  the  yolk  of  egg. 

GLY'CINE.     GLT'COCINE,    GLY'COCOLL, 

or  SL'GAll  OF  GELATINE  (C^H^NO,),  occurs  in 
colourless,  transparent,  rhombic  prisms,  which  have 
a  sweet  taste,  and  are  devoid  of  odour.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  water,  the  solution  having  no  effect  on 
vegetable  colours,  but  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and 
in  ether.  Glycine  combines  both  with  acids  (as 
hydrochloric,  nitric,  sulphuric,  and  oxalic  acid)  and 
\rith  metallic  oxides,  and  the  compounds  in  both 
cases  are  soluble  and  crystallisable ;  they  are,  how- 
ever, of  no  "reat  importance. 

It  is  usually  described  as  an  animal  base,  but  some 
chemists  regard  it  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  bodies 
termed  amido-acids,  and  as  being  amido-acetic  acid ; 
that  is  to  say,  acetic  acid  (C^H.Oj)  in  which  one  of 
the  atoms  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  one  atom  of 
amidogen  (XH,).  According  to  this  riew,  its  formula 
should  be  written  C4H3(>H5)04.  Glycine  is  a 
product  of  various  processes  of  decomi>osition  of 
animal  matters. 

GLY'COGEN  (C,  jH,  ,0,  ,,H0,  acconUng  to  the 
analysis  of   Pelouze)  is   a  substance  which  in   its 

Sroi)Crtie3  seems  intermediate  between  starch  and 
cxtrine.  In  contact  with  saliva,  pancreatic  juice, 
diastase,  or  with  the  blood  or  parenchyma  of  the 
liver,  it  is  converted  into  glycose,  and  hence  its 
name  of  glycogen.  It  occurs  only  in  the  cells  of 
the  liver,  wIktc  it  exists  as  an  amorphous  matter; 
but  in  the  early  stage  of  fcct-al  life,  before  the  liver 
begins  to  discharge  its  functions,  instead  of  being 
found  in  that  org.-in,  it  exists  in  special  cells  in  the 
feetal  structures  known  .is  the  placenta  and  the 
amnion,  and  in  the  muscles,  homy  tissues,  &c.  In 
severe  forms  of  disease,  aud  especially  in  febrile 
affections,  it  seems  to  be  temporarily  absent  from 
the  liver.  Its  uses  in  the  animal  economy  are 
noticed  in  the  article  Livee. 

GLYCOL  is  the  tyi>c  of  a  new  class  of  artificial 
comjiounds,  whose  existence  was  inferred,  and  after- 
wards discovered,  a  few  years  ago.  by  Wurtz.  In 
their  chemical  relation  and  iiroperties,  they  fonn  an 
intermediate  series  between  the  monobasic  or  mona- 
tomic  alcohols,  of  which  common  alcohol  is  the  t_\-pe 
on  the  oue  hand,  and  the  chiss  of  bodies  of  which 
ordinary  glycerine  is  the  tyi>e,  on  the  other.  The 
name  of  glycol,  formed  from  the  tirst  syllable  of 
glycerine  and  the  last  of  alcohol,  has  been  given  to 
express  this  relation.    According  to  the  Theory  of 


Ty])es  which  is  now  commonly  accepted  (sec  TvpES, 
TuKORV  OF  Chemical),  the  glycols  are  termed 
diatomic  alcohols,  ordinary  alcohol  being  a  mona- 
tomic,  and  glycerine  being  a  triatomic  alcohol. 

Orcbnary  glycol  is  foniied  from  ethylene  (C^H,), 
and  hence  it  may  be  called  etliyl-glycol,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  propyl-glycol,  which  is  formed  from 
propylene  (C|,II„),  from  butyl-glycol,  which  is  fonne<l 
from  butylene  (C,H,),  or  from  amyl-glycol,  which  is 
formed  from  amyleue  (Ci„U,o). 

Glycol  is  a  colourless,  slightly  %TScid  fluid,  with  a 
sweet  taste,  and  its  composition  is  expressed  by  the 
formula  CjHjOj.  For  further  information  on  this 
class  of  bodies,  we  must  refer  to  any  of  the  recent 
works  on  organic  chemistry,  or  to  a  lecture  on  the 
IlUloire  giniraU  des  Glycols,  delivered  by  Wurtz 
before  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris,  and  pulilished 
in  the  Lemons  de  V/tlmie  pro/aiaets  en  ISGU,  par 
MJI.  Pasteur,  Cahours,  Wurtz,  &c.,  1801. 

GLYCO'SMIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  AuraiUtacece,  trees,  natives  of  the  East  Indies 
and  the  Mascarene  Islands.  Tlie  fruit  of  G.  cUri/olia, 
an  East  Indian  species,  is  delicious. 

GMELIN,  Leopold,  a  celebrated  chemist,  was 
bom  at  Giittingcn,  in  August  178S,  and  died  at 
Heidelberg,  in  April  1S53.  His  father  was  professor 
of  natural  history  aud  botany  at  Tubingen,  and 
afterwaids  of  chemistry  at  Gtittingen  ;  and  for  at 
least  four  generations  members  of  the  Gmelin  family 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  chemistry  and 
natural  history.  After  taking  his  degree  in  medi- 
cine, he  spent  several  years  at  Tubingen,  Vienna, 
and  Xaples,  in  the  study  of  chemistry  and  miner- 
alogy; and  in  the  autumn  of  1813,  he  be^an  his 
pubUc  career  as  a  teacher  of  chemistry  at  Heidel- 
berg, where,  twelve  months  aftcr\vards,  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  chemistry. 
He  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with  unre- 
mitting zeal  until  1848,  when  be  had  an  attack 
of  paralysis  ;  and  in  1850,  in  consequence  of  a 
second  attack,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his  pro- 
fessorial oflice.  He  published  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  Schweiggcr's 
Joiintal,  Poggendorll''s  Annalen,  Liebig's  Aniuiten, 
and  in  Leonhard's  Jahrhucli,  between  the  years 
1815  and  1844.  In  1820,  he  imdertook,  in  con- 
junction with  Tiedemann,  a  series  of  experiments 
on  (Ugestion ;  and  in  1826,  these  philosophers 
published  their  celebrated  work  on  this  subject, 
under  the  title  of  Die  Verdauunfi  iiacJi  VersucJifii,  in 
two  volumes.  '  But '  (Report  of  the  Council  of  the 
Chemical  Society  for  1854)  'the  greatest  service 
which  Gmelin  rendered  to  science — a  sen'icc  in 
wliich  he  surjiassed  all  his  predecessors  and  all  hia 
contemporaries — consists  in  this  :  that  he  collected 
and  arranged  in  order  all  the  facts  that  have 
been  discovered  in  connection  ■nith  chemistry. 
His  Ilandbuck  der  Cliemie  stands  alone.  Other 
writers  on  chemistry  have  indeed  arranged  large 
(juantities  of  materials  in  systematic  order,  but 
for  completeness  and  fidelity  of  collation,  and  con- 
socutiveness  of  arrangement,  Gmelin's  Handbook  is 
unrivalled.'  The  firet  edition  of  this  great  work 
api>eared  in  1817 — 1819,  and  included,  in  two  vols, 
of  moderate  size,  the  whole  extent  of  chemical 
knowledge  as  it  then  existed.  The  fourth  and  last 
appeared  between  the  years  1843  and  IS.').),  and 
extended  to  six  vols.,  the  last  volume  bein^  edited, 
after  G.'s  death,  by  Schlosaberger  and  List.  An 
English  translation  of  this  edition  (under  the 
auspices  of  the  Cavendish  Society),  with  important 
additions  by  Mr  Watts,  the  translator,  is  now  in 
course  of  publication,  and  nearly  completed. 

GMUND,  a  town  of  Wurteml>erg,  in  the  circle  of 
Jaxt,  stands  in  a  beautiful  and  highly  cultivated 

7'J3 


GJfAPHALIUM— GXOME. 


district  on  tlic  Reras,  29  miles  east-nortli-east 
from  Stuttgart.  G.  has  imjiortant  mauiifactures  of 
bijouterie  and  hardware,  aud  carries  on  spinning 
and  stocking-weaving.  Hops  are  jirodueed  in  the 
neighbom-hood  in  great  quantity.  (J.  was  formerly 
an  imperial  free  city,  and  in  the  midtllc  ages  had  a 
popidation  of  1S,0U().  It  was  added  to  the  kingdom 
of  Wurtemberg  in  1803.     Pop.  62G7. 

GI^'APHA'LIUM.    See  Cudweed. 

GNAT  {Culex),  a  genus  of  dipterous  insects, 
taxing  the  wings  laid  flat  on  the  back  when  at 
rest ;  "the  antennas  thread-like,  14-jointed,  feathery 
in  the  male,  and  hairy  in  the  female ;  the  nioutli 
furnished  with  a  long  projecting  proboscis,  adapted 
for  piercing  the  skin  of  animals  and  sucking 
their  blood!  They  are  said  to  feed  also  on  veget- 
able juices.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  aboimd 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  particijarly 
in  marshy  regions ;  and  some  of  them,  under  the 
name  of  "  Mos~quitoes  (q.  v.),  are  known  in  many 
countries  as  most  annoying  pests.  An  irritating 
fluid,  injected  tlu'ough  the  proboscis,  makes  their 
punctures  painfid,  and  causes  swelling.  The  pro- 
boscis of  a  gnat  is  an  extremely  interesting  micro- 
scopical object.  It  is  a  membranous  cylindrical 
tube,  clothed  with  minute,  feather-like  scales,  and 
terminated  by  two  lips,  which,  when  closed,  form  a 
kind  of  knob,  and  by  six  sharp  bristles  or  very  small 
lancets.  The  female  gnats  have  the  most  powerful 
proboscis,  and  are  the  principal  blood-suckers.  Some 
persons  are  much  more  liable  to  the  assaults  of 
gnats  than  others.  The  flight  of  gnats  is  very  swift, 
and  the  extremely  rapid  vibration  of  their  wings 
causes  the  loud  and  sharp  buzzing  sound,  which  so 
often  prevents  sleep  when  even  one  of  these  insects 
has  fomid  its  way  into  a  bedroom  on  a  summer 
night.     The   eggs   of   gnats   are   deposited   on   the 


Gnat,  magnified : 

1,  iiiSLCt  depositing  eggs  ;  2,  insect  escaping  from  pupa  case; 

3j  larva  of  gnat;  4,  floating  raft  uf  eggs. 

surface  of  shallow  stagnant  water,  ]>laccd  side  by 
side,  united  Vjy  an  unctuous  matter,  and  fastened  to 
the  bottom  by  a  thread,  which  prevents  their  float- 
ing away.  They  are  soon  hatched  ;  indeed,  a  single 
simimcr  sees  several  generations  of  gnats.  The 
larvas  are  to  bo  seen  in  immense  numbers  in  stag- 
nant waters  ;  they  are  of  an  elongated  worm-like 
form  ;  are  destitute  of  feet,  but  awim  and  dive  by 
means  of  fin-like  organs ;  they  feed  on  insects,  and 
also  on  vegetable  substances  ;  and  often  suspend 
themselves  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  head  down- 
wards, for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  by  means  of 
radiating  bristles  attached  to  a  long  spiracle  or  tube 
at  the  caudal  extremity  of  the  body,  by  which  air  is 


admitted  to  the  IrachetE  or  air-tubes.  The  pupa;  also 
inhabit  water,  and  are  active ;  they  remain  almost 
constantly  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  with  the 
body  recurs'ed  ;  and  the  respirator}'  openings  of  the 
air-tubes  are  now  in  the  thorax. — The  Common  G. 
{C.  pipiens)  is  of  veiy  wide  geographic  distribution. 
It  is  about  three  lines  in  length,  browni,  with  whitish 
rings  on  the  abdomen,  the  wings  unspotted.  It  so 
abounds  in  some  of  the  fenny  ))arts  of  England  that 
beds  are  occasionally  siu-ronnded  with  gaiiKe  cur- 
tains, as  in  India  on  .account  of  mosquitoes.  It  is 
extremely  abimdant  in  Lapland  and  Iceland. — A 
number  of  genera,  allied  to  C'lile.r,  are  united  by 
many  entomologists  into  a  family  called  Cidicida;. 

GNEISS,  a  term  introduced  from  the  German, 
as  the  name  for  a  variety  of  iletamorphic  rock, 
wliich  has  the  same  component  materials  as  granite, 
and  dift'era  from  it  only  in  these  matericds  being 
arranged  in  layers,  rather  than  in  an  a]iparently 
confused  aggregated  mass.  The  minerals  of  which 
it  is  composed  are  quartz,  felsjiar,  and  ]nica.  The 
mica  is  sometimes  replaced  by  hornblende,  jiro- 
ducing  a  gneiss  correspontling  to  the  variety  of 
granite  called  Sj'cnite.  The  difl'erent  ingredients 
occur  in  varioiLS  proportions,  altering  the  character 
and  appearance  of  the  gneiss  accordingly.  It  is 
often  dittlcult  to  determine  hand  specimens  of  gneiss ; 
for,  on  the  one  hand,  they  are  sometimes  so  crystal- 
line that  tliey  resemble  granite,  while,  on  the  other, 
the  schistose  varieties  approach  so  near  to  mica- 
schist,  that  even  in  the  field,  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances,  it  is  not  easy  positively 
to  separate  them. 

Gneiss  was  originally  deposited  as  sand  or  mud, 
and  has  been  converted  into  a  hard  tough  crystalline 
rock  by  long  aud  continuous  subjection  to  meta- 
morphic  action,  induced,  perhaps,  chiedy  by  heat. 
It  has  generally  I>een  considered  as  an  azoic  rock, 
that  is,  deposited  before  the  existence  of  life  on  the 
globe.  The  older  strata,  classified  by  Logan  under 
the  title  Laurentian,  the  equivalents  of  which  have 
been  recently  observed  by  JIm'chison  in  Scotland, 
have  as  yet  proved  destitute  of  fossils,  but  this  may 
be  owing  to  the  extreme  metamorphism  they  have 
undergone.  The  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata  of 
the  north  of  Scotland  have  also  been  to  a  large 
extent  converted  into  gneissose  rocks,  which  contain 
intercalated  with  them  fossiliferous  limestones.  It 
would  seem,  indeed,  that  gneiss  and  its  allied 
stratified  rocks  are  not  necessarily  '  primary  rocks,* 
but  may  occur  wherever  an  agency  sutficiently 
powerfid  has  acted  upon  ordinary  sandstone  and 
shale. 

GNE'SEN,  a  sm.aU  town  of  Prussia,  is  situated  in 
a  district  abounding  in  hUls  and  lakes,  in  the 
province  of  Posen,  and  thirty  mUes  e.ast-north- 
east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  w.as  the  oarUest 
capital,  and  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  towu  of  Poland. 
Pop.  77G5. 

GNETA'CE.?;.     See  Se.v  Gkape. 

GN03IE  ((Jr.  rpwmc),  a  pithy  .and  sententious 
saying,  commoidy  in  verse,  embodying  some  mor.al 
sentiment  or  jireceirt.  The  gnome  belongs  to  the 
s.ame  generic  class  with  the  proverb ;  but  it  ilifFers 
from  a  proverb  in  wanting  that  common  and  popu- 
l.ar  acceptance  which  stamjis  the  proverb,  as  it  were, 
with  jiublic  authority.  The  use  of  gnomes  pre- 
vailed among  all  the  early  nations,  especially  the 
Orientals ;  and  the  litonatures,  both  sacred  and  pro- 
f.ane,  of  most  countries  abound  with  them.  In  the 
Bible,  the  book  of  Proverbs,  part  of  Ecclesiastes, 
and  still  more  the  apocry]ili.al  book  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
present,  so  far  as  regards  language  and  struc- 
tm-e,  numberless  illustrations  of  the  highest  form 
of  this  composition.    The  other  books  of  the  Old 


GKOiME— GNOSTICS. 


lestament   contam    many   examples;    and   in   the 
JNuw    lestameut  the  familiar  lessons  of  our    Lord 
are    frequently   presented    in    this    striking    form 
wlucli  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  impress  and  move 
the  classes  whom  he  addi-ossed.      The  Indian,  the 
Arabian,  and  the  Persian  literatures  also  are  rich 
in  gnomes,  as  are  those  of  the  northern  nations    But 
the  most   mterestm;,'  form  which  they  have  taken 
IS  that  m  which  we  find  them  in  Greek  literature 
in  which  the  writers  who  have  cultivated  this  form 
of  composition  are  known  as  a  lUstiuct  class -the 
Gnomic   Poets    (nmmikni).     Tlie    Greek   imome   is 
commonly  couched  in  the  elegiac  lUstich  ;  and  the 
most  celebrated  gnomic  poets  were  Solon,  Theognis 
I  hocybdes,  Simonides,  Tyrtieus,  and  Xenophanes  of 
Colophon.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  Theognis 
whose  gnomes  extend  to  above  1200  hues.  The  renfains 
of  gnomic  ^\Titeis  have  been  repeatedly  ecUted  luider 
the  title  of  Giwrnki  Poetm  Oraci,  from  the  days  of 
Melancthon  downwards.     The  standard  editions  are 
those  of  Bekkcr  (1815)  and  Welcker  (1S2G)      There 
IS,  moreover,  a  popular  edition  by  Bninck,  which  is 
reprinted  in  the  Tauchnitz  Classics ;  and  the  gnomic 
poets  arc  also  commonly  included  in  the  coUections 
of  Minor  tircek  Poets. 

In  Latin  literature,  the  Dislkha  of  Dionysius 
Cato,  the  authorship  of  which  has  proved  so  fertile 
a  source  of  controversy,  may  be  mentioned  as 
belonging  to  the  class  of  gnomes. 

GNOME,  the  name  given  in  the  cabalistic  and 
nicdueval  mj-tbology  to  one  of  the  classes  of 
imaginary  beings  which  are  supposed  to  be  the 
presiding  spirits  in  the  mysterious  operations  of 
uatm-e  in  the  mineral  and  vegetable  world.  They 
have  their  dwelling  within  the  earth,  where  they 
preside  specially  over  its  treasures,  and  are  of  both 
se.xes,  male  and  female.  The  former  are  often  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  misshapen  dwarfs,  of  whom 
the  wi-U-knowai  '  Eiibezahl,'  or  '  Number-nip,'  of 
Gei-man  legend  is  a  familiar  example.  Pope,  in  the 
llape  of  the  Lock,  and  Darwin,  in  the  ioce.s  of  the 
Plants,  have  di-a\vn  upon  the  more  pleasing  associa- 
tions of  this  curious  branch  of  mj-thology.  See 
Elemental  Spirits. 


GNO'MON.  Wien  a  rectangle  is  divided  into 
four  parts  by  cross  hues  parallel  to  its  sides,  the  sum 
of  any  three  of  the  parts  is  called  the  gnomon.  See 
Eiicliil,  b.  iL  prop.  5,  and  setx- — Gnomon  has  also  a 
meaning  in  Dialling  (q.  v.). 

GNOMO'NIC    PKOJECTIOK.     See   Pkojec- 

Tioys. 

GNO'STICS  (from  Gr.  Qnush,  knowledge),  the 
collective  term  for  a  number  of  early  Christian  sects 
which  were  known  besides — ■with  one  insignificant 
exception — by  special  names  derived  from  their 
respective  founders.  The  word  gnosis,  when  first 
a))phed  to  revealed  religion,  in  many  passages  both 
of  the  Septuagint  (for  the  Hebr.  Diah)  and  the  New 
Testament,  expressed  a  full  and  comprehensive 
acquaintance  with,  and  insight  into,  the  received 
laws  and  tenets,  ritual  and  ethical,  and  was  conse- 
quently praised  as  a  desirable  acqiurement  ;  by  St 
Paid  even  called  a  siiecial  gift  (Charisma)  (1  Cor.  xii. 
8,  &c.).  (Jradually,  however,  there  was — first  by 
the  Juda;o-^Vlexandi'ine  schools — iugi-aftcd  upon  it  a 
meaning  more  akin  to  that  in  which  it  was  occasion- 
ally used  by  Pj'thagoras  and  Plato  ;  it  designated  a 
knowledge  of  certain  mysteries,  wliich  lay  hidden 
beneath  the  letter  of  the  religious  records,  and 
coidd  be  received  only  by  a  few  superior  minds, 
while  the  multitude  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the 
outward  apparent  meaning.  The  remarkable  form 
of  Christianity  to  which  the  word  in  this  sense 
was  apphed,  is  a  religious  phenomenon  as  extra- 
ordinary as  were  the  times  and  causes  that  gave  it 


birth      Rome  had  conquered  weU-nigh  the  whole  of 
the  then   known   civUised   world,   and  wthin  her 
vast  domimons  the   barriei-s,    which    had    hitherto 
separated    the    multifarious    nations    of    east    and 
west,    were    broken    do\™.      From   the    remotest 
corners   of    the    empire    philosophcra    and   iiricsts, 
scholars  and  teachers,  Uoeked  to  Rome,  to  Athens 
to  Alexandna,  and   communicated   to   each   other 
discussed,  and  fi-equently  amalgamated  their  widely 
(Uttenng  creeds  and  systems  to  such  a  degree  that 
the   former   national   or   personal    individuality    of 
"pmion   wa-s   almost    effaced,  making   room    either 
tor   a    vacUlatmg    indecision,    or    at    the    best    a 
shadowy  and  passive  eclecticism.      And  while    on 
the  one  hand,  CJreek  philosophy,  which  formed  a 
prmcipal  part  of  the  education  of  the  higher  classes, 
h.ad  become  almost  exclusively  a  Platonism,  sliilinc 
into   overt    scepticism;    on    the   other    hand,   the 
naturahsation  in  the  Roman  empire  of  a  i>roniis- 
euous   Pantheon,  whose  gotls  were  gathered  from 
Egypt,  Greece,   Persia,   India,   and   countries   still 
more  remote,  had  at  length   produced,  out  of  an 
imparaUeled  mixture  of  religious  ideas  and  fancies, 
a  superstition  so  abject  and  unnatural,  that  it  too,  at 
last,  was  ready  to  give  place  to  despairing  unbeUef. 
Judaism,  agam,  had  outlived  its  political  existence, 
and  began  to  assert  it.self  as  a  faith,  independent  of 
any  state  or  dominion  of  its  own,  divided,  however, 
into  different  schools,  according  to  the  more  or  less 
strict   adherence   to   the   letter  of  its  written  and 
oral   laws.      Nay,  the  infiuouce  of  Hellenism  had, 
among  the  Alexamb-iues,  ])rodiiced  such  effect  that, 
of   the    Uving    body   of    Judaism,    little    remained 
but  a  skeleton  framework,   round   which   allegory 
and     sj-mbol    had    woven    their    fantastic    fabric. 
Christianity,  as  yet  not  clearly  defined,  swept  all 
the    more   UTCsistibly   over   the  regions   from   the 
Euphrates  to  the  Ganges,  the  Nile  to  the  Tiber,  as 
it  offered  a  code  of  morals  sublime  and  yet  simple, 
a  faith  human  and  withal  divine,  superior  to  any  of 
the  abstruse  and  exploded  Polji-heisms,  to  a  world 
agitated  to  its  lowest  depths,  and  yearning  for  some 
new  and  more  satisfying  doctrine ;  whUe,  at  the  same 
time,  it  denounced  the  stringent  and  severe  ritual 
tenets  of  its  mother-religion,  Judaism,  as  inconsistent 
with  the  freedom  of  the  human  mind.     Yet  it  was 
not  to  be  exj)ected  that  the  old  pagan  creeds  and 
the  old  philosophies  would  expire  without  a  struggle. 
They  made   a   last  stand,   and  produced  in    their 
and  the  ancient  world's  dj-ing  hour  Gnosticism.     It 
sprang  suddenly  out  of  a  monstrous  chaos,  a  con- 
simimate  religious  eclecticism,  bold,  consistent,  to 
a  certain  degree  even  sublime.     The  wiklly  oppo- 
site ideas   of  Polj'theism,  Pantheism,  Monotheism, 
the  most  recondite  philosophical  systems  of  Aris- 
totle, Plato,    Pythagoras,    Herachtus,    Empedocles, 
&c.,    together    with    the    awe-striking    Mysticism 
and  Demonokigy  ■which  after  the  Babylonian  caji- 
tivity  had  created,  in  the  very  heart  of  Judaism, 
that    stupendous    and    pre-eminently    anti-Jewish 
science    of    Cabbala    (q.  v.) — all,    it   Avoiild    ajipear, 
had  waited  to  add  something  of  their  own  to  tho 
new  faith,  ■which  coidd  not  nold  its  own  under  all 
these  strange  influences.     An  open  attack  was  no 
longer  of  any  use ;    so,  assimiing  the  garb  of  the 
enemy,  they  sought  to  carry  destruction  into  tho 
centre  of  the  hostile  camp.      Moreover,  an  aristo- 
cracy of  mind,  powerfiU  and  numerous  as  none  hail 
ever  been  before,  could  uot  but,  even  when  it  h.ad  out- 
wardly assumed  the  new  religion,  loathe  the  thought 
of  sharing  it  completely  and  unreserveilly  with  tho 
herd  of  freed  and  uiifreed  slaves  around  them,  with 
the  low  and  the  i)oor  in  spirit ;  and  the  exclusive- 
ness  of  Gnosticism  was  undoubtedly,  next  to   the 
fascination  of  its  dogmas,  one  of  the  chief  reasons  of 
its  extraordinarily  rapid  propagation. 

801 


GNOSTICS. 


We  have  stated  at  the  outset,  that  Gnosticism  was 
but  a  general  name  for  a  great  number  of  diverging 
Cliristian  schools.  But  all  these  had  some  funda- 
mental points  in  common,  which  we  will  attempt 
to  siiecify  briefly,  as  far  as  the  fraCTuentary  and 
adulterated  nature  of  the  evidence  will  pennit ;  for 
unluckily,  aU  we  know  of  the  G.,  we  know  from 
their  Jewish  and  Christian  adversaries,  who  con- 
fessedly took  esiiecial  pride  in  representing  them  and 
their  belief  in  their  darkest  hues. 

There  is  a  Divine  Being,  whose  essence  is  love, 
grace,  and  mercy.  He  is  enthroned  in  the  highest 
height,  enclosed  in  an  abyss  (Bnllios).  He  is  the 
sum  of  being.  He  is  sdence,  abstraction,  incom- 
prehensible, for  human  minds  almost  non-existing 
{Ouk  On).  The  Mosaic  Cosmogony  has  not  seemingly, 
they  said,  brought  us  one  step  nearer  to  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  the  creation.  Out  of  nothing, 
nothing  can  come,  notwithstanding  a  Di^■ine  Fiat ; 
for  God  can,  through  his  spiritual  nature,  have  no 
connection  whatever  with  corporeal  things,  and  he 
could  not  have  originally  made  them.  They,  there- 
fore, assiuued  a  pre-existing  matter  (Hyle),  out  of 
which  the  universe  was  merely  formed.  A  corro- 
boration for  this  opinion  was  found — according  to 
the  peculiar  Gnostic  mode  of  interpretation— in 
the  two  adjectives  Tohu  vabohii  (without  form  and 
voiil)  (Gen.  i.  2),  apjilied  to  the  earth,  and  which 
were  by  them  interpreted  as  substantives  (Kenom.a, 
Kenon)  intended  to  express  the  original  substance 
of  the  universe  (Cf.  Gen.  Rab.  i.).  Between  this 
Hyle,  or  \'isible  world,  however,  which  was  either 
represented  as  the  darkness  or  shadow  alongside 
the  divine  light,  as  a  sluggish,  stagnant  mass,  or 
as  a  turbulent,  active  kingdom  of  e\Tl ;  and  that 
sujireme  incomjirehensible  Being,  whose  goodness 
coidd  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  erils  of  the 
world,  no  more  than  his  perfection  with  its  defects 
and  misery,  there  existed  a  Pleroma,  or  fulness  of 
Light.  In  this  fulness  dwelt  embodied  attributes 
of  Divinity,  the  abstract  ideas  of  Wisdom,  Justice, 
Right,  Power,  Truth,  Peace,  and  many  more  which 
had  emanated  or  flowed  out  (in  paii-s,  as  some  held, 
male  and  female)  from  the  supreme  central  point,  as 
rays  iuniunerable  flow  out  of  the  sun,  as  countless 
numliers  from  one  unit,  as  echoes  from  a  soimd,  or 
as,  primarily,  all  the  founts  and  rivers  arise  from 
the  waters  below.  At  the  head  of  these  emana- 
tions or  ..'Eons  (Everlasting  ones — Uke  their  source) 
which,  descending  lower  and  lower,  form  a  Unk 
between  heaven  and  earth,  stands  the  Nous;  and 
one  of  the  lowest  .^ons  is  the  Demiurgos.  He  is 
the  real  framer  and  master  of  the  visible  world,  and 
partakes  to  a  certain  degree  of  its  nature.  On  the 
nature  of  this  Demiurges  (Jaldabaoth,  Archon), 
however,  the  two  principal  divisions  of  Gnosticism, 
which  might  be  termed  Judfeo-Alexandrine  and 
Syrian  respectively,  ■widely  differed.  The  former 
took  him  as  the  representative  and  organ  of  the 
highest  God.  It  was  he  who  had  been  put  by  the 
divine  will  over  Israel,  especially  imder  the  name 
of  Jehovah.  As  other,  though  inferior,  angels 
presided  over  the  destinies  of  other  nations,  so  this 
higher  .<55on  had  to  protect  the  peculiar  people  of 
God.  It  was  he,  therefore,  who  revealed  himself — 
he  who  gave  the  laws — he  who  sent  the  prophets. 
But  in  all  this  he  acted  rather  as  an  unconscious 
medium  ;  he  was  no  more  able  to  comprehend  the 
full  meaning  of  the  ideas  revealed  through  him  in 
the  Old  Testament,  than  he  understood  the  scope 
and  significance  of  the  creation.  His  principal 
attributes  are  justice  and  severity,  which,  carried  out 
with  stern  consistency,  become  cnielty.  These  G. 
distinguished  also  among  the  Jews  themselves, 
those  '  after  the  Hesh'  who,  confounding  the  likeness 
■with  the  original,  the  symbol  with  the  idea,  took 
802 


the  Demiurgos  to  be  the  supreme  God,  and  those 
'after  the  Spirit,'  or  Israelites  indeed — the  privileged 
few  who,  divining  at  least  the  veiled  ideas  of  the 
supreme  God,  needed  no  such  education  by  fear  or 
hope,  pimishment  or  reward,  at  the  hands  of  the 
Demiurgos,  but  rose  above  him  in  understanding  and 
conception  of  things  human  and  diWne.  The  other 
principal  party  of  the  G.,  however,  the  Syrian, 
under  the  intiueuce  of  the  Parsic  (Zoroastrian) 
Dualism,  so  far  from  considering  the  Demiurgos 
as  an  instrument  of  tbWnity,  wdliug  but  poor  in 
intellect,  looked  ujion  him  rather  as  a  rival,  and 
consequently  conflicting  jiower.  He  is  the  primary 
evil  opposed  ib  the  primary  good.  The  divine 
germs  wliich,  according  to  both  parties,  had  been 
commimicated  through  the  lowest  emanations  in 
their  downward  course  to  matter  and  to  mankind, 
the  Demiurgos  of  the  Alexandrians  had  not  known 
how  to  develop  in  a  proper  manner,  but  had 
weakened,  sometimes  neutralised  them  from  want  of 
knowledge,  thus  engendering  all  earthly  sin  and 
misery  against  his  wdl,  while  the  Syrian  Demiurge 
spitefidly  and  maliciously  stifled  these  germs  m 
order  to  wrest  the  power  over  the  world  from  the 
Divine  Being  altogether.  His  base,  revengefid,  and 
■withal  limited  nature,  they  said,  is  fuUy  and  clearly 
stamped  upon  the  Old  Testament — exclusively  his 
work. 

Man — in  this  all  the  schools  were  agreed — was 
divided  into  three  classes,  corres])onding  more  or 
less  to  these  predominant  powers  of  the  world : 
Divinity,  Matter,  and  Demiurgos.  There  were  first 
the  spiritual  men  or  Pneuiiuitikoi,  insjiired  by  the 
highest  (rod,  striving  towards  him,  vnth  him ; 
initiated  into  his  counsels,  understaniiing  his  essence. 
They  were  free  from  the  yoke  of  law,  for  teiTestrial 
natm-e  had  no  power  over  them ;  they  were  the 
prophets,  guiding,  but  not  guided  ;  the  jmssessors  of 
the  true  Gnosis.  Diametrically  0]>])osed  to  these, 
as  was  Hyle  to  divinity,  are  the  terrestrial  men, 
Sarkikoi  or  Choiks — of  the  earth  earthy — who  are 
tied  and  bound  by  matter;  they  can  neither  asjiire 
to  the  height  of  spiritual  men,  nor  are  they  to  l>e 
nUed  by  the  precepts  of  law.  Between  these  stand 
the  Ptyychikoi,  the  "blind  servants  of  the  lawgiving 
Demiurgos,  who  are,  through  the  restraints  |>ut 
upon  them  by  his  either  stupid  or  spiteful  pre- 
cepts, free  to  a  certain  degree  from  the  terrestrial 
powers,  but  they  can  never  reach  the  height  in 
which  the  pneumatics  habitually  dwell.  And  again, 
corresponding  to  these  three  classes  of  men,  there 
were  three  principal  religions  ;  Christianity  above. 
Heathenism  below,  Judaism  in  the  intermediate 
space. 

The  two  leading  tendencies  of  Gnosticism,  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  also  manifested  themselves, 
accordingly,  in  the  view  they  each  took  of  the 
person  of  Christ  himself.  According  to  both,  he 
was  the  highest  JEoa,  suddeidy  sent  do\vn  by  the 
Supreme  Being,  to  rescue  and  reclaim  certain  higher 
natures — for  the  lowest  stratum  of  men,  the  carnal 
or  terrestrial,  was  irredeemably  lost — which  had 
either  been  led  astray  by  the  Demiurgos,  or  had 
become  entangled  in  the  net  of  matter.  At  the 
same  time  the  hanuonious  combination  of  the 
human  and  dn-ine  in  Christ,  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment assumed,  stood  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
very  basis  of  Gnosticism.  The  Visible  and  the 
Invisible,  the  Finite  and  the  Infinite,  God  and  Man, 
cannot  combine  :  in  this  they  all  agreed.  But 
while  the  Judaising  schools  divided  Christ  into 
two  distinct  persons,  one  of  heaven  and  one  of 
earth,  who  had  only  become  one  at  the  baptism 
in  the  Jordan,  and  who  had  separated  at  the 
crucifixion  ;  the  other  oriental  section  of  Gnostics 
held  that  Clirist's  earthly  manifestation  in  the  flesh, 


GNOSTICa 


that  hJ8  whole  humanity,  was   a  mere  shadow  or 
delusion. 

It  might  well  be  asked  how,  with  this  extraor- 
dinary conglomeration  of  Monotheism,  Pantheism, 
Spii'ltiialism  and  Materialism,  the  G.  could  possibly 
take  their  stand  on  the  Bible,  which,  from  first 
to  last,  it  would  seem,  denounces,  and  in  the 
strongest  manner,  doctrines  such  as  the  foregoing. 
The  only  answer  to  this  is,  that  they,  and  they  only, 
were  the  Pneumatikoi— the  Initiated.  It  was  well 
for  the  other  portions  of  maukiud,  the  natural  men, 
to  take  everything,  including  Scripture,  and  its 
historical  as  well  as  its  dogmatical  jiarts,  literally. 
As  in  creation,  so  in  the  book  ;  the  G.,  guided 
by  their  inner  lights,  saw  beneatli  the  surface,  and 
saw  everywhere,  the  most  complete  allirmation  of 
their  i)eculiar  ideas.  If  the  Midrash  (q.  v.)  gave 
the  most  fanciful  and  allegorical  interpretations 
of  the  Old  Testament,  for  the  sake  of  inculcating 
moral  principles,  for  edifying,  elevating,  comforting 
the  congregation,  but  without  the  faintest  pretence 
that  any  but  the  fixed  traditional  inteqiretation 
was  binding  and  authoritative — Gnosticism,  with 
a  proud  contempt  of  the  laws  of  laugu.igc  and 
thought,  did  the  same  for  its  own  pm-poses,  but 
made  its  wildly  symbolical  and  eiratic  interpreta- 
tions of  the  religious  records  binding.  We  are  far 
from  sajang  that  they  were  in  all  cases  guilty  of 
intentional  decejrtion,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word ;  although  they  must  frequently  have  known  the 
real  meaning  to  be  totally  opposed  to  their  explana- 
tions, as  most  of  thoir  teachers  were  learned  Jews ; 
but  they,  like  other  enthusiasts,  gradually  lost  the 
power  of  discriminating  between  that  which  was, 
and  that  which  might  be.  Some,  however,  more 
consistent,  assumed  that  Christ  and  his  apostles 
had  still  been  partially  under  the  influence  of  the 
Demiurgos,  and  also  that  what  they  had  taught, 
they  had  expressed  in  accordance  with  the  blindness 
of  those  whom  they  addressed.  Proceeding  con- 
sistently, they  by  degrees  excluded  from  the  code 
most  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  especially 
those  in  wliich  there  were  distinct  attacks  against 
themselves ;  and  substituted  a  number  of  other 
ei)istle3  and  religious  documents  of  their  own  in 
Greek  and  Syriac,  such  as  the  Prophecies  of  Cain, 
Writings  of'Pachur,  Psalms  by  Valentinus  and 
Bardesanes,  Gnostic  ffi/mns  by  Marcos,  Books  of 
Adam,  Enoch,  Moseh,  ' EUah,  Isajah,  kc,  not  to 
mention  a  host  of  ^\Titings  by  newly  invented 
prophets  of  such  peculiar  names  as  P.achor,  Barker, 
Armagil,  Barbelon,  Balsamum,  Lcnsiboras,  &c.  (Hier. 
ad  Theod.  ui.  G,  &c.). 

Practically,  Gnosticism  influenced  the  lives  of  its 
adherents  in  two  totally  di,stinct  ways  :  according 
to  the  view  they  took  of  the  nature  and  office  of 
the  Hyle  and  Demiurgos.  The  HellenisUig  Gnostics, 
striving  to  free  themselves  as  much  as  in  them  lay 
from  theu:  stupid  and  degrading  bonds,  became 
ascetics,  austere,  rigid,  and  uncompromismg.  The 
oriental  view,  however,  of  the  dualistic  and  antagon- 
istic powers  of  Hght  and  darkness,  good  and  evil, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  other  portion  of  the  G., 
led  them,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  practice  of  the 
grossest  sensuality,  in  token,  they  said,  of  their 
utter  contempt  for  matter,  and  still  more  for 
the  Demiurgos— Body,  and  its  enjoyments;  every- 
thing terrestrial,  in  short,  had  as  little  to  do  -with 
their  mind,  which  was  one  with  the  Supreme  Deity, 
as  had  matter  with  GocL  Transgression  there 
was  none,  because  there  was  no  law ;  there  could 
lie  no  law  for  them  who  were  better  even  than 
the  angels— who  were  subject  to  none  :  a  dis- 
tortion °of  a  dictum  in  the  Midrash,  that  'the 
law  was  not  given  to  angels,  but  to  mortal  men, 
and   was   therefore  to  be   administered  leniently. 


They,  indeed,  knew  not  how  to  express  to  the  fidl 
their  utter  contempt  for  this  Jewish  Jehovah,  or 
Demiurgos.  There  were  others  ajnong  them  who 
called  themselves  after  the  serpent  (Oiihiies),  which 
by  tempting  Eve  bro\ight  into  the  world  the  bless- 
ing of  knowledge,  and  h.ad  thus  become  its  greatest 
benefactor.  Othera  took  the  name  of  Cainilea 
(Balamites),  contending  that  Cain  had  been  the 
juimeval  representative  of  Gnosis,  .as  opposed  to 
the  Pistis,  or  blind  imre.asoning  faith  of  Abel,  the 
representative  of  the  Psychi/:oi  (tlie  Jews) — Seth 
being  the  t)^)e  of  the  PneinnatiHoi  Another  class  of 
similar  tentlencies  styled  themselves  simply  Anti- 
lads  (opponents  to  the  Law),  a  name  indicative  of 
their  readiness  to  take  under  their  especial  protec- 
tion, not  only  all  those  persons  condemned  in  the 
Biblical  records,  but  all  the  offences  prohibited  in 
them. 

It  is  as  hopeless  a  task  to  follow  the  development 
of  this  metaphysical  and  unitpie  .abnormity  called 
Gnosticism,  of  which  we  have  attempted  liere  to 
give  a  faint  outline,  through  the  bewildering  maze 
of  its  ramifications  from  its  beginning  in  history  to 
its  final  disappearance,  as  it  would  be  to  fidly  trace 
its  component  parts  to  their  original  sources.  It 
sprang  up  in  the  first  c,  it  had  spread  over  the  whole 
civilised  world  in  the  second,  and  it  w.as  fiercely 
and  unremittingly  combated  from  the  second  to  the 
sLxth  c.  by  Judaism,  Platonism,  Neo-Platonism,  and, 
above  all,  by  Christianity.  With  respect  to  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Gnostics  to  the  orthodox  church,  how- 
ever, wc  must  observe  that  they  all  the  while  feigned 
a  naive  surprise  at  not  lieing  fullj-  recognised  as 
most  faithful  followers  of  Christianity,  and  members 
of  the  large  Christian  body.  AU  they  asi>ire<l  to, 
they  said,  was  to  be  .allowed  to  form  a  small  central 
circle  within  the  large  outer  circle,  to  be  a  kind 
of  theosophic  community,  consisting  of  the  more 
advanced  members  of  the  church  ;  indeed,  they  not 
only  adhered,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  outward 
forms  of  Christian  worshiji,  but  occasionally  even 
siu-jiassed  it  in  ]iomp  and  splendoiu*.  And  such  was 
the  fascination  Gnosticism  e.Kcrcised  over  the  minds, 
that,  had  it  not  been  for  the  innumerable  schisms  in 
its  own  camp,  which  prevented  its  alliance  with  the 
pohtical  power  of  the  d,iy,  it  would  have  stood  its 
ground  much  longer.  On  its  influence  upon  the 
Judaism  of  its  tunc,  as  it  is  recognisaljle  in  many 
pass.ages  of  contemporaneous  Jewish  literature  ;  on 
its  lasting  influence  upon  Christianit)- ;  and  on  its 
h-cquent  revivals  in  the  middle  and  modern  cen- 
turies, we  can  as  little  dwell  here  as  on  its  embodi- 
ment in  many  philosophical  systems,  ancient  and 
modem. 

We  can  only  take,  in  conclusion,  a  cursory  glance 
over  some  of  its  principal  schools,  in  givm"  a 
brief  list  of  their  foimders  (of  whom,  and  their 
chief  doctrines,  special  notices  will  be  found),  and 
the  places  where  they  flourished,  -without  attempt- 
ing to  divide  them  minutely,  as  has  been  done  in 
different  ways,  by  Neander,"Gieseler,  Matter,  Baur, 
Schaff,  into  Judaising  and  Christianising ;  specu- 
lative, practical  and"  antinomiau ;  dualistic  .and 
emanationistic  ;  or  to  classify  them  strictly  by  origin 
and  locality.  Suffice  it  to  mention,  that  among  the 
precursors"  of  Gnosticism  are  recorded  some  half- 
mythical  personages,  such  as  Euphrates,  mentioned 
cui-sorily  by  Origen ;  Simon  Magus,  whose  history, 
as  given  in  the  Acts,  h.as  been  made  the  groimd- 
work  of  Innumerable  legends ;  Menander,  his  suc- 
cessor ;  Ccrinthus,  the  apostle  of  the  Millennium ;  and 
Nicolaus,  the  father  of  the  pre-eminently  inmioral 
sect  of  the  Nicolaitans.  Foimders  of  special  schools 
were,  in  Syria,  Saturninus  of  Antiooh,  about  12.5 
A.D.  under  Hadrian ;  Bardesanes  of  Edessa,  161 
A.D.,  the  author  of  many  hymns,  and  who  looked 


GNU— GOAT. 


upon  tlie  Holy  Ghost  as  at  once  wife  ami  sister 
of  Christ :  Hannodius  .and  Marinns,  his  disciples ; 
Tatian  of  Rome,  the  founder  of  the  Encratite.% 
w'ho\vrote  a  still  extant  Oration  to  the  Greelcs.  Of 
Egyptian  foxmders  of  Gnostic  schools  we  may  men- 
tion Easilides  of  Alexandria  (125—140),  who  assumed 
;)G5  .-eous  or  circles  of  creation,  two  Demiurgi, 
and  a  thi'eefold  Christ,  .and  whose  mystic  use  of 
numbei-s  and  u.ames  reminds  us  most  strikingly  of 
the  C.ah.alistic  Geometria ;  his  no  less  famous  son 
and  follower,  Isidorus,  the  author  of  a  system  of 
ethics;  and  Valentinus  of  Kome,  who  died  160 
A.D.  at  Cyprus,  a  .Tew— as  indeed  was  Markos  his 
disciple,  .and,  very  likely,  Easilides  and  J.aherniuus. 
Of  V.olentin's  sviccessors  who  founded  schools  of 
their  own,  are  mentioned  besides  M.arkos,  Secundus, 
rtolemy,  Colarbasus,  Her.acleon,  Theodoras,  and 
Alexander.  To  the  Syrians  may  .also  be  reckoned 
the  Ophites,  Cainites,  and  Sethites  (see  above). 
In  Asia  Minor,  we  have  M.arcion  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  c,  who  is  r.ather  remarkable  for  his 
consistency  in  scornfuUy  rejecting  the  whole  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  all  .apostolic  authority  .s.ave 
r.aul.  His  school  flourished  u])  to  a  very  late  period. 
Among  non-localised  G.  may  be  emmicr.ated  the 
schools  of  C.arpocrates  and  Epiph.aues,  the  Borto- 
nians,  Antitacts  (see  above),  Plubionites,  Arehontics, 
and  a  great  many  others. 

Irenajus,  Adi:  Hem:;  Tertidliiin,  De  Prescript. 
IReret.  and  Contra  Gn.  Scorpiacum ;  Epiphanius, 
Adv.  Hares.  ;  Theodoret,  Ha;ret.  Fabb. ;  Plotinus 
(Ennead.  ii.  9) ;  Mosheira,  De  Rebus  Christ,  ante 
Const,  comm. ;  Milnter,  Vers,  ilber  die  Kirchl.  Alterth. 
d.  Gn.;  Lew.ald,  Ve  J)octtina  Onostica  (Heidelb. 
1818) ;  Ise.auder,  Genet.  Enlio.  d.  Gnost.  S;jst.  (Berl. 
181S) ;  Jliihlcr,  Vrspr.  d.  Gn.  (Tubingen,  18.31) ; 
Matter,  Hist.  Crit.  du  G.  (Par.  1843—1844,  2d  edit. 
3  vols.) ;  Baur,  J)ie  Chr.  G.,  &c.  (Tubingen,  1835). 
See  also  Neander's  and  Gieselor's  Histories  of  the 
Church;  Corner's  Chri.dulog)/ ;  iiunscu's  Hipj'oii/tiis 
and  his  Aye,  and  Griitz,  Giioslicismits  und  Juden- 
thum,  besides  many  of  the  histories  of  Philosophy 
and  of  Cliristian  dogma. 

GNU  (Catoblejxis),  a  genus  of  ruminaut  quad- 
rupeds, which  natur.alists  generally  r.ank  with  the 
antelope  family  (Antilopidce),  but  which  some  ]ilace 
in  the  ox  family  [Bovidm),  and  of  which  the  best- 
known  species  has  been  often  described  as  apparently 


Gnu  [Catvhlcpas  Gnu). 


made  up  of  parts  of  different  ■auim.als,  not  only  of 
the  antelope  and  the  ox  or  buflalo,  but  even  of  the 
horse.  This  species  (C.  Gnu  or  Antiiope  Gnu)  is  a 
native  of  South  Africa  ;  it  has  disappeared  from  the 
more  settled  p.arts  of  Cape  Colony,  l^ut  is  to  be  seen 
in  herds  on  the  arid  plains  beyond  these  boimdaries 
in  company  with  the  zebra  or  the  qu.agga,  and  with 
flocks  of  ostriches.  The  form  and  action  of  gnus 
804 


so  much  resemble  those  of  zebras  .and  quaggas, 
that  at  a  dist.ance  they  m.ay  be  readily  mistaken 
for  them.  The  size  of  the  gnu  is  that  of  a  large 
ass  ;  the  general  colour  is  yellowish  tawny.  Both 
sexes  have  horu.s.  The  limbs  .are  slender,  like  those 
of  deer  and  antelopes.  The  gnu  gallops  with  great 
speed.  It  has  been  usually  represented  as  a  very 
fierce  anim.al,  and  certainly  shews  much  ability  to 
defend  itself  with  its  horns,  when  unable  to  esc.ajie 
from  danger  by  flight ;  but  when  taken  young,  it  is 
easily  tamed,  and  readily  associ.ates  with  oxen, 
accompanying  them  to  and  from  the  field.  There 
are  two  or  three  species,  all  South  African,  nearly 
resembling  the  common  gnu,  and  one  of  them  at 
le.ast  is  very  considerably  larger.  Their  flesh  is 
said  to  be  palatable. 

GO'A,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
in  lat.  15°  30'  N.  and  long.  74"  E.,  while  the 
dependent  temtory  of  the  same  u.ame  stretches  in 
N.  lat.  from  14°  54'  to  15-  4.i>',  and  in  E.  long,  from 
73°  45'  to  74°  20',  containing  1060  square  miles,  and 
313,262  inhabitants.  G.  w.as  once  the  capital  of 
the  Portuguese  dominions  in  India,  but  is  now  in  a 
state  of  hopeless  decay.  It  was  v.aluable  chiefly  on 
account  of  its  harbour,  one  of  the  best  on  the  west 
coast  of  Hindustan,  from  which  it  was  about  5 
mdes  ilistant;  but  h.aving  the  misfortune  to  be 
ravaged  by  the  cholera  in  the  beginning  of  the 
ISth  c,  most  of  the  Portuguese  left  it,  and  settled 
nearer  the  se.a,  at  Paujim  or  New  Goa,  which 
is  the  present  seat  of  government,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  .about  10,000.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
olil  city  are  almost  entirely  ecclesiastics,  the  place 
being  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  the  prim.ate  of 
the  Portuguese  Indies.  G.  was  conquered  by 
Alljuqtierquc  in  1503,  .at  which  time  it  was  inhabited 
by  an  Ar.abic  people. 

GOALPA'RA,  a  disti-ict  of  India  which  belongs 
geographically  to  Bengal  Proper,  but  politically  to 
Assam,  stretches  in  N.  hat.  from  25°  40'  to  26°  31', 
and  in  E.  long,  from  89°  42'  to  91°  S',  containing 
3506  square  miles,  and  .about  400,000  inhaliitants. 
On  the  N.  it  is  boimded  by  the  n.ative  state  of 
Bhotan.  Its  capital,  of  its  own  name,  stands  on 
the  river  Br.ahmaputra,  in  lat.  2G°  8'  N.,  and  long. 
90°  40'  E. 

GOAT  {Capra),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds 
of  the  family  Crij>ridce  (q.  v.),  so  closely  .alUed  to  the 
sheep  th.at  it  is  not  easy  exactly  to  define  the  dis- 
tinction, although  the  conunon  domestic  goat  and 
sheep  are  of  widely  different  appearance.  One  of 
the  most  m.arked  of  the  distinguishmg  characters 
is,  that  the  horns  of  go.ats  are  directed  upwards, 
backwards,  and  outwards,  whilst  those  of  sheep  ai'e 
more  or  less  spirally  twisted.  Another  character 
j  is  the  beard  on  the  chin  of  the  male  goats,  which 
is  wanting  in  the  sheep;  but  these  chai'acters  are 
not  perfectly  constant.  Perh.aps  a  more  constant 
character  is  the  straight  line  of  the  face  in  goats, 
as  compared  with  the  arched  line  in  sheep.  The 
tail  of  goats  is  also  much  shorter  than  that  of  sheep. 
A  curious  but  constant  nuirk  of  tlistinction  is  the 
w.aut  of  a  sm.all  pit,  producing  a  fatty  secretion 
between  the  toes,  in  go.ats,  which  exists  in  sheep, 
and  is  pecidiar  to  them.  And  another  constant 
m.ark  is  the  strong  smell  of  male  goats,  particidarly 
during  the  rutting  season,  which  is  wanting  iu 
sheep.  Equ.aUy  constant  are  the  differences  of 
temper  and  manners,  goats  being  in  a  high  degree 
curious  and  confident,  and  the  very  term  capricious 
referring  to  their  e.xhibitiou  of  the  quality  which  it 
denotes.  In  both  goats  and  sheep,  both  sexes  are 
usually  fiu'nished  with  horns,  the  "want  of  which  is 
a  variation  .app.arently  caused  liy  domestication,  and 
is  most  frequent  in  females.     The  horns  .and  beai'd 


GOAT— GOAT-MOTH. 


of  female  goats  are  always  smaller  thau  those  of  the 
male.     Some  goats  have  horns  three  feet  long. 

Goats  are  foiiml  wild  only  in  mountainous 
countries ;  they  all  exliibit  a  great  aptitude  for 
scrambling  among  rocks  and  bushes,  are  extremely 
sure-footed  on  narrow  ledges  and  pinnacles,  and 
displ.-vy  great  strength  and  agility  in  leajjing.  They 
also  prefer  as  food  the  leaves  and  small  branches 
of  slu'ubs,  and  the  strongly  aromatic  herbs  wliich 
abound  in  mountainous  situations,  to  the  herbage 
of  the  richest  pastures.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
sacrificed  the  goat  to  Bacchus,  as  an  enemy  of  the 
viae.  It  is  difhcult  in  this  genus  to  determine  what 
are  sjiecies  anrl  what  are  varieties.  The  Common' 
or  UoMKTic  Goat   (C  hiicus)  has  existed  as   a 


Common  Goat  {Capra  hircus). 

domestic  animal  from  the  earliest  ages;  it  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  books  of  Moses,  and 
formed  a  large  portion  of  the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs. 
It  adapts  itself  to  almost  all  climates,  and  thrives 
under  the  care  of  man  in  the  hottest  parts  of  India 
and  Africa,  and  with  the  protection  only  of  a  shed 
from  the  severity  of  winter,  in  the  northern  districts 
of  Scandinavia.  Amidst  such  diversity  of  eirciun- 
stances,  considerable  diversity  of  breeds  might  be 
expected,  and  accordingly,  besides  the  variety  com- 
mon in  Britain,  there  are  the  SjTiau  Goat,  the 
Angora  (q.  v.)  Goat,  the  Cashmere  (q.  v.)  Goat,  all 
remarkable  for  the  greater  length  and  fineness  of 
their  hair;  a  beautiful  dwarf  variety  from  West 
Africa,  called  the  Guinea  (loat,  and  many  others. 
Some  of  these,  as  the  Syrian  goat,  have  large 
pendent  e.-irs.  In  nothing  does  variation  seem 
more  readily  to  result  from  the  influence  of  climate 
and  other  circumstances,  than  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  hail-,  and  in  the  relative  abundance 
of  the  two  kinds  of  it,  lioth  of  which  are  well 
exhibited  in  the  common  goat,  the  long  soft  hair, 
and  the  softer  woolly  hair  beneath  it.  But  iu  many 
other  respects,  also,  the  domestic  goat  is  subject  to 
variation,  more  than  perhaps  any  other  domestic 
quadruped  except  the  dog. 

Goats  can  be  kept  \vith  advantage  in  situations 
too  rocky,  or  where  the  herbage  is  too  scanty  for 
oxen  or  sheep.  They  were  fomierly  kept  in  greater 
mmibei-s  in  Britain  than  they  now  are.  On  some  of 
the  mountains  of  Wales  and  of  Scotland,  the  goat  is 
almost  as  completely  wild  as  if  it  were  indigenous, 
and  even  to  get  within  shot  of  it  is  difficidt.  It  is 
capable,  however,  of  the  most  perfect  domestication, 
and  becomes  extremely  attached  and  familiar.  It 
is  apt,  indeed,  to  prove  a  troublesome  pet,  and 
makes  use  of  its  horns,  although  not  angrily,  much 
more  freely  than  is  at  all  agreeable. 

The  uses  of  the  goat  are  numerous.  The  flesh 
is  good  ;  that  of  the  kid,  or  yoimg  goat,  is  in  most 
countries  esteemed  a  delicacy.  The  milk  is  very 
rich  and  nutritious,  more  easy  of  digestion  than 
that  of  the  cow,  and  is  often  useful  to  consumptive 


patients.  Some  goats  yield  as  much  as  four  quarts 
of  milk  daily,  although  the  average  quantity  is  more 
nearly  two.  Both  cheese  and  butter  are  made  of 
goats'  milk ;  they  have  a  jieculiar  but  not  disagree- 
alJe  flavour.  Cio.ats'  milk  is  stiU  verj'  much  used 
in  Syria  and  other  ])art3  of  the  East,  as  it  was  in 
the  days  of  the  ])atriarchs.  The  skin  of  the  goat 
was  early  used  for  clothing,  and  is  now  dressed 
as  leather  for  many  uses,  particularly  fur  making 
gloves  and  tlie  liner  kinds  of  shoes.  The  hair, 
■nhich  may  be  advantageously  clip[)ed  annually,  is 
used  for  making  ropes  which  arc  indestnictible  in 
water,  and  for  making  wigs  for  judges,  b,arristers, 
and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  For  the  latter  jnir- 
pose,  the  hair  of  wlntc  goats  is  used.  The  use  of 
the  hair  or  wool  of  certain  varieties  of  goat  for 
making  valuable  fabrics  is  noticed  in  the  articles 
A.NOORA  and  C'asiimerk  Goat.  ITie  horns  are  used 
for  making  knife-handles,  &c.,  and  the  fat  is  said 
to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  ox  for  candles.  In 
Holland,  goats  are  employed  in  drawing  children's 
coaches,  to  which  as  many  as  four  are  sometimes 
harnessed  together,  and  they  are  sufficiently  tract- 
able and  obeclient  to  the  rein. 

The  goat  generally  produces  two  young  ones  at  a 
time.  A  hybrid  between  the  goat  and  the  sheep 
has  been  produced,  and  it  has  been  describe<l  as 
fertile,  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  fertility  except 
in  connection  with  one  of  the  parent  races. 

The  origan  of  the  domestic  goat  is  with  greatest 
probability  traced  to  the  Aegagrus  {C.  Aeqagrnit), 
which  many  naturalists  confidently  identify  witli 
it,  and  which  is  found  on  Caucasus  ami  on  many 
of  the  mountains  of  Asia.  It  is  called  Pamiiy 
ill  Persia.  Its  legs  arc  longer  than  those  of  the 
domestic  goat ;  its  horns  are  very  large,  larger  in 
proportion  than  those  of  any  other  known  ruminant. 
— Another  wild  species  is  the  Jemlvji  Goat  (C. 
Jemiaka),  which  inhabits  the  district  of  Jemlah, 
between  the  sources  of  the  Sargew  and  the  Sanpoo, 
the  most  elevated  range  of  Central  Asia;  very 
similar  to  which,  if  really  distinct,  is  the  Jahr.\l 
(C.  Jaliral)  of  Iv'epal.  These,  however,  have  no 
true  beard,  although  they  otherwise  abound  in  long 
hair. — Other  species  or  v.-irieties  of  go.at,  of  whicli 
the  BouQUETiM  (q.  V.)  is  one,  are  associated  under 
the  name  Ibex  (q.  v.). — All  the  species  are  natives 
of  the  Old  Worid. 

GOAT,  RocKV  MouxTAix  {AnlHope  la»!yra, 
or  Ajiloceros  huiirjera),  an  animal  of  the  antelope 
family,  inhabiting;  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Eocky 
ilountains  of  Js'orth  America,  from  about  the 
40th  to  the  Goth  degree  of  latitude.  Its  size  is 
about  that  of  an  ordinary  sheep,  and  its  general 
appearance  is  not  unUke  that  of  a  sheep  of  the 
Merino  breed,  its  long  straight  hair  hanging  down 
in  an  abundant  white  fleece.  Tlie  flesh  is  in  little 
esteem  as  food,  having  a  musky  odour. — This 
animal  has  been  called  the  Sheep  Antelope  and  the 
Wool-bearhig  Antelope.  It  has  been  thought  that 
its  fleece  might  be  available  for  some  of  the  liner 
kinds  of  manufactures,  and  that  it  might  be  intro- 
duced with  hoi>e  of  advantage  into  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland. 

GOAT-MOTH  (Cosnus  Vujmperda),  a  lepidop- 
terous  insect  of  the  same  family  vrith  the  Ghost- 
moth,  llepialiila:  The  genus  Cosmis  has  long 
antenna; ;  a  large  body,  a  very  small  head ;  the 
upper  wings  larger  and  longer  than  the  lower. 
The  larvae  feed  on  the  wood  of  trees,  and  the 
pupae  are  enclosed  in  cocoons,  made  chiefly  of  the 
saw-dust  which  the  mandibles  of  the  lar\-a?  h.avo 
produced.  The  G.  is  one  of  the  largest  of  British 
moths,  measuring  from  3  to  34  inches  from  tip 
to  tip  of   its  expanded  wings.      It  is  of   a  gray 

SOj 


GOAT'S-BEARD— GOBLINS  AND  BOGLES. 


colour,  the  ujiper  mngs  mottled  with  white,  and 
marked  with  many  uregnlar  black  lines,  the  lower 
wings  o£  an  almost  umform  brownish  ash  colour. 


Caterpillar,  Chrysalis,  and  Imago  of  the  Goat-Moth 
{Cosmts  ligniperda). 

The  larva  is  about  3  inches  long  when  full  grown, 
yellomsh,  the  upjier  jiarts  pink,  the  head  black. 
The  larva  inhabits  and  feeds  on  the  wood  of  willows, 
poplars,  and  elms,  making  holes  large  enough  to 
adinit  the  finger,  and  often  causing  the  destnictiou 
of  trees.  It  emits,  when  alarmed  or  handled,  a 
peculiar  and  disagi'eeable  goat-like  odour,  which 
cannot  be  removed  fi-om  the  hands  even  by  frequent 
washings. 

GOAT'S-BEARD.     See  Salsaj'y. 

GOAT'S  RUE  (Galega),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leffuminosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece, 
of  which  one  species  ((?.  oJUciiialis),  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  about  three  feet  in  height,  with 
pinnate  leaves,  long  pointed  leaflets,  racemes  of 
generallj'  purphsh  or  pink-coloured  flowers,  and 
upright  nearly  cylindrical  pods,  has  been  recom- 
mended for  cidtivation  in  Britain  as  a  forage  plant, 
on  account  of  the  gi'eat  bulk  of  produce  which  it 
yields.  It  has,  however,  a  peculiar  smeU,  and  is 
not  relished  bj'  cattle  unaccustomed  to  it.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

GOATSUCKER  (Caprimulgiis),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Caprimulgidw  (q.  v.),  having  the  upper 
mandible  curved  at  the  point,  and  furnished  along 
each  margin  with  a  row  of  strong  haii'S  or  bristles 
{vibrissa)  directed  forwards ;  the  hind  toe  capable 
of  being  directed  forwards  ;  the  claws  shoi't,  except 
that  of  the  middle  toe,  which  is  remarkably  long, 
and  serrated  on  its  inner  edge,  so  as  to  foi-m  a  kind 
of  comb  attaclii'd  to  the  toe.  Although  the  bUl  is 
very  short  and  weak,  the  gape  is  xi.xtremely  wide, 
as  if  the  head  itself  were  diWded.  The  goatsuckers 
feed  on  insects,  perhaps  chiefly  on  moths,  whence 
they  are  called  Molh-hunlers,  and  j)ursue  their 
pi'ey  either  in  the  evening  twilight  or  during  the 
night,  in  a  manner  similar  to  bats  and  swallows. 
Like  them,  they  seem  to  confine  themselves  very 
much  to  a  limited  space,  in  which  they  often  pass 
and  repass  at  no  great  height  above  the  ground. 
They  have  great  rapidity  and  power  of  flight. 
Of  course,  their  great  width  of  gape  is  favour- 
able for  the  capture  of  insects.  Goatsuckers  are 
birds  of  light,  soft  plumage,  in  general  minutely 
mottled  with  gray  and  brown.  Oue  species  alone 
is  foimd  in  Britain,  the  Common  G.  or  Eukope^lm 

806 


G.  (C.  EuropcEus),  also  called  the  Night-Churr,  or 
Nigiit-Jab,  from  the  sound  which  it  produces ; 
and  not  unfrequently,  from  the  resemblance  of  its 
plumage  to  that  of  owls,  the  Churn  Owl  or  Fern 
Owl.  It  is  a  summer  visitant  of  Britain,  coming 
very  late,  and  departing  generally  very  early  ;  it  is 
more  common  in  England  than  in  Scotland,  although 
its  migrations  extend  northward  to  Scandinavia, 
Siberia,  and  Kamtchatka.  In  winter,  it  retires 
from  Europe  altogether,  passing  to  the  south  of 
the  Mediterranean.  It  often  haunts  bushy  places 
and  grounds  covered  with  brake.  It  scarcely 
makes  a  nest,  but  deposits  two  eggs  in  a  depression 
of  the  ground,  uuder  shelter  of  a  bush.  Its  whole 
length  IS  about  ten  inches  and  a  half.  This  bird  is 
the  CaprimuJijus  of  Pliny,  the  Ahjothelas  of  Aris- 
totle, both  these  names  being  exactly  equivalent  to 
the  English  G.,  and  expressive  of  the  ancient  and 
Ion"  entertained  popiUar  notion,  that  this  bird 
sucks  the  teats  of  goats,  a  notion  probably  fonnded 
on    the    habit — which,    at    all    events,    has    been 


Common  Goatouckui  \Ca^.,- 


i.«  Europams). 


observed  in  some  of  this  family — of  hunting  insects 
under  the  bellies  of  gr.Tzing  cattle. — Species  of  this 
and  closely  allied  genera  are  veiy  widely  distributed 
over  the  world. 

GOBBE,  orVOANDZ0U(  roanc^zeia  suUa-ranea), 
an  annual  plant,  allied  to  the  kiilncy-lican,  but  of 
wliich  the  pod  is  thj'ust  into  the  ground  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  Ground-nut  (Arackis 
hypoijaa,  see  Araculs),  to  ripen  the  seeds  there. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  north-east  of  South  America, 
and  of  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Africa.  Its  seeds 
are  used  as  food,  being  wholesome  and  agreeable 
when  boiled. 

GO'BBO,  GOBBIO,  or  GOMBO.    See  Hmiscus. 

GO'BELINS.     See  Tapestry. 

GOBI,  Desert  of.     See  Shajio. 

GO'BLINS  and  BOGLES,  familiar  demons 
of  popidar  superstition,  in  Fr.  ijoheliji^  Ger.  hohohly 
Gr.  kohalos,  a  spirit  which  lurks  about  houses.  It 
is  also  called  hobgoblin,  perhaps  a  corrujitiou  of 
hopgoblin.  Some  nave  derived  the  word  goblin 
from  the  French  ycher,  to  swallow,  to  devour  ;  and 
others  the  words  elf  and  goblin  from  the  Guelphs 
and  GhibeUines,  each  name  being  used  by  the  other 
party  as  a  name  of  terror.  Goblin  is  used  iu  a 
serious  sense  by  Shakspeare  in  Hamlet,  where  the 
ghost  is  supposed  to  be  a  '  spirit  of  health  or  goblin 
damned.'  Gohelet,  in  French,  is  applied  to  juggler's 
tricks  and  instruments,  and  our  word  goblet  comes 
fi'om  the  juggler's  cup. 

Bogle,  bogle-boe,  or  bugaboo,  may  be  from  the 
Welsh  hrorjwbi,  to  terrify ;  and  hoe  or  hoo,  a  soimd. 
Bugaboo  was  the  popular  name  of  wide-mouthed,  ugly 
pictures,  formerly  carried  in  May-games.    Waxton 


GOBONY— GOD. 


says  Boh  was  the  designation  of  a  fierce  Gothic 
chieftain,  wliciae  nauie  was  usmI  iu  after-times  to 
fjij;hten  chililien.  The  belief  in  benevolent  and 
malevolent  sj.irits  belongs  to  all  countries,  and 
aii|ieais  to  be  as  old  as  the  world. 

GOBONY,  iu  Heraldry,  the  same  as  Compong 
('!•  v.).  A  Kobonate<l  bordiire  is  frequently  carried  in 
place  of  the  baton  sinister,  not  only  by  the  lawful 
issue  of  bastards,  who,  after  the  thinl  lawful  gener- 
ation, are  considered  entitled  to  make  the  chan"e, 
but  by  bastards  themselves.     See  Bastard  Bais.  °  ' 

GOBY  {Goliii(s),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 
the  tyjie  of  the  famdy  Oobii<!ce.  This  family  is 
distiumiishcd  by  the  thinness  and  flexibihty  of  the 
rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  ;  by  the  union— in  most  of  the 
genera — of  the  ventral  fins,  which  are  thoracic, 
into  a  disc  more  or  less  ca|iable  of  being  used  as  a 
sucker ;  by  the  want  of  an  air-bladder ;  and  by  a 
long  intestinal  canal  without  caca.  The  Blenny 
(q.  v.)  family  (BlcnikUt)  have  by  some  ichthyologists 
been  united  with  the  Goby  family,  wliilst  others 
unite  with  them  the  Diiroljoli  (q,  v.).  The  tnie 
gobies  (OohUii)  are  generally  small  fishes,  some  of 
them  inhabiting  the  shallow  water  of  the  coasts, 
and  others  found  iu  deejier  water ;  the  S]>ecies  very 
numei-ous,  and  found  iu  the  seas  both  of  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  They  are  very  inter- 
esting on  account  of  their  habits ;  and  arc  of  the 
number  of  nest-building  fishes,  employing  algce  and 
giass-wrack  (Znstera  marina),  in  the  spring  season, 
for  making  their  nests.  When  the  female  h.as 
deposited  her  epgs  in  the  nest,  the  male  watches 
over  them  till  they  are  hatched.  There  are  several 
British  species,  the  largest  of  them— the  Black  Goby 


The  Black  Goby  and  the  One-spotted  Goby 
(Oobiua  nigcr  and  Gobiua  unipunctatus}. 

[G.  nii/er) — aliout  five  or  six  inches  long,  some  of 
them  pretty  common  on  all  parts  of  the  coast,  and 
much  in  request  for  aquaria,  of  which  they  are 
anumg  the  most  interesting  occupants.  They  are 
often  found  in  rock-jiools  on  the  coast.  The  disc 
formed  by  the  ventral  fins  is  often  used  for  adhesion 
to  stones.  Most  of  the  goljies  prefer  seas  of  clayey 
or  muddy  bottom,  in  which  they  excavate  canals  to 
pass  the  winter  iu.  The  species  are  more  numerous 
in  the  Mediterranean  than  in  the  British  seas. — 
The  Goby  family  includes  the  Dragonets  (q.  v.),  and 
several  other  interesting  genera,  among  which  are 
the  Bolm/'ltthalmi  of  the  Chinese  seas,  remarkable 
for  their  power  of  thrusting  out  their  eyes  in  order 
to  look  aroiuid  them. 

GOD  (Lat.  Daus;  Gr.  Theo.';),  the  self-existent 
and  Supreme  Being,  creator  and  preserver  of  all 
things,  and  the  object  of  hum.in  worship.  The 
name  is  of  Saxon  origin.  The  idea  is  more  or 
less  delinitely  expressed  in  every  langu.ige,  as  it 
may  he  said  to  be  in  some  form  or  another  a  uni- 
versal element  of  the  human  consciousness.  There 
have  been  many  nations,  indeed,  in  every  age  of 


the  world,  that  have  been  far  from  attaining  any 
such  conce]ition  of  God  as  is  expressed  above.  The 
Sujircme  h.as  been  to  them  the  conception  not  of  a 
single  Being,  but  of  many  beings  superior  to  man, 
and  claiming  his  worship.  In  the  general  hist-jry  of 
the  world,  polytheism  precedes  monotheism ;  the 
idea  of  many  cods  goes  before  the  idea  of  one  God, 
mfinite  and  self-existcut. 

The  general  charaet^-r  of  polytheism  is  everywhere 
the  same.— A  dualistic  conception  of  nature  and 
life  underlies  it,  and  shews  itself  in  varied  expres- 
sions. In  looking  forth  on  nature— in  looking  within 
himself— man  seems  to  see  two  principles  striving 
for  the  mastery— an  active  and  passive,  a  creative 
and  recipient  principle — a  good  and  evil,  a  productive 
and  destructive,  a  joyous  and  gloomy  agent.  On 
oue  side,  there  seems  a  power  nch,  benignant,  and 
gracious,  giving  light  to  the  day,  verdure  to  the 
sjiriiig,  abundance  in  autumn,  scattering  fecundity 
and  blessing  around  ;  on  the  other  side,  there  seems 
a  ]>ower  cruel  and  malevolent,  quenching  the  light 
in  darkness,  consuming  the  verdure  and  fertility 
with  scorching  heat,  or  destroying  them  with  coli 
These  contrasts  seem  eternal- they  take  iwssession 
of  the  imagination,  and  clothe  themselves  m  diverse 
shapes.  In  every  polytheistic  religion,  they  will  be 
found  in  the  recognition  of  male  and  female,  of  good 
and  evU  divinities— B.aal  .and  I',.-uvltis,  Baal-Adonis 
and  Baal- Moloch,  iu  the  old  I'hienician  religion; 
Osiris  and  Isis  and  the  evil  jirincijile,  Typhon,  in 
Egyi>t ;  and  the  more  famUiar  opposites  of  .\hriniau 
and  Ormuzd,  Jupiter  and  Juno,  &c.  The  dualism 
assumes  various  shapes,  now  male  and  female, 
productive  and  passive  ;  and  now  good  and  evil, 
conservative  and  destructive. 

Whether  this  dualistic  mode  of  conception,  and  the 
polytheistic  view  of  nature  that  springs  from  it,  be 
a  later  or  an  earlier  tyjie  of  thought  than  the  mono- 
theistic, has  been  a  good  deal  disputed.  Some  see  in 
it  the  corrujition  of  monotheism — the  worshi]p  of  the 
Supreme  gradually  falling  to  a  worsliip  of  the  great 
forms  of  nature  which  most  strikingly  represent 
Him — the  sun  and  storm,  the  light  and  darkness, 
&c.  Others,  again,  reg.-u-cl  the  polytheistic  as  the 
primitive  view  of  nature,  above  which  man  gradu- 
ally rises,  by  tlie  giowth  and  exercise  of  his  reason. 
There  is  truth  iu  this  latter  view,  even  to  those  who 
believe  that  man  originally  received  a  Dinne  Keve* 
lation,  which  he  has  gradu.-dly  corrupted.  Polytheism 
is  the  natural  religion  of  savage  tribes  throughout 
the  world ;  and  as  man  advances  in  civilisation, 
he  rises  to  piu"er  and  more  comprehensive  concep- 
tions of  Deity.  His  reason  conqiels  liim  to  recognise 
the  One  in  the  many  everyivhere,  to  carry  up  all  his 
conceptions  into  a  unity.  Polytheism,  consequently, 
everywhere  disappears  before  the  march  of  eivUisa- 
tion.  It  is  incompatible  mth  the  lowest  stage  of 
sjiecnlative  development. 

But  while  the  growth  of  reason  and  the  rise  of 
speculation  everywhere  destroy  polytheism,  they  do 
not  necessarily  substitute  a  geuuine  monotheism 
— the  doctrine,  th.at  is  to  say,  of  oue  living  and 
true  God,  iufinite  in  power,  wisdom,  gomlness,  and 
truth,  a  free  [lersonal  Being  exalted  above  the 
world,  and  apart  from  it,  yet  intimately  related 
to  all  its  cix-atures,  who  '  sulTereth  not  a  sparrow 
to  fall  to  the  ground  without  his  |>ermis8ion.' 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  Christian  theism,  as  opjNised 
alike  to  polytheism  (the  doctrine  of  many  gods), 
pauthcism  (tlie  doctrine  that  all  things  are  God  ; 
th.at  Cod  is  a  tmity,  yet  only  a  unity  of  comprehen- 
sion, not  a  self-subsistt'Ut  and  independent  unity), 
and  atheism  (the  assertion  that  there  is  no  Goil). 

The  course  of  argument  on  which  the  theistio 
conclusion  supports  itself  may  be  sketched  as  fol- 
lows :  There  are  everywhere  in  the  world  the  traces 

607 


GOD— GOD  SAYE  THE  KING  (OR  QUEEN). 


of  order ;  a  unity  of  plan  or  design,  shewn  in  many 
beautiful  effects,  pervades  creation.  Science  is 
always  more  unfolding  it.  0{  Ihc  fact  of  this  order 
or  unity  of  jJan,  there  is  no  question.  The  progress 
of  science,  if  nothing  else,  has  effectually  exploded 
the  old  dualistic  or  polytheistic  conception  of  nature. 
■\\liat  appeared  to  be"  the  result  of  opposing  prin- 
ciples, is  really  found  to  be  the  issue  of  general 
laws  working  on  some  great  although  unexplored 
scheme  of  hai-mony.  There  is  no  distnrljance,  no 
disorder;  amidst  the  infinite  diversity  of  nature 
— 07-der  reigns  universally. 

But  this"'  order,'  what  is  it  ?  The  mere  recogni- 
tion of  order  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  recogni- 
tion of  God — of  a  '  Being  aU-powerful,  ^^■ise,  and 
food,  by  whom  everj-thing  exists.'  The  materialist 
and  pantheist  equally  admit  the  fact  of  order,  but 
equally  deny  the  thei-stio  conclusion  founded  upon 
it ;  and  the  argument,  accordingly,  is  carried  uji 
from  nature  and  its  facts  to  a  higher  region  of  dis- 
cussion. Whence  arises  the  concei^tiou  of  order — of 
design  ?  Nature  illustrates  it,  but  nature  does  not 
itself  give  it.  The  general  laws  of  which  science 
speaks  so  much  pervade  all  jihenomena  of  creation, 
but  they  are  not  a  part  of  these  phenomena.  '  Order ' 
and  law  are  ideas  which  ve  convey  to  natme,  not 
which  nature  brings  to  us.  They  come  from  within, 
not  from  \\-ithout.  It  is  with  mind,  and  not  with 
matter  that  we  start.  The  latter  in  itself  presents 
a  mere  series  of  endless  movements.  It  is  in  the 
presence  of  mind  only  th.at  it  assumes  meaning 
and  order.  Wiud  is  tlie  true  image  of  the  Deity. 
We  discern  causation  in  nature,  because  we  ourselves 
are  agents,  conscious  of  exerting  jjower.  We  discei-n 
order  in  nature,  because  we  everywhere  bring  our 
conceptions  into  a  unity,  and  apprehend  our  several 
modes  of  consciousness  "with  reference  to  the  indi- 
visible self  which  they  all  involve.  '  In  om'  life 
alone  does  nature  Hve.'  '  It  is  from  the  little  world 
of  our  own  conscioiisncss,  with  its  many  objects 
marshalled  in  their  array  under  the  rule  of  the  one 
conscious  mind,  that  we  are  led  to  the  thought  of 
the  gi-eat  universe  beyond — that  we  conceive  this 
also  as  a  world  of  order,  and  as  being  such  by  virtue 
of  its  relation  to  an  ordering  and  presiding  mind.' 

The  existence  of  Deity,  therefore,  is  a  jjostulate 
of  the  human  consciousness.  Kecognise  a  living 
mind  in  man,  independent  of  matter — a  rational 
leill,  as  constituting  the  essential  and  distinguishing 
element  of  his  being — and  the  inference  is  ine\at- 
able  of  an  infinite  mind — a  sujn-eme  will  governing 
the  world.  A  true  natural  theology  is  based  ujion 
a  true  psychology.  A  philosophy  which  denies  to 
man  a  higher  existence  than  nature,  which  would 
make  his  rational  consciousness  the  mere  gi'owth  of 
material  conditions,  leaves  no  gi'ound  of  argument 
for  the  existence  of  Deity — for,  as  Jacobi  says : 
'  Nature  reveals  only  fate,  only  an  indissoluble 
chain  of  causes  (sequences),  without  beginning  and 
■without  end,  excluding  with  equal  necessity  both 
providence  and  chance.  Working  without  ivill,  she 
takes  counsel  neither  of  the  good  nor  of  the  beauti- 
ful ;  creating  nothing,  she  casts  up  from  her  dark 
abyss  only  eternal  transformations  of  herself,  uncon- 
sciously and  withoiit  end.  But  man  reveals  God — 
for  man,  by  his  intelligence,  rises  above  nature,  and 
in  ^^rtue  of  this  intelligence,  is  conscious  of  himself, 
as  a  power  not  only  independent  of,  but  opposed  to, 
nature,  and  capable  of  resisting,  conquering,  and 
controlling  her.  As  man  has  a  ii^^ng  faith  in  this 
power  superior  to  nature,  which  dwells  in  him, 
so  has  he  belief  in  God — a  feeling,  an  experience 
of  his  existence.  As  ho  does  not  beheve  in  this 
power,  so  does  he  not  beheve  in  God;  he  sees,  he 
experiences  nought  in  existence  but  nature,  and 
necessity,  and  fate.' 


The  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  rests, 
accordingly,  on  certain  fundamental  prmoiples  of 
our  mental  and  moral  being,  such  prmciples  as 
causation  and  design,  or  final  cause.  It  implies  a 
spiritual  ]]hilosoph}'  of  human  nature.  Apart  from 
such  a  ])]iilosophy,  theism  has  no  argumentative 
basis,  however  it  may  prevail  as  a  tradition  or 
superstition. 

But  some  philosophers  have  sought  not  merely  to 
rest  the  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  upon 
such  ])rinciples,  but  to  evolve  it  in  all  its  complete- 
ness from  them  alone.  From  a  single  datum  of 
consciousness — sometimes  from  a  single  datum  of 
experience — they  have  tried  to  construct,  by  pro- 
cesses of  mere  abstract  reasoning,  a  '  demonstration 
of  the  being  and  attributes  of  God.'  This  has  been 
styled  the  A  priori  method  of  argument,  although 
to  all  the  argimients  to  which  this  name  has  been 
given  it  does  not  strictly  ajiply.  The  mode  of  argu- 
ment, again,  which  reasons  ii-om  special  eflects  in 
nature  to  a  First  Cause,  has  been  styled,  in  contra- 
distinction, it  posteriori.  The  argument  from  design, 
for  example,  as  conducted  by  Paley  and  others,  is 
A  posteriori.  The  arguments  of  Descartes,  and  the 
'  demonstration  '  of  Dr  Samuel  Clarke,  are  what 
have  been  termed  d  priori.  Either  of  these  modes 
of  proof,  taken  by  itself,  has  been  rightly  considered 
inconclusive  by  recent  ^vl•iters  on  natural  theology. 
Mere  el  priori  trains  of  reasoning  fail  to  carry  up 
the  mind  to  any  real  and  living  conception  of  Deity ; 
they  yield  merely  a  theoretical  or  abstract  idea. 
Alignments  such  as  Paley's  and  the  Bridgewater 
treatises,  again,  are  rather  illustrations  than  argu- 
ments. They  derive  all  their  logical  force  from 
certain  prineijiles  which  are  implied  in  their  details, 
and  withoiit  which  these  details  could  have  no 
bearing  on  the  existence  of  God.  The  very  idea  of 
Design  itself  is  such  a  jirinciple.  It  is  the  die  which 
the  mind  stamps  upon  natiu'C  ;  it  is  not  in  nature 
itself.  Any  complete  argument  for  the  Being  of 
God,  therefore,  involves  equally  d  priori  and  A 
posferio7-l  elements.  The  former  are  necessary  as 
the  rational  foundation  of  the  argument ;  the  latter 
are  necessary  to  illustrate,  to  give  life  and  body 
to  the  general  principles  which  lie  at  the  foundation. 

The  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Godhead  will  be 
considered  under  the  several  names  of  Trinity, 
Son  of  God,  and  Holy  Spirit. 

GOD,  Offences  again.st.     See  Saceii-ege. 

GOD  SAVE  THE  KING  (or  QUEEN),  the 
noble  national  anthem  of  Great  Britain,  and  by 
adoption  that  of  Prussia  and  the  German  states,  and 
which  is  played  and  sung  in  every  part  of  the 
British  empire  alike  on  solemn  and  festive  occasions, 
has  been  a  subject  of  controversy  \vith  respect  to 
its  origin.  Its  words  are  apparently  imitated  from 
the  Domino  Salvum  of  the  Catholic  Church  ser\nce. 
In  England,  the  authorship  has  been  generally  attri- 
buted to  Dr  John  Bull,  born  I5G3,  in  1591,  organist 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Chapel,  1590,  professor  of  music 
in  Gresham  College,  and  chamber-musician  of  James 
I.  About  the  period  of  the  discovery  of  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  ho  composed  and  played  on  a  small 
organ  before  the  king  an  ode  beginning  vrith  the 
words,  '  God  save  great  James  our  king.'  He  died 
at  LUbeck,  1022.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
this,  or  any  other  old  composition  of  a  similar  title, 
had  any  connection  with  that  which  we  now  possess. 
Chappcll,  in  his  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time, 
and  Dr  Fink,  a  German  musical  autiq\iary,  have 
settled  the  question ;  the  honour  of  this  great 
work,  both  words  and  melody,  must  be  given  to 
Dr  Henry  Carey,  an  English  poet  and  musician, 
born  in  London  about  1096,  died  1743.  The  words 
and  music  were  composed  in  honour  of  a  bii-thday 


GOD  A  VERY— GODFREY  OP  BOUILLON. 


of  George  11.,  and  performed  for  the  first  time  at 
a  dinner  given  on  tliat  occasion  in  1740  by 
tlie  Mercers'  Comjiany  of  London.  The  words  and 
music  were  first  piilili'shod  in  the  I{armo7iia  Anrjli- 
caim,  1742,  and  appoaved  in  tlio  Gentleman'.^  Mw/a- 
~i»e,  174.5.  Tlio  air,  according  to  Dr  Arne,  has 
preserved  its  original  form,  but"  its  liai-monics  have 
been  modified  by  various  artists  ;  and  the  words 
were  changed  on  the  accession  of  William  IV.,  .and 
on  tli.it  of  Queen  Victoria. 

GODA'VERY,  or  GODAVARI,  one  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan,  and 
tlio  largest  of  the  Deccan,  rises  within  50  miles  of 
tlie  Arabi.an  Sea,  and  flows  south-e.ast  across  the 
peninsuha  into  the  B.ay  of  Bengal.  Its  source  is  in 
the  eastern  face  of  the  Western  Cihauts,  in  lat.  10° 
58'  N.,  and  long.  73°  m'  E. ;  and  its  two  mouths, 
diverging  in  lat.  1C°  57'  N.,  and  long.  81°  4!)'  E., 
enter  the  sea  respectively  in  lat.  10'  48'  and  lone. 
82° 23',  .and  in  lat.  10'  IS' and  long.  81°  40'.  About  23 
miles  above  the  head  of  the  delta,  the  G.  emerges 
at  Polaveram  from  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  through 
which  it  has  ])assed  with  so  moderate  a  descent 
as  to  be  n.avigablo  in  cither  direction.  The  southern 
arm  of  the  G.  admits  vessels  drawing  eight  or  nine 
feet ;  and  the  northern  one  shews  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  feet  more.  Like  tropical  streams  in  general, 
the  river  varies  gi-eatly,  according  to  the  season,  in 
breadth  and  depth.  But  a  dam  or  annicut  (see 
C.\rvERY)  has  been  constructed,  so  as  to  niitig.ate 
the  evil  for  the  pui-]io5cs  .aUke  of  navigation  and  of 
irrigation.  The  entire  length  of  the  G.  is  about  900 
miles. 

GOD-BOTE,  an  ecclesiastical  lino,  p.aid  for 
crimes  and  offences  against  God.  The  word  bote, 
the  s.ame  as  boot,  is  the  old  Saxon  hot  or  bote,  a 
repar.ation  or  satisfaction — e.  g.,  man-bote  was  the 
compensation  due  for  the  life  of  a  man. 

GODESBERG,  a  village  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  with 
a  fine  ruin,  is  situated  on  a  conical  hill  in  the  midst 
of  a  plain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  four 
miles  south  of  Bonn.     It  has  a  mincr.al  spring,  is  a 
favourite   summer  residence,  and  has   a  population 
of  1170.     It  derives  its  name,  not  from  Woden,  who 
is  said  to   have   been  worshipped   here,  but   more  [ 
probably  from  the  Gau-ding,  or  Goding,  the  district 
court  which  may  have  held  its  sittings  at  this  place. 
The  castle  was  erected  by  Dietrich,  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  (1208 — 1213),  with  materials  t.akcn  from 
the  ancient  chapel  of  St  Michael,  the  ruins  of  which  [ 
are  still  standing  near  the  castle.     In   1582,  Geb-  ! 
hard,  the  deposed  archbishop,  took  refuge  here,  and  } 
intrusted  the  castle  to  a  Dutch  garrison.     It  was, 
however,  soon  after  t.akcn  by  his  successor,  on  which 
occasion   it    sust.aiued   much   injurj-.      During    the  { 
Thirty  Years'  War,  it  w.as  .altern.atcly  in  the  posses-  i 
sioji  of  the  Swedes   and  the  Imperialists,  and  was 
finally  almost  demolished  by  the  Frencli.     Only  one 
fine  tower,  90  feet  in  heiglit,  is  still  standing.     It 
comm.ands  a  magnificent  prospect  of  the  Siebengo- 
birge  and  gre.at  part  of  the  v.alley  of  the  Rhine,  and 
is,  on  this  account,  much  visited  by  strangers. 

GODFATHER  and  GODMOTHER,  the  per- 
son  who,  by  solemnly  presenting  to  the  minister  | 
of  ba))tism  the  candidate  for  th.at  sacr.ament,  which 
is  regarded  as  a  new  spiritu.al  birth,  is  reputed  to 
contr.act  towards  the  newly  baptised  t!ie  relation 
of  spiritual  p.ateriiity  or  maternity.  The  effects  of 
the  us.agc  are  differently  estimated  in  the  different 
communions. 

In  the  Rom.an  Catholic  Church,  the  parties  pre- 
seutiug  a  child  for  baptism  are  called,  from  the 
spiritual  parental  relations  which  they  contract, 
'godfather'  [patriiius)  and  'godmother'  {matrlna); 
and  from  the  engagement  into  which  they  enter  on 


bch.alf  of  the  baptized,  'sponsors'  {sponsored).     The 
spiritual  bond  resulting  from  this  relation  is  regarded 
.03  a  species  of  kindled  (whence  the  name  gossip,  or 
God-sill,  Dpin'tualh/  aHn),  and  constitutes,  by  the 
canon  law,  an  impediment  of  marri.age  between  the 
sponsors  upon  the  one  hand  and  the  bajitized  and 
!  the  parents  of  the  baptized  on  the  other.     Anciently, 
I  this  impediment  arose   also  between  the  sponsors 
themselves,    who   were   often   very  numerous,  and 
extended   besides   to   the    other   mcmbera    of    the 
'  kindred ;    but  the   Council   of    Trent  limited   the 
1  number  of  sponsors  to  '  one  or  two,'  and  restricted 
the    matrimonial    impediment    within    the    limits 
J  .above  described.     The  parents  of  the  baptucd  are 
I  not   jiermittod   to   .act   .as   sponsors   in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of    the  olijects   of   the   insti- 
'  tution  bcmg  to  provide  instructors  in  case  of  the 
death   of    jiarcnts ;    nor   are    membera    of    religions 
orders,  because  their  inclusion  within  their  convent 
is    sujjposed    to  render  it   impossible  for   them  to 
discharge  permanently  and  regularly  the  duties  of 
instructors  to  the  newly  bjvptized.     In  the  Roman 
Catholic  sacr.ament  of  confirmation  also,  the  candi- 
date is  commonly  presented  by  one  spon.sor,  gener- 
ally, though  not  necess.ari!y,  of  the  s.ame  sex  with 
the   candidate  for  confirmation.      It  is  difKciUt  to 
assign  the  jirecise  date  of  the  origin  of  this  insti- 
tution.    No  trace  of  it  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  it  is  believed  to  have  licen  in  use  in  the 
2d  c,  and  it  certainly  was  an  established  practice  in 
the  fourth. 

In  the  Church  of  England,  two  godfathers  and 
a  godmother  are  retpiired  at  the  baptism  of  a  male, 
and  two  godmothers  and  a  godfather  at  that  of  a 
female.  In  order  to  be  .admitted  as  such,  the  person 
must  be  baptized,  must  be  of  full  age,  .acquainted 
with  the  Lord's  I'rayer,  Creed,  .and  'Ten  Ci>mmand- 
ments,  and  familiar  with  the  fundamental  tnitlis 
of  Christianity.  No  impediment  of  marriage  arises 
in  the  English  Cliurch  from  the  relation  of  the 
j  sponsors  to  the  baptized.  Pr.actically,  the  ns.age  in 
the  Church  of  England  has,  for  the  most  part, 
degenerated  into  a  mere  fonn  ;  godfathers  and  god- 
mothers usually  giving  themselves  little  concern 
in  the  future  fate  of  the  infant  whose  spiritual 
condition  they  Ijecomc  bound  to  w.atch  over.  In 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  other  non-Episcopal 
Churches,  the  jiarents  of  the  infant  occupy  the 
phaee  of  sponsors  ;  the  father  expressly  taking  the 
vows  on  the  occasion. 

GODFREY  OF  BOtTILLON,  Duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  born  about  1001,  at  Baisy,  a  vilhage  of 
Belgian  Bnabant,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Count 
Eustace  II.  of  Boulogne,  and  Ida,  sister  to  Gott- 
fried or  Godfrey,  the  Hunchback,  Duke  of  I^ower 
Lorraine  and  Bouillon,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
government  of  the  latter  duchy  in  107C.  He  sen-ed 
with  great  gallantry  ui  the  armies  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV.,  both  in  Germany  and  Italy ;  and  it 
w.as  from  liis  hand  that  the  competitor  for  the 
imperial  crown,  Rodolf  of  Swabia,  received  his 
deathblow  at  the  b.attle  of  Merseburg.  When 
the  first  Crus.ade  was  set  on  foot,  the  fame  of 
his  ox]>loits  caused  him  to  be  elected  one  of  the 
principal  eommandei"s.  In  order  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  Crusade  of  1095,  he  mortgaged 
Bouillon  to  the  Bishop  of  Litge,  and  set  out,  accom- 
panied by  his  brothers  Eust.ace  and  Baldwin,  in 
the  spring  of  1090.  For  a  detailed  .account  of  his 
career  uptill  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  see  CKi's.\.r)F.s. 
Eight  days  after  the  t.aking  of  .Jerusalem,  G.  w.as 
proclaimed  king  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the 
crusiiding  army  ;  but  the  piety  .and  humility  of  the 
concpieror  forbade  Iiim  to  'wear  a  crown  of  gold 
where  his  Sa\nour  had  worn  one  of  thorns.'  He 
declined  the  regal  title,  contenting  huuself  with  that 

609 


GODIVA— GOD'S  TRUCE. 


of  Defender  and  Guardian  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
The  Sultan  of  Ej;yi>t,  learning  that  the  army  of 
;iO(),(lll()  Crusaders"  who  had  taken  Aiitioch  had 
dM-iiidletl  away  to  '2(l,<)()(),  advanced  against  them 
with  an  army  said  to  have  amounted  to  40l),000  men  ; 
l)ut  G.  gave"  him  liattle  in  the  plain  of  Ascalon,  and 
tlie  vnctory  gained  on  this  occasion  p\it  him  in 
[lossession  of  the  whole  of  Palestine,  a  few  forti- 
(iud  towns  only  exce])ted.  He  now  directed  his 
ondoavdurs  to  the  organisation  of  the  new  state; 
he  installed  a  patriarch,  founded  two  cathedral 
cliajiters,  l)uilt  a  monastery  in  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat,  and  drew  up  laws.  He  died  in  1100, 
and  liis  liody  was  interred  on  Mount  Calvary,  near 
tlie  Holy  Sepidchre.  }listory  represents  this  jirince 
as  a  model  of  piety,  valoiu-,  and  all  kingly  virtues ; 
and  his  prai.ses  have  been  worthily  sung  by  Tasso 
in  his  Jerti.saleiii  Delivered. 

GODI'VA,  Lady,  patroness  of  Coventry.  About 
the  year  1040,  Leofrie,  Earl  of  Mercia,  and  Lord  of 
(Joventry,  then  an  important  market-town,  imposed 
certain  onerous  services  and  heavy  exactions  upon 
the  inhabitants,  of  which  they  louiUy  comjilained. 
His  wife,  the  Lady  G.,  having  the  welfare  of  the 
town  at  heart,  besought  her  husband  to  give  them 
relief,  and  was  so  earnest  in  her  entreaties,  that  at 
length,  to  escape  from  her  importunities,  the  earl 
said  he  would  grant  her  the  favour,  but  only  on 
condition  that  she  would  ride  naked  through  the 
towni,  supposing,  from  the  modesty  of  Lady  G., 
that  he  had  required  an  impossible  condition  ;  but 
he  was  surprised  with  the  answer :  '  But  will  you 
give  me  leave  to  do  so  ?'  As  he  could  not  in  justice 
refuse,  she  ordered  that  proclamation  be  marie  that 
on  a  certain  day  no  one  shoidd  be  away,  or  even 
look,  from  their  houses,  when,  clothed  only  by  her 
long  hair,  she  rode  through  the  town  ;  and  her 
husband,  in  admiration  of  her  intrepid  devotion, 
performed  his  promise.  This  circumstance  was  com- 
memorated l)y  a  stained-glass  window,  mentioned 
in  KiilO,  in  St  Michael's  Church,  Coventry;  and  the 
legend  that  an  unfortunate  tailor,  the  only  man 
who  lo()ked  out  of  a  window,  was  struck  blind, 
has  also  found  commemoration  in  an  ancient  effigy 
of  '  Peejiing  Tom  of  Coventry,'  still  to  be  seen  in 
a  niche  of  one  of  the  buildings.  By  a  charter  of 
Henry  111.,  121S,  a  fair  is  held  at  Coventry,  begin- 
ning on  Friday  of  Trinity-week,  and  lasting  eight 
days.  The  fair  was  opened  with  a  grand  civic 
procession,  a  part  of  which  was,  in  1678,  the 
rejjresentation  of  the  ride  of  Lady  Godiva.  These 
processions  were  continued  at  intervals  of  from 
three  to  seven  years,  until  1S2C.  Some  beautiful 
woman,  who  rei)resented  Lady  G.,  was  the  jirin- 
cipal  figure,  but  many  other  historical  and  emble- 
matic |iersonages  were  introducetL  In  1848,  the 
procession  was  reWved  with  great  splendour,  and 
the  spectacle  attracted  more  than  15,000  strangers. 
The  fair  of  1862  was  opened  with  a  similar  pro- 
cession. 

GODOLO,  a  market-town  in  Hungary,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  princely  family  Grassalko^-ich, 
is  distinguished  for  its  manorial  castle,  as  well  as 
for  the  surrounding  parks.  It  was  on  the  woody 
heights  of  G.  and  Isaszeg  that  the  combined  armies 
of  Austria,  under  Prince  Windischgriitz  and  Count 
Jellachich,  were  defeated  in  two  bloody  battles  by 
the  Hungarians  under  Gorgei.  On  the  eve  of 
victory.  Governor  Kossuth  held  a  conference  with 
the  generals  Gorgei,  Klapka,  ami  Uamjanich,  for 
laying  down  the  i)rinciples  of  the  famous  Declara- 
tion of  ludejiendence,  issued  on  the  14th  of  Ajn'il 
1849,  by  the  diet  at  Debreezin.  It  was  this  declar- 
ation which  served  the  emperor  of  Kussia  as  a 
pretext  for  the  invasion  of  Hungary. 
810 


GODOLPHIN,  SvDNKY,  Earl  of  Godoli'ihn, 
an  English  statesman,  was  descended  from  an  old 
Cornish  family,  and  was  born,  it  is  thought,  about 
1040.  After  the  Itestoration  he  became  one  of  the 
grooms  of  the  bed-chamber  to  Charles  II.,  was 
api)oiuted  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state  in  1064,  and 
soon  after  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury;  was 
twice  despatched  to  Holland  in  1G78  on  busuiess  of 
importance,  and  argued  and  voted  for  the  exclusion 
of  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  succession  in  1680. 
Nevertheless,  when  the  latter  mounted  the  throne, 
G.  (now  Baron  Godolphin  of  Eialton,  in  Cornwall) 
was  made  lord-chamherl.ain  to  the  queen  ;  and  on 
the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he  w.as  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  by  King  James  to  treat  with 
the  invader — a  difficult  piece  of  business,  which  he 
is  considered  to  have  managed  with  much  tact  and 
prudence.  William  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the 
admirable  abilities  of  G.,  and  in  1690  appointed  him 
first  lord  of  the  treasury.  In  1695  he  was  one  of 
the  seven  lords  justices  for  the  administration  of 
the  government  during  the  king's  absence.  In  1702, 
on  the  accession  of  Anne,  he  accejited  the  office  of 
lord  high  treasurer,  mainly  at  the  solicitation  of 
Marlborough,  who  paid  him  a  splendid  compliment 
by  declaring  that  othermse  he  coidd  not  venture  to 
assume  the  command  of  the  British  armies,  as  he 
could  depend  on  him  alone  for  punctual  remittances. 
G.  fully  realised  the  expectations  of  the  great 
Captain.  He  raised  the  public  credit,  induced 
the  queen  to  contribute  £100,000  towards  the  war, 
tirndy  opposed  the  selling  of  offices  and  places,  and 
increased  the  stipends  of  the  inferior  clergy.  In 
1700,  G.  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Earl  of  Godol- 
]ihiu  and  Viscount  Kialton ;  after  this  period  he 
took  part  with  the  Whigs,  as  being  more  patriotic 
and  English  than  the  Tories.  The  contest  between 
him  and  Harley  for  the  premiership,  residted  finally 
in  the  defeat  of  G.,  who  was  dismissed  from  office 
in  1710.  He  died  at  St  Albans,  September  15, 
1712,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  title  became  extinct  in  his  son  Francis,  second 
Earl  of  Godol|ihin.  G.  was  the  best  business-man 
of  his  age.  He  had  the  clearest  and  quickest 
understanding,  and  liked  to  do  his  work  in  such  a 
way  that  it  would  not  require  to  be  done  over 
again.  In  an  age  of  corruption,  G.  was  believed 
to  be  incapable  of  bribery,  and  he  never  employed 
as  his  agents  any  excejit  men  of  integi-ity.  His 
'  talent  for  silence'  equalled  William's  own. 

GODOY.     See  Alcudia. 

GOD'S  TRUCE  (Lat.  Trewja  Dei,  or  Treua  Dei, 

from  the  Ger.  Treii,  true),  one  of  the  most  singular 
among  the  institutions  of  the  midtUe  ages,  which 
prevailed  specially  in  France  and  the  Germanic 
empire,  but  was  also  received  for  a  time  in  the 
other  countries  of  Eurojje.  It  consisted  in  the 
suspension  for  a  stated  time,  and  at  stated  seasons 
and  festivals,  of  that  right  of  private  feud  for  the 
retlress  of  wrongs,  which,  under  certain  conditions, 
was  recognised  by  medieval  law  or  usage.  I'rivate 
feuds,  it  is  true,  could  only,  by  the  medieval  law, 
which  was  called  Favstrecht  and  FeJidereclU,  bo 
undertaken  when  judicial  redress  had  failed  or 
could  not  be  enforced,  and  after  formal  notice  had 
been  served  upon  the  party  against  whom  they 
were  levied.  But  even  with  this  limitation,  private 
feuds  midtiplied  exceedingly.  The  public  peace  was 
subject  to  constant  uiterruption  ;  the  weak  were 
■ivithout  resource  ;  the  stronij  bore  down  all  by  the 
terror  of  their  arms  ;  and  the  whole  social  frame- 
work was  so  vitterly  disorganised,  that  men,  by  one 
of  those  religious  impulses  of  which  this  age  offers 
so  many  examples,  fell  back  ujion  the  aid  of  the 
church,  and  invoked  her  influence,  as  the  only  effectual 


GODWIN. 


means  of  staying  the  evi].  It  was  in  this  crisis 
that  the  '  God's  Truce '  originated.  In  the  end  of  the 
loth  c,  a  council  assembled  at  Limoges,  at  which 
the  princes  and  nobles  bound  themselves,  by  solemn 
vow,  not  only  to  abstain  from  all  unlawful  feuds, 
but  also  to  kcei)  the  peace  mutually  towards  each 
other,  and  to  jirotect  from  violence  .ill  defenceless 
persons,  clerics,  monks,  nuns,  women,  merchants, 
pilgi-ims,  and  tillers  of  the  soil.  A  similar  engage- 
ment w.as  entered  into  in  a  council  at  Orleans 
in  lOlG ;  and  the  whole  body  of  the  bishops  of 
Bm-gundy  enforced  it  upou  their  Hocks  everywhere 
tliroughout  that  duchy.  A  plague  which  visited 
a  great  part  of  Europe  soon  afterwards  gave  a  fresh 
impulse  to  the  movement ;  and  in  the  year  1033, 
the  '  Holy  Peace'  was  almost  univers.aUy  received, 
and  for  a  tiaio  continued  to  be  religiously  obser^'ed. 
But  .IS  the  old  abuse  began  to  revive  by  degrees,  it 
was  felt  that  the  observance  would  carry  with  it 
more  of  religious  authority,  if,  instead  of  being,  as 
it  had  originally  been  instituted,  imivcrsal,  it  was 
limited  to  certain  times  and  days,  which  themselves 
h.ad  certain  religious  associations  connected  with 
them.  Accordingly,  in  1041,  the  bishops  of  Aqui- 
taine  limited  the  God's  Truce  to  the  week-days 
specially  consecrated  by  the  memory  of  the  Passion 
and  Resurrection  of  Christ — that  is,  from  the  sunset 
of  Wednesday  to  simrise  of  Monday.  The  same 
decree  was  renewed  at  Narbonne  in  1054,  and  at 
Troyes  in  109,'i.  At  Clei-mout,  in  1095,  it  was 
extended  to  the  whole  interval  from  the  beganning  of 
Adveut  to  tlic  Ei)lphany,  and  from  the  beginning 
of  Lent  to  Pentecost,  to  which  times  were  after- 
wards added  several  other  festivals.  These  enact- 
ments were  adopted  or  renewed  at  several  Later 
councils ;  and  although  they  were  often  cUsregarded, 
it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  they  had  a  wide  and 
lasting  influence  in  mitigating  the  evil  against 
which  they  were  directed.  This  singular  institution 
fell  gradually  into  disuse,  and  at  l.ast  disappeared 
altogether,  when  the  riglit  of  private  redress  was 
restricted,  and  at  last  entirely  abolished,  by  the  law 
of  the  empire. 

GODWIN,  William,  an  English  author,  was 
born  at  Wisbeach,  in  Cambridgeshire,  March  3, 
1156.  His  father  and  grandfather  were  Piesliyterian 
ministei-s,  and  he  was  educated  to  the  same  profes- 
sion, tirst  .at  a  school  at  Norwich,  to  which  place  his 
fiither  had  removed  in  1707,  where  he  ni.a<le  rapid 
progress  in  cl.assical  stndies,  and  afterward  at  a 
Presbj-terian  college  at  Ho.\tou,  where  he  pursued 
his  theological  studies.  From  1778  to  1783,  he  was 
uiiuister  to  a  citngreg.ation  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London;  but  the  zeal  with  which  he  first  entered 
upon  his  duties  declined,  and  a  change  in  his  theo- 
logical opinions  made  it  necessary  for  him  to  resign 
his  charge.  His  only  resource  was  to  remove  to 
the  metropolis,  and  engage  in  literature.  His  first 
work,  a  series  of  Histurind  Sketches,  in  the  form  of 
senuons,  was  luisueccssful,  and  he  was  reduced  to 
penury  and  des|i.TU-  ;  but  they  made  him  .acquiiiuted 
with  ¥ax,  Sherid.an,  and  other  Whig  leaders,  and  he 
turned  his  attention  to  poUtics.  The  American 
revolution,  closely  followed  by  that  of  France, 
excited  the  public  mind,  and  G.  wrote  his  Inijtiiri/ 
Conan-niiig  I'olilknl  Jtixlice,  179.3.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  T/ie  Ailveiilurejs  of  Caleb  Williajiut,  a 
remarkable  novel,  intended  to  illustrate  the  jioli- 
tical  A-iews  advanced  in  the  Political  Justice. 
An  able  defence  of  Home  Tooke  and  other.s, 
published  in  the  Morjumj  Chronicle.,  advanced  his 
rejuitation  ;  and  in  1797,  he  published  The  Inrfnirer, 
a  collection  of  essays  on  monils  and  politics.  About 
tliis  time,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Mary  Woll- 
stonecrait,  the  celebrated  author  of  the  UiglUs  of 
Woman,  and  adopted   and    defended   her  extreme 


social  i-iews.  After  some  months,  however,  they 
jnelded  so  far  to  custom  as  to  be  married.  His 
wife  died  a  short  time  after  in  giving  birth  to  a 
daughter,  who  afterwards  became  the  second  wife 
of  the  poet  Shelley.  In  1799,  he  published  St 
Leon,  a  romance  ;  and  the  next  year  visited  Ireland, 
where  he  associated  with  Curran,  Urattan,  and  other 
eminent  Irish  political  leaders.  He  ako  consoled 
himself  for  the  loss  of  his  wife  by  writing  her 
Memoirs.  In  ISOl,  he  married  again,  and  had  a 
son,  who  died  of  cholera  in  1832.  To  secure  a  moro 
certain  sui)port,  G.  and  his  wife  opened  a  circu- 
lating library,  but  he  also  worked  indefatigably 
with  his  pen  to  the  end  of  his  life.  He  WTote  many 
school-books,  an  .idmir.able  Life  of  Chaucer  (1801); 
Fleetwood,  a  novel,  3  vols.  (1805);  Mand'a-Hle,  in 
1817  ;  a  Treatise  on  Population,  a  refutation  of 
Malthus,  in  1820  ;  a  Ilistori/  of  the  Ilepublic  of  IJmj- 
land,  in  4  vols.  (1824—1828);  Cloudrsley  (1830); 
Thourihts  on  Man  (1833).  As  ho  giew  oUl,  he 
modified  his  opinions  on  politics  and  society, 
and  especially  on  nianiage,  which  he  warmly 
commends  in  some  of  his  later  works.  Being  now 
77  years  old,  he  was  appointed  to  a  place  under 
government,  which  removed  him  from  the  ajiiirehen- 
sion  of  want ;  but  lie  knew  not  how  to  be  idle,  and 
wrote  Dtloruine,  a  novel,  and  the  Lives  of  the  Xecro- 
mancers.  Many  of  his  works  were  translated  into 
foreign  languages.  He  died  in  London,  April  7, 
183C. 

GODWIN,  Earl  of  Wessex,  a  famous  Saxon 
noble,  was  born  towards  the  end  of  the  1 0th  cen- 
tury. Originally,  it  is  said,  he  followed  the  occu- 
pation of  a  cow-herd;  but  having  foimd  means  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  Ulfr,  the  brother-in-law  of 
King  Canute,  the  latter  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
mairiage,  and  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  English  nobles.  More  than  any 
other  person,  he  contributed  to  the  elevation  of 
Edward  to  the  English  throne  (1044  A.u.)  ;  and  the 
princii)al  reward  of  his  services  was  the  luaniage 
of  his  beautifid  and  accomplished  daughter  liditha 
with  the  English  king.  This  union,  however,  was 
not  a  hap|>y  one.  Editha  w.is  cruelly  neglected  by 
Edward,  and  her  father,  on  account  of  his  dislike 
of  the  Normans,  incurred  the  royal  enmity.  His 
estates  were  seized,  and  given  to  favourites,  and  he 
and  his  family  fled.  Queen  Editha  was  made  to 
feel  even  more  bitterly  than  any  one  the  niisfor- 
times  of  her  f.amily.  Her  own  husband  seized  her 
dower ;  he  took  from  her  her  jewels  and  her  money, 
'even  to  the  uttermost  farthing;'  and  aUowing  her 
only  the  attendance  of  one  maiden,  he  closely  con- 
fined her  in  the  monastery  of  Wherwell,  of  which 
one  of  liis  sisters  w;is  lady-abbess.  Meanwhile, 
shoals  of  Normans  visited  England  for  the  purpose 
of  making,  or  rather  getting  fortunes.  Among 
Edward's  most  favoured  guests  for  a  time  was  Duko 
William  of  Normandy,  better  known  as  WiUiam 
the  Conqueror.  The  banished  earl,  however,  had 
not  been  idle  ;  through  frequent  correspondence  with 
his  countrymen  at  home,  he  kejit  alive  the  anti- 
pathy of  the  English  to  the  Norman  favourites  of 
Edward,  and  in  the  summer  of  1052  he  landed  on 
the  southern  coast  of  England.  The  royal  trooja,  | 
the  navy,  and  vast  numbers  of  the  Imr^hers  and 
jieasants,  went  over  to  him  ;  and  finally  the  king  was 
forced  to  grant  his  demands.  The  Normans  were  for 
the  most  part  exiwlled  from  the  country,  the  G. 
family  was  restored  to  all  its  possessions  and  digni- 
ties ;  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  Witenagemote,  'the 
earls  ami  aU  the  best  men  of  the  land '  declared 
that  the  foreigners  alone  were  to  be  held  guilty  of 
the  late  dissensions  that  had  distracted  the  country. 
G.  did  not  long  smvive  his  triumph ;  he  died 
AprU  7,  1054. 


GOD\VIT— GOETHE. 


CO'DWIT  {Limosa),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Scolopacidce,  vnili  very  long  bill,  slightly 
ciu-ved  upwards,  and  long  slender  legs,  groat  part  of 
the  tibia  bare.  All  the  species  frequent  marshes  and 
.<iIiallo«-  waters,  chiefly  those  of  the  sea-coast,  where 
they  seek  their  food  by  wading  and  by  ]ilunging  the 
long  bill  into  the  water  or  mud  like  snipes.  They 
sonTetimes  also  run  after  small  crustaceans  or  other 
animals,  and  catch  them  on  the  sands,  from  which 
the  tide  has  retired.  Two  species  occur  in  Britain, 
the  Bl.ACK-T.viLED  G.  (L.  mclaimm)  and  the  Bak- 
TAii.KD  G.  (L.  rufa),  both  birds  of  passage,  and  not 


.^-PlV 


Ear-Tailcd  Godwit  [Limosa  rufa). 

luifrequent  \nsitors  of  the  marshy  parts  of  the  east 
coast  of  England,  where  the  first  occasionally  breeds ; 
but  both  generally  In-eed  in  more  northern  countries, 
and  are  seen  in  Britain  chiefly  in  their  migi-ations 
northward  and  southw'ard.  Both  species  are  very 
widely  distributed  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
The  females  are  rather  larger  than  the  males,  and 
the  whole  length  of  the  female  black-tailed  G., 
which  is  rather  the  largest  species,  is  aboiit  17 
inches,  the  bill  alone  being  four  inches  long.  They 
are  much  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  are  sent  from 
Holland  to  the  London  market,  which  also  receives 
some  from  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire. 

GOES,  or  TEEGOES,  a  town  and  fortified 
seaport  of  Holland,  in  the  province  of  Zeeland,  is 
situated  in  a  fruitful  thstrict  in  the  island  of  South 
Beveland,  about  3.4  miles  from  its  northern  coast, 
and  17  miles  west  of  Bergen-op-Zoom.  It  is  well 
built ;  has  a  harboiu:  formed  by  a  canal  commu- 
nicating with  the  East  Scheldt,  ship-buildiug  docks, 
besides  an  active  trade  in  hops,  salt,  and  agricultural 
produce.     Pop.  5400. 

GOETHE,  JoHiiNN  '\VoLrGA>fG  VOK,  the  acknow- 
ledged prince  of  German  poets,  and  one  of  the 
most  highly  gifted  and  variously  accomplished  men 
of  the  18th  century.  He  was  boni  in  the  year 
17-19  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  where  his  youth- 
ful years  were  spent.  His  father,  Johann  Kaspar 
Goethe,  was  an  imperial  councillor,  in  good  circum- 
stances, and  in  a  respectable  position.  In  the 
year  1765,  he  went  to  the  imiversity  of  Leipsic, 
of  which  Ernest  and  Gellei-t  were  then  the  most 
notable  ornaments.  As  a  student,  he  pointed, 
by  external  profession,  towards  the  law ;  but  his 
real  studies  were  in  the  wide  domain  of  literature, 
philosophy,  and  above  all,  life  and  living  charac- 
ter. In  the  year  1770,  he  went  to  Strasburg,  to 
finish  his  jiundical  studies ;  but  here  also  anatomy 
and  chemistry,  Sliakspeare,  Kousseau,  and  archi- 
tecture— anything  rather  than  the  statute-book — 
occupied  his  time  and  exercised  his  soul.  Here  it 
was  that  one  of  the  earliest,  certainly  the  most 
812 


famous  of  those  youthful  love-adventures  took  place, 
which,  in  his  biogi'.aphy,  as  in  that  of  Eobei-t  Burns, 
play  such  a  prominent  pai't — the  well-known 
aflair  of  Frederica  Briov  of  Seisenheini.  With 
regard  to  these  matters  in  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  he  was  more  readily  moved  to  love  than 
intense  in  love  ;  and  that  the  objects  of  his  admira- 
tion generally  seem  to  have  had  more  reason  to 
boast  of  the  delicacy  of  his  susceptibility,  than  of 
the  pei-severance  of  his  devotion.  How  far  there 
was  anything  more  than  commonly  culi)able  in 
these  connections,  will  always  be  a  question  ;  cer- 
tain it  is  that  they  will  always  tarnisli  to  some 
extent  the  otherwise  fair  reputation  of  the  poet. 
The  female  sex  will  never  forgive  the  man  who 
was  so  light  to  lend  his  heart,  and  so  fearful  to 
give  his  hand;  and  British  morality  will  alwaj's  be 
inchned  to  pass  a  severe  judgment  on  the  man  who, 
professing  the  profoundest  subjection  to  law  and 
order  in  everything  else,  seems  to  have  shrunk 
from  the  golden  clasp  of  legitimate  marriage  as 
from  some  conventional  shackle,  which  a  free  and 
grc.it  nature  should  avoid.  In  the  year  1771,  the 
yoimg  poet,  now  22  years  of  age,  took  his  degi'ee  as 
Doctor  of  Laws,  and  went  for  a  short  while  to 
Wetzlar  on  the  Lahn,  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
chamber  of  the  then  German  empire,  and  which 
afforded  pecidiar  facilities  for  young  men  engaged 
in  the  study  of  pubUc  law.  Here,  however,  as  in 
other  places,  his  knowledge  of  the  hiunan  heart, 
and  of  human  character,  altogether  overgrew  his 
professional  studies ;  and  Wetzlar  became  to  him 
the  scene  of  the  famous  Sorroios  of  WerOim\  a 
glowing  leaf  from  the  life  of  the  human  soul,  fidl  of 
interest  and  beauty  at  all  times,  but  which,  in  the 
then  state  of  European  thought  and  feeling,  stirred 
the  whole  hterary  mind  of  Europe  like  a  lirceze 
sweeping  over  a  forest.  The  book  w'as  not  pubhshod 
till  177-1.  After  returning  from  Frankfm-t,  G.  spent 
some  years  in  his  native  city,  engaged  chiefly 
in  literary  productions.  His  first  great  work  -was 
Oiitz  von  Beylichiiigen,  translated  into  English  by  ,Sir 
Walter  Scott,  pubhshed  at  Franljfurt,  177.3,  which 
at  once  set  the  Gei-mans  free  from  the  pamfiU  con- 
straint of  French  and  classical  models,  and  ojicncd 
up  to  them  that  career  of  bold  originaUty,  -which 
they  have  since  prosecuted  in  so  many  departments 
of  literature,  leai'ning,  and  specrjation.  In  the  3'ear 
1775,  G.,  who  had  had  the  good-fortune  to  gain 
the  good  opinion  of  Karl  August,  Grand  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  accepted  an  invitation  from  that 
prince  to  settle  in  his  little  capital,  since  become 
so  famous  as  the  Athens  of  the  great  legislative  age 
of  German  literature.  Here  the  poet  became  a 
little  st.atcsman ;  and  occupying  himself  in  various 
ways  in  the  service  of  his  benefactor,  passed 
quickly  through  stages  of  court  preferment,  tUl,  in 
1779,  he  Iiecame  'actual  privj'-councdlor,'  at  the 
age  of  30,  holding  the  highest  dignity  that  a  German 
suliject  coidd  then  attain  ;  a  great,  a  rich,  and  an 
influential  man.  In  1782,  he  received  a  patent 
of  nobility;  and  in  the  foUo-sving  years,  till  178S, 
travelled  much  in  Smtzerland  and  Italy,  of  wliich 
last  joiu-ney  we  have  the  beautiful  fruits  in  rph'irifnhi, 
Br/moitf,  'J'nxso,  and  the  Venetian  and  Boman  Elegie.i. 
Of  this  last  work,  thoroughly  German  both  in  form 
and  feeling,  the  heroine  was  Christiana  Vulpius,  a 
highly  attractive  though  not  a  higlily  gifted  woman, 
who  bore  him  a  child — his  eldest  son — in  1789  ;  but 
whom,  though  he  always  treated  her  as  his  wrfo, 
he  did  not  formally  m.aVry  till  ISOO.  In  1702,  he 
took  part  in  the  German  campaign  against  France, 
of  which  he  has  left  a  memoir.  In  the  year  1815, 
he  was  made  minister  of  state.  After  tlie  death  of 
the  grand  duke,  in  1828,  he  lived  much  in  retire- 
ment, occupied  occasionally  with  poeti'y,  but  much 


GOG  AND  MAGOG— GOGAEI. 


more  intensely  and  constantly  v-ith  the  study  of 
nature  and  the  fine  arts,  which  from  his  earliest 
years  had  possessed  the  strongest  atti'actions  for 
him.  He  died  in  March  1832,  in  his  eighty-fourth 
year. 

To  give   a  detailed  account  of  the  Uterary   and 
scientific    productions    of    G.'s   pen,    is    altogether 
impossible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  work  ; 
much  less  can  we  attempt  any  detailed  criticism  of 
these  works.     The  best  source  of  reference  to  the 
mere  English  reader  is  the  biography  of   the  poet, 
by  G.  H.  Lewes  ;  along  with  which  may  be  taken 
G.'s    interesting    conversations    with    Eckermann, 
translated  by  Oxenford.     On  the  general  character 
and  literary  position  of  G.,  however,  a  few  words 
are   necessary.      It    is    as   a  poet,  no   doubt,  that 
this  remarkable  man  is  generally  known  and  recog- 
nised   in    this  countrj- ;    but  it    is   not    as  a  poet 
only  that    a   just    measure    can   be   taken    of    his 
intellectual  cahbre  or  of  his  European  significance. 
It  is  as  poet,  thinker,  critic,  and  original  obsei-ver 
of  nature,  all  combined  in  one  admirable  hannony, 
that  his  rare  excellence  consists.      We  do  not  find 
in  literary  history  any  intellect  that  can  fitly  be 
placed  on  the   same   platform   with  O. ;   that  pre- 
sents, in  such  gi-and  and  gracefid  completeness,  so 
much    severe    thought,    combined    with    so    much 
luxm-iant  imagination ;    so  much  accurate   science 
with  so  much  playfid  fancy ;   so  much  simplicity 
with  so  much  art ;   so  much  freshness  and  origin- 
ality of  productive  power,  with  so  much  justness 
and  comprehensiveness  of   critical  judgment.      As 
a    dramatist,   G.  will  not  compare   for  a   moment 
with  the  gi-eat  masters  of  that  art  among  oiu-selves. 
His  English  biographer  detects  in  the  constitution 
of  Ms  "mind,  most   justly,  '  a   singular   absence   of 
historic  feeling   and   dramatic    power.'      Not    less 
correct  is  the  judgment  of  the  same  writer  when  he 
says :  '  Goethe  was  attached  to  character  and  pictvire, 
indifferent  to  action  and  event.'    In  this  respect,  the 
poet  was  a  true  type  of  his  nation.     As  contrasted 
with   the   French   and   EngUsh,   the   Germans   are 
deficient  in  nothing   so  remarkably  as   in   stirring 
passion    and   progressive    energy ;    the   relation   of 
G.  to  Shakspeare  and    the   EngUsh  tb-amatists   is 
exactly  the  same.      Nevertheless,  Faust  is  a  great 
poem,  even  a  great   dramatic   poem,  for   it  is  fiUl 
of  dramatic  scenes,  though  they  are  not  sufficiently 
moved  by  the   Uving   current  of   dramatic  action. 
Faust  is   essentially  a  German  poem,    and    yet   a 
poem  which  all  foreigners  can  read  and  enjoy.     It 
is  the  great  drama  of  that  moral  and  metaphysical 
questioning  which  thoughtful  minds  must  go  through 
iu  all  time's  and  placesrbut  which  has  received  the 
fullest   and   most   fruitfid  development  m   modern 
Germany.      Of    the    other  poetical   works    of    G., 
Inhigenia,  Hermann  and  Dorothea,  and   Tasso,  are 
those  which  most  strongly  bear  the  type  of  the  ripe 
manhood   of   the  author.      The  form   and  style  of 
these  classical  works  are  characteristically  Greek  ; 
by  which    we   mean   they  are    chiefly   remarkable 
for   profundity   of    thought   and   truth   of   feehng, 
expressed  m  the  most  simple,  gracefid,  and  impre- 
tending  manner.     In  sold,  however,  they  are  essen- 
tially German  ;  and  the  most  dcep-thiukmg  of  the 
Germans  are  always  the  fii-st  to   claini  G.  as  the 
most  German  of  all  German  poets  in  spirit,  though 
very  few  great  German  writers  have  so  cirei.iUy 
avoided  the  most  characteristic  German  defects  of 
style.   In  the  extraorihnary  value  which  he  attaches 
to  '  the  form,'  G.  authenticates  himseU  everywhere 
as  at  once  a  great  modern  Greek  and  a  great  artist. 
G    is   a   poet  who    is   thoroughly   relished    only 
bv  those  who  understand  thoroughly  the  German 
lan-uage,  and   whose   inincU   are   not   so   t^ncaUy 
English    as    to    exclude    a   ready  sympathy  with 


German  thoughts  and  feelings.  With  general 
English  readers,  for  various  reasons,  Schiller  will 
always  be  the  favourite  poet.  Nevertheless,  there 
has  been  a  considerable  amount  of  literary  power 
in  this  country  spent  in  the  translation  of  G.'s 
works,  specially  of  his  great  work,  the  Faust;  of 
this,  at  least  a  dozen  translations  exist,  the  most 
notable  being  by  Anster,  Blackie,  and  Hayward. 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  lyric  poems 
have  been  aptly  rendered  in  a  conjunct  volume  by 
Professor  Aytoun  and  Theodore  Martin. 

GOG   AiTD  M.\GOG,  names  several   times  used 
in  the  Bible,  and  the  names  given  to  the  famous 
figures  of  giants  iu  Guildhall,  London.     JIagog  is 
spoken  of  by  the  writer  of  Genesis  as   a    son    of 
Japhet;   Ezekiel  speaks  of  Gog,  prince  of  Magog; 
Gog  and  Magog  arc  spoken  of  in  the  Revelation. 
Magog   is   considered    by  some   the  father  of   the 
Scythians    and    Tartars.     The   Persians   have   also 
been  derived  from  Magog,  and  the  Goths  from  Gog 
and  Magog.     The  Caucasus  is  supposed  by  Bocliart 
to    derive    its    name    from   Gog   Chasan — fortress 
of  Gog.      Our  Guililhall  giants  boast  of  almost  as 
high  an  antiquity  as  the   Gog  and   Magog  of  the 
Scriptures,  as  they,  or  their  liWng  prototypes,  are 
said   to   have  been   found  in  Britain   by   Brute,   a 
younger   son   of  Anthenor  of  Troy,   who   invaded 
Albiou,  and  founded  the   city  of   London,  at   first 
called    Troj'-novant,   3000  years   ago.     Albion,  at 
this  period,  was  inhabited  l>y  a  race  of  tremendous 
giants,  the  descendauts  of  the  thirty-three  infam- 
ous  daughters    of    the    Emperor   Diocletian,   who, 
having    murdered    all    their   husbands,   were   sent 
to  sea  in  a  ship,  and  were  hajipy  enough  to  reach 
Albion,   where,   cohabiting   with   wicked    demons, 
they  gave  birth  to  the  giants,  whom  the  Trojans 
finally  conquered,  leading  the  last  two   survivors 
])risoners  to  London,  where  they  Avere  chained  to 
the  gates  of  a  palace  on  the  site  of  Guildhall,  and 
there    kept    as    porters.      When   they   died,   their 
effigies  were  set  up  in  their  place.     This  is  Caxton's 
account ;  but  there  is  another,  which  represents  one 
of  the   tiants   as   Gogmagog,   and   the  other  as  a 
British  "giant    who   killed  him,   named    Corineus. 
However  the  fact  may  have  been,  the  two  giants 
have  been  the  pride  of  London   from   time   imme- 
morial.    On  London  Bridge,  they  welcomed  Henry 
V.  in  1415 ;  they  welcomed  Henry  VI.  to  London 
in  1432;  and  in  1554,  Phihp  and  Mar}-.     In  1558, 
they  stood  by  Temple  Bar,  when  Elizabeth  passed 
throu"h  the  city  gate.     The  old  giants  were  biu-ned 
m  thfT great  fire,  and  the  new  ones  were  constructed 
in  1708.     They  are  14  feet  high,  and  occupy  suitable 
pedestals  in  GuildhaU.     The  ancient  effigies,  which 
were  made  of   wicker-work  and   pasteboard,  were 
carried  through  the   streets  in  the   Lord   Mayors 
.Shows,  and  copies  of  the  i>rescnt  giants  were  in  the 
show  of  1837.     Formerly,  other  towns  m  England 
had  their  giants,  and  there  are  famous  and  some 
very  lar<'e  ones  in  several  continental  cities.     The 
Anti^onus  of   Antwerp   is  40   feet   high,  and  was 
formerly  carried   in  the   most   solemn  rehgious  as 
well   as   civic   processions.      Gayant,   the   giant  of 
Douai,  is  22  feet  high.     There  are  also  giants,  and 
famiUcs  of  giants,  at   Lille,  Malmes,  Brussels,  &c., 
each  connected  with  some  popidar  tratUtion  of  their 
respective  cities.      The  arms  of  Antwerp    a  castle 
with  severed  hands,  are  connected  w^th  the  legend 
of  the  giant  who  lived  iu  the  castle,  and  cut  off 
the   hands  of   those  who   failed  to   pay  his   exac- 
tions.     Though  it  is   now  impossible  to  ascertam 
the  facts,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  all  these 
civic  giants  are  exaggerated  representatives  of  real 
persons  and  events. 

GO'GARI,  a  river  rising  in  Ncpaul,  about  lat 


GOGO— GOLD. 


27°  20'  N.,  and  long.  85°  46'  E.,  joins  the  Cooay, 
an  artUient  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  25'  24'  N.,  and 
long.  87  ■  16'  E.,  after  a  course  of  235  miles. 

GO'GO,  a  large  town  and  a  seaport  of  British 
India,  in  tlie  ])residency  of  Bombay,  is  situated 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Canibay,  and  has 
safe  anchorage  during  the  south-west  monsoon, 
with  smooth  water  and  a  muddy  bottom.  It  is  in 
lat.  21°  39'  N.,  and  long.  72°  15'  E. 

GOGOL,  Ntkolai,  a  Russian  author  of  great 
and  original  genius,  was  born  at  the  village  of 
Wassiljewka,  in  the  government  of  Poltova,  in 
ISIO.  On  finishing  his  studies,  he  went  to  St 
Petersburg,  and  solicited  government  employment, 
which  was  refused,  on  the  ground,  that  'he  did 
not  know  Paissian.'  Shortly  after,  he  proved  that 
the  officials  were  in  the  wi'ong  by  ]nibli.shing  a 
collection  of  novels  and  sketches,  entitled  Vediera 
na  Khnlorie  (Evenings  at  a  Farmhouse).  The  first 
and  most  important  of  these  tales  contains  a  vivid 
picture  of  Cossack  manners,  enabling  us,  according 
to  M.  Sainte-Beuve,  to  comprehend  the  profound 
autijiathies  that  have  for  ages  characterised  the 
relations  of  certain  branches  of  the  Slavic  family 
to  each  other.  Then  come  the  '  King  of  the 
Gnomes;'  the  'History  of  a  Fool,'  which  is  more 
a  satire  than  a  psycholomcal  study ;  and  '  The 
Honse-keeiiing  of  Former  limes,'  a  little  master- 
piece of  its  kind.  The  success  of  Evenings  at  a 
Farmliouse  was  immense,  and  Russian  critics  com- 
pared G.'s  style  to  that  of  Washington  Irving.  It 
was  followed  by  Mirgorod,  a  supplementary  volume, 
of  the  same  character,  containing  stories  full  of 
poetry,  and  exciting  astonishment  not  less  by  the 
vigour  and  grasp  of  mind  displayed  in  the  delinea- 
tion of  character,  than  by  the  extraordinary  skill 
with  which  the  plots  are  formed  and  mu-avelled. 
G.  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  dramatic  .art, 
and  produced  the  Revisor,  a  comedy  of  brilliant 
genius,  whose  appearance  on  the  stage  excited  quite 
a  furor.  The  purpose  of  this  piece  was  to  expose 
the  rooted  al)uses  of  the  internal  administration  of 
Eussian  affairs.  The  Emperor  Nicholas  was  the 
first  to  api)Iaud  its  morality,  and  shewed  his  appro- 
bation by  ap]iointing  the  author  professor  of  history 
in  the  university  of  St  Petersburg.  While  holding 
this  office,  he  published,  in  1842,  PokJiozhdeniya 
Chic/iagova  Hi  Merlmiiiia  Dushi  (Adventures  of 
Chicliagov,  or  Dead  Souls),  of  which  a  bad  transla- 
tion appeared  in  English  in  1854,  under  the  title  of 
Home-life  in  Russia).  The  aim  of  this  novel  was 
to  extinguish  serfdom  by  ridicule.  Exhausted  by 
his  labours,  G.  sought  permission  to  travel,  and 
visited  Italy,  where  he  took  up  his  residence. 
There,  however,  his  opinions  appear  to  have  imder- 
gone  a  change.  From  being  an  ardent  Russian 
liberal  and  reformer,  he  became  an  apologist  of 
despotism,  an  apostasy  which  he  lived  to  regret. 
After  the  commotions  of  1848,  he  returned  to 
Russia,  and  died  at  Moscow  in  1851. 

GOHILWA'E,  or  GOHELWAD,  a  native  prin- 
cipality, tributary  at  once  to  the  Guicowar  of 
Guzerat  and  to  the  British  government,  lies  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kattywar,  stretch- 
ing in  N.  lat.  from  20°  56'  to  22°  3',  and  in  E. 
long,  from  71°  14'  to  72°  13',  and  containing  3500 
square  miles,  and  247,980  inhabitants.  The  chief's 
revenue  is  about  740,000  rupees  a  year,  out  of 
which  he  pays  two  tributes,  about  80,000  rupees  to 
the  government  of  Bombay,  and  about  40,000  to 
the  Guicowar. 

GOIL,  Loch,  a  small  but  highly  picturesque  loch 

in  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  is  a  branch  of  Loch  Long 

(q.  v.),  and  is  six   miles  in  length,  and  about  one 

mile  in  breadth.     Its  shores  are  for  the  most  part 

814 


wild  and  rugged  ;  but  the  general  character  of  the 
scenery  is  modified  by  extensive  natural  woods  of 
hazel,  which  stretch  along  tlie  shore.  The  moun- 
tains in  the  neighbourhood  rise  to  the  height  of 
aliout  2500  feet.  It  may  be  Nosited  by  steamers 
from  Glasgow. 

GO'ITO,  a  small  towni  in  Lombard}',  about  15 
miles  north-west  from  Mantu.a,  occupies  a  beautifiU 
though  somewhat  marshy  position  on  the  Mincio. 
This  town,  owing  to  its  vicinity  to  the  stronghold 
of  Mantua,  has  been  the  field  of  various  military 
operations.  In  1630,  it  was  carried  by  assault  by 
the  imperialists,  wlio  entered  Mantua  on  the  same 
night,  and  took  it  liy  surprise  ;  diu'ing  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  .Succession  in  1701,  it  was  alternately 
captured  by  the  allies  and  the  imperialists  ;  and  in 
1796  the  French  took  it,  but  were  ex])elled,  after  a 
brief  tenure,  by  the  Austrians.  In  1814,  a  severe 
engagement  took  place  at  G.  lietween  the  Austrian 
and  Italian  troops;  and  during  the  war  of  indejiend- 
ence  in  1848,  it  became  the  theatre  of  two  fm'ther 
battles  between  the  same  powers,  to  which  it  owes 
its  modern  celebrity.     Popidation  inconsiderable. 

GOrTRE,  an  enlargement  of  the  ThjToid  Gland 
(q.  v.),  occupying  the  front  of  the  neck,  and  some- 
times of  such  a  size  as  to  project  do'miwards  over 
the  breast,  and  even  to  admit  of  being  thrown  over 
the  shoulder.  Goitre  is  for  the  most  part  an  endemic 
or  local  disease,  being  found  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  Alps,  Andes,  and  Himalaya,  especially, 
it  IS  said,  where  lime  prevails  largely  as  a  geological 
formation.  The  proofs  of  goitre  being  connected 
with  a  calcareous  impregnation  of  the  diinking- 
water  are  rather  strong,  but  perhaps  not  quite 
sufficient,  especially  as  regards  this  country,  though 
the  chief  seat  of  goitre  in  England,  Derbyshire,  is 
subject  to  this  alleged  cause.  Goitre  is  met  with 
endemically,  to  a  slight  extent,  in  various  parts  of 
Scotland  ;  but  on  a  very  small  scale  indeed  as  com- 
pared with  Switzerland,  in  which  it  is  a  very  im- 
portant deformity,  esjieciaUy  when  connected  with 
Cretinism  (q.  v.).  Goitre  is  of  two  kinds  :  the  one 
due  to  increased  development  of  the  vessels  of  the 
gl.and,  the  other  to  the  growth  of  Cysts  (q.  v.)  in 
its  substance.  To  these  might  perhaps  be  added  a 
tliird,  which  is  found  in  connection  with  functional 
disease  of  the  heart,  but  which  is  perhaps  only  a 
variety  of  the  vascular  goitre.  The  usual  treatment 
of  goitre  is  by  the  administration  of  very  minute 
doses  of  Iodine  (q.  v.)  for  a  long  time  together.  The 
use  of  this  remedy  is  due  to  Coindet  of  Geneva, 
who  recognised  it  as  the  principal  soiu-ce  of  the 
virtues  of  burned  sponge,  long  of  high  repute  in  the 
treatment  of  goitre. 

GOLCO'NDA,  a  fortress  of  the  Nizam,  situated 
seven  miles  to  the  north-west  of  his  capital,  Hyder- 
abad, stands  in  lat.  17°  22'  N.,  and  in  long.  78°  25' 
E.  In  its  immediate  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  city,  once  the  mctroi>ohs  of  the  king- 
dom of  Golcond.a.  The  place  itself  is  still  strong ; 
but  its  strength  is  seriously  impaired  through  its 
being  overtopped,  within  breachiug-range,  by  the  yet 
solid  mausolea  of  its  former  sovereigns,  which  form 
a  vast  group  at  a  distance  of  600  yards.  These 
tombs  are  dome-crowned  structures  of  gray  granite, 
each  having  its  own  mosque,  and  occupying  the 
centre  of  its  own  elevated  terrace.  G.  is  prover- 
bially famous  for  its  diamonds ;  but,  in  truth,  they 
are  merely  cut  and  polished  here,  being  generally 
found  at  Parteall,  near  the  southern  frontier  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions. 

GOLD  (.symbol  Au,  atomic  weight  99-6)  hag 
been  known  and  regarded  as  the  most  precious  of 
the  metals  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and 
has    been    imiversally   employed    as   a   medium   of 


GOLD. 


exchange.  Although  the  quantity  of  G.  which  is 
foiUKi,  when  compared  with  that  of  many  other 
metals,  is  small,  yet  there  are  few  jiarts  of  the  globe 
in  which  it  docs  not  occur  more  or  less  abundantly. 

In  the  native  state,  it  occurs  crystallised,  the 
primary  form  being  the  cube,  or  in  plates,  ramifica- 
tions, or  nodules — jjopularly  known  as  iiurjrjels — 
which  sometimes  are  of  very  considerable  size. 
It  is  almost  always  alloyed  with  silver,  and  some- 
times %vith  tellurium,  bismuth,  lead,  &o.  It  somc- 
tiines  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  metallic  sulphides, 
as  in  galena,  iron  and  copper  pyrites. 

The  extraction  of  G.  from  the  substances  with 
which  it  is  associated  is  effected  more  by  mechan- 
ical than  by  chemical  means.     See  below. 

The  following  are  its  most  important  properties. 
In  its  compact  state,  it  possesses  a  characteristic 
yellow  colour  and  high  metallic  lustre,  is  nearly  as 
soft  as  lead,  and  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals. 
It  can  be  beaten  into  leaves  of  a  thinness  not 
exceeding  ^m,',,,;!,  or,  according  to  some  authors. 
ii  I)  d'ii  a  a  of  an  inch,  through  which  light  passes  with 
a  green  tint ;  one  grain  m.ay  thus  be  distributed 
over  56  square  inches  of  surface  ;  and  the  ductility  of 
the  metal  is  so  great,  that  the  same  quantity  may 
be  (b-awn  out  into  500  feet  of  wire.  In  its  tenacity, 
it  is  inferior  to  iron,  platinum,  copper,  and  silver; 
but  a  wire  whose  diameter  is  0787  (or  rather 
more  than  one-third)  of  a  line  (which  is  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch),  will  su]iport  a  weight  of  about  150  lbs. 
It  fuses  at  about  2016°,  according  to  Dauiell's 
pyrometer,  and  when  in  fusion,  is  of  a  bluish- 
green  coloiu'.  It  is  scarcely  at  all  volatile  in  the 
heat  of  the  furnace,  but  by  a  powerful  electric  dis- 
charge, by  the  concentration  of  the  sun's  r.ays  by  a 
powerful  burning-glass,  or  by  the  oxy-hydrogen  jet, 
it  is  dispersed  in  puri)le  vapours.  G.  h.as  very  little 
atnnity  for  oxygen  ;  it  undergoes  no  change  on 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  is  imali'ected  by 
hydrochloric,  sul]>huric,  or  nitric  acid,  or,  in  short, 
by  any  simple  acid  e.xcejit  selenic  acid  ;  nor  do  the 
alkalies  alt'ect  it.  It  is,  however,  dissolveil  l>y  any 
mixture  which  liberates  chlorine,  its  usual  solvent 
being  ai/iia  rei/ia,  which  is  generally  prepared  by 
mixing  1  part  of  nitric  acid  with  4  parts  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Hydrochloric  .acid  to  which  binoxide 
of  manganese  has  been  added,  acts  equally  well, 
the  G.  in  these  cases  being  converted  into  a 
chloride.  This  metal  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
conductors  both  of  heat  and  of  electricity.  When 
precipitated  in  a  finely  comminuted  state,  it  is  of  a 
brown  colour  ;  but  when  suspended  in  water,  and 
viewed  by  transmitted  light,  it  appears  purple. 
The  specific  gravity  of  this  metal  is  less  than 
that  of  jilatinum  and  iridium,  ranging  from  19'2 
to  I9"4,  according  as  it  is  fused  or  hammered. 

The  alloys  of  G.,  or  its  combinations  with  other 
metals,  are  very  numerous,  those  mth  copper  and 
mercury  being  the  most  important.  Co])iier  and 
G.  ciinibine  in  all  proportions  without  materially 
aSecting  the  colour  of  the  latter,  except  that  it  is 
somewhat  redder.  The  density  of  the  compound 
is  less  than  that  of  G.,  but  the  hardness  is  gre.iter, 
and  it  is  more  fusible.  It  is  this  alloy  ■v\-hich  is 
emi>loyed  in  our  gold  coin.age,  1 1  jiarts  of  G.  being 
combined  with  1  of  copper,  without  which  the  coin 
woiUd  not  be  sufficiently  hard  to  stand  the  wear 
to  which  it  is  exposed.  Hence  British  standard 
G.  contains  833  per  cent,  of  copper.  In  France, 
and  in  the  Uniteil  St.ates,  standard  G.  contains  10 
per  cent,  of  the  latter  metal.  Jewellers  alloy  their 
G.  with  other  metals,  partly  on  economical  grounds, 
and  partly  for  the  purpose  of  evolving  special  tints. 
Thus,  red  G.  is  obtained  by  combining  75  parts 
of  fine  G.  with  25  of  copper;  green  G.,  by  combining 
75  parts   of  fine  G.  with  25  of  silver ;   dead-leaf 


G.,  by  combining  70  parts  of  fine  G.  with  30 
of  silver;  water-green  G.,  by  combining  60  parts 
of  fine  G.  with  40  of  silver ;  blue  G.,  by  combining 
75  parts  of  fine  G.  with  25  of  iron. 

Mercury  and  G.  combine  very  readily,  and  yield 
a  white  alloy,  termed  an  amahjam,  which  is  used 
in  gilding.  In  consequence  of  the  readiness  with 
which  these  metals  unite  even  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, mercury  is  used  for  the  extraction  of  gold. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  ductility  of  G.  is  much 
impaired  by  alloying  other  metals  vni\\  it,  while 
its  hardness  and  sonorousness  are  increased. 

Two  oxides  of  G.  are  known — a  protoxide,  AuO, 
and  a  teroxide,  AuO^.  Neither  of  these  oxides  can  be 
formed  by  the  direct  union  of  the  elements,  and 
both  of  them  are  reduced  by  heat.  The  protoxide 
is  a  dark-green  or  bluish-violet  jiowder.  It  forms 
no  definite  salts.  It  is  obtained  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  |>rotochloride  of  G.  wntli  a  solution  of  potash. 
The  teroxide  is  a  brown  powder,  which  is  reduced, 
not  only  by  heat  .and  light,  but  by  many  other 
reducing  agents.  It  combines  more  readily  with 
bases  than  with  acids,  and  hence  has  been  termed 
auric  acid.  We  obtain  it  by  mixing  a  solution  of 
terchloride  of  G.  with  magnesia  or  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  boiling. 

Two  chlorides  of  G.  are  known,  corresponding  to 
the  oxides,  viz.,  a  protochloride,  AuCl,  and  a  ter- 
chloride, AuClj.  Of  these,  the  latter  is  the  most 
im|iortant :  it  is  obtained  by  dissolving  G.  in  aqua 
regia,  and  evapor.ating  the  solution  to  dryness,  at  a 
tem])erature  not  exceeding  300",  when  we  obtain 
this  compinind,  as  a  deliquescent  yellowish  brown 
or  reddish  m.as3,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether,  with  which  it  forms  orange-coloured 
solutions. 

The  chlorides  of  many  of  the  organic  bases 
form  crj'stallisable  double  salts  with  the  terchloride 
of  G. ;  and  these  compounds  are  often  employed 
to  determine  the  combining  power  of  the  organic 
alkali. 

Metallic  G.  in  the  form  of  a  brown  powder  is 
thrown  down  from  the  solution  of  the  terchloride  by 
most  reducing  agents.  This  reducing  power  of  pro- 
tosulphate  of  iron  is  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  chemically  |uu'e  gold. 

A  bisulphide  of  G.  is  olitaincil  in  the  form  of  a 
black  [lowder  by  p.^ssing  a  current  of  sid|ihuretted 
hydrogen  through  a  cold  solution  of  terchloride  of 
gold.  '  If  finely  di\nded  gold  be  heated  with  sulphur 
in  contact  with  carbonate  of  potash,  a  doulile 
sidphide  of  gold  and  potassium  is  formed  ;  it  resists 
a  red  heat,  and  is  very  soluble  in  water ;  this 
siJpliur  salt  is  used  for  gilding  china,  and  pro- 
duces the  colour  known  as  Bunjo.i  lufttre.' — MUIcr's 
Elements  of  ChemistrtJ,  2d  edit.  vol.  ii.  p.  74. 

Fulm'maling  G.,  a  compound  known  to  the 
alchemists,  who  (Basil  Valentine,  for  example)  formed 
solutions  of  terchloride  of  G.,  occurs  as  a  green 
powder,  when  prei)arcd  liy  immei-sing  teroxide  of 
G.  (or  auric  acid)  in  caustic  ammonia.  By  modify- 
in"  the  mode  of  preparation,  we  obtain  it  of  a 
brownish-yellow  colour.  From  Dimias's  analysis  of 
the  green  powder,  it  seems  to  be  represented  by  the 
fonnula  2XH3,An03,  the  brownish-yellow  powder 
having  a  more  complicated  formida.  These  jiowders 
detonate  when  rubbed,  struck,  or  beaten,  or  when 
an  electric  spark  is  passed  through  them,  with  a 
loud  sharp  report  and  a  faint  light,  and  they  yield 
nitrogen  gas,  ammonia,  and  water.  None  but  pro- 
fessed chemists  should  attempt  to  prepare  them,  in 
consequence  of  their  dangerous  exjilosive  character. 
On  one  occasion,  a  drachm  of  fulminating  G.  intro- 
duced into  a  bottle  burst  it  as  the  st<>i>pcr  was 
beinw  turned  round,  in  conseqtience  of  small  jiarticles 
of  itliaving  adhered  about  the  mouth,  and  both  the 

815 


GOLD. 


operator's  eyes  were  destroyed  by  the  projected 
fragments  of  glass. 

The  Purple  of  Cassius  is  an  important  gold 
compound.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  having 
been  first  described  by  Andreas  Cassius  in  1685. 
See  Cassiu.s,  Pcbple  of. 

Xoue  of  the  salts  of  the  oxides  of  G.  are  of 
sufficient  imjiortauce  to  require  notice  in  this  article. 

For  the  description  of  Mosaic  Gold,  see  Tix. 

Gold  ■was,  in  all  probability,  one  of  the  earliest 
discovered  of  the  metals.  The  fact  of  its  being 
found  very  generally  distributed  over  the  siu-face 
of  the  earth,  and  that,  too,  in  its  simple  metallic 
state,  combined  with  its  bcautifiU  colour,  and  many 
vahiablc  properties,  woidd  cause  it  very  early  to 
attract  the  attention  of  man.  Accordingly,  we  learn 
that  gold  was  used  by  the  Hebrews,  the  Egj-jitians, 
and  other  ancient  nations,  for  much  the  same 
pmrposes  as  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

Previous  to  the  great  Californian  discovery  in 
1S47,  Europe  was  to  a  great  extent  supplied  with 
G.  from  Jlexico,  Brazil,  Xew  Granada,  Chili,  and 
Peru  in  North  and  South  America ;  a  large  quan- 
tity was  also  obtained  from  Asiatic  Russia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  ;  the  east  and 
west  coast  of  Africa  furnished  a  less  but  still  con- 
siderable quantit}'.  All  these  countries  still  produce 
G.,  but  their  total  yield,  including  Euroije,  is  only 
about  one-fourth  that  of  California  and  Australia. 

The  most  famous  mines  in  Europe  are  those  of 
Hungary  and  Transylvania,  which  produce  annually 
about  £.300,000  worth  of  this  metal.  Piedmont 
and  Spain  are  almost  the  only  other  European 
countries  where  G.  is  worked  ;  but  it  is  found  in 
aU  districts  where  the  rivers  flow  over  jirimary 
rocks,  though  rarely  in  sufficient  quantity  to  repay 
the  expense  of  working  it. 

G.  has  lieen  found  in  several  parts  of  the  British 
Islands.  The  most  productive  district  yet  discovered 
was  that  of  Wicklow,  in  Ireland,  where,  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  stream- works  were 
prosecuted  for  some  time  with  considerable  success. 
In  Scotland,  the  LeadhiUs,  on  the  borders  of  Dum- 
friesshii"e,  as  well  as  the  Higldands  of  Perthshire, 
have  at  various  times  produced  G. ;  so  .also  have 
ComM'all  and  Devonsliire  in  England,  and,  at  the 
present  time,  a  small  quantity  is  being  obtained 
from  North  Wales. 

First  ainoug  the  celebrated  gold  discoveries  of 
recent  times,  in  point  of  date,  though  not  in  import- 
ance, come  those  of  Eastern  Siberia,  where  extensive 
auriferous  tracts  were  discovered  in  the  govern- 
ments of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk  in  1842.  The  quantity 
obtained  in  these  eastern  regions  raised  the  annual 
produce  of  the  Kussian  empire  to  three,  and  \dti- 
mately  to  foiu"  millions  sterling — more  than  trij)le 
its  former  j^iekl.  Concerning  Kussia,  it  may  be 
well  to  remark  that  an  examination  of  the  aurifer- 
ous deposits  of  the  Ural  Mountains  led  Sir  Eoderick 
Murchison,  in  1844,  on  comparing  then*  rocks  with 
those  brought  home  by  Count  Strzelecki  from 
AiistraUa,  to  predict  the  presence  of  G.  on  the  latter 
continent.  Subsequent  discoveries,  as  is  well  known, 
have  proved  the  accuracy  of  this  conclusion  in  a 
very  remarkable  degree. 

The  rich  gold  region  of  California  was  discovered 
in  September  1847.  Mr  Marshall,  the  contractor 
for  a  saw-mUI  on  the  estate  of  Captain  Suter — a 
Swiss  emigrant,  settled  on  the  banks'  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Eiver — detected  particles  of  G.  in  the  sand 
of  the  miU-race,  and  on  further  examination,  it  was 
found  that  valuable  deposits  existed  throughout 
the  bed  of  the  stream.  InteUigence  of  the  dis- 
covery soon  reached  the  town  of  San  Francisco, 
whose  scanty  population  at  once  abandoned  their 
usual  occupations  to  join  in  the  exciting  search  for 
810 


gold.  The  supply  was  soon  found  to  Ije  abundant 
over  a  large  area ;  it  occurred  in  the  tributaries 
of  the  Sacramento  as  well  as  in  the  bed  of  the  river 
itself,  in  old  water-courses,  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
hills.  Emigrants  quicldy  poured  in  from  all  parts 
of  the  American  continent,  and  ere  long  from  Britain, 
Germany,  and  other  Eiu'opean  countries,  till  the 
population  of  San  Francisco  alone  rose  from  imder 
20O  in  1845  to  40,000  in  18oS.  At  iirst,  it  was 
thought  that  the  supply  of  G.  from  this  region 
would  soon  fail,  but  it  would  appear  by  later 
researches  to  be  far  from  being  easily  exhausted, 
as  the  supply,  though  now  apparently  decreasing, 
continued  for  several  years  at  upwards  of  .£13,000,000 
per  annum.     See  Sax  Fkancisco. 

In  1851,  before  the  excitement  of  the  Californian 
discover}'  had  time  to  subside,  the  world  was 
startled  by  the  announcement  of  another,  or  rather 
by  a  series  of  others,  of  not  less  importance,  in 
Australia.  It  is  a  cm-ious  fact  that  not  only  Sir  K. 
Murchison,  as  stated  above,  but  also  the  Rev.  W. 
B.  (.'larke,  a  native  geologist,  had  pointed  out  the 
likelihood  of  G.  being  found  in  the  eastern  chain  of 
the  Australian  mountains,  several  years  before  the 
value  of  the  gold-fields  near  Bathurst  was  discovered 
by  Mr  Hargraves  in  April  1851.  This  discovery 
was  no  sooner  made,  however,  than  several  other 
places  ill  Bathurst  and  the  adjoining  counties  were 
found  to  contain  rich  deposits ;  so  that,  before  many 
months  had  passed,  COOO  pei-sons  were  employed  at 
these  duiymys.  In  August  of  the  same  year,  further 
discoveries  of  G.  were  made  at  Ballarat,  in  Victoria, 
which  excelled  in  richness  those  of  the  Sydney 
district ;  and  these,  in  turn,  were  soon  surpassed  by 
fresh  tliscoveries  in  the  Mount  Alexander  range. 
Diu'ing  the  climax  of  the  excitement  created  by 
the  Victoria  gold-fields,  the  number  of  diggers  rose 
to  upwards  of  20,000,  withdi'awing  for  a  time  the 
great  mass  of  the  popidation  from  Melbourne  and 
Geelong. 

The  modes  of  working  adopted  at  the  first  st.irt 
of  the  diggings  were  neeessardy  rude  and  wasteful ; 
the  fortunes  of  the  gold-seekers,  too,  were  of  courso 
very  variable  imder  such  a  system,  many  of  them 
having  made  large  profits — as  much,  in  a  few 
instances,  as  a  thousand  pounds  and  upwards  in  a 
single  week — but  mauy  more  met  with  nothing  but 
disappointment.  A  more  system.atic  plan  of  mining, 
however,  has  now  been  introduced,  by  which  the 
auriferous  deposits  are  more  completely  worked  out, 
and  the  labour  of  the  miners  rendered  less  pre- 
carious. Notwithstanding  this,  the  annual  produce 
of  the  Australian  colonies  has  now  (1862)  fallen  to 
about  £8,000,000,  only  two-thirds  of  what  they  pro- 
duced a  few  years  ago.  In  the  International  Exhi- 
bition of  1862  there  was  a  gilded  pyramid  10  feet 
squ.are  at  the  base  and  45  feet  high,  representing 
the  mass  of  gold  exported  from  Victoria  between 
the  1st  October  1851  and  the  1st  October  1S61.  Its 
weight  ill  solid  gold  would  have  been  26,162,432 
ounces  troy,  which,  taken  roundly  at  £4  per 
ounce,  gives  its  value  as  £104,649,728.  The  pro- 
duce of  Cahfornia  since  the  discovery  of  its  gold- 
fields  in  1847,  up  to  the  present  time,  may  be 
estimated  at  about  37,500,000  ounces,  and  its  value 
at  £150,000,000. 

Since  the  two  gi-eat  gold  regions  of  California  and 
Australia  became  known,  three  new  ones  of  consi- 
derable promise  have  been  discovered — one  of  them 
in  British  Columbia,  the  value  of  which  was  proved 
in  1858,  although  preriously  it  was  to  some  extent 
known  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company ;  another 
is  being  successfully  developed  in  Nova  Scotia ; 
and  a  third  in  the  province  of  Otago,  in  New 
Zealand,  the  recent  accoimts  from  which  are  very 
encouraging.      It   would   appear    that   there   is    a 


COLD-BEATER'S  SKIX— GOLD-BEATIKG. 


great  similarity  between  the  general  rook  systems 
and  anrifero\t3  .deposits  of  this  region  and -those  of 
Australia.  Before  passing  from  the  subject  of  recent 
gold-fields,  it  is  worth  noting  that,  a  few  years 
ago,  Dr  Livingstone  the  African  traveller  discovered 
G.  near  Tete  on  the  Zambesi— a  district  which 
may  be  found  to  be  rich  in  the  precious  metal, 
when  more  deliberately  surveyed.  Its  position  is 
remarkable  as  occurrmg  in  the  centre  of  a  coal-lield. 

Tlie  annual  produce  of  G.  in  the  whole  world 
at  the  present  time  is  somewhere  between  30 
and  40  millions  sterling.  Wherever  G.  is  found, 
its  origin  can  generally  be  traced  to  quartz  veins 
in  the  primary  or  volcanic  rocks,  such  as  granite, 
gneiss,  porphyry,  clay-slate,  or  greenstone.  As 
these  rocks  become  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
the  weatlier,  portions  of  the  auriferous  veius  arc 
carried  down  by  streams  and  floods,  and  so  find 
tlieir  way  into  the  deposits  of  sand,  clay,  and 
sliinglu  in  river-beds,  and  in  the  gidlies  and  Hats 
of  hills.  Many  auriferous  drifts  are  of  great  thick- 
ness, formed  by  long-continued  wasting  of  the 
rocks  of  neighbouring  hills,  and  therefore  require 
minijig  to  a  considerable  depth.  G.  for  the  most 
part  is  found  in  small  grains,  or  scales,  called  gold- 
dust  ;  some  of  it,  however,  in  pieces,  or  nta/i/Kts  of 
cousiderable  size.  The  largest  yet  met  with  was 
found  at  Ballarat  in  1S.5S,  called  '  The  Welcome  ; ' 
it  weighed  21GG  oz.,  and  its  value  was  £S.37G,  lOs.  lOrf. 
A  good  deal  of  the  Mexican  and  European  G.  is 
olitained  from  auriferous  pyrites ;  that  is,  the 
sulpluu-et  of  iron,  copper,  or  arsenic,  witli  the 
G.  dissemiuatcd  through  it. 

Nearly  all  the  metals  except  G.  are  found,  for 
the  most  jiart,  at  least,  as  ores  chemically  combined 
with  oxygen,  sidphnr,  or  other  substances ;  and 
they  therefore  require  to  be  separated  by  chemical 
princesses.  Gold  ores,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  gene- 
rally only  require  to  be  mechanically  treated  by 
the  processes  of  crushing,  stamping,  gi'iuding,  and 
washing.  Tlie  amalgamation  process,  however,  is 
resorted  to  when  the  6.  occurs  in  a  state  of  fine 
dirision. 

The  crushing-mill  consists  of  two  large  cast-iron 
cylinders  or  rollers  revolving  in  opposite  directions, 
wliich  break  the  ore  into  small  jiieces  as  it  passes 
through  between  them.  To  reduce  it  further,  a 
stauiping-mill  is  used  with  iron-shod  jniles  of  wood, 
or  sometimes  with  stampers  entirely  of  iron,  wrought 
by  an  axle  -nith  projecting  cams  after  the  fashion 
of  flint-miUs  and  beetling-machines.  To  pidverise 
it  still  further,  any  form  of  griuiling-mill  is  used,  but 
the  grinding  surfaces  shoidd  be  of  iron  or  of  some 
hard  rock  like  granite.  The  poimded  ore  is  finally 
sifted  and  washed  by  machines,  which  vary  in 
shajie  and  mode  of  working,  but  thej'  all  consist 
essentially  of  sieves,  to  sejiarate  the  larger  fi-om  the 
smaller  jiartielcs,  and  an  inclined  tabic  or  frame, 
across  which  a  stream  of  water  flows.  The  gold 
particles,  on  account  of  their  gi-eater  specific  gi-avity, 
remain  at  the  head  of  the  board,  and  the  quartz  and 
other  impm-ities  are  carried  forward  and  separated 
by  the  current. 

By  the  above  treatment,  the  greater  part  of  the 
G.  is  extracted,  but  there  still  renuvin  minute 
particles  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  mixed  with  the 
(jaHijiie ;  indeed,  some  auriferous  soils  contain  all 
their  G.  in  a  state  of  extreme  division.  To  recover 
this,  the  ore  is  jiartially  concentrated  by  washing, 
and  then  an  amalgam  is  made  ;  that  is,  it  is  mixed 
with  incrciuy,  wljieh  has  the  power  of  seizing  on 
and  dissolving  the  gold  jiarticles,  however  minute. 
The  mercury  is  afterwards  distilled  off  in  a  cast-iron 
retort,  leaving  the  G.  nearly  pure. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  (piantity  of  G.  used  in 
the  arts,  of  which  very  little  can  be  recovered,  it 
203 


may  be  stated  that  in  the  United  Kingdom  some 
30,000  ounces  in  the  shape  of  leaf  gold,  10,000 
ounces  in  the  electropl.ate  and  other  processes  of 
gilding  met.als,  and  about  the  same  quantity  in 
gUding  and  making  colours  in  the  pottery  districts, 
are  annually  consumed. 

The  quantity  of  G.  poured  into  England  during 
recent  years  has  been  immense.  See  Grkat  Bkitai.v. 
What  has  become  of  it  all  is  often  matter  of  sur- 
prise. Much  has  been  sent  to  the  mint,  and  much 
sent  to  foreign  countries  for  their  gold  coinage.  In 
France,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  all 
large  sums  are  now  paid  in  G.,  instead  of  silver 
as  formerly.  That  the  continued  influx  of  (i.  is 
gradually  heightening  jnrices  in  the  United  King- 
dom is  suliiciently  obvious.  The  current  price  of 
standard  gold  is  about  £3,  I's.  Gil. 

GOLD-BEATER'S  SKIX,  a  delicate  membrane 
prejiared  from  the  large  intestine  of  the  ox,  and 
used  as  a  dressing  for  slight  wounds,  as  the  fabric 
for  court-plaster,  &c.,  but  chieHy  by  gold-beaters. 
See  GOLD-BEATINO.  The  outer  or  peritoneal 
membrane  is  used  for  this  pur])ose.  The  intestine 
is  fii-st  sulijected  to  a  partial  jiutrefaction,  by 
which  the  aiUiesion  of  the  membranes  is  sullieicntly 
diminished  to  enable  them  to  be  scjjarated ;  the 
separated  membrane  is  then  further  cleaned  from  the 
adhering  muscular  fibres,  dried,  beaten,  and  pressed 
between  paper,  besides  being  treated  with  alum, 
isinglass,  and  white  of  egg,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  obtain  the  jiure  continuous  memlirane  ficc  from 
grease  and  impurities,  without  allowing  tlic  ])utre- 
factive  processes  to  weaken  it.  A  jiacket  of  900 
pieces  of  skin,  each  four  inches  square,  is  worth  £8. 
They  m.ay  be  beaten  continuously  for  several  months 
with  a  twelve-pouud  hammer  without  material 
injury.  The  intestines  of  500  oxen  are  recjuired  to 
funiish  the  900  leaves  that  form  one  Jiaekct,  or 
mould,  as  it  is  technically  called.  The  mauufact\iro 
is  an  extremely  ofl'ensive  one.  Chlorine  h;i3  been 
introduced  both  as  a  disinfectant  and  to  assist  in 
the  scjiaratiou  of  the  membrane. 

GOLD-BEATING,  the  process  by  which  gold  is 
extended  to  thin  leaves  used  for  gihling.  The  gold 
used  for  this  purpose  is  usually  alloyed  with  silver 
or  copper,  according  to  the  coloiu-  required.  See 
(iOLD.  For  deep  i/ohl,  an  alloy  containing  about 
1  ])art  of  copjier  to  20  of  pure  gold  is  used.  As 
goldleaf  is  not  sold  by  weight,  but  by  superficial 
measm-e,  and  as  increasing  the  quantity  of  alloy 
diminishes  the  malleability,  there  is  but  little  temp- 
tation to  use  the  baser  metals  as  an  adulteration. 

The  gold  is  first  cast  into  oblong  ingots  about 
^ths  of  an  inch  wide,  ami  weighing  two  ounces.  The 
ingot  is  flattened  out  intcj  a  riljbon  of  about  -j^-jth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  by  ))assing  it  between 
polished  steel  roUei-s.  This  is  annealed  or  softened 
l)y  heat,  and  then  cut  into  ])ieces  of  one  inch  square ; 
liiO  of  these  are  jilaced  between  leaves  of  vellum, 
each  |iiece  of  gold  in  the  centre  of  a  square  vellum 
leaf,  another  jilaced  aljove,  and  so  on  till  the  ])ile  of 
150  is  formed.  This  jiili;  is  enclosed  in  a  ilouble 
])archment  ease,  and  beaten  with  a  IG-pound  ham- 
mer. The  elasticity  of  the  packet  considerably 
lightens  the  Labour  of  beating,  by  causing  the 
hammer  to  rebimnd  with  each  blow. 

The  beating  is  continued  until  the  inch-pieces 
are  spread  out  to  four- inch  squares  ;  they  are  then 
taken  out,  and  cut  into  four  ])ieccs,  and  squares 
thus  produced  are  now  jilaeed  between  gold-heater'i 
skin  instead  of  vellum,  m.ade  into  piles,  and 
enclosed  in  a  ])archmcnt  case,  and  beaten  iis  before, 
but  with  a  lighter  hammer.  .Vnothcr  (piarteriug 
and  lieating  prud>u-cs  2-tOO  leaves,  having  an  area  of 
about  190  times  that  of  the  ribbon,  or  a  thickuess 

817 


GOLD  COAST— GOLD  OF  PLEASURE. 


of  about  •oTnf.-nnsfi  °^  ^^  inch.  An  ounce  of  gold  is 
thus  extouiied  to  a  surface  of  about  100  square  feet. 
A  still  greater  degree  of  tliinness  may  be  obtained, 
but  not  profitably.  After  the  last  beating,  the 
leaves  are  taken  up  with  wood  pincei's,  placed  on  a 
cushion,  blown  out  Hat,  and  their  ragged  edges  cut 
away,  by  which  they  are  reduced  to  squares  of  3} 
inches.  Twenty-tive  of  those  are  jilaced  between 
the  leaves  of  a  paper-book,  previously  rubbed  ■svith 
red  chalk,  to  prevent  adhesion  of  the  gold,  and  are 
sold  in  this  form. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  apply  machinery  to 
gold-beating,  but  though  very  ingenious,  their  appli- 
cation is  very  limited ;  most  of  the  goldleaf  is  stUl 
beaten  by  hand. 
GOLD  COAST.  See  GrKEA. 
GOLD-EYE  (Ilyodon),  a  genus  of  malacopterous 
fishes,  inhabiting  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  North 
America ;  the  tyjje  of  a  family,  Hyodontidce,  of  which 
other  members  are  found  in  tropical  America  and 
iu  Borneo.  They  are  small  fishes,  much  compressed 
like  herrings,  feed  on  insects  like  trouts,  and  Hke 
them  are  often  taken  by  anglers  with  artificial 
flies.  They  have  the  mouth  abundantly  armed 
with  teeth,  having  teeth  far  back  on  the  palate  as 
well  as  on  the  tongue  and  jaws. 

GOLDFISH,  or  GOLDEN  CARP  [Cyprinus 
auratus),  a  fish  of  the  same  genus  -n-ith  the  carp, 
a  native  of  China,  but  now  domesticated  and 
naturalised  iu  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
s-iid  to  have  been  originally  confined  to  a  lake 
near  the  mountain  Tsien-king,  in  the  province 
of  The-kiang,  in  China ;  but  this  statement  is 
of  questionable  accuracy.  It  has  been  long  com- 
mon in  many  of  the  fresh  waters  of  China,  and 
was  introduced  into  England  about  the  end  of 
the  17th  or  beginning  of  the  ISth  century.  On 
account  of  the  brilliancy  of  its  colours  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  is  kept  in  glass  globes  or  other 
vessels,  in  apartments,  it  soon  became,  and  has 
continued  to  be,  a  general  favom-ite.  Its  ordinary 
length  is  five  or  six  inches,  but  it  has  been  known 
to  reach  a  foot.  When  young,  it  is  of  a  blackish 
colour,  but  acquires  its  characteristic  golden  red  as 
it  advances  to  maturity,  some  imlividuals  (Silver- 
fish)  becoming  rather  of  a  silvery  hue.  Monstrosi- 
ties of  various  kinds  are  frequent,  particidarly  in 
the  fins  and  eyes.  The  G.  is  now  plentiful  in  some 
of  the  streams  of  Southern  Europe,  from  which  it  is 
imported  into  Britain ;  but  it  also  breeds  in  ponds 
in  Britain,  particidarly  in  those  into  which  hot  water 
is  poured  from  steam-engines,  which  sometimes 
swarm  with  its  fry.  In  confinement,  it  may  be  fed 
with  worms,  insects,  crumbs  of  bread,  yolks  of  eggs 
dried  and  powdered,  &c.  Frequent  changing  of  the 
water  is  advantageous,  not  only  because  of  its  being 
more  fresh  and  better  aerated,  but  because  of  the 
animalcides  thus  supplied  for  food. 

GOLDLACE,  a  fabric  formed  by  weaving 
silken  threads  that  have  been  previously  gilded. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  manufacture  consists  in  the 
gilding  of  the  silk  in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall 
retain  sufficient  flexibility  for  weaving.  A  deep 
yellow  or  orange  coloured  silk  is  used  W  the  pur- 
pose. The  usual  method  of  doing  this,  is  by  what 
is  called  '  fibre  plating.'  A  rod  of  silver  is  gilded  by 
simjily  pressing  and  bvirnishing  loaves  of  gold  upon 
it.  This  gdded  silver  is  then  drawn  into  very  fine 
v\ire,  so  fine  that  one  ounce  of  metal  can  be  extended 
to  the  length  of  more  than  a  mile.  It  is  then  flat- 
tened between  poUshed  steel  rollers,  and  further 
extended  so  that  a  mile  and  a  quarter  weighs  only 
one  ounce  ;  for  the  last  drawing,  the  wire  is  ]>assed 
through  ndjy  dies.  The  film  of  gold  upon  this 
flattened  \vire  is  much  thinner  than  beaten  goldleaf. 


and  has  frequently  been  quoted  as  an  ex.ample  of 
tlie  divisibihty  of  matter,  as  one  inch  of  the  highly 
gdded  wire  contains  but  the  eighty-millionth  part 
of  an  ounce  of  gold,  or  -^^  of  an  inch,  which  is 
a  visible  quantity  exhibiting  the  colour  and  lustre 
of  gold,  contains  but  goo.oo'o.ooo'  of  an  mmce,  or 
one  ounce  of  gold  covers  more  than  100  miles  of 
vrive.  This  flattened  gilded  wire  is  then  womid  over 
the  silk,  so  as  to  enclose  it  completely,  and  produce 
an  ajipareutly  golden  thread. 

Other  means  of  directly  gilding  the  thread  have 
been  tried,  and  for  some  puqioses  are  successful, 
but  none  have  yet  been  discovered  which  give  the 
thread  the  same  degree  of  lustre  as  the  above,  which 
was  first  practised  in  a  ruder  manner  by  the  Hindus. 

Mr  Hock's  method  of  fibre  gilding  is  to  pass 
the  silk  through  a  mucilaginous  solution,  and  then 
receive  it  on  a  brass  cylinder,  over  which  it  is 
closely  rolled.  Goldleaf  is  then  laid  upon  this  coil 
of  gummed  sUk,  and  thus  one  side  is  coated.  The 
other  side  is  gilded  by  rolling  it  from  the  first  on 
to  a  second  cylinder  in  the  opposite  direction,  thus 
the  plain  side  falls  outermost,  and  is  then  coated 
with  gokUeaf  as  before.  This  is  rather  cheaper 
than  the  fibre  plated  silk,  and  more  flexible,  but  not 
so  brilliant. 

GOLD  BIINES.  In  England,  the  crown  has 
prima  fade  the  right  to  gold  mines;  but  where  the 
gold  is  found  in  other  mines,  the  crown  is  entitled 
only  to  take  the  gold  at  a  fixed  price.  In  Scotland, 
by  an  ancient  act  of  1.502,  the  owner  of  the  groimd 
can  demand  a  feu  thereof  from  the  crown,  on 
paying  one-tenth  of  the  produce. 

GOLD  OF  PLEASURE  (Camelina),  a  genus  of 
iJants  of  the  natmal  order  Cruclferce,  having  an  erect 
calyx,  small  bright  yellow  flowers,  and  inflated  pear- 
shaped  or  wedge-shaped  pouches.  The  species  are 
few.  The  common  Gold  of  Pleasure  {C.  saliva), 
(Fr.  Cameline,  Germ.  Doiler)  is  an  annual  plant  1.^ — 3 
feet  high,  with  terminal  racemes  and  pear-shaped 
pouches ;  the  leaves  smooth,  bright  green,  entire 
or  slightlj-  toothed,  the  middle  stem-leaves  arrow- 
sh.a])ed  and  embracing  the  stem.  Kotwithstandinc 
its  high-sounding  EngUsh  name,  the  plant  is  of 
himible  and  homely  appearance.  It  grows  in  fields 
and  waste  places  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia; 
it  is  not  regarded  as  a  true  native  of  Britain, 
although  often  found  in  fields,  particidarly  of  flax, 
its  seed  being  very  commonly  mingled  with  flaxseed 
imported  from  the  continent.  In  many  parts  of 
Gei-many,  Belgium,  and  the  south  of  Europe,  it  is 
extensively  ciiltivated  for  the  sake  of  the  abundant 
oil  contained  in  its  seeds.  The  seeds  and  the  oU- 
cake  made  from  them  are  also  used  for  feeding 
cattle,  although  inferior  to  linseed,  and  to  the  oil- 
cake obtained  from  linseed.  The  oil,  although  sweet 
and  pure  at  first,  is  very  apt  to  become  raucid,  and 
is  less  valued  than  that  of  rapeseed  or  colza ;  the 
seeds  of  Gold  of  Pleasure  are  often  mixed  with  rape- 
seed  for  the  production  of  oil.  The  value  of  the 
plant  in  agriculture  depends  much  on  its  adap- 
tation to  poor  sandy  soils,  although  it  prefers  those 
of  a  better  quality ;  and  on  the  briefness  of  its 
period  of  vegetation,  adapting  it  for  being  sown  after 
another  crop  has  failed,  or  for  being  ploughed  down 
as  a  green  manure.  The  seed  is  sown  either  broad- 
cast or  in  drills.  The  crop  is  cut  or  pulled  when 
the  pouches  begin  to  turn  ycUow ;  but  the  readiness 
with  which  seed  is  scattered  in  the  field,  rendering 
the  plant  a  weed  for  future  years,  is  .in  objection  to 
its  cultivation.  It  is  not  much  cultivated  in  any 
part  of  Britain.  The  stems  are  tough,  fibrous,  and 
durable,  and  arc  used  for  thatching  and  for  making 
brooms ;  their  fibre  is  even  separated  like  that  of  fiax, 
and  made  into  very  coarse  cloth  and  packing-paper. 


GOLDAU— GOLDEN-CHESTED  WREN. 


The  seeds  are  used  for  emollient  poultices,  which 
allay  pain,  particularly  in  cutaneous  diso;ises. 

GO'LDAU,  formerly  a  small  town  of  SwitzerLand, 
in  the  canton  of  .Schwytz,  was  sitnatod  in  a  valley 
between  Mount  Kossberg  on  the  north  and  Mount 
Kigi  on  the  south,  five  miles  north-west  of  the  town 
of  Schwytz,  and  is  memorable  for  its  destruction 
by  one  of  the  most  stupendous  and  fatal  landslips 
on  record.  The  upper  portion  of  the  slope  of  the 
Rossberi;,  consisting  of  a  layer  of  stone  resting  on 
light  soil,  had  been  loosened  by  continuous  rains, 
which  percolated  under  the  rock,  and  in  a  measure 
washed  the  soil  from  beneath  it.  On  tlie  2d  Sep- 
tember IS06,  toward  the  evening,  the  outer  laj'cr  of 
rock  became  completely  detached,  and  rushed  dowTi 
the  mountain  in  a  south-western  direction  into  the 
valley.  In  a  few  minutes  not  only  G.  but  the 
neighl)oiU'ing  vill.ages  of  Busingen  and  liothen  were 
overwhelmed  in  destruction,  a  part  of  the  Lake  of 
Lauwerz  was  iilled  up,  and  by  the  sudden  over- 
flowing of  the  water  the  land  to  the  west  of 
Seewen  was  devastated.  Two  churches.  Ill  dwell- 
ing-houses, 220  outhouses  containing  many  cattle, 
and  400  men  were  buried  in  one  moment.  Only 
a  few  of  the  unliap]>y  inhabitants  who,  at  tlie 
moment  of  the  landslip,  were  at  some  distance 
from  tlie  scene,  were  saved.  A  numerous  company 
of  travellers,  who  were  on  the  point  of  commencing 
the  ascent  of  Mount  Kigi,  were  overtaken  on  the 
bridge  of  G.  by  the  kiudslip,  and  perished.  The 
valley  is  now  a  wild  rocky  waste,  but  gr.ass  and 
moss  are  gradually  creeping  over  and  veiling  its 
more  rugged  features.  On  a  heiglit  in  this  v;illey 
through  which  the  highway  leads  from  Arth  to 
Schwj'tz,  a  chapel  has  been  erected.  Compare 
Zry's  O.  und  seine  Umgerjeiul  {' G.  and  its  Neigh- 
bourhood,' Lucerne,  1829). 

GO'LDBERG,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Prussia 
(of  gre.at  antiquity),  in  tlie  pro\nnce  of  Silesia,  is 
situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  banks  of  the 
Katzbach,  10  miles  south-west  of  Liegnitz.  It 
owes  its  origin  and  name  to  the  gold-mines,  which 
were  worked  here  fi-om  the  earliest  times.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  12tli  c,  they  are  said 
to  have  yielded  150  pounds  of  pure  gold  weekly. 
After  the  gi-eat  victory  won  by  the  Mongol  hordes 
near  Liegnitz  in  1241,  in  which  0(10  of  the  miners 
of  G.  perished,  the  town  was  taken  by  the  con- 
querors. It  also  suffered  greatly  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  in  ISl.'J  was  the  scene  of  two 
eng.agcments,  the  first  between  the  French  and 
Russians,  and  the  second  lietwecn  the  French  and 
Prussians.  G.  is  surrounded  by  double  walls  pierced 
by  four  gates  ;  and  is  now  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
factures of  broadcloth,  hosiery,  and  gloves,  and  for 
its  fruit.     Pop.  7040. 

GOLDEN  AGE.  In  the  mythologies  of  most 
peoples  and  religions,  there  exists  a  tradition  of  a 
better  time,  when  the  earth  was  the  coimnon  pro- 
perty of  man,  and  produced  spontaneously  all  tilings 
necessary  for  an  enjoyaljle  existence.  The  land 
flowed  with  milk  and  honey,  bea,sts  of  prey  lived 
peaceably  with  other  animals,  and  man  had  not  yet 
by  selfishness,  pride,  and  other  vices  and  p-assions, 
fallen  from  a  state  of  innocence.  At  the  foundation 
of  this  legend  hes  the  deeply-rooted  opinion,  that 
the  worhf  has  degenerated  with  the  progress  of 
civilisation,  and  that  mankind,  while  leacUng  a 
simple,  patriarchal  life,  were  hajiiiier  than  at  jire- 
sent.  The  (Jreeks  and  Romans  placed  this  golden 
age  under  the  rule  of  S.iturn ;  and  many  of  their 
potts — as,  for  example,  Hesiod,  in  his  Wofks  and 
Days,  Aratus,  Ovid,  and,  above  all,  Virgil,  in  the 
fii-st  book  of  the  Georijics—hvivo  turned  this  poetic 
materiel  to    admirable  account,  and    deliucd   the 


gradual  decadence  of  the  world,  as  the  silver,  the 
brass,  and  the  iron  ages,  holding  out  at  the  same 
time  the  consolatory  hope  that  the  pristine  state 
of  things  will  one  day  return. 

GOLDEN  UEETIjE,  the  name  popularly  given 
to  many  of  a  genus  of  coleo])terou8  insects,  Chryao- 
mda,  and  of  a  tribe  or  family,  Chnjsomelinm  or 
CUn/somelido',  belonging  to  the  tetramcrous  section 
of  the  order.  The  body  is  generally  short  and 
convex,  the  antennae  are  simple  and  wide  ajiart  at 
the  base  ;  some  of  the  species  are  destitute  of  wings. 
Many  are  distinguished  by  great  siilendour  of  colour. 
None  are  of  large  size.  The  finest  species  are 
tropical,  but  some  are  found  in  Britain.  Some  of 
them,  in  the  larva  state,  commit  ravages  on  the 
produce  of  the  field  and  garden. 

GOLDEN  BULL  (Lat.  Bulla  Aurea,  Ger.  Gollene 
Bitlle),  was  so  called  from  the  gold  case  in  which 
the  seal  attached  to  it  was  enclosed.  The  imperial 
edict  known  in  German  history  under  this  title, 
was  issued  by  the  Emjieror  Charles  IV.,  mainly  for 
the  jiurposc  of  settling  the  law  of  imperial  elections. 
Up  to  this  time  much  uncertainty  had  prev.ailed  as 
to  the  rights  of  the  electoral  body,  claims  having 
frequently  been  made  by  sever.al  members  of  the  lay 
electoral  families,  and  divisions. having  repeatedly 
arisen  from  this  uncertainty ;  the  effect  of  such 
divisions  being  to  throw  the  decision  for  the  most 
p.art  into  the  hands  of  the  pope.  In  order  to  obviate 
these  inconveniences,  the  golden  bull  defines  that 
one  member  only  of  each  electoral  house  shall  have 
a  vote — viz.,  the  representative  of  that  house  in 
right  of  primogeniture,  and  in  case  of  liis  being  a 
minor,  the  eldest  of  his  imclcs  paternal.  On  the 
great  question  as  to  the  dependence  of  tlic  imperial 
office  on  the  pope,  and  as  to  the  right  of  the  pope 
to  examine  and  approve  the  imperial  election,  the 
golden  bidl  is  silent,  although  it  decl.ares  the 
emperor  competent  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  Ger- 
many from  the  moment  of  election.  It  invests  the 
\ncari.ate  together  with  the  government  of  the  empire 
during  the  uiten'cgnum,  in  the  Elector  Palatine,  and 
the  Elector  of  Saxony ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that 
this  only  applies  to  Gennany.  On  the  vicariate  of 
It.aly,  which  w.as  claimed  by  the  popes,  nothing  is 
said.  'Die  golden  bidl  also  contains  some  jirovisions 
restraining  the  so-called  Fausirechl  (literally,  '  fist- 
law'),  or  right  of  private  redress.  It  was  solemnly 
enacted  in  two  successive  diets  at  Niirnberg  and 
Metz,  in  the  year  l;j;iG,  and  original  copies  of  it 
were  furnished  to  eacli  of  the  electors,  and  to 
the  city  of  Frankfui't.  The  electoral  constitution, 
as  settled  by  this  bull,  was  maintained  almost 
un.altered  till  the  extinction  of  the  empire. 

In  Hungarian  history  there  is  a  constitution.al 
edict  called  by  the  same  name.  It  w.as  issued  liy 
Andrew  II.  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century. 
Without  entering  into  dct.ails,  it  will  be  enough  to 
say  that  the  Golden  Bull  of  Andrew  II.  changed 
the  government  of  IIung.ary  from  an  absolutism 
to  an  aristocratic  monarchy,  and  that  it  contained 
tiU  recent  times  the  charter  of  the  liberties  of 
Hungary,  or  perhaps  of  the  privileges  of  the 
noble  class.  See  Schmidt's  Oesddchte  der  Deutsclien, 
iii.  CSS. 

GOLDEN-CRESTED  WREN  {Rer/ulus  auroca- 
jiillus),  a  very  beautiful  bird  of  the  family  SijlviadiC, 
the  sm.illest  of  British  birds.  Its  entire  length  is 
scarcely  three  inches  and  a  half.  Notwithstanding 
its  English  name,  it  is  not  really  a  wren,  but  this 
name  continues  in  popular  use  rather  than  li&jidua 
and  Kinglet,  which  have  been  jiroposed  instead.  The 
golden-crested  wren  is  greenish-yeUow  on  the  upper 
parts,  the  checks  and  thi'oat  grayish-white  ;  the 
crown   feathers  elongated,  and   forming  a  bright 

81 J 


GOLDEX-EYE— GOLDEN  NUMBER. 


yellow  crest.  In  its  habits,  it  is  intermediate  between 
the  warblers  and  tlie  tits.  It  jiarticularly  art'ects 
fir- woods.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  from  the 
most  sonthern  to  the  most  northern  jiarts  ;  but 
many  come  also  from  more  northern  countries  to 
si)end  the  winter,  and  it  is  on  record  th.at,  in  Octo- 
ber )S"J'2,  thousands  were  driven  on  the  coast  of 
Northumberland  and  Durham  by  a  severe  gale  from 
the  north-east.  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  suspended 
from  the  outermost  twigs  of  a  branch  of  fir,  some  of 
them  being  interwoven  with  it. — Another  species 
{R.  ifjiiicapUlus),  with  more  vividly  red  crest,  is 
sometimes  found  in  Britain,  and  species  are  found 
in  Asia  and  North  America. 

GOLDEN-EYE.     See  Gakkot. 

GOLDEN-EYE  FLY  (Hemerdhlus  perla,  or 
Chrysopa  perla),  a  neuropterous  insect,  common  in 
Britain  ;  pale  green,  with  long  thi-e.adlike  anteun;e, 
long  gauze-like  ■nings,  and  brilli.ant  golden  eyes. 
Its  flight  is  feeble.  The  length,  from  the  tip  of  the 
antennas  to  the  tip  of  the  wings,  is  almost  an  inch 
and  a  half,  liut  the  insect  without  wings  and 
antenuai  is  not  above  one-third  of  this  length.  The 
female   attaches  her  eggs,  in   groups  of   12  or  10, 


GolJen-eye  Fly  [Chrijsopa  perla) 
{Copied  from  Morton's  Encijclopccdia  of  Agriculture] : 
o,  cocoon ;   h,  the    same  magnified ;   c,  l.irva ;    d,  the  same 
magnified,  and  freed  from  adliering  substances ;    c,  perfect 
insect,  on  a  branch  to  which  its  eggs  are  attached. 

by  long  hairlike  stalks,  to  leaves  or  twigs.  They 
have  been  mistaken  for  fungi.  The  laiwa;  are 
ferocious-looking  little  creatures,  rough  witli  long 
hairs,  to  which  particles  of  lichen  or  bark  become 
attached  ;  they  are  called  aphls-lioiis,  and  are  very 
usefid  by  the  destruction  of  aphides,  on  which  they 
feed.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  white  silken 
cocoon,  from  which  the  Ay  is  liberated  by  a  lid. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  in  Greek  tradition,  the 
fleece  of  the  ram  Clirysomallus,  the  recovery  of 
which  was  the  object  of  the  Aj'gimautic  expedition. 
See  Ar.GOXACTS.  The  Golden  Fleece  has  given 
its  name  to  a  celebrated  order  of  knighthood  in 
Austria  and  Spain,  founded  by  Philip  III.,  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  the  Netherlands,  at  Bruges,  on 
the  loth  .January  1429,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  King  John  I. 
of  Portug.al.  This  order  was  instituted  for  the 
]>rotection  of  the  church,  and  the  fleece  was  prob- 
ably assumed  for  its  emblem,  as  much  from  being 
the  material  of  the  staple  manufacture  of  the  Low 
Countries,  as  from  its  connection  with  heroic 
times.  The  foimder  made  himself  Grand- Master 
of  the  order,  a  dignity  appointed  to  descend  to 
his  successors ;  and  the  number  of  knights,  at  first 
limited  to  24,  was  subsefpiently  increased.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  V.,  the  Burgund(;i-Spanish  line 
of  the  House  of  Austria  remained  in  possession  of  the 
820 


order ;  but  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  war  of  suc- 
cession, the  emperor,  Charles  VI.,  laid  claim  to  it  in 
virtue  of  his  possession  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
taking  witli  him  the  archives  of  the  order,  cele- 
brated its  iuaugtiration  with  great  magniliccnce  at 
Vienna  in  1713.  Philip  V.  of  Spain  conti'sted  the 
claim  of  Charles;  and  the  tlispute,  several  times 
renewed,  was  at  last  tacitly  adjusted  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  order  in  both  coimtries.  The  insignia 
are  a  golden  fleece  hanging  from  a  gold  and  blue 
enamelled  flintstone  emitting  flames,  and  borne  ia 
its  turn  by  a  ray  of  lire.  On  the  enamelled  obverse 
is  inscribed  Pretiiim  laborum  non  vile.  The  decnr.v 
tiou  was  originally  suspended  from  a  chain  of  alter- 
nate flrestones  and  rays,  for  which  Charles  V. 
allowed  a  red  ribbon  to  be  substituted,  and  tlio 
chain  is  now  worn  only  by  the  Grand-Master.  The 
Spanish  decoration  difl'ers  slightly  from  the  Austrian. 
The  costume  consists  of  a  long  robe  of  deep  red 
velvet,  lined  \rith  white  taffetas,  and  a  long  mantle 
of  piu-jile  velvet  lined  with  white  satin,  and  richly 
trimmed  mth  embroidery  containing  firestoncs  ami 
steels  emitting  flames  and  sparks.  On  the  hem, 
which  is  of  white  satin,  is  embroidered  in  gold,  Je 
Vaif  enipris.  There  is  also  a  cap  of  purjde  velvet 
embroidered  in  gold,  with  a  hood,  and  the  shoes 
and  stockings  are  red.  In  Austria,  the  emperor 
may  now  create  any  number  of  knights  of  the 
Golden  Fleece  from  the  old  nobility ;  if  Protestants, 
the  pope's  consent  is  required.  In  Spain,  princes, 
grandees,  and  personages  of  pecuhar  merit  are 
alone  eligible. 

GOLDEN  LEGEND  (Lat.  Aurea  Legenda),  a 
celebrated  coUectiou  of  hagiolog)',  which  for  a  time 
enjoyed  almost  unexampled  popiUarity,  h.^^^ng  passed 
through  more  than  a  hundred  eiUtions,  and  transla- 
tions into  almost  all  the  Em-opean  languages.  It  is 
the  work  of  James  de  A'oragine,  also  WTitteu  '  Vragiue  * 
and  '  Varagine,'  who  was  born  about  the  year  1230. 
He  entered  the  Dominican  order,  and  was  elected, 
at  a  comj)aratively  early  age,  provincial  of  the  order 
in  Lombardy  in  1267.  Towards  the  end  of  that 
century,  he  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Genoa  ;  and 
by  his  ability,  his  moderation,  and  his  exemplary 
hfe,  he  played  a  most  influential  part  in  the  pubhc 
afiah's  of  his  time,  being  called  more  than  once  into 
the  councils  of  the  popes  themselves,  in  afl'airs  of 
difficidty.  The  Legenda  consists  of  177  sections, 
each  of  which  is  devoted  to  a  jiarticular  saint  or 
festival,  selected  acconling  to  the  order  of  the 
calendar.  In  its  execution,  the  work,  as  may  well 
be  supposed  from  its  age,  is  far  from  critical,  but  it 
is  deser\'uig  of  study  as  a  literaiy  monument  of  the 
period,  and  as  illustrating  the  religious  h.abits  and 
views  of  the  Christians  of  that  time.  It  presents 
a  very  difterent  phase  of  the  medieval  mind  from 
that  which  is  exhibited  in  the  acute  and  severely 
philosophical  lucubrations  of  the  schools ;  but  l>oth 
must  be  read  together,  in  order  to  make  up  the 
intellectual  ideal  of  the  time. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER  for  any  year  is  the  numlier 
of  that  year  in  the  Metonic  Cycle  (q.  v.),  and  as  this 
cycle  embraces  19  years,  the  golden  numliers  range 
from  1  to  19.  The  cycle  of  Meton  came  into  general 
use  soon  after  its  discovery,  and  the  number  of 
each  year  in  the  Metonic  cycle  was  ordered  to  l)e 
engraved  in  letters  of  gold  on  pillars  of  inarbk', 
hence  the  origin  of  the  name.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Gregorian  calendar,  the  point  from 
which  the  golden  nimibers  are  reckoned  is  1  B.  c, 
as  in  that  year  the  new  moon  fell  on  the  1st  of 
January ;  and  as  by  Meton' s  law  the  new  moon  falls 
on  the  same  day  (1st  of  January)  every  19th  j'ear 
from  that  time,  we  obtain  the  following  rule  for 
finding  the  golden  number  for  any  particular  year, 


GOLDEN-EOD-GOLDSCHMIDT. 


^Aild  1  to  the  number  of  years,  tmd  dinile  h;/  19,  t/ie 
qiiutieiil  gives  the  number  o/q/cks  and  tlie  remainder 
(fives  Vie  (/olden  number  for  that  year;  and  if  there 
be  no  remainder,  then  19  is  the  golden  number,  and 
that  year  is  the  last  of  the  cycle.'  The  golden  mimljer 
is  used  for  detenuiniuf;  the  Epact  (q.  v.),  aud  the 
time  for  holding  Kaster  (q.  v.). 

GOLDEN-ROD  (Solidago),  a  genua  of  |ilants 
of  the  natural  order  Compositce,  sub-order  C'oryni- 
biferw,  closely  allied  to  Aslei;  but  distinguished 
by  the  single-rowed  pappus  and  tapering — not  com- 
pressed— fniit.  The  species  are  natives  chiefly  of 
temperate  climates,  and  are  most  numerous  in  North 
Ameriea.  A  few  are  European ;  only  one  is  British, 
the  Common  G.  (jS'.  Vinjaurea),  a,  perennial  plant  of 
very  variable  size,  as  there  is  a  small  alpine  variety 
(sometimes  called  <S'.  Cambrica)  only  a  few  inches  j 
high,  whilst  the  common  variety,  found  in  woods 
and  thickets  in  most  parts  of  Britain,  is  from  one 
to  four  feet  high.  It  has  erect  panieleJ  crowded 
racemes  of  small  yellow  flowers.  It  is  an  ornamental 
plant,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  gardeu.s.  It  had  at 
one  time  a  great  reputation  as  a  vulnerary,  whence 
the  name  Solidago,  it  is  said,  from  Lat.  solidare,  to 
unite.  The  leaves  of  this  and  a  fragrant  North 
American  species,  S.  odora,  have  been  used  as  a, 
substitute  for  tea.  They  are  mildly  astringent  and 
tonic. 

GOLDEN  ROSE,  a  rose  formed  of  wrought 
gold,  and  blessed  with  much  solemnity  by  the 
pope  in  person  on  Mid-lent  Sunday,  which  is 
called,  from  the  firet  word  of  the  festival,  '  La,'tare 
Sunday.'  The  prayer  of  blessing  contains  a  mystic 
allusion  to  our  Lord  as  '  the  flower  of  the  field 
and  the  lily  of  the  valleys.'  The  rose  is  anointed 
with  b.alsam,  fumigated  with  incense,  sprinkled 
v^•itll  musk,  and  is  then  left  upon  the  altar  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  mass.  Formerly,  in  the 
solemn  papal  procession  of  the  day,  the  pope 
carried  it  in  his  hand.  It  is  usually  i)resentcd  to 
some  Catholic  prince,  whom  the  pope  desires  espe- 
cially to  h(Uiour.  with  an  appropriate  form  of  words. 
The  origin  of  the  ceremony  is  xincertain,  but  the 
most  probable  opinion  as  to  its  date  is  that  of 
MartCne  and  Du  Cange,  who  fix  it  in  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Innocent  IV.  See  Wetser's  Kirdicn  Lexicon, 
vol.  L\-.  397. 

GOLDEN  RULE,  a  process  in  arithmetic,  so 
called  from  the  universality  of  its  application.     See 

fROPOliTION'. 

GOLDFINCH  {Frinfdla  cardnelis,  or  Carduells 
eleijans),  a  jiretty  little  bird  of  the  family  Fringil- 
lithe,  a  favourite  cage-bird,  on  account  of  its  soft 
and  pleasing  song,  its  inteUigence,  its  liveUness, 
and  the  attachment  which  it  forms  for  those  who 
feed  anil  caress  it.  The  genus  Cardnelis  is  distin- 
guished by  a  tliick  conical  bill,  -vrithout  any  liulguig, 
attenuated  and  very  sharp  at  the  tij).  There  are 
two  groujis,  and  one  British  species  of  each — a  group 
with  gay  plumage  and  more  prolonged  biU,  of  which 
the  <J.  is  the  British  representative,  and  another 
with  darker  ])lumage  and  shorter  bill,  represented 
by  the  Al)crdevine  (q.  v.),  or  Siskin.  The  G.  is 
about  five  inches  in  entire  length  ;  black,  blood-red, 
yellow,  and  white  are  beautifully  mingled  in  its 
jilumagc.  The  colours  of  the  female  are  duller  than 
those  of  the  male.  It  is  widely  difi'iised  throughout 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  some  jiarts  of  Asia.  It  is 
a  common  bird  in  Britain,  more  abundaiit  in  England 
than  in  Scotlaiul,  but  somewhat  local.  It  is  to  be 
seen  in  small  flocks  on  open  grounds,  feeding  on  the 
seeds  of  thistles  and  other  plants,  and  in  the  earlier 
]iarts  of  the  season  frequents  gardens  and  orchards. 
Its  nest  is  made  in  a  tree,  bush,  or  hedge,  is  remark- 
able for  its  extreme  neatness,  and  is  always  lined 


with  the  finest  downy  material  that  can  be  procured. 
j  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  bluish  white, 
I  with  a  few  spots  and  lines  of  jiale  puqile  and  brown. 
Tlio  G.  is  nuich  emjiloyed  by  bird-catchers  as  a  call- 
bird.     It  can  be  trained  to  the  performance  of  many 
little  tricks  ;  that  which,  most  of  all,  the  trainers 
j  seem  to  jirefer  being  the  raising  of  water  for  itself 
as  from  a  well,  in  a  bucket  the  size  of  a  thimble. — 
The  Ajieiiica.v  G.   (/•'.  or  C.  tristis)  is  very  similar 
to  the  European   sjiecies,  has  very   similar  habits 
.and  song,  and  lUsplays  the  same  interesting  live- 
liness and  affectionatencss  in  domestication.      The 
nest  is  also  of  the  s.ome  elegant  structure.     It  is  a 
common  bird  in  most  parts  of  North  America. 

GOLDO'NI,  Cahi.o,  the  most  celebrated  writer 
of  comedy  among  the  Italians,  was  bom  at  Venice 
in  1707,  and  received  his  first  education  at  Rome. 
His  father  originally  intended  him  for  an  actor, 
and  fitted  up  a  ]>rivate  theatre  for  his  diversion 
at  home,  but  the  boy  shewed  no  aptitude  for  his- 
triomc  ]ierfonnanccs,  and  in  consequence  he  was 
sent  to  I'avia  to  study  for  the  church.  G.,  how- 
ever, was  still  less  fitted  for  beinc;  an  ecclesiastic 
than  an  actor,  aud  was  finally  expelled  from  college 
for  WTiting  scurrilous  satires.  In  17iil,  after  his 
father's  death,  he  was  received  as  advocate  ;  but 
finding  the  legal  profession  by  no  means  lucrative, 
he  relinquished  its  jn'actice,  and  set  about  compos- 
ing comic  almanacs,  which  became  liiglily  popidar. 
Several  of  his  minor  comedies  were  represented 
about  this  time,  and  attracted  much  jniblic  favour 
by  their  novelty  as  well  as  their  real  merit.  In 
1736  he  esjioused  the  daughter  of  a  notary  of 
Genoa,  and  subsequently  went  to  Bologna,  where, 
having  obtained  an  introduction  to  Prince  Ixib- 
kowitz,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  composition 
of  an  ode  in  honour  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  with 
the  organisation  of  the  theatrical  entertainments 
of  the  Austrian  army.  We  next  hear  of  him 
at  Florence,  working  assiduously  at  comedies, 
which  were,  however,  but  an  earnest  of  his  best 
pieces.  On  his  return  to  Venice  lie  made  very 
lucrative  arrangements  with  the  manager  of  the 
tlieatre  of  St  Luke,  and  alter  a  visit  to  Rome  ])assed 
into  France,  and  was  ajqiointcd  Italian  master  to 
the  royal  chililren,  which  situation  allowed  him  to 
devote  himself  tranquilly  to  his  literary  occupa- 
tions. In  Paris  he  produced  one  of  his  most  admired 
comedies,  written  in  French,  and  entitled  Xc 
Botirru  bierfaisant  (The  Benevolent  Gnnnbler).  It 
excited  univci'sal  .admiration,  and  ilrcw  forth  a 
most  eulogistic  criticism  from  the  ]ien  of  Voltaire. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  G.  lost  his 
pension,  and  died  (.lanuary  179.'S)  shortly  before 
its  restoration  by  decree  of  the  Convention.  The 
greater  i>art  of  it  w.a.s  allowed  to  his  widow,  who 
likewise  received  the  arrears  due  from  the  time  of 
its  cessation.  G.  lias  left  150  comedies  of  unequal 
merit.  The  larger  part  are  iniinitalilc  representa- 
tions of  the  events  of  daily  life,  luider  both  their 
simiilest  and  most  complex  aspect.  One  aim  per- 
vades steadily  all  G.'s  compositions— the  advance- 
ment and  elevation  of  honourable  sentiments  and 
deeds,  and  the  flagellation  of  the  prevailing  vices 
and  folhes  of  the  day. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  Mad.vme  (Jknnv  LiNn),  a 
celebrate<l  Swedish  singer,  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
October  G,  1S21.  She  w.as  of  humble  jiarentage, 
and  her  musical  gifts  were  first  ur)ticed  by  an 
actress,  by  whose  influence  she  was  admitted,  at  the 
age  of  nine,  into  the  Conservatory  of  Stockln-lm, 
where  she  received  lessons  of  Croelius  and  Berg. 
She  sang  before  the  court  with  success,  and  at  the 
age  of  IG  ajipeared  in  the  rfile  of  Agatha,  in  Uer 
Frcischiitz.     Four  years  later,  she  went  to  Paris,  to 


GOLDSINNY— GOLDSMITH. 


receive  lessons  from  Garcix  Her  voice  was  now 
thought  wanting  in  voliune,  and  when  she  appeared 
at  the  Grand  Opera  two  years  later,  her  failure  was 
so  mortifying,  that  she  is  said  to  have  resolved  never 
aijain  to  "sing  in  Franco.  Ketiiming  to  Stockholm, 
she  was  heard  with  enthusiasm  in  ^lubert  le  Diable, 
and  at  the  instance  of  Meyerbeer  w.as  engaged  at 
Berlin  in  1S45.  After  singing  two  years  in  Prussia, 
she  visited  Vienn.i,  and  other  German  cities,  and 
made  her  debut  in  London  in  1847,  with  a  very 
marked  success.  Her  return  to  Stockholm  was 
greeted  with  an  ovation,  and  the  tickets  to  the 
opera  in  which  she  appeared  were  sold  at  auction. 
She  returned  to  London  in  1849,  and  won  an  immense 
triimjph.  The  royal  family  and  court  were  present 
at  nearly  every  representation,  and  the  receipts  were 
often  over  £2U00.  The  London  season  was  followed 
by  a  concert  tour  in  the  provinces,  with  a  similar 
success,  and  her  great  popidarity  was  increased  by 
the  distribution  of  a  large  part  of  her  receipts  in 
charities.  In  1850  she  made  an  engagement  with 
Mr  P.  T.  Bamum  of  New  York,  for  a  concert  tour 
in  America,  extending  through  the  United  States, 
British  provinces,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  receipts  of  this  weU-managed  tour  were  610,000 
dollars,  of  which  Mademoiselle  Lind  received  302,000 
dollars.  ^^^lUe  in  America,  she  was  married  to  M. 
Otto  Goldschmidt,  the  pianist  who  accompanied  her, 
born  at  Hamburg  182S.  They  returned  to  Europe 
in  1852,  and  resided  at  Dresden  after  she  had 
visited  Stockholm,  and  expended  £40,000  in  endow- 
ing schools  in  her  native  coimtry.  Since  this  period 
Madame  G.  has  simg  only  at  concerts  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  contment,  and  on  rare  occasions. 
Her  voice  is  a  contralto  of  moder.ate  range,  but  much 
power  and  expression.  Her  kind  manners  and 
abimdant  charities  have  conti'ibuted  greatly  to  her 
popularity  and  success. 

GO'LDSINNY,  or  GOLDFINNY,  a  name  given 
to  certain  sm.all  species  of  Crenilabriis,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  Wrasse  family  (Lahridce).  They  are 
rare  on  the  British  coasts,  but  are  more  plentiful 
on  those  of  the  north  of  Europe.  They  frequent 
rocky  coasts,  and  are  sometimes  t.aken  by  anglers 
from  the  rocks.  They  receive  their  name  from  their 
prevalent  yellow  colour.  Like  the  \vi'asses,  they 
have  a  very  elongated  dorsal  liu. 

GOLDSJIITH,  Oliver,  was  bom  in  the  -village 
of  Pallas,  in  the  county  of  Longford,  Ireland, 
10th  November  1728.  His  father,  the  Rev.  Charles 
Goldsmith,  a  clergyman  of  the  Established  Chm-ch, 
held  the  li%-ing  of  Kilkenny  West.  At  the  age 
of  six,  6.  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
village  schoolmaster,  when  an  attack  of  small-pox 
interrupted  his  studies.  On  his  recovery,  he 
.attended  school  at  various  places.  On  the  11th 
June  1745,  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  as  a 
sizar ;  the  expense  of  his  education  being  defrayed 
by  his  uncle,  the  Eev.  Thomas  Contarine.  At 
the  imiversity — where  Bm-ke  was  his  contem- 
porary— G.  gave  no  evidence  of  the  possession 
of  talent,  and  becoming  involved  in  some  irre- 
gularity, quitted  his  studies  in  disgust.  He 
lingered  in  Dublin  till  his  fimds  were  exhausted, 
then  wandered  on  to  Cork,  where,  he  being  in  great 
distress,  a  handful  of  peas  was  given  him  by  a  girl 
at  a  wake,  the  fiavoiu-  of  which  remained  for  ever 
sweet  in  his  memory.  By  his  brother  Henry,  he 
was  brought  back  to  college,  where,  on  the  27th 
February  1749,  he  received  the  degree  of  B.A. 
His  uncle  was  now  auxious  th.at  his  nephew  should 
enter  the  church;  but  when  he  appeared  before 
the  bishop,  he  was  rejected.  His  kind-hearted 
relative  then  gave  him  £50,  aud  sent  him  to  Dublin  to 
study  law ;  but  G.,  being  attracted  to  a  gaming-table, 


risked  his  entire  capital,  and  of  courso  lost  it. 
Another  sum  was  then  raised,  and  he  proceeded  to 
Edinburgh  to  study  medicine,  where  he  remained  18 
months,  but  did  not  take  a  degree.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  continent,  hovered  about  Leyden  for 
some  time,  haunting  the  gaming-tables  with  but 
indifferent  success ;  and  in  February  1755,  he  left 
that  city  to  travel  on  foot  through  Europe,  scantily 
provided  as  to  piu-so  and  wardrobe,  but  rich  in  his 
kindly  nature  and  his  wonder-working  flute. 

After  taking  his  degi-ce  of  B.M.  at  Padua  or 
Louvaiu,  G.  returned  to  England  in  Februai-y  1756, 
when,  bj'  the  assistance  of  Dr  Sleigh,  a  fellow- 
student,  he  set  up  as  a  physician  among  the 
poor.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his  profession,  and 
he  is  represented  as  ha\'inw  become  usher  in  the 
academy  of  Dr  Milner  at  Peclcham.  Diiring  this 
period  he  supported  himself  by  contributions  to  the 
Monthly  Heview.  He  became  candidate  for  a  medical 
appointment  at  Corom.andel,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  College  of  Surgeons.  The  clothes  in  which  he 
appeared  for  examination  had  been  procured  on 
the  security  of  Mr  Griffiths,  editor  of  the  Monthly 
Iteview ;  and  as  G.,  urged  by  sharp  distress,  had 
pawned  them,  his  publisher  threatened  him  with 
the  terrors  of  a  jail.  He  head  now  reached  the 
lowest  depths  of  misery ;  but  the  dawn  was  about 
to  break. 

His  first  publication  of  note  was  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Present  State  of  Polite  Learning  in  Europe,  and 
was  published  in  April  1759.  lu  January  1760,  Mr 
Newbery  commenced  the  Public  Ledger,  to  which 
G.  contributed  the  celebrated  Chinese  Letters,  after- 
wards repubhshed  under  the  title  of  Tlie  Citizen  of 
the  World.  He  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Beau  A^ash, 
and  a  History  of  England,  in  a  series  of  letters. 
On  the  31st  May  1761  he  was  introduced  by  Dr 
Percy  to  Dr  Johnson,  who,  in  his  turn,  introduced 
his  new  friend  to  the  Literary  Club.  In  December 
1764,  Tlie  Traveller  appeared,  and  at  once  placed 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  English  authors.  Two 
years  after  this  he  published  the  Vicar  of  Wake- 
Jicld,  which  has  now  charmed  foiir  generations.  In 
rapid  succession  he  produced  his  other  works.  The 
comedy  of  the  Good  JVatured  Man,  in  1767  ;  the 
Roman  History,  in  1768 ;  and  Tlie  I)eserted  Village 
— the  sweetest  of  all  his  poems — in  1770.  In  1773, 
his  comedy  of  Site  Stoops  to  Conquer  was  jiroduced 
at  Covent  Garden  with  great  applause.  His  other 
works  are — Grecian  History,  1774;  Petalialion,  a, 
poem,  1777;  andHistoryof  Animated  Nature,  winch 
he  did  not  live  to  complete.  Although  now  in  receipt 
of  large  sums  for  his  works,  G.  had  not  escaped 
from  pecuniary  embarrassment.  He  was  extrava- 
gant, loved  tine  living  aud  rich  clothes,  his  ch.arities 
were  only  bounded  by  his  purse,  and  he  haunted 
the  gaming-table  quite  as  frequeutly,  and  with  as 
constant  ill  success,  as  of  old.  In  jiarch  1774,  he 
came  up  to  London,  Ul  in  body  and  harassed  in 
mind,  aud  took  to  bed  on  the  25th.  With  charac- 
teristic wilfulness  and  imprudence,  he,  contrary  to 
the  advice  of  his  medical  advisers,  persisted  in  the 
lUiC  of  James's  Powders.  He  became  rapidly  worse, 
and  Dr  Turton  said :  '  Your  pidse  is  in  greater  dis- 
order than  it  should  be  from  the  degree  of  fever 
you  have.  Is  your  mind  at  ease?'  'No,  it  is  not,' 
w.as  the  poet's  reply,  and  the  last  words  he  uttered. 
He  died  on  the  4th  April,  £2000  in  debt,  and  more 
sincerely  lamented  than  any  liter.ary  man  of  his 
time.  Old  and  infirm  people  sobbed  on  the  stairs 
of  his  apartments,  Johnson  and  Burke  grieved,  and 
RejTiolds,  when  he  heard  tlie  news,  laid  down 
his  i)eucil,  aud  left  his  studio.  He  w.as  buried  in 
Temple  Cluu'ch,  aud  a  monument  was  erected  to 
him  in  Westminster  Abbey,  bearing  an  epitaph  by 
Dr  Johnson. 


GOLDSMITHS'  XOTES-GOLF. 


G.  was  the  most  natnral  genius  of  liis  time.  He 
(lid  not  possess  Johnson's  mass  of  intellect,  nor 
Burke's  passion  and  general  force,  but  he  «Tote 
the  liucst  poem,  the  most  exquisite  novel,  and— with 
the  exception  perhajis  of  the  School  for  Scandal— 
the  most  delightfiU  comedy  of  the  period.  Blim- 
dering,  impulsive,  vaiu,  and  extravagant,  clumsy 
in  manner  and  undignilied  in  presence,  he  was 
laughed  at  and  ridiculed  by  his  contemporaries ; 
but  with  pen  in  hand,  and  in  the  solitude  of  his 
chamber,  he  was  a  match  for  any  of  them,  and 
took  the  finest  and  kindliest  revenges.  Than 
his  style — in  which,  after  all,  lay  his  strength- 
nothing  could  be  more  natural,  simple,  and  grace- 
ful. It  is  full  of  the  most  exquisite  expressions,  and 
the  most  cunning  turns.  AVhatever  he  said,  he  said 
in  the  most  graceful  way.  When  he  wrote  nonsense, 
he  ^vrote  it  so  exquisitely  that  it  is  better  often 
than  other  jieople's  sense.  Johnson,  who,  although 
he  laughed  at,  yet  loved  and  understood  him,  criti- 
cised him  a<lmirably  in  the  remark  :  '  He  is  now 
>mtin'c  a  Natural  History,  and  will  make  it  as 
agreeable  as  a  Persian  tale.'  The  best  life  of  Gold- 
smith is  that  by  Forster,  entitled  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  (Lond.  1S54). 

GOLDSMITHS'  KOTES;  the  earliest  form  of 
bank-notes ;  so  called  because  goldsmiths  were  the 
first  b.ankers.    See  Baxk-notes. 

GOLF,  or  GOFF,  a  pa.stime  almost  pecidiar  to 
Scotland,  derives  its  name  from  the  club  (Ger. 
Kolbe;  Dutch,  Kolf)  with  wliich  it  is  played.  It  is 
imcertain  when  it  was  introduced  into  Scotland,  but 
it  appears  to  have  been  practised  by  all  classes  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  reign  of  King  James  I. 
Charles  I.  was  much  attached  to  the  game,  and 
on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1641,  was  engaged  in 
it  on  Lcith  Links  when  intimation  was  given  him 
of  the  rebellion  in  Ireland,  whereupon  he  threw 
do\vn  his  clulj,  and  returned  in  great  agitation  to 
Holyrootlhousc.  The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards 
James  II.,  also  delighted  in  the  game ;  and  in 
our  own  day,  the  Prince  of  Wales  occasionally 
practises  it. 

Until  late  years,  golf  was  entirely  confined  to 
Scotland,  where  it  stdl  maintains  its  celebrity  as  a 
national  recreation;  but  latterly  it  has  been  estab- 
lished south  of  the  Tweed,  as  well  as  in  many  of 
the  British  colonies.  It  is  played  on  what  are 
called  in  Scotland  links  (Eng.  downs),  that  is,  tracts 
of  sandy  soil  covered  nath  short  grass,  which  occur 
frequently  along  the  cast  coast  of  Scotland.  St 
Antbews  and  Leven  in  Fife,  Prestwick  in  AjTshire, 
Musselburgh  in  Jlid  Lothian,  North  Berwick  and 
Gullane  in  East  Lothian,  Carnoustie  and  Montrose 
in  Forfarshire,  and  Aberdeen,  are  examples  of 
admiral)ly  suited  links,  as  the  ground  is  diversified 
by  knolls,  sand-pits,  and  other  hazards  (as  they 
arc  termed  in  golfing  phraseology),  the  avoiding  of 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  of  the 
game. 

A  series  of  small  roimd  holes,  about  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  several  inches  in  depth,  are  cut 
in  the  tiu-f,  at  distances  of  from  one  to  four  or 
five  himdrcd  yards  from  each  other,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  form  a  circuit 
or  round.  The  rival  players  are  either  two  in 
mmiber,  which  is  the  simplest  arrangement,  or  four 
(two  against  two),  in  which  case  the  two  partners 
strike  the  b.all  on  their  side  alternately.  The  balls, 
weighing  about  two  ounces,  are  made  of .  gutta- 
percha, and  painted  white  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 

An  ordinary  golf-club  consists  of  two  parts  spliced 
together — namely,  the  shaft  and  he.od :  the  shaft 
is  usually  made  of  hickory,  or  lance-wood;  the 
handle   covered   with   leather ;    the   head   (heavily 


weighted  with  lead  behind,  and  faced  with  horn)  of 
well-seasoned  apple-tree  or  thorn.  Every  player 
has  a.  ttl  of  clubs,  diflering  in  len;rth  and  shape  to 
suit  the  distance  to  be  driven,  and  the  position  of 
the  ball  ;  for  (except  in  striking  off  from  a  hole, 
when  the  baU  may  be  teed— i.e.,  placed  advan- 
tageously on  a  httle  heap  of  sand,  called  a  tee)  it  is 
a  rule  tliat  the  b.all  must  be  struck  as  it  happens  to 
lie.    Some  positions  of  the  ball  reqiiiro  a  club  with 


Club  Heads: 

1,  pl.aj-.club  ;  2,  putter;  3,  spoon  j  4,  sand-iron;  5,  deck  | 

6,  niblick  or  track.iron. 


an  iron  head.  The  usual  complement  of  clubs  is  six ; 
but  those  who  rehne  on  the  gr.adation  of  implements 
use  as  many  as  ten,  which  are  technically  distin- 
guished as  the phii-cliib,lonf;-spoon,mid-spoon, sltort- 
spoon,  buffi n/j -spoon,  driving-putter,  putter,  sand-iron, 
cleek,  and  niblick  or  track-iron — tlie  last  three  have 
iron  heads,  the  others  are  of  wood.  Every  player 
is  usually  jirovided  with  an  attendant,  called  a 
caddij,  who  carries  his  clubs  and  '  tees'  his  balls. 

The  object  of  the  game  is,  starting  from  the  first 
hole,  to  drive  the  ball  into  the  nex't  hole  with  as 
few  strokes  as  possible ;  and  so  on  round  the 
course.  The  player  (or  jiair  of  players)  whose  ball 
is  holed  in  the  fewest  strokes  has  gained  that  hole  ; 
and  the  match  is  usually  decided  by  the  greatest 
number  of  holes  gained  in  one  or  more  rounds; 
sometimes  it  is  made  to  depend  on  the  aggregate 
nmuber  of  strokes  taken  to  'hole'  one  or  more 
rounds. 

To  play  the  game  of  golf  well  requires  long 
practice,  and  very  few  attain  to  great  excellence 
who  have  not  pl.aycd  from  their  youth.  But  any 
one  m.ay  in  a  year  or  two  learn  to  play  tolerably, 
so  as  to  take  great  ple:isure  in  the  game ;  and 
for  all  who  have  once  entered  upon  it,  it  possesses 
no  ordinary  fascination.  It  has  this  advantage  over 
many  other  outdoor  games,  that  it  is  suited  both 
for  old  and  young.  The  strong  and  energetic  find 
scope  for  then-  energy  in  driving  long  balls  (crack- 
players  will  drive  a  ball  above  200  yarils) ;  but 
the  more  important  points  of  the  game^an  exact 
eye,  a  steady  and  measured  stroke  for  the  short 
distances,  and  skill  in  avoiding  h.azards — are  called 
forth  in  all  cases.  Along  with  the  muscular  exer- 
cise required  by  the  actual  play,  there  is  a  mixture 
of  walking  which  pai-ticularly  suits  those  whose 


COLFO  DULCE- GOLOSHES. 


pursuits  are  seJcutary— walking,  too,  on  a,  breezy 
common,  and  under  eirciunstances  which  make  it 
far  more  beneficial  than  an  onliuary  '  constitutional.' 


Putting. 


In  the  accompanying  illustration,  the  method  o£ 
liokling  the  club,  when  putting  the  ball  into  the 
hole,  is  shewn. 

Golf  Associations  are  numerous  in  Scotland,  and 
in  many  instances  the  members  wear  a  uniform 
when  plajang.  Many  professional  players  make 
their  livelihood  by  golf,  and  are  always  ready  to 
instruct  beginners  in  the  art,  or  to  play  matches 
with  amateurs. 

The  rules  laid  down  by  the  St  Andrews  Royal 
and  Ancient  Union  Club  are  those  that  govern 
nearly  all  the  other  associations,  and  may  be  foimd 
in  C'hamhers^s  Jnformalioiifor  the  People,  No.  90. 

GOLFO  DULCE,  in  English,  Sweet  or  Fresh 
Gulf,  lies  in  the  state  of  (Guatemala,  in  Central 
America,  measuring  26  miles  by  11,  and  having 
an  average  depth  of  6  or  S  fathoms.  It  communi- 
cates with  the  outer  sea,  here  known  as  the  Gulf 
of  Honduras,  by  a  narrow  strait  or  stream  called 
the  Kio  Dulce. 

GO'LGOTHA,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a' skuU,' 
and  so  it  is  interj)reted  by  Luke ;  Init  by  the  other 
three  evangelists,  '  the  place  of  a  skull.'  The  Latin 
equivalent  is  Calvaria,  'a  bare  skull.'  This  place, 
the  scene  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  was  situated 
without  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  city,  although  the  common  opinion  handed 
down  from  the  middle  ages  fixes  it  in  the  north- 
west (see  Calvakv).  It  was  probably  the  ordinary 
spot  of  execution,  though  this  is  to  be  inferred 
rather  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Roman 
oflicers  of  justice,  Christ  was  simply  a  common 
criminal,  than  from  any  supjiosed  connection  Tjetween 
the  word  '  skull '  and  a  place  of  execution ;  G. 
recci\'ing  its  name  in  all  likelihood  fron\  its  round 
skuU-like  form.  A  church  was  Imilt  over  the  sjiot 
in  the  4th  c.  by  Constantino.  What  is  now  called 
the  '  Clnirch  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre '  to  the  north-west 
of  Jerusalem,  but  ivithin  the  walls  of  the  city,  has 
manifestly  no  claim  whatever  to  be  considered  the 
Imilding  erected  by  Constantino  ;  but  while  recent 
biljficai  scholars  and  travellers  generally  have 
assumed  that  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion 


and  sepulture  is  not  ascertain.ible,  a  wi-iter  in 
^m'ltKs  Z)ictionart/ of  tfi£  J^ible  oilers  strong  reasons 
for  lielieving  that  the  present  mosque  of  Omar, 
called  by  the  ilohammedans  *  The  JJome  of  the 
Rock,'  occupies  the  site  of  the  sacred  Golgotha. 

GOLI'ATH.    See  Gath. 

GOLIATH   BEETLE   {Goliathus),  a  genus   of 
tropical  coleopterous  uisccts,of  the  section  Pentamcra, 


Goliath  Beetle  [Goliathus  magnus). 

and  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  some  of  the 
sjiecics,  particularly  the  African  ones.  They  are 
also,  in  respect  of  their  coloiu's,  splendid  insects. 
Little  is  known  of  their  habits. 

GO'LLNITZ,  a  small  town  in  the  north  of  Hun- 
gary, in  the  county  of  Zips,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  feeder  of  the 
Hernad,  17  mUes  south-west  of  Eperies.  It  has 
important  iron  and  copper  mines,  and  manufactmcs 
of  wire  and  cutlery.     Rop.  52U0. 

GO'LLNOW,  a  small  manufacturing  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  pro\Hnce  of  Pomerania,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ihna,  15  miles  north-east 
of  Stettin.  It  was  formerly  a  Hanse-to'wu,  and 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended  by  two  forts. 
The  manufactures  are  woollen  cloth,  ribbons,  paper, 
and  tobacco ;  there  are  also  copper- works.  Pop. 
G207. 

GOLOMY'NKA  (Comeplwrus  Baikalensis),  a 
remarkable  fish,  foimd  only  in  Lake  Baikal,  the 
only  known  species  of  its  genus,  which  belongs  to 
the  goby  family.  It  is  about  a  foot  long,  is  destitute 
of  scales,  and  is  very  soft,  its  whole  substance 
.abounding  in  oU,  which  is  obtained  from  it  by 
pressirre.     It  is  never  eaten. 

GOLO'SHES  (formerly  called  galoshes),  from 
Galuche,  a  word  through  the  French,  from  Galoelia, 
the  Spanish  for  a  patten,  clog,  or  wooden  shoe.  The 
French  ai)plied  the  term  at  first  to  shoes  ]iartly 
of  leather  and  wood,  the  soles  being  wood,  and  the 
u]ipers  of  leather.  The  term  was  introduced  to  this 
country  as  a  cordwainer's  technicaUty,  to  signify  a 
method  of  repaii'ing  old  boots  and  shoes  by  putting 
a  narrow  strip  of  leather  above  the  sole  so  as  to 
surround  the  lower  part  of  the  ujiper  leathei-.  It 
was  also  adopted  by  the  patten  and  clog  makers  to 
distinguish  what  were  also  called  French  clogs  from 
ordinary  clogs  and  pattens.  Clogs  were  mere  soles 
of  wood  with  straps  across  the  instep  to  keep  them 
on  ;  pattens  were  the  same,  with  iron  rings  to  raiso 
them  from  the  ground ;  but  the  galoshes  were 
wooden  soles,  usually  with  a  joint  at  the  part  where 
the  tread  of  the  foot  came,  and  with  ujipor  leathers 
lilio  very  low  shoes. 

Kow,  however,  these  clogs,  pattens,  and  goloshes 


GOLPfi-GOMBROON. 


have  completely  passed  away  except  in  some  rural 
districts  which  are  almost  inaccessible  to  modern 
inventions :  the  American  goloshes  have  entirely 
su]ierseded  them.  These  are  manufactured  of  vul- 
canised India  rubber  or  caoutchouc,  and  are  now 
made  in  tlie  most  elegant  forms  ;  being  elastic,  they 
are  worn  as  overshoes  in  wet  weather,  and  are  an 
excellent  protection  to  the  feet.  At  first,  Ijidia- 
rubber  goloshes  were  all  imported  from  the  states 
of  America,  and  in  18.jG  the  value  of  the  inijiorts  of 
this  article  reached  the  enormous  sum  of  £'i5,44'2 ; 
now,  however,  vast  numbers  are  made  in  this 
country,  ehictiy  by  the  North  British  Itubber  Com- 
pany (Limited),  whose  works  are  calle.l  the  Castle 
Mills,  in  Edinljurgh.  In  this  vast  building,  when  in 
full  work,  1(),.50()  ])airs  of  goloshes  are  daily  made  ; 
and  so  perfect  is  the  an-angement  of  the  manufac- 
ture, which  is  chiefly  conducted  by  Americans,  that 
in  a  few  hours  large  masses  of  the  raAV  material 
are  converted  into  overslioes,  boots,  sheets,  Ijands,  ' 
rings,  washers,  and  a  gi-eat  variety  of  other  useful 
articles.  The  process  of  maldng  goloshes  consists,  i' 
first,  in  preparing  the  raw  material ;  secondly,  ! 
kneading  it  uj)  with  certain  chemical  materials,  the 
composition  of  which  is  carefully  concealed  by  the 
maniifacturers,  but  the  principal  constituent  is  1 
suliihur ;  thiriUy,  rolling  it  out  into  sheets  of  the 
thickness  required ;  and  lastly,  fashioning  it  into 
gokishes. 

In  the  fn-st  operation,  the  ndiber  is  first  placed  in 
warm  water  ^^olcntly  agitated  ;  this  softens  it,  and 
removes  a  considerable  quantity  of  dirt  and  other  i 
impurities  ;  it  is  then  put  into  a  machine,  which 
tears  it  into  very  small  pieces  in  w.ater,  thus  also 
remoWng  much  impurity.    Still  warm,  and  somewhat 
adhesive  in  consequence,  the  small  fragments  into 
which  the  rubber  has  been  torn  are  spread  out  into 
a  thick  sheet,  which  tr.avels  between  two  rollers 
aljout   an   inch   ajjart ;   these   press  the   fragments  [ 
together,  and  they  adhere  slightly  in  the  form  of ' 
a  thick  blanket,  about  two  feet  wide,  and  from  four 
to  six  feet  in  length.     The  slight  adhesion  of  the 
very  irregularly  shajied  morsels  of  ruliber  renders 
this  flattened  sheet  very  porous,  and  in  this  state  it ; 
is  himg  in  the  tbying-room,  to  remove  the  moisture 
with  which   it   is   loaded.     These   sheets   are  next 
passed  between  large  cylindrical  iron  rollers  heated 
with  steam  internally,  which  compress  the  material 
into  thin  soft  sheets.     The  chemical  materials  are 
now  sjiread  equally  over  the  sheet,  and  it  is  folded  : 
up  and  kneaded  so  as  to  work  the  vulcanising  mate-  I 
rials   and  rubber   well    together.      This    kneacbng ' 
process   is   jierformed  by  jiassing  it   sevcr.al  times 
tlirough  the  hot  rollers,  folding  it  after  each  rolling  I 
into  a  dough-like  mass.      When  this   ojicration  is 
completed,  it  is  finally  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets 
several  yards  in  length,  which  are  reeled  olF  on  cold 
rollers  at  some  distance,  so  as  to  allow  cooling,  and 
it  is  then  ready  for  the  uppers  of  the  commonest 
kind  of  goloshes,  which  arc  unlined  ;  but  the  better 
sorts  are  lined  with  cotton  cloth  of  (bflerent  colours,  j 
and  sometimes  with  other  materials;  the  lining  is  I 
ett'ected  by  passing  the  piece  of  cloth  through  the 
rollers  siniidtaneously  with  the  rubber  in  the  hvst  , 
process,  and  a  firm  adhesion  of  the  two  iij  effected  i 
by  the  heat  and  pressure. 

Another  machine  has   rollers   so   modelled   that  | 
it  jirodnccs  a  sheet   thick    enough    for    the    soles,  '■ 
and    on  one   surface   the    roughening    is    made   by 
cngi-aved  lines  crossing  each  other,  to  prevent  the  | 
sole  from  slipping  in  wet  weather.     An  mgenious  j 
arrangement  of  this  machine  forms  aliout  two  inches 
of  each  side  of  the    sheet  which  passes  through  it 
a  little  thicker  than    the  middle  jiortion,  .and    this 
serves  for  the  raised  heels.     After  the  sheets  for  the 
uppers  and  lieeis  have  been  cooled  and  reeled  off, , 


they  pass  through  tlio  cutting  machines.  In  these 
are  fitted  sharp  cutting  moulds  of  different  sizes 
and  shapes  :  some  cut  out  the  inside  linings  aud  the 
outside  uppers  for  fronts  and  hcel-steppings  ;  wliUst 
othere  with  great  nicety  cut  the  heeled  soles  out. 

These  various  parts  arc  now  taken  to  the  makei-s, 
who  are  usually  females;  and  the  last— which  is 
now  m.ade  of  cast  iron  as  an  improvement  on  the 
wooden  ones  formerly  in  >ise— is  rajiidly  covered 
over  with  the  various  jiarts,  beginning  with  the 
lining  and  insole,  the  edges  of  which  are  cemented 
with  a  composition  probably  containing  liquetied 
Inilia  rubber  or  gutta-percha  ;  but  its  real  composi- 
tion is  another  .secret  of  the  manufacture,  and  is 
held  to  be  a  very  important  one  :  it  produces  an 
instantaueous  and  firm  adhesion.  The  outer  parts 
aud  the  sole  are  fitted  on  with  equal  facility,  and 
the  workwoman  then  runs  a  wheel-tool  )-ound  the 
edges  and  other  parts,  to  jiroduce  the  representation 
of  seam  marks.  In  this  way  a  pair  of  shoes  is 
produced  in  little  more  than  five  minutes.  They 
are  next  coated  with  a  varnish,  which  gives  them  a 
liighly  polished  ajipearance  ;  ami  when  the  varnish 
has  hartlened,  which  it  d<ies  very  quickly,  they  are 
transferred  to  the  vulcanising  ovens  or  chambers,  in 
which,  for  some  time,  they  are  submitted  to  a  high 
degree  of  heat,  wiiich  ]iroduces  a  chemical  nniou 
between  the  caoutchouc  and  the  other  materials 
which  were  mixed  in  with  it  .at  the  beginning  of 
the  operations.  When  taken  from  the  oven,  they 
are  removed  to  the  packing-room,  and  are  sent 
in  boxes  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  most 
parts  of  Europe,  especially  Germany,  where  they  are 
very  extensively  worn.  The  North  British  Rubber 
Comp,any  produced  nearly  three  million  pau-s  of 
overshoes  and  boots  in  ISGl. 

GOLPE,  in  Heraldry,  a  Fioundel  purpurc.  It  is 
sometimes  called  a  Wound.     See  Roundel. 

GOMARISTS,  or  CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS, 
the  name  Ijy  which  the  opjionents  of  the  doctrines  of 
Arminius  (q.  v.).  the  fmmder  of  the  Dutch  Remon- 
strants, were  designated.  The  party  received  this 
appellation  from  its  leader,  Francis  Gomar.  This 
theologian  was  born  at  Bruges,  30th  January  l,5G:i, 
stndieil  at  the  universities  of  .Strasliurg,  Heidelberg, 
Oxford,  anil  Camliridge,  in  the  last-mentioned  of 
which  he  took  his  degree  of  B.U.  in  1584.  In  lo04, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Leyden, 
and  signalised  himself  by  his  vehement  antipathy 
to  the  views  of  his  colleague,  Arminius.  In  the 
disputation  between  the  Armenians  and  Calvinists, 
held  at  the  Hasue  in  lljOS,  liis  zeal  was  very  con- 
spicuous; and  at  the  synod  of  Dort  in  lOlS,  he  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  securing  the  expulsion  of  the 
Arminians  from  the  Reformed  Church.  He  died  at 
Groningen  in  1041.  An  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1C45.  G.,  though  stiff 
and  bigoted  in  the  la.st  degree,  and  more  Calvin- 
istic  than  Calvin  himself,  was  a  man  of  various  and 
extensive  learning. 

GOaiBROO'N,  called  also  Bender  or  Bitxder 
Abe.\s,  a  town  .and  seajiort  of  Persia,  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  I'crsian  (iulf,  in  the  Strait  of  Onnuz, 
and  opposite  the  islaud  of  th.at  name.  Bender 
Abbas  owed  its  name  .and  importance  to  Shah  Abbas, 
wdio,  assisted  by  the  English,  drove  the  Portuguese 
in  1G"22  from  Grmuz,  or  Honnuz,  then  a  flourishing 
commercial  town  on  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
ruined  the  seaport,  and  transferred  its  commerce  to 
Gombroon.  For  some  time  G.  juospered  abundantly, 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  factories  were  erectLHl 
here,  and  the  popidation  rose  to  about  .■iO,Oll().  A 
dispute  among  the  natives,  however,  result'-'d  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Eurojjean  factiiries  and  houses, 
and  only  the  remains  of  these  now  exist  Trade  then 

8U 


GOMERA— GONG  ORA. 


almost  entirely  forsook  G. ;  it  is  now  inhabited 
by  only  about  4000  Arabs  under  a  sheikh,  who  is 
subject  to  the  sultan  of  Muscat,  in  Arabia.  The 
town  is  surrounded  bj'  a  mud  wall ;  its  streets  are 
narrow  and  dirty. 

GOME'RA,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.  v.). 

GOMO'RRAH.     See  Sodom  akd  Gomorrah. 

GOMU'TO,  ARENG,  or  E.TOO  PALM  {Amirja 
sacdtai-i/era,  or  Sagtierus  Bumphii),  an  important 
palm  which  grows  in  Cochin  China  and  in  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  particidarly  in  moist  and 
shady  ra%-ines.  The  stem  is  '20 — 30  feet  high ;  the 
leaves  15 — 25  feet  long,  pinnated.  The  flowers  are 
in  bunches  6 — 10  feet  long ;  the  fruit  is  a  yellomsh- 
bro^^'n,  three-seeded  berry,  of  the  size  of  a  small 
apple,  and  extremely  acrid.  The  stem,  when  young, 
is  entirely  covered  with  sheaths  of  fallen  leaves,  and 
black  horse-hairhke  fibres,  which  issue  in  great 
abimdance  from  their  margins;  but  as  the  tree 
increases  in  age,  these  drop  off,  leaving  an  elegant 
naked  columnar  stem.  The  strongest  of  the  fibres, 
resembling  porcupine  quUls  in  thickness,  are  used  in 
Sumatra  as  styles  for  writing  on  the  leaves  of  other 
palms.  But  the  finer  fibres  are  by  far  the  most 
valuable ;  they  are  well  known  in  eastern  commerce 
as  Gomuto  or  Ejoo  fibre,  and  are  much  used  for 
making  strong  cordage,  particularly  for  the  cables 
and  standing-rigging  of  ships,  European  as  well  as 
native.  Want  of  pliancy  renders  them  less  fit  for 
running-rigging,  and  for  many  other  purposes.  They 
need  no  preparation  but  spinning  or  twisting.  No 
ropes  of  vegetable  fibre  are  so  imperishable,  when 
often  wet,  as  those  made  of  Gonnito  fibre.  At  the 
base  of  the  leaves  of  the  Gomuto  pahn  there  is 
a  fine  wooUy  material,  called  hara,  which  is  much 
employed  in  caidlcing  ships  and  stuffing  cushions. 
The  stem  contains  a  large  quantity,  150 — 200  lbs., 
of  a  kind  of  sago.  The  saccharine  sap,  obtained 
in  great  abundance  by  cutting  the  spacUces  of  the 
flowers,  is  a  delicious  beverage,  and  by  fermentation 
yields  an  intoxicating  palm  "wine  (iteroo),  fi'om  which 
a  spirituous  liquor  called  bntiti  is  made. 

GONAI'VES,  a  seaport  of  Hayti,  with  an  excel- 
lent harbour,  stands  on  a  bay  of  its  own  name, 
which  deeply  indents  the  west  coast  of  the  island. 
It  is  65  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Port  Hepuhlkain, 
formerly  Port  au  Prince,  the  capital. 

GO'NDAR,  a  city  of  Abyssinia,  capital  of  the 
kiucfdom  of  Gondar  or  Andiara,  is  situated  in  lat. 
12°  "36'  N.,  and  long.  l^V  29'  E.,  on  an  insulated  hill 
at  an  elevation  of  7-120  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
is  30  miles  distant  from  the  northern  shore  of 
Lake  Dembea  or  Izana  (see  Abyssixia).  G.  is  the 
residence  of  the  emperor  or  Negus,  whose  authority 
is  now  merely  nominal,  and  at  one  time  had  from 
50  to  100  churches  and  about  50,000  inhabitants ; 
but  since  the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom,  it 
has  greatly  declined,  and  its  extent  or  population 
cannot  now  be  accurately  stated.  It  is  poorly  and 
in-egailarly  built,  and  resembles  a  wood  rather  than 
a  city,  on  accoimt  of  the  number  of  trees  surround- 
ing the  houses.  The  palace  of  the  emperor,  a  square 
stone  structure  flanked  •with  towers,  is  the  most 
important  building.  There  are  no  shops  or  bazaars, 
all  the  articles  for  sale  being  exposed  on  mats  in 
the  market-i)lace.  G.  has  manufactures  of  fire- 
arms, sword-blades,  knives,  scissors,  razors,  shields, 
pottery,  &c. ;  and  a  considerable  transit  trade 
between  Massuah  on  the  Red  Sea  and  the  south 
of  Abyssinia,  in  slaves,  musk,  wax,  ivory,  coffee, 
honey,  &c.  The  mean  temperature  of  G.,  as  observed 
by  Ruppell  during  the  seven  months  from  October 
to  April  inclusive,  was  69°,  .and  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture during  that  time  was  53'09°.  A  gi'cat  quantity 
of  rain  falls  here. 
626 


GO'NDOLA  (Italian),  a  long  narrow  boat  (aver- 
aging 30  feet  by  4)  used  chiefly  on  the  canals  of 
Venice.  The  prow  and  stern  taper  to  a  point,  and 
cui-ve  out  of  the  water  to  a  height  of  at  least  5  feet. 


Venetian  Gondola. 

In  the  centre  there  is  a  curtained  chamber  for  the 
occupants :  the  boat  is  propeUed  by  means  of  oars  or 
poles  by  one,  two,  or  occasionally  four  men.  The 
rowers  stand  as  they  row,  and  wear  the  livery  of 
the  family  to  which  the  gondola  belongs. 

The  term  gondola  is  also  appUed  to  passage-boats 
having  six  or  eight  oars,  used  in  other  parts  of 
Italy. 

GONDWANA,  the  land  of  the  Gonds,  is  a  hilly 
tract  of  Hindustan,  lying  between  19°  50'  and  24° 
30',  and  in  E.  long,  between  77'  3S'  and  87°  20'.  It 
occupies  a  somewhat  centr.al  position,  sending  its 
drainage  at  once  northward  into  the  Jimma, 
eastward  through  the  Mahanadi  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and.  westward  thi-ough  the  Tapti  and  the 
Nerbudda  into  the  Arabian  Sea — the  water-shed  in 
some  places  attaining  an  elevation  of  5000  feet.  So 
isolated  a  locality,  besides  being  in  itself  unfavour- 
able to  ci\'ilisation,  is  rendered  still  more  so  by 
the  extreme  barbarism  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
regarded,  with  some  appearance  of  probability,  as 
the  genuine  aborigines  of  India.  Certain  it  is,  that 
the  country  has  never  really  formed  a  part  of  any 
of  the  great  emph'es  iu  the  east. 

GO'NFALOJJ"  (It.al.  rjonfalone),  an  ensign  or 
standard;  in  virtue  of  bearing  which,  the  chief 
magistrates  in  many  of  the  Italian  cities  were 
known  as  gonfaloniers. 

GONG,  an  Indian  instrument  of  percussion,  made 
of  a  mixture  of  metals  (78  to  SO  parts  of  copper, 
and  22  to  20  parts  of  tin),  and  shaped  into  a  basin- 
like  form,  flat  and  large,  with  a  run  of  a  few 
inches  deep.  The  sound  of  the  G.  is  produced  by 
striking  it,  while  hung  by  the  rim,  witli  a  wooden 
mallet,  which  puts  the  metal  into  an  extraordinary 
state  of  ^'ibration,  and  produces  a  very  loud  piercing 
somid. 

GONGORA,  Luis  Y.  Argote,  a  Spanish  poet, 
was  born  at  Cordova,  11th  Jidy  1501;  studied  law 
at  the  university  of  Salamanca,  where  he  composed 
the  greater  part  of  his  erotic  poems,  romances, 
and  satires.  At  the  age  of  4.5,  he  took  orders, 
and  obtained  a  small  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of 
Cordova.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  chaplain  to 
Philip  III.,  and  died  in  his  native  city  24th  May 
1627.  G.'s  poetic  career  diWdes  itself  into  two 
periods.  In  his  first  or  youthful  period,  ho  yielded 
himself  up  entirely  to  the  natural  tendencies  of 
his  genius,  and  to  the  spirit  of  the  nation.  His 
IjTics  and  romances  of  this  period  are  in  the  old 


GONIATITES— GONZAGA. 


genuine  SiianisU  style  ;  and  in  respect  to  their 
caustic  satire  and  Inirlestiue  wit,  are  among  the 
most  admii'aljle  specimens  of  the  chiss  of  poems  to 
which  they  beloni;.  G.,  however,  wished  to  outdo 
all  Ills  predecessors',  and  to  furnish  something 
wholly  new  and  unheard  of ;  the  residt  of  which 
unfortunate  ambition  was  the  introduction  of  a 
new  i)ootic  pliraseology,  called  the  e.'ililo  cullo,  or 
the  '  cultivated  style.'  From  this  point  the  second 
period  in  G.'s  literary  career  dates.  To  popiUarise 
the  eslilo  cullo,  he  wTote  his  Polifemo,  floledades,  and 
the  Fables  of  Pi/ramus  and  TU'ixhe,  productions  of 
the  most  pedantic  and  tasteless  descrijition,  ]K>or  in 
invention  and  thought,  but  rich  in  hit;li-sounding 
pompous  phrases,  and  overloaded  with  absurd 
imagery,  and  mythological  allusions,  expressed  in 
language  of  studied  obscurity.  In  this  way  he 
became  the  'ounder  of  a  uew  school,  the  Gongorislas, 
or  Cidloris(as,  who  even  surpassed  their  master  in 
the  depravity  of  their  literary  tastes.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  G.'s  works  is  that  by  CJonzalo 
Je  riorcz  y  Cordoba  (Jl.-id.  lG3.'i).  Some  of  his 
romances  have  been  translated  into  German  by  J. 
G.  Jacobi  (Halle,  17G7). 

GONIATI'TES,  a  genus  of  fossil  ccphalopodous 
mollusca,  belonguig  to  the  same  family  as  the  ammo- 
nites. The  genus  is  characteiised  by  the  structure 
of  the  septa,  which  are  lobed,  but  withont  lateral 
dentioulations,  as  in  ammonites  ;  they  conseiiuently 
exhibit,  in  a  section,  a  continuous  undidatiug  line. 
Some  forms  ^vith  slightly  waved  sejrta  approach 
very  near  to  the  nautilus,  from  which,  however, 
they  are  at  once  separated,  by  the  jiosition  of  the 
small  and  delicate  siphimcle,  which  is  on  the  dorsal 
or  external  side  of  the  shell.  The  lines  of  growth 
on  the  external  sm-face  have  a  sigmoid  direction. 
The  siphonal  portion  is  shorter  than  the  sides,  form- 
ing a  sinus  at  the  back,  as  in  the  nautUus.  The 
last  chamber,  the  one  tenanted  by  the  animal, 
occupies  a  whole  whorl,  and  has  besides  a  consider- 
able lateral  expansion.  The  shells  are  small, 
seldom  exceeding  six  inches  in  diameter. 

This  genus  is  confined  to  the  Pal.-eozoic  strata  : 
upwards  of  1.50  species  have  been  described  from 
the  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  and  Triassie  measui-es. 

GONI'DIA  (Gr.  gone,  generation,  and  eklos,  an 
appearance),  small  green  bodies  which  in  some 
cryptogamous  plants  serve  the  piu^Dose  of  reproduc- 
tion, but  apparently  after  a  manner  analogous  to 
that  of  bidbils  in  phanerogamou.s  plants,  rather  than 
by  true  fructification.  It  is  not,  however,  certain 
that  the  bodies  called  gonidia  in  diflcrent  classes  of 
crjiitogamous  plants  are  all  of  exactly  the  same 
nature.  The  gonidia  of  Lichens  (q.  v.)  are  found  in 
Liyers  in  the  interior  of  the  thallus.  In  some  of  the 
lowest  vegetable  organisms,  as  Desmidiacece,  the 
gonidia  are  fonned  by  the  indvchrovie  or  contents 
of  the  cell  breaking  up  into  granules,  sometimes 
invested  with  cilia,  and  mo\-iug  as  zoospores,  at 
first  -within  the  caWty  of  the  cell  in  which  they 
are  formed,  and  afterwards  without  it. 

GONIO'METER,  an  instnmient  for  measuring 
the  angles  of  crj'stals.  The  simplest  instniment  is 
that  invented  by  Carangeau,  which  consists  of  two 
brass  nUers  turning  on  a  common  centre,  between 
which  the  crystal  is  so  placed  that  its  faces  coin- 
cide with  the  edges  of  the  nders,  and  the  angle  is 
measured  on  a  graduated  arc.  For  large  crj'stals 
this  is  sufficiently  accurate,  but  as  many  minerals 
are  foimd  crystalhsed  only  in  small  crystals,  and  as 
small  cryst.-Us  of  any  mineral  are  generally  the 
most  perfect,  an  instrument  ca|>able  of  measuring 
more  exactly  was  required.  The  one  generally 
in  use  is  the  reflecting  goniometer  invented  by 
WoUaston,  and  improved  by  Isauman.      This  is  a 


more  complicated  instrument,  yet  easy  of  applica- 
tion, and  it  will  measure  very  small  crystals  wth 
certainty  to  within  a  single  minute  (!').  The  angle 
is  measured  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  of  light 
from  the  surface  of  the  different  faces  of  the  crj'staL 
GONORRHCE'A  (r/onos,  progeny  or  seed,  and 
rlieO,  I  flow),  a  n.ime  originally  applied  almost 
indiscriminately  to  all  discharges  from  the  genital 
passages  iu  both  sexes,  l)ut  esjiecially  in  the  male. 
In  the  course  of  usage,  the  term  has  been  almost 
entirely  restricted  to  the  designation  of  one  parti- 
cular kind  of  discharge,  which,  from  its  connection 
with  a  contagious  poison,  was  originally  called,  in 
strict  nosological  language,  G.  virulenla.  This  form 
of  the  disease  is  usually  caused  by  the  direct  com- 
munication of  sound  persons  with  those  already 
affected  ;  and  accordingly  G.  is  one  of  the  numerous 
penalties  attending  an  indiscriminate  and  im[)uro 
intercourse  of  the  sexes.  See  S^thili.s.  G.  is 
a  very  acute  and  painfij  form  of  disease ;  it  is 
liable,  however,  to  leave  its  traces  in  the  more 
chronic  form  of  gleet,  which  may  last  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  may  give  rise  to  alarm  from 
being  mistaken  for  other  disorders.  A  description 
of  the  sjTnptonis  and  cure  of  G.  would  of  course 
be  out  of  jilace  in  a  work  like  the  present ;  but 
we  may  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  to 
warn  the  victims  of  G.,  and  the  allied  disorders, 
against  consulting  any  but  medical  men  of  the 
highest  standing,  and  of  undoubted  character.  An 
imworthy  class  of  practitioners  exists,  who  live 
chiefly  by  inveigling  and  frightening  the  unwarj', 
and  who  not  unfrequently  e.xtort  vast  sums  of 
money  by  threats  of  exposure  of  what  is  commu- 
nicated to  them  in  confidence.  The  advertise- 
ments of  these  men  are  an  offence  to  decency,  and 
should  act  as  beacons  to  the  pubhc,  rather  than 
as  they  are  intended. 

GONVILLE  AND  CAIUS  COLLEGE,  CAM- 
BRIDGE, was  originally  founded  in  13-18  by  Edmund 
Gonville,  son  of  Sii'  Nicholas  Gonville,  rector  of 
Terrington,  in  Norfolk,  and  endowed  for  a  master 
and  three  fellows.  In  1.353,  William  Bateman, 
Bishop  of  Nonrich,  whom  Goni-ille  had  appointed 
his  executor,  changed  the  situation  of  the  college  to 
its  present  site,  and  altered  the  name  to  the  '  Hall  of 
the  Annunci.ation  of  Blessed  JIary  the  Virgin.'  In 
1558,  Dr  Cains  obtained  a  royal  charter,  founding 
the  college  for  the  third  time,  and  altering  the 
name  to  that  which  it  now  bears.  By  the  present 
statutes,  the  college  consists  of  a  master,  thirty 
fellows,  and  thirty-six  scholars.  There  are  also  at 
this  college  four  studentships  in  meilicine,  founded 
by  Christopher  Tancred,  each  of  the  annual  value 
of  £113. 

GOXZA'GA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  14  miles 
south-south-east  of  Mantua,  with  14,580  inhal>it- 
ants,  is  the  chief  to\m  of  the  district  of  Gonzaga, 
of  which  the  jiopulation  is  24,841.  The  town  was 
fonncrly  fortified  and  protected  by  a  strong  castle, 
and  some  a-sscrt  that  the  family  of  Gonz.iga,  who 
rided  for  four  centuries  over  Mantua,  originated  in 
this  locality.  The  territory  surrounding  G.  is  a 
well-watered  and  fertile  plain. 

GONZAGA,  House  of,  a  princely  family  of 
German  origin,  from  which  sprang  a  long  line  of 
sovereign  Dukes  of  Jlantua  and  Slontferrat.  The 
sway  of  this  race  over  Mantua  extended  over  a 
period  exceeding  three  centuries,  and  many  of  its 
mcmbei's  were  magnificent  promoters  and  cultivators 
of  arts,  science,  and  hterature.  Wielding  originally 
in  the  state  the  vast  ciWc  influence  which  in  so 
many  instances  we  find  exercised  by  families  of 
weight  in  the  history  of  Italy,  the  Gonzag-as  gradu- 
ally monopi.lisrd  M   the  chief  posts  of  command, 


GOXZACA— GONZALVO  DI  CORDOVA. 


both  civil  and  military ;  and  finally,  in  1432,  were 
invested  witli  tlie  title  and  jurisdictii>n  of  hereditary 
marquises,  and  in  1530  with  that  of  dukes  or 
sovereijjns  of  the  state.  After  their  elevation  to 
ducal  dignity,  they  continued  to  own  the  feudal 
supremacy  of  the  empire,  and  were  tlie  faithful 
cham|iions  of  the  imperial  interests  in  their  policy 
with  otlier  states.  The  House  of  G.,  and  tliat  of 
the  Viseonti  Dulces  of  Milan,  were  perpetually  at 
war.  The  most  illustrious  personages  of  this  race 
were  Giovanni  Fr.vncesco  (1407—1444),  in  whose 
favour  Mantua  was  created  a  marquisate  by  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  in  return  ftir  his  services  to 
the  empire.— UiAN  Fbance-sco  (14S4 — 1519),  who 
defeated  Charles  VIII.  of  France  at  the  battle 
of  Fornovo,  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Taro,  1495,  when 
G.  left  3500  troops  on  the  field,  and  Charle.s  was 
forced  to  a  hasty  retreat.  G.  also  took  part  in  the 
engagement  of  Atella,  149G,  which  led  to  the  capitu- 
lation of  the  French  forces.  His  son,  Frederick 
II.  (1519 — 1540),  in  recognition  of  the  serrices  he 
rendered  the  imperial  forces  in  their  contest  with 
France,  was  invested  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
with  the  ducal  dignity  in  1530,  and  also  obtained 
the  marquisate  of  Montferrat  in  153(i.  Duriiig 
the  reign  of  this  prince,  the  court  of  Mantua  was 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  gay  of  Europe. — 
GufiLiELMO  (1550 — 1587),  the  son  of  Frederick,  was 
humpbacked,  but  proved  a  wise  and  enlightened 
nUer ;  his  secretary  was  Bernardo  Tasso,  father  of 
tlie  poet.— ViNCENZO  (1587—1012),  sou  of  GugU- 
elmo,  was  the  wann  friend  and  patron  of  Tasso, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  poet's  freedom,  when 
lie  was  confined  as  insane  by  the  Duke  Alfonso 
d'Este. — Vincenzo  was  much  esteemed  for  his 
piety,  justice,  and  liberality.  He  was  successively 
followed  by  his  three  sons,  Francesco,  Ferdinando, 
and  Vincentio,  who  died  without  heirs,  and  thus 
the  direct  line  of  the  ducal  branch  became  extinct. 
A  collateral  branch,  in  the  person  of  Charles  I., 
Duke  of  Nevei's,  sou  of  Ludovico,  the  brother  of 
Ciuglielmo  the  humpbacked,  claimed  the  duchy, 
whicli  was  contested  by  his  cousin  Ctesar,  Duke  of 
CJuastalla.  This  f.amily  feud  led  to  a  general  war, 
in  which  France  supported  Nevers,  and  the  empire 
claimed  the  right  of  adjudging  Mantua,  as  an 
imperial  fief,  to  a  candidate  of  imperial  election. 
Mantua  in  1029  was  stormed,  sacked,  and  stripped 
of  all  its  magnificent  possessions,  by  the  imperialists, 
and  never  regained  its  former  splendour.  Charles 
de  Never.s  submitted  finally  to  the  emperor,  and 
was  installeil  in  the  duchy.  The  artistic  treasures 
collected  for  ages  by  the  G.  princes  were  scattered 
througliout  Europe,  and  came  into  the  possession  of 
several  of  the  reigning  sovereigns.  The  successors 
of  Charles  were  dissipated  and  siUy,  and  the  tenth 
and  last  Duke  of  Mantua,  Ferdinand-Charles,  was 
the  most  couteinptible  and  dissolute  of  all.  As  he 
SI'S 


had  countenanced  the  French  in  the  War  of  tie: 
Succession,  the  Emjieror  Joseiih  I.  deprived  him 
of  his  states,  placing  him  under  the  ban  of  the 
empii-e.     He  died  in  exile  in  1708,  leaving  no  issue. 

GONZALVO  DI  CORDOVA  (G.  Hern.audez  y 
Aguilar),  a  celelirated  Spanish  warrior,  w.a3  born 
at  Miuitillo,  near  Cordova,  in  1453.  He  served 
with  great  distinction  first  in  the  war  with  the 
Moors  of  Granada,  and  afterwards  in  the  Portu- 
guese campaign.  At  the  close  of  the  final  contest 
with  (Jranada,  he  concluded  the  negotiation  -with 
Bo.abdil  (Abu  Alxlallah),  king  of  the  Moors,  in 
such  a  masterly  manner,  that  the  rulers  of  Spain 
l>estowed  upon  him  a  pension  and  a  large  estate 
in  tlie  coiKpiered  territory.  He  was  next  sent 
to  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Naples, 
against  the  French.  In  less  tlian  a  year,  G.,  with 
his  limited  resources,  had  conquered  the  greater 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  obtained  the  appellation 
of  'El  Gran  Capit.ano.'  In  conjunction  with  King 
Ferdinand,  he  succeeded  in  comiiletely  expelling  the 
French  from  Italy ;  and  in  August  1498  returned  to 
Spain,  liavmg  received  in  return  for  his  valuable 
services  an  estate  in  the  Abruzzi,  with  the  title 
of  Duke  of  San  Angelo.  When  the  jiartition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Kaples  was  determined  upon  by  a 
compact  entered  into  at  Granada,  11th  November 
1500,  G.  again  set  out  for  It.aly,  with  a  body 
of  4300  men,  and  on  the  way  took  Zante  and 
Cephalonia  from  the  Turks,  and  restored  them  to 
the  Venetians.  He  then  landed  in  Sicily,  occupied 
Naples  and  Calabria,  and  demanded  from  the 
French  that,  in  compliance  with  the  compact,  they 
should  yield  up  Capitauata  and  Basilieata.  This 
demand  being  rejected,  a  war  broke  out  between 
the  two  belligerent  powers,  which  was  waged  -with 
varied  success.  After  the  victory  of  Cerignola,  in 
April  1503,  G.  took  possession  of  Calabria,  Abruzzo, 
Apulia,  even  the  city  of  Naples  itself,  and  then  laid 
siege  to  Gaeta,  but  was  forced  to  retreat  before  a 
superior  force  of  the  enemy.  On  the  29th  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year,  however,  he  fell  upon  them 
unexpectedly  near  the  Garigliano,  and  obtained  a 
comi)lete  victory,  29th  December  1503.  The  French 
army  was  almost  annihilated  ;  the  fortress  of  Gaeta 
fell ;  and  the  possession  of  Naples  was  secured  to 
the  Spaniards.  King  Ferdinand  bestowed  tlie  duchy 
of  Sesa  upon  the  conqueror,  and  appointed  him 
viceroy  of  Naples,  with  unlimited  authority.  His 
good-fortune,  however,  made  him  many  powerful 
enemies  ;  and  G.  was  recalled  to  Spain,  where  the 
king  treated  him  ^\•ith  marked  neglect.  G.  now 
betook  himself  to  his  estates  in  Granada;  but  after 
the  defeat  of  the  new  viceroy  in  Naples  by  Gaston 
de  Foix,  he  was  again  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Spanish- It.alian  army.  Mental  suffering,  how- 
ever, hail  undermined  tho  old  hero's  health,  and  on 
the  2d  Decendjcr  1515  he  died  at  Granada. 


E\D  OF 'VOL.  lY. 


Edinb«rt;h : 
Frintcd  by  W.  and  R.  Chambers, 


H 


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